Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications: Papers from the ICMAT 2021 (Advanced Structured Materials, 166) [1st ed. 2022] 3030899918, 9783030899912

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Advanced Structured Materials

Azman Ismail Wardiah Mohd Dahalan Andreas Öchsner   Editors

Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications Papers from the ICMAT 2021

Advanced Structured Materials Volume 166

Series Editors Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Esslingen University of Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Holm Altenbach , Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany

Common engineering materials reach in many applications their limits and new developments are required to fulfil increasing demands on engineering materials. The performance of materials can be increased by combining different materials to achieve better properties than a single constituent or by shaping the material or constituents in a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure may arise on different length scales, such as micro-, meso- or macroscale, and offers possible applications in quite diverse fields. This book series addresses the fundamental relationship between materials and their structure on the overall properties (e.g. mechanical, thermal, chemical or magnetic etc.) and applications. The topics of Advanced Structured Materials include but are not limited to • classical fibre-reinforced composites (e.g. glass, carbon or Aramid reinforced plastics) • metal matrix composites (MMCs) • micro porous composites • micro channel materials • multilayered materials • cellular materials (e.g., metallic or polymer foams, sponges, hollow sphere structures) • porous materials • truss structures • nanocomposite materials • biomaterials • nanoporous metals • concrete • coated materials • smart materials Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/8611

Azman Ismail · Wardiah Mohd Dahalan · Andreas Öchsner Editors

Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications Papers from the ICMAT 2021

Editors Azman Ismail Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology Lumut, Perak, Malaysia

Wardiah Mohd Dahalan Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology Lumut, Perak, Malaysia

Andreas Öchsner Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Esslingen University of Applied Sciences Esslingen am Neckar, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic) Advanced Structured Materials ISBN 978-3-030-89991-2 ISBN 978-3-030-89992-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications monograph is one of the outcomes from the 2nd International Conference on Marine and Advanced Technologies 2021 (ICMAT 2021) which was organized by the Research and Innovation section, University Kuala Lumpur—Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology. A total of 105 papers from various universities have been showcased through virtual presentation on August 24, 2021. The theme “Propelling to the Innovative Idea” highlights prominence of recent developments in marine and advanced technologies in the field of marine application, maritime operation, energy and reliability, advanced materials, and applied science. This online conference provided a platform for presentations and discussions at the local and international level between educationists, researchers, students, and industrialists. Furthermore, it created opportunities to establish networks and meet experts in addition to exchange of up-to-date knowledge in the field. This book is the up-to-date reference, especially to those who want to learn and explore more about the latest developments and technologies of maritime industries. The papers shared in this monograph will enable other researchers to generate interests and novel ideas that can lead to the discovery of new knowledge. Sincere appreciation to all ICMAT committee members as well as all parties involved for their great work and the good cooperation with the editor from Germany, i.e., Prof. Andreas Öchsners, regardless of the challenges and hurdles faced due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We are proud that ICMAT 2021 could be realized and wish that many can benefit from this comprehensive compilation and integration. Lumut, Malaysia Lumut, Malaysia Esslingen am Neckar, Germany

Azman Ismail Wardiah Mohd Dahalan Andreas Öchsner

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Contents

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Green Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers: A Review on Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shamini Janasekaran, Zhou Lei, Tok Rui Jun, Lee Jia Yunn, and Amares Singh 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Properties of Green Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers Composites . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Improvement in Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers . . . . . . 1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessment on Maritime Research and Education for Graduate Employability and Sustainability: A Case Study in the Faculty of Maritime Studies, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noorlee Boonadir, Jagan Jeevan, Rosnah Ishak, Aida Fakhrul Lamakasauk, and Aminuddin Md. Arof 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Maritime Research and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 The Education Developed Maritime Management . . . . 2.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Important Research Area in Maritime Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Significant Impact of the Graduates Quality Required Valuable Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Enhancement of Graduates Quality in Maritime Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 2 5 6 7 8

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12 13 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19

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Performance Evaluation of Malaysian Maritime Business Companies During Covid-19 with TOPSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohd Azam bin Din, Wardiah Mohd Dahalan, and Shareen Adlina Shamsuddin 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Maritime Business Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Financial Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 TOPSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Financial Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 TOPSIS Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Issues in Legal Guidelines for Armed Guard on Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . Nadiah binti Zul-Qarnain, Che Nur Ashman bin Che Anuar, and Aminuddin Md. Arof 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Armed Guards Assignment Factors Onboard Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Responsibilities of Armed Guards Onboard Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Trusted Maritime Security Service Companies . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Point of Consideration in Assigning Armed Guards Onboard Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Issues in the Deployments of Armed Guards Onboard Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Legal Guidelines for Armed Guards Onboard Vessels . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 International Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 International Maritime Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Best Management Practice Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 UK Rules 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 A Review of International Law on the Use of Armed Protection Onboard Merchant Ship . . . . . . . . 4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWOT and TOWS Matrix Analysis: A Study on Ro-Ro Port Klang Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amayrol Zakaria, Aminuddin Md. Arof, and Thevindiran Tholarnathan

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22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 27 29 29 30 33

33 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 39 40 41 41 42 42 46 46 49

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49 50 50 50 51 51 51 52 53 54 55 55 59 59

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Research Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Significance of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Ro-Ro Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Definition of SWOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Definition of TOWS Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 SWOT Analysis in Maritime Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Validity and Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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Green Port Performance Indicators for Dry Bulk Terminals: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hikmah Affirin Shahrul Alfian, Amayrol Zakaria, and Aminuddin Md.Arof 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Analysis of Previous Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development of Project Management Timeline and Material Buyout Application to Ship Construction Planning: A Review . . . . . Fatin Aqillah Nordin, Wardiah Mohd Dahalan, Izzati Auni Abu Bakar, and Nur Afiqah Qursiah Al-Qabir Peter 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Analysis of the Previous Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 The Supply Chain Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Project Management Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Scheduling and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Shipbuilding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Classified Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Evaluate Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.4 Comparison Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Methods . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Conclusion and Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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80 80 80 81 81 82 85 85 85 85 85 86 86 86 88 90

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A Study of the Traditional Boats Perahu Kolek in Kelantan: Design, Material, and Boatbuilding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aizat Khairi, Mohamad Khalilazhar Mohamad, and Ibrahim Ahmad 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green Shipbuilding Technology for Boustead Naval Shipyard Sdn Bhd Towards Sustainable Shipbuilding Development . . . . . . . . . Noorhafize Noordin and Zulzamri Salleh 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Marine Systems Optimization and Marine Equipment Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.2 Green Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.3 Shipbuilding Technique Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.4 Industry 4.0, Lean Manufacturing and Shipbuilding 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.5 Green Supply Chain Management (GrSCM) . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Ship Wave Resistance by Final Root Method of Solution with Corrections of Block Coefficient and Angle of Entrance . . . . . . Md. Salim Kamil, Iwan Zamil Mustaffa Kamal, and Muhammad Fauzan Misran 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Comparative Study of Ship Wave Resistance by Various Methods of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Salim Kamil, Mohamad Amir Azfar Roslan, and Muhammad Fauzan Misran 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93 94 94 95 96 97 99 100 100 101 102 102 104 105 108 108 109 110 111

111 112 114 117 119 121

122 122 123 126 127

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12 Effect of Cold Forging on Wire Arc Additive Manufactured Profiles for Repair Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohammad Ajwad Roslee, Ahmad Baharuddin Abdullah, Zuhailawati Hussain, and Zarirah Karrim Wani 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Investigation of Mesh Size Effect on FRP Confined Concrete Column Simulation Using Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zaimi Zainal Mukhtar, Anuar Abu Bakar, Ahmad Fitriadhy, Mohd Shukry Abdul Majid, and Asmalina Mohamed Saat 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 An Efficient Direct Diagonal Hybrid Block Method for Stiff Second Order Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Norshakila Abd Rasid, Zarina Bibi Ibrahim, Zanariah Abdul Majid, Fudziah Ismail, and Azman Ismail 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.1 Derivation of DBBDFO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.2 Theoretical Analysis of DBBDFO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Investigation on the Effect of the Bulbous Bow Shape to the Resistance Components and Wave Profiles of Small Ships . . . Iwan Mustaffa Kamal, Nor Adlina Othman, Amirah Nur Fhatihah Mohamad Riza, Yaseen Adnan Ahmed, Mohammed Abdul Hannan, Md Salim Kamil, Mazlan Muslim, and Hamdan Nuruddin 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Mathematical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Model Experiment for CFD Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Extrapolations of Model Experiment Results to Full Scale . . . . . 15.5 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6 CFD Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7 Grid Independence Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8 Validation with Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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130 131 134 136 136 139

140 142 143 145 145 147

147 149 149 151 153 155 156 157

158 160 161 162 163 167 168 170

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15.9 Results and Discussion—Case Study (Purse Seiner) . . . . . . . . . . 15.10 Results and Discussion—Case Study (Research Vessel) . . . . . . . 15.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Strength Analysis of the Hull Structure for a Submersible Drone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ain Adlina Binti Kamaruzaman, Azman Ismail, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharuddin, Fauziah Ab Rahman, Darulishan Abdul Hamid, and Puteri Zarina Megat Khalid 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.1 Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.2 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.3 Drawing and Simulation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.1 Simulation Analysis Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.3 Result Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 The Conceptual Design of a Submersible Drone for Seabed Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nurul Fatini Jeffri, Azman Ismail, Fauziah Ab Rahman, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharudin, Darulishan Abdul Hamid, and Puteri Zarina Megat Khalid 17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1.1 Unmanned Water Drones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Development of Smart Traffic Light Control System Using PLC and IoT for Emergency Vehicle Passing Through . . . . . . . . . . . . Atzroulnizam Abu, Muhammad Ikhmal Abdul Rahman, Muhamad Fadli Ghani, Mohd Saidi Hanaffi, and Ahmad Zawawi Jamaluddin 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Project Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.1 System Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.2 Operation Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3.1 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3.2 Adafruit Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

170 174 182 184 185

186 187 187 187 187 188 188 192 193 194 194 197

198 199 199 200 203 203 205

205 206 206 208 210 212 213

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18.3.3 Node MCU ESP32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3.4 If This Than That (IFTTT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.1 Sequential Function Chart for Traffic Light Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.2 Timing Diagram for Sequence of Normal Traffic Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.3 Timing Diagram IoT Interruption of Traffic Light A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 The Strength Analysis of a Leisure Craft with a Transparent Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nur Adila Rosman, Azman Ismail, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharudin, Norshakila Abd Rasid, and Darulihsan Abdul Hamid 19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.1 Material Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.2 Hull Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.3 Design Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.4 Forces Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.5 Pressures Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3.1 Simulation Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3.2 Result Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 The Conceptual Design of a Leisure Craft with a Transparent Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nurul Asyikin Binti Mohd Yunus, Azman Ismail, Fauziah Ab Rahman, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharudin, and Darulishan Abdul Hamid 20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.1 Stage of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.2 Type of Hulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.3 Type of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.4 Basic Stability Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.1 Maxsurf Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.2 AutoCAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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214 214 214 215 216 217 218 218 221

222 222 222 223 223 224 224 226 226 227 228 228 231

232 232 232 233 233 234 234 234 234 237 238

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21 Water Quality Assessment at Various Levels of Depth at Sungai Manjung, Perak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Norazlina Abdul Nasir, Asmalina Mohamed Saat, Nurain Jainal, Fathul Ikmal Samsuddin, and Muhammad Ezat Emir Ramli 21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.1 pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.3 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.4 Total Dissolved Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.5 Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Monitoring Air Quality Using an IoT-Enabled Air Pollution System on Smartphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shareen Adlina Shamsuddin, Wahyu Ramadhan Nurudin Awal, Mohd Rohaimi Mohd Dahalan, Aida Soraya Shamsuddin, and Wardiah Mohd Dahalan 22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.1 The Proposed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.2 Components Used in the Proposed System . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.3 Process of the Proposed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.4 Schematic Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.5 Air Pollutant Index Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3.1 Blynk Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3.2 Experimental Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Introduction of Futuristic Warehouse Synergy: A Warehouse Storage Space Reservation Hub System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nur Hazwani Karim, Rudiah Md Hanafiah, Noorul Shaiful Fitri Abdul Rahman, and Saharuddin Abdul Hamid 23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2.1 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2.2 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.3 New Innovation Idea—Futuristic Warehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.3.1 Integrated Warehouse Management System (iWMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.3.2 Warehouse Storage Reservation Hub System . . . . . . . .

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240 241 243 243 243 244 244 245 246 247 249

250 251 251 251 254 254 255 256 256 257 259 264 265

266 268 268 268 271 271 272

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23.3.3 Phase 2 Data Collection of Experts’ Feedbacks on Futuristic Warehouse Synergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.4 Comparison Between Conventional and Innovation Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 The Analysis of Barge Bridge Collision Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wan Nur Fatihah Amirah Nik Wan (a) Wan Senik, Anuar Abu Bakar, Ahmad Fitriadhy, and Zaimi Zainal Mukhtar 24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2.1 Structural Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2.2 Mesh and Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2.3 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2.4 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3.1 Model Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3.2 Kinetic Energy Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3.3 Impact Force–Time Between Barge and Piers . . . . . . . . 24.3.4 Impact Force–Deformation Between Barge and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Navigating the Blockchain Trilemma: A Supply Chain Dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bryan Phern Chern Teoh 25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2.1 Blockchain Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2.2 The Blockchain Trilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4.1 Food Supply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4.2 Pharmaceutical Supply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4.3 Supply Chain Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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280 281 281 283 283 283 284 284 284 285 286 287 289 291 291 292 292 293 294 295 295 296 297 298 298

26 Innovative Approach for Biomimicry of Marine Animals for Development of Engineering Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Mohamad Asmidzam Ahamat, Nur Faraihan Zulkefli, Nurhayati Mohd Nur, Azmin Syakrine Mohd Rafie, Eida Nadirah Roslin, and Razali Abidin 26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

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26.2 Locomotion and Propulsion of Marine Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3 Hydrodynamics of Marine Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.4 Recommendation on Innovative Approach in Biomimicry . . . . . 26.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Water Retention Properties of a Fused Deposition Modeling Based 3D Printed Polylactic Acid Vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhammad Nur Farhan Saniman, Nadzir Akif Dzulkifli, Khairul Anuar Abd Wahid, Wan Mansor Wan Muhamad, Khairul Azhar Mohamad, Erny Afiza Alias, and Jamilah Mohd Shariff 27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2.1 Specimen Design and Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2.2 Water Retention Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2.3 Statistical Analysis of the Influencing Factors . . . . . . . . 27.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.3.1 Influence of Layer Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.3.2 Influence of Wall Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.3.3 Influence of Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.3.4 Quantitative Contribution of Affecting Factors . . . . . . . 27.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The Effect of Compaction Pressure and Sintering Temperature on the Properties of Sayong Ball Clay Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maisarah Mohamed Bazin and Norhayati Ahmad 28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Determination of Design Specifications for Sungai Melaka Cleaning Boat Design Improvement Through House of Quality . . . . Mohd Arizam Abdul Wahap, Mohd Kamal Musa, Mohamad Syafiq Mohamad Noor, Abdul Munir Hidayat Syah Lubis, Mohamed Saiful Firdaus Hussin, and Indok Nurul Hasyimah Mohd Amin 29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.3.1 Operators’ Requirements Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.3.2 Axiomatic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

303 305 307 308 309 311

312 313 313 314 315 315 316 319 319 320 321 321 325 326 327 327 331 332 335

336 336 338 338 339

Contents

29.3.3 House of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.4 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Simulation of Fatigue Life for 316L Stainless Steel Under Room Temperature Using Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Khairul Azhar Mohammad, Anmbarasan Ragendran, Suriani Mat Jusoh, Muhammad Nur Farhan Saniman, Khairul Anuar Abd Wahid, Ong Yung Chieh, and Ahmad Ilyas Rushdan 30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Case of Study: Safety Factors That Affect Participation of Women as Seafarer in the Malaysia Maritime Sector . . . . . . . . . . . Lailatul Amira Anuar, Aizat Khairi, and Ibrahim Ahmad 31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.1 Women in Malaysian Maritime Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.2 Women as Seafarer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.3 Gender Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.4 Safety Factor Affecting Women as Seafarer . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.5 Law Against Sexual Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.6 Law Against Maternity, Abuse and Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.7 Organization Empowering Women Seafarer in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4.1 Result 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4.2 Result 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.6 Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xvii

340 342 344 345 347

348 349 350 355 355 357 357 358 358 358 359 359 360 361 361 361 362 362 363 364 365 366

32 The Effect of Steam Addition to the Oxidized Nitrogen Concentration from Marine Diesel Engine Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Sheikh Alif Ali, Anuar Abu Bakar, Wan Nurdiyana Wan Mansor, Amir Syawal Kamis, Mohamad Nor Khasbi Jarkoni, Che Wan Mohd Noor Che Wan Othman, and Md Redzuan Zoolfakar 32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

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32.2

Review of Available Emissions Reduction Initiatives . . . . . . . . . 32.2.1 Steam Addition Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3.1 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3.2 Emissions Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4.1 Effect of Steam Induction to the NOx Reduction on Diesel Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Viability of a Multi-stage Exhaust Gas Cleansing Module for Ship Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Salim Kamil, Muhammad Adli Mustapa, Nik Azri Bin Anuar, and Muhammad Nashrulrizal Ahmad Khairi 33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Measurement of Tensile Strength of Metallic Materials by the Electrical Resistance Per Length Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Salim Kamil, Asmalina Mohamed Saat, and Vishagan Nagasvara 34.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

368 369 369 369 371 371 374 375 375 377

378 379 381 382 387 389

389 391 392 392 395

About the Editors

Azman Ismail is Senior Lecturer at Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. He received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS and Master of Engineering in Mechanical—Marine Technology from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Prior to that, he was awarded a Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) in Electrical, Electronics and System from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Graduate Diploma in Industrial Education and Training from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia. He grooms his technical skill at Victoria University of Technology, Australia, for Advanced Diploma in Construction and Repair Technology (Marine Vessels). He is also active in research and development for welding and joining technologies especially for friction stir welding on tubular sections and flat panels. This also includes green technologies for sustainable marine and coastal development. He is currently leading a research cluster of Advanced Maritime Industries Sustainability at his university. He has published his research findings in indexed journals and chapters and actively competes at international- and national-level innovation competitions. In addition to his achievements, he has been a reviewer and editor for some international journals including Springer. Besides that, he is also active in conservation works as committee member for the National Eco-Campus Program with the World Wide Fund for Nature of Malaysia (WWF-Malaysia).

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About the Editors

Wardiah Mohd Dahalan had received her PhD in Power System from the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 2013 and Bachelor’s Degree (Hons) in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from the University of Dundee, Scotland, UK, in 1996. She is currently appointed as Senior Lecturer in the Department of Marine Electrical and Electronics Engineering of University Kuala Lumpur (UniKL-MIMET). As Head of Research & Innovation Department since 2015, she actively administers all research activities in UniKLMIMET. Supervising of internal and external research grants and organization of all activities related to innovation such as exhibitions, competition, and conferences are her core activities at UniKL-MIMET. She actively participates in research as a principle or co-principle in many research grants. At the same time, she also shares her expertise by becoming either the author or co-author of the publications of local as well as international journals, books and proceedings especially in the area of power system and energy. Her deep research interest includes network reconfiguration, optimization techniques, and renewable energy. She is also Member of IEEE, Rina-IMARest, Malaysian Society for Engineering and Technology (MySET), and Malaysia Board of Technologist (MBOT). Andreas Öchsner is Full Professor for Lightweight Design and Structural Simulation at the Esslingen University of Applied Sciences, Germany. Having obtained a Dipl.-Ing. degree in Aeronautical Engineering at the University of Stuttgart (1997), Germany, he served as a research and teaching assistant at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg from 1997 to 2003 while working to complete his Doctor of Engineering Sciences (Dr.-Ing.) Degree. From 2003 to 2006, he was Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Head of the Cellular Metals Group affiliated with the University of Aveiro, Portugal. He spent seven years (2007–2013) as Full Professor in the Department of Applied Mechanics, Technical University of Malaysia, where he was also Head of the Advanced Materials and Structure Lab. From 2014 to 2017, he was Full Professor at the School of Engineering, Griffith University, Australia, and Leader of the Mechanical Engineering Program (Head of Discipline and Program Director).

Chapter 1

Green Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers: A Review on Mechanical Properties Shamini Janasekaran, Zhou Lei, Tok Rui Jun, Lee Jia Yunn, and Amares Singh Abstract The rapid development of modern social economy, the acceleration of industrialization, and the increasingly serious environmental problems have severely restricted the sustainable development of social ecology. At present, the public’s awareness of environmental protection has been greatly improved, and the development and application of green materials have received more and more attention. In order to improve the utilization efficiency and quality of green composite materials, the first step is to clarify the concepts and characteristics of green materials, then grasp the value and development trend of green materials, and finally analyze their applications in-depth to make green composite materials possible. Green material is a new material concept, so its advantages and value must be clarified in the application process in order to fully develop and use green materials, so as to better serve social development. Natural fiber is a diverse and renewable resource. Its availability and satisfactory mechanical properties make it a potential substitute for man-made fibers and can be widely used in various fields. However, natural fibers still have some inherent deficiencies such as hydrophilicity and variability. Physical and chemical treatments are used to improve the mechanical properties of natural fibers, thereby improving the properties of natural fiber composites. This study gives a detailed overview of these sustainable and renewable natural fiber composite materials. The general characteristics of natural fibers used in green composites will be reviewed, including types, sources, properties, as well as improved methods. Furthermore, the application of natural fibers composites in various fields is studied.

S. Janasekaran (B) · Z. Lei · T. R. Jun · L. J. Yunn Centre for Advanced Materials and Intelligent Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment & IT, SEGi University Sdn Bhd, 47810 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Singh Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Department of Mechanical and Material Engineering, University Tunku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Sungai Long, Bandar Sungai Long, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_1

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S. Janasekaran et al.

Keywords Green composite · Natural fiber · Mechanical properties · Treatment · Application

1.1 Introduction Green composite material refers to a material with environmental protection performance, good environmental performance, easy to recycle and reuse, meet the needs of energy saving and consumption reduction, and has a small impact on the environment during product processing. In terms of the characteristics of green materials, in metallurgy and chemical industries related to the preparation of engineering materials, the acquisition of green composite materials is green, which can effectively reduce energy consumption and improve environmental protection. Green composite materials have relatively little impact on the environment during product processing and manufacturing, and they also have environmental protection characteristics during use, which can effectively reduce the adverse effects on human health. The recycling of green materials, while saving resources and protecting the environment, facilitates enterprises to strengthen cost control and improve material production efficiency, which is of great significance to the maintenance of the comprehensive benefits of enterprises [1]. High-performance composite materials mainly refer to a class of composite materials that are compounded with high-performance reinforcing fibers and a high-performance resin matrix that can meet high-end applications such as aerospace. Its advantage lies in its comprehensive performance, especially its lightweight and high strength, which can greatly enhance the structural quality when used as a structural material. High-performance composite materials were successfully developed in the 1960s [2]. They were first used in airplanes. Now they have rapidly developed into energy, transportation, ships, automobiles, chemicals, machinery, and other fields. For more than half a century, the mainstream of the development of high-performance composite materials has been carbon fiber reinforced resin-based composite materials. Due to the diversity of fiber types, some fibers can be directly extracted and processed for use, such as cotton fiber and hemp fiber. However, other plant fibers need to use solvents to dissolve the cellulose fibers in the plant, remove impurities, and then use special equipment to draw out the filaments to crystallize and sample them before they can be used [3].

1.2 Properties of Green Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers A composite material is a combination of two or more materials with different chemical or physical properties to create high-performance materials. The reinforced material has high strength and low density, while the matrix material has toughness and

1 Green Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers: A Review …

3

ductility, so the composite material can have a variety of properties [4]. Composites using reinforced materials are the most widely used polymer composites today. There are many materials in the world that can enhance polymers. These structural materials are based on polymers and are completely covered with reinforcing materials. Without these reinforcing materials, the polymer will provide relatively poor mechanical properties. In the research of polymer composites, natural fibers have been widely studied for their use as reinforcement materials. The properties of composite materials are generally attributed to the high strength and high modulus of the fibers and are reinforced by the matrix, which acts as a load transfer medium between the two phases [5]. In the past, extracting natural fibers from nature and replacing traditional highstrength synthetic fibers to form a new type of green composite materials has always been the research object of sustainable green development [6]. As reinforcement materials, natural or bio-fibers are embedded in a green composite polymer matrix to form the dispersed phase and to increase the strength and stiffness of the composites as it carries the stress and loads imposed on the prepared composite [7]. Natural fibers play an important role in the field of sustainable green composite technology due to their availability and satisfactory mechanical properties. These plant fibers are biodegradable, renewable, cheap, recyclable, and friendly to the environment and humans. These properties and characteristics make it a potential substitute for glass, carbon, and other manmade fibers. The most important characteristic feature of materials used in various applications is depending on their performance. The properties of materials usually depend on the isotropy and anisotropy of the material [8]. The characteristics of natural fiber composite are different because the source of the fiber and the humidity conditions are different [9]. Multiple physical and chemical factors, such as properties of constituent materials, fiber and matrix content, fiber length and orientation, cell dimensions, the physical profile of the contact surface, interlinear shear strength, and interfacial chemical bonding strength, can influence the mechanical behavior of natural fiber reinforced polymer composite materials [10]. In order to be able to apply various natural fibers to composite materials and improve their performance, it is important to understand various fiber properties. Table 1.1 summarizes the properties of some natural and synthetic fibers. Natural fibers normally have a lower density than synthetic fibers, so they are lighter. However, in terms of mechanical properties, most natural fibers are weaker than manmade synthetic fibers such as glass or carbon. Compared with synthetic E glass fiber, hemp and flax natural fibers have good mechanical properties as given in Table 1.1, such as tensile strength and specific modulus, making it possible to become a substitute for synthetic fibers. In the mechanical characterization of fibers, the concept of length becomes particularly important. This is also the focus of composite materials and directly affects the aspect ratio of reinforced materials. In fact, for composite materials, the quality of the stress transfer between the fiber and the matrix is closely related to the individualization of the fiber and the interface area. The individualization of the fiber and the interface area is directly affected by the ratio of reinforcement length or diameter [13]. Then, the elongation at break increased with

1520–1560

1800–1840

2550–2600

Carbon HS

E-glass

Sisal

Cotton

1400–1450

Ramie

600–1100

1450–1550

Kenaf

1150–1220

1435–1500

Jute

Coir

1440–1520

Hemp

Bamboo

1420–1520

1470–1520

Flax

Density (kg/m3 )

Fiber type

72–85

225–260

7–12

4–6

11–32

10–25

38–44

60–66

35–60

55–70

75–90

Young’s Modulus (GPa)

1900–2050

4400–4800

350–800

135–240

140–800

550–790

500–680

195–666

400–860

550–920

750–940

Tensile Strength (MPa)

0.0

1.8–4.8

5–12

15–35

2.5–3.7

4–6

2–2.2

1.3–5.5

1.7–2

1.4–1.7

1.2–1.8

Elongation (%)

Table 1.1 Basic properties of natural fiber and synthetic fibers [11, 12]

–

–

7.85–8.5

8

–

10–22

7.5–17

–

12.5–13.7

6.2–12

8–12

Moisture content (%)

–

–

46

30–49

8–11

10–22

7.5

–

8

2–6.2

5–10

Microfibrillar angle (°)

–

–

82.7–90

32–43.8

26–65

60–78

68.6–85

31–72

59–71.5

68–74.4

62–72

Cellulose (wt%)

–

–

10–60

20–150

1.5–4

900

900–1200

–

1.5–120

5–55

5–900

Length (mm)

< 10

< 17

10–45

10–460

25–40

8–200

20–80

–

20–200

25–500

12–600

Diameter (µm)

4 S. Janasekaran et al.

1 Green Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers: A Review …

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the microfibril angle. If all the microfibers are aligned along the fiber direction and a tensile load is applied, the tensile modulus of the natural fiber composite material will be higher [6].

1.3 Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers Composites Matrix and fiber properties are both important to improve the mechanical properties of composite materials. Plant fiber composites have excellent mechanical properties, such as flexibility, strength, rigidity, and modulus, and are durable and easy to manufacture complex parts. Compared with metal, the overall strength and weight characteristics of plant fibers are very advantageous, and they can be easily made using a molding process [14]. Polymer composites reinforced with natural fibers (such as jute, hemp, and kenaf) have excellent mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties that are not inferior to steel and aluminum, which makes them widely used in various fields such as automotive industry, aerospace industry, and construction industry [15]. Improvements to natural fibers can enhance the mechanical properties of natural fibers, thereby increasing their strength and structure. The basic structure of the reinforced material is strengthened, and the composite will be strengthened and improved. The properties of composite materials are affected by many aspects, including fiber orientation, fiber strength, fiber physical properties, fiber interface bonding characteristics, and so on [9]. The mechanical efficiency of natural fiber composites depends on the interface provided by the fiber matrix and the stress transfer function, where stress is transferred from the matrix to the fibers. Plant fibers can be defined as fibers with high mechanical properties, which are characterized by a tensile strength generally higher than 200 MPa [12]. The flexural, tensile, and impact properties of untreated sisal fiber reinforced green polyethylene composites were evaluated by de Castro et al. Traditional green highdensity polyethylene (HDPE) derived from sugar cane ethanol was used as the matrix of the composite material. The results show that green polyethylene reinforced with untreated sisal fibers can achieve higher flexural modulus, flexural strength, tensile strength, and ultimate strain compared to unreinforced traditional polyethylene [10]. Some studies have shown that the combination of plant fiber and glass fiber can improve the tensile, flexural, and impact strength of the material. The mechanical properties of the hybrid composite material can be enhanced by adding a relatively small amount of glass fiber to the pineapple leaf fiber or sisal fiber reinforced polyester matrix [16]. The study also observed that the water absorption rate of the hybrid composite material was lower than that of the composite material without hybridized. If jute fiber is added to polylactic acid (PP), the mechanical properties (such as tensile strength) of natural fiber composites are even better than the pure matrix [9]. Natural fiber reinforcement still faces some problems, and its variability increases the uncertainty of its consistent performance and negatively affects the green composite [12]. The nature of plant fiber depends on its chemical composition and growth conditions, so any planting factors and extraction technology may affect the

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quality of natural fiber. The water absorption of plant fibers is a big problem in composites. They easily absorb water and cause de-bonding of the fiber and matrix interface, and it will cause swelling and performance degradation in a humid environment. Plant fibers can have a good chemical interaction only with hydrophilic resins through the formation of hydrogen bonds. For hydrophobic resins, the compatibility of the fibers at the interface with the matrix is a problem, and the wettability of the fibers will become poor, which will cause interface defects, and ultimately leads to stress concentration and failure points in the composite material. Therefore, the method of improving fiber wettability and interfacial adhesion is an important step for improving the performance of bio composite materials. Then, plant fiber has a fast degradation rate, poor on thermal stability, thermal degradation, and flame resistance. This will affect the durability and heat resistance of composite materials.

1.4 Improvement in Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers The properties of natural fibers are related to the mechanical properties of composite materials. The shortcomings of natural fibers include the hydrophilicity and water absorption, thermal degradation in the fibers, poor adhesion between the fibers and the matrix, etc. Therefore, physical and chemical methods can be used to improve mechanical properties and compatibility with polymers caused by the hydrophilicity of natural fibers [17]. The structural properties of natural fibers are changed and the mechanical bonding between polymer and fiber by the physical methods such as sputtering, stretching, corona discharge, low-temperature plasma, and thermal treatment. Chemical methods can improve the adhesion and mechanical properties of natural fiber polymers. These treatments of the fiber result in structural and surface changes, thereby enhancing the mechanical properties of the fibers. Kapatel, 2019 [18] evaluated the mechanical and physical properties of green composite materials by performing alkali surface treatment on different percentages of jute fabric as a reinforcement. The results showed that 10% to 15% alkali treatment of jute fabrics enhanced the fiber matrix adhesion and impact strength, and water absorption was reduced and achieved the excellent performance of the composite material. Fiber quality is affected by the fiber extraction process. The use of biotechnology to facilitate the extraction process can improve the fiber quality and reducing fiber damage [19]. Fiber quality has an impact on mechanical properties. The surface properties of the fibers can be improved by dewaxing (degreasing), acetylation, bleaching, delignification, and chemical grafting [17]. The antifungal and hydrophobic properties of natural fibers like jute can be achieved through acetylation and provide greater stability. The physical and mechanical properties of natural fibers can also be changed by graft copolymerization. Jute propylene composites can be treated with cardanolformaldehyde to improve the mechanical properties and reduce water absorption. After treatment with ethylenediamine and hydrazine, the moisture absorption rate

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Table 1.2 Natural fiber treatment [17] Treatment process

Natural fiber

Outcomes

Acetylation

Flax fibers

Tensile strength and flexural strength increased

Silane treatment

Flax fibers

Improvement in hydrophobic and mechanical properties

Sodium chlorite treatment

Jute fibers

Significant improvement in tensile strength young’s modulus and extension at break

Treatment with metha acrylate

Jute fibers

Improvement in flexural and tensile strength

Mercerization

Jute fibers and flax fibers

Reduction in moisture regain due to better interface and improvement in

Peroxide treatment

Ramie fibers

Decrease in moisture regain

Benzoylation

Sisal fibers

Surface modification and improvement in hydrophobicity

Plasma treatment

Sisal/Hemp fibers

Surface modification and improvement in hydrophobicity

Lysine-based diisocyanate (LDI) Treatment

Bamboo fiber

Moisture absorption reduced and adhesion between fiber and matrix improved

Alkalization (KOH and NAOH treatment)

Coir fiber

Eliminate open hydroxyl group that tends to bond with water molecule and also dissolve hemicellulose

of jute fiber is also reduced [20]. Some methods of improving the fire resistance of cellulosic materials have been patented, especially when cellulosic materials are used in polymer composites. The cellulosic material is treated with an aqueous mixture of alkali metal or ammonium hydroxide and alkaline earth metal or aluminum metal salt while preparing the mixture. The treated cellulosic material has self-extinguishing properties, and its thermal stability, fire resistance, interface heat resistance, antioxidants, resistance to UV damage, and other chemical agents have been improved [21]. Table 1.2 shows the reinforcement treatment of natural fibers to improve the properties of natural fiber composites.

1.5 Conclusion Composites that are made from natural fibers mainly consist of animal fibers and plant fibers. Animal fibers are abundant in protein; therefore, it is also known as protein fiber. On the other hand, plant fibers are formed by both cellulose and various nutrients. Plant fibers can also be further classified as soft and hard fibers due to plants

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having different variations of stems. High-performance-reinforcing fibers and highperformance resin matrix can be compressed together to form high-performance composite materials. An example of this would be carbon fiber which are commonly used in the automotive industry. As the type of fiber varies, so does the method of extracting and processing it varies. For example, some fibers can be directly extracted and processed while plant fibers will require solvents. Natural fibers are a major factor regarding sustainable green composite technology, they are also ecofriendly as they are biodegradable, renewable, cheap, and recyclable. Materials that are formed by green composites along with natural or synthetic fibers are used in various applications depending on their performance. Natural fibers have generally lower density compared to synthetic fibers. However, natural fibers are generally weaker compared to synthetic fibers. Improving natural fibers will allow an increase in strength and structure. This will also significantly improve its effects on green composites as it suffers from unreliable consistent performance due to its variability. Various physical and chemical methods are used to improve their mechanical properties as their structural properties are changed. As mentioned above, using natural fibers are absurdly eco-friendlier than synthetic fibers as synthetic fibers are the by-products of non-renewable resources. Natural fiber composites are favorable in automotive and building industry due to their low-density property and low cost of production. In addition to that, the textile industry is one of the minor industries that will benefit from using natural fiber composites. In fact, silk that is a protein fiber is considered to be the world’s luxurious fabric material. In other words, natural fibers and synthetic fibers has their respective strengths and weaknesses. However, in our current day and age, natural fibers should be widely used as they preserve our environment while providing us alternative methods in carrying out our daily necessities. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank anonymous reviewers for their input and SEGi University for providing platform to perform this study.

References 1. Oh JM, Biswick TT, Choy JH (2009) Layered nanomaterials for green materials. J Mater Chem 19(17):2553–2563 2. Zald MN (1969) The power and functions of boards of directors: a theoretical synthesis. Am J Sociol 75(1):97–111 3. Lopes GP (2015) The Sino-Brazilian principles in a Latin American and BRICS context: the case for comparative public budgeting legal research. Wis Int’l LJ 33(1):1–45 4. Dixit S, Goel R, Dubey A, Shivhare PR, Bhalavi T (2017) Natural fibre reinforced polymer composite materials—a review. Polym Renew Resour 8(2):71–78 5. Sangregorio A, Guigo N, van der Waal JC, Sbirrazzuoli N (2019) All ‘green’ composites comprising flax fibres and humins’ resins. Compos Sci Technol 171:70–77 (Aug 2018) 6. Lau KT, Hung PY, Zhu MH, Hui D (2018) Properties of natural fibre composites for structural engineering applications. Compos B Eng COMPOS PART B-ENG 136:222–233

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7. Karim Z, Afrin S, Husain Q, Danish R (2017) Necessity of enzymatic hydrolysis for production and functionalization of nanocelluloses. Crit Rev Biotechnol 37(3):355–370 8. Reddy TRK, Kim HJ, Park JW (2016) Renewable biocomposite properties and their applications. Comp Renew Sustain Maters (IntechOpen, London, UK), pp 177–197 9. Mohammed L, Ansari MNM, Pua G, Jawaid M, Islam MS (2015) A review on natural fiber reinforced polymer composite and its applications. Int J Polym Sci. https://doi.org/10.1155/ 2015/243947 10. de Castro BD, Fotouhi M, Vieira LMG, de Faria PE, Rubio JCC (2021) Mechanical behaviour of a green composite from biopolymers reinforced with sisal fibres. J Polym Environ 29(2):429– 440 11. Dicker MPM, Duckworth PF, Baker AB, Francois G, Hazzard MK, Weaver PM (2014) Green composites: a review of material attributes and complementary applications. Composites Part A Appl Sci Manuf 56:280–289 12. Ray D, Sain S (2017) Plant fibre reinforcements. In: Biocomposites for high-performance app. Woodhead publishing https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100793-8.00001-6 13. Bourmaud A, Beaugrand J, Shah DU, Placet V, Baley C (2018) Towards the design of highperformance plant fibre composites. Prog Mater Sci 97:347–408 (July 2017) 14. Ramesh M, Palanikumar K, Reddy KH (2017) Plant fibre based bio-composites: sustainable and renewable green materials. Renew Sust Energ Rev 79(May):558–584 15. Bhardwaj S (2017) Natural fibers composites—an opportunity for farmers. Int J Pure Appl Biosci 5(5):509–514 16. Mishra S, Mohanty AK, Drzal LT, Misra M, Parija S, Nayak SK, Tripathy SS (2003) Studies on mechanical performance of biofibre/glass reinforced polyester hybrid composites. Compos Sci Technol 63(10):1377–1385 17. Lalit R, Mayank P, Ankur K (2018) Natural fibers and biopolymers characterization: a future potential composite material. Strojnicky Casopis 68(1):33–50 18. Kapatel PM (2021) Investigation of green composite: preparation and characterization of alkalitreated jute fabric-reinforced polymer matrix composites. J Nat Fibers 18(4):510–519 19. Sorieul M, Dickson A, Hill SJ, Pearson H (2016) Plant fibre: molecular structure and biomechanical properties, of a complex living material, influencing its deconstruction towards a biobased composite. Mater. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9080618 20. Gupta MK, Srivastava RK, Bisaria H (2015) Potential of jute fibre reinforced polymer composites: a review. Int’l J Fiber and Textile Res. 5(3):30–38 21. Zaman A, Huang F, Jiang M, Wei W, Zhou Z (2020) Preparation, properties, and applications of natural cellulosic aerogels: a review. Energy Built Environ 1(1):60–76

Chapter 2

Assessment on Maritime Research and Education for Graduate Employability and Sustainability: A Case Study in the Faculty of Maritime Studies, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Noorlee Boonadir, Jagan Jeevan, Rosnah Ishak, Aida Fakhrul Lamakasauk, and Aminuddin Md. Arof Abstract Relevance issues for graduate employability, sustainability management, and development in maritime research and education are determined by the needs for an integrated approach to assessing the impact of sustainability on the subject offer and impact on the socio-economic progress. The purpose of this study is to explore the main area through research in maritime studies, identify the related subjects that need to be included in the syllabus of maritime management in order to provide significant impact to the quality of the graduates as well as suggestions to enhance the quality of graduates in maritime management. A qualitative approach has been employed through a semi-structured interview session to obtain informative observations from 15 participants who are from various maritime industries background. The observation shows different outcome from different experience, profession, and capability. N. Boonadir (B) · A. Md. Arof Section of Maritime Management, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian, Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Md. Arof e-mail: [email protected] J. Jeevan Faculty of Maritime Studies, Department of Maritime Management, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] R. Ishak Faculty of Economy and Management, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. F. Lamakasauk Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_2

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Based on the interview session, their feedback generates potential guidelines for the graduates to choose their career pathway that suits with their qualification, level of competency, and passion. These fundamental elements should develop with continuous improvement, which are important for the maritime players in order to maintain in their career. The survey will benefit the maritime practitioners and educators to analyze the stability and efficiency of subject offers in the syllabus study for the education development. Keywords Sustainable development · Employability · Maritime research and education

2.1 Introduction The graduates’ first move to the employment sector will navigate them to the guidance that comprises a range of career processes designed to enable individuals to make informed choices and transitions related to their educational, vocational, and personal development. There are variances of opinion in the higher education community in terms of economic conditions and personal characteristics that influence the individual graduates to obtain a professional career [1]. The technological developments will radically change the employment patterns in the maritime industry in forthcoming years, and similarly, skillsets and training needs required both in the immediate, medium term, and long-term future of the shipping industry will be different than today. As per mentioned by [2] stated that “skills, understanding and personal qualities enhance student’s capability to get a job and success in their career path for their own benefit, workforce, society and economy.” However, it was a fact that the implementation of necessary changes must be included in the higher education system which plays an important role to improve the working skills among the graduates particularly with the rise of new digital industrial technologies known as Industrial Revolution 4.0, which start to reshape the future of maritime industry proactively [3]. This research examines the influence factors toward the employability among graduates, which reflects a clear view of employers’ perceptions on recruitment of fresh graduates with soft skills, which are more competent than the academic level. It is important to identify the focus area of subjects offered with appropriate structure content in higher education institutions. The top priority for the maritime industry practitioners is developed on a human element and investing in human capital. Human capital theory reinforces the relationship between education and improved productivity, which expected the university graduates would generate a large pool of innovative human capital in the future [4]. There are still challenges occurring that highlighted the industry-related competencies, which may affect the capability of the existing professionalism. Furthermore, it is clear that a better approach of collaboration between academics and employers to obtain comprehensive strategies with new technologies in maritime industry from the perspective of industrial and educational is important to improve job skills [3]. The

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course curriculum influences the career journey of the graduates, which also depends on the individual interest of studies and future goals. In addition, this research will analyze the motivation initiator from the feedback of interview session that potentially attracts the graduates to pursue their career in the maritime industry. The following section reviews the different aspects of graduate employability and the relevancy of academic curriculum incorporated with the industry [5].

2.1.1 Maritime Research and Education One significant component to assure quality education is formulation of policies aimed on student’ development. The academic performance of the students may also serve as an evaluation of the quality of education, which the institution offers to the students [6]. Technological advancement, the growth of international trade, and supply chain management have induced an enlarged operating capacity, equipped with modern technologies and acquiring professionals in the maritime industry. Nevertheless, the operations of equipment and primary maritime activities remain a human engagement even with technological breakthroughs addressed that maritime activity is an accumulation of multifaceted services that stimulate the different areas of human existence. Although the maritime industry is one of the economic upholders globally, a critical issue makes vulnerable the sound development of the maritime industry: a talent shortage and a lack of young generations motivated to join the labor market over the next decades.

2.1.2 The Education Developed Maritime Management In the twentieth century, our global maritime industry navigated to modernization with advance technologies in terms of the system and practices. The fundamental task of maritime education acquired related knowledge, skills, and competences in accordance with the techniques and competences is to be ready for on-board ship management but also to be prepared for the development of the worldwide shipping industry. The world trade in every cycle of the supply chain started from the source of raw materials to the delivery of processed goods to the consumer [7]. All this particular economic activity develops from the knowledge to experience with skills and education. It is an important element to develop the individual capability on maritime management in order to provide professional development opportunities in career-minded employability [8]. There are main subjects that provide all the particular contents that are required in developing the maritime management syllabus, which includes logistics, shipping management, and port management that potentially benefit the applicants to explore, practice, and work for the future career development.

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2.2 Methodology The current research objective is to analyze the inspiration of individuals enrolled in maritime studies. Referring to Table 2.1, the results are obtained from a questionnaire survey conducted on 15 participants who are from various maritime industries background from different background of studies (navigation, electromechanics, electrical engineering, and economic engineering in transport) within the same maritime institution. These point out the view of career planning and progression in higher education. Based on the respondent’s years of experience which is more than ten years, it shows that the individuals remain longer because they believe in their career path in the maritime sector. The constancy of the industry is able to attract the graduates to enroll in maritime managements studies. Most of the survey involved the high-rank managing team. According to the survey, it may develop a short term to a long term of career planning for the graduates. Table 2.1 Interviewee of maritime industries

Code

Affiliation

Position

Years of experience

R1

Shipping line

Senior Manager

12

R2

Port operator

Chief Operating Officer

15

R3

Port Authority

Operation Manager 8

R4

Ministry of Transport

Maritime Division

14

R5

Transport operator

Senior Executive

7

R6

Logistics operator

Senior Manager

10

R7

IHS Markiqt Maritime & Trade

Senior Data Analyst

6

R8

Universiti Malaysia Terengganu

Senior Lecturer

34

R9

Penang Port Commission

Assistant Manager

20

R10

Sakura Rubber Sdn. Bhd

Engineer

1

R11

Multimodal shipping

Shipping assistant

2

R12

Eastern steel

Executive

4

R13

Baerlocher Sdn Maintenance Bhd Manager

R15

Shipping agent

6

Shipping Assistant 2

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Referring to this research, the graduates’ employability and sustainability are defined in the maritime research and education perspective, which are developed by the constructive management at a university level.

2.2.1 Important Research Area in Maritime Management The percentage employability in shipping industry will identify the economic activity in the business operation. This shipping industry becomes more technical with highly demands of skilled and specialized management skills, procedures, and process in reaching modern technology [7]. Most of the implementation focus on modern information technology (IT) education and training in order to produce competitive seafarers and enabling short-based of seafarer’s service. Table 2.2 shows the affiliation with their opinion referring to logistic, environment, and IT management. All of these elements need to be explore before can conduct maritime studies [9]. The important changes in the operation of maritime business and consequently the modification of the shipping method developed with digitalization and high level of automation. Looking forward to the improvements and innovation in biotech, data, materials, energy in momentum, and cognition create influence in shipping industry. Therefore, many changes are required for the modification in education system, organization, operation procedures, and processes, regulations, technical aspects of shipping industry, which described the significant improvement and development [10]. Table 2.2 Answer of interview in maritime industries Affiliation

Answer

Shipping

Preservation of corals and marine lives

Ports Operator

Green shipping

Port Authority

Terminal and administration management

MOT

Environment and sustainability

Transport

Marketing and logistic services

Logistics

Logistics

IHS Market Maritime & Trade

Impact of environmental regulations to the ship owner, ship operator, and ship management

UMT

Human factor and training

Penang Port Commission

Impact on IT in maritime industry

Sakura Rubber Sdn Bhd

Harbor management

Multimodal shipping

Technology

Eastern steel

Maritime archeology

Baerlocher Sdn Bhd

Maritime studies through education and experience

Shipping

Cargo loading and discharging operation

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2.2.2 Significant Impact of the Graduates Quality Required Valuable Knowledge Maritime education development is reaching the concept of the Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR4.0), which increased the digitalization of the entire value chain and interconnection of people, objects, and systems through real-time data exchange. The occupation and jobs generated by the accelerating step of demographic, socio-economic, and technological disruptions are in line with the IR4.0. These challenges and disruptions required highly skilled experts and increase competence in the occupations in most industries [10]. In order to enhance the self-expertise, a maritime skills audit was conducted to improve available skills of seafarers. Referring to Table 2.3, most of the Table 2.3 Answer of interview in maritime industries Affiliation

Answer

Shipping

Give more practical exposure

Ports Operator

More industrial connection program like training, forum, JV-projects

Port Authority

Attend more course outside the campus

MOT

More exposure to the industry

Transport

Develop significant foundation in marketing among students because marketing is significant in developing a characters commercial abilities

Logistics

Provide a program that enhances technical skills such as Microsoft BI power, Excel knowledge, project management skills, public speaking, data analytical skills, interpersonal skills, negotiation skills, and conflict resolution

IHS Markit Maritime & Trade To get opportunity for their practical training in maritime-related organization/company to better understand the complete supply chain of this industry UMT

Industry training in the port

Penang Port Commission

3C: communication, coding, and collaboration (with the industry such as training)

Sakura Rubber Sdn Bhd

Exposure more toward practical studies

Multimodal shipping

Communication capabilities

Eastern steel

More on practical task during the semester

Baerlocher Sdn Bhd

Educate them good values and on how to interact with people in a good way

Shipping

1. More crucial subjects to be introduced and offered in the syllabus 2. Make sure outdoor activities given can ensure better exposure of maritime industry 3. Easy access of industrial training application with relevant maritime organization

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feedback show that the syllabus content of maritime management is related to fundamental aspect in maritime studies involving the main area in the shipping and ports, maritime operation safety, logistic management, technical competencies regulated in STCW, which play a significant role in maritime industry in short, medium, and long terms. Therefore, it is important for the graduates to have a technological familiarity and awareness of the technologies adapted in the shipping industry for them to remain competitive and relevant in the market. On the other hand, technological awareness, computing and informatics skills, and environmental and sustainability concern will be essential competencies for the future seafarer with the effects of emerging challenges in Industry 4.0 [3].

2.2.3 Enhancement of Graduates Quality in Maritime Management Maritime industry needs to sustain and remain its operation with well-trained and motivated seafarers and all maritime players. This situation was evaluated from the quality of graduates in maritime management to the employability stage. Regarding the labor market, the focus is based on the identification and advancement of knowledge, competences, and attributes that foster students’ development of operative performance. The graduate quality depends also on reinforcing the responsibilities of higher education institutions. As discussed earlier, the fundamentals in maritime education attained applicable knowledge, skills, and competences intended for modern board shipping management and preparing global maritime industry too. In order to enhance the quality of graduates, more exposure to the industry is required for them to give the best practice in technical and shipping management. Besides, a practical training in the maritime industry needs to provide the graduates with a detailed understanding on the course conduct with proper syllabus objectives. The implementation of efficient communication, operative coding, and robust collaboration with the industry could help to enhance the quality of the graduates. Once they have been shaped the foundation and development of maritime education individually, the numerous systematically and successfully education followed and implemented international trends in the maritime management, as well as progress and the growth of marine technologies. Furthermore, there were opinions that stated that learning and teaching crucial subjects in the syllabus are challenging but give them noble exposure that can be explored widely.

2.3 Results and Discussion This analysis outcome shows that certain area in maritime management syllabus required improvement by coordinating strategic review process. This course conduct

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also must have the forte and exclusivity in order to maintain the education capability in the maritime institutions. The following elements are stated for the future development with the cooperation of maritime expert witness. i. ii. iii.

The main area needs to be explored through research in the maritime studies. The subjects proposed in the syllabus of maritime management will have a significant impact to the quality of the graduates. The suggestion influences the factors to enhance the quality of graduates in maritime management.

This research survey discusses the main areas that maritime players are highly satisfied with their knowledge and skills learned through higher education institution. They shared their opinion with different perspective, which described the elements that are required in maritime management and continuous improvement. It is sufficiently descriptive and relevant in a wide range of respondents’ education level, as well as the diversity of seafarers’ sea service background and knowledge. Most of the competence areas are related to advance technology system, logistics management, safety aspect, and maritime operation. A competence-based approach to employability and sustainability implies the discussion with seafarers who have obtained a higher ranking at the management positions and a longer working experience are more aware of the importance of education and more satisfied with the acquired knowledge during maritime education. The achievement in higher education should be consistent with noble quality level of individuals that practice appropriate syllabus in maritime industry.

2.4 Conclusion The structure of curriculum content in maritime education requires constant improvement in order to maintain the quality and nobility of the knowledge. The education awareness manages to develop the graduates to discover and possess valuable knowledge, skills, and experience that can support them to enhance their capability in the employment sector especially in the effort of reaching the modern technology. It concludes that education is crucial for the industry to stand strong and maintain its stability. Acknowledgements The authors thank to Faculty of Maritime Management, Universiti Kuala Lumpur for sponsoring the article submission.

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References 1. Mtemeri J (2017) Factors influencing the choice of career pathways among high school students in Midlands Province, Zimbabwe. J Soc Sci 33(2):169–178 2. Römgens I, Scoupe R, Beausaert S (2020) Unravelling the concept of employability, bringing together research on employability in higher education and the workplace. Stud High Educ 45(12):2588–2603. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1623770 3. Cicek K, Akyuz E, Celik M (2019) Future skills requirements analysis in maritime industry. Proc Comp Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.09.051 4. Lau YY, Dragomir C, Tang YM, Ng AKY (2021) Maritime undergraduate students: career expectations and choices. Sustain. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13084297 5. Abelha et al (2020) Graduate employability and competence development in higher education–a systematic literature review using PRISMA. Sustain. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12155900 6. Taberdo A (2018) The implication of teaching qualities of the instructors on the students’ performance. Asia-Pac J Multi Res 6(4):120–125 7. Demirel E (2019) Development of maritime management and maritime economics. Pressaca. https://doi.org/10.17261/Pressacademia.2019.1099 8. Schröder H, Jens U, Song DW et al (2019). Automation, technology, employment—the future of work: rep transport 2040. https://doi.org/10.21677/itf.20190104 ˇ 9. Campara L, Franˇci´c V, Bupi´c M (2017) Quality of maritime higher education from seafarers’ perspective. Po-morstvo. Sci J Marit Res 31(2):137–150 10. Ngcobo LA (2018) Response to technology advancement in maritime education and training: a case study of the South African national maritime institutes. World Maritime University Dissertations

Chapter 3

Performance Evaluation of Malaysian Maritime Business Companies During Covid-19 with TOPSIS Mohd Azam bin Din, Wardiah Mohd Dahalan, and Shareen Adlina Shamsuddin Abstract The Covid-19 pandemic has disrupted global maritime business especially maritime transportation. It has disrupted the services of transportation of cargoes using ocean vessels and directly the performance of the many businesses. The Malaysian maritime business performance has also been affected from such condition. Many of these maritime shipping companies are struggling to maintain their business financial and operations during the pandemic period. The research is intended to evaluate the financial performance of Malaysian maritime business companies during the pandemic period and rank these Malaysian maritime business companies performance during the same period. The financial report from three Malaysian maritime business companies listed in the Bursa Malaysia involved in ocean transportation has been selected for evaluation of ratios. The study was conducted by using five financial ratios to evaluate these business financial performances consisting of liquidity, profitability, activity, leverage, and return on investment. The technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) method was being utilized to rank the performance of these maritime business. Such evaluation is able to identify which maritime businesses company is able to perform especially during a global shock period such as the Covid-19 pandemic, and the approach is able to evaluate if these maritime businesses are able to survive. The result found indicates that MISC is the shipping company which is the best performer, while Maybulk is the lowest performer during the Covid-19 pandemic. This research M. A. Din · W. M. Dahalan (B) · S. A. Shamsuddin Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Dataran Industri Teknologi Maritim, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Din e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] S. A. Shamsuddin e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Din Faculty of Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar Kampus, 31900 Kampar, Perak, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_3

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is able to provide insights in Malaysian maritime and how they are managing their operations and finances in ensuring their survival during a challenging period. Keywords Maritime business · Covid-19 · Financial ratios · TOPSIS

3.1 Introduction The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the Covid-19 pandemic as a public health emergency under the WHO international health regulations. The WHO has impelled China to issue a number of force majeure certificates in an attempt to exempt local Chinese exporters from fulfilling contractual agreements with its foreign buyers. Such declarations have affected the global trade flow. During the period of pandemic, it is found the need to access essential goods and medical items which depends on the maritime supply chain to adapt quickly. The first half of year 2020 was marked with many countries implementing lockdown, travel restrictions, rising of unemployment, and economic downturn due to oil and stock market crashes. However, in the second half of year 2020, it remains uncertain and it was found that the gross domestic product (GDP) declined by a single digit [1]. The pandemic has resulted in a lower demand and difficulties in cargo deliveries. Maersk expected that freight rates to slow down due to loss of demand for its containerized goods. Many shipping business corporations reduce their seaborne vessels that directly impacted supply chains at every level. Intra-Asian and global supply chain have been affected severely as high percentage of cargoes being moved by ocean vessels. The pandemic affected daily charter rates for ocean tankers and bulk cargoes vessels where rate have plummeted more than 70% since January 2020 as China begun to buy less oil, iron ore, and coal from the world [2]. It has impacted business performance of maritime shipping companies a reported as financial loss for the year 2020. The Covid-19 pandemic has impacted the Malaysian shipping industry. According to Malaysia shipowner association (MASA), the shipping industry has been shrouded with many issues especially lack of financial aid and cabotage policy exemption. The Covid-19 pandemic and low crude oil prices affected maritime business supply chains. It has been affecting the industry and its long-term economic development. The Malaysian shipowners are struggling for survival during the year 2020 due to the economic downturn and slowdown of shipping industry. The cost of operation such as demurrage charges, penalties, loan payment, and crew wages impacted the companies’ cash flows. Shipping companies have suffered heavy losses due to less cargoes or vessel being left idle or laid-up [3]. In addition, the shipowner must ensure that any of their seafarers with Covid-19 symptoms who need immediate medical emergency treatment are given access to medical facilities to nearest shore subject to port state requirements [4]. The quarantine period is prohibited as it affects the entry of sea vessels by certain countries, causing chaos among maritime ports. Many global ports have been

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closed [5]. In Malaysia, it is found that container throughput reduced by 10–15% at Malaysian port such as Westport and ports of MMC Corporation [6]. Such a situation required shipping companies to improve their technological uptake in their operations such as online platforms, blockchain solutions, and information technology for the third-party companies [7]. The impact of the pandemic affected the performance of Malaysian shipping business companies to maintain its business operations even at financial loss. The challenges of these maritime business companies were tested during this economic shock from pandemic. Thus, this research is intended to evaluate the performance of Malaysian maritime business companies during the Covid-19 pandemic in the year 2020 by evaluating the financial performance and rank their performance by using the TOPSIS model.

3.2 Literature Review 3.2.1 Maritime Business Performance The traditional concept of business organization performance measurement focuses on dimensional indicators that is a pure focus on financial measures. However, the approach to measure business organizational performance has been evolved. An approach such as balance scorecard (BSC) has been widely used for evaluating the business performance [8, 9]. The business organization performance is based on the business process implemented. The process approach can be applied to each level of business organization respecting its business performance. The process approach leads to business organizational measures that allow business organization to focus their attention on areas that need improvement. This could be conducted by assessing how well the process is being done in relation to cost, quality, and time. Competitiveness of global business has made business organization to measure their business performance [8]. Maritime business company provides certain type of ocean transportation services to the cargo owners. Ocean transportation services consist of bulk transport, liner cargoes transport, and specialized cargoes transports. Each of these ocean transportations is managed by a maritime business to cater a specific market. Bulk shipping carries large parcels of raw materials and bulky semi-manufacturer products with limited number of voyages in a year. The liner cargoes transport small parcels of general cargoes which includes manufactured and semi-manufactured goods in small quantities. As these are many parcels to handle, the maritime business for liner cargoes is seen as an organization-intensive business. The specialized cargoes transport is involved with cargoes such as motor vehicles, forestry products, chemical, and liquefied gas. The services provided by specialized ocean vessel business companies involve higher services compared to bulk shipping. Maritime business involved with specialized ocean vessels also works with their shipper in streamlining the supply chains [9].

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3.2.2 Financial Ratios A financial ratio analysis is an approach to provide a snapshot of a company’s financial position at any moment in time. It is a mechanism to evaluate the financial health or performance of a business over time and enables the comparison between business firms by evaluating the financial position with respect either to the same industry or different industry. Such comparison enables evaluation of business firm success, measurement method, and any quantitative or qualitative measures from management decision criteria. The financial ratio is an approach to compare the financial information of one business organization with another [10]. Implementing financial ratios enable a potential investor to assess a company’s financial conditions. There are five aspects of operational performance and financial conditions that shall be evaluated consisting of liquidity, profitability, activity, leverage, and return on investment. Evaluating the liquidity enables the evaluation on the ability of a company to meet its short-term obligations using assets that are ready to be converted to cash. Current ratio is the approach to measure the liquidity. The profitability analysis helps an investor to gauge the financial wellness for business organization in managing its expenses. Using the profit margin ratio is the approach for evaluating the profitability. Evaluating the business organization’s activity measures the ability in utilizing specific assets on its production produce. The total assets turnover is an approach to evaluate the business activity. Evaluating the financial leverage ratio helps in assessing the financial risk that the business organization has taken on in terms of debts. The debt to assets and debt to equity are approaches to the leverage ratio. The return on investment ratio enables the comparisons of benefits such as net income with investment of the business organization assets. The return on assets is an example of return on investment ratio [11].

3.2.3 TOPSIS The technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution method or TOPSIS is a kind of multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) analysis model technique by Hwang et al. [14]. Its concept is to define the ideal solution from the negative ideal solution. Selected scheme should be the closest one from ideal solutions and separation from the negative ideal solution. TOPSIS method is being applied in research in investment evaluation, business performance, and supply chain management. The TOPSIS approach identifies positive ideal solutions for set of alternate schemes with each attribute such as maximum profit or minimization of cost. A negative ideal solution is the opposite reflecting alternate scheme of worst scenario with each attribute like minimum value of profit and cost attributes to maximum. In TOPSIS, the selection should focus on the ideal solution and the separate from negative ideal solutions. The TOPSIS approach has been widely applied with various business, and it is a choice by scholars to estimate businesses performance [12].

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3.3 Methodology 3.3.1 Financial Ratio The data collection was conducted on identified Malaysian maritime shipping business companies which are listed in the Bursa Malaysia. The list of companies consists of three maritime shipping companies listed in Bursa Malaysia. The maritime business companies involved in shipping are given in Table 3.1. The first maritime business company was identified as Shin Yang Berhad (SY). The company provides tugboat and barge services, small ocean tankers and shipyard facilities within the East Malaysia—Sarawak, Sabah, and Labuan area. The second maritime business company being identified as Malaysian Bulk Carriers Berhad (Maybulk). This maritime shipping company is involved with transportation of bulk cargoes internationally. Maybulk provides services in transporting of dry cargoes consisting of iron ore, coal (steaming and coking coals), grains, and minor bulk such as sugar and fertilizer. The third maritime shipping company was identified is Malaysia International Shipping Corporation Berhad (MISC). This company involved in the energy sectors whereby it provides services such as liquefied natural gas shipping, petroleum shipping, offshore oil exploration, and shipyard services. The financial report for each company was obtained for the year 2020. The ratio of performance being evaluated based from the obtained annual financial report to each company. The ratio identified are given in Table 3.2. Each of these business corporations’ financial ratios shall be evaluated in regards to liquidity elements in quick ratio; profitability by evaluating return on equity; activity ratio using fixed assets turnover, leverage ratio from debt to equity ratio, and return on investment from return of equity over shareholders’ equity. Table 3.1 List of Malaysian shipping companies

(1) Shin Yang Berhad (SY) (2) Malaysian Bulk Carriers Berhad (Maybulk) (3) Malaysia International Shipping Corporation Berhad (MISC)

Table 3.2 List of ratio

Liquidity Profitability Activity Leverage Return from investment (ROI)

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3.3.2 TOPSIS Analysis TOPSIS is a model that addresses MCDM problems where it assists to identify the best alternative based on multi-criteria. The TOPSIS model consists of seven steps as [13–20]: Step 1: Build a decision matrix. ⎡

x11 ⎢ x21 ⎢ xi j = ⎢ . ⎣ .. xm1

⎤ x12 · · · x1n x21 · · · x2n ⎥ ⎥ ⎥. .. .. ⎦ . ··· . xm2 · · · nxmn

(3.1)

Step 2: Build a normalized decision matrix (R). xi j r i j =  m t=1

xi2j

, i = 1, 2, . . . , m; j = 1, 2, . . . , n

⎤ r11 · · · r1n ⎥ ⎢ Ri j = ⎣ ... . . . ... ⎦πr 2 rm1 · · · rmn

(3.2)

⎡

(3.3)

Step 3: Construct a weighted normalized decision matrix (V ). W = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ) where

n

wj = 1

(3.4)

j=1

⎤ w1r11 · · · wn r1n ⎥ ⎢ Vi j = ⎣ ... . . . ... ⎦πr 2 w1rm1 · · · wn rmn ⎡

(3.5)

Step 4: Identify the ideal solution matrix of the positive and negative ideal solution. The positive ideal solution is denoted as A+ , whereas the negative ideal solution is A− . A+ =

   

  max Vi j | j ∈ J | max Vi j  j ∈ J   = v1+ , v2+ , . . . , vn+

(3.6)

A− =

   

  max Vi j | j ∈ J | max Vi j  j ∈ J   = v1− , v2− , . . . , vn−

(3.7)

Step 5: Calculate the separation

3 Performance Evaluation of Malaysian Maritime Business Companies During …

27

 

2  n  + Vi j − v +j , i = 1, 2, . . . , m di = 

(3.8)

j=1

 

2  n  − Vi j − v −j , i = 1, 2, . . . , m di = 

(3.9)

j=1

Step 6: Calculate the relative proximity to the ideal solution (Ci∗ ) Ci∗ =

di−

di− whereby Ci∗ ∈ [0, 1], + di+

i = 1, . . . , m

(3.10)

Step 7: Sort the decision alternative. The value of Ci∗ for each decision alternative is sorted in descending manner, whereby the decision alternative with the highest Ci∗ value is being selected as the best solution.

3.4 Findings The evaluation of Malaysian shipping companies’ financial ratios has been identified, and the list of ratios is summarized in Table 3.3. The normalized decision matrix has been built and evaluated for each of Malaysia shipping companies. Table 3.4 summarizes the value of normalized decision matrix. Table 3.3 Decision matrix of financial ratios of Malaysian shipping companies Liquidity (Quick ratio)

Profitability (ROE)

Activity (Fixed assets turnover)

Leverage (Debt to equity)

ROI

SH

0.7974

− 0.1356

0.5755

0.5404

− 0.1591

Maybulk

0.6889

− 0.2271

0.3772

1.3779

− 0.0758

MISC

2.2094

− 0.0213

0.4933

0.5785

− 0.0053

Table 3.4 Normalized decision matrix of financial ratios of Malaysian shipping companies Liquidity (Quick ratio)

Profitability (ROE)

Activity (Fixed assets turnover)

Leverage (Debt to equity)

ROI

SH

0.7974

− 0.1356

0.5755

0.5404

− 0.1591

Maybulk

0.6889

− 0.2271

0.3772

1.3779

− 0.0758

MISC

2.2094

− 0.0213

0.4933

0.5785

− 0.0053

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Table 3.5 Weighted average normalized decision matrix Liquidity (Quick Ratio)

Profitability (ROE)

Activity (Fixed assets turnover)

Leverage (Debt to equity)

ROI

SH

0.0652

− 0.1022

0.1443

0.0680

− 0.1805

Maybulk

0.0563

− 0.1712

0.0946

0.1734

− 0.0860

MISC

0.9026

− 0.0802

0.5057

0.5640

− 0.0298

Table 3.6 Negative ideal (A− ) and positive ideal (A+ ) solution Liquidity (Quick Ratio)

Profitability (ROE)

Activity (Fixed assets turnover)

Leverage (Debt to equity)

ROI

A−

0.0563

− 0.1712

0.0946

0.3640

− 0.1805

A+

0.9026

− 0.0802

0.5057

0.0680

− 0.0298

Table 3.7 Separation distance from NIS (di− ) and PIS (di+ )

di−

di+

SH

0.9592

0.3081

Maybulk

0.9528

0.2128

MISC

0.2960

0.9572

The weighted average of normalized decision matrix has been identified. Summary of the value from the weighted average normalized decision matrix is given in Table 3.5. Table 3.6 indicates the negative ideal (A− ) solution and positive ideal (A+ ) solution for each ratio. The separation distance from the negative ideal solution (di− ) and the positive ideal solution (di+ ) are given in Table 3.7, and the relative closeness (Ci∗ ) and ranking of the companies are given in Table 3.8. As presented in Table 3.8, the highest value of Ci∗ is 0.7368, followed by 0.4733 and 0.2544 indicating that MISC being ranked the first, followed by SH at second and Maybulk at third. The result indicates that during the Covid-19 pandemic year 2020, MISC is doing much better in their maritime business compared to SH and Maybulk. In evaluating the financial position of each maritime business company, it is found that a business that diversified is able to gain competitive advantages as the global market faces an economic shock from the pandemic. Findings show that a company such as MISC and SH that have diversified their maritime business are performing Table 3.8 Relative closeness and ranking of companies

Ci∗

Rank

SH

0.4733

2

Maybulk

0.2544

3

MISC

0.7638

1

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much better compared to Maybulk that too focused on specific bulk transportation services.

3.5 Discussion The economic shock such as Covid-19 pandemic that resulted in lockdowns and health precaution has impacted many of Malaysian maritime business companies. The financial report from maritime business companies reported losses in their business operation in the year 2020 due to the impact of Covid-19. Many of these businesses are struggling to maintain their maritime operations with higher cost of operations, and it has been translated that their performance produces red ink losses in the eye of investors. In evaluating the performance of Malaysian maritime business companies during the Covid-19 pandemic, this study evaluated three maritime shipping business in Malaysia consisting of SH, Maybulk, and MISC by evaluating each company’s financial ratios. The financial ratios have been evaluated with TOPSIS to rank these maritime shipping businesses. TOPSIS as a MCDM analysis is able to provide a better insight of comparison, and it is able to rank based on criteria being analyzed. Result from the TOPSIS analysis has found that MISC is the best performer among the three of Malaysian shipping business companies. The least performer was identified as Maybulk. This research found that during the Covid-19 pandemic, companies that were involved in the energy sector with specialized ocean vessel services were able to survive the economic shock. As MISC provided a very specialize services to support crucial energy sectors, this made the company to sustain such an economic disturbance. It also indicates the strength of its business to support the supply chain for energy sectors. The SH is another maritime shipping company that has shown a good performance during the year 2020. This maritime shipping business company provides a variety of specialized tugboat and barges services with shipyard facilities in East Malaysia and is able to perform during such a gloomy period. Its diversified maritime business also makes it protected from economic shocks. While Maybulk is the least maritime business performer, its business may much affected from Covid-19 pandemic. This maritime business company has less diversification of its services and much focuses on bulk cargoes ocean transport.

3.6 Conclusion This research intended to evaluate the performance of Malaysian maritime business companies during Covid-19 pandemic by evaluating the financial performance and rank their performance by using the TOPSIS model. In evaluating three maritime business companies listed in the Bursa Malaysia based on the annual financial report

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from the year 2020, it has provided insightful understanding of these maritime business company performance during the economic shock of Covid-19. This study found that MISC is performing the best during the period and the least performance is by Maybulk. The result indicates that in event of random shock of Covid-19 pandemic, maritime business companies have diversified their business are able to sustain compared to those business companies that focuses on single services. Diversification in maritime business operations helps its business to perform in better situation as cost of operations escalate due to the pandemic.

References 1. Diab MT, Haelssig JB et al (2020) The behavior of wood crib fires under free burning and fire whirl conditions. Fire Saf J 112:102941 2. Leng CY (2021). Shipping disruption and freight rates in the wake of COVID-19. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on Malaysian maritime sectors and way forward MIMA 44 3. Menhat MN, Zaideen IM et al (2021) The impact of Covid-19 pandemic: a review on maritime sectors in Malaysia. Ocean Coast Manag 105638 4. Yazir D, Sahin ¸ B et al (2020) Effects of COVID-19 on maritime industry: a review. Int Marit Health 71(4):253–326 5. Doumbia HC (2020) Shipping and COVID-19: protecting seafarers as frontline workers. WMU J Marit Aff 19(3):279–293 6. Kumar S, Jolly A (2021) Consequences of COVID-19 pandemic on global maritime trade industry. Int Marit Health 72(1):82–83 7. Manoj KN, Dash A (2017) Internet of things: an opportunity for transportation and logistics. In: Proceedings of the international conference on inventive computing and informatics (ICICI 2017), 23rd, pp 194–197 8. Battineni G, Kumar S et al (2021) COVID-19 vaccine on board ships: current and future implications of seafarers. Int Marit Health 72(1):76–77 9. Richards G, Yeoh W et al (2019) Business intelligence effectiveness and corporate performance management: an empirical analysis. J Comput Inf Syst 59(2):188–196 10. Zizlavsky O (2014) The balanced scorecard: innovative performance measurement and management control system. J Technol Manag Innov 9(3):210–222 11. Tang J, Pee LG, Iijima J (2013) Investigating the effects of business process orientation on organizational innovation performance. Int J Inf Manag 50(8):650–660 12. Avci OB, Ozcelik F (2014) Financial performance evaluation of firm in BIST chemical petroleum plastic sector by using multi-criteria decision making method. J Soc Policy 34–62 13. Kannan D, de Sousa Jabbour ABL et al (2014) Selecting green suppliers based on GSCM practices: Using Fuzzy TOPSIS and applied to a Brazilian electronic company. Eur J Oper Res 432–427 14. Wang TC, Hsu JC (2004) Evaluation of business performance of listing companies by applying TOPSIS method. IEEE Int Conf Syst Man Cybern 1286–1291 15. Wang TC, Chang JF (2010) Applying TOPSIS method to evaluate the business operation performance of Vietnam listing securities companies. Comput Soc Netw 273–277 16. Hussain J, Zhou K et al (2020) Investment risk and natural resources potential in Belt and Road Initiative countries: a multi-criteria decision-making approach. Sci Total Environ 1–3 17. Abd RZH, Azhar FW et al (2020) Application of TOPSIS analysis method in financial performance evaluation: a case study of construction sector in Malaysia. Int J Bus Res 6(1):1–9 18. Asiedu E, Lien D (2011) Democracy, foreign direct investment and natural resources. Int J Prod Econ 84(1):99–111

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19. Endri E, Susanti D et al (2020) Financial performance evaluation: empirical evidence of pharmaceutical companies in Indonesia. Syst Rev Pharm 803–816 20. Bulgurcu BK (2012) Application of TOPSIS technique for financial performance evaluation of technology firms in Istanbul stock exchange market. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 62:1033–1040

Chapter 4

Issues in Legal Guidelines for Armed Guard on Vessels Nadiah binti Zul-Qarnain, Che Nur Ashman bin Che Anuar, and Aminuddin Md. Arof

Abstract The presence of active pirates in high-risk waters has led to a major impact in various industries involving shipping. According to the International Maritime Bureau, 2010 was the peak year for the world in this millennial with 445 total attacks, the highest number of pirate attacks on merchant ships in a year. As this problem affects almost the entire safety and economy of the shipping industry that passes through this area, various parties are beginning to take seriously the importance of having an armed guard onboard. However, when it comes to the use of weapons onboard of ships or vessels crossing waters of various countries, various legislative issues begin to arise. The main purpose of this study is to emphasize the importance of the presence of armed guards onboard ships passing through high-risk waters, which include their duties and responsibilities. This study also attempts to identify the legal guidelines involved as well as the issues that arise in the implementation of the related laws. Keywords Armed guard onboard · High-risk waters · Piracy · Pirate attacks

4.1 Introduction Generally, a pirate is a robber who travels by water. While the majority of pirates attacked ships, some even attacked coastal cities. According to [1], 19 wellestablished organizations in maritime law agreed that most of the piracy incidents involve these activities: N. Zul-Qarnain · C. N. A. C. Anuar · A. Md. Arof (B) Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, 32100 Lumut Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. Zul-Qarnain e-mail: [email protected] C. N. A. C. Anuar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_4

33

34

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

N. Zul-Qarnain et al.

Hijacking Fired upon/Attempted boarding Kidnap for ransom Boarding Pirate attack Suspicious activities Robbery Petty theft/low-level robbery Oil theft.

Logically and according to the laws of nature, every threat that exists must be eradicated by relevant methods. In addressing the threat of piracy in high-risk waters, the benefit of an initiative to use armed guards onboard of vessels cannot be denied. “Armed guard onboard” is also known as privately contracted armed security personnel (PCASP). Besides carrying weapons that need to be legally sourced, licenced and properly accounted for, they usually work for private maritime security companies (PMSC). Armed guards onboard of ships protect ships together with their crews from pirate attacks at sea by using lethal and non-lethal forces.

4.2 Literature Review As shown in Fig. 4.1, the sharp increase in hijackings from 2010 to 2011 was accompanied by an abrupt drop in the number of hijackings in the subsequent years. The International Maritime Bureau, which acts as a focal point in the fight against 500 445

439

Number of aacks by pirates

400

297

300

264

245

246 191

200

180

201

195 162

100

0

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Fig. 4.1 Pirate attack incidents 2010–2020

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

4 Issues in Legal Guidelines for Armed Guard on Vessels

35

maritime crime, also mentioned that there were 297 hijackings in 2012, down from 445 in 2010 and 439 in 2011.

4.2.1 Armed Guards Assignment Factors Onboard Vessels Piracy has taken on a new look in recent years, and it is now a huge threat to the maritime sector. There has been a substantial decline in the number of piracy cases in the last few years. The use of armed guards onboard ships is thought to be the most important reason. The sharp increase in hijackings from 2009 to 2011 was accompanied by a surprising drop in the number of hijackings in the following years. The reasons behind this reduction may be the outcome of the strict implementation of the best management practice (BMP), the coordination between the naval task force of various states and the use of armed guards onboard. Today, more than 35% of vessels carry armed guards, as more and more shipowners hire them from private security companies in order to protect their vessels while passing the “pirate-infested” waters, especially off the Gulf of Aden and South Africa [2]. Increasing risks to piracy have resulted in significant losses for shipping firms, prompting them to seek new ways to combat piracy [3]. Giakoumelos [2] mentioned that armed guards are a comparatively recent development, since multinational maritime agencies, maritime industry leaders and policymakers previously rejected the arming of merchant ships. As a result, a growing number of flag states are considering making the needs for armed guards as an urgent issue. The surge in financial damages as a result of ransom payments, along with the risk of loss of life, has caused the shipping industry to change its position. As a result, prospective victims involving shipowners opt to pay for extra vessel security, as no vessel with armed guards onboard has been reported to be hijacked until now. Besides, they hire armed guards (many of whom are former navy personnel) to be onboard the secured vessel and/or accompanying by an escort vessel. In a real-life pirate attack, the armed guards will first fire warning shots, then fire at the attacking boat’s engine, before actually focusing on the pirates [2].

4.2.2 Responsibilities of Armed Guards Onboard Vessels Under the international ship and port facility (ISPS) code, a ship security officer (SSO) and armed guards are appropriate entities. They are persons who have been named by the corporation and the ship’s master to ensure the ship’s protection. Any shipping corporation whose ships operate in international waters is concerned about ship protection. While advanced systems such as the ship security warning system (SSAS) and the ship security reporting system (SSRS) help to improve maritime security, the crew’s contribution to the ship’s security is still crucial [4].

36

N. Zul-Qarnain et al.

The SSO and armed guards key responsibilities include implementing and maintaining a ship security strategy when collaborating with the company security officer (CSO) and the port facility security officer (PFSO). According to the ISPS code, any ship must have a ship security officer who is solely responsible for the ship’s security. However, it is optional to have armed guards onboard. Several armed guard responsibilities based on the guideline available are as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

k. l. m.

Putting the ship’s defence strategy into action and keeping it up to date (SSP). Doing compliance checks at regular intervals to ensure that appropriate security measures are taken. If appropriate, making modifications to the ship’s security plan. Propose changes to the ship’s security strategy, taking into account different dimensions of the ship. Assist in the evaluation of ship defence. Ascertain that the ship’s crew has received enough training in order to ensure a high degree of ship stability. Onboard the cabin, increase security sensitivity and caution. Assist the crew of the ship by showing them how to improve the ship’s security. Both security issues should be reported to the corporation and the ship’s captain. When considering changes to the ship security schedule, consider the views and recommendations of the business security officer and the port facility security officer. Assist the group security officer (CSO) with his responsibilities. Consider numerous security procedures relating to freight handling, engine room operations, ship’s shop, etc. Ensure all ship activities are carried out with the utmost confidentiality, coordinate with shipboard staff and port authorities [4].

The duty of armed guards onboard vessels might change, decrease, or increase, depending on the circumstances and type of vessels. However, the main duties remain the same as stated. The relevance of maritime security has substantially increased with the increase in the number of piracy attacks. As a consequence, the market for maritime protection employment has risen dramatically. Many businesses have offered specialized maritime security services such as armed guards onboard vessels to ensure high level of ship and port security. However, it is to note that most of the ship security-related troubles can be averted by having a sound ship security plan.

4.2.3 Trusted Maritime Security Service Companies Thanks to the increased attacks from piracy activities around the globe, maritime protection has become a critical necessity for merchant vessels over the last decade. While piracy, including that of Somali pirates, has decreased in recent years in waters close to Africa, new threats are reportedly on the rise in other parts of the world. According to recent reports, the number of recorded piracy cases has been steadily

4 Issues in Legal Guidelines for Armed Guard on Vessels

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increasing, with regions like the Gulf of Guinea accounting for a large percentage of the incidents [3]. Increasing risk to piracy has resulted in significant losses for shipping firms, prompting them to seek new ways to combat piracy. In order to effectively address this problem, several security firms have begun to provide maritime security services that are tailored to the current state of piracy at sea. Several countries around the world have recently enacted laws and regulations to assist maritime firms in putting armed guards onboard their ships to protect them from piracy. Many maritime protection firms exist around the globe, each commanding a high level of appreciation for the exceptional security services they provide. Updated in November 2020, the Marine Insight News Network recognizes 11 trusted companies in providing maritime security services, including providing professional armed guards to be assigned onboard ships. The companies involved are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.

Hart Maritime. Seagull Maritime Security. Maritime and Underwater Security Consultants. HudsonAnalytix. Solace Global. MAST. Securewest International. Neptune Maritime Security. ESPADA. STS Maritime Security. Anti-Piracy Maritime Security Services [3].

4.2.4 Point of Consideration in Assigning Armed Guards Onboard Vessels Before deploying armed guards, the ship’s master and the company must weigh a variety of factors, and this is not a decision to be made lightly. The first question is whether or not armed guards would be permitted by the flag state. If the response is no, but it is deemed essential for defence, the ship will, of course, change flags to one that is more welcoming. After it has been determined that PCASP is permitted, the decision on guard recruitment must be taken. At the most specific level, a series of International Maritime Organization (IMO) criteria mandates the completion of a risk assessment, which are backed up by a standardized assessment. Prior to making the decision to take those steps, the following criteria should be considered [5]: a. b. c. d. e.

Security, defence and health of the vessel and crew. Whether or not all realistic self-defence measures have been put in place in advance. The propensity for handguns to be misused, resulting in bodily harm or death. Unforeseen accidents. Liability concerns.

38

f.

N. Zul-Qarnain et al.

The possibility of escalation of the current circumstance.

In order of assigning armed guards to perform duty onboard vessels, there are numbers of points to be considered by the company security officer (CSO) and the ship’s master. The Home of Seafarers Online webpage had discussed the issues as follows: a.

b. c. d.

e. f. g.

h.

PMSC selection criteria—Whether to depend solely on the IMO standards or compare them to ISO standard 28,007. ISO standard 28,007 presents guidelines for PMSC who provide PCASP onboard ships. Background Information on the PMSC—Examining how the PMSC verifies staff selection and testing. PCASP training and recruiting—What programmes does the PMSC have in order to hire and prepare guards to the required level? PCASP team size, composition and equipment—What are the recommended standards of armed manning by the PMSC, and Is this appropriate? What weapon system will they be using as well? Onboard security team command and control—How can partnerships be coordinated onboard? Is there a system in place for monitoring and record-keeping that is sufficient and appropriate? Are these arms licenced and sourced legally? Is this supported by the paperwork, and has it been cross-checked with the serial numbers of the guns carried onboard? Contractual contracts—Has the PMSC signed a suitable contract, such as GUARDCON, to provide the necessary service?

4.3 Issues in the Deployments of Armed Guards Onboard Vessels Vessel protection detachments (VPD) and PMSCs are constantly being used to secure vulnerable ships at sea. VPDs are small groups of law enforcement officers made up of uniformed service personnel. France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Russia are among the countries that depended on VPDs to defend their ships [6]. Many legal questions have arisen as a result of the deployment of armed guards, such as who would be held liable if the armed guards break the criminal law of the coastal or port state. The role of armed guards has been questioned as to whether it violates United Nations convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS) principle of innocent passage. When there is an arbitrary use of coercion, does the port state has authority to prosecute the offence? Is it possible for the ship’s master to be found liable in the event of a breach? There are perplexing legal questions that must be resolved on a global scale. For instance, in a case where security officials mistook fishermen for pirates and shot them in the Republic of Italy vs Union of India, Enrica Lexie case. The armed guards said that they fired the fishing boat in their official capacity, and

4 Issues in Legal Guidelines for Armed Guard on Vessels

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that they were thus entitled to sovereign immunity. Armed guards must follow the laws of the country whose flag the ship is allowed to fly. Domestic rules are limited in their ability to resolve the questions of transparency posed by the use of armed guards. When a country’s territorial waters are attacked, a dispute of sovereignty may emerge between the flag state, the coastal state and the states whose people are concerned. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) was forced to issue recommendations on the use of security guards aboard ships due to mounting demand from the shipping industry.

4.4 Legal Guidelines for Armed Guards Onboard Vessels Generally, there are four main legal guidelines used in assigning armed guards onboard vessels, which are shown in Fig. 4.2. There are international norms, (IMO), UK rules 2013 and best management practice rules (BMP).

4.4.1 International Norms There is no universal convention that governs the use of military forces on merchant ships. There is no clause in the UNCLOS that prohibits the use of armed guards. The use of armed guards as part of the right to innocent passage will be determined by the coastal state’s rules. Under the international norms, articles 17 and 21 are emphasized.

Fig. 4.2 Main legal guidelines used in assigning armed guard onboard vessels

40

4.4.1.1

N. Zul-Qarnain et al.

Article 17

The right to innocent passage across the territorial sea is recognized in UNCLOS article 17. In the context of ordinary navigation, passage includes not only actual passage across the territorial waters, but also stopping and anchoring if necessary. Passage would not be considered harmless if the operation involves some danger or use of force against the coastal state’s security, territorial integrity, or political freedom, or in some other way that violates the rules of international law enshrined in the United Nations charter, as well as some other action not directly related to passage. In the landmark decision of the Corfu Channel case, the International Court of Justice held that so long as the passage is not a threat to the coastal state, it should be treated as innocent [7].

4.4.1.2

Article 21

Under article 21, all ships practising the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea must comply with all laws and regulations enacted by the coastal state. If coastal states make it illegal to transport arms and military forces on merchant ships across their waters, the passage and use of force within its territorial boundaries in this situation may be considered a violation of UNCLOS articles 19 and 21 [8].

4.4.2 International Maritime Organization The international maritime organization (IMO) has released separate recommendations for shipowners, PSMCs, port states and coastal states. According to IMO guidance released to shipowners in 2012, the use of PCASP should not be seen as a substitute for best management practice (BMP) Rules and other safety measures [5]. The flag state must be consulted before deciding whether or not to have armed guards onboard and to ensure that all regulatory conditions are met. After a rigorous risk evaluation and checking that all other practical ways of self-protection have been exhausted, the decision will be made. The decision shall be taken after a thorough risk assessment and after ensuring all other practical means of self-protection have been employed. The guidance given to PMSCs in 2012 agrees that flag states have the authority to authorize armed guards onboard ships. PMSCs must obtain the necessary approvals from flag states, countries where the PMSC is registered, and countries where operations are performed or operated, including countries through which armed guards will transit [6]. Armed guards should have the technical capabilities to defend people and ships from illegal violence, as well as a consistent policy on the guidelines for using force depending on the evaluation of many situations and a graded response strategy. The command and control of armed guards aboard a ship should be governed by PMSC regulation and procedure [9]. The IMO, in its revised interim recommendations

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(2012) for port states and coastal states regarding the use of armed guards in the high-risk region, has defined the actions to consider when enacting laws and policies governing the embarkation and disembarkation of armed guards and security-related equipment. It allows states to avoid policies and practises that could obstruct maritime commerce or interfere with ship traffic and to ensure that their laws and policies are compliant with international law [10].

4.4.3 Best Management Practice Rules Armed guards can be used if the shipmaster determines that the best management practice rules (BMP) alone will not be adequate to defend against piracy and that the use of armed guards may minimize the risk to the lives of those aboard. All appropriate efforts should be made to prevent using force, and if force is used, it should be used as part of a graded action strategy that includes strict adherence to the most recent edition of BMP [9]. The use of force should be limited to what is clearly required and appropriate under the circumstances, with special attention paid to minimizing harm and injuries but both respecting and preserving human life. Armed guards may only use weapons against people in self-defence or to protect them [11].

4.4.4 UK Rules 2013 The UK rules 2013 state that a security team chief should be in charge of the security team and report directly to the ship’s master. The team chief will be in charge of the armed guards’ organizational management, deployment and discipline. The armed guards and the security team chief shall follow the command and control system and basic operating procedures. When normal operating practises do not apply to a given situation, the security team chief and armed guards should use their best discretion, the agreed-upon command and control system, and the relevant legislation [5]. The right to self-defence is recognized in UK law. In cases that the defendant honestly considered them to be in self-defence, the amount of force used must be proportionate and fair. The decision to use force must be made by the individual who will be doing it. Neither the master nor the security team chief has the authority to order a member of the security team to use or not use force against that person’s will. It provides that armed guards may be used when the ship is transiting the high seas through the high-risk area (HRA) [12]. The laws in the UK also specify when force can be used. When a possible pirate threat is detected, the ship’s master must first follow the guidance contained in the BMP and take suitable and practical action to minimize the likelihood of a scenario requiring the use of force, such as retaining full speed to avoid the pirates. If the danger continues after BMP ship security initiatives, the use of reasonable force may

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be considered [13]. However, to ensure the well-being of those onboard the ship, the use of force should be proportionate.

4.5 Discussions 4.5.1 A Review of International Law on the Use of Armed Protection Onboard Merchant Ship The regulation and implementation of PMSC in international maritime law, as well as its practice in different nations, are discussed in this paper. PMSC is a private firm that provides PCASP on maritime vessels [14]. The mission of PMSC is to safeguard their clients’ ships against pirate attacks when they cross the high-risk area (HRA) surrounding the Gulf of Aden, either directly or indirectly. However, there is currently no international law that regulates these PMSCs. Instead, numerous international organizations, shipping corporations, PMSCs and flag states have developed soft regulations. According to a review done by this study, many countries still lack national rules that particularly address this issue. Many countries only follow the IMO’s BMP 4 guidelines. As a result, laws must be enacted to prevent incidents and escalation of violence by pirates against ships crossing the HRA. The sea has been a key commercial route since pre-historic times. Traders used boats to transport diverse items from their home country to distant destinations. However, the dangers to maritime security and peace are numerous. Piracy and robbery at sea are two of the most well-known, and they pose a greater threat to security than passing ships. Since 2010, with the prevalence of piracy at sea, private shipping companies have started to switch to using armed guard on their ships. The armed guard is usually formed from crew members who carry weapons onboard. However, the business of ship protection services has become increasingly popular lately. This business is usually called a private maritime security company or PMSC. This PMSC is engaged in protection services for merchant ships passing around the Straits of Melaka, the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden. This area is known as HRA [14]. Despite all of the benefits and drawbacks of using this service, international law does not ban nor encourage, its usage. The IMO does not officially restrict the use of this protection service, but it has released BMP 4 as a guideline for commercial firms passing over piracy-infested waters. This measure is applauded because it benefits a wide range of marine industries. The guideline, however, is not a legal product, and ships are subject to the authority of the ship’s flag state on the high seas, pursuant to UNCLOS 1982 article 92 [8]. Switzerland intends to develop a regulation to resolve the existing ambiguity due to a lack of legislative clarity in this area. This is because, despite being a landlocked country, Switzerland is the country that transports the most commodities by sea. As a result, they feel compelled to hire armed guards to secure their commercial ships. As a result, the international bodies such as the IMO,

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the shipping industry and flag states regulate onboard security providers in order to monitor PMSC practices.

4.5.1.1

United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS 1982)

The PMSC and PCASP were not regulated by the United Nations convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS) 1982 [8]. The Montreaux document already includes a framework for PMSC, but it is only applicable to wartime scenarios; thus, it cannot be used for PMSC [7]. The right of innocent passage is regulated under article 17 UNCLOS 1982, where merchant ships can pass through the territorial sea of a coastal state [8]. The provisions addressing the right of innocent passage in UNCLOS 1982 are important to note for merchant ships using PCASP services. The focus is article 19, paragraph 2(b) that iterates on any exercise or practice with weapons of any kind [8]. From the sentence, it is arguably not relevant for merchant ships. Even if merchant ships are included in the provision, it is almost difficult to cover the small presence of PMSCs onboard the ship. When referring to article 19 paragraph 2 (a), it is addressed to warships and government ships used for non-commercial purposes, not to merchant ships with PMSC presence. Even if ships with the presence of PMSC are regulated in these provisions, it can be said that they are not a significant threat when compared to warships. It can be shown that the coastal state has criminal jurisdiction over foreign-flagged vessels only in specific circumstances, such as when the foreign vessel is preparing to enter or depart deep waters. Such action cannot be taken against foreign ships that are just passing through the coastal state’s territorial sea. As a result, if a coastal state has a law restriction prohibiting the use of armed security onboard a ship, exercising jurisdiction will be difficult if the ship is only travelling through the coastal state’s territorial sea. UNCLOS 1982 only regulates the state’s responsibilities in carrying out its jurisdiction when merchant ships cruise in the territorial sea, deep sea and ports. However, as long as a merchant ship (with PCASP) is on the high seas, jurisdiction falls to the flag state of the ship. As provided for in article 97 paragraph 1 of UNCLOS 1982, which is “In the event of collision or any other incident of navigation concerning a ship on the high seas, involving the penal or disciplinary responsibility of the master or of any other person in the service of the ship, no penal or disciplinary proceedings may be instituted against such person except before the judicial or administrative authorities either of the flag state or of the state of which such person is a national” [8].

4.5.1.2

Maritime Safety Committee

On 25 May 2012, the maritime safety committee (MSC) of the IMO developed guidelines on the PMSC and provisions for PCASP onboard, additional issues relating to PCASP and monitoring states, and guidelines on the use of firearms [10]. The MSC

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guidelines also emphasize that seafarers should not carry firearms onboard, but flag states may decide to use VPD or PMSC as a measure to secure their ships. The increasing use of PCASP services is of concern because there is no framework in international law that can define the definition of PMSC and PCASP [15]. Since 2011, 34–40% of ships crossing the HRA have raised PMSCs to their ships. Sporting arms and ammunition manufactures institute (SAMI), a private industry group, developed an accreditation programme to create PCASP accreditation inspection standards. The SAMI accreditation programme is based on IMO’s international code of conduct for private security service providers (ICoC) and BMP guidelines and has three stages [13]. The stages include due diligence, which is assessing the financial, legal, position or insurance posture of the company. Secondly, in-depth analysis of the company’s infrastructure, physical verification of buildings, systems and documentation and lastly, operational review conducted by SAMI. After the three stages are completed, the PMSC can be accredited through the National Security Inspectorate, a third-party certifying body. The SAMI certificate includes an in-depth examination in the areas that will be discussed. First and foremost, corporate structure as PMSC must clearly define its management structure, transparent ownership, full disclosure of corporate principles, ability and willingness to disclose bankruptcy filings and criminal history. Secondly, quality management as PMSC must operate under a quality management system such as ISO 9001 to protect the marine environment. Thirdly, the records and data must be kept and easily accessible and the system has an audit system. PMSC also must be a signatory to the ICoC and have business instructions and business ethics that are easy to access. Financial health and Insurance compatibility with operational risk must be taken as considerations with tactical planning. Lastly, operational support to the team, including intelligence, logistics, command, pre-mission briefing and local liaison officers.

4.5.1.3

International Maritime Organization

With the absence of law to regulate PMSC and PCASP from a reputable international organization, various laws were born to regulate them. Although the Montreaux document includes a framework for PMSC, it is arguably not relevant for PMSC’s because it is only limited to the times of war or in a conflict zone. Thus far, the regulations, code of conduct, negligence and accountability of this business industry are still under the PMSC itself. This situation is certainly very beneficial for the PMSC because they can save costs, simplify procedures and ensure less bureaucracy. Since the Montreaux document is non-binding, it can serve as a warning to governments to take responsibility for the negligence that the PMSCs they employ and also as a reminder that PMSCs do not operate in a legal vacuum [7]. The IMO also issued guidelines for ship owners, countries and PMSCs in dealing with piracy issues in HRA, which is the best management practice (BMP) 4. IMO collaborates with the contract group on piracy off the coast of Somalia (CGPSC) and plays an important role in the anti-piracy collaboration. IMO as the specialized

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agency of the United Nations (UN) for maritime affairs had raised issues of maritime armed security on the agenda included in the 2011 world maritime day. The CSPSC is an ad hoc group consisting of more than 50 countries and international organizations that first met in 2009 to create and coordinate effective measures against piracy. CGPCS group raised the issue of self-protection of merchant ships and the enhancement of cooperation in legal matters such as extradition and prosecution of piracy suspects. The BMP 4 development process was also assisted by various maritime and shipping industry organizations such as the Baltic and International Maritime Council (BIMCO), International Maritime Council (IMC), International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and International Maritime Bureau (IMB). The message conveyed in Best Management Practice (BMP) of the IMO to the governments is that there is a possibility of an escalation in violence by pirates [15, 16]. The carriage of such personnel and their weapons is subject to flag state legislation and policies, and it is the matter of the flag states to determine in consultation with ships owners, companies and ship operators, if and under which conditions this will be allowed. Flag states should take into account the possible escalation of violence, which could result from carriage of armed personnel onboard merchant ships, when deciding on its policy. The decision to use PCASP or not is a decision for the flag state to consult with ship owners, operators and companies. Although steps to establish international standards are underway, incidents involving piracy persist. A well-known case is the case of the Enrica Lexie ship. On 15 February 2015, Sergeants Massimiliano Latorre and Salvatore Girone, both members of the San Marco Marine Regiment, escorted the Italian-flagged tanker Enrica Lexie. They were involved in the incident in Alappuzha near Kerala, India [17]. In addition to the Enrica Lexie incident, there was also an Ohio MV Seaman Guard who was caught crossing the Indian territorial sea with weapons and ammunition that were not registered in India. The ship turned out to be a ship that became an armoury for PMSC personnel from Advanfort, a PMSC company from the USA [18]. Then, supervision and regulation of PMSC and its practices on top of the HRA are felt to be very necessary in order to avoid unwanted incidents from happening. One of the reasons for the decline in piracy rates in HRA is the practice of PCASP, both by the private sector and the government. The private party in question is the PMSC, and by the government, it is referred to as the vessel protection detachment (VPD). Until now, the use of protection services by armed personnel is preferred by shipping companies because until now no ship using PCASP has been successfully hijacked. Despite the high costs, many shipping companies prefer to engage PCASP from PMSC rather than having to bear the risk of their ships been hijacked by pirates. With a variety of options and packages to choose from when using PCASP services, shipping companies are happy to use PCASP. In addition to protection with armed personnel, PMSC also provides intelligence data, security consulting, security training and others. Second, since PMSCs employ PCASP services more frequently, the international community recognizes the necessity to regulate PMSCs. However, there is currently no hard legislation or corresponding conventions in international law to control PMSC and PCASP practice. Until today, only a variety of soft laws have been enacted based on the initiatives of PMSC firms, the IMO, the shipping industry

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and other shipping groups. Studies on PMSCs have been underway until today in order to control and monitor PCASP practices by PMSCs and shipping businesses who utilize them. It is hoped that in the near future there will be a convention that regulates in more detail and is more binding for countries related to the use of services from PMSC for their ships. Third, there are still many countries that do not have regulations regarding the use of PMSCs. However, there are already several countries that have allowed the use of PMSCs as long as they comply with the guidelines provided by IMO in BMP 4 and other regulations that are subjected to the provisions of BMP 4. However, there are also some countries that prohibit the use of PMSCs, completely for fear of an escalation of violence against their ships and seamen. PCASP is also not supported by these countries because it can interfere with personal interests that can have weapons and abuse power.

4.6 Conclusion In retrospect, dispute over the usage of armed guards is due to concerns in the event of arms abuse while passing through the territorial waters of coastal states. Based on issues concerning responsibilities, duties and related legal guidelines of the armed guards that have been discussed, it is concluded that there must not be any complacency in self-defence and security at sea. Available legal guidelines do not prohibit the assignment of armed guard onboard ships. This situation can be argued as implicitly acknowledging that they should be allowed by adhering to the guidelines provided, mainly for the purpose of ships security and protection. In the immediate future, international regulatory bodies should be firm in establishing rules regarding the use of armed guards onboard ships and not limited to providing recommendations and guidelines. Legislative uniformity in this regard should be established to ensure that safety of ships when in high-risk waters are not in jeopardy.

References 1. Pollitt C (2005) The new public management in international perspective: an analysis of impacts and effects. Public Manag Rev 286–304 2. MI News Network (2020) 11 Companies offering maritime security services. Marine Safety. https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-safety/11-companies-offering-maritime-security-ser vices. Accessed 10 June 2021 3. International Register of Shipping (2019) Maritime knowledge maritime training. The duties of ship security officer (SSO). https://intlreg.org/2019/08/30/the-duties-of-ship-security-office r-sso. Accessed 10 June 2021 4. Dubner BH, Pastorius C (2014) On the effectiveness of private security guards on board merchant ships off the coast of Somalia, where is the piracy; what are the legal ramifications. J Undergrad Neurosci Educ 39(4):1029–1066 5. Crewtoo (2014) What it takes to work in onboard maritime security? www.crewtoo.com/fea tured-new. Accessed 13 June 2021

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6. Peat D (2013) The use of court-appointed experts by the international court of justice. British Yearbook Int Law 84(1):271–303 7. Preetha S (2017) Use of armed guards onboard ships and its legal ramifications. J Mar Biol Ass India 58(2):23–27 8. Cockayne J (2008) Regulating private military and security companies: the content, negotiation, weaknesses and promise of the Montreux document. J Confl Secur Law 13(3):401–428 9. McLaughlin R, Klein N (2021) Maritime autonomous vehicles and drug trafficking by sea. Int J Mar Coast Law 1(aop):1–30 10. BIMCO, CLIA, EU Nav For Somalia, ICS, IGP&I Clubs, IMB, INTERTANKO, InterManager, IMEC, INTERCARGO, IPTA, ICIMF, Joint Hull, OCIMF, SIGTTO, UKMTO (2011) BMP 4, Best management practices for protection against Somalia based piracy, Witherby Pub Gp., UK 11. United Nations (1982) The UN Convention on the Las of the sea, at www.un.org/depts/los/con vention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf. Accessed 13 June 2021 12. Krahmann E (2014) The UN guidelines on the use of armed guards. Int Community Law Rev 16(4):475–491 13. Abeyratne R (2012) The use of armed guards on board merchant vessels. J Transp Secur 5(2):157–167 14. Dubner BH, Pastorius C (2013) On the effectiveness of private security guards on board merchant ships off the coast of Somalia-where is the piracy; what are the legal ramifications. NCJ Int’l L Com Reg 39:1029 15. BIMCO, ICS, IGP&I Clubs, INTERTANKO, ICIMF (2018). BMP 5, Best management practices to deter piracy and enhance maritime security in the red sea, gulf of Eden, Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, Witherby Pub. Gp., UK 16. Petrig A (2013) The use of force and firearms by private maritime security companies against suspected pirates. Int Comp Law Q 62(30):667–701 17. Black N (2013) Criminal jurisdiction over maritime security in the Indian Ocean. Cornell Int Law J 1:77–82 18. Østensen ÅG (2011) UN use of private military and security companies: practices and policies, vol 3. Ubiquity Press

Chapter 5

SWOT and TOWS Matrix Analysis: A Study on Ro-Ro Port Klang Malaysia Amayrol Zakaria, Aminuddin Md. Arof, and Thevindiran Tholarnathan

Abstract The analysis of a company’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) is the focus of this research. The Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service was chosen as the focus of this project’s research. The main objective of this research is to examine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Northport Port Klang’s Ro-Ro services. Based on an appropriate criterion, there were 10 expert respondents that have been selected for the interview purpose. The mean, standard deviation and frequency have been carried out by using the SPSS. This research demonstrates how to use the SWOT methodologies for strategic planning in the corporate world. In order to identify the qualities and shortcomings of the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro operation, a SWOT analysis is used in this research. For the purpose of this research, the understanding of the TOWS matrix analysis helps to determine the company’s proper business plan, and a variety of approaches and guidelines have been developed. Keywords Strengths · Weaknesses · Opportunities · Threats · Ro-Ro service

5.1 Introduction The maritime industry plays a significant role in a country’s development as the import–export business is being directly involved with the industry. A port is a large area consisting of a lot of ships that are mainly being used for docking or discharging the cargo and passengers. Due to many activities on these ports, the transportation A. Zakaria (B) · A. Md. Arof · T. Tholarnathan Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Md. Arof e-mail: [email protected] T. Tholarnathan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_5

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companies that run these ports face a lot of competition [10]. This paper examines the factors that contribute to the efficiency of a Ro-Ro port, specifically the Northport Port Klang. Northport Port Klang handles a diverse range of cargoes, from containers, vehicles and break bulk cargoes, as well as liquid and dry bulk cargoes of various types and shipment sizes. Increased investments in foreign trades and customer demands have resulted in the global maritime industry’s rapid development. However, the increased activity does not seem to be translating into good results for the port, or for the sector as a whole. This phenomenon is related to competition challenges. As such, the aim of this paper is to recognize certain key issues that can lead to making the port more efficient using a tried-and-true management approach, namely the SWOT and TOWS matrix analysis. The interpretation of this study would aid in the improvement of the port’s market plan.

5.1.1 Problem Statement Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro shipping company has numerous qualitative problems with the Ro-Ro shipping facility; the lack of adequate port facilities and equipment, large shipment volume, short sea shipping service quality, good intermodal link, port efficiency, port accessibility, promotions effort and government assistance at initial period will lead to a weakness in Ro-Ro services [20]. Infrastructure accessibility and institutional readiness for the smooth execution of cross-border Ro-Ro shipping projects are by far the most common concerns that influence the industry’s competitiveness in general, and the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service in specific. The lack of a research into these concerns has contributed to the slow pace at which improvement plans have been designed to assist the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service to resolve its lack of competitiveness strategy.

5.1.2 Research Objective For the purpose of this study, two objectives were developed which are to investigate the SWOT analysis of the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service and to determine the best strategy based on the employment of the TOWS matrix analysis.

5.1.3 Significance of Research This study is valuable to academia, investor and local authority. Initially, the beneficial of the study will assist future researchers who have the similar research as they can get additional information and can be a good indication to their research. On the other hand, the result of the study will facilitate the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro services

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to improve their strategies and determine the benefits and utilize their resources to address the identified obstacles in ensuring the success of their Ro-Ro services undertakings.

5.2 Literature Review 5.2.1 Ro-Ro Service In brief, a Ro-Ro ship can be defined as the water transportation that is designed to carry cargo as well as passenger from one place to another place [19]. The same authors also argue that the key factor of successful Ro-Ro service has been classified by the previous scholar which are adequate port infrastructure, seamless intermodal link and regular frequency [19]. In another article, it was discovered that suitable port facilities and equipment and government assistance at the initial period and port efficiency are the key determinants to ensure the successful Ro-Ro short sea operation [2].

5.2.2 Definition of SWOT Oreski [9] states that SWOT is an abbreviation for strength, weakness, opportunities, and threats. The first two aspects (strengths and weaknesses) are linked to internal management aspects, while a larger sense or setting in which the agency works encompasses opportunities and threats. Therefore, a SWOT analysis is used widely as a tool to evaluate internal and external variables to achieve a structured approach to solving the problem and to aid. Reference [9] explains that the overarching aim of the strategic planning process, one of the initial stages of which is the SWOT, is to establish and implement a policy that results in a successful strategic alliance between internal and external influences. As mentioned by [1] a SWOT analysis is a process for the diagnosis and investigation of internal and external factors that may affect a project’s feasibility. The main objective of SWOT is to provide marketing companies with valuable insights into key organizational skills after reviewing marketing information data gathered and to assist in making the most use of such a knowledge to optimize opportunities, align those with the organization’s strengths to recognize potential risks and mitigate vulnerabilities. A SWOT analysis is an important technique that facilitates decision-making and is also used as an instrument for the organization’s comprehensive analysis of internal and external factors on the company [9]. Gürel [3] argues that SWOT contrasts strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. In the context of present and future opportunities and threats, strengths and weaknesses are evaluated. The simpler the definition of strengths and weaknesses,

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the less probable it is to explore unrealistic possibilities. There should also be realistic openings, weaknesses that can be solved by strengths used to prevent threats and strengths that can be used to respond to threats. Reference [14] argue that SWOT is something of an analytical method for performing a system analysis. The essence of strategic planning is not a prescriptive method that decides it. However, when completing SWOT, the analysis often clearly determines the set of variables in factions, the capacity for weakness or threat, and the description of independent variables is therefore very explicit and succinct.

5.2.3 Definition of TOWS Matrix In the framework of systematizing strategic decisions, the TOWS matrix, developed by [17], is prevalently used to enhance data interpretation [11]. Reference [13] argue that to implement alternate plans, this strategic strategy for balancing environmental challenges and opportunities with organizational vulnerabilities and strengths ensures that internal strengths and limitations are listed on the horizontal axis, while external environmental opportunities and risks are listed on the vertical axis. Reference [5] state that a TOWS analysis is a key analysis approach used to analyse the environment and the evaluation of integrative framework, which includes a rigorous and thorough examination of external and internal variables that decide an organization’s dynamic industry situation and revenue growth. The writers explained that when detecting and assessing business prospects for effective decision-making, the principle of a TOWS analysis can be used where it can be defined with the aid of an explanation of various elements of a TOWS analysis with modern business growth. The TOWS matrix offers a way for tactics to be built based on rational correlations of aspects related to internal strengths (or weaknesses) and external potential (or threat) variables. Four conceptually distinct strategic classes are defined by the TOWS matrix: strength–opportunity (SO), strength–threats (ST), weaknesses–opportunities (WO) and weaknesses–threats (WT), to build potential methodologies [13]. Reference [14] mention that in the first quadrant, the WO strategy aims to exploit opportunities emanating from the external environment and mitigate the internal vulnerabilities of the company that obstructs its progress. On the other hand in the second quadrant, the SO approach is an optimal scenario where all strengths and opportunities can be maximized by an organization. Similarly, in the third quadrant, the ST approach exploits the inherent resources of the company that can overcome challenges from rivals, the market and the broader world. A business with good market influence, nevertheless, will have to handle risks with cautiousness in the external world. The final fourth quadrant, the WT approach is the oddest-case situation where a company needs to mitigate both its vulnerabilities and its challenges. Kulshrestha and Puri [5] revealed that threats and risks–vulnerabilities, allow much opportunity. Using this should be included in the plan opportunities to minimize or fix deficiencies. Strength and opportunities relate to the condition in which

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abilities and possibilities in the setting prevail. This condition correlates to the maximaxi approach, wherein substantial increase and globally competitive growth can be accomplished. In the strength and opportunities section, adverse external factors, prevalence of threats are continuously the cause of uncertainties in progress and development. To resolve challenges from the environment, the plan should use significant internal strengths. Finally, the condition of vulnerabilities and risks is deprived of any possibilities for growth. In aggressive conditions, it works, and its capacity for improvement is limited. It does not have big capabilities that can overcome risks. Therefore, it is reasonable to implement effective and smart decisions with the aid of the TOWS matrix while considering with an idea and progressing on with project planning, assessment and procurement. Hence, it is necessary to prefer not the right but a stronger market opportunity and strategy design to mitigate the effect of risks and vulnerability on company and exploit assets and resources by using the realistic and conceptual TOWS analysis method.

5.2.4 SWOT Analysis in Maritime Industry In a research by [16], integrating the strategic study of maritime clusters with a method as robust as SWOT offers a dynamic range of analytical possibilities and positive outcomes. In the context of flexibility and expectation, maritime cluster and SWOT analysis share a multitude of qualities; that is why they may be regarded as according to combined fundamentals and thus one can be used in conjunction with the other, irrespective of the nature of the research, if it is an examination of resulting in structural, analytical ability, or conventional organizational strategy. Reference [1] conducted a study on SWOT analysis used to evaluate the strength and efficiency of Kuantan Port to receive the main China shipping liner prior to the opening of the Malaysia-China Kuantan Industrial Park at Gebeng. The SWOT review delivers knowledge that aims to align the strengths and skills of the organization with the business world in which it works. The SWOT analysis will indicate that there are many possibilities for a short sea shipping service to be conceptualized, but there are many drawbacks which will make the service inconvenient due to intense competition with in-land transport and the facility it offers [12]. Reference [15] also revealed that the SWOT analysis approach is used for the analysis of the present internal and external situations related to marine transport companies in Iran. The research is carried out to devise plans for growing efficiency and the output of the organization against the difficult changing multinational environment. One of the largest maritime transport firms in Iran has been chosen for this study. The authors imply that the capabilities, limitations, prospects and risks of the Iranian maritime transport industry have been identified. He also points out that the findings of the study suggest that the Iranian government promotes and positively supports the growth of these firms, but the regulations in recent years have created a complicated and dynamic environment for these industries.

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According to a previous research, a SWOT analysis can be used to identify maritime safety strengths and vulnerabilities, openings to either leverage strengths or remove weaknesses, and forecast potential new challenges, all in the Gulf of Guinea in terms of piracy [8]. The writer explained that the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) matrix used for the Gulf of Guinea brings to the edge, the results in this study allow stakeholders to analyse maritime security issues in the Gulf of Guinea in a completely unbiased way. Other than that research, a SWOT analysis focusing on the export and import capacity of the use of the port of Bratislava for the transportation of vehicles and containers from Slovakia by RO-RO was demonstrated in an article by [4] The authors highlight that a SWOT analysis is a strategic implementation technique used to accomplish a specific purpose to determine the capabilities, vulnerabilities, opportunities and risks that lay in each project which includes controlling the port’s internal and external marketing environment. Adding to the notes, [18] revealed that a SWOT analysis is among the instruments frequently used to investigate the benefit of maximizing criteria for short sea shipping businesses particularly in Ro-Ro service endeavour. Therefore, in strategic planning, a SWOT analysis is used widely, where all aspects that affect the competitive environment are diagnosed in great depth to assess the right approach to be applied.

5.3 Methodology The online questionnaire survey method was applied in this study. The questionnaire was subsequently sent to the management team at the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service in Malaysia, and 10 expert respondents were selected for the survey from the top management line with more than 10 years’ experience in related field, all of whom offered excellent collaborative efforts and responses. There are 20 items in the questionnaire formed into four sections. The demographic profile of the respondents is presented in the first section, which includes five queries about gender, age, occupation, locals or foreigners, and level of experience in the marine industry. Part two, on the other hand, is about the internal factors of weakness and strength. The third part is the external factor, which consists of opportunities and threats, followed by the fourth section, which contains the respondents’ personal view space. The descriptive data collected from the survey was statistically analysed using the SPSS software. The SWOT and TOWS matrix analyses were then carried out using these parameters. The correlated exercise of TOWS matrix analysis provides the required insights for developing and evaluating potential alternatives, and ultimately choosing the right business strategy for Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro services. Obviously, many organisations across the globe are having difficulty utilising a SWOT analysis and TOWS MATRIX analysis for better decision making. It is supported by [6] that organizations increasingly struggle to deal with management planning that is needed by the results of the study after a SWOT analysis is conducted [6]. The TOWS matrix is therefore used to encourage the management not only to

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balance external risks and opportunities both with the company’s vulnerabilities and internal strength, but also to help build four fundamental types of strategies, respectively, WT strategies, WO strategies, ST strategies, and SO strategies, and tactics important for strategic development of the organization. Growing existing strengths by enhancing internal weaknesses with external opportunities will help to reduce internal weaknesses and increase internal strengths even further. Consequently, enhancing SWOT components with the TOWS matrix allows to optimize internal strengths while reducing internal weaknesses, as well as neutralize potential threats while pursuing external opportunities.

5.4 Results and Discussion 5.4.1 Validity and Reliability Analysis 5.4.1.1

Pilot Testing

According to a new research, Cronbach’s alpha is among the answers for the statistician to measure the stability of consistency of the dataset since it focuses on the degree that any evaluation is a coherent measure of a notion. The reliability principle focuses on the degree to which the instrument measures what it is intended to quantify as reflected in the data analysis objectives, whereas validity focuses on the consistency of a measurement degree to which the instrument to count as expressed in the research objectives [7]. As shown in Table 5.1, the value of Cronbach’s alpha is 0.773. This evidently indicates that there is a good degree of internal consistency. These were entirely relevant and pertinent questions, as well as authoritative references for legitimate targets and effective tests. Data analysis and interpretation The results of the questionnaires were summarized, and descriptive analysis was conducted to assess the most suitable internal and external variables for the SWOT and TOWS matrix analysis. Since the interaction of the variables selected would result in a very arbitrary conclusion, interpreting the analysis would necessitate a certain degree of logical thought. While credibility issues can make it difficult to find the right terms to express the strategic fit of the chosen variables, the results of this Table 5.1 Reliability statistics Cronbach’s alpha

Cronbach’s alpha based on standardized items

No. of items

0.773

0.773

20

Source SPSS 22.0

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paper should be given some credence since they agree, though rather, with previous findings. Descriptive statistics are used in a variety of ways during data processing. The terms mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values are all used interchangeably. They are often used to produce or evaluate data during study to keep track of the variables being used, especially when a significant number of cases are being examined. The data was analysed based on the questionnaires and responses obtained, and explanations of important internal and external factors as well as TOWS matrix analysis were summarized as shown in Table 5.2. As shown in Table 5.2, it can be gleaned that collaborative effort with the Ministry of Transport and Marine department aids in the preparation of assistance strategies to comply with new government regulations, the development of innovative equipment and services will demonstrate the public’s capacity to comprehend the company’s success and integrating the port facilities’ safety and security plan would have an added incentive to the company’s employees among the best strategies that can be implemented to ensure the successful of organization. The findings for the first strength indicate that the business had a solid foundation on government rules and that they had to comply with the Marine Department’s regulations on a regular basis. The company’s second strength is its well-positioned strategic location, which will assist in its growth. Northport Malaysia Berhad is among the oldest port areas in Malaysia and an intra-Asian transit point and international trade centre. Despite that, companies may be able to establish customer satisfaction by having a solid customer base. Building a good relationship with customers is easier to run a business operation. Customers also tend to decide resources from businesses that they perceive to be unique and capable. According to the interpretation on the following three weaknesses, the researchers demonstrated that the first weakness is that the company’s profitability is influenced. The second flaw was the systems, machinery or facilities that needed to be improved for a better potential. The final inadequacies will be in the safety and security of port facilities, personnel and port users when every operation is being conducted through. The top three mean value of opportunities in Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service are as follows: first, the firm provides medical and wellness assistance to retired labourers and senior citizens, which is a strong perspective to help their employees to gain a positive reputation among the international maritime community. Furthermore, there are unfulfilled consumer needs that can be satisfied by considering their clients’ needs, resulting in higher client satisfaction. Building greater customer loyalty would make it possible for the company to raise revenues. Furthermore, they have a competitive edge over their rival or competitor. Port Klang is one of the world’s largest ports, and it is the only Malaysian port with robust global shipping access, making Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro operation well-known worldwide. Finally on the comprehension of results discovered on the threats, firstly is the public’s ability to recognize the capability of Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service, Malaysia, based on the three top threats observed. As a result, the public should have a clear understanding of how the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro operation works, which will result in a comparative edge. The second threat portrays the effect of

Internal Factors

SO Strategies (S1,O2). Unfulfilled customer requirements can be met with the encouragement and value of the Malaysian Ministry of Transport and the Marine Department (S2,O3) A strong geographical position can help the business gain a competitive advantage over international competitors (S3,O3) With a significant customer base, the company holds a special advantage over its competitors (S1,O1) Provision by the Minister of Transportation Malaysia can create business policy concerning employee well-being

External Factors

Opportunities O1. The company has a progressive value system on concerns about its employees’ well-being O2. Has customer needs that can be fulfilled O3. The company maintain a competitive advantage over its rivals

WO Strategies (W1,O2). The company’s profitability will be strengthened by revising and acknowledging unfilled customer needs (W2,O2) Upgrading new facilities and systems to satisfy customer needs with credible machinery in the company (W3,03) Advancement and modification of existing safety and security plans for port users to encourage the trust network for their employees’ well-being and safety

Strengths (S) S1. Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service is authorized by the Marine Department of Malaysia and the Ministry of Transport S2. The company has a geographic location that is well-positioned S3. Possess a strong customer base

Table 5.2 SWOT and TOWS matrix analysis of Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service

(continued)

Opportunities O1. The company has a progressive value system on concerns about its employees’ well-being O2. Has customer needs that can be fulfilled O3. The company maintain a competitive advantage over its rivals

Weaknesses (W) W1. The profitability of an organization is influenced W2. Lack of responsibility for upgrading equipment and services W3. Inefficiencies in safety and security of port facilities, personnel, and port users

5 SWOT and TOWS Matrix Analysis: A Study on Ro-Ro Port … 57

Threats T1. The public’s ability to comprehend the company’s growth T2. Effect of government legislation on the company T3. Employees’ level of satisfaction with their wages and other company benefits

Table 5.2 (continued)

ST Strategies (S1,T2) Collaborative effort with the Ministry of Transport and Marine department aids in the preparation of assistance strategies to comply with new government regulations (S1,T3) Wages and benefits for employees should be negotiated with the ministry of transport and the maritime department considering the present economic situation

WT Strategies (W2,T1) The development of innovative equipment and services will demonstrate the public’s capacity to comprehend the company’s success (W3,T3) Integrating the port facilities’ safety and security plan would have an added incentive to the company’s employees

Threats T1. The public’s ability to comprehend the company’s growth T2. Effect of government legislation on the company T3. Employees’ level of satisfaction with their wages and other company benefits

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government legislation on the corporation, which will have a huge impact on their business. Aside from that, employee happiness with their wages and other benefits affects a threat factor, which results in a negative picture of the firm.

5.5 Conclusion The internal strengths and weaknesses of the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service, as well as its external opportunities and threats, were analysed using a SWOT and TOWS matrix. The key goal of performing a SWOT and TOWS matrix analysis is to decide the greatest approach to develop the Northport Port Klang Ro-Ro service enhancement strategy. This preparation would allow it to capitalize on external markets while eliminating or minimizing environmental risks to remain competitive. The inputs needed to formulate and test appropriate market strategies are provided by the results of the SWOT and TOWS matrix analysis. Three key action items were recognized using the SWOT and TOWS matrix analysis to lead to a successful market strategic execution plan that will contribute positively to Northport Port Klang RoRo service identifies the most significant operations to remain competitive with its competitors. The three action items, namely technological development, efficiency enhancement and the formation of a fruitful relationship between the government and the potential investor, would be critical to the progress of such a business venture. Acknowledgements The gratitude of the authors is for the contribution of the expert respondents at Northport Klang, Malaysia. The appreciation also for the University Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology for providing a constructive environment to present this research.

References 1. Abdul RNSF, Zakaria NH (2015) The opening of Malaysia China Kuantan industrial park attracts main China shipping liners to Kuantan port. JATI 20(1):76–93. https://doi.org/10. 22452/jati.vol20no1.5 2. Arof AM (2016) Ro-Ro shipping and lean port operations in support of Asean physical connectivity. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aminuddin-Arof/publication/311 367433. Accessed 24 Mar 2021 3. Gürel E (2017) Swot analysis: a theoretical review. ICI J 10(51):994–1006. https://doi.org/10. 17719/jisr.2017.1832 4. Kalina T, Jurkovic M, Binova H, Gardlo B (2016) Water transport—the challenge for the automotive industry in Slovakia. Commun Sci Lett Univ Zilina 18(2):26–29. Retrieved from http://communications.uniza.sk/index.php/communications/article/view/324 5. Kulshrestha S, Puri P (2017). Tows analysis for strategic choice of business opportunity and sustainable growth of small businesses. PBR 10(5):144–152. Retrieved from http://www.pbr. co.in/2017/2017_month/Nov/15.pdf 6. Mugo M (2017) Using tows matrix as a strategic decision-making tool in managing KWS product portfolio. JAIS. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319351 999_Using_Tows_Matrix_as_a_Strategic_Decision-Making_Tool_in_Managing_KWS_Pro duct_Portfolio

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7. Nawi FAM, Tambi AMA, Samat MF, Mustapha WMW (2020) A review on the internal consistency of a scale: the empirical example of the influence of human capital investment on Malcom Baldridge quality principles In Tvet institutions. APJ 3(1):19–29 8. Ofosu BNRL (2017) A swot analysis of maritime transportation and security in the Gulf of Guinea. Scirp 05(08):14–34. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2017.58002 9. Oreski D (2012) Strategy development by using SWOT-AHP. TEM J 1(4):283–291. Retrieved from http://tem-journal.com/documents/vol1no4/pdf/Strategy%20development% 20by%20using%20SWOT%20-%20AHP.pdf 10. Parola F, Risitano M, Ferretti M, Panetti E (2017) The drivers of port competitiveness: a critical review. Transp Rev 37(1):116–138. Retrieved on 2 Mar 2021 from https://www.sipotra.it/wpcontent/uploads/2016/10/16.9.3.pdf 11. Pesic DP, Pesic AB, Ivkovic ST, Apostolovic DS (2015) Fuzzification of the ‘Tows’ strategic concept: a case study of the Magneti Marelli branch in the Serbian Automotive Industry. SAJIE 26(2):203. https://doi.org/10.7166/26-2-1074 12. Rahim AB (2015) Short sea shipping development between Singapore and Malaysia: it’s relevance and alternatives to current market barriers. Retrieved from https://scholar.google. com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Short+sea+shipping+development+between+Singap ore+and+Malasia. 13. Ravanavar GM, Charantimath PM (2012). Strategic formulation using tows matrix—a case study. IJRD 1(1):87–90. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/2192009/Strategic_Formul ation_Using_Tows_Matrix_A_Case_Study 14. Sammut BT, Galea D (2015) Swot analysis. Wiley Encyclopedia of Management, pp 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118785317.weom120103 15. Sebt M, Khalilianpoor A, Bagheri Q, Riahi DE (2018) Swot analysis on marine transport companies of Iran: a case study. AUT J Civil Eng 2(2):153–160. https://doi.org/10.22060/ajce. 2018.12319.5167 16. Stavroulakis P, Papadimitriou S (2015) A hybrid SWOT analysis methodology for maritime clusters. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281397620 17. Weihrich H (1982) The TOWS matrix—a tool for situational analysis. Long Range Plan 15(2):54–66 18. Zakaria A, Arof AM, Khabir A (2020) Instruments used in short sea shipping research between 2002 and 2019. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_ sdt=0%2C5&q=Zakaria+A%2C+Arof+AM%2C+Khabir+A+%282020%29.+Instruments+ Used+in+Short+Sea+Shipping+Research+between+2002+and+2019.&btnG 19. Zakaria A, Arof AM, Ishak IC, Mukti AQ (2020) Ro-Ro port facilities toward customer satisfaction: evidence from Kuala Perlis Terminal, Perlis, Malaysia. In: Advancement in emerging technologies and engineering applications, pp 299–303 20. Zakaria A, Majri Y, Ayub A, Shafiee R (2019). Key factor for successful roll-on roll-off (Ro-Ro) operation: a Delphi technique at Langkawi Terminal, Kedah. IJITEE 9(2):4566–4573. https:// doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.b9032.129219

Chapter 6

Green Port Performance Indicators for Dry Bulk Terminals: A Review Hikmah Affirin Shahrul Alfian, Amayrol Zakaria, and Aminuddin Md.Arof

Abstract The transportation of about 4.5 billion tons of dry bulk cargo represents the biggest volume as compared to other types of cargo by ships worldwide annually. The goods can be categorized into three main cargo groups: container, liquid bulk cargo and dry or solid bulk cargo such as coal, iron ore, grains, sugar and fertilizers. Therefore, port traffic continues to expand, and the question of how to secure longterm sustainability of the port sector turns out to be a critical concern at global level. The aim of this study is to review the previous literature on green ports and to identify the indicators or determinants for the achievement of a green port status for dry bulk terminals. Research was done by using search engines such as Google scholar, ResearchGate, and Mendeley using the keywords “green port,” “sustainable port” and “green port indicator” to determine the relevant literature. Subsequently, a qualitative content analysis technique was used on the 15 identified articles in order to group various indicators or determinants into suitable categories. Keywords Green port · Sustainable port · Green port indicator · Bulk terminals

6.1 Introduction Green port practices have been expanding in most of the ports in developed countries, leading to an encouragement for the other ports to implement their green port strategies. Green port is the utilization of port resources to reduce the financial wastage and

H. A. S. Alfian · A. Zakaria · A. Md.Arof (B) Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] H. A. S. Alfian e-mail: [email protected] A. Zakaria e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_6

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pollution caused by the port activities. In addition, the increasing of public awareness toward environmental impact caused by the maritime transport was due to the increasing of the shipping volume from other transport modes [1]. The environmental effects of ports may be direct in the port area, or indirect, as a result of ship movements or the use of other modes of carriers in an intermodal transport chain. The environmental impact of seaports may possibly be separated into three sub-categories [1]: • Problems created by port activity itself. • Challenges affected on the ocean by ships calling at the seaport. • Emissions from intermodal transport chains serving the port hinterland. Therefore, [2] argues that environmental initiatives should have three main elements, i.e., environment, economy and society. The reasons to implement these three initiatives are because: 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

Humans in the port are directly espoused to risk related to the emission of pollution from port activities. Increasing fatality among people and rising number of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases due to the emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen oxide (NOx ) and particulate matter (PM)10 and PM 2.5 particles. Pulmonary deterioration, increase risk of cancer and chronic disease. Impact on gross domestic product (GDP). Increase in pollution cost.

Cargo spillage and dust production are the biggest environmental hazard generated by dry bulk ports or terminals. In spite of those risks, 4.5 billion tons from a total of 9.8 billion tons of cargo handled annually involved dry bulk. Even though such a high volume of dry bulk cargo was handled, a study to identify green performance indicators on dry bulk ports or terminals is difficult to trace. Earlier research that could be traced mainly focused on container operations or evaluation of green port performance in general [3–5]. Therefore, the identification of the important green port performance indicators for dry bulk terminals to observe is arguably very important. In addition, necessary activities for the achievement of green port will also be identified in order to find suitable solutions to address pollution generated by the terminals. Although the Malaysian government has emphasized on the requirements of ports to become environmentally friendly and commercially viable, not many ports have come out with their own green policy or strategy and identify the necessary actions that would help them achieve a green port status. Additionally, despite the Malaysian government pledging its support to the United Nations Economics and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) 2030 Agenda for sustainable development, no study has been carried out on the types of enforcement and levels of compliance of Malaysian ports in support of the government green port agenda. Earlier research has mainly prioritized on green performance in container ports or evaluation of green port performance in general [1, 3, 6]. A research to identify green performance indicators on dry bulk ports or terminals is difficult

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to trace albeit handling of dry bulk cargo is potentially more dangerous to the surrounding environment as compared to other types of cargo. Generally, in dry bulk cargo handling, the risk of spillage and dust production are high. Beside this risk, other issues such as disposal of port waste or garbage, bunkering of ships, ship’s waste, noise, air quality, energy consumption, water quality and habitat loss have been the concern of many [7]. Hence, the identification of the important green port performance indicators for dry bulk terminals to observe is arguably very important.

6.2 Analysis of Previous Research According to [8], there are rising matters upon the environmental effect of seaport business and growth owing to serious worldwide problems like climate change and energy conservation. Also, according to [9], forming an eco-friendly and smart port is an important progress in the particular application of energy preservation and emission cutback alongside with smart technologies in international seaport and maritime shipping areas. It is well-accepted that seaports currently play a bigger part than simply managing containers on the quayside [4]. Authors of [6] espouse that moving toward green is a thing for everyone to endeavor around the world, and environmental executive has turned into a demanding job in seaport business. The benefits of environmental organization are not simply for consumer fulfillment and company persona, but for financial sustainability and environment safety as well. According to [10], several of these theories are somewhat encountered by the green port model, making provisions for effectiveness of supplies, minimal emission of dusts and more dangerous components, low emission of noises and a rational economy of land use. Several other studies [11] also indicate that investment for more new equipment is needed to achieve energy efficiency in ports. Port activities are categorized by the number of activities of terminal cargo processing equipment that consist of rubbertired gantry (RTG) cranes, yard tractors, reach stackers, wheel loaders and forklifts, since these procedures are very energy (fuel)-intensive. If a study of the energy consumption is thoroughly done, many information in the normal business cycle can be obtained, especially regarding corporation’s overall accomplishment and efficiency. It involves not only from concerning energy efficiency but also from the operational and financial viewpoint. Therefore, flourished economies like Europe have directed their environmental issues to the European Sea Ports Organisation (ESPO) Environmental Code of Practice in 1994 that was later developed into the ESPO Green Guide in 2012. However, developing seaports without a decent environmental and ecological conservation rule can harm equally the surrounding population and the flora and fauna near the port. Although the six annexures of the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO’s) International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 73/78 have specified measures a port can undertake to create the port hygienic and green environment, there is arguably limited findings on analyzing the level of port sustainability and implementation of green

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port indicators [12]. In fact, there is incredibly limited research studying green port indicators [7]. However, authors [8] argue that ports must handle and maintain three main things, which are economic prosperity, social well-being and environmental quality. Crossed-case analyses were performed by the researcher to find patterns and styles through a variety of ports to derive green marketing orientation, and the researchers found that port concentrates more on strategies, and fewer on structures and functions. It is proposed that ports should link up the three essential aspects in green marketing efforts. A smaller port is not at a disadvantage in green port marketing and can be effective in green development. According to [13], there are several factors that contribute to green ports. The first factor is an environmental rule or environmental law to act as an instruction for seaports to be environmentally viable. The second factor is for the seaport to have an emission permit that is approved by the provincial environmental agency, which will carry out yearly air quality audits. Next, the third factor involves vehicles intended to enter the port need to get up-to-date technical and mechanical authorization. The fourth factor is for the port to have liquid removal permits, a solid waste management system that has been announced to all contractors and corporate group that take part in the port amenities. Fifth factor involves the effectiveness in the consumption of water for port processes, initiatives such as direct loading of coal, air quality control, replacement of gasoline equipment with electrical equipment, taking and shielding the last coral relic. Last but not least, the green ports authorization is not restricted in obeying judicial obligations, but likewise needs financial investment to be used for environmental management. Authors [14] examined the strategies of green port that have been implement at the Port of Koper. In order to protect the environment and natural habitats, they follow some main guidelines that consist of the introduction of modern energy-efficient technology, monitoring and result reporting of emissions into the environment, prompt and efficient responses in emergency situations that can happen in the port and constant improvement of the environment management system. In this way, they ensure that the development of port operations is in balance with the environmental, social and economic demands. They constantly improve the ecosystem of the port area by initiation of vegetation and the concept of fresh habitats in port settings. More than 2000 trees, including 200 olive trees, have been planted in the last ten years. One of the activities that can raise environmental challenges in ports is searching. In the Port of Koper, over 80,000 m3 of sediments were removed each year. They recycle used dredging materials as raw material for civil engineering application in the port area. With appropriate treatment, this material can be used also as a building composite. In the waste management center, using appropriate recycling methods, they sort out and gather bulk of garbage created at the Port of Koper for further handling. Other activities that are planned in Port of Koper involved the use of the renewable energy, which is solar energy that will involve the rooftops of warehouses to be furnished with photovoltaic cells. Additional activities involve formation of biofuels from treating waste produced by port operations, usage of grass-carpets on the rooftops of partial-open storage to have positive ecologic effects on the buildings

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and the surrounding environment and establishment of a technology park with an exposition of typical machineries used in operations. Besides the case study at the Port of Koper, a research at the Port of Barcelona was done by [8]. The strategy to reduce greenhouse emissions that was addressed involved the cooperation between the port with the terminals and maintenance operator to create Barcelona as a zero carbon zone. The objective of this task is to address an array of greenhouse gas emissions from freight activities and the seaport zone. Additionally, the port of Barcelona created computer software that can count the CO2 discharge of clients’ transportation routes and determine a better atmospheric contaminant replacement. By using this device, consumers can choose a vehicle course and route to take into account all of the environmental factors. Other than that, the agreement by private companies to utilize exclusive rail services, including by government bureau that aspire to lower electric expenditure, has helped to decrease road transportation. Additionally, port organization has executed a number of green policies to lessen the air smog from port activities and impact the atmospheric condition in the port area. The port wants to build a new structure to encourage the use of alternative fuels for cargo transport, which is one of the techniques for improving air quality. When a vessel is anchored on the pier, almost 71% of NOx emission is generated. Therefore, the port aims to consider supplying a shore-based electrical power for marine transport. Other than that, due to 2010 port reform policy that enables price rebates to be given for ports classified as green, the port authority intends to give incentive to shipping corporations by reducing their port charges in exchange for an improved environmental performance. For land transport, the port is swapping diesel-engine transport by electric transport. Additionally, the port is operating a mission with container transport trucks called “RePort” to transform diesel-engine trucks to a dual system with natural gas (NG). Since the port authority was worried with terminal gears, they increased the electrification and gasification of the port terminal equipment. Contemplating the port’s commercial plan to develop into an effective logistic hub in the Mediterranean, the port authority intends to finance an improved infrastructure to increase the utilization of rail and short sea shipping (SSS) as an option to road transportation. Next, the port focuses to increase the partnership with port clients and renowned actors in order to encourage ecological mobility among port corporations. A study by [7] that investigated twenty-one activities for huge industrial ports had identified seventeen environmental indicators, which include air quality (atmospheric contaminants emissions: CO2 , NOX and PM10), gas discharges with greenhouse effect (CO2 , CH4 , N2 O), atmospheric contaminant releases, noise pollution, inner port water quality, quality of spilled waste water, quantity and description of accidental spills in inner port waters, high danger parts for soil pollution, formation of sludge from dredging, urban and hazardous waste creation, efficient water consumption, efficient electric energy consumptions, efficient fuel consumption, change of sea floor, social image of the port soil occupation efficiency and incidents with environmental repercussion. Authors [15] in their study divided determinants for green port into nine categories. The first category is to reduce air pollution due to the need for dealing together with dry bulk cargo management, modernization of cargo

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handling equipment, road vehicle management, etc. The second category involves water pollution management due to handling of oil and cargo spillage, sewage treatment, managing of ballast water, etc. The third category is preservation or improvement of marine life. The fourth category involves the decrease of noise pollution supported by soil and sediment preservation. For the next, sixth to ninth categories are managing solid trash and waste, utilization of green equipment, preservation or advancement of sea environment, collaboration with outside partners and effective coordination and regulatory measures. According to authors [6] in examining the demand to accomplish a green port at the Laem Chabang port (LCP), several port environmental policy initiatives were identified. Among them is development of wastewater condition by building an oxidation pool for wastewater handling referring to the constant rising of chemical oxygen demand (COD) level from 2011 to 2014. Although total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total suspended particulates (TSP) and chromium level obeyed with Thai environmental regulations, it is important to always put through the levels as environmental indicators. Yearly internal inspection and analyzing the environmental indicators to make sure the action strategy is punctual will promptly resolve issues. Executing the Environmental Management System (ISO 14001) will not only allows LCP to fulfill with legal obligation yet permit faster upgrading of port activities. This is supported by the author [2], who states that environmental initiatives should have three main elements; which are environment, economy and society, and four main certificates needed for green port are environmental standard (ISO 14001), quality management (ISO 9001), occupational health and safety management (ISO45001) and food safety management (ISO 22000). In the opinion of [5], smart port indicators are classified in docking line efficiency, integrated digital merchandise management, level of mechanical systems automation, employee safety, digitization of access security, digital contact with consumer, management transparency, custom process digitization, water quality, sustainable waste management and renewable energy production. Similarly, [3] espouses the top four green operation indicators as air pollution prevention, oil spill emergency strategy, decreasing road vehicle CO2 discharges and dangerous cargo supervision. Furthermore, [16] iterates that key success factors in green port achievement are environmental quality, environmental structure and resource organization. These three factors are followed by fourteen additional factors, namely: environmental quality in a port, water quality, carbon dioxide emissions, land usage, growth of plants, environmental administration, green house, the wireless system in a port, complete e-service, material selection, water possessions, management of waste, energy usage and conveyance. Additionally, according to [10], the main reason why to implement the concept of green port is because people at the port are immediately subjected to risk correlated to the release of pollution from port activities. Hence, rising death among citizens and rising amount of respirational and cardiovascular illnesses due to the emission of SO2 , NOx and particle PM10 and PM2.5 need to be addressed. Furthermore, pulmonary deterioration, increased risk of cancer and chronic disease. This also will affect the GDP and pollution cost. As stated by [17], green port helps to reduce CO2 and saving

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energy by using renewable energy in the form of wind, solar and gravitational force where an electrified rubber-tired gantry (E-RTG) can save from 20 to 84% of energy. According to a study by [18], although many research concerning the supervision procedures in ports are accessible, the conventional ruling template is required to be enhanced and altered to adjust toward the theory of green ports. A study about the discharge structure in the port process as well as the optimization of process in ports including to consider on emission control is things that scholars propose to consider conceptually from diverse viewpoints. Optimization in liner operation concerning emission control is a newly explored subject. For instance, the velocity and path of vessels need to be rebuilt with regard to the set of sulfur emission control area (ECA), or a number of aspects such as the hefty price of low-sulfur fuel, fuel consumption, locality, scope and also the structure of the control zone should be measured to estimate the fuel expenses. With regard of emission management procedures, fuel price, fleet operation, as well as program model, can become an influence through an introduction of the scrubber and shore power facility. Beneath the emission control strategy, the port operatives should find out the need of implementing a new technology for emission monitoring, provide ships with scrubbers and improve the ships with shore power facility. Some methodical investigations are obtainable on the use of emission control policies. For example, the implementation of energy efficiency design index (EEDI) will constantly impinge on the operation mechanism. Correspondingly, the execution of energy efficiency operation index (EEOI) and market-based measures (MBM) will boost the correlation among policies. The compilation of practices for the achievement of a green port as reviewed in this paper is summarized at Table 6.1. Together with the green practices, methods that have been used in earlier studies are also highlighted with methodologies such as analytic hierarchy process (AHP), case study, qualitative content analysis and survey seem to be the most common. Nevertheless, most of the earlier studies were not focused on dry bulk terminal but only focused on container and general cargo terminals.

6.3 Discussion In considering the appropriate indicators or determinants that can be selected to be implemented toward achieving a green port status, this study has reviewed and compiled the findings of 15 earlier studies. Based on the analysis done, the most popular determinant espoused by most green port researchers is air pollutant management, which was addressed in 12 journals. This determinant involves activities such as dry bulk cargo handling and the management of on- and off-road vehicles. Air pollution management has been considered as the most popular determinant because people working in ports and terminals need to deal with it on a daily basis and could contribute to deterioration of health in the long run. Next in line is water pollution management that was addressed in 11 journals. This indicator or determinant covers activities such as sewage treatment, handling of ballast water, handling of oil and

Cross case analysis; [8] qualitative analysis

(1)

(2)

Scholar

Instruments

Qualitative research [15]

No

Green advertising reputation of the world’s main port

Green port indicators

Area

Table 6.1 Summary of green port research

Three top marketing aspects 1. Strategies 2. Structure 3. Function – Nevertheless, ports concentrate extra on approaches, and fewer on shapes and purposes. It is advised that ports have to relate the three essential aspects in green advertising attempts – Smaller port are not disadvantage in green port promotion and can be involved in green advancement (continued)

Main determinant for green port 1. Air pollution management: trades with dry bulk cargo processing, modernization of cargo processing equipment, on- and off-road vehicle supervision 2. Water pollution management: managing oil and cargo spill, sewage care, managing of ballast water 3. Preservation or advancement of marine life: include journal environmental study, habitat tracing and preservation 4. Noise pollution 5. Soil and sediment conservation 6. Managing of solid waste and garbage 7. Utilization of green knowledge 8. Preservation or enhancement of coastal habitat 9. Collaboration with outer partners 10.Effective coordination and regulatory measures

Finding

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Instruments

Entropy

Not mention

AHP

No

(3)

(4)

(5)

Table 6.1 (continued)

[12]

[10]

[6]

Scholar

(continued)

Reason to implement concept of green port 1. People at the port are clearly subjected to risk linked to the emission of pollution from port activities 2. Rising death among people and growing number of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. (This is due to the emission of SO2 , NOx and particle PM10 and PM2.5) 3. Respiratory deterioration, increase risk of cancer and prolonged disease 4. Rise of GDP amount 5. Increase of pollution cost

To accomplish the green port at LCP, the next port environmental strategy propositions were suggested 1. Development of wastewater quality by building in the oxidation pond for wastewater therapy owed to the constant rising of COD level from 2011 until 2014 2. Although TKN, TSP and chromium level abide with Thai environmental requirement, it is important to always follow up the issues environmental indicators 3. Yearly internal audit and analysis of the environmental indicator are to make sure that the action plan is on time, and if there is an issue noticed, it will quickly resolve 4. Employing the Environmental Management System (ISO 14001) is not just assist LCP fulfill with law obligation then as well allow faster expansion of port activities EPI for LCP green port: 1. TKN in wastewater (wastewater quality) 2. Chromium in soil and sediment (soil and sediment) 3. TSP in the air (air quality) 4. Phytoplankton biodiversity (ecosystem) 5. Zooplankton biodiversity

Finding

Green port criteria Important indicators 1. Preventing pollutants during cargo processing and port maintenance 2. Noise control 3. Sewage treatment

Green port

Green port indicator (Laem Chabang port)

Area

6 Green Port Performance Indicators for Dry Bulk Terminals … 69

Instruments

Case study and Delphi

Not mention

No

(6)

(7)

Table 6.1 (continued)

[2]

[7]

Scholar

Concept of green port

Environmental indicator

Area

Environmental initiatives should have three main elements 1. Environment 2. Economy 3 Society Four main certificates needed for green port 1. Environmental standard (ISO 14001) 2. Quality management (ISO 9001) 3. Occupational health and safety management (ISO45001) 4. Food safety management (ISO 22000)

17 Environmental indicators 1. Air quality (atmospheric contaminants emissions: CO2 , NOx , PM10) 2. Atmospheric contaminant emissions 3 Gas emissions with greenhouse effect (CO2 , CH4 , N2 O) 4. Noise pollution 5. Inner port water quality 6. Quantity and type of accidental spills in inner port waters 7. Quality of spilled wastewater 8. Excessive risk areas for soil pollution 9. Urban and hazardous waste creation 10. Creation of sludge from dredging 11. Effective water consumption 12. Effective fuel consumption 13. Effective electric energy consumptions 14. Change of sea floor 15. Soil occupation effectiveness 16. Social image of the port 17. Number of incidents with environmental repercussion

Finding

(continued)

70 H. A. S. Alfian et al.

Instruments

Interview

Case study

Weight framework and Delphi

No

(8)

(9)

(10)

Table 6.1 (continued)

[5]

[17]

[13]

Scholar

Finding

Smart port indicator

Green port

Smart indicator stated 1. Docking line efficiency 2. Integrated digital merchandise management 3. Degree of mechanical systems automation 4. Worker security 5. Digitization of access security 6. Digital interaction with client 7. Management transparency 8. Custom process digitization 9. Water quality 10. Sustainable waste management 11. Renewable energy production

How green port helps to reduce CO2 and saving energy 1. Using renewable energy (wind, solar, gravitational) 2. Using E-RTG can save from 20 to 84%

(continued)

Factors Factors contributing to green port contributing to the 1. Environmental rule and environmental regulation act as an instruction for seaports to be green ports environmentally viable 2. Emission permits that given by the community environmental board which is applied to carry out yearly air quality 3. Any vehicles intended to enter the port need to present recent technical and mechanical vessel certification 4. Port has liquid depositing licenses, solid waste managing plan that has been announced to the whole contractor and company group that take part in the port facilities 5. The competence in the use of water for port practices, programs such as direct loading of coal, substitution of gasoline equipment with electrical equipment, air quality control, obtaining and keeping the last coral relic over the bay of Santa Marta at the operating docks 6. The green ports documentation is not restricted in obeying legislative obligations, however, also involves financial investment for environmental management

Area

6 Green Port Performance Indicators for Dry Bulk Terminals … 71

Instruments

AHP

AHP

No

(11)

(12)

Table 6.1 (continued)

[16]

[3]

Scholar

Finding

Factors of Key success factors in green port construction green 1. Environmental quality port 2 Environmental construction 3. Resource management Factors are encompassed 1. Environmental quality in a port 2. Carbon dioxide emissions 3. Water quality 4. Land use 5. Environmental management 6. Development of planting 7. Green building 8. Broad e-service 9. The wireless network in a port 10. Material choice 11. Supervision of waste 12. Water resources 13. Energy consumption 14. Transportation

Green port Highest four green performance indicators are performance index 1. Air pollution prevention 2. Oil spill emergency plan 3. Decreasing road vehicle CO2 emissions 4. Dangerous cargo management

Area

(continued)

72 H. A. S. Alfian et al.

Instruments

Review past papers (content analysis)

No

(13)

Table 6.1 (continued)

[18]

Scholar

Green port

Area

(continued)

1. Conventional assessment model requires to be enhanced and altered to fit the idea of green ports 2. The study of emission mechanism in port procedure and the optimization of process in ports to consider emission control are things that researchers or scholars need to consider the theory from diverse perspective 3. Optimization in liner operation concerning emission control is a fresh research topic. Such as, the speed and route of ships need to be remodeled due for the set of sulfur ECA, or some components such as the cost of heavy and low-sulfur fuel, fuel use, size, the location and shape of the control area need to be considered to save the fuel utilization cost 4. In regard of emission control strategies, the fuel cost, the fleet operation and the schedule design will be influenced by the installation of the scrubber and shore power equipment. Beneath the emission control policy, port operators need to decide whether they should implement the new technology for emission control, equip ships with the scrubber and upgrading the ships for shore power transformation 5. Some organized analyzes are obtainable for emission control policies. For example, the enforcement of EEDI will constantly involve in the operating mechanism. Similarly, the implementation of EEOI and MBMs will encourage the connection between policies. Additionally, a number of articles concerning green shipping based on the quantitative decision method treat emission control policies as given conditions

Finding

6 Green Port Performance Indicators for Dry Bulk Terminals … 73

Instruments

Case study Port of Koper

No

(14)

Table 6.1 (continued)

[14]

Scholar

Strategy of green port

Area

(continued)

Strategy for Port of Koper 1. To protect the environment and natural habitats, they follow some main guidelines that consist of the introduction of modern energy-efficient technology, monitoring and result reporting of emissions into the environment, prompt and efficient responses in emergency situations that can happen in the port and with constant improvement of the environment management system. In this way, they ensure that the development of port operations is in balance with the environmental, social and economic demands 2. They constantly improve the ecology of the port zone by introduction of vegetation and the design of new habitats in port environments. More than 2000 trees, including 200 olive trees, have been planted in the last ten years 3. Some of the activities that can raise environmental difficulty in port are dredging. In the Port of Koper, they removed each year about 80,000 m3 of sediments. They try to use dredging materials as row material for civil engineering application in the port area. With appropriate treatment, this material can be used also as a building composite 4. In the waste management center, they filter and accumulate bulk of waste produced at the Port of Koper for additional step, using suitable recycling procedures 5. Other activities that are planned in the Port of Koper are • Utilization of solar energy, wherever the roofs of warehouses shall be set up with photovoltaic cells, • Concept of biofuels after managing waste generated by port processes, • Utilization of “grass-carpets” on top of the roofs of semi-open storage has a positive ecologic effects on the buildings themselves and on the wider environment, • Establishment of technology park with an exposition of typical machinery used in operations

Finding

74 H. A. S. Alfian et al.

Instruments

Case study of Barcelona

No

(15)

Table 6.1 (continued)

[8]

Scholar

Green port initiatives

Area

The strategies to reduce greenhouse emission are 1. The port has cooperated with terminals and service operator to build Barcelona zero carbon. The objective of this project is to establish an inventory of greenhouse gas emission from shipping activities and the seaport area 2. Port of Barcelona has created software system to count the CO2 emissions of clients’ transport routes and establish which are the smaller amount of atmospheric pollutant option. By using this device, clients can choose on a vehicle route after studying all environmental facets 3. Other than that, private companies also agree to involve exclusive rail services, along with government bureau aspire to decrease electric expenditure, and have helped to decrease road transportation 4. The next, port agency has executed some green rules to diminish air pollution from port activities as well as to control the atmospheric quality in the port area The strategies for improvement air quality are • The port intends to invest in new structure to inspire the usage of others fuels for cargo transport • When vessel is anchored on the quay, almost 71% of NOx emission is generated. Therefore, the port aims to consider of delivering an electric connection for marine transport • Other than that, due to 2010 port reform policy enables price deductions to be given for whom practices the green port, the port authority intends to incentive shipping companies by reducing the port charges to improve environmental performance • For land transport, the port is substituting diesel-engine transport with electric transport. Moreover, the port is operating a plan with container transport trucks called “RePort” to transform diesel-engine trucks to a dual system with natural gas (NG) • Due to port authorization involved with terminal equipment, the authority increases the electrification and gasification of port terminal machinery • As the port’s commercial plan to turn out to be an effective logistic center in the Mediterranean, the port authority seeks to invest in an improved structure to increase the usage of rail and short sea shipping (SSS) as an option to road transportation • Next, the port focuses to increase partnership with port clients and outside artists to encourage environmental versatility among port corporations

Finding

6 Green Port Performance Indicators for Dry Bulk Terminals … 75

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cargo spills, maintenance of water quality and liquid waste management. The third main determinant is conservation or advancement of marine life that was addressed in ten journals. It covers activities that include protecting the marine ecosystem, wetland habitat, biodiversity of phytoplankton and zooplankton. This is followed by the utilization of green technology that was discussed in seven publications. This determinant covers green building and utilizing renewable energy such as wind and solar. The other common determinants addressed in green port research include noise pollution management, cooperation with external parties, environmental awareness, effective regulatory measures and efficient port development.

6.4 Conclusion In retrospect, as trade continues to flourish, ports of the world will continue to expand to accommodate for the increase in shipping and cargo handling activities. Without competent seaports and shipping system, persistently expanding need to global business would not be effectively met. In Malaysia, preliminary actions toward the expansion of a green port policy were only announced in December 2016 and founded on three pillars, namely the environment, community engagement and sustainability. As the policy is still new, it will take several more years for the government aspiration to be realized by the port community. However, since the handling of dry bulk cargo is considered as the most common and hazardous activity as compared to the handling of other cargo, it is imperative for dry bulk ports and terminals to move toward the achievement of a green status. Due to the availability of limited resources, it is hoped that port authorities and operators will consider implementing some of indicators or determinants reviewed that could bring a significant improvement on the port sustainability and the well-being of their employees, surrounding population and the environment. Acknowledgements This work is supported by The Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), Grant Code: FRGS /1/2018/WAB05/UNIKL/02/1.

References 1. Oniszczuk JA, Pawłowska B, Czerma´nski E (2018) Polish sea ports and the Green Port concept. SHS Web Conf 57:01023. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20185701023 ˙ 2. Zukowska S (2020) Concept of Green Ports. Case study of the Seaport in Gdynia. Prace Komisji Geografii Komunikacji PTG 23(3):61–68. https://doi.org/10.4467/2543859xpkg.20. 020.12788 3. Elzarka S, Elgazzar S (2014) Green port performance index for sustainable ports in Egypt: a Fuzzy AHP approach. Forum Shipping, Ports Airports (May 2014):1–11

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4. Gonzalez AM, Bergqvist R, Monios J (2018) A global review of the hinterland dimension of green port strategies. Transp Res Part D Transp Environ59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017. 12.013 5. Rodrigo GA, González CN, Molina SB, Orive AC (2020) Preparation of a smart port indicator and calculation of a ranking for the Spanish port system. Logistics 4(2):9. https://doi.org/10. 3390/logistics4020009 6. Teerawattana R, Yang YC (2019) Environmental performance indicators for Green Port policy evaluation: case study of Laem Chabang Port. AJSL 35(1):63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ajsl.2019.03.009 7. Peris ME, Orejas JMD, Subirats A, Ibáñez S, Alvarez P (2005) Development of a system of indicators for sustainable port management. Marine Pollut Bull 50(12). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.marpolbul.2005.06.048 8. Lam JSL, Li KX (2019) Green port marketing for sustainable growth and development. Transp Policy84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.04.011 9. Chen J, Huang T, Xie X Lee, PTW Hua C (2019) Constructing governance framework of a green and smart port. JMSE 7(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7040083 10. Marzantowicz Ł (2018) The reasons for the implementation of the concept of Green Port in Sea Ports of China. June, pp 121–128 11. Pavlic B, Cepak F, Sucic B, Peckaj M, Kandus B (2014) Sustainable port infrastructure, practical implementation of the green port concept. Therm Sci 18(3). https://doi.org/10.2298/TSCI14 03935P 12. Lirn TC, Wu YCJ, Chen YJ (2013) Green performance criteria for sustainable ports in Asia. IJPDLM 43(5). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPDLM-04-2012-0134 13. Londoño PA, Arias T, Cano JA (2020) Analysis of the main factors for the configuration of green ports in Colombia. ArXiv, pp 1–5 14. Twrdy E, Hämäläinen E (2016) A green port—case study of port of Koper. Maritime Transp Harvesting Sea Resour 1:147–150 15. Arof AM, Zakaria A, Abdul RNSF (2021) Green Port indicators. A review, advanced engineering for processes and technologies II. Springer International Publishing, pp 237–256 16. Maritz A, Shieh CJ, Yeh SP (2014) Innovation and success factors in the construction of green ports. JEPE 15(3):1255–1263 17. Fahdi S, Elkhechafi M, Hachimi H (2019) Green port in blue ocean: optimization of energy in Asian ports. ICOA 2019:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICOA.2019.8727615 18. Zhen L, Zhuge D, Murong L, Yan R, Wang S (2019) Operation management of green ports and shipping networks: overview and research opportunities. FEM 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s42524-019-0027-2

Chapter 7

Development of Project Management Timeline and Material Buyout Application to Ship Construction Planning: A Review Fatin Aqillah Nordin, Wardiah Mohd Dahalan, Izzati Auni Abu Bakar, and Nur Afiqah Qursiah Al-Qabir Peter Abstract A project timeline is a visual list of tasks or activities organized by date that allows project managers to see the entire project in one place usually shown by a horizontal bar chart, with each task assigned a name and a start and end date. A project timeline gives the researchers a detailed perspective of the entire project from beginning to end, while buyout refers to the period of transition between the preconstruction phase and the project’s construction. Purchase orders and subcontracts are issued during the purchasing process. The aims of this research are to examine the development of project management timeline and material buyout application to ship construction planning. Besides that, the researcher also identifies the problems encountered such as delaying the completion of a project, the time taken for the completion of a project, and costs can be increased. This research is to assist in speeding up a project that is carried out on a timely basis due to most of the projects are carried out over a specified period. Therefore, this project is implemented to facilitate project managers in the shipbuilding industry. Furthermore, the methods used in this study are checklist and comparison matrix which can be used to review the result when using the comparison matrix after reading. The findings of this study characterize the effective methods that must exist fast, guaranteed quality and cost savings to complete a project. Thus, overall, it is shown in this study that the more effective and appropriate the CPM method is used in shipbuilding, especially in the management of shipbuilding projects, a significant impact on the project manager is achieved. From the investigation of this research, the CPM method is more effective

F. A. Nordin · W. M. Dahalan (B) · I. A. A. Bakar · N. A. Q. A.-Q. Peter Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] F. A. Nordin e-mail: [email protected] I. A. A. Bakar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_7

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to use in shipbuilding compared with others. This is because this method efficiently assists the project managers to save costs when running a project. Keywords Supply chain method · Project management methods · Scheduling and monitoring · Shipbuilding

7.1 Introduction Project management is a management that involves development, change, and innovation in operational work. Project management includes activities such as planning and controlling a project by depending on the budget constraints, so that the project can be completed within a timeframe. Therefore, project management is very important to ensure that project management is working perfectly. The project is defined as an operational activity that exists only occasionally within a certain period of time. The project is a huge activity and influences the future of a company. Next, supply chain is a key component of competition strategy to increase production and profitability for every organization. A supply chain is a system that involves the production, delivery, storage, distribution, and sale of products in order to meet product demands. The supply chain management goal is to ensure that a product is in the right place and time to meet the demands of consumers without causing excess stock or stocks. In addition, this supply chain is due to the process from raw materials to the final product to be delivered to the customer. Besides, there are also problems and challenges faced in the supply chain management. Among the challenges are the supply chain strategy, logistics management, procurement, information management, supply chain planning, and asset management.

7.2 Analysis of the Previous Works 7.2.1 The Supply Chain Method The researcher has made a review based on the readable article that there is a proposed method for comparing the five-phase supply chain (SCs). The five-phased SC phase is a supply chain design that emerged as a critical component and the difference in effective supply chain management in the mid-market organization, thereby allowing the team to use tools and systems to take a step back and look at the supply chain as a system designed from day-to-day operation challenges. Furthermore, it enables to identify operational savings and enables targeted capital improvements.

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7.2.2 Project Management Methods This study demonstrates a project management approach in providing a methodology to meet the need for expanding and adjusting diagnostics. In that regard, to achieve the goals set when achieving the criteria of success and respect for estimates, the resources provided the duration and the quality, then the project management is offering a well-organized approach in several phases. A project runs by a team under the supervision of a project leader who aims to transform ideas and thoughts into projects characterized by the three major ones—quality, cost, and time limits. However, for diagnostic laboratories, it is hard work, disturbing and timeconsuming and requires intensive workforce. To doing so, the method requires proper and efficient project management to ensure that projects that do not produce suboptimal performance, exceed costs and time delays. This project usually has several phases that will shape the project structure during the time cycle. Depending on the phase model, several different are compatible with different systems, actions, tasks, and activities. For example, the phase model HERMES has four phases. Among the phases are initiation, concept, implementation, and placement. The theory in project management contains several methods, tools, and techniques that support the project management. Network analysis methods are critical path method, the METRA potential method, program evaluation and review technique, and the graphical evaluation and review technique [1]. The critical path method is the method of planning and analyzing the components of the activity and also to present in the form of a network.

7.2.3 Scheduling and Monitoring As been discussed by Magnaye [2], scheduling, monitoring, and evaluation are the components of a proper planning and control. Hence, these components are very important in contributing to the success of new products and research and development projects. However, the control of high technology projects or known as complex product systems (CPS) has not yet been reached. This is because the process metrics or performance measures for development have not been fully developed. Among CPS features are customizable, connected, high cost, and low-cost subsystems, which require extensive and in-depth knowledge and skills, involving multiple collaborators and having continuous integration with customers and suppliers. CPS is a high variability and high dependency product in research and project scheduling practices. In addition, the tools and techniques available are to design and control fragmented rather than consistently used throughout the process [2]. If checked in more depth, when a traditional project management tool is applied to measure the cost and variation of the table, the project manager will be able to concentrate on costs and will also be able to complete the set work package.

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However, in this CPS problem, to achieve a profitable variation, one cannot guarantee that the system is mature as planned but what happens is that if the project manager focuses on the work package to achieve at the time and cost then the project manager will not be able to see the whole system and also cannot evaluate its overall willingness. In addition, to ensure a holistic perspective on development processes, project managers should use comprehensive process steps to control the system development through careful planning, scheduling, and monitoring. Artistic-based researchers have used the findings to develop a conceptual framework for CPS’s planning, scheduling, monitoring, and evaluation that enables the project manager and engineering to control the development process and contribute to success. Therefore, the researcher has used this model to CPS system which is a system of space that is undergoing development. This system shows how it works and proves the theoretical authenticity. In this study, there are some new contributions to research. First, it provides a management context to the use of a development scale that focuses on the system readiness level system, which was previously proposed as a measure of CPS for the maturity of a development. Secondly, this study illustrates how the system development plan can be translated into scheduling, monitoring, and evaluation. In addition, in the construction industry, each project is unique and the features of each project are different. This has led to a major barrier in the process of standardizing the construction project and also influencing project scheduling and monitoring. Project scheduling is part of the project in all levels of project feasibility until completion. Methods such as critical path (CPM) methods and program evaluation techniques (PERT) are common techniques used for scheduling and monitoring projects. Pursuant to this article, this item has been discussed under two key areas, including project scheduling and project monitoring and control. The paper structure is described in Fig. 7.1.

7.2.4 Shipbuilding Project-based companies will focus on key capabilities. In addition, this method operates non-core operations such as manufacturing, design, logistics, and product and technology growth. According to Powell [3], it shows that the source of this information is spread in a relatively complex and growing sector and the location of innovation is not exclusively located with all individual companies. The role of suppliers in the company’s information process may become increasingly important. This is because, in this study, the researcher assesses the capacity of suppliers in the company’s project in relation to the expertise, skills, and techniques that are appropriate to the buyer of the provider. This research was conducted as an example of a non-sustainable project company in the shipbuilding sector. Shipbuilding is usually structured as a very large and difficult project in hundreds of job packages provided by some external suppliers. As discussed by Barlow [4], different things such as projects, important projects, monster projects, megaprojects, and large projects are used to define large-scale

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Fig. 7.1 Structure of the paper

projects involving multiple organizations working together to produce very difficult systems or solutions. Shipbuilding projects usually require hundreds of participating organizations in accordance with the objectives of their own company, and in connection with the common goals of building a ready-made vessel and that may always be a problem. For example, most project makers benefit from scheduled projects, while some people may actually gain profits from being late because those allows some to get paid overtime work. In addition, providing a lot of work for workers, shipbuilding projects are very important and important for industrial areas where projects can be carried out. All projects are closely related to interest and behavior. This research focuses on the understanding of the provider capacity by buyers and understanding the ability to provide to providers. Besides that, by focusing on buyer views, the researcher focuses on the provider capacity to select a supplier for the project as buyer’s criteria. According to Wagner [5], a large project usually occurs in companies where the company should focus on the company’s primary capacity and make the company rely on external suppliers. The way companies handle their supply chain partners provides them with a sustainable competitive advantage as the provider choice has been asserted to be a competitive advantage for a buyer company. One of the key operations in project-centric buying is the choice of providers that include operations to assess the capacities of providers. The choice of suppliers focused mainly on criteria such as price, product quality, delivery reliability, and geographical place [6]. A previous researcher [7] discovered that past project performance and technical expertise were the most important criteria in the selection of a supplier, in addition to cost. Supplier capacities create project value potential, and the development of these capacities will lead to an enhanced value potential throughout the buyer–supplier

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relationship [8]. In addition, it has been discussed by Moller [9] and Torronen [10] that the capacity profile of a supplier can be used as an indicator of a particular supplier’s suitability for specific value creation projects. Next, complementary and similar capability profiles should be available to buyers and suppliers. Meanwhile, the project contractors must be experienced in providers’ capacity to benefit completely from providers. In the future, the buyer will select options available to potential suppliers. It has been found that the procurement criteria for current providers are affected by both operational and relational variables, whereas the assessments of fresh providers are more dependent on operational variables. Furthermore, information technologies focused on the Internet in the field of shipbuilding and marine engineering need to increase organizational flexibility, the dispersal of work processes and the use of procurement, as well as the globalization of related markets. The concept and current status of digital manufacturing will be reviewed in the general manufacturing sector. Subsequently, associated techniques, application region, and digital shipbuilding techniques are described in shipbuilding and marine industries. Many government-funded studies have been conducted to make the sector more intensive and more experienced in manufacturing as a knowledge-based and technology-based manufacturing industry with the development of computer-based information technology. The US Navy’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) maintains a simulation-based design (SBD) effort to produce a design system or environment capable of reducing the cost of new system design and development, cutting development time, and confirming and lowering risks. In addition, the University of Strathclyde’s Department of Ship and Marine Technology is conducting research on computer technology applications and interfaces with human variables as a means of meeting shipyard goals such as user requirements, ship competitiveness, cost effectiveness, and security in the rapidly changing shipbuilding sector. On the other hand, Japan is attempting to maintain present technology and competitiveness at public level while transforming the shipbuilding industry into a futuristic sector. Additionally, the reason for this is that one concept vessels and big marine structures comprise thousands of distinct components, which means that the output and price of hardware and software that can process such a big quantity of data can be hard to accomplish in an uneven working setting. The most significant factor in effectively addressing the scheduling issue is achieving digital shipbuilding under an integrated strategy. Planning in the ship manufacturing system is the process of designing a technique for minimizing the impacts of design change and delay, supporting suitable manufacturing techniques, and designing processes to maximize resource utilization. Besides that, to sum up, in order to plan a shipbuilding process correctly, a dynamic simulation technique is needed. For a dynamic simulation, it is necessary to define the entire shipyard equipment and manpower resources, as well as the construction work and method. Simulation modeling is carried out following these definitions and production flow modeling and analysis. Such a simulation model can evaluate product and process issues and optimize the general design process.

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7.3 Methodology 7.3.1 Classified Criteria The method to be used is a classified criterion. Classification criteria means standards intended to produce a fairly clear cohort for research in the project management development timeline and buyout application for the construction of the plan. Therefore, the goal is to identify the more effective method to be used in carrying out a project. The certified classification criteria have found that methods such as CPM and PERT are among the effective methods used by the project manager in carrying out a project. While a method may provide some frameworks to look for a good way to implement a project quickly, classification criteria traditionally have a high level of specialism that is by using a good method and directly generating good benefits for a project that is managed using methods such as CPM and PERT.

7.3.2 Evaluate Parameter Parameter valuation is the process of mapping the actual and actual parameters when a subprogram is called. Additionally, the evaluation is also to determine the information that controls the communication parameters. This is the main parameter use for this research.

7.3.3 Checklist After that, this study will use a checklist. A checklist is a type of job aid used to reduce by compensating for human memory and attention’s potential limitations. A checklist helps in carrying out a task to ensure consistency and completeness. A basic example is the to- do-list. A more advanced checklist would be a schedule setting out tasks to be performed depending on the time of day or other factors. A primary task in the checklist is to document the task and audit the documentation.

7.3.4 Comparison Matrix This study also uses a comparison matrix. The matrix for comparison can be used before, during, or after reading. The strategy may be used to activate prior knowledge before reading. This strategy can help students during reading by providing a reading purpose and helping to monitor their own reading by themselves. A comparison matrix can be used to review what has been read when using the comparison matrix

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after reading, with students, even determining what characteristics or items in the matrix should be. Students can simply mark with an “x” when filling in the matrix or students can actually provide evidence of the presence of the characteristic.

7.4 Result and Discussion 7.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Methods In this chapter, researchers describe the data analysis, followed by a discussion of research results. These findings relate to research which is able to guide the study. The data were analyzed to identify, describe, and explore among the better methods to be used in project management. The data obtained from the study were conducted by the matrix comparative method. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of each method are explained. Table 7.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the six methods. Among the methods are CPM, PERT, Gantt chart, HERMES, METRA, and SC.

7.4.2 Checklist Based on the checklist, the researcher will clearly see the aspects that exist in a method in project management. With this, researchers will see which methods are effective in terms of various aspects. In this checklist, researchers can see that the method that minimizes costs is only the CPM method. Therefore, project managers who are trying to minimize costs in a project then can use the CPM method. This is because that this method helps project managers to save costs when running a project. For the time being, there are only four methods that control the time. Among these methods are PERT, CPM, METRA, and SC. Therefore, project managers can use the above-mentioned method to control the time during the project. With project schedules and activities, project managers are able to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in the project. Thus, with the schedule, project managers can monitor the progress of the project. Therefore, this will make a job more organized. With this method, the project manager can easily check the list of tasks available in a job. In addition, in terms of the PERT method, it models probabilistic approaches. Models where different outcomes are possible, each varying degrees of PERT whether certainty or uncertainty. Probabilistic is often taken as synonymous with stochastic, but, strictly speaking, stochastic conveys the idea of randomness whereas probabilistic is directly related to probabilities and is therefore only indirectly associated with randomness.

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Table 7.1 Advantages and disadvantages Methods

Advantages

CPM

• Binds the entire team together and • If the project is far too bulky and motivates the human resources in lengthy, the critical path method timely completion of the tasks in a requires software to monitor the plan • CPM can become ineffective and project • With help of the project manager can difficult to manage if it is not determine the duration and estimate well-defined and stable • The critical path of the CPM of a big exact time and cost of the project. It project is not always clear helps to monitor human resources, and the direct and indirect costs associated with the project • The CPM takes into consideration the requirements well in advance to complete a project in the most efficient way possible • Makes it convenient for the project managers to calculate the time required to complete the tasks of the project. That helps them to predict completion date of every phase, anticipate problems along the way, if any, and react accordingly • It enables the managers to minimize the project length by monitoring the critical path • The CPM chart clearly identifies critical path/s of the project, which assists the managers in decision making to address the issue quickly. It also enables the project head to determine if the task is on schedule or needs boost to accelerate the process

PERT

• Planning for large projects • Analysis of activities • Coordinating ability The what—if—analysis

Gantt chart • It is to represent the project schedules and activities • Easy to represent tasks, sub-tasks, milestones, and projects visually on a graph clear visibility of dates and time frames • Easy to group all sub-tasks under a main task • Can see the completed % of tasks • Tasks in progress and pending work are clearly visible on stacked bars • Gantt chart is good tool for presenting in team meetings

Disadvantages

• • • •

Time focused method Subjective analysis Inaccuracy due to prediction Expensive

• Can become extraordinarily complex • The size of the bar does not indicate the amount of work • Need to be constantly updated • Difficult to see on one sheet of paper

(continued)

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Table 7.1 (continued) Methods

Advantages

Disadvantages

HERMES

• None comparison neglect because of project based

• None

METRA

• The MPM method has the advantage • The MPM method does not provide that its graphic representation does not directly a way to identify and manage need to have recourse to fictive tasks, the costs of tasks and the resources as it is sometimes needed for the needed to achieve them implementation of the PERT method

SC

• • • • • • • • • • •

Higher efficiency rate Inventory buffers Optimal shipping options Mitigate your risks Stay on top of demand Eliminate waste Improve customer service Reduce your overhead costs Increases output Increases your business profit level Enhanced supply chain network

• Departmental wars • Weak leadership • Slowness of reach

CPM uses the deterministic algorithm model, procedure, or process, whose resulting behavior is primarily determined by initial and input conditions and not random or stochastic. Translated that the process or project with only one result is deterministic; the result is ‘predetermined’. For example, if one has the same input information, the deterministic algorithm will always produce the same output information. Besides, the Gantt chart uses the model bar chart. Horizontal rectangles (bar) where the length of the bar is proportional to the value of the item are represented. Also called bar graph, commonly used at a given point to compare the values of multiple items in a group. Lastly, supply chain uses the SCOR’s model. This reference model for supply chain operations (SCOR) is a management tool used to address, improve, and communicate supply chain management decisions within a company and with company’s suppliers and customers. The checklist and comparison metrics are shown in Fig. 7.2 and Table 7.2, respectively.

7.5 Conclusion and Recommendation Based on this study, it can be concluded that the researchers are aware that the method used to prepare an effective project is CPM. This is because, especially in the management of shipbuilding projects, this method will have a significant impact on the project manager. This is evident when in project management the advantage of this method is used effectively.

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Fig. 7.2 Comparison matrix

Since this study has own boundaries and the collected data is based solely on the articles studied by the researchers, this study is suitable for researchers to use the actual data to obtain the correct answers. Researchers give a deep insight into the outcome of the study to develop more effective methods by attending any courses that can help to complete any project or any further study for the project manager to be more confident using existing methods to enable managers projects and working groups produce a project that can be completed over a predetermined time frame. In addition, when in the research industry, it is hoped that each project manager can learn which techniques are really good in all aspects. This means that a project manager should look at all things such as time, cost, quality, and scheduling, so that sub-tasks can be placed under one task and will indirectly allow project managers to monitor more clearly the flow of a project from the beginning to the end of the project.

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Table 7.2 Checklist Criteria

Method of project planning PERT

Application wise

Cost Time

CPM

HERMES

*

SC

*

*

*

Task and outcome Probabilistic

METRA

* *

Project and schedule

Model

Gantt chart

* *

Deterministic

*

Scenario

*

Bar chart

*

Supply chain reference (SCOR) Specific application

Development project

*

*

*

Construction

*

Ship building

*

Team meetings

*

Information technology (IT)

*

Services

*

Business organizations

*

Warehouse

*

References 1. Kostalova J, Tetrevova L et al (2015) Support of project management methods by project management information system. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 210:96–104 2. Magnaye R, Sauser B et al (2018) Earned readiness management for scheduling, monitoring and evaluating the development of complex product systems. Int J Proj Manag 32(7):1246–1259 3. Powell W, Koput W et al (1996) Interorganizational collaboration and the locus of innovation networks of learning in biotechnology. Adm Sci Q 41:116–145 4. Barlow J (2010) Innovation and learning in complex offshore construction projects. Res Policy 29:973–989 5. Wagner S (2010) Indirect and direct supplier development: performance implications of individual and combined effects. IEEE Trans Eng Manag 57(4):536–546 6. Koufteros X et al (2012) The effects of strategic supplier selection on buyer competitive advantage in matched domains does supplier integration mediate the relationships. Int J Supply Chain Manag 48(2):93–115

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7. Watt DJ, Kayis B et al (2010) The relative importance of tender evaluation and contractor selection criteria. Int J Proj Manag 28(1):51–60 8. Ruuska I, Ahola T et al (2013) Supplier capabilities in large shipbuilding projects. Int J Proj Manag 31(4):542–553 9. Moller KEK, Torronen P (2003) Business suppliers value creation potential. A capability-based analysis. Ind Mark Manag 32:109–118

Chapter 8

A Study of the Traditional Boats Perahu Kolek in Kelantan: Design, Material, and Boatbuilding Aizat Khairi, Mohamad Khalilazhar Mohamad, and Ibrahim Ahmad

Abstract This paper attempts to explore the traditional boat in Kelantan in terms of design, material, and technique. Kelantan which is in the area of the east coast of the Malaysian peninsular had a unique traditional boat, the so-called Perahu Kolek, and it can only be found in this state. Thus, it is important to identify the design, materials used, and involving equipment to build the Perahu Kolek in Kelantan. The qualitative methodology has been used to gather all important information related to the Perahu Kolek. Purposive sampling has been chosen to identify the respondents involved like the Perahu Kolek boatbuilders, academic researchers, government agencies, and fishermen of Pantai Sabak area in Kelantan. As result, the Perahu Kolek boatbuilder do not draw the boat design, instead the design comes from their mind and the existing Perahu Kolek as additional guidance. The main material to build the Perahu Kolek is from wooden base, the so-called Cengal (balanocarpus heimii) due to its durability and endurance. The boatbuilding process is similar compared to the other Malay traditional boats, in Malaysia; however, the uniqueness of the Perahu Kolek is about decorative components. The variety of ornaments carved and specially painted on this boat has a unique carving and looks attractive. This decorating work requires meticulousness and has expertise in certain motifs on the boat. The choice of color depends on the taste of the owner of the Perahu Kolek. As conclusion, Perahu Kolek not only has been used for fishing activity, but it also has a potential in the tourism sector as cruising boat due to its attractive decoration and colorful. Keywords Perahu Kolek · Kelantan · Design · Material · Boatbuilding A. Khairi (B) · M. K. Mohamad Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. K. Mohamad e-mail: [email protected] I. Ahmad General Studies Department, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Royal College of Medicine Perak, No.3, Jalan Greentown, 30450 Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_8

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8.1 Introduction Boats are one of the most important transportation means in the world. They are also very important in the community life near rivers, seas, and lakes for trading and transportation activities. Hence, this study is about the traditional boat called the Perahu Kolek in Kelantan in terms of material, design, and boatbuilding. Since a long time, the Perahu Kolek is very important to Malay people especially in the region of the east coast. The main purpose of the Perahu Kolek is the use for transportation to cross the river and to benefit the fishermen. In Kelantan, the Perahu Kolek is one of the main transports for Malay people earlier to facilitate the movement of people by the sea route and also for fishing activity [1]. However, the new Perahu Kolek is hard to be found nowadays in Kelantan. This is due to the lack of Perahu Kolek boatbuilders and their apprentices. Hence, this is the reason why some locals confess that they do not know about the traditional Perahu Kolek. Furthermore, the Perahu Kolek has a different uniqueness compared to other boats. New generations are not interested in shipping information as they do not know that Malay ancestors are synonymous with shipping, sailing, and maritime technology. One of the uniqueness of the Perahu Kolek is that it has creative decoration and carvings on its body parts. The design and decoration project the ideology of Malay culture, and it should be sustainably preserved. However, the Perahu Kolek is currently marginalized due to the modernization era and new boats that use mechanical power. Besides that, the loss of traditional arts and culture has left us with the latest technology. On the other hand, not many locals possess the expertise in carving and decorating the Perahu Kolek.

8.2 Methodology This study is conducted by using the qualitative approach. Qualitative research is basically discovery-requiring analysis. It uses to gain an understanding of the reasons behind it, reflections, and motivation. It also attempts to explain a specific issue or subject of study from the point of view of the local community that it affects. In particular, qualitative analysis is useful in gathering accurate cultural knowledge regarding the beliefs, views, attitudes, and social dynamics of different communities [2]. Data gathering is done by collecting secondary and primary data. Secondary data is collected based on library study and other sources like Web sites and newspapers. Primary data is collected based on field work study by interviewing respondents and observation. A semi-structured questionnaire has been used during the interview session to achieve the research objective and also to ease the interview process.

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The purposive sampling is used to identify the respondents based on their expertise, knowledge, and experience in Perahu Kolek. The data collection is analyzed by using the content analysis technique [3].

8.3 Results and Discussion In terms of basic specification, the Perahu Kolek is one of the large and long boats. Usually, this Perahu Kolek is up to 10 m long. It has a width of at least 2 m with a depth of 0.7 m. The shape of this boat is similar to the shape of a traditional Payang boat that can be found in the Terengganu state, which is next to Kelantan. However, the Payang boat is smaller and lighter than a Perahu Kolek. Perahu Kolek has a straight keel, and there is a slight curve at the end [4]. Originally, Perahu Kolek having sails for movements. Nowadays, the Perahu Kolek’s fishermen do no longer to use sails, instead they set up a longtail motorboat engine which is identified as Enjin Sangkut, Enjin Galah, or Enjin Ekor Biawak in local terms. The motorboat engine for the Perahu Kolek is usually modified from used car or truck engines from Thailand. Basically, the Perahu Kolek can carry up to two until six people together with fishing equipment. Nevertheless, it is also able to accommodate up to 30 passengers for the cruising activity; with such a large size, it is one of the boats that can feel comfortable and stable [5]. The Perahu Kolek builders do not using a lofting technique or any drafting technique. Therefore, the design of the Perahu Kolek just come out from their mind, imagination, and experience. The boatbuilder will build the Perahu Kolek based on the owner’s requirements in terms of boat size and the use of materials. The main material to build the Perahu Kolek is called balanocarpus heimii, which is a tropical hardwood tree, and local people address it as Kayu Cengal. Each boat will use 4–5 tons of Kayu Cengal, and it will follow the size of the boat. The advantage to use Kayu Cengal is the high flexibility before it is fully cured, making it suitable for plank bending during the boatbuilding process. Kayu Cengal also can protect the Perahu Kolek from being rusted due to seawater and make it last longer, more than 100 years [6]. In terms of boatbuilding activity, it starts from the hull of the boat and will continue to the frame of the boat. Before making the hull, the boatbuilder will ensure the customer’s requirements such as the size of the boat and the material to be worn as well as the desired pattern. After that, the boat will be made carefully, and it can be finished within three months, at least by three boatbuilders [7]. The most uniqueness of the Perahu Kolek comparing to others traditional Malay boat in Malaysia is about its decoration. It has the variety of ornaments carved and specially painted on this boat. It also has a unique carving and looks attractive. This decorating work requires meticulousness and has expertise in certain motifs on the boat. The choice of color depends on the taste of the owner of the Perahu Kolek. Various paintings and sculptures on the Perahu Kolek have different drawings

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and carvings based on the art of three different elements like Java, Malay, and also Siamese Buddha [8]. The painting art on the external body of the Perahu Kolek is due to the legendary animals such as eagle, dragon, tiger, and monkey. The person who is responsible to decorate the Perahu Kolek is so-called Tukang Sobek (carpenter). The Tukang Sobek will use his expertise to complete the decorations after receiving the request by the owner. This work takes about a month to complete the decorations. These paintings and colors play an important role for the boat owner, where each peril is decorated with bright colors to depict the boat’s bravery and fierceness [9].

8.4 Conclusion Perahu Kolek is still in use in several fishing areas in Kelantan. The local fishermen use the Perahu Kolek to catch the fish by using the trawl techniques. Usually, they would go down early in the morning to catch a fish. Due to the width and length of the boat, it helps the fishermen being stable in the middle of the sea while catching the fish. Currently, the state of Kelantan does not have many experts in this Perahu Kolek boatbuilding. This situation seems toward the extinction of traditional heritage in this country [10]. This study found out that it is very important to preserve the heritage of the Perahu Kolek in Kelantan. Perahu Kolek has the potential to be expanded not only in fishery but also in other sectors like tourism. Perahu Kolek is able to attract local and foreign tourists by having a variety of uniqueness and interesting carvings. Perahu Kolek has a large size that can accommodate tourists and enjoy the panorama of the sea view [11]. The government should empower the Perahu Kolek for the tourism sector, so that it can improve the economy of Kelantanese people. The presence of tourists in Kelantan can boost the economy sector and even create employment opportunities for locals. In addition, Kelantan provides interesting places for maritime tourism, and Perahu Kolek could be used as a symbol of tourism identity due to its uniqueness (Table 8.1). Table 8.1 Number of respondents

Target respondent

Number of respondents

Craftsman of Perahu Kolek

1

Government staff

5

University Malaysia Kelantan

3

Villagers of Pantai Sabak

3

Fisherman

4

Owner of Perahu Kolek

2

Amount

18

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Acknowledgements We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology (UniKL MIMET) which provides us the golden opportunity to do this wonderful research project and publication.

References 1. Wahab MR, Ramli Z (2020) the Malay traditional boat: defending Malay heritage objects in Kelantan, east coast of the Malaysian peninsula. J Marit Archa 15:57–68 2. Mohajan H (2018) Qualitative research methodology in social sciences and related subjects. J Eco Dev Env 1:23–48 3. Wahab MR et al (2018) Ancient maritime symbols in Malay traditional boat in the east coast, peninsular Malaysia. Plan Malays 1:372–380 4. Siti KO, Mazlan CS (2017) The paradox of traditional boat-making: indigenous knowledge versus globalization. J Ctr Civiliz Dialog 1:41–58 5. Nik HS (2013) Malay woodcarving as decoration on traditional boats in peninsula Malaysia. Soc Sn 8:100–105 6. Haziyah H et al (2012) The philosophy in the creation of traditional Malay carving motifs in peninsula Malaysia. Malays J Soc Sp 7:88–95 7. Wahab MR et al (2017) Analysis decorating design on Perahu Buatan Barat, the Malay traditional boat by using frieze pattern. Aip Conf Pro 2:291–297 8. Hasbullah MH et al (2019) Conceptual design and computational analysis of traditional boat passenger seat. Aip Conf Pro 3:98–106 9. Muhammad S (2011) Sailing the archipelago in a boat of rhymes. Wac 1:78–104 10. Ismail A (2011) The culture of outrigger boat in the Malay archipelago: a maritime perspective. Int J His Std 1:57–70 11. Ruhaizan S, Ishak S (2017) Fisheries economic activities among the Malay society at the Terengganu coast in the early 20th century. Int J Acd Res Bus Soc Sn 12:599–606

Chapter 9

Green Shipbuilding Technology for Boustead Naval Shipyard Sdn Bhd Towards Sustainable Shipbuilding Development Noorhafize Noordin and Zulzamri Salleh Abstract Manufacturing or production, shipping, ship repair, servicing, and ship recycling are all distinct industrial processes of shipbuilding. These operations will result in significant pollution, contamination, and emissions into the environment. This paper discusses the green shipbuilding technology for the company Boustead Naval Shipyard Sdn Bhd (BNS) towards sustainable shipbuilding development as a way to minimize the impact that shipbuilding has on the environment over their life cycle. This includes green ship design, green shipyard, green material selection, marine systems optimization, and marine equipment selection and then shipbuilding technique improvement where green shipbuilding can be applied. In addition, the green initiatives can also assist to determine the effectiveness of industry 4.0 [the fourth industrial revolution (IR 4.0)], lean manufacturing, shipbuilding 4.0 and government involvement in GrSCM to understand how much this can support BNS in developing green technology or industry. This paper is based on a detailed study of the literature on environmental shipbuilding issues. The study covered a variety of facets of green shipbuilding technologies, with the aim of greening the industry by reducing emissions in shipbuilding. Green shipbuilding technology helps to reduce threats to human health, environmental hazards, and property risks by reducing emissions to air, water, and land, saving energy, and improving economic and social benefits. Keywords Green · Green ship design · Green shipyard · Green material selection

N. Noordin · Z. Salleh (B) Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. Noordin e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_9

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9.1 Introduction Green is something more than just a colour. It has come to symbolize our natural environment and planet earth and its importance for our own good and that of the future generations. Being green is living one’s life sustainably and making sure that our actions as individuals or as a group represent the limits of our planetary resource. In practically all aspects, we rely on our climate, from the air we breathe to the water we drink and the food we eat. Going green means that we understand how important earth is to our children and grandchildren and the value of protecting our world [1]. Admitting that humans ought to respect and protect the world is not enough. Being green means committing ourselves to taking actions, both large and small, to mitigate the environmental effects of our activities. If we want to be green, there are some main principles that should guide us in our daily lives and choices according to the following details [1]: 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Know how our activities impact the environment. Reduce pollution. Reduce resource and energy use. Consume sustainably and reduce or even eliminate waste.

In shipbuilding industries, manufacturing has been considered as a heavy industry involving toxic and dangerous materials for humans and the environment such as injuries, pollution and unhealthy. Most conventional manufacturing processes such as welding, cutting, painting, and blasting have an enormous impact on the risk and even on the health and safety of workers and the environment [2]. This has made shipbuilding industry well-known with its highest usage of energy, materials, and emissions. Green shipbuilding seeks to reduce waste and harmful emissions during design, production, service, operation and dismantling to mitigate environmental pollution (air, water, and soil), lead to resource savings and have a positive effect on the social and economic climate [2].

9.2 Background The aim of this paper is to concentrate on BNS green shipbuilding objectives to reduce emissions or pollutions to air, water, and soil, save energy, and increase economic and social benefits by minimizing offal and hazardous emissions during construction, production, operation, and laying up [3]. Green shipbuilding encompasses the terms “green ship” and “green shipyard”. The primary component of a green ship is green design or architecture. Ships should be built to have as little environmental effect as possible during shipbuilding or construction and operation. 3R is the secret to green architecture [4]: 2.1

Reduce energy and resource demand, as well as waste, in the shipbuilding and service industries.

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In ship repairs, recycle the components which can save the environment. After ship recycling or laying up, most materials will be reused.

Green shipyards maintain high efficiency of shipbuilding materials and equipment, minimize toxic pollution, and make the integrated hull construction, outfitting, and painting process as seamless as possible. Green architecture is, in general, the secret to green shipbuilding [4].

9.3 Methodology This paper aims to identify the technique or method of green shipbuilding selection technologies for Boustead Naval Shipyard Sdn Bhd towards sustainable shipbuilding development and to analyse the effectiveness of these green ship and green shipyard activities. The methodology used to conduct this research is presented in the following. The data collection has been analysed using the Delphi method through Google Forms. The data has been collected from Boustead Naval Shipyard Sdn Bhd (BNS), BHIC Defence Techservices Sdn Bhd (BDTS), BHIC Navaltech Sdn Bhd (BNT), Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN) and BNS subcontractor. The focus was to identify the technique of ship design, procurement or selection of material, construction, equipment delivery, equipment installation and inspection (EII), setting to work (STW) and test and trial (HAT and SAT) for the shipbuilding. The process for shipbuilding is as shown in Fig. 9.1. The key data concerning the green shipbuilding technology were gathered from Boustead Naval Shipyard Sdn Bhd (BNS), BHIC Defence Techservices Sdn Bhd, BHIC Navaltech Sdn Bhd, Royal Malaysian Navy and BNS sub-contractor. The main points for data collection were as follows [4]: 3.1

Marine Systems Optimization and Marine Equipment Selection: Range of marine equipment selection and marine systems optimization focused on low energy utilization, low pollution, and high performance.

Fig. 9.1 Shipbuilding process

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3.2

Green Materials Selection: Green material selection is critical for green shipbuilding because it improves material consumption ratios and reduces material weight, which increases ship loading capability. Shipbuilding Technique Improvement: Shipbuilding technique advancements will increase work efficiency, conserve resources, and reduce pollution.

3.3

A survey questionnaire was developed via Google Forms to accomplish the goals of this qualitative analysis. It was pointed out that a survey questionnaire represents more than just a general inquiry. The sample of survey questions often acts as a tool for respondents, will decide each respondent’s personality, characteristics, actions, and opinion [5]. As a result, the survey was built in an online format using Google Forms, allowing for greater participation from informants. The primary goal of the survey was to identify possible challenges and the industry’s perspective on implementation green shipbuilding technology for Boustead Naval Shipyard Sdn Bhd towards sustainable shipbuilding development.

9.4 Results and Discussion 9.4.1 Marine Systems Optimization and Marine Equipment Selection The value of marine equipment selection in green shipbuilding or engineering is distinctly evident in environmentally sustainable settings. It is also an important engineering design requirement for projects that would be exposed to the atmosphere for an extended period of time. Depending on the service environment, certain machinery is more likely to be corroded or damaged. Consequently, before selecting a marine equipment, it must be checked that it can be used for the intended design [6].

Fig. 9.2 Important factors for marine equipment selection

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According to an online survey shown in Fig. 9.2, 74.5% (n = 82) of the respondents stated that the most important factor for marine equipment selection is high efficiency, followed by low energy consumption with 56.4% (n = 62) votes and low emissions with 55.5% (n = 61) votes. Other than that, the factors such as sustainability in the long term that includes impact to environment; meet requirements; cost of acquisition and upkeep; price, delivery period, life cycle cost, reliability; meet the requirements than follows by high efficiency; and cost and reliability had gain 0.9% (n = 1) vote, respectively, from the respondents for the marine equipment selection. In order to manage the important factor for marine equipment selection, BNS needs to focus into these three items since the percentage rate was high. The three items were low energy consumption, low emissions, and high efficiency. The formula issuance to manage the important factor for marine equipment selection is as shown in Eq. (9.1): Mifmes =



Lec +



Le +



He

(9.1)

where Mifmes is the manage the important factor for marine equipment selection, Lec is the low energy consumption, Le is the low emissions, and He is the high efficiency. The enhancement of marine system architecture will prioritize resource management, improved work efficiency, and cost savings. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.3, 37.8% (n = 42) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree on saving resources, lowering costs, increasing work efficiency, and slow down emissions with optimizing the design of marine systems. While 50.5% (n = 56) of the respondents stated that they agree, followed by 9.9% (n = 11) of the respondents stated that they neutral, and 0.9% (n = 1) of the respondent stated that they disagree. No percentage for strongly disagree. Another 0.9% (n = 1) of the respondent stated that other phases need to be optimized also. This shows that BNS needs to study or comply with the optimizing of the design of marine systems architecture in order to prioritize resource management, improved work efficiency and cost savings.

Fig. 9.3 Optimizing the design of marine systems

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9.4.2 Green Materials Selection To reach green shipbuilding, it is essential to select green materials. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.4, 53.2% (n = 58) of the respondents stated that the most important factors for green material selection are innocuous, inoffensive and environment materials. Next, 71.6% (n = 78) of the respondents stated that materials convenient for reclaiming and materials which can be recycled, and 46.8% (n = 51) of the respondents stated that decrease the quantity of variety and specification of materials to improve the utilization ratio of materials. Besides that, 20.2% (n = 22) of the respondents stated that decrease the weight of materials to increase the ship loading capacity is the most important factor for material selection, followed by the definition of green materials needs to be standardized and material management with 0.9% (n = 1) votes from respondents, respectively. In order to manage the most important factor for green material selection, BNS needs to focus into these four items since the percentage rate was high. The four items were innocuous, inoffensive and environment materials, materials convenient for reclaiming and materials which can be recycled, decrease the quantity of variety and specification of materials to improve the utilization ratio of materials and decrease the weight of materials to increase the ship loading capacity. The formula issuance to manage the most important factor for green material selection is as shown in Eq. (9.2): Mgms =



Miie +



Mrr +



Mqsi +



Mislc

(9.2)

where Mgms is the manage the most important factor for green material selection, Miie is the innocuous, inoffensive and environment materials, Mrr is the Materials convenient for reclaiming and materials which can be recycled, Mqsi is the decrease the quantity of variety and specification of materials to improve the utilization ratio of materials, and Mislc is the decrease the weight of materials to increase the ship loading capacity.

Fig. 9.4 Selection of green materials for green shipbuilding

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9.4.3 Shipbuilding Technique Improvement Welding, cutting, and blasting technologies advancement and implementation have more options for shipbuilding to improve the work efficiency, slow down pollution, save energy, faster, cheaper and with minimal training required [7]. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.5, 45% (n = 50) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree, 45.9% (n = 51) of them agree, and 9% (n = 10) them stated that they are neutral with the statement above. This shows that BNS needs to comply with the welding, cutting, and blasting technologies advancement and implementation for green shipbuilding to improve the work efficiency, slow down pollution, save energy, faster, cheaper and with minimal training required. Integrating hull construction with outfitting, painting, and creativity, as well as incorporating ship painting technologies, will increase work quality, save money, eliminate waste, and slow down the emissions. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.6, 40.4% (n = 44) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree, 45.9% (n = 50) of them agree, 11.9% (n = 13) of them neutral, and 0.9% (n = 1) of the respondent stated that they disagree with the statement above. Besides that, only

Fig. 9.5 Highly efficient of technologies advancement

Fig. 9.6 Integrating hull construction to improve the efficiency

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Fig. 9.7 Application of integrated superblock lifting technique

0.9% (n = 1) of the respondent stated that the statement is beyond their horizon. This shows that BNS needs to apply the integrating hull construction with outfitting, painting, and creativity, as well as incorporating ship painting technologies that will increase work quality, save capital, eliminate waste, and slow down emissions. The utilization of the superblock lifting technique for integrated accommodation, engine room, bow, stern, and pump room would allow an expanded production and concurrent working of interim goods, resulting in improved work efficiency, energy savings, and emission reduction. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.7, 31.8% (n = 35) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree, 48.2% (n = 53) of them agree, and 17.3% (n = 19) of them are neutral with the statement above. The remaining respondents stated that they strongly disagree; I do not understand, confusing; and beyond their horizon to the statement above with 0.9% (n = 1) votes, respectively. This shows that BNS needs to apply the utilization of superblock lifting technique an integrated accommodation, engine room, bow, stern, and pump room that would allow an expanded production and concurrent working of interim goods, resulting in improved work efficiency, energy savings, and emission reduction. The utilization of hull precision control technologies, such as no-tolerance block raising, extended no-tolerance laying, increased block manufacturing efficiency, and efficiently controlling the variance of hull principal measurements, would improve work output, save energy, reduce emissions and waste. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.8, 35.5% (n = 39) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree, 49.1% (n = 54) of them agree, and 11.8% (n = 13) of them are neutral with the statement above. Other than that, 0.9% (n = 1) of the respondent stated that I do not agree with anything that states no-tolerance in engineering. There must be an acceptable range. While the remaining respondents stated that they disagree, strongly disagree, and beyond their horizon to the statement with 0.9% (n = 1) votes, respectively. This shows that BNS needs to apply the utilization of hull precision control technologies, such as no-tolerance block raising, extended no-tolerance laying, increased block manufacturing efficiency, and efficiently controlling the variance of hull principal measurements, which would improve the work output, save energy, reduce emissions and waste.

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Fig. 9.8 Application of hull precision control technology

Steel products would be saved, and waste would be reduced if secondary steel nesting technologies were used for simplified construction, intricate nesting, and enhancement of the secondary use ratio of steel. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.9, 32.7% (n = 36) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree, 50.9% (n = 56) of them agree, and 14.5% (n = 16) of them are neutral to the statement above. The remaining respondents stated that no detail knowledge about this method in order to fairly comment and beyond their horizon to the statement above with 0.9% (n = 1) votes, respectively. This shows that BNS needs to apply the secondary steel nesting technologies for simplified construction, intricate nesting, and enhancement of the secondary use ratio of steel. Steel products would be saved, and waste would be reduced.

Fig. 9.9 Application of secondary steel nesting technology

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Fig. 9.10 Application of industry 4.0, lean manufacturing and/or shipbuilding 4.0

9.4.4 Industry 4.0, Lean Manufacturing and Shipbuilding 4.0 According to online survey shown in Fig. 9.10, 34.5% (n = 38) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree with the implementation of industry 4.0, lean manufacturing and shipbuilding 4.0 in BNS in order to assist the effectiveness of green initiatives for green shipbuilding technology. 55.5% (n = 61) of the respondents stated that they agree, 9.1% (n = 10) of them are neutral, and 0.9% (n = 1) of them disagree with the above statement. At the moment, BNS has implemented industry 4.0, for example, e-leave, e-learning, and big data analysis. This shows that BNS needs to continue to apply the implementation of industry 4.0, lean manufacturing and shipbuilding 4.0 in BNS in order to assist the effectiveness of green initiatives for green shipbuilding technology [8–10].

9.4.5 Green Supply Chain Management (GrSCM) The government’s participation in the Green Supply Chain Management (GrSCM) initiatives influences suppliers’ ability to invest in GrSCM initiatives for BNS [11]. According to the online survey shown in Fig. 9.11, 26.4% (n = 29) of the respondents stated that they strongly agree that the government participates in the Green Supply Chain Management. 61.8% (n = 68) of the respondents stated that they agree, 10.9% (n = 12) of them are neutral, and 0.9% (n = 1) of them stated that there is a missing link between both working in silos and are not concerned on the other to the statement above. This shows that BNS needs to convince the governments to participate in Green Supply Chain Management (GrSCM) initiatives for influencing the suppliers’ ability to invest in GrSCM initiatives for BNS.

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Fig. 9.11 Government involvement in GrSCM

9.5 Conclusion In summary, subsequent statements need to be taken seriously by BNS if the company is heading towards sustainable shipbuilding development in green shipbuilding technologies: 5.1 5.2

5.3 5.4 5.5

5.6

5.7 5.8

5.9

Low energy consumption, low emissions, and high efficiency for marine equipment selection. Innocuous, non-offensive, and environmentally friendly materials, materials that are easy to reclaim and recycle, materials that can be reduced in quantity and specification to improve material utilization ratios, and materials that can be reduced in weight to increase ship loading capacity. Comply with the latest technologies’ advancement and implementation of welding, cutting, and blasting technologies. Comply with the integrating hull design with outfitting, painting, and ingenuity, as well as integrating ship painting technology. Use a superblock lifting technique that incorporates an integrated accommodation, engine room, bow, stern, and pump room to allow for increased output and concurrent working of interim products. Employ hull precision control technology such as no-tolerance block lifting, expanded no-tolerance laying, improved block production performance, and effectively managing the variation of hull principal dimensions. Use secondary steel nesting technology for simpler construction, intricate nesting, and increased steel secondary use ratio. Apply industry 4.0, lean manufacturing, shipbuilding 4.0 which relates to the automation of industry by the intelligent networking of computers and systems with the aid of information and communication technologies (ICT), Engagement of government in GrSCM initiatives.

Acknowledgements A survey questionnaire was developed via google forms in order to accomplish the goals of this paper or research. It is pointed out that a survey questionnaire represents more

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than just a general inquiry. The people who took part in these online surveys were Managerial, executive, non-executive and vendor from BNS, BNT, BDTS, BMTA, RMN, UPNM, UniKL, BNS Sub-Con and Ex-BNS. The online survey was performed between 15 February until 14 March 2021 with 111 Responses were gathered. The analysis has been performed through results from Google Forms.

References 1. Greentumble (2019) What does it mean to be green or environmentally friendly? https://greent umble.com/what-does-it-mean-to-be-green/. Accessed 22 Feb 2021 2. Nugroho SA, Mursid M, Murdjito (2017) Study on development green shipbuilding industry in Lamongan district to increase competitiveness. Mar Tech for Sus Dev 1:11 3. gCaptain (2013) Do eco-ships make sense? https://gcaptain.com/eco-ships-sense/. Accessed 22 Feb 2021 4. Lee T, Nam H (2017) A study on green shipping in major countries: in the view of shipyards, shipping companies, ports, and policies. Asi J Ship Log 33(4):253–262. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ajsl.2017.12.009 5. Dillman DA (2007) Mail and internet surveys: the tailored design method, 2nd edn. Wiley. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-21575-000. Accessed 22 Feb 2021 6. Marine Insight (2018) Eco marine power expands innovative low—emissions Aquarius eco ship project. https://www.marineinsight.com/shipping-news/eco-marine-power-expandsinnovative-low-emissions-aquarius-eco-ship-project/. Accessed 22 Feb 2021 7. Hubert Palfinger Technologies (2018) CNM—to be first European green-shipyard. https:// www.hubertpalfinger.com/greenshipyard/. Accessed 22 Feb 2021 8. i-SCOOP (2021) Industry 4.0: The fourth industrial revolution—guide to Industries 4.0. https:// www.i-scoop.eu/industry-4-0/#industry-40-definitions-what-is-industry-40. Accessed 22 Feb 2021 9. Stanic V, Hadjina M, Fafandjel N and Matulja T (2018) Toward shipbuilding 4.0—an industry 4.0 changing the face of the shipbuilding industry. Brodogradnja/Shipbuilding/Open Access 69(3). https://doi.org/10.21278/brod69307 10. TWI-Global (2021) What is lean manufacturing and the 5 principles used? https://www.twiglobal.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/faq-what-is-lean-manufacturing. Accessed 22 Feb 2021 11. Caniëls MCJ, Cleophas E, Semeijn J (2016) Implementing green supply chain practices: an empirical investigation in the shipbuilding industry. Mar Pol Man 43(8):1005–1020. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2016.1182654

Chapter 10

Ship Wave Resistance by Final Root Method of Solution with Corrections of Block Coefficient and Angle of Entrance Md. Salim Kamil, Iwan Zamil Mustaffa Kamal, and Muhammad Fauzan Misran Abstract The main purpose of this research is to investigate and improve the method of solution by the final root method on ship wave resistance due to variation of block coefficient and angle of entrance of different ship hulls. The method of solution and the calculated results are validated by comparing against the experimental results. The results obtained by the proposed hypothesis would be used in predicting the ship wave resistance and the overall powering estimation of any ship. This was done by developing functions of block coefficient and angle of entrance versus Froude number. Standard series-60 experimental data were used in the study to develop the relationships between the ship wave resistance versus block coefficient and angle of entrance. Corrections to the calculated ship wave resistance coefficient were achieved by using a structured regression method applied to the ships under study. A significant improvement of more than 1% on the ship wave resistance was achieved. Keywords Block coefficient · Angle of entrance · Series-60

10.1 Introduction Ship wave resistance had been one of the topics of continuous in-depth study for decades since the late 1800. Presumably, the earliest recorded work on ship wave resistance was by Michell [1] and followed by many studies subsequently. Wigley Md. S. Kamil (B) · I. Z. M. Kamal Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Dataran Industri Teknologi Kejuruteraan Marin, Bandar Teknologi Maritim, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] I. Z. M. Kamal e-mail: [email protected] M. F. Misran Gading Marine (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot A2 Lumut Port Industrial Park Jalan Kampung Acheh, 32000 Sitiawan, Perak, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_10

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(1926–1948) [2] carried out further works comprehensively, managed to improvise and solved the Michell ship wave resistance equation theoretically and experimentally by using mathematically defined hull forms of thin ships. Wigley solved the equation with the concept that the integral is convergent and errors in the remainders were considered negligible. Michell published 23 scientific papers only in the middle of 1890 and 1902, and from this short period of productive research activities, significant contributions were ever made by an Australian mathematician during that era. The works by Michell had been much elaborated by Tuck [3]. The application of linear, slender body and numerical models to the ship wave resistance problem are well-known since these methods can provide fast and accurate solutions for thin hull ships. Improvements to the original methods of researchers by Michell, Wigley and other researchers have been made and applied by the writer in his further studies [4–6]. The research described in this report uses the thin ship theory to solve the Fuller hull form by finding the final roots of the wave resistance integral equation. Using the results obtained, to further increase the accuracy of estimation, a coefficient from a variation of the block coefficients and angles of attack or entrance are being implemented into the analysis process. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of the block coefficient C B and angle of entrance θ on ship wave resistance prediction, to improve the accuracy of the final root method of the solution on ship wave resistance RW, and to produce a more accurate prediction of ship wave resistance RW , ship total resistance RT and ultimately for a more precise powering prediction employed in ship design.

10.2 Methodology Research concept—The sole concept of this project is to produce an improved and more accurate calculation method of solution on ship wave resistance that eventually helps on achieving a precise estimation of the ship total resistance estimation and powering in design stage. The idea is to utilize the final root method for determining the root of the integral based on the thin ship theory with variation of the angle of entrance and block coefficient of the vessels. By using data obtained from experiments in a towing tank on model scale of existing vessels, a change in pattern can be obtained. While observing changes in the pattern of the results, it can be implemented in the integral based on the thin ship theory. The integral of the ship wave resistance contains infinite roots of solution. This complex integral is not easily solved directly to determine the roots. Therefore, practically, one may solve for the final root iteratively from the ship wave resistance integral for zero value. Once the final root is identified, the integration is then executed up to the upper limit of the integration. The results obtained are compared with the experimental data from a towing tank. Finally, the reliabilities of this improved method were tested by the percentage of results matching and accuracy of prediction to experimental results.

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Procedure—The effects on variation of block coefficients and angles of entrance to ship resistance were studied through the following procedures. These procedures were developed based on the hypothesis created. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Collected data from towing tank results were sorted, and graphs of ship wave resistance were plotted (Fig. 10.1). The hull forms of the models were developed based on the table of offsets and the model hydrostatic particulars for the C B and θ. Then, a graph of RW against C B and RW against θ was plotted, and the equations of the plotted lines were extracted and defined as ƒ(C B ) for C B and ƒ(θ ) for θ. By using MSK-eSolver, the RW (FRM) was calculated and plotted (Fig. 10.2). The ƒ(C B ) and ƒ(θ ) for each model were converted into ƒ(C B ) and ƒ(θ ) where these are the ultimate functions of CW and θ based on the variations. FN vs CW x 1000 for series-60

Fig. 10.1 Series-60 graphs of ship wave resistance coefficient for parent hull

0.700 0.600

CW x 103

0.500 0.400 0.300 0.200 0.100 0.000 0.100

0.150

0.200

0.250

0.300

0.350

FN 0.6

Fig. 10.2 Revised graphs of ship wave resistance—C B by using the power rule

0.65

0.7

Graph for CB VS CW x 1000

1.00

CW x 1000

0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

CB Fn 0.2 Fn 0.35 PV RMN Power (Fn 0.3)

Fn 0.25 P. Tanker Power (Fn 0.2) Power (Fn 0.35)

Fn 0.3 Wigley1 Power (Fn 0.25)

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Then, ƒ(C B ) and ƒ(θ ) were introduced into Step 4, and the RW was calculated and plotted by using the formula; (FRM) CORRECTED = RW + f (CB ) + f (θ) RW

7.

(10.1)

The results from all the three graphs were compared and then the percentage of corrections were calculated.

10.3 Results and Discussion Individual Model Particulars. Based on the developed or provided offsets data, these hull forms were modeled in 3D to obtain important parameters as listed in Table 10.1. Series-60 Models. The results of numerous model scale experiments on powering estimation carried out at the David Taylor Model Basin of the United States Navy. Series of parent merchant ship hull models were tested to get a better understanding of how hull forms influence the ship powering and capabilities. These data were modeled as shown (after deducing the form factor) in graphs of Fig. 10.1. Based on all the data obtained, exclusively from the series-60 experimental reports, a table of essential research particulars was drawn which consists of model name, block coefficient, angle of entrance and their respective wave resistance coefficient based on selected Froude numbers. The values of each wave resistance coefficient were determined directly from the experiment and interpolation, thus producing relationship as in Fig. 10.2. All the data extracted from the respective Froude numbers intersected trendlines were tabulated based on the individual model. Although the values projected do not reflect the actual experimental data or calculated C W , these tabulated data were used in determining the percentage correction of C W adopting the Newman wave integral formula solved by final root method (FRM). Functions of projected C W × 1000 for any C B and θ. There are several functions that were modeled for an increment of 0.05 Froude number from 0.2 until 0.35 (based on series-60 range of Froude numbers) for variations of C B and θ. These functions are given in Table 10.2. Table 10.1 Particulars of models

Model

Wigley 1

PV RMN

Product tanker

L (m)

1.8

6.831

3.13

T (m)

0.113

0.289

0.208

CB

0.441

0.477

θ (°)

19.4

24.8

0.738 56.6

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Table 10.2 Functions of C W × 1000 with respect to C B and θ Plot type

Fn.

Function of C W × 1000, y = f (x), x = C B or θ

CB

0.20

y = 0.2463396712 × 4.4053247917

0.25

y = 1.7769284168 × 7.4605027643

0.30

y = 8.6234733753 × 7.3988832341

0.35

y = 8.6234733753 × 7.3988832341

0.20

y = 0.0045315902 × 0.6994367584

0.25

y = 0.0010383222 × 1.4116268713

0.30

y = 0.0043570593 × 1.4466493349

0.35

y = 0.0117056077 × 1.1769619147

θ (°)

Table 10.3 Function of variation of C B Variation

Function of C W × 1000, C W × 1000 = f (F N ), x = F N

CB

y = (16 276.6920529216(CB)13.3235514209) × (5.0729543124 ln(CB) + 6.7257751240)

θ (°)

y = (0.0564145728(θ)2.3406385777) × (0.8815802363 ln(θ) + 2.0288237757)

Ultimately, by combining all the functions from each trendline, a single function of C W × 1000 in terms of Froude number for any value of C B and/or θ was deduced as given in Table 10.3. Regression Method. The corrections of values were obtained by using regression methods utilizing the ultimate universal function of C W × 1000. In this method, several key variables influence the effectiveness of this method; range and interval of Froude number and the block coefficient or angle of entrance input value (varied or constant). Table 10.4 shows a cut out of the regression table. The percentage difference (% Difference) was calculated by using the formula given below: %Difference =

Successive difference of CW with increasing FN v (CW × 1000)MAX − (CW × 1000)MIN

(10.2)

For the corrections of C W × 1000, the percentage differences gained from the regression in Table 10.4 were used based on the following formula; (CW × 1000)CORRECTED = (CW × 1000)FRM x(1 + %Difference)

(10.3)

where (CW × 1000)CORRECTED is a corrected wave resistance coefficient, (CW × 1000)FRM is a calculated wave resistance coefficient, and %Di f f er ence is a percentage difference (from regression table). Corrected results—The regression data provide sufficient information; corresponding the Froude number and percentage difference. From this, the percentage

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Table 10.4 Regression data of Wigley hull 1 model for variation of C B Variating only Froude number, while C b /theta constant (based on models) Wigley 1 Variation

Function of C W × 1000, C W × 1000 = f (F N )

CB

y = (16 276.6920529216(CB)13.3235514209) × (5.0729543124 ln(CB) + 6.7257751240)

Fn

CB

C w × 1000

Successive Difference of C W with increasing FN

% Difference

0.205

0.4410

0.00505494

0.00031111

0.41296850

0.210

0.4410

0.00537822

0.00032328

0.42911530

0.215

0.4410

0.00571382

0.00033561

0.44548642

0.220

0.4410

0.00606193

0.00034811

0.46207957

0.225

0.4410

0.00642271

0.00036078

0.47889256

0.230

0.4410

0.00679632

0.00037361

0.49592327

Table 10.5 Correction for PV RMN by C B and θ variation from Newman C W × 1000 (corrected)

Corrections (%)

Error (%)

CB

θ

C B θ correction

0.927837449

0.551622977

2.531912538

1.29

1.115332850

0.791021948

3.294632451

0.85

2.71

1.350381108

1.150388464

4.226106729

− 0.10

2.34

1.574172596

1.553360982

4.747991646

− 0.21

2.83

1.850595796

2.132431429

4.884082789

− 0.87

2.99

FRM 2.73

difference was treated as the percentage of correction from the originally calculated value. This value was added to the calculated value since, initially, the calculated values of C W tend to underestimate the actual experimental value. Discussion Comprehensively, the data demonstrated from the findings and models were all related to one another. There are a few key points worth mentioning in this part of the research. First, the discussions derived from this research only reflect model particulars from a certain degree. The improvement in the methods of calculation entirely revolved around series-60 experimental result. Therefore, any irregular hull form may not work well when assigned to such correction. Secondly, from each model correction, the results confirmed that this improvement in methods of solution work best at mid-range of Froude numbers. Based on PV RMN model results, in a range from 0.3 to 0.6 Froude numbers, the percentage error was down to below 1% compared to 3% accuracy obtained by FRM. The results of the

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Table 10.6 Correction for P. Tanker by C B and θ variation from Newman data C W × 1000 (corrected)

Corrections (%) CB

θ

Error (%) C B θ correction

FRM − 8.16

0.372406111

0.281520406

0.373426067

− 8.87

0.492123416

0.382108583

0.424680517

7.27

8.08

0.817354875

0.666313350

0.847388630

8.49

9.83

1.285041858

1.094101690

0.884555800

7.57

9.72

1.583953216

1.375964010

1.145943879

5.68

8.40

2.337872683

2.108281820

1.176063700

4.77

8.83

3.338151484

3.115130170

1.873577757

1.60

7.56

Fig. 10.3 Revised graph of C W × 1000 versus θ by using power rule

Graph of θ vs CW x 1000

0.70 0.60

CW x 1000

0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 10.00

30.00

50.00

70.00

90.00

Angle of entrance, θ (degree) Fn 0.2 Fn 0.35 P. Tanker

Fn 0.25 Wigley 1 Power (Fn 0.2)

Fn 0.3 PV RMN Power (Fn 0.25)

analysis can be seen in Tables 10.4, 10.5 and 10.6 and plotted in graphs shown in Figs. 10.3, 10.4, 10.5 and 10.6.

10.4 Conclusion The present findings confirm that the model or ship block coefficient and angle of entrance had influenced in the ship wave resistance. Based on the findings, the block coefficient variation has more significant in error reduction as compared to the variation of angle of entrance. An improvement on the Newman method of solution based on the final root method with MSK-eSolver software was made, reducing the error significantly by up to 2% error reduction in models with midrange Froude numbers. This research revolved around the series-60 parent hulls experimental results. The main limitation of this method was that it worked the best on model parameters that fall in the range of those parent hulls.

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Fig. 10.4 Cross-plot graph of all methods of solution (C W × 1000 vs. F N ) for Wigley hull 1

CW x 1000 - FN

5 4.5

CW x 1000

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

FN

0.60

0.65

Newman (F.R.M.) CBθ Correcon

Experiment MichellWigley (F.R.M.)

Fig. 10.5 Cross-plot graph of all methods of solution (C W × 1000 vs. F N ) for PV rmn

0.55

PV rmn (LCS) CW x 1000 - FN

5

C W x1000

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.55

FN Experiment MichellWigley (F.R.M.)

Newman (F.R.M.) CBθ Correcon

Future research should consider the potential effects of a range of Froude numbers in the regression procedures more carefully. Since these values have significant influence on the overall percentage of correction, researchers should devise a method on selecting suitable range of Froude numbers used. A fatter models might use a lower range of Froude numbers, while maintaining broader increment. These assumptions might be necessary to be addressed in the future studies.

10 Ship Wave Resistance by Final Root Method of Solution with Corrections … Fig. 10.6 Cross-plot graph of all methods of solution (C W × 1000 vs. F N ) for P. Tanker

119

Product Tanker CWx1000 - FN

2 1.8

C W x1000

1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.14

0.16

0.18 Experiment

0.2

FN

0.22

0.24

0.26

Newman (F.R.M.)

References 1. Michell JH (1898) Ship wave resistance. Phil Mag 45(5):106–123 2. Wigley CS (1942) Calculated and measured wave resistances for a series of forms defined algebraically, the prismatic coefficient and angle of entrance being varied independently. Trans RINA 84:52–74 3. Tuck EO (1989) The wave resistance formula of J. H. Michell’s and its significance in ship hydrodynamics. J Austral Math 30:365–377 4. Kamil MS, Muslim M (2017) A solution of an improper integral equation of ship wave resistance. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 12(4):1281–1285 5. Kamil MS, Muslim M, Ali I (2017) Solving wave flow energy propagated by twin-hull ships (catamarans). New J Phys 822(1742–6596):012057 6. Kamil MS et al (2019) Applicability of J. N. Newman ship wave integral equation of linear thin ship theory for a fuller hull form solved by final root method. Test Eng Manag 8017–8023

Chapter 11

Comparative Study of Ship Wave Resistance by Various Methods of Solution Md. Salim Kamil, Mohamad Amir Azfar Roslan, and Muhammad Fauzan Misran Abstract Nowadays, there are various ship design software packages that make use of special understanding or theories on ship hydrodynamics to cope with the demand by the shipbuilding industry. This paper focuses on comparing the accuracy of various (selected) software or program packages in calculating the ship wave resistance by relevant theories solved by various methods of solution and comparing the results with experimental model test results. A comparison was made between Maxsurf resistance software utilizing the relevant theories and methods of solution by Holtrop and Mennen and the Slender Body theories, Ship Flow CFD software, and the final root method with the MSK-ESolver software. The embedded algorithm inside each software program was tested for their accuracy by using the same hull forms (wigley and offshore patrol vessel hull forms). The selection of each hull form was based on their practicality in this study. The Wigley hull form represents the mathematical parts of the research as the hull form itself was generated by a generally known formula. The offshore patrol vessel (OPV) hull form on the other hand represents the actual ship shape hull form (currently in service) for research practicality and relevancy for the shipbuilding industry. Series of calculations were computed based on Holtrop & Mennen, Slender Body theories, Ship Flow CFD, and final root method of solutions. The baseline of each finding was referred to the model test (towing tank experiment) results for comparing the accuracy of the results. Sets of graphs of wave resistance Rw against Froude number proved the accuracy of the Md. Salim Kamil (B) Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Dataran Industri Teknologi Kejuruteraan Marin, Bandar Teknologi Maritim, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. A. A. Roslan Grade One Marine Shipyard Sdn Bhd, Plot D3 Lumut Port Industrial Park Kawasan Perumahan Kg Acheh, 32000 Sitiawan, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. F. Misran Gading Marine (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot A2 Lumut Port Industrial Park Jalan Kampung Acheh, 32000 Sitiawan, Perak, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_11

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results for each calculation method. The trendlines that mimic or closest to the results of the model tests are considered as the most accurate methods of solution. Research discussion and conclusion are presented explicitly based on these findings. The final root method of solution with the MSK-ESolver software shown by the cross-plotted graphs are the closest to that of the graph of the experimental data. The percentage differences for final root method with MSK-ESolver software are also very small within 2.5–4.7% as compared to the experimental data from the model tests. Keywords Maxsurf resistance · Ship flow · MSK-ESolver

11.1 Introduction Ship wave resistance has long been studied scientifically and related mathematically since the end of 1800 by the well-known pioneer researcher, Michell [1]. The ship powering estimate is the most critical aspect to be considered in the ship design. Based on a general understanding of ship powering, the ship resistance is the main factor affecting the ship thrust efficiency. Further studies on ship wave resistance had been carried out by Michell’s predecessors [2–4] in the past and by many researchers in recent years [5–8]. Ship wave resistance contributes the highest percentage to the ship total resistance, Rt . In the predicting the ship wave resistance, Holtrop & Mennen2 and Slender Body theories embedded in Maxsurf software were widely used primarily in any software related to wave resistance calculation. Other than that, the ship flow software calculates ship wave resistance by utilising the finite element analysis approach of fluid behaviour or by computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The MSK-ESolver software calculates the ship wave resistance by using the final root method. It has been proven that the accuracy of the ship wave resistance calculated by the final root method is as nearly accurate as those of the experimental results. This research is focused on determining the accuracy of the various methods for calculating the ship wave resistance by comparing the calculated ship wave resistance results with those of the model test results.

11.2 Research Methodology There are four stages of methodologies in carrying out the studies in this research. At the first stage, the flow of this research starts from understanding the fundamental theory used in MSK-ESolver in which the final root method of solution is used, Maxsurf resistance with the embedded formulation of Holtrop and Mennen and slender body theories. The ship Flow CFD software is also used to solve the ship wave resistance. Secondly, in the analysis processes, two models, i.e., Wigley and offshore petrol vessel (OPV) hull forms, are used in the study to calculate the total resistance and the ship wave resistance. These hull forms are drawn in Maxsurf which

11 Comparative Study of Ship Wave Resistance … Table 11.1 a Principal particulars of the models, b the principal particulars of the models

123

Wigley hull principal particulars Length between perpendiculars, LBP

1.800 m

Length of waterline, LWL

1.800 m

Draft, T

0.113 m

Beam waterline, Bwl

0.180 m

Wetted surface area, S at draft T

0.482 m2

Offshore patrol vessel (OPV) principal particulars Length between perpendiculars, LBP

6.842 m

Length of waterline, LWL

6.831 m

Draft, T

0.289 m

Beam waterline, Bwl

0.975 m

Wetted surface area, S at draft T

0.6577 m2

were first developed by Rhino Software to achieve the highest degree of accuracy as possible. Thirdly, the Ship Flow CFD software is used to calculate the ship wave resistance for the model design. Fourth and finally, the results obtained from the various methods to determine the most accurate results for calculating the ship wave resistance are analyzed and compared against the experimental results. The principal particulars of the models used in the study are given in Table 11.1.

11.3 Result and Discussion Based on the graphs of the ship wave resistance given in Tables 11.2 and 11.3 plotted in Figs. 11.1 and 11.2, it shows very clearly that the results obtained by the final root methods with the MSK-ESolver software give the most identical output results as matched to the model test results of the Wigley hull. The cros s-plot of the graph for the final root method with MSK-ESolver software follows the trend of the graph of the experimental results, and it gives the smallest percentage deviation when compared to the other methods. The results obtained from the Ship Flow CFD software are the least accurate and diverges most in the prediction of the ship wave resistance. Similarly, in the calculation of the ship wave resistance of the OPV hull, it is also clearly shown that the calculation of the ship wave resistance solved by final root method with the MSK-ESolver software gives the most accurate results as shown in the graphs of Fig. 11.2 and calculated results in Table 11.2. The graph of the coefficient of ship wave resistance versus Froude number for the final root method with MSK-ESolver software of the OPV hull is the closest to those of the experimental data and of the smallest percentage difference among other methods. Again, the results from the Ship Flow CFD software are the least accurate for the prediction of the ship wave resistance of all.

CW *1000

2.599

3.824

4.471

4.435

4.296

4.16

4.056

CW *1000

2.681

3.951

4.637

4.609

4.485

4.345

4.278

5.19

4.26

4.21

3.78

3.58

3.21

3.06

% Difference

Holtrop

2.539447

2.638689

2.734209

2.854209

3.009399

3.26343

3.372964

CW *1000

40.64

39.27

39.04

38.07

35.10

1.14878

1.389904

1.695371

2.159912

2.730714

3.564609

4.484088

− 25.81 17.40

CW *1000

Slender doby % Difference

73.14679757

68.01141541

62.19908584

53.13707963

41.11032995

9.779574791

− 67.25430809

% Difference

2.051357861

2.939733874

4.04497837

5.434555662

7.296129625

10.17650097

13.28768599

CW *1000

CFD

52.04867084

32.34214329

9.810961651

− 20.08148539

− 57.34590523

− 157.567729

− 395.6242444

% Difference

The wave resistance coefficiet is a measure of the wave resistance R Newton (N) i.e. R = 0.5 CW SV2 , S is the wetted surface area in m and V is the speed of the ship model in m/s. The % difference is referred to the experimental CW

MSK

Experimental

Difference comparison with experimental data

Table 11.2 Ship wave resistance coefficient calculated data (Wigley hull)

124 Md. Salim Kamil et al.

MSK

Cw * 1000

2.495

3.233

4.123

4.604

4.697

Experimental

Cw * 1000

2.565

3.323

4.222

4.738

4.842

2.99

2.83

2.34

2.71

2.73

% Difference

Difference comparison with experimental data

5.551645

5.092498

4.253789

3.200287

2.067366

Cw * 1000

Holtrop

6.018657 7.410893 7.956448 7.82173

− 0.75 − 7.48 − 14.66

3.9609

Cw * 1000

Slender body

3.69

19.40

% Difference

Table 11.3 Ship wave resistance coefficient calculated data (OPV Hull)

− 81.12118568

− 61.53923998

− 67.92840861

4.007613359

3.806797458

3.444510084

2.819345655 3.279146966

− 54.42105263 − 75.53038844

Cw * 1000

CFD % Difference

19.23227264

19.56391603

18.41520409

1.31968204

− 9.916009941

% Difference

11 Comparative Study of Ship Wave Resistance … 125

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Wave Resistance Coefficiant (x1000)

14 12 10 EXPERIMENTAL

8

HOLTROP 6

MSK

4

SLENDER BODY CFD

2 0

0.3

0.5

0.7

0.9

1.1

SHIP FLOW CFD

Froude Number (Fn) Fig. 11.1 Cross-plots of ship wave resistance coefficient comparison—Wigley hull

Wave Resistance Coefficiant (x1000)

8.5 7.5 6.5 EXPERIMENTAL

5.5

MSK 4.5

HOLTROP SLENDER BODY

3.5

SHIPFLOW

2.5 1.5

SHIP FLOW CFD 0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.55

Froude Number (Fn)

Fig. 11.2 Cross-plots of ship wave resistance coefficient comparison—OPV hull

11.4 Conclusion MSK-ESolver is an alternative method to calculate the ship wave resistance. MSKESolver [6–8] used a mathematical formula that is of Michel integral [1] formula simplified by Wigley [2–4] and solved by the final root method. The ship wave resistance integrals by Michell contain infinite roots of the solution, making it inaccurate if it is solved asymptotically. The final root method replaces the maximum limit

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of the integration θ = π/2 of the original Michell–Wigley mathematical expression by 8pmax . Thus, by using the final root method of solution, it solves the ship wave resistance integral by integration until the last root of the solution before it tends to infinity. The results obtained by the final root method with MSK-ESolver software for Wigley and offshore patrol vessel hulls are obviously found to be more accurate when comparing with Holtrop and Mennen [5] and slender body theories used in Maxsurf and also from that of the Ship Flow CFD software. All of the final root method with the MSK-ESolver software cross-plotted graphs are the closest graphs to that of the experimental data. The percentage differences for MSK-ESolver are also very small within 2.5–4.7% as compared to the experimental data. In a nutshell, all of the objectives of this research paper were accomplished and achieved. The comparative studies on solving ship wave resistance by using Holtrop and Mennen and slender body theories with the Maxsurf software, Ship Flow CFD software and the final root methods [2] with the MSK-ESolver software versus experimental results have therefore been completed and analyzed successfully. The degrees of accuracy of the calculated ship wave resistance have been compared to each other versus the experimental results. The most accurate method of solution for the prediction of ship wave resistance had been clearly identified, that is the final rood method with the MSK-ESolver software.

References 1. Michell JH (1898) The wave resistance of a ship. Philos Mag (Abingdon) 45(5):106–123 2. Wigley CS (1926) Ship wave resistance, a comparison of mathematical theory with experimental results. INA 124–141 3. Wigley CS (1942) Calculated and measured wave resistances for a series of forms defined algebraically, the prismatic coefficient and angle of entrance being varied independently. Trans INA 84:52–74 4. Wigley WCS, Lunde JK (1948) Calculated and observed wave resistances for a series of forms of fuller midsections. Trans INA 90:92–110 5. Holtrop J, Mennen GGJ (1978) A statistical power prediction method. Int Shipbuild Prog 25:166– 168 6. Kamil MS, Muslim M (2017) A solution of an improper integral equation of ship wave resistance. J Eng Appl Sci 12(4):1281–1285 7. Kamil MS, Muslim M (2017) Solving wave flow energy propagated by twin-hull ships. New J. Phys 822:012057 8. Kamil MS et al (2019) Applicability of J.N. Newman ship wave integral equation of linear thin ship theory for a fuller hull form solved by final root. Method Test Eng Manag 8017–8023

Chapter 12

Effect of Cold Forging on Wire Arc Additive Manufactured Profiles for Repair Purposes Mohammad Ajwad Roslee, Ahmad Baharuddin Abdullah, Zuhailawati Hussain, and Zarirah Karrim Wani Abstract Metal additive manufacturing owns a huge potential in meeting the demand for low and medium production volume with high flexibility of product shape complexity. The current technique to obtain net shape is limited due to strength and lead time issues. In this work, a 3D profile was constructed using manual TIG welding and a new strategy was proposed, where a cold forging process is introduced to obtain the net shape. The main aim of this project is to evaluate the tensile properties and hardness of AA4043 wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) at two conditions, i.e., forged and unforged. The profiles were constructed at different welding orientations and directions. The result revealed that unforged specimen; the UTS and yield strength were reduced at approximately 34% to 188 MPa and 177 MPa from 285 and 270 MPa, respectively. However, for the forged specimen, the strength increased. Similarly, on the Vickers hardness reduced up to 45% for the unforged specimen but increased after forging at approximately 60% from 45 to 72 HV. In conclusion, strain hardening via forging improves the strength and hardness of AA4043 wire arc additive manufacturing. Keywords WAAM · AA4043 · Strain hardening · Cold forging · Repair

M. A. Roslee · A. B. Abdullah (B) · Z. K. Wani Metal Forming Research Lab, School of Mechanical Engineering, USM Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Z. K. Wani e-mail: [email protected] Z. Hussain School of Material and Mineral Resources Engineering, USM Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_12

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12.1 Introduction Metal additive manufacturing gets a lot of attention recently. Its offer many advantages compared to other 3D printing technologies including reduction in lead time cost saving via reduced wastage and shows great improvement in design approach [1]. Metal additive manufacturing or printing methods available in the market can be divided into four main categories: powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition (powder and wire), binder jetting, and sheet lamination [2]. 3D printing of metal parts utilizing the welding operation is a near net manufacturing and requires an additional process before finish or net part can be produced. Typically, machining is the preferred method for its flexibility in gaining various profiles and shapes, that are capable to be performed on any machining facility. Unfortunately, machining requires a longer time and it can alter the strength of fabricated parts as proven that heat from the process affects the material properties such as strength and hardness [3]. There are a few applications of the wire arc additive manufacturing techniques. Uzonyi [4] utilized wire arc additive manufacturing to repair a forging die. Ta¸sdemir and Nohut [5] which focused on ship building industry, have shown that in terms of material availability, cost, and design complexity, the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has proven to replace other conventional methods in making large parts. WAAM offers the possibility to create complex geometries, which allows the production of novel, lightweight structures [6]. Derekar [7] and Wu et al. [8] listed the common defect which are deformation, porosity, and cracking. Hence, some series of aluminum alloys, such as Al 7xxx and 6xxx, are challenging to weld due to turbulent melt pools and weld defects. This is due to the formation of an aluminum oxide layer and solidification behavior [9]. In addition, most of the as-deposited aluminum parts undergo a post-process heat treatment to improve the mechanical properties such as tensile strength. Other methods to improve parts quality are interpass cold rolling, inter-pass cooling and peening, and ultrasonic treatment. Le et al. [10] studied the effects of free cooling and active cooling on the surface roughness, microstructures, and material properties of SS308L walls manufactured by wire arc additive manufacturing. They found that active cooling method can be considered as a good solution to improve the external and internal qualities of WAAM SS308L walls and productivity. Miao et al. [11] investigated the influence of laser energy on the microstructure and mechanical properties between laser-arc hybrid additive manufacturing (LAHAM) and wire arc additive manufacturing. They found that the mechanical properties are improved due to the finer gains, reduced Si segregation, and crack deflection. Xia et al. [12] reviewed the automation of the wire arc additive manufacturing system emphasis on monitoring, control, and framework. This is because path planning is suspected to be one of the reasons for less strength of the welded profile [9]. Residual stress issues, mechanical properties improvement, and defects elimination are among the challenges in WAAM [13]. Wire arc additive manufacturing using tungsten inert gas (TIG) is less popular compared to other welding techniques such as metal inert gas (MIG) or other arc

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welding. This is because it requires a higher skill personal to perform the welding and price is relatively higher. In general, the advantages of TIG is more flexible and produced better quality deposition [14] and weld strength compared to others [15]. Furthermore, TIG is more energy efficient [14] and commonly applied for highly reactive materials such as high-alloyed steels as well as titanium and nickel-based alloys [16, 17]. However, from literatures, studies on aluminum alloys still lacking. Dash [18] optimized the welding parameters on GTAW of AA2319 as filler and AA2219 as substrate. From his finding, the hardness increases as the heat treatment was introduced to the welded bead. All suggested ways to improve the strength requires high investment and it usually takes longer time. In this paper, another alternative way, i.e., by a forging process is going to be proposed. As the process can be performed faster compared to machining and it is capable to strengthen the part integrity and improves the surface finish in a single process.

12.2 Methodology The methodology begins with the preparation of the sample and then followed by parameters considered in the study and finally the test conducted to measure the properties such as and tensile hardness test. Sample Preparation The sample was prepared using the TIG welding machine. The filler rod is made of AA4043. The AA4043 is a wrought aluminum alloy with good corrosion resistance typically used as filler material. Composition of the material is as shown in Table 12.1 and material properties as listed in Table 12.2. In this study, three welding parameters were considered, i.e., thickness ratio, welding direction, and welding orientation. The thickness ratio can be described as the thickness of the sample after forging to the thickness of the sample before forging. For each parameter, three levels were considered as summarized in Table 12.3. Table 12.1 Weight percentage of the AA4043 [19] Element

Al

Si

Fe

Cu

Mn

Mg

Zn

Ti

Be

Weight (%)

92.3–95.5

4.5–6.0

0.80

0.30

0.05

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.0003

Table 12.2 Material properties of AA4043 [19]

Hardness, vickers

87

Tensile strength, ultimate

285 MPa

Tensile strength, yield

270 MPa

Elongation at break

0.50%

Poisson’s ratio

0.34

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Table 12.3 Parameters and levels considered in the experiment

Table 12.4 Pre-forged thickness and thickness ratio for each level

Factors

1

2

3

Thickness ratio, A

2.33

3.33

5.0

Welding direction, B

Horizontal

Vertical

Alternating

Welding orientation, C

Side

Upright

Flat

Level

Pre-forged thickness (mm)

Target forged thickness (mm)

Thickness ratio

1

7.0

3.0

2.33

2

10.0

3.0

3.33

3

15.0

3.0

5.00

Welding orientation The orientation of the sample to the base metal can affect its tensile strength as it determines the direction of the layers. Three orientations were used: flat, side, and upright. Welding direction Printing direction also has the same effect as the welding orientation as it also affects the layer orientation. Three directions were used: horizontal, vertical, and alternating between both directions each layer. Thickness Ratio The thickness of the samples can affect its hardness after forging as the sample volume increases. For this experiment, the thickness is controlled by the number of initial welding lines in side and upright orientation. For the flat orientation, the number of welding layers will try to the match intended thickness (Table 12.4). Based on the DoE, nine sample sets for the experiment were identified as summarized in Table 12.5. The use of DoE may reduce the number of experiments and avoid repeating of experiments. The deposited profile will be evaluated based on three tests, i.e., tensile test, hardness test, and microstructure observation using SEM, which will be further elaborated later. Sample Experiment Hardness test Hardness test was conducted using the Vickers hardness scale (HV) since AA4043 is a soft metal. Each sample was tested at five points on its surfaces before and after forging. The average value of the recorded value was calculated for comparison. Figures 12.1 and 12.2 show the definition of specimen at

12 Effect of Cold Forging on Wire Arc Additive … Table 12.5 Sample set with parameters description

133

Sample set

Thickness ratio

Welding direction

Welding orientation

A

2.33

Horizontal

Side

B

2.33

Vertical

Upright

C

2.33

Alternating

Flat

D

3.33

Horizontal

Upright

E

3.33

Vertical

Flat

F

3.33

Alternating

Side

G

5.00

Horizontal

Flat

H

5.00

Vertical

Side

I

5.00

Alternating

Upright

Fig. 12.1 The sample orientation to base metal: (1) upright (2) side (3) flat

Fig. 12.2 Printing direction in respect to flat orientation: (1) horizontal (2) vertical

Fig. 12.3 Welded nugget after few forging stages, a unforged, b forged at flat orientation, c forged at side orientation and d forged at upright orientation

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Fig. 12.4 Samples used for etching

different orientation and direction respectively. While Figure 12.3 a-d show the prepared specimens for hardness test. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis To observe the difference in structure at the microscopic level, SEM analysis was used. The samples were cut into small pieces and put in a small mold for ease of capturing a stable image, shown as in Fig. 12.4. To capture the grain structure of the samples, an etching process needs to be done on the process.

12.3 Results and Discussion The experiment was only done on sample set A and F. Each sample has two sets of data. Figure 12.5 shows that there were small differences between the hardness of each sample set. Smaller thickness ratio may yield a lower hardness but for the existing sets, the hardness already reached its peak that the hardness for 5.00 thickness ratio will yield the same result. This can show that thickness may not influence the tensile result of the experiment. Figure 12.6 shows a lot of black holes in both images, but the sizes are smaller in forged images. These black holes may be small air pockets formed inside caused by low quality weld. In MOG welding, voltage and welding speed can influence the quality of samples. High voltage can burn through the metal while high welding speed can produce imperfections, like the air pockets shown in Fig. 12.6. These imperfections can impact the strength of the sample. Forging has shown to decrease the size of these imperfections, minimizing its effect on the welding. Figure 12.7 shows a better quality sample with minimal imperfection. These images also show the grain structure of the sample. The image from the forged sample shows an elongated grain structure compared to the pre-forged image. Cold forming processes like forging have been shown to distort the grain structure of metal and to

12 Effect of Cold Forging on Wire Arc Additive … Fig. 12.5 Pre-forged and forged hardness comparison for sample

135

90 80

Pre-forged hardness

Forged hardness

Hardness (HV)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 A(1)

A(2)

F(1)

F(2)

Samples

Fig. 12.6 Comparison image taken from X1000 magnification of forged (left) and pre-forged (right) for sample A

Fig. 12.7 Comparison image taken from X300 magnification of forged (left) and pre-forged (right) for sample F

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produce anisotropic material properties. This means that a forged sample can show better strength when putting pressure in the right direction.

12.4 Conclusion In conclusion, the results show that cold forging gives a significant effect on the deposited material in terms of hardness. Although forging material with different thickness ratios did not show any significant difference in hardness, the process can help to decrease imperfection leading to less error from sample production, it also introduces anisotropic properties into the sample. This gives a sign that, for repair purposes, wire arc additive manufactured could be an alternative to the current practice on dealing with broken parts. In the future, further exploration on the effect of forging to observe other properties including tensile strength and impact toughness is recommended. Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge USM for sponsoring this project under SATU Joint Research Scheme for year 2021 and Mr Sani and Mr Fakhuruzi for assisting in preparing and conducting the experiment.

References 1. Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G et al (2018) Additive manufacturing (3D printing): a review of materials, methods, applications and challenges. Compos Part B Eng 143:172–196 2. Duda T, Raghavan LV (2016) 3D metal printing technology. IFAC-PapersOnLine 49:103–110 3. Rosli NA, Alkahari MR, Abdollah MF et al (2021) Review on effect of heat input for wire arc additive manufacturing process. J Mater Res Tech 11:2127–2145 4. Uzonyi S (2019) Application of additive manufacturing for the repair of forging dies. Acta Mater Transylvanica 2:121–125 5. Ta¸sdemir A, Nohut S (2020) An overview of wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) in shipbuilding industry. Ships Offshore Struct 1–18 6. Frazier WE (2014) Metal additive manufacturing: a review. J Mater Eng Perform 23:1917–1928 7. Derekar KS (2018) A review of wire arc additive manufacturing and advances in wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminium. Mater Sci Technol (United Kingdom) 34:895–916 8. Wu B, Pan Z, Ding D et al (2018) A review of the wire arc additive manufacturing of metals: properties, defects and quality improvement. J Manuf Process 35:127–139 9. Rodrigues TA, Duarte V, Miranda RM et al (2019) Current status and perspectives on wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Materials (Basel) 12(7):1121 10. Le VT, Mai DS, Hoang QH (2020) Effects of cooling conditions on the shape, microstructures, and material properties of SS308L thin walls built by wire arc additive manufacturing. Mater Lett 280:128580 11. Miao Q, Wu D, Chai D et al (2020) Comparative study of microstructure evaluation and mechanical properties of 4043 aluminum alloy fabricated by wire-based additive manufacturing. Mater Des 186:108205 12. Xia C, Pan Z, Polden J et al (2020) A review on wire arc additive manufacturing: monitoring, control and a framework of automated system. J Manuf Syst 57:31–45

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13. Williams SW, Martina F, Addison et al (2016) Wire + Arc additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Technol (United Kingdom) 32:641–647 14. Gokhale NP, Kala P (2021) Thermal analysis of TIG-WAAM based metal deposition process using finite element method. Mater Today Proc 44:453–459 15. Tabernero I, Paskual A, Álvarez P et al (2018) Study on arc welding processes for high deposition rate additive manufacturing. Procedia CIRP 68:358–362 16. Bai JY, Yang CL, Lin SB et al (2016) Mechanical properties of 2219-Al components produced by additive manufacturing with TIG. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 86:479–485 17. Yilmaz O, Ugla AA (2017) Microstructure characterization of SS308LSi components manufactured by GTAW-based additive manufacturing: shaped metal deposition using pulsed current arc. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 89:13–25 18. Dash SK (2019) Study of wire arc additive manufacturing with aluminum alloy 2219. In: MSc Thesis, University of South Carolina 19. The Aluminum Association, Inc. (2001) International alloy designations and chemical composition limits for wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys. Revised 2001 https://www. aluminum.org/sites/default/files/Teal%20Sheets.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2021

Chapter 13

Investigation of Mesh Size Effect on FRP Confined Concrete Column Simulation Using Finite Element Analysis Zaimi Zainal Mukhtar, Anuar Abu Bakar, Ahmad Fitriadhy, Mohd Shukry Abdul Majid, and Asmalina Mohamed Saat Abstract This paper investigates the mesh size effect on the results of computer modeling of fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) confined concrete. Infinite element analysis, mesh sensitivity or density is a critical issue that relates to the accuracy of the finite element models while directly determining their level of complexity. FRP confined concrete has found increasingly wide application in construction industry due to its high strength to weight ratio and high corrosion resistance factor. In marine industry, current practice shows that composite materials are already being used in a number of marine structures such as high and low-pressure tubing, bridge and jetty as well as accommodation modules for offshore structures. In this study, a finite element analysis (FEA) of circular reinforced concrete (RC) columns fully wrapped with FRP with a size of 300 mm in length and diameter of 150 mm is generated using the ABAQUS software. The thickness of 2 mm FRP layer has been constructed as confinement to the solid concrete body. Concrete damaged plasticity (CDP) and concrete smeared cracking (CSC) approaches had been applied to analyze and predict the non-linear behavior of FRP confined concrete models. During the simulation process, three mesh setups have been used (5, 3, and 2 mm) in order to get the accurate FEA result for the model. Normally, the FE model provides fair Z. Z. Mukhtar (B) · A. M. Saat Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Bandar Teknologi Maritim, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Saat e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Bakar · A. Fitriadhy School of Ocean Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Fitriadhy e-mail: [email protected] M. S. A. Majid School of Mechatronic, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Pauh Campus, 02600 Perlis, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_13

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accurate numerical results and is close to the experimental data. The results from the analysis are compared with available experimental data to validate the model. The result will be presented in terms of stress-strain relationships. Finally, the differences of the result between mesh of 2, 3, and 5 mm will be determined and discussed. Keywords Mesh sensitivity · Concrete damaged plasticity · Concrete smeared cracking · Stress-strain

13.1 Introduction Infinite element analysis (FEA), the accuracy of the FEA outcome and requested computing time are determined by the finite element size (mesh density). Based on FEA theory, the FE models with fine mesh (small element size) yield highly accurate results however it may result in a longer computing time. Those FE models with coarse mesh (large element size) may lead to less accurate results but do save more computing time. In marine industry, current practice shows that composite materials are already being used in a number of marine structures such as high and low-pressure tubing, bridge and jetty as well as accommodation modules for offshore structures. Hence, it is important to prolong the age of the marine structure by using proven technologies. Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) confined concrete has been widely accepted in inland construction technology as a way to reduce cost. This method seems feasible as offshore steel structure space can be filled by concrete and confined by FRP. Micheal and Jeffrey [1] discussed the experimental results to investigate carbonFRP strengthening of an artificially degraded steel beam of circular cross-section (Fig. 1a) under four-point loading. Finally, the steel beam in bending, although it was expected to reach the plastic moment, it only reached 94% of it. However, all the CFRP wrapped specimens did reach the plastic moment and also showed increased ductility. It was concluded that the use of CFRP composites to enhance the strength of tubular steel in underwater applications is perfectly feasible. Marwan et al. [2] presented an experimental study on the axial compressive strength of square and circular concrete column strengthen with FRP wrap (Fig. 13.1b). According to the test result, it was shown that the FRP wrap increases the strength and ductility significantly for circular concrete columns. However, the FRP wrap did not increase the strength of square concrete columns. There are also a number of studies that have been done by many researchers using finite element analysis (FEA) software to predict and validate material behavior. Normally, the FE model provides fair accurate numerical results and is close to the experimental data. Concrete is modeled using a solid eight-node element, see Karabinis et al. [3]. The elastic response of concrete is considered linear by referring to Hooke’s Law: (13.1)

13 Investigation of Mesh Size Effect on FRP Confined Concrete … Fig. 13.1 a Bending test specimen, b compression test specimen

141

a

b

where {b} is the strain tensor, [E] is the constitutive matrix of elasticity,

are the strain tensor and superscript ‘e’ indicates elastic strain. ABAQUS is allowing the user to specify a method of analysis to be applied. Concrete damaged plasticity is one of the common methods to be used in analyzing elastic concrete behavior. The stress-strain relations under uniaxial tension and compression are taken into account according to equations below [4].   pl σt = (1 − dt ) · E 0 · εt − εt   σt = (1 − dc ) · E 0 · εc − εc pl ,

(13.2)

where σ t is the stress in tension, σ c is the stress in compression, εt is the strain in tension, εc is the strain in compression, E 0 is the Initial (Undamaged) elastic stiffness, εt ~pl is the plastic strain in tension and εc ~pl is the plastic strain in compression. The concrete smeared cracking (CSC) method in ABAQUS provides a general capability for modeling concrete in all types of structures. This analysis method is designed for applications in which the concrete is subjected to essentially monotonic straining at low confining pressures and it is intended for the analysis of reinforced concrete structures. The equation applies for this analysis method is as follows: ε = εe + ε p

(13.3)

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where the elastic strain is εe = σ /E c . A number of researchers have studied the effects of elements size on the accuracy of numerical results of different types of analysis and important conclusions have been drawn from previous research. Brocca and Bazant [5] presented a finite element study of the size effect of compressive failure of geometrically similar concrete columns of different sizes. It was observed from their analysis that the increasing element’s size caused a reduction in nominal strength.

13.2 Methodology The ABAQUS software offers a wide range of analyses for material characteristics, such as elastic mechanical properties, inelastic mechanical properties, mass diffusion properties, electrical properties, thermal properties, etc. Depending on the type of material used in the finite element analysis, the desired material behavior can be incorporated. For this analysis, properties that have been applied for each material are explained in Table 13.1. ABAQUS is a finite element analysis program that is widely used in assessing engineering structures. It can be used to simulate structural elements and is also capable of assembling different simple parts to form a more complicated structural element. The ability of ABAQUS to analyze and model cohesive elements accurately makes it the preferable tool for numerical modeling and non-linear analysis of bond characteristics at the FRP confined concrete structure. The FE analytical model of the circular column was constructed in the ABAQUS software with the size of 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in length. The software is used to develop a series of 3D non-linear models for concentrically loaded cylindrical FRP confined concrete structures as applied by Chaudari and Chakrabarti [6] and Riad et al. [7]. All three materials, i.e., concrete, steel, and FRP have been assembled and the coordinate system also has been specified. Concrete damaged plasticity and concrete smeared cracking approaches had been applied to analyze and predict the non-linear behavior of FRP confined concrete models. Due to symmetrical condition, the load is applied as equivalent displacement at the top of the cylindrical column and at the bottom part, fixed or encastre boundary condition has been set as shown in Fig. 13.2. Table 13.1 Material properties

Material

Steel

FRP

CONCRETE

Density, ρ (kg/m3 )

7850

1470

2350

Compressive strength, f (MPa)

255

103.4

38

Young modulus, E (GPa)

210

150

31.8

Poison ratio, 

0.3

0.23

0.2

13 Investigation of Mesh Size Effect on FRP Confined Concrete …

143

Fig. 13.2 Boundary condition setting

13.3 Results and Discussion From the simulation analysis that has been done by using the ABAQUS software for each mesh size (5, 3, and 2 mm), there are three sets of data that have been generated. Figures 13.3 and 13.4 show the plotted stress-strain graph from the simulation results and established experimental data from other researchers. By referring to the result generated by FEA, it shows that the material behavior of FRP confined concrete can be predicted accurately by using the concrete damaged plasticity and concrete smeared cracking method in the ABAQUS software. There are three different mesh sizes (5, 3, and 2 mm) that were adopted in the analysis of the FRP confined concrete in order to investigate the mesh size effect on the model. Fig. 13.3 Experimental versus FEA result by CDP method

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Fig. 13.4 Experimental versus FEA result by CSC method

For the CDP method, the mesh size of 2 mm shows the most accurate result compared to the experimental data produced by Lam and Teng [8] and Marwan et al. [2]. By referring to Fig. 13.3, the mesh size of 5 and 3 mm seem to produce unrealistic results and not to converge giving a ductile and not realistic behavior to the FRP confined concrete model. For the CSC method, the mesh size of 3 mm gives the most accurate result compared to the experimental data produced by Lam and Teng [8] and Marwan et al. [2]. By referring to Fig. 13.4, the mesh size of 5 and 2 mm seem to produce unrealistic results and do not portray the actual behavior of the FRP confined concrete model. In Table 13.2, the summary of overall result especially for the value of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is shown for all mesh conditions, i.e., 5, 3, and 2 mm. The average UTS value from the actual experimental result is 74.2 MPa. For CSC method analysis, after being compared, the closest UTS value is for the mesh of 3 mm at 74.8 MPa. The percentage of difference is approximately 0.94% and the time taken to complete the analysis is 10,080 min. While CDP method analysis, the closest UTS value is for the mesh of 2 mm at 90.8 MPa with 22.37% of the difference from the actual experimental result. The percentage (%) of differences can be reduced if a finer mesh can be applied up to 1 mm with more time taken to complete the analysis. Table 13.2 Summary of CDP and CSC result Method

Mesh size

UTS (Mpa)

Exp. result (Mpa)

CSC

0.005

90.5

74.2

0.003

74.8

74.2

0.94

0.002

62.3

74.2

16.04

0.005

154.6

74.2

108.36

5760

0.003

121.5

74.2

63.75

8352

0.002

90.8

74.2

22.37

11,232

CDP

% of difference 21.97

Time taken (min) 6480 10,080 12,240

13 Investigation of Mesh Size Effect on FRP Confined Concrete …

145

The presented results reveal that different types of structural analysis require appropriate mesh generation schemes similar to what has been found by Roth [9]. The optimal mesh density for the CSC and CDP method analysis can be used as guidelines in creating other finite element models for structural analysis, which will lead to accurate and efficient computer simulations.

13.4 Conclusion This study was focused on the mesh size effect factor in developing a non-linear finite element model for the analysis of FRP confined concrete. The ABAQUS finite element software is employed to model reinforced concrete columns with the concrete damage plasticity and concrete smeared cracking approach. This study shows that the difference between the results from numerical models and experimental tests data are in an acceptable range. For this simulation analysis, models with finer mesh 2 mm for CDP method and 3 mm for CSC method captures the test result better than the models with bigger mesh size (5 mm). According to Ruta and Ozbolt [10], this process is called mesh sensitivity analysis. The interaction between the concrete surface and FRP surface is successfully modeled using the general contact (GC) definition in ABAQUS. In fact, the best bond interaction between material surfaces also has been successfully determined. In conclusion, the effects of element size on the accuracy of finite element models and simulation results were thoroughly investigated through the CDP method analysis and CSC method analysis. This paper only discusses the structures with circular shapes. The mesh strategy recommended here can be applied to model more complicated designs with irregular shapes and even engineering assembly for further validation. The FE models with a fine mesh yield highly accurate results but may take longer computing time and coarse mesh may lead to less accurate results but do save more computing time. Acknowledgments This paper is part of the PhD project of the first author: Constitutive Modeling of FRP Confined Concrete for Underwater Application. We are grateful for the support from the University of Kuala Lumpur (UniKL MIMET) and FTKKI of University Malaysia, Terengganu for this PhD project.

References 1. Micheal VS, Jeffrey AP (2007) FRP materials for the rehabilitation of tubular steel structure for underwater application. Compos Struct 80(3):440–450 2. Marwan NY, Maria QF, Ayman SM (2006) Stress-strain model for concrete confined by FRP composite. Compos Part B Eng 38:614–628

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3. Karabinis AI, Rousakis TC, Manolitsi GE (2008) 3D Finite element analysis of substandard RC columns strengthen by fiber-reinforced polymer sheets. J Compos Constr 12(5):531–540 4. ABAQUS/CAE User’s Manual. Version 6.13 Simulia 2015 5. Brocca M, Bazant ZP (2001) Size effect in concrete columns: finite-element analysis with microplane model. J Struct Eng 127(12):1382–1390 6. Chaudari SV, Chakrabarti MA (2012) Modelling of concrete for nonlinear analysis using finite element code abaqus. Int J Comput Appl T. v 44(7):14–18 7. Riad B, Habib M, Nash EC (2010) FRP confined concrete cylinder: axial compression experiments and strength model. J Reinf Plast Comp 30(16):2469–2488 8. Lam L, Teng JG (2003) Design-oriented stress-strain model for FRP confined concrete. Constr Build Mater 17:471–489 9. Roth S (2009) Influence of mesh density on a finite element model’s response under dynamic loading. J Biol Phys Chem (IJBCS) 9. https://doi.org/10.4024/39RO09C.jbpc.09.04 10. Ruta D, Ozbolt J (2012) Dynamic fracture of concrete compact tension specimen: Mesh Sensitivity Study. In: 9th International conference on engineering fracture mechanics, Germany

Chapter 14

An Efficient Direct Diagonal Hybrid Block Method for Stiff Second Order Differential Equations Norshakila Abd Rasid, Zarina Bibi Ibrahim, Zanariah Abdul Majid, Fudziah Ismail, and Azman Ismail Abstract This research is focused on the formulation, analysis, and implementation of a new direct solver based on the block backward differentiation formula with offstep points for directly solving second order stiff differential equations. The lower triangular form of the matrix transformation provided fewer differential coefficients, caused the algorithm’s implementation at ease since less execution time is needed. The proposed method is tested with the standard second order stiff problems used in the literature. The numerical output upholds the algorithm as an alternative solver for the stiff second order differential equation. Keywords Stiff problems · Off-step points · Block method · Backward differentiation · Diagonally

14.1 Introduction The problem we consider in this paper is an initial value problem (IVP) of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) of second order which can be expressed: N. A. Rasid (B) · A. Ismail Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Ismail e-mail: [email protected] Z. B. Ibrahim · Z. A. Majid · F. Ismail Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Z. A. Majid e-mail: [email protected] F. Ismail e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_14

147

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  y  = f x, y, y  ,

y(a) = η,

y  (a) = ψ, x ∈ [a, b].

(14.1)

We assume that the ODEs in (14.1) have unique solutions within the interval [a, b]. The dynamic model for most physical sciences exploited the structure in (14.1) for defining the behavior of the components and reactions of molecules [1]. As the models are designed without theoretical solutions, the well-known explicit Runge– Kutta appeared to surmount the shortcomings [2]. However, it is pointless toward the stiff system since the solution would not have reached zero in a limited period, and the solution will be unstable [1, 3, 4]. Thus, roughly, a stiff system can be seen as one in which components have very widely varying time scale evaluations. Brugnano et al. [5] explained the concepts and definition of stiffness concerning a time scale in the solutions. The system’s eigenvalues can cause measured stiffness by indicating that the larger the magnitude λ, when λ < 0 will make the system respond quickly. Moreover, the stiffness level will be calculated as the absolute value of the highest eigenvalue divided by the lowest eigenvalue, or called as stiffness ratio. Rapidly changing components caused local instability to happen, necessitating a small step size to counteract the fast fluctuations. The explicit method used the longer time scale for integration, which causes round-off error to accumulate to significant value and eventually affects the computational cost. Thus, when dealing with stiff systems numerically, the implicit technique is used since it assures stability [1, 3, 4]. During their kinetics research in 1952, [6] significantly affected the stiffness area by demonstrating that the backward differentiation formula (BDF) is feasible for stable solutions for stiff problems. Lambert [4] presented the fundamental form of the linear multistep method (LMM) for backward differentiation formulas: m 

ηi yn+i = hκm f n+m ,

(14.2)

i=0

where ηi and κm are constant, h symbolizes the step size used and ηm = 1. Ibrahim et al. [7] improved the BDF method’s structure of (14.2) by computing multiple solution points in a block series. The technique was a block backward differentiation formula (BBDF) and was a forerunner for several effective numerical solvers for stiff ODEs [8–10]. The BBDF is generalized as follows: m 

i yn+i = h

i=0

m 

K i f n+i ,

(14.3)

i=0

where i and K i are r × r coefficients matrices. Later, [9] expanded on the formula layout in (14.3) by creating a hybrid-type formula, HBBDF: 2  i=0

i,k yn+i−2 +

3 

i+3,k yn+ (i+1) = h K k f n+i . 2

i=0

(14.4)

14 An Efficient Direct Diagonal Hybrid Block Method …

149

The scheme’s hybrid points, also known as off-step points, provided a zero-stable approach and exceeded the Dalquist barrier criterion, according to [8]. As stated in [10], the off-step points guaranteed the convergent criteria and produced a highly accurate solution when solving first order ODEs. Compared to the previous methods, the HBBDF method secured the order up to six. The high-order approach maintained good accuracy by reducing accumulated global error after several iterations. However, the existence of off-step points necessitates an increase in computing time. Thus, we build the structure of the direct method, diagonally implicit BBDF by combining the hybrid-type formula in (14.4) into diagonally implicit, which is the structure of the matrix in a lower triangular form with unequal diagonal elements. This paper focuses on developing the diagonally implicit block backward differentiation formula with off-step points for directly solving second order stiff ODEs. This alternative method is restructured based on the methods mentioned in [9] and [10], but the goal is to solve stiff second order ODEs.

14.2 Methodology 14.2.1 Derivation of DBBDFO2 This section provides information on the derivation of the direct method, diagonally implicit BBDF with off-step points (DBBDFO2) using the Lagrange interpolation polynomial given as follows: Pk (x) = f (xn+2 )L k,1 (x) + f (xn+1 )L k,2 (x) + . . . + f (xn+2−k )L k,k (x) =

k 

f (xn+2−i )L k,i (x),

i=1

where =

k 



i=0,i= j

3 1 (x − xn+i )  for each j = 0, , 1, , 2, 3, 4 2 2 xn+ j − xn+i

(14.5)

The block procedure approximates the solutions in (14.1). The process involves calculating two solution points yn+1 and yn+2 , with two off-step points yn+1/2 and yn+3/2 , simultaneously at a single iteration. The iteration continues to divide the interval [ab] into a series of blocks with equal distant, h until the interval is over. The derivation of DBBDFO2 involves manipulating back values with solution points in an implicit diagonal way in (14.5). Pk (x) in (14.5) formulated the point yn+1/2 by defining the variable substitution s = (x − xn+1/2 )/ h with four interpolating points, xn−2 , xn−1 , xn , and xn+1/2 , as follow:   p sh + xn+1/2 =

    sh + xn+1/2 − xn−1 . . . sh + xn+1/2 − xn+1/2 yn−2 + . . . + (−h) . . . (−(5/2)h)

150

N. A. Rasid et al.     sh + xn+1/2 − xn−2 . . . sh + xn+1/2 − xn yn+1/2 ((5/2)h) . . . ((1/2)h)

(14.6)

Then, we differentiate twice with the independent  variable s in (14.6).  Next, by and letting s = 0, and equating the first derivative of p sh + xn+1/2 with hyn+1/2 second derivative with h 2 f n+1/2 , eventually yields:







  46 15 5 3  yn+ 21 − yn + yn−1 − yn−2 p sh + xn+ 21 = hyn+ 1 = 2 15 4 6 20  



 24 4 yn+ 21 − (8)yn + (4)yn−1 − yn−2 (14.7) p  sh + xn+ 21 = h 2 f n+ 21 = 5 5 

The following points repeated the same process with interpolating points, which must sequentially increase as the points’ interval increases to guarantee the coefficients matrix in diagonal form. For yn+1 , s = 21 ,  hyn+1

h 2 f n+1







 23 32 1 1 yn+1 − yn+ 21 + (3)yn − yn−1 + yn−2 = 6 5 2 15 





 28 352 10 7 yn+1 − yn+ 21 + (17)yn − yn−1 + yn−2 = 3 15 3 15 (14.8)

For yn+3/2 , s = 1,  hyn+ 3 2

h 2 f n+3/2





 457 35 35 yn+ 23 − yn+1 + (7)yn+ 21 − yn = 105 4 12



 7 1 yn−1 − yn−2 + 20 28   





 464 247 704 43 yn+ 23 − yn+1 + yn+ 21 − yn = 35 6 15 2 



83 61 yn−1 − yn−2 + (14.9) 30 210

For yn+2 , s = 23 ,   



19 384 128 yn+2 − yn+ 23 + (12)yn+1 − yn+ 21 4 35 15 



4 3 yn−1 + yn−2 + (3)yn − 15 140   



601 2112 3136 yn+2 − yn+ 23 + (90)yn+1 − yn+ 21 = 36 35 45

 hyn+2 =

h 2 f n+2



14 An Efficient Direct Diagonal Hybrid Block Method …

+

  



51 106 27 yn − yn−1 + yn−2 2 45 140

151

(14.10)

14.2.2 Theoretical Analysis of DBBDFO2 Convergence is a criterion used in measuring the accuracy of method approaches to the exact solution. As stated in [4], LMM in (14.2) is said to be convergent if and only if it satisfied consistency and zero-stable. The DBBDFO2 in (14.7), (14.8), (14.9), and (14.10) is generalized into the matrix form of ⎡

⎤ 0 0 0 46/15 −15/4 0 5/6 0 ⎢ 0 0 0 1 −5/3 0 5/6 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 23/6 −32/5 3 0 −1/2 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 0 1 −88/35 51/28 0 −5/14 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 457/105 −35/4 7 −35/12 0 7/20 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 −8645/2784 308/87 −1505/928 0 581/2784 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 19/4 −384/35 12 −128/15 3 0 −4/15 0 ⎦ 1 −76032/21035 3240/601 −12544/3005 918/601 0 −424/3005 0 ⎤⎡ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ yn−2 −3/20 0000000 yn+2 ⎢ ⎢ yn+3/2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ −1/6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥ ⎥⎢ yn−5/2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥ ⎢ 1/15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ yn−3 ⎥ ⎢ n+1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1/20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ yn−7/2 ⎥ ⎢ yn+1/2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥ ⎢ yn ⎥ ⎢ −1/28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ yn−4 ⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ yn−1/2 ⎥ ⎢ −61/2784 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ yn−9/2 ⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ yn−1 ⎦ ⎣ 3/14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎦⎣ yn−5 ⎦ −243/21035 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 yn−3/2 yn−11/2 ⎤⎡  ⎡ ⎤ yn+2 00010000  ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ yn+3/2 ⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ y  ⎥ ⎥⎢ n+1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ y  ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ n+1/2 ⎥ =⎢ (14.11) ⎥⎢  ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ yn ⎥ ⎥⎢  ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ yn−1/2 ⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎦⎣ y  ⎦ n−1  00000000 yn−3/2 Theorem 2.1 The LMM is said to be consistent if it has order at least one and satisfied the following two conditions below [4].

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(a)

(b)

ϕk = ϕ0 + ϕ1 + ϕ2 + ϕ3 + ϕ4 + ϕ5 + ϕ6 + ϕ7 + ϕ8 + ϕ9 + ϕ10

k=0 16  k=0

16 

.

+ ϕ11 + ϕ12 + ϕ13 + ϕ14 + ϕ15 + ϕ16 = [000000000]T ; 16  kϕk = 2θk k=0

kϕk = 0ϕ0 + 1ϕ1 + 2ϕ2 + 3ϕ3 + 4ϕ4 + 5ϕ5 + 6ϕ6 + 7ϕ7 + 8ϕ8 + 9ϕ9 + 10ϕ10

k=0

+ 11ϕ11 + 12ϕ12 + 13ϕ13 + 14ϕ14 + 15ϕ15 + 16ϕ16 = [020202020]T ; 16 

2θk = 2θ0 + 2θ1 + 2θ2 + 2θ3 + 2θ4 + 2θ5 + 2θ6 + 2θ7 + 2θ8 + 2θ9 + 2θ10

k=0

+ 2θ11 + 2θ12 + 2θ13 + 2θ14 + 2θ15 + 2θ16 = [020202020]T . It satisfied both conditions, hence implies that the DBBDFO2 is a consistent method. Theorem 2.2 The LMM is said to be zero-stable if no roots of the first characteristic polynomial p(ξ ) has modulus greater than one, and if every root of modulus one has multiplicity not greater than two [4]. We tested the zero-stable condition of the method by applying the following linear second order test equation to the matrix form of (14.11): f = y  = ϕy  + y.

(14.12)

Let, H1 = h 2 and H2 = hϕ. We set up H1 = H2 = 0 to obtain stability polynomial of DBBDFO2 p(ξ ) = ξ 16 −

1497143 15 399116 14 33107 13 ξ − ξ − ξ 732018 366009 732018

(14.13)

Solve for ξ in Eq. (14.13) and obtain the following roots ξ1 = . . . = ξ13 = 0, ξ14 =

33107 , ξ15 = ξ16 = 1 732018

(14.14)

Based on Eq. (14.14), the DBBDFO2 proved to be zero-stable. Since it is satisfied the properties of consistency and zero-stable, thus, DBBDFO2 is a convergent method.

14 An Efficient Direct Diagonal Hybrid Block Method …

153

14.3 Results and Discussion In this section, we present the performance of the direct method, DBBDFO2, for solving second order ODEs problems. The problems comprise single-model ODEs that have complex eigenvalues which are taken from [11] and listed below: Problem 3.1 y  = −40y  (x) − 4000y(x) + 24, y(0) = y  (0) = 0, x ∈ [0, 2]. Eigenvalues = −20 ± 60i, Exact solution y(x) = (1/500)e−20x (−3 cos 60x − sin 60x) + (3/500). Problem 3.2 y  = −125y  (x) − 5000y(x),

y(0) = 0, y  (0) = 4, x ∈ [0, 2].

 √ Eigenvalues = −(125/2) ± 25 7 /2 i,  √  √ Exact solution y(x) = 8 7 /175 e−(125/2)x (sin 25 7 /2 x). Problem 3.3 y  = −100y  (x) − 10000y(x), y(0) = −3, y  (0) = 0, x ∈ [0, 2] √ Eigenvalues = −50 ± 50 3i,  √ √  √ Exact solution y(x) = e−50x (−3 cos 50 3x + 3 sin 50 3x . The basis analysis in terms of maximum error and execution times for DBBDFO2 contrasts with existing direct fully implicit BBDF and direct diagonally implicit BBDF by [12]. We use the following notations in the tables: h

Step size

MAXE

Maximum error

TIME

CPU times in microseconds

2BBDF

Direct fully implicit BBDF by [12]

2DBBDF

Direct diagonally implicit BBDF by [12]

DBBDFO2

Derived method

The overall numerical result in Tables 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3 and Figs. 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3 show that the direct approach, DBBDFO2, is retaining competitive solutions in terms of accuracy and execution time at each iteration. As an enhancement from the existing direct diagonal methods, DBBDFO2 outperformed the accuracy of the solution compared to the 2DBBDF. The presence of off-step points escalated the accuracy by directly solving and providing the solutions at half of the grid points.

154 Table 14.1 Numerical result for Problem 3.1

Table 14.2 Numerical result for Problem 3.2

Table 14.3 Numerical result for Problem 3.3

N. A. Rasid et al. h

Methods

MAXE

TIME

10−2

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

1.990385e-02 1.098549e-01 4.865158e-02

0.000342 0.000101 0.000238

10−4

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

5.948525e-06 1.833918e-05 3.186735e-06

0.022674 0.007951 0.017666

10−6

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

1.871161e-09 3.558123e-09 5.526289e-09

2.435427 0.755427 1.739607

h

Methods

MAXE

TIME

10−2

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

4.336405e-03 6.646712e-03 8.718932e-03

0.000212 0.000063 0.000162

10−4

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

4.334257e-06 2.127455e-05 1.698061e-06

0.014953 0.004487 0.010002

10−6

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

6.644807e-10 1.919460e-09 1.461200e-09

1.378823 0.401674 0.997978

h

Methods

MAXE

TIME

10−2

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

5.904380e-01 1.850212e+00 5.797356e-01

0.000342 0.000101 0.000238

10−4

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

1.711503e-04 1.260433e-03 1.000421e-04

0.022674 0.007951 0.017666

10−6

2BBDF 2DBBDF DBBDFO2

4.192564e-08 9.749140e-08 8.839204e-08

1.570732 0.473006 1.152614

However, it became unavoidable for the execution time to increase moderately than 2DBBDF. Meanwhile, the DBBDFO2 provides a better solution than 2BBDF by demanding less time for running the code when solving all test problems. Furthermore, the DBBDFO2 gives competitive accuracy compared to 2BBDF, even though 2BBDF is a fully implicit method with one order higher.

14 An Efficient Direct Diagonal Hybrid Block Method …

155

Fig. 14.1 Efficiency curve for Problem 3.1

Fig. 14.2 Efficiency curve for Problem 3.2

14.4 Conclusion As for the summary, we have presented the formulation of the direct fixed-step method, DBBDFO2, using the Lagrange interpolation polynomial. The method satisfied the properties of consistency and zero-stability. Numerical results demonstrated that DBBDFO2 significantly improved the efficiency of the solutions compared to the existing ones, and it will serve as an alternative solver for the second order stiff ODEs.

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Fig. 14.3 Efficiency curve for Problem 3.3

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the referees for their valuable comments.

References 1. Butcher JC, Goodwin N (2008) Numerical methods for ordinary differential equations. John Wiley and Sons, England 2. Rosser JB (1967) A Runge-Kutta for all seasons. SIAM Rev 9:417–452 3. Gear CW (1971) Numerical initial value problems in ordinary differential equations. PrenticeHall, USA 4. Lambert JD (1973) Computational methods in ordinary differential equations. Wiley, New York 5. Brugnano L, Mazzia F, Trigiante D (2011) Fifty years of stiffness. Recent Adv Comput Appl Math 2011:1–21 6. Curtiss CF, Hirschfelder JO (1952) Integration of stiff equations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 38:235–243 7. Ibrahim ZB, Othman KI, Suleiman M (2007) Implicit r-point block backward differentiation formula for solving first-order stiff ODEs. Appl Math Comput 186:558–565 8. Abasi N, Suleiman M (2014) 2-point block BDF method with off-step points for solving stiff ODEs. J Soft Comput Appl 2014:1–15 9. Nasarudin AA, Ibrahim ZB, Rosali H (2020) On the integration of stiff ODEs using block backward differentiation formulas of order six. Symmetry 12:952 10. Rasid NA, Ibrahim ZB, Majid ZA, Ismail F (2021) Formulation of a new implicit method for group implicit BBDF in solving related stiff ordinary differential equations. Math Stat 9:144–150 11. Zawawi ISM (2017) Block backward differentiation alpha-formula for solving stiff ordinary differential equations. PhD Thesis. Universiti Putra Malaysia 12. Zainuddin N (2016) Diagonal r-point variable step variable order block method for second order ordinary differential equations. PhD Thesis. Universiti Putra Malaysia

Chapter 15

Investigation on the Effect of the Bulbous Bow Shape to the Resistance Components and Wave Profiles of Small Ships Iwan Mustaffa Kamal, Nor Adlina Othman, Amirah Nur Fhatihah Mohamad Riza, Yaseen Adnan Ahmed, Mohammed Abdul Hannan, Md Salim Kamil, Mazlan Muslim, and Hamdan Nuruddin Abstract The effect of bulbous bow shapes by varying its protruding length and breadth of the bulb and the height of the bulb nose from the baseline on the resistance components and wave profiles of small ships were investigated using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. A 28.3 m purse seiner and a 35 m research vessel were chosen to be the reference hulls. Different sizes of additive bulbs were added to the purse seiner, and the research vessel stems and all these variations were simulated using the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) numerical simulations with the volume of fluid (VOF) method in modelling the free surface in full scale. The resistance results of the purse seiner and the research vessel without bulbous bow I. M. Kamal (B) · N. A. Othman · M. S. Kamil · M. Muslim · H. Nuruddin Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Jln Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. S. Kamil e-mail: [email protected] M. Muslim e-mail: [email protected] H. Nuruddin e-mail: [email protected] A. N. F. M. Riza Faculty of Ocean Engineering Technology & Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia Y. A. Ahmed Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Hannan The Faculty of Science, Agriculture & Engineering, The University of Newcastle (UoN) Singapore, 6 Temasek Boulevard, #10-02/03, Suntec Tower 4, Singapore e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_15

157

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were validated with experimental test results at corresponding speeds of 10 knots and 11 knots, respectively. A grid independence study was conducted, and all the CFD simulations were simulated using 3.6 and 4.9 million grid cells for the purse seiner and the research vessel, respectively. The purse seiner and the research vessel were added with eight different bulbs sizes varying its protruding length, breadth of the bulb and the height of the bulb nose and were labelled B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7 and B8. From the CFD results, the addition of bulbs seems not to be effective when the volumetric coefficient of the bulb is less than 0.005 for both cases. The bulbs were effective when the volumetric coefficient is in between from 0.01 to 0.09 for both cases. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond the volumetric coefficient of 0.14 and 0.06 for the purse seiner and the research vessel case, respectively. From the wave profile evaluation, it can be seen that the nose of the bulb induced a high-pressure region upstream, corresponding to the first trough of the original bow wave causing a phase shift to the bow wave system, cancelling the wave system from the front shoulder, hence reducing the wave resistance of the purse seiner and the research vessel. Keywords Bulbous bow · Wave resistance · Small ships · RANS

15.1 Introduction There is no doubt that a bulbous bow can be beneficial in reducing the wave resistance of a vessel. The wave resistance reduction is achieved by introducing a high-pressure region upstream at the bow of the vessel. This is done by adding a bulb at the stem of a vessel. This high-pressure region at upstream causes a phase shift to the overall bow wave system. This phase shift eventually will lead to cancellation of the wave system from the front shoulder of the vessel, hence reducing the bow wave system. The phase shift will also lead to a significant reduction to the stern wave system by reducing the diverging and the transverse stern wave system. But one should note that, a poorly designed bulbous bow could reverse the effect of the wave interference, by amplifying the bow wave system instead of reducing it. A more detailed explanation of this wave cancellation can be found in Molland et al. [1] and van Manen and van Oossanen [2]. Typically bulbous bows are fitted for large vessels, i.e. crude oil carriers, tankers, bulk carriers, container carriers and offshore supply vessels. But recently bulbous bow is widely used by small ships such as trawlers, purse seiners, longliners and catamaran ferries. Therefore, the main aim of this paper was to investigate the effect of adding a bulb to small ships. The most comprehensive work on the study on the design of bulbous bow can be found in Kracht [3]. This comprehensive work which was based on a large number of model tests with and without bulbous bow provides guidance on the suitability of fitting a bulbous bow to a ship. In describing the geometry of a bulbous bow, Kracht defined some important quantitative bulb parameters. The important bulb parameters are its protruding length, L PR , the breadth of the bulb, BB , and the height of bulb nose

15 Investigation on the Effect of the Bulbous Bow Shape …

159

from the baseline, Z B . Further to these parameters, Kracht defined six bulb parameter coefficients in his guidance for practical bulbous bow design. The six bulb parameter coefficients are the length parameter C LPR , the breadth parameter C BB , the depth parameter C ZB , the cross-sectional parameter C ABT , the lateral parameter C ABL and the volume parameter C VPR . Kracht recommends some guidelines in determining the best bulb geometry. A few design charts were proposed based on the six bulbs parameter mentioned above. Hoyle [4] investigated the application of different bulb forms to high-speed fine ships using numerical and experimental methods. His work was based on the bulbous bow design curves proposed by Kracht [3]. Nine variations of bulb designs were tested on a naval frigate as the reference hull form named bulb 0 to bulb 9. Bulb 0 was reported to have a reasonable reduction, but superseded by bulbs 4 and 6 at higher speed range. Li et al. [5] investigated the effect of changing the length, the depth and the width of the bulb which was applied to a 49.5 m tuna longline fishing vessel. Using CFD, the conclusion was made that there is some significant reduction in the total resistance of the fishing vessel by lengthening the bulb length, deepening the depth of the bulb and widening the width of the bulb. Nuruddin et al. [6] investigated the wave drag of a 387 m ultra-large container carrier fitted with various forms of implicit bulbs to identify the optimized form of the bulbous design. 27 bulb designs were systematically varied in terms of its bulb protruding length, the bulb breadth and the bulb height. These 27 implicit bulbous bow designs were simulated using a potential flow solver, SHIPFLOW XPAN in order to compute the flow and the pressure distribution around the hull. Nuruddin concluded that the wave resistance coefficient can be reduced by lengthening, widening and increasing the height of the bulb. Some recent work on a systematic study on the effect of the bulbous bow to the resistance of ships can be found in Saral et al. [7]. Using an ITU fishing boat series hull forms as the reference hull, Saral applied the delta, nabla and the ellipticalshaped bulbs to the fishing boat. The study used RANS numerical simulations with the volume of fluid or VOF method in modelling the free surface. The computation is unsteady where the Courant number is set at 5 where the time steps were varied from 0.02 to 0.150 depending on the Froude number. The elliptical type bulbous bow is reported to have a significant reduction in resistance followed by the nabla type and the delta type bulbs. Leal et al. [8] conducted a CFD investigation to study the influence of the bulbous bow to the reduction of the resistance of a 74.4 m offshore patrol vessel (OPV). Validation with towing tank experiments was made, and the difference between the experiment data and the CFD simulation was less than 10%. Three variations of bulbs were tested using RANS simulation at speed of 12–20 knots. All the three cases have significant reductions in the total resistance when compared with the original OPV without a bulbous bow. Similar investigations as the above can also be found in Raju et al. [9] and Chrismianto [10]. Although there are guidelines and design charts provided as mentioned earlier which can be found in Kracht, these design charts are only able to produce acceptable but not the optimum solution in determining the bulb parameters for a given vessel. It is in the opinion of the author that the study of the bulbous bow needs to be done

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specifically for the specific vessel as the reduction in resistance is very dependent on the vessel length and the speed. In this current research, a finite volume method solver was used to simulate the resistance of small ships. A 28.3 m purse seiner and a 34.5 m research vessel were chosen to be the reference hulls. The water surface capturing utilized the VOF method. In this investigation, both of the vessels were added with an additive bulbous bow. There were eight different additive bulbous bow shape configurations following the bulb parameters as recommended by Kracht [3]. All the eight different configurations were compared in terms of their resistance components in full scale. All the eight difference configurations were simulated using the full RANS equations at design speed of 11 knots and 10 knots for the purse seiner and the research vessel, respectively. The wave patterns and the wave profiles along the hull length of the trawler with different eight bulbs sizes were also compared against the hull without bulbous bow.

15.2 Mathematical Background The CFD simulation used in this investigation was based on the finite volume Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) solver implemented by using SHIPFLOW 6.3. Solving the RANS equations gives the time average velocity and pressure. The time average of the Navier–Stokes equations used in the XCHAP solver (RANS solver) can be expressed as given in Eq. (15.1) [11]:      ∂ U j Ui ∂U j ∂Ui ∂P ∂ ∂Ui μ +ρ ρ − ρ Ri + − + ∂t ∂x j ∂ xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂ xi      U j Ui ∂U j ∂ P¯ ∂ ∂Ui ∂Ui +ρ − ρ Ri + − + =ρ μ ∂t ∂x j ∂ xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂ xi     ∂ u j u i + u j u i ∂u j ∂u i ∂u i ∂p ∂ μ +ρ =ρ − ρ Ri + − + ∂t ∂x j ∂ xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂ xi (15.1) where ρ is the density of fluid, U i and U j are the instantaneous velocity components in the Cartesian directions, ui and uj are time average velocity components in the Cartesian coordinates, U i , ui  and uj  are the fluctuating velocity components in the Cartesian directions, x i and x j are the Cartesian coordinates, Ri is the volume force, P is the instantaneous pressure, t is the time, μ is the dynamic viscosity. The timeaveraged continuity equation and the Navier–Stokes equations for incompressible flow are expressed as shown in Eqs. (15.2) and (15.3) [11]. ∂u i =0 ∂ xi

(15.2)

15 Investigation on the Effect of the Bulbous Bow Shape …

∂u i + ∂t

 ∂ u j u i + u j u i ∂x j

= Ri −

   ∂u j ∂u i 1 ∂p ∂ υ + + ρ ∂ xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂ xi

161

(15.3)

where υ is the kinematic viscosity, and υ = μ/ρ. More equations are needed in order to solve the system due to the Reynolds stresses –ρui  uj  . The Boussinesq approximation is used for incompressible flows as shown in Eq. (15.4) [11].  ρu i u j = −μT

∂u j ∂u i + ∂x j ∂ xi



2 + ρkδi j 3

(15.4)

where μT is the turbulent dynamic viscosity and k is the turbulent kinetic energy. Therefore, the Reynolds-averaged equations can be expressed as given in Eq. (15.5) [11].      ∂ u j ui ∂u j ∂u i ∂u i 1 ∂p 2 ∂k ∂ υE + = Ri − − + + ∂t ∂x j ρ ∂ xi 3 ∂ xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂ xi

(15.5)

15.3 Model Experiment for CFD Validation The purse seiner model experiments were conducted at the Marine Technology Centre of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia’s towing tank in order to measure the bare hull resistance without bulbous bow. The towing tank principal dimensions are 120 m in length, 4.0 m wide and 2.5 m deep. In the towing tank test, the model was set to be free in its dynamic trim and its sinkage. The model particulars used in the towing tank test are shown in Table 15.1a, where a scale ratio of 1:12 was used. The research vessel resistance tests without the bulbous bow were conducted at the Australian Maritime College’s (University of Tasmania) towing tank. The towing tank principal dimensions are 100 m in length, 3.55 m wide and 1.5 m deep. The model particulars for the research vessel are shown in Table 15.1, where a scale ratio of 1:20 was used. The results of the model tests for both vessels are shown in Table 15.4. The measured total resistance of the models was normalized to the coefficient of model total resistance C TM using Eq. (15.6): CTM =

RTM 0.5ρfw SM VM2

(15.6)

where RTM is the measured total resistance of the model in N, ρ fw is the freshwater density on kg/m3 , S M is the wetted surface area of the model in m2 , and V M is the model speed towed by the towing tank carriage in m/s. A comprehensive experimental data set of the resistance test of the purse seiner can be found in Muslim [12].

162 Table 15.1 Principal particulars of ship and model for the a 28.3 m purse seiner and the b 34.5 m research vessel

I. M. Kamal et al. (a) Particulars—Purse Seiner

Unit

Ship

Model

Scale ratio

–

12

1

Length overall

m

28.3

2.36

Length perpendiculars

m

23.8

1.98

Beam

m

6.0

0.5

Draft mean

m

1.90

0.16

LCG (from amidships)

m

−0.295

−0.025

VCG above baseline

m

1.993

0.166

Wetted surface area

m2

164.68

1.143

Volume displacement

m3

171.16

0.099

Mid-section area

m2

10.69

0.074

Design speed (11 knots)

m/s

5.66

1.634

(b) Particulars—Research vessel

Unit

Ship

Model

Scale ratio

–

20

1

Length overall

m

34.5

1.725

Length perpendiculars

m

31.38

1.569

Beam

m

10

0.5

Draught mean

m

3.91

0.196

LCG (from transom)

m

16.08

0.804

VCG above baseline

m

5.1

0.255

Wetted surface area

m2

373.52

0.934

Volume displacement

m3

523.96

0.066

Mid-section area

m2

26.04

0.065

Design speed (10 knots)

m/s

5.14

1.157

15.4 Extrapolations of Model Experiment Results to Full Scale The model test results which were obtained from the towing tank test were extrapolated to full scale using the 3D extrapolation procedure. The 3D extrapolation procedure is given as given in Eq. (15.7): CTS = CFS (1 + k) + CR

(15.7)

CR = CTM − CFM (1 + k)

(15.8)

15 Investigation on the Effect of the Bulbous Bow Shape …

163

where C FS is the frictional resistance coefficient of the ship according to the ITC1957 model ship correlation line, k is the form factor determined from Prohaska’s method, C R is the residual resistance coefficient calculated by subtracting the frictional resistance coefficient of the model C FM from the total resistance coefficient of the model C TM as shown in Eq. (15.8). Prohaska’s method in determining the form factor was conducted by running the model in the towing tank at low speed below Froude number 0.2. The ratio of the total resistance of the model and the frictional resistance coefficient of the model C TM /C FM was then plotted with respect to the ratio of Froude number to the power of 4 and the frictional resistance coefficient F n 4 /C FM using the model experiments results at low speed. A linear curve fitting can be applied to the data in Prohaska’s plot, where the value of 1 + k corresponds to the value of the linear curve crossing the y-axis. The form factor of 0 and 0.146 was used in the extrapolation for both of the purse seiner and the research vessel, respectively. The extrapolated coefficient of ship total resistance for both of the vessels can be found in Table 15.4.

15.5 Case Studies In the first case study, a 28.3 m purse seiner hull form as shown in Fig. 15.1a was chosen to be the base hull form for the first systematic study. This hull form is originally without a bulbous bow, having a parallel body at mid-ship and a transom. The general particulars of this purse seiner can be found in Table 15.1a. In the second case study, a 34.5 m research vessel hull form as shown in Fig. 15.1b, was chosen to be the base hull form for the second systematic study. The hull form of this research vessel is also originally without a bulbous bow. The detailed hull particulars for both

(a)

(b)

Fig. 15.1 Sheer profile and the body plan for the a 28.3 m purse seiner and the b 34.5 m research vessel

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Fig. 15.2 Linear and nonlinear bulb geometry definition as defined by Kracht [3]. Notes: a The body plan view shows the bulb parameters as H B , BB and ABT . b The sheer plan view shows the bulb parameters such as Z B , L PR and ABL

hull form in model and in full scale, i.e. purse seiner and the research vessel, are listed in Table 15.1b. In both of the systematic studies, there were eight different bulbous bow shape configurations that were added to the base hull of the purse seiner and the research vessel. The bulb type is an ‘added bulb with knuckle’. The bulb is circular in shape, and the intersection between the bulb and the hull is not faired which results in the knuckle formation as mentioned earlier. By doing this, these additive bulbs can be added to the main hull without any significant changes to the block coefficient C B , prismatic coefficient C P and the longitudinal centre of buoyancy lcb . The bulbous bow configurations for both of the purse seiner and the research vessel were systematically varied in terms of its protruding length, L PR , the breadth of the bulb, BB , and the height of bulb nose from the baseline, Z B by conforming to the bulb parameters recommended by Kracht [3] as shown in Fig. 15.2. The eight variations of the bulbs are shown in Fig. 15.3a and b. The details of the varied values of the three parameters are listed in Tables 15.2 and 15.3. All the case studies were labelled as B# which abbreviates for bulb and were numbered from 1 to 8. There are also three other important parameters which are the area of the bulb in the longitudinal plane ABL , the cross-sectional area at the forward perpendicular ABT and the volume of the protruding bulb V PR . All these parameters can be understood clearly by referring to Fig. 15.2a and b, which were taken from Kracht [3]. All these parameters were normalized by the main dimensions of the purse seiner and the research vessel to form non-dimensionalized coefficients. The coefficient of the protruding length C LPR can be calculated by dividing the protruding length L PR with the length perpendicular L PP of the ship as shown in Eq. (15.9).

15 Investigation on the Effect of the Bulbous Bow Shape …

165

Fig. 15.3 Variations in the bulb geometry for both of the case studies a 28.3 m purse seiner b 34.5 m research vessel

CLPR =

L PR L PP

(15.9)

The coefficient of the bulb breadth C BB is calculated by dividing the breadth of the bulb BB with the breadth of the ship BWL as shown in Eq. (15.10): CBB =

BB BWL

(15.10)

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Table 15.2 Variations in the bulb geometry and its form coefficients for the 8 cases of bulb designs for the 28.3 m purse seiner Case study—Purse Seiner

L PR (m)

BB (m)

ZB (m)

C LPR

C BB

C ZB

B1

1.65

1.96

1.90

0.069

0.327

1.00

B2

0.78

0.93

1.90

0.033

0.155

1.00

B3

1.65

2.31

1.90

0.069

0.385

1.00

B4

0.78

1.09

1.90

0.033

0.182

1.00

B5

2.84

1.96

1.90

0.119

0.327

1.00

B6

1.34

0.93

1.90

0.056

0.155

1.00

B7

2.84

2.31

1.90

0.119

0.385

1.00

B8

1.34

1.09

1.90

0.056

0.182

1.00

Case study—Purse Seiner

ABL (m2 )

ABT (m2 )

V PR (m3 )

C ABL

C ABT

C VPR

B1

2.50

2.97

4.90

0.234

0.278

0.029

B2

1.16

1.39

1.09

0.109

0.130

0.006

B3

2.50

3.47

5.72

0.234

0.325

0.033

B4

1.16

1.64

1.28

0.109

0.153

0.007

B5

4.32

2.97

8.35

0.404

0.278

0.049

B6

2.05

1.39

1.85

0.192

0.130

0.011

B7

4.32

3.47

9.74

0.404

0.325

0.057

B8

2.05

1.64

2.18

0.192

0.153

0.013

The depth coefficient of the bulb C ZB can be calculated using Eq. (15.11), where T FP is the draught of the ship at forward perpendicular. CZB =

ZB TFP

(15.11)

The coefficient of the area of the bow in the longitudinal plane C ABL and the coefficient of the area in the transverse direction C ABT can be calculated using Eqs. (15.12) and (15.13), respectively, where AM is the mid-section area of the ship. CABL =

ABL AM

(15.12)

CABT =

ABT AM

(15.13)

The coefficient of the bulb volume C VPR is calculated by dividing the volume of the protruding part of the bulb V PR with the volume of the displacement of the ship V WL as shown in Eq. (15.14). All these equations shown above can be found in Kracht [3].

15 Investigation on the Effect of the Bulbous Bow Shape …

167

Table 15.3 Variations in the bulb geometry and its form coefficients for the 8 cases of bulb designs for the 34.5 m research vessel Case Study—Research vessel

L PR (m)

BB (m)

ZB (m)

C LPR

C BB

C ZB

B1

4.346

3.269

3.91

0.138

0.327

1.00

B2

7.484

3.269

3.91

0.238

0.327

1.00

B3

2.054

1.545

3.91

0.065

0.155

1.00

B4

3.538

1.545

3.91

0.113

0.155

1.00

B5

2.054

1.818

3.91

0.065

0.182

1.00

B6

3.538

1.818

3.91

0.113

0.182

1.00

B7

4.346

3.846

3.91

0.138

0.385

1.00

B8

7.484

3.846

3.91

0.238

0.385

1.00

Case study—Research vessel

ABL (m2 )

ABT (m2 )

V PR (m3 )

C ABL

C ABT

C VPR

B1

15.02

10.41

44.07

0.577

0.400

0.084

B2

23.56

10.41

74.86

0.905

0.400

0.143

B3

6.79

4.76

9.79

0.261

0.183

0.019

B4

12.95

4.76

16.68

0.497

0.183

0.032

B5

6.79

5.69

11.68

0.261

0.219

0.022

B6

12.95

5.69

19.76

0.497

0.219

0.038

B7

15.02

11.96

51.97

0.577

0.459

0.099

B8

23.56

11.96

86.49

0.905

0.459

0.165

CVPR =

VPR VWL

(15.14)

15.6 CFD Simulations The investigation on the eight different bulb sizes for both of the purse seiner and the research vessel was conducted using the CFD code SHIPFLOW 6.3 which is available from FLOWTECH International AB. It is a viscous flow RANSE solver where the solver XCHAP was used. In modelling the turbulence flow, the explicit algebraic stress model (EASM) for turbulence was used. All the eight different bulb configurations for both of the vessels were simulated in a steady-state condition and in full scale at the purse seiner and the research vessel design speed which are at 11 knots and 10 knots, respectively. Structured grids were used for the computational domain as shown in Fig. 15.5. All the grids in this study were created using the SHIPFLOW’s grid generation

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module XGRID with hexahedra cells throughout the whole computational domain. A global approach was chosen for the computation where the computational domain was built using the H–O grid topology. The start of the upstream was set at one length of the length between perpendiculars L PP . The end of the wake section grids was set at three lengths of the L PP . The radius of the computational domain was set at three times of the L PP . There is no wall function used in the computation in the XCHAP solver. The grids were refined as it gets closer to the hull. A no-slip boundary condition was used at the hull boundaries. At the boundaries in the far-field, SLIP boundaries were used throughout the computational domain. The free surface of the water was modelled using the VOF method. An overlapping transom grid was used to capture the flow separation and the wake at the transom as shown in Fig. 15.5. Grids refinement was applied at the bow and at the aft of the hull in order to capture the pressure gradient at a higher resolution.

15.7 Grid Independence Study A grid independence study (GIS) was performed prior to the simulation of the case studies in order to ensure that the correct number of grid cells is used in the CFD simulations so that the solutions from the solver are independent to the grid elements resolutions. The study was done using the results of the full-scale total resistance coefficients C TS of the purse seiner and the research vessel as the main criterion in this study. The experimental results and the extrapolated full-scale total resistance coefficients of the purse seiner and the research vessel without bulbous bow are shown in Table 15.4. The number of grid elements was increased gradually at each of the GIS simulations from 150,000 grid elements to 5,000,000 grid elements. The number of grids can be manually controlled in the XGRID which is the grid generator in SHIPFLOW using the xdistribution command. This was achieved by changing the number of grid planes in the longitudinal direction in the upstream section NU, forward section NF, mid-section NM, the aft section NA and the wake section of the hull NW which Table 15.4 Experimental results for the purse seiner and the research vessel without bulbous bow Experimental results

Fr

ReM

CTM * 1000

ReS

CTS * 1000 (extrapolated)

Purse Seiner (11 knots)

0.37

2,806,734

11.52

113,837,633

10.25

Research Vessel (10 knots)

0.29

1,594,175

9.040

136,448,622

6.457

The extrapolated coefficient of ship total resistance is also shown using the 3D extrapolation procedures

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are available in the xdistribution command. For a better understanding, the definition of these number of grid planes is shown in Fig. 15.4a. The number of planes in the circumferential and the radial direction in the main computational domain were adjusted using the ETAMAX and the ZETAMAX command, respectively. The

Fig. 15.4 a Global grid distribution control in the XGRID, where NU, NF, NM, NA and NW are the number of grid planes in the upstream, forward, mid-section, aft and the wake section, respectively. b Results of the cross section of the grid generation using the grid distribution as listed in Table 15.5. Note that there was a significant refinement of grids in the NF, NA and the still waterplane area

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Table 15.5 Grid distribution control for both of the purse seiner and the research vessel Case study (Total grid cells)

XSTART

NU

NF

NM

NA

XAPD

XEND

Purse Seiner (3,606,531)

−1

80

80

160

80

0.99

3

Research vessel (4,938,312)

−1

100

100

200

100

0.99

3

number of planes in the circumferential direction up to the region under the still free surface of the water and up to the region above the water surface for the VOF free surface grids were adjusted using the UETAMAX and the AETAMAX, respectively. The grid distributions for both of the purse seiner and the research vessel are given in Table 15.5. An example of grids generated using the setting as given in Table 15.5 is shown in Fig. 15.4b. The best grid cell resolutions for the purse seiner were chosen at a total of 3,114,540 cells as shown in Fig. 15.5a. The best grid resolutions for the research vessel were chosen at a total of 4,938,312 cells as shown in Fig. 15.5b.

15.8 Validation with Experimental Data The CFD simulated hull resistance of the purse seiner and the research vessel without the bulbous bow were validated with the experimental data from the towing tank test results as presented earlier in Sect. 3 in this paper. The model test results which were obtained from the model towing tank test were extrapolated to full scale using 3D extrapolation procedure with a form factor of 0.146. The comparison of the simulated resistance in terms of its total resistance coefficient C TS in full-scale using XCHAP-VOF with the extrapolated full-scale values is shown in Table 15.6. The simulated total resistance has a percentage error of 11.6% and 7.5% for the purse seiner and the research vessel, respectively, when compared with the experimental results.

15.9 Results and Discussion—Case Study (Purse Seiner) The eight different bulb variations were simulated at full-scale at 11 knots. The eight different bulbs variations were evaluated in terms of its resistance components and its wave pattern contour and profile. As expected, there were some significant reductions in the resistance components when the additive bulbs were attached to the purse seiner as shown in Fig. 15.6. There were large reductions in the ship total resistance coefficient for all case studies except for case study B2. The case study B5 has an exceptionally good reduction of

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Fig. 15.5 Grid independence study plot for the computation setup for a 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots b 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots

(a)

(b)

total resistance coefficient at this design speed of 11 knots. There were also some reductions in the wave resistance coefficients for the purse seiner with the added bulb, for all the case studies except for the case study B2 as shown in Fig. 15.7. It seems that this plot in Fig. 15.7 reflects on what was plotted in Fig. 15.6, showing the

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Table 15.6 Validation of the CFD results with the extrapolated values (extrapolated from experimental results) Validation with experimental results

C TS * 1000 (extrapolated from experimental results)

C TS * 1000 (CFD—Shipflow XCHAP-VOF)

Error%

Purse Seiner (11 knots)

10.25

11.60

11.6

Research vessel (10 knots)

6.457

6.004

7.5

Fig. 15.6 Coefficient of the ship total resistance coefficient results for the 8 case studies for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots

dominance of the wave resistance to the total resistance of the purse seiner sailing at 11 knots. Further evaluation was made in order to determine the correlation between the resistance coefficients with the bulb geometry. The addition of the bulb seems not to be beneficial if the coefficients of the protruding length C LPR of the bulb are less than 0.025 as shown in Fig. 15.8. The bulbous bow seems to be effective in between C LPR 0.05 and 0.075. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance if the C LPR is increased beyond 0.125. But using a smaller breadth of bulb i.e. C BB = 0.327(BB = 1.96 m), the effectiveness of using a bulb can be extended beyond C LPR = 0.125. In Fig. 15.9,

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Fig. 15.7 Coefficient of the wave resistance coefficient results for the 8 case studies for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots

the bulbs were effective when the coefficient of the bulb breadth C BB was in between 0.15 and 0.35. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond C BB = 0.35. Further increases in C BB beyond 0.35 seem not to be beneficial in reducing the resistance of the purse seiner. Figure 15.10 shows the correlation between the total resistance coefficient C TS and the coefficient of the volume of the protruding part of the bulb C VPR . The bulbs seem not to be effective if the C VPR is less than 0.005. The bulbs were effective if the C VPR is between 0.01 to 0.05. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond C VPR = 0.06. The comparison of the wave pattern contour between the purse seiner without the bulb and with the bulb was made using the results of case study B2 and B5. The comparisons are shown for only these two cases to show the best- and the worst-case wave pattern contour. In Fig. 15.11, the wave pattern contour of the purse seiner without the bulbous bow is shown in the top figure and the purse seiner with the bulb (case B2) is shown in the bottom figure. There is a significant pressure increase at the stem in case B2, which resulted in higher wave height at the bow region more than the vessel without the bulb. The low-pressure region at the mid-ship section remains similar for both vessels with and without bulb. The wave height at the aft section of the vessel with the bulb is higher than the wave height of the vessel without the bulb. The increases in the wave height are due to the wave interference between the bow wave system and the stern wave system, which in this case, it seems that the

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Fig. 15.8 Change in the total resistance coefficient with respect to the change in the bulbous bow protruding length coefficient for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots

interference amplified the resulting wave height at the stern region. In Fig. 15.12, the addition of bulb as in case B5 shows a significant reduction of the wave height at the stem. The interference between the wave system generated by the nose of the bulb and the stem seems to be effective in reducing the overall wave height at the stem. The changes of the wave height can be identified in detail as shown in the wave-cut profile comparison; see Figs. 15.13 and 15.14. The wave-cut profiles were taken at a distance of y/L PP = 0.2 from the hull in the transverse direction.

15.10 Results and Discussion—Case Study (Research Vessel) The eight different bulb variations added to the research vessel were simulated at full scale at 10 knots. There are some significant reductions in the resistance components when the additive bulbs were attached to the research vessel as shown in Fig. 15.15. There were large reductions in the ship total resistance coefficient for all case studies except for case study B2, B7 and B8. The case studies B4, B5 and B6 have exceptionally good reductions in the total resistance coefficient at this design speed of 10 knots. There were also some reductions in the wave resistance coefficients for the

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Fig. 15.9 Change in the total resistance coefficient with respect to the change in the bulbous bow breadth coefficient for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots

research vessel with the bulbous bow, for all the case studies except for the case studies B2, B7 and B8 as shown in Fig. 15.16. In Fig. 15.17, the addition of the bulbous bow seems to be effective in between C LPR 0.05 and 0.15. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance if the C LPR is increased beyond 0.15. This is especially true, by using a wider bulb, i.e. C BB = 0.385 (BB = 3.486 m). The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond C LPR = 0.20. In Fig. 15.18, the bulbs were effective when the coefficient of the bulb breadth C BB is in between 0.1 and 0.2. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond C BB = 0.3. Further increases in C BB beyond 0.35 seem not to be beneficial in reducing the resistance of the research vessel. Figure 15.19 shows that the bulbs seem to be effective when the C VPR is in between from 0.02 to 0.09. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond C VPR = 0.14. In Fig. 15.20, there is a significant pressure increase at the stem in case B8, which resulted in a higher wave height at the bow region than the vessel without the bulb. The low-pressure region at the mid-ship section was also increased in case B8. The wave height at the aft section of the vessel with the bulb was higher than the wave height of the vessel without the bulb. The increases in the wave height are due to the wave interference between the bow wave system and the stern wave system as mentioned earlier similar to the purse seiner case study B2. In Fig. 15.21, the addition of a bulb as in case B4 shows a significant reduction of the wave height at the stem.

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Fig. 15.10 Change in the total resistance coefficient with respect to the change in the bulbous bow protruding volume coefficient for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots

Fig. 15.11 Comparison of the wave pattern contour for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots without the bulbous bow (top picture) and (bottom picture) with bulbous bow for case study B2

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Fig. 15.12 Comparison of the wave pattern contour for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots without the bulbous bow (top picture) and (bottom picture) with bulbous bow for case study B5

Fig. 15.13 Wave-cut profile comparison between the hull without a bulbous bow and with bulbous bow (case B2) taken at a distance of y/L PP = 0.2 from the hull in transverse direction for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots

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Fig. 15.14 Wave-cut profile comparison between the hull without a bulbous bow and with bulbous bow (case B5) taken at a distance of y/L PP = 0.2 from the hull in transverse direction for the 28.3 m purse seiner at 11 knots Fig. 15.15 Coefficient of the ship total resistance coefficient results for the 8 case studies for 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots

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Fig. 15.16 Coefficient of the wave resistance coefficient results for the 8 case studies for 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots Fig. 15.17 Change in the total resistance coefficient with respect to the change in the bulbous bow protruding length coefficient for the 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots

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Fig. 15.18 Change in the total resistance coefficient with respect to the change in the bulbous bow breadth coefficient for the 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots

Fig. 15.19 Change in the total resistance coefficient with respect to the change in the bulb protruding volume coefficient for the 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots

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Fig. 15.20 Comparison of the wave pattern contour for the 34.5 m research vessel without the bulbous bow (top picture) and (bottom picture) for case study B8

Fig. 15.21 Comparison of the wave contour for the 34.5 m research vessel without the bulbous bow (top picture) and (bottom picture) for case study B4

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Fig. 15.22 Wave-cut profile comparison between the hull without a bulbous bow and with bulbous bow (case B8) taken at a distance of y/L PP = 0.2 from the hull in transverse direction for the 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots

The interference between the wave system generated by the nose of the bulb and the stem seems to be effective in reducing the overall wave height at the stem, similar to the case study B5 of the purse seiner. The wavelength in the case study B8 was not in similar phase with the wave system of the vessel without bulbous bow as shown in Fig. 15.22. The wave trough was also reduced at the wake of the vessel, i.e. at x/L PP = 1 and 1.5 as in case B4; see Fig. 15.23. From the wave patterns evaluation, it can be seen that the nose of the bulb induced a high-pressure region upstream, corresponding to the first trough of the original bow wave causing a phase shift to the bow wave system, cancelling the wave system from the front shoulder, hence reducing the wave resistance of the purse seiner and the research vessel.

15.11 Conclusion The study on the resistance reduction of small ships by adding a bulbous bow was presented. Two vessels were selected as case studies, a 28.3 m purse seiner and a 34.5 m research vessel. The assessment was made using a viscous flow CFD code using structured grids and hexahedra cells throughout the computational domain.

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Fig. 15.23 Wave-cut profile comparison between the hull without a bulbous bow and with bulbous bow (case B4) taken at a distance of y/L PP = 0.2 from the hull in transverse direction for the 34.5 m research vessel at 10 knots

The CFD computations were validated with experimental data of the purse seiner and the research vessel’s towing tank test data. A series of case study was performed with the bulb parameters such as the protruding length of the bulb, the bulb breadth and the height of the bulb nose from the baseline were varied systematically. The addition of the bulb seems not to be beneficial if the coefficient of the protruding length C LPR of the bulb is less than 0.025 for the purse seiner case. The bulbous bow seems to be effective in between C LPR 0.05 and 0.075. The bulbs were effective when the coefficient of the bulb breadth C BB is in between 0.15 and 0.35. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond C BB = 0.35. Further increases in C BB beyond 0.35 seem not to be beneficial in reducing the resistance of the purse seiner. For the research vessel, the addition of the bulbous bow seems to be effective in between C LPR 0.05 and 0.15 and the coefficients of the bulb breadth C BB are in between 0.1 and 0.2. The bulbs seem to gain in resistance if the C LPR is increased beyond 0.15 and when the C BB is increased beyond 0.3. Further increases in C BB beyond 0.35 seem not to be beneficial in reducing the resistance of the research vessel. The bulbs seem not to be effective when the C VPR is less than 0.005 for both cases. The bulbs were effective when the C VPR is in between 0.01 to 0.09 for both cases.

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The bulbs seem to gain in resistance beyond C VPR = 0.14 and 0.06 for the purse seiner and the research vessel case, respectively. Acknowledgements This work is a continuation of the work under a short-term Universiti Kuala Lumpur research grant, ID: STR10054, which was carried out by Nuruddin et al. (2017) in identifying the optimized form of the bulbous design. Therefore, the author would like to acknowledge the support from Universiti Kuala Lumpur for the funding. The author would also like to acknowledge the support from Michal Orych of Flowtech International AB for his technical assistance in running the CFD simulations.

References 1. Molland AF, Turnock SR, Hudson DA (2011) Ship resistance and propulsion: Practical estimation of ship propulsive power. Cambridge University Press, New York, Second Edition 2. Van Manen JD, Van Oossanen P (1988) Resistance. In: Lewis EV (ed) Principles of naval architecture, Volume II, Resistance, propulsion and vibration, 2 Edition. The Society of Naval Architects & Marine Engineers, New Jersey 3. Kracht A (1978) Design of bulbous bows. SNAME Trans 86:197–217 4. Hoyle JW, Cheng BH, Hays B et al (1986) Bulbous bow design methodology for high-speed ships. In: Transactions—society of naval architects and marine engineers. SNAME, pp 31–56 5. Li C, Wang Y, Chen J (2016) Study on the shape parameters of bulbous bow of tuna longline fishing vessel. In: International conference on energy and environmental protection, pp 250–255 6. Nuruddin H, Mustaffa Kamal I, Mansor MN, Hafidz NM (2017) Investigation on the effect of bulbous bow shape to the wave-making resistance of an ultra large container carrier (ULCC). ARPN J Eng Appl Sci 12:1254–1259 7. Saral D, Aydin M, Kose E (2018) A systematic investigation of the effects of various bulbous bows on resistance of fishing boats. Croat Sci Prof J 69:93–117. https://doi.org/10.21278/bro d69207 Accessed 26 June 2021 8. Leal L, Flores E, Fuentes D, Verma B (2018) Hydrodynamic study of the influence of bulbous bow design for an offshore patrol vessel using computational fluid dynamics. Sh Sci Technol 11:29–39. https://doi.org/10.25043/19098642.161. Accessed 26 June 2021 9. Raju MSP, Sivabalan P, Thamby T, Saravanan B (2020) Effect of bulbous bow on resistance of a tuna longliner. Int J Adv Res Eng Technol 11:136–145. https://doi.org/10.34218/IJARET. 11.2.2020.014 Accessed 26 June 2021 10. Chrismianto D, Kiryanto, Arswendo AB (2018) Analysis of effect of bulbous bow shape to ship resistance in catamaran boat. MATEC Web Conf. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201 815902058 Accessed 26 June 2021 11. Larsson L, Raven H C (2010) Numerical prediction of resistance and flow around the hull. In: Paulling JR (ed) The principles of naval architecture series, ship resistance and flow. The Society of Naval Architects & Marine Engineers, New Jersey 12. Muslim M (2014) Powering and resistance of fishing vessel. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing

Chapter 16

Strength Analysis of the Hull Structure for a Submersible Drone Ain Adlina Binti Kamaruzaman, Azman Ismail, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharuddin, Fauziah Ab Rahman, Darulishan Abdul Hamid, and Puteri Zarina Megat Khalid

Abstract Unmanned underwater vehicles (UUV) are any vehicles that are able to operate underwater without a human occupant. Smaller and cheaper autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV) are today very capable and gaining users. The underwater drone is commonly used in oceanic research, for purposes such as current and temperature measurement, ocean floor mapping, and hydrothermal vent detection. AUVs are the most complex as they have to rely on autonomous functions since water does not allow radio-frequency transmission, and acoustic transmission does not allow sufficient bandwidth for direct control at a distance. AUVs have gradually evolved, notably with increasing computing power and growing energy density stored on-board. This article studies will study the model-scale design of underwater drones which used the onyx as material selection. Based on the mechanical properties of onyx is able to withstand the underwater pressure by the yield strength. Besides, drones provide an opportunity to bridge the current gap between field observations and remote sensing in a cost-effective way by providing high spatial information A. A. B. Kamaruzaman · A. Ismail (B) · B. A. Baharuddin · F. A. Rahman Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. A. B. Kamaruzaman e-mail: [email protected] B. A. Baharuddin e-mail: [email protected] F. A. Rahman e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Hamid Kolej Universiti Poly-Tech MARA, Jalan 6/9, Taman Shamelin Perkasa, 56100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] P. Z. M. Khalid Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_16

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over relatively large areas. In this project, five conceptual designs were developed and simulated through Solidwork for the analysis of the strength of the material. Nevertheless, in developing countries such as Malaysia, the use of drones is still in the early stage of production. In conclusion, based on the strength analysis, a suitable structure for the hull was determined. Keywords Submersible drone · Hull pressure · Underwater drone · ROV

16.1 Introduction Unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV), sometimes known as underwater drones, are any vehicles that are able to operate underwater without a human occupant. These vehicles may be divided into two categories, remotely operated vehicles (ROV)s, which are controlled by a remote human operator, and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV)s, which operate independently of direct human input. A drone is also known for its characteristics where air, water surface, and sink robotics technology can be used. Such drones can be controlled remotely or be autonomous in their embedded systems via so-called software-controlled plans, operating in related sensor and GPS areas [1]. In addition to many other drone roles, such as event shooting, video journalism, forest surveillance, land survey, structural inspection, distribution of indoor pharmacy, search and rescue, monitoring of law enforcement and emergency services are common tasks [2]. Besides that, another development for drones is the underwater drone. These drones are growing rapidly in marketing which has been used in underwater for various kind of things. These remotely operated vehicles are created to ensure human existence and to extract the greatest amount of knowledge from the sea. By implementing a floating device, the underwater surveillance robot (USR) is capable of conducting underwater inspection, surveillance, and remote correspondence control with the use of a wireless communication protocol. Nowadays, drones could serve a variety of purposes. In order to achieve the purposes, drones consist of power sources, such as battery or fuel, rotors, propellers, and a frame. Technical terminology suggest that an unmanned aircraft is a drone. Unmanned drones (UAVs) or unmanned aerial vehicles (UASs) are more formally known as drones [3]. Normally, a drone is a moving robot that can be controlled remotely or run independently in its operational applications through software-controlled flight plans, working in conjunction with onboard sensors and GPS. Xiang et al. [4] states that there are several types of drones today in which both situations, such as underwater drones, are included [4]. Typically, these drones work remotely and can be autonomous vehicles. The underwater drone known as ROV stands for remotely operated vehicles also known as AUV. The ROV stands for a UV physically attached to an operator on a submarine or a mother ship’s surface through an umbilical cable.

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16.2 Methodology 16.2.1 Design Phase To evaluate designs and to help to make the best decisions to enhance the overall results, SOLIDWORKS simulation provides the ultimate simulated testing environment. Using a versatile and detailed suite of SOLIDWORKS simulation kits, effective evaluation of the performance, improving the quality, and improving the product imagination is possible. Plus, a broad variety of factors, such as durability, static and dynamic response, assembly motion, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, and plastic injection molding, can be tested during the design process. The entire design process has been done using the SOLIDWORKS software. The idea of the designs came from a few research papers which are gain knowledge toward the design phase. After selecting the suitable design, the procurement in order to suit the most suitable hull for the submersible drone with acceptable size and standard was done. After completing the design process, the next step is the analysis of the drone. The drone analysis is conducted in order to know the strength, durability, capability, and hull resistance in the water [5]. The system of the submersible drone also needs to consider the area for the drone to be used in future. For the manufacture of the drone prototype, 3D printing has been chosen to process the design part by part using a certain filler material.

16.2.2 Material Selection As for the material selection, choosing the right material in the design process is one of the main factors to choosing a suitable design with suitable properties. By using the filled nylon mixture with the onyx, the properties of the composite material are much better compared to the single constituents [6]. For a submersible drone, the strength of the material makes an impact on the body which means that the body of the drone could withstand the pressure and move smoothly or verse visa.

16.2.3 Drawing and Simulation Module The drawing dimension does not exceed 400 mm and the weight is below 1 kg. As for the drawing, the concept of the submersible drone is an enclosure frame whereby the component will be covered in the frame. Besides, the frame material selection is onyx, which can withstand a pressure of up to 36 MPa. The material is mostly used in 3D printing processes whereby the prototype is constructed using 3D printing. Drawing has been completed using SolidWorks and the material also has been set in the SolidWorks. Since that has been assigned in SolidWorks material, it needs to

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be filled in manually by selecting the custom material folder and choosing it before running an analysis. The simulation or strength analyses have been conducted using SolidWorks Simulation Xpress where the result data is given as the min and max values for the von Mises stress nonmises data, displacement, factor of safety, and the deformation scale. These analyses provide accurate data as the water pressure and the fixed geometry has been fixed [7]. The analyses run for a considerable amount of time to generate the requested data. To prevent any misunderstanding on how to determine which drawing has the proper value by referring to onyx mechanical properties, the yield strength has been selected.

16.3 Results and Discussion Two types of simulation are used in this analysis project which is stress and strain analysis. The enclosure will undergo the underwater pressure test as shown in Eq. (16.1). The stress and strain are simulated for the structural analysis in Solidworks by a finite element simulation in Xpress. For this strength analysis, the ROV is realized in onyx, which is a fusion. It is a fusion of engineering nylon and chopped carbon fibers. Along with a high-quality surface finish, the chopped fibers within the onyx material add stiffness to your 3D printed parts, providing micro-carbon reinforcement to make parts stiff, strong, and maintaining their dimensions. The purpose of the analysis is to predict the overall performance of the ROV mechanical properties or construction under the water pressure at the operating depth [8]. The pressure acting on the submerged body depends on the depth as shown in Eq. (16.1). P = ρgh where, P ρ g h

pressure (kN/m2 ) 1023.6 (kg/m3 ) 9.81 (m/s2 ) depth (m).

16.3.1 Simulation Analysis Result Table 16.1 shows the result of each of 5 design configurations.

(16.1)

(continued)

The values of the stress simulation for 1–20 m underwater pressure exceed the elastic ranges of the material properties

Design 2

Description As for simulation value for the yield strength design 1, exceeds the yield stress point which concludes the material

Simulation result

Design 1

No

Table 16.1 Design simulation result

16 Strength Analysis of the Hull Structure for a Submersible Drone 189

(continued)

Result value for min and max stress did not exceed the yield point of the material strength and conclude no yielding

Design 4

Description The minimum value of the stresses does not exceed the yield point, as been deeper, design 3 could not withstand the pressure at 15–20 m with higher max values of 5.33E+04 N/mm2

Simulation result

Design 3

No

Table 16.1 (continued)

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Design 5

No

Simulation result

Table 16.1 (continued) Higher stress values compared to other designs. By going deeper, strength of material deforms by 1.97E+06 N/mm2 at 20 m depth

Description

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16.3.2 Discussion The result for the stress and strain simulation is shown in Table 16.2. Based on the result it is shown that the material properties of onyx could withstand the underwater pressure up to 20 m. As for the body frame, the drawing of these five is in the enclosure frame. The pressure of the water in 20 m is 200.83 MN/m2 whereby the yield strength of Onyx is 36 MN/m2 . The pressure has been assigned in the simulation along with the material properties. To evaluate each value for each drawing the comparison between the minimum and maximum value of stress along with the yield strength material of onyx. Besides, the determination of the proper hull structure for the submersible drone depends on Table 16.2 Minimum and maximum von Mises stress for different depths Design

Depth

Deformation scale

Min von Mises

Max von Mises

N/mm2

N/mm2

330.21

1.42E+03

8.51E+03

5

101.54

1.77E+03

4.26E+03

10

90.23

1.42E+04

8.52E+03

15

50.78

1.07E+04

1.28E+05

m 1

2

3

4

5

1

20

40

1.42E+04

1.71E+05

1

239.506

1.10E–07

6.73E–01

5

47

1.06E–06

3.37E+00

10

23.947

1.11E–06

6.73E+00

15

15.9649

3.21E–06

1.01E+01

20

11.9735

2.21E–06

1.35E+01

1

2213.77

1.11E+03

2.66E+03

5

442.692

4.67E–01

1.33E+04

10

221.344

1.43E+00

2.66E+04

15

149.123

2.53E+00

3.98E+04

20

110.672

2.85E+00

5.33E+04

1

210.67

4.07E–05

1.22E–02

5

45.67

2.04E–04

6.08E–02

10

21.957

4.07E–04

1.22E–01

15

14.56

9.59E–04

1.85E–01

20

9.856

8.14E–04

2.43E–01

1

1057.85

1.64E+00

9.85E+04

5

211.54

1.02E+01

4.93E+05

10

105.769

1.39E+01

9.85E+05

15

7.05135

1.99E+01

1.48E+06

20

52.8846

4.43E+01

1.97E+06

16 Strength Analysis of the Hull Structure for a Submersible Drone Table 16.3 Drawing specification

193

Drawing

Dimension

Thickness

mm

mm

mm

L×W×H 1

300 × 150 × 60

3

2

300 × 209 × 60

3

3

200 × 170 × 127

3

4

270 × 210 × 90

3

5

290 × 210 × 60

3

the body and material selection. As for this simulation analysis, the shape and the size are different. The analysis toward this enclosure frame is determined by changing the depth of water. From the value in Table 16.2, which is the relationship between depth and water pressure, all the designs are simulated to determine the proper hull structure throughout the analysis. By referring to the safety factor by the end of the simulation the material is fully safe (blue color). Based on the drawings from 1 to 5, these designs have been simulated using SolidWorks analysis as mentioned above. Based on the design values shown in Table 16.3, it can be stated that the proper hull structure for the water pressure of depth from 1 to 20 m is design 4. It is because the min von Mises stress at 1 m depth is 4.07E–05 N/mm2 and the max von Mises stress is 1.22E–02 N/mm2 . Whereby when the depth water pressure is 200.83 N/m2 , the min von Mises stress is 8.14E–04 N/mm2 and the max von Mises stress is 2.43E–01 N/mm2 . The yield strength of the Onyx is 3.6e+01 N/mm2 and this limit value is not exceeded by the stresses of design 4. To conclude the best hull for the submersible drone is design 4. The strength analysis was determined in order to choose the suitable features for the submersible drone. Based on design 1 till design 5, the features and dimensions were different. The differences affect the value of the stress and strain result. Stress and strain value played important role in order to select the best design in regard to yield stress. However, based on 5 design evaluations, the most reliable data is design 4.

16.3.3 Result Summary The results of the above shown analyses indicate that the material selection toward the pressure is relatable. Variation of depth shows the different pressure acting toward the faces of the designs. To evaluate the data, the simulation of analysis must fill in the information based on the chosen material. Before running the study, the geometry, loads, and material should be chosen properly without making any wrong assumptions. The values of analysis simulation on 1–20 m depth were different since the

194 Table 16.4 Relationship between depth and water pressure

A. A. B. Kamaruzaman et al. Depth

Water pressure

Water pressure

(m)

(kN/m2 )

(N/mm2 )

1

10,041.516

10.041516

5

50,207.58

50.20758

10

100,415.16

100.41516

15

150,622.74

150.62274

20

200,830.32

200.83032

pressures were different. Data analysis for the relationship between the depth and water pressure have been summarized in Table 16.4. All aspects have been considered which means the strength of the material and the consideration of the material withstanding the underwater pressure. Sea water is an external load whereby design 4 could remain in the elastic range and manage to control the deformation inside.

16.4 Conclusion The values of analysis simulation on 1–20 m depth was different since the pressure were different. Data analysis have been summarized in the Table 16.1 along with the number of designs and the depth for each analysis. This method of analysis has been supported by the Gonzalez et al. [9] who mentioned that to analyze using a stress and strain simulation should use the structural analysis simulation by Solidworks. Lastly, it is important to determine the deformation scale as well as the minimum and maximum stress value. Considering the main purpose of this project is to focus on strength analysis for the submersible hull of the underwater drone which concludes the design 1, 2, 3, and 5 has exceeded the yields strength also will not be chosen. Acknowledgments This paper was presented during the 2nd International Conference on Marine and Advanced Technologies 2021. The authors would like to thank University of Kuala Lumpur for the provided conference grant.

References 1. Aguirre COA, Inzunza G, García G, Tlelo C, López BOR, Olguín-T JE, Cárdenas VJR et al (2019) Design and construction of an ROV for underwater exploration. Sensors 19(24):1–25 2. Erena M, Atenza JF, García-Galiano S, Domínguez JA, Bernabé JM et al (2019) Use of drones for the topo-bathymetric monitoring of the reservoirs of the Segura River Basin. Water 11:3 3. Azis FA, Aras MSM, Rashid MZA, Othman MN, Abdullah SS et al (2012) Problem identification for underwater remotely operated vehicle (ROV): a case study. Procedia Eng 41:554–560. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng

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4. Xiang N, Lapierre, Zuo M et al (2015) Hybrid underwater robotic vehicles: the state-of-the-art and future trends. HKIE Trans Hong Kong Inst Eng 103–116 5. Meschini R, Gelli P, and Rindi et al (2019) Pressure hull design methods for unmanned underwater vehicles. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 7(11). 6. Grigore LS, Stefan AG, Orban et al (2020) Using PET-G to design an underwater rover through 3D printing technology. Materiale Plastice 57(3):189–201 7. Bárnik V, Sága M, Handrik M, Sapietová et al (2019) Mechanical properties of structures produced by 3D printing from composite materials. MATEC Web of Conferences 254:01018 8. Wang E, Chen, Chase JG et al (2009) The state-of-art of underwater vehicles—theories and applications. In: Mobile robots—state of the art in land, sea, air, and collaborative missions, 2000. https://doi.org/10.5772/6992 9. Gonzalez B, Alzate S, Tremante AA et al (2014) EML 4905 Senior Design Project prepared in partial fulfillment of the bicycle powered water filtration

Chapter 17

The Conceptual Design of a Submersible Drone for Seabed Profiling Nurul Fatini Jeffri, Azman Ismail, Fauziah Ab Rahman, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharudin, Darulishan Abdul Hamid, and Puteri Zarina Megat Khalid Abstract Compared to other forms of structures and buildings, ports, harbours and any other marine structures suffer from massive physical damage. This is because of the aggressive saltwater environment. Whether the structures are made of concrete, steel, wood, or even a combination of these materials, they have to cope with the aggressive natural environment and also the heavy industry activities conducted around the area. Thus, a constant survey is much needed to ensure that the structure is still able to hold its purpose. There are a lot of methods used to monitor the area around these marine structures and one of them is by using drones. Air drones or also known as UAV have been commercialized for quite a while and have been used by a lot of people. Since the past few years, a lot of researchers have been taken interest in submersible drones as it is proven to be useful in a lot of marine applications including monitoring underwater structures and conditions. This project aimed to develop a submersible drone design and to generate its stability and hydrostatic data. This drone is made to operate under water and on the water surface at the Penang port to survey and monitor the port structure, the depth of water and also the thickness of mud or sediments. N. F. Jeffri · A. Ismail (B) · F. A. Rahman · B. A. Baharudin Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] F. A. Rahman e-mail: [email protected] B. A. Baharudin e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Hamid Kolej Universiti Poly-Tech MARA, Jalan 6/9, Taman Shamelin Perkasa, 56100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] P. Z. M. Khalid Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_17

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Keywords Submersible drone · ROV · UUV · Stability

17.1 Introduction Technology is seen as the future life of humankind. The rapid growth of technology has introduced a lot of machinery, gadgets and appliances. One of the technologies that have been an interesting topic is the use of drones. Air drones or also known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used in so many fields such as research, agriculture [1], safety and military and even in film making [2]. As this technology keeps growing, technologists starting to find the need to explore more about the use of drones under water. It is believed that an underwater drone is capable to help in underwater exploration for research and surveillance purposes. An underwater drone or a submersible drone is known as unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV). It also can be called as autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). The idea of an underwater drone is not something new. Some of the earliest amphibious vehicles have been used as carriages as early as the seventeenth century [3]. One of the terrific early innovations’ dates again to 1805, when Oliver Evans invented the first high-pressure steam engine of amphibious vehicle named Oruktor Amphibolos, to remedy the problem of dredging and cleansing the city’s dockyard [3]. Even though it is something that has been used since years ago, the underwater drone is still not widely used in 2020. It is probably because of some factors such as navigation, control, materials, also developing an underwater drone is usually cost consuming. For underwater drones, there is a lot of ongoing research until today as the process of developing them is more complex. In designing an underwater drone, a lot of considerations need to be taken. Some research papers state that the control and navigation of a submersible drone can be hard [4] as being under water can disturb the signal. The shape of the drone also plays a big part to ensure smooth operation. In this case, compact size with less surface can help minimize the resistance that acts on the body hence allowing it to operate accordingly. The evolving development of drones opens opportunities for wider exploration and also enhances the quality in a diverse scope of works. Therefore, the high demand [5] of drones can be seen nowadays. It is seen as a technology that is versatile. Its development is diverse depending on the aimed purposes. Sensors and cameras are attached to drones in order to collect data. In the agricultural field, it is used in the process of fertilization of plants [6]. It is not possible for it to evolve to be a high-tech weapon in the military. It is convenient and does not require much human force to be operated.

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17.1.1 Unmanned Water Drones The revolution of drone technology had introduced some drones or unmanned vehicles that can operate within water environments either on the surface, or under water, or even both. This type of vehicle is categorized based on its application or system implemented. Until today, a few types have been successfully built and used in various fields such as military, research, surveillance and a lot more. unmanned surface vehicles (USV), unmanned underwater vehicles (UUV), remotely operated vehicle (ROV), autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) and unmanned aerial underwater vehicle (UAUV) are some of the drone types that are used for water operation. An unmanned surface vehicle, or USV for short, is the type of unmanned vehicle that moves on the surface of the water. It was introduced since the Second World War [7, 8]. The main components of a USV include propulsion, GNC and communication systems, data collection equipment and also the ground system [7, 9]. An unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV) is a type of vehicle that works under water. It can be operated with a slight or without the involvement of a human operator. Remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) fall under UUV [7]. Remotely operated vehicle (ROV) is a teleoperated or remotely operated vehicle that is useful for underwater installation and repairing tasks in marine industry especially for offshore oil and gas facilities [7]. It offers some great advantages such as being able to reach greater depths, high safety, longer endurance and less demand for support equipment [7]. This vehicle consists of a main mechanical structure holding several thrusters, cameras and some equipment such as manipulator arm and sampling units with proper electronic modules to control these units [10]. The word autonomous means working without the external action from humans [7, 11]. An autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is equipped with a power supply and controlled by an onboard computer. Being an autonomous robot means it is untethered which allows unlimited diving depth. However, an AUV may face difficulties in navigation through information received from satellites due to its operation within a highly unstructured environment [7]. Unmanned Aerial Underwater Vehicles or UAUVs are a type of vehicles that can be operated in both water and air which are inspired by biological species such as puffins, squid or flying fish. UAUVs may also have one dominant characteristic which makes them work better either in air or water or be equally functional in both [7].

17.2 Methodology For this project, a submersible drone is designed to be used at the Penang port that is occupied with some facilities built in the depth within the range from 1 to 20 m. The drone will be able to cover the operation under water also on the water surface. The

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design must be compatible with its applications which aimed to be used for structural condition inspection, water depth survey, also monitoring of the thickness of mud or sediment. The size and shape of the submersible drone must be small. It is to allow easy manoeuvring, also to help in getting into narrow spaces. So, the dimension of the drone is decided to be within 400 mm × 400 mm × 400 mm. The material to be used must be able to withstand the pressure under water and the aggressive saltwater environment that can easily damage the physical structure. Onyx nylon is chosen as it has a high strength and durability and also high chemical resistance which can help to protect the drone structure from the properties of saltwater. Five designs are developed in Solidworks to simulate their strengths in certain water levels. The designs are then re-developed in Maxsurf Modeller and analyzed in Maxsurf Stability to get the hydrostatics and stability data.

17.3 Results and Discussion These designs are built with different shapes, but the sizes are within the range dimension of 400 mm × 400 mm × 400 mm with a plate thickness of 3 mm. The final dimension of designs 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are shown in Table 17.1. The material chosen is 3D printing onyx nylon filling. Taking the stability of a floating vessel as a reference, the results from this project are evaluated. A simulation was done on the structure of all five drones to test the strength of the design structures. The simulation was made in SolidWorks and the overall results are shown in Table 17.2 which includes the simulation results under the depths of 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20 m. Based on the data obtained from the simulation, it can be concluded that the proper hull structure for the water pressure of depth from 1 to 20 m is design 4. It is because the min von Mises stress at 1 m depth is 1.107e+03 N/m2 and the max von Mises stress is 2.65e+03 N/m2 . Whereby when the depth water pressure is 200.83 N/m2 , the min von Mises stress is 2.851e+00 N/m2 and the max von Mises stress is 5.325e+04 N/m2 . The yield strength of the onyx is 3.6e+07 N/m2 which the value of stress analysis for design 4 does not exceed the maximum stress of the material. To conclude the proper hull for the submersible drone is design 4. The strength analysis was determined in order to choose the suitable features for the submersible drone. Table 17.1 The dimensions of drone designs 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Design

Length (mm)

Beam (mm)

Depth (mm)

1

310

150

60

2

300

209

58.5

3

200

190

127

4

270

240

66

5

306

407

60

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Table 17.2 Overall results of strength simulation made on all five designs under desired depths Design

Depth

Deformation scale

m 1

2

3

4

5

Min von Mises

Max von Mises

N/m2

N/m2

1

330.21

1.42E+03

8.51E+03

5

101.54

1.77E+03

4.26E+03

10

90.23

1.42E+04

8.52E+03

15

50.78

1.07E+04

1.28E+05

20

40

1.42E+04

1.71E+05

1

239.506

1.10E–07

6.73E–01

5

47

1.06E–06

3.37E+00

10

23.947

1.11E–06

6.73E+00

15

15.9649

3.21E–06

1.01E+01

20

11.9735

2.21E–06

1.35E+01

1

2213.77

4.07E–05

1.22E-02

5

442.692

2.04E–04

6.08E–02

10

221.344

4.07E–04

1.22E–01

15

149.123

9.59E–04

1.85E–01

20

110.672

8.14E–04

2.43E–01

1

210.67

1.11E + 03

2.66E+03

5

45.67

4.67E–01

1.33E+04

10

21.957

1.43E+00

2.66E+04

15

14.56

2.53E+00

3.98E+04

20

9.856

2.85E+00

5.33E+04

1

1057.85

1.64E+00

9.85E+04

5

211.54

1.02E+01

4.93E+05

10

105.769

1.39E+01

9.85E+05

15

7.05135

1.99E+01

1.48E+06

20

52.8846

4.43E+01

1.97E+06

In floating conditions at the draft 65% of the total depth, hydrostatics data is obtained from the upright hydrostatic test on Maxsurf stability. To determine the most stable design under the small angle stability, the transverse metacentric height, GMT of the designs are compared. To look for a design that has a desirable value of GMT, the results from the upright hydrostatic test of all five designs are compared in Table 17.3. GM and displacement must not be too low or too high to prevent the floating body from being too stiff or too tender. Said that a GM ranging from 4 to 8% of the vessel’s breadth can be considered as a guide for a standard desirable GM value [12]. The percentage of GMT to the breadth for each design is calculated. Comparing the

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Table 17.3 The comparison of GMT values between all five designs Design

Displacement (kg)

Breadth (mm)

GMT Breadth

GMT

1

1.782

150

25.9

17.27

2

1.687

209

49.8

23.83

3

2.241

190

12.6

6.63

4

1.104

240

19.1

7.96

5

4.330

407

227.4

55.87

× 100

GMT of all five designs, there are two valid designs that comply with the desirable range of GMT, which are design 3 and design 4. Referring back to the comparison of the design strength, design 4 is concluded to be the design with the best results. As design 4 gives a good result in both strength simulation and stability test, it is identified as the most suitable design for the designed operation of the submersible drone. Large angle stability test on Maxsurf stability requires the displacement to be applied on the body through load case. The main components for the submersible drone are identified and listed. The technical properties such as the weight and size are taken into account in estimating the total weight. Figure 17.1 shows a GZ curve generated from the large angle stability test. The GZ curve obtained from the large angle stability test on Maxsurf stability shows that the maximum GZ is 13 mm, at 48.2°. While the corresponding value of ϕ, which is the angle of vanishing stability is at 130°. This means that the drone becomes unstable if the heeling angle exceeds 130° as explained in [13]. 21

Stability

2.2.4: Initial GMt GM at 0.0 deg = 34.0 mm

GZ 2.2.4: Initial GMt GM at 0.0 deg = 34.0 mm Max GZ = 13 mm at 48.2 deg.

18 15 Max GZ = 13 mm at 48.2 deg.

GZ mm

12 9 6 3 0 -3 -6 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Heel to Starboard deg.

Fig. 17.1 GZ curve of design 4 obtained from the heeling angle 0° until 180°

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17.4 Conclusion Design 3 and design 4 are generally stable to float on water under the small angle stability, taking into account the value of the transverse metacentric height GMT. An earlier analysis of its strength shows design 4 with the highest strength of structure under a range of water depth from 1 until 20 m. Hence, it is considered the most suitable design for a submersible drone that can operate under water and on the water surface. The large angle stability gives the results that show the maximum GZ of 13 mm at 48.2° of heeling angle. The angle of vanishing stability is shown to be at 130°. From the results, it is known that any moment applied that gives the value of GZ higher than 13 mm will make the drone to be capsized. Also, the drone will become unstable when the heeling angle exceeds 130°. However, even though this project managed to achieve its objectives, there is still a lot to be improved. A lot more simulations and analyses need to be made on the drone design, especially for the submerged condition. For example, its flow performance, thrust, drag, power requirement and also stability. Those analyses mentioned are all need to be under the desired depths. Acknowledgements This paper was presented during the 2nd International Conference on Marine and Advanced Technologies 2021. The authors would like to thank Universiti Kuala Lumpur for the provided conference grant.

References 1. Deebak BD, Turjman FA (2020) Aerial and underwater drone communication: potentials and vulnerabilities. Elsevier Inc 2. Anwar BMM, Ajim MA, Alam S (2016) Remotely operated underwater vehicle with surveillance system. In: 2015 International conference on advances in electrical engineering (ICAEE) 2015, pp 255–258. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAEE.2015.7506844 3. Kasno MA et al (2017) Small scale underwater drone based on a twin rotor system, vol 0, pp 5–9 4. Ishibashi S, Tanaka K, Yoshida H, Shinbori T, Uemura T, Takegaki M (2019) The conceptual design and basic design of an underwater intelligent drone for the arctic ocean. Proc Int Offshore Polar Eng Conf 1:1649–1655 5. He Y, Wang DB, Ali ZA (2020) A review of different designs and control models of remotely operated underwater vehicle. Meas Control (United Kingdom) 53(9–10):1561–1570. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0020294020952483 6. Kumar A (2018) Micro aquatic drones in the perspective of robotics : a review 9(2):90–95 7. Narayanan A, Rajeshirke P, Sharma A, Pestonjamasp K (2020) Survey of the emerging bioinspired unmanned aerial underwater vehicles. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 810(1). https:// doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/810/1/012078 8. Yan RJ, Pang S, Sun HB, Pang YJ (2010) Development and missions of unmanned surface vehicle. J Mar Sci Appl 9(4):451–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11804-010-1033-2 9. Liu YZ, Zhang XY, Yuan C (2016) Unmanned surface vehicles: An overview of developments and challenges. Annu Rev Control 41:71–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcontrol.2016.04.018

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10. Tehrani NH, Heidari M, Zakeri Y, Ghaisari J (2010) Development, depth control and stability analysis of an underwater Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). In: 2010 8th IEEE international conference on control and automation ICCA 2010, pp 814–819. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCA. 2010.5524051 11. Das B, Subudhi B, Pati BB (2016) Cooperative formation control of autonomous underwater vehicles: an overview. Int J Autom Comput 13(3):199–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11633016-1004-4 12. Anand G (2016) What is difference between stiff ship and tender ship?|MarineGyaan. Marinegyaan, 27 June 2016. https://marinegyaan.com/what-is-difference-between-stiff-ship-and-ten der-ship/. Accessed June 08 2021. 13. Tupper EC (2004) Stability at large angles. Intro to Nav Archit 104–127. https://doi.org/10. 1016/b978-075066554-4/50008-2

Chapter 18

Development of Smart Traffic Light Control System Using PLC and IoT for Emergency Vehicle Passing Through Atzroulnizam Abu, Muhammad Ikhmal Abdul Rahman, Muhamad Fadli Ghani, Mohd Saidi Hanaffi, and Ahmad Zawawi Jamaluddin Abstract This paper is about four junctions traffic light control systems that are widely used, where monitoring and controlling the flow of vehicles are very critical. The aim is to realize the smooth motion of the car in the transportation routes and the ability to provide a way when there are vehicles such as ambulances, police, and fire trucks that have way priority to pass through in heavy traffic especially at the traffic lights. Several methods are included in the system such as IFTTT application, node MCU ESP32, programming logic control (PLC), and also ADAFRUIT software which is discussed in detail in the project background. Node MCU ESP32 is a method about how the node MCUESP32 to integrated with the PLC using the ADAFRUIT software link with the IFTTT apps. Keywords Programming logic controller (PLC) · Internet of things (IoT) · Node MCU ESP32

18.1 Introduction The internet of things (IoT) is seen as the internet’s natural advancement, including not only communication between humans but also with any kind of object. The internet of things and a controller system design software to find a convergence A. Abu (B) · M. I. A. Rahman · M. F. Ghani · M. S. Hanaffi · A. Z. Jamaluddin Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. F. Ghani e-mail: [email protected] M. S. Hanaffi e-mail: [email protected] A. Z. Jamaluddin e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_18

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analysis of this domain and the control system is presented. IoT allows remote sensing or control of objects across the existing network infrastructure. Internet of things is the connectivity of physical devices such as various sensors and actuators with a unique identifier to allow remote access to objects and automation in applications such as healthcare, transportation, surveillance, and energy maintenance. A wireless sensor terminal connected to a network collects information about the surrounding situation. IoT’s technology also can be applied to this project to enable it to monitor the traffic light using the programming logic control (PLC) and node MCU ESP32. Lastly, IoT technology will be applied. It is a bit deffer system but yet effective if the IoT system [1] is compared with the raspberry-pi system [2]. The development of smart traffic light control system to be applied in high-traffic cities when emergency vehicles such as police, ambulance, and firefighters are to be implemented globally, at the city level as a whole, with knowledge of geographical factors, public road infrastructure, peak hour, daily routes and events [3]. The problem is local at an intersection. Ignoring the influence of road infrastructure at the intersection, urgent roads, traffic flow, and pedestrian flow must be established. Smart traffic light resolves to control the traffic and reduce the time when there is an emergency. A regularly signaled intersection is programmed in a pre-established manner, the green time and red time are adjusted intermittently, or not at all, at long intervals, dependent on the traffic flow when the emergency vehicle is detected. There are many advantages of a smart traffic light control system such as it ensuring a disciplined movement of the traffic participants and providing orderly movement of the following sequence. The other advantages of a smart traffic light are providing main direct traffic on different routes without excessive congestion and providing economy over manual control at the intersection and reducing the risk of death in traffic congestion [4].

18.2 Project Background 18.2.1 System Flowchart The flow chart in Fig. 18.1 shows the process flow that was done to complete this project. This study has followed the process sequences to produce a good project and can be a reference for implementing better methods in future studies. Figure 18.1 shows the project process flowchart. By referring to Fig. 18.2, the flowchart starts when the power button of the pic is switched on and connected to the internet or Wi-Fi. Internet connection is mandatory to get data transferred to it. Then, the user needs to log in to the website because data only can be accessed from it. After that, the user needs to use IFTTT apps to trigger the button and send it to the data. The pic will check either the data send to make them valid. Next, data that has been collected from IFTTT apps will be sent

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Fig. 18.1 Flowchart methodology

to the adafruit Software (IoT software). The IoT software transmits data to the PLC to process the output. The output of the result will be controlled by the PLC. The sequence can be changed back to the normal sequence when there is no tag at the input.

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Fig. 18.2 IOT flowchart

18.2.2 Operation Flowchart Figures 18.3 and 18.4 show the process of flowchart operation. The traffic light on junction 1 will use the IFTTT (If This Then That) label 1. When the ambulance tags the button at the IFTTT apps label 1, the green light at junction 1 will turn on green first for 8 s and the red light at junction 1 will automatically turn off simultaneously in 10 s. After 4 s yellow at junction 1 will turn off simultaneously. The traffic light on junction 2 will use the IFTTT apps label 2. When the ambulance tags the IFTTT apps label 2, the green light at junction 2 will turn on green first for

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Fig. 18.3 Emergency operation flowchart

8 s and the red light at junction 2 will automatically turn off simultaneously in 10 s. After 4 s yellow at junction 2 will turn off simultaneously. The traffic light on junction 3 will use the IFTTT apps label 3. When the ambulance tags the IFTTT apps label 3, the green light at junction 3 will turn on green first for 8 s and the red light at junction 3 will automatically turn off simultaneously in 10 s. After 4 s yellow at junction 1 will turn off simultaneously. The traffic light on junction 4 will use the IFTTT apps label 4. When the ambulance tags the IFTTT apps label 4, the green light at junction 4 will turn on green first for 8 s and the red light at junction 4 will automatically turn off simultaneously in 10 s. After 4 s yellow at junction 4 will turn off simultaneously. The process then will loop or repeat start with green LED at junction 1 light up. It will continue the process if the process is not disturbed by any program.

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Fig. 18.4 Traffic light operation flowchart

18.3 Methodology From Fig. 18.5, the block diagram shows the overall hardware system. For the software, the IFTTT application needs to be used to send the input data to TFTTT web server. In the IFTTT application, four-button widgets represent four junction traffic lights. The function of the IFTTT application is to send the input by pressing any of the button widgets at the application interface. After that, data from the IFTTT application will transmit to a web server called Adafruit IO. Data will be stored at the Adafruit web server. When Nodemcu esp32 is connected with the Adafruit web server, data will be transmitted into Nodemcu esp32 and data processed. Nodemcu esp32 is the microcontroller of this project. Nodemcu esp32 will collect data from the Adafruit IoT web server and process the data into the next step. This process is known as the IoT process at which data needs to be transmitted when the Wi-Fi is connected. From the server cloud, the user needs to connect PC and sign in to Adafruit IO to collect and monitor data that has been sent from the

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Fig. 18.5 Block diagram

IFTTT application. For the power of the Nodemcu esp32 and Arduino, a 5 V power supply has been used to power up the component. When already connected, data can be transmitted to Arduino to process the output. The function of Arduino is to collect data and process it into the output of the system. The system of these projects had been designed and monitored by LabVIEW. LabVIEW needs to be integrated with Arduino to produce the output. Finally, the output can be shown in the traffic light junction prototype. This system is almost the

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same as [5] but the major difference is the system is already specific to the desired area so there will be no GPS system is needed.

18.3.1 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) Figure 18.6 is an example of a programmable logic controller, or short PLC, which is merely a different device for industrial control systems [6]. They are used in many industries, including oil refineries, production lines, transport systems, etc. The PLC provides a flexible way to “software” the workings together wherever devices need to be controlled. The basic units have a CPU (computer processor) to run a platform that monitors several different inputs and manipulates the desired control outputs logically. They are meant to be very flexible in how to program them while offering the benefits of high reliability (no program crashes or mechanical failures), compact and costeffective compared to traditional control systems. These are ladder logic, function block chart (FBD), structured text (ST), sequential function chart (SFC), and instruction list (IL). The controller can be recoded in place if significant code changes are required and the PLC memory is embedded. If the memory of the PLC is not embedded on the circuit board and major code changes are required, the memory can be removed from an external slot [6]. Referring to Table 18.1, it shows the address of output from the Cx-programmer to PLC CJ2M to control all the traffic lights. The 4-way traffic light design at cxprogrammer, for the red traffic light 1 the address is 1.12, for red traffic light 2 the address is 1.15, for the red traffic light 3 the address is 1.06, and the last for the traffic light red 4 the address is 1.09. Next, the yellow traffic 1 light address for the cx-programmer is 1.13, yellow traffic light 2 is 1.04, yellow traffic light 3 is 1.07 and the last yellow traffic light is 1.10. Next, the green traffic light for 4 way is 1.14, 1.05, 1.08, and 1.11. Fig. 18.6 Programmable logic controller (PLC)

18 Development of Smart Traffic Light Control System Using PLC … Table 18.1 Address output PLC

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Red traffic light LED 1

1.12

Red traffic light LED 2

1.15

Red traffic light LED 3

1.06

Red traffic light LED 4

1.09

Yellow traffic light LED 1

1.13

Yellow traffic light LED 2

1.04

Yellow traffic light LED 3

1.07

Yellow traffic light LED 4

1.10

Green traffic light LED 1

1.14

Green traffic light LED 2

1.05

Green traffic light LED 3

1.08

Green traffic light LED 4

1.11

18.3.2 Adafruit Software Figure 18.7 shows the IoT software Adafruit. It is an IoT programming system that makes it much easier to drag and drop. Not only does it enable drag and drop programs to be built, but it also standardizes the connection of devices such as sensors and motors and ensures drivers are in place. In this sense, it makes programming and hardware much easier.

Fig. 18.7 Adafruit software

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Fig. 18.8 Node MCU ESP32

18.3.3 Node MCU ESP32 Figure 18.8 shows the Node MCU ESP32 which is an LUA programming language microcontroller board module. It comes with two cores Wi-Fi and Bluetooth build in processors. It also has RAM flash memory, GPIO, and many peripherals. Node MCU ESP32 is one of the IoT makers and developers’ famous microcontroller improvement boards. Node MCU ESP32 is highly integrated with built-in antenna switches, power amplifiers, low-noise amplifiers, filters and power controlling modules Node MCU ESP32 adds priceless functionality and versatility to the application with minimum requirements for printed circuit board (PCB).

18.3.4 If This Than That (IFTTT) IFTTT is both a website and a mobile app. The free service was launched in 2010 with the following slogan: “Put the Internet to work for you”. It’s changed a lot in recent years. Now, with IFTTT, it can connect to all “services” so that tasks are automatically completed. There are numerous ways it can connect to all services and the resulting combinations are called “Applets”. Applets automate the daily workflow, whether it is managing smart home devices or apps and websites.

18.4 Results and Discussion In this topic, the results and discussion for the smart traffic light control system using PLC are presented. This project development can be divided into two main components which are hardware and software. The performance of the traffic light control system will be analyzed where to achieve the third objective of this project.

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18.4.1 Sequential Function Chart for Traffic Light Operation From the cx-programmer result, shown in Fig. 18.9, the initial traffic light system performs as a normal four junctions traffic light with the absence of an ambulance. The red color is 5 s, the yellow color is 3 s and the green color is 10 s. For Fig. 18.10, the simulation result by the cx-programmer shows the presence of someone to trigger the button in the cx- programmer coding. Once, someone pushes button number one at cx-programmer, the other three junctions traffic light will in sequence change to red color, and junction one will change to green to give priority to the emergency vehicle. When button 2 is triggered, traffic light 1, traffic light 3, and traffic light 4 will change to red color in sequence and the only junction 2 is green. Next, when

Fig. 18.9 Normal sequence

Fig. 18.10 Interruption sequence traffic light

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button 3 is triggered, traffic light 1, traffic light 2, and traffic light 4 will change to red color in sequence and the only junction 3 is green. Lastly, when button 4 is triggered, traffic light 1, traffic light 2, and traffic light 3 change to red color, and only junction 4 is green. If there is no button is triggered, all the traffic lights will return to the normal sequence.

18.4.2 Timing Diagram for Sequence of Normal Traffic Lights Figure 18.11 shows the normal operation of four junctions in the timing diagram is the condition of turn on while low or 0 in the timing diagram means that the LED is turned off. The normal condition traffic light begins at LED traffic light 1 green turns high first for 8 s and the red LED at traffic light 2, traffic light 3, and traffic light 4 will remain red until complete the cycle for traffic light 1. After 10 s, the yellow LED at traffic light 1 will be high for 3 s and the green LED at traffic light 1 will turn low simultaneously. After the yellow LED at traffic light 1 turns the high off after 4 s, the red LED at traffic light 1 will turn high simultaneously. At this stage, the red traffic light at traffic light 1 will remain high for 10 s. After that, the green LED at junction 2 will turn high for 8 s and the red LED at traffic light 2 will turn off simultaneously. After that, the yellow LED at traffic light 2 will turn high for 4 s and the green LED will turn low simultaneously. After 4 s, the yellow LED at traffic light 2 will turn low and the red LED at traffic light 2 will turn high at that time for 10 s.

Fig. 18.11 Normal operation timing diagram

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The green LED at traffic light 3 will turn high for 8 s while the red led at traffic light 1, traffic light 2, and traffic 4 will remain red. After that, the yellow LED at traffic light 3 turns high for 2 s and the green LED at traffic light 3 will turn low. After 3 s, the red led at traffic light 3 will turn high. After 10 s, the green led traffic light 4 will turn high and the red led at traffic light 1, traffic light 2, and traffic light 3 will remain high. Then, the yellow led at traffic light 4 will turn high for 4 s, and the green led at traffic light 4 will turn low simultaneously. After 4 s, the red led at traffic light 4 will turn high and the same with traffic lights 1, 2, 3. This timing diagram shows a complete cycle for a normal traffic light sequence.

18.4.3 Timing Diagram IoT Interruption of Traffic Light A Figure 18.11 shows the timing diagram for the interruption condition at junction A. First, the traffic light will run in a normal sequence. Figure 18.12 shows the traffic sequence at traffic light B at which the green LED at the traffic light turns high for 8 s. After 10 s, the yellow LED at the traffic light B will turn on for 4 s and the green LED at traffic light B will turn low simultaneously. After 4 s, the yellow LED at traffic light B will turn low and the red LED at traffic light B will turn high for 10 s. For the normal sequence traffic light, after 10 s the red LED traffic light B, the sequence should continue into traffic light C but an IoT interruption occurs at traffic light A. Next, it will prioritize traffic light A. After sending the signal from the IoT application, the traffic light begins at the LED traffic light A green turns for 8 s, and traffic light B, traffic light C, and traffic light D remain red. After 10 s, the green LED at traffic light A will turn low and the yellow LED traffic light A will turn high for 4 s.

Fig. 18.12 IOT interruption of traffic light A

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After 4 s, the red LED traffic light A will turn high, and the yellow LED traffic light A will turn low. After 4 s, the sequence of traffic lights will turn into a normal sequence where the green LED at traffic light C will turn high. This shows an IoT interruption had occurred and the traffic light sequence will run into normal sequence until the traffic light detects an interruption. After 8 s, the green LED at traffic light C will turn low and the yellow LED traffic light C will turn high for 4 s. After 4 s, the red LED at traffic light C will turn high and the yellow LED traffic light C will turn low simultaneously. Then the traffic light will follow the normal sequence condition until the present interruption signal from the IoT application.

18.5 Conclusion The development of a real-time smart traffic light control system using PLC—(IoT) has achieved all the objectives. The first objective of this project is to identify suitable methodology equipment for the PLC to communicate with the IoT and node MCU ESP32 requirements for traffic light control systems. After comparing the existent traffic light system nowadays, the internet of things is more suitable and had been chosen as a medium for communication between devices of the system. The second objective of this project is to develop a smart traffic light control system using integrated IoT. The application for this project was done by using apps called IF THIS THAN THAT (IFTTT). Node MCU ESP32 that is already programmed with WI-FI and password will receive data from the IFTTT application via IoT. Adafruit IoT was used as a connection medium to get transmitted and received data. The last objective of this project is to test the performance of a smart traffic light control system with IoT to monitor the PLC. The last objective is successfully being done when the junction of the traffic light can operate following the programmed sequence. The IoT system that has been applied to the system is also successfully connected after being tested. Acknowledgments The authors would like to express our gratitude to the Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology (UniKL MIMET) for the continuous support in this research and development project.

References 1. Mansoori A, Achar C (2018) Smart roads using IoT devices. Int J Eng Tecnol 5(6):1526–1529 2. Bhusari S, Patil S, Kalbhor M (2015) Traffic control system using Raspberry pi. Glob J Adv Eng Technol 4(4):413–415 3. Kham NH, Nwe CM (2014) Implementation of modern traffic light control system. Int J Sci Res 4(6):4–9 4. Sheela S, Shivaram KR et al (2016) Innovative technology for smart roads by using IOT devices. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 190–194

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5. Hegde R, Sali RR, Indira MS (2013) RFID and GPS based automatic lane clearance system for ambulance. Int J Adv Electr Electron Eng 2(3):102–107 6. Bolton W (2015) Programmable logic controllers. United Kingdom

Chapter 19

The Strength Analysis of a Leisure Craft with a Transparent Hull Nur Adila Rosman, Azman Ismail, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharudin, Norshakila Abd Rasid, and Darulihsan Abdul Hamid

Abstract The common hull used in the maritime sector is not transparent, for example, it is made of aluminium, wood and fibreglass. It was impossible to see a transparent hull boat 10 years ago due to lack of prospects and there was no demand in the market. Now that tourism industry has been growing among the sectors that contribute to a country’s economy, certain improvements have been made to attract tourists from all over the world and one of them is the transparent hull boat which allows passengers to enjoy the view of marine life from above. This article studies and describe will study and describe a model-scale prototype of the transparent hull which used acrylic as the material. Thorough details on acrylic characteristics, properties and reactions have been included inside this project report to support the fabrication of the transparent hull boat. The structure of the boat is based on the flat bottom hull which falls into the planning hull category. This hull form provides more stability and agility compared to other types of hulls. This process is carried out using computer-aided design (CAD) software for a more efficient design. The transparent hull could transmit up to 93% of the light which is better compared to normal glass due to the acrylic mechanical properties. This report has included the hull designs made using CAD software and the result of the simulation. As the hull is made from acrylic, the result of the strength analysis is not as strong as for a steel N. A. Rosman · A. Ismail (B) · B. A. Baharudin · N. A. Rasid Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. A. Rosman e-mail: [email protected] B. A. Baharudin e-mail: [email protected] N. A. Rasid e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Hamid Kolej Universiti Poly-Tech MARA, Jalan 6/9, Taman Shamelin Perkasa, 56100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_19

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and wood hull. Hull testing and simulation are done by using a detailed inspection and software simulation to identify defects and flaws. Keywords Transparent hull · Corrugated hull · Acrylic boat · Acrylic strength · Transparent leisure boat

19.1 Introduction Tourism plays a significant part in Malaysia’s growth. The tourism sector has a positive impact on the economy. After manufacturing and commodities, tourism is the third largest contributor to Malaysia’s economy. The tourism industry in Southeast Asia has experienced substantial growth in recent years. Malaysia’s strategic location surrounded by water has made Malaysia one of the countries that can offer the opportunity to enjoy the beauty of marine life that is not found elsewhere. Malaysia itself has 878 islands that can be visited by tourists from all over the world. For example, Sipadan Island is a hotspot for marine life that has around 600 types of coral reefs and almost 1200 species of fish. It is a wonderful experience to be able to enjoy this beauty from the vicinity. For this purpose, snorkelling activity has been popular in Malaysia since it gives the opportunity to enjoy all this beauty right before the eyes. But snorkelling is not suitable for some people due to age restriction, water phobia and older people, etc. Introduction of a transparent hull boat will attract more visitors to enjoy water leisure activities. Unlike snorkelling, the transparent hull boat allows the passenger to witness the underwater world below them for a rare experience. The vision through a transparent boat is clearer than merely looking onto the water surface. The view is similar to snorkelling while the passenger can remain dry out of the water. Constructing a transparent hull boat will require different materials compared to common boats such as wood and fibreglass. The material should be a see-through material to achieve the goal of constructing a transparent hull boat. Acrylic is considered the best material compared with other transparent materials such as glass. In terms of strength and clarities, acrylic is a perfect material for this project.

19.2 Methodology 19.2.1 Material Specifications To ensure that this research study runs smoothly and is successful, the transparent hull must be rendered with the most ideal material for this research study to work out. The material for the hull is the only material that needs to be studied. As for the hull, acrylic or poly-Methacrylate (PMMA) is the material that should be used in

19 The Strength Analysis of a Leisure Craft with a Transparent Hull Table 19.1 Acrylic plate specification

Attribute

Value

Colour

Clear

Length

500 mm

Width

300 mm

Thickness

3 mm

Material

Acrylic

Density

1.41 g/cm3

Tensile strength

65 MPa

Hardness

M 90 Rockwell

Water absorption

0.005%

Maximum operating

+ 70 °C

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Temperature Finish

Clear

this study [1]. In order to affect the strength simulation process, the design process must also be performed correctly.

19.2.2 Hull Material The main objective of the present study was to create a model-scale prototype of a transparent hull. Acrylic was used as the hull material to accomplish the purpose of this analysis. Table 19.1 shows the details of the hull material specifications obtained from the supplier.

19.2.3 Design Specification During the vessel hull design phase, design options that meet both economic and technological criteria are explored. Additional vessel resistance in waves and good sea-keeping capabilities are strongly reliant on the form and dimensions of the hull vessel. As a result, the simulation of the ship’s condition should begin at the prior phase. The project was separated into two sections: the hull material selection and design selection. In this chapter, we summarise the findings and examine the best hull material, corrugated section and select the most feasible hull [2, 3]. Table 19.2 shows the general requirement for the hull.

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Table 19.2 Design specification No

General requirement

1

Size

2

Function

Recreational craft made from, acrylic, transparent material

3

Area of Operation

Mainly within the near shore and shallow water operation

4

Range

To be sailed in generally normal sunny or normal condition

Length overall is 12.0 m

Performance requirement 5

Powering

Able to cruise at a steady speed

Accommodation requirement 6

General

Seating for 12 adults

19.2.4 Forces Calculation One of the vessel’s missions is to carry 12 adult passengers on board [4]. Assuming the weight of an adult male is 75 kg, the total passenger’s weight is 900 kg. Mathematical calculation is done to convert the weight of the passenger to forces using Eq. 19.1: 1 kg = 9.8067 N 900 kg × 9.8067 = 8829 Newton (N)

(19.1)

According to the calculation made, the amount of forces have to be applied to the hull form is 8829 N and this is equivalent to 12 adult passengers. The force is applied to the inner hull bottom [5].

19.2.5 Pressures Calculation The pressure that is applied to the outer shell of the hull is the sea water pressure. The pressure coming from the sea water and not fixed. As the depth increases, the pressure is also increasing [6]. By using FEA simulation, the pressure can be set to be uniformly increased by the depth. With that, the result will be accurate and reliable [7]. Unfortunately, the version of Solidworks used for this project did not support those features yet. For that, in this project, the pressures were assumed to be constant neglecting the depth. To acquire a good result, the hull was divided into two parts: Part 1 (top of the hull to the waterline). Part 2 (waterline to the bottom of the hull). Dividing the hull into more parts will give more accurate results as it has different depths. For part 1, the depth is 0.252 m while the depth for part 2 is 0.398 m. With this, the pressure values for part 1 is lower than part 2. The pressures applied are calculated using Eq. (19.1):

19 The Strength Analysis of a Leisure Craft with a Transparent Hull

P = ρgh

225

(19.2)

where, P ρ g h

pressure (kN/m2 ) 1023.6 (kg/m3 ) 9.81 (m/s2 ) depth (m).

Formula Equation is a standard pressure formula used to calculate the pressure at a certain depth. The used variables are explained in the following. P ρ g h F A

Stands for the pressure. The SI unit for pressure is N/m2 . Stands for the density of the medium. The SI unit for the density is kg/m3 . Stands for the gravity. The standard gravity of the earth is 9.81 m/s2 while the SI unit for the gravity is m/s2 . Stands for the height or depth. The SI unit for the height is metre. Stands for the force. The SI unit for force is Newton. Stands for the area. The SI unit for area is m2 . For part 1, the calculation is as shown in Eq. (19.2). P = ρgh P = 1029 × 9.81 × 0.5 = 5047.25 Pa

As above, the amount of pressure applied to the hull region above the waterline is 5047.25 Pa. The pressure was applied to be uniformly distributed along the hull form so that it could generate a reliable result. For part 2, the calculation is as shown below. P = ρgh P = 1029 × 9.81 × 1.5 = 15, 141.74 Pa As above, the amount of pressure applied to the hull region below the waterline is 15141.74 Pa. The pressure was applied to the side shell region and the bottom of the hull region. The pressure was applied to be uniformly distributed along the hull form so that it could generate a reliable result. As all hull forms designed are having the same parameters as the basic hull, the pressure calculated above will be the same. With this, the result could be compared to determine the best hull form design. In addition, the best hull form design is chosen based on its structural strength produced according to the simulation.

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19.3 Results and Discussion 19.3.1 Simulation Analysis Results Table 19.3 shows the result of each five designs. Table 19.3 Design simulation result No

Simulation result

Description

Design 1

The hull received high pressure resulting in deformation. Sea water is the external load applied. Although only the sea water pressure is applied, the hull form no. 1 could not afford to maintain its shape and deformed inside. The side hull deforms despite having the same pressure as the other side

Design 2

From the simulations performed, the rear side of the boat undergoes slight deformation. The stress experienced by the hull does not change the structure of the boat much

Design 3

The hull is a flat bottom hull and has no corrugated part. The result shows that the maximum von Mises stress exceeds the initial yield stress of acrylic. The rear side of the hull also deforms like the previous design but the deformation scale was higher. For this hull form, the external load applied is also only the sea water pressure. For this design, the front side shell of the hull is having lower von Mises stress compared to the rear side hull

Design 4

The round bottom hull that is not reinforced with any corrugated section has the lowest deformation scale compared to other designs. The result is quite interesting as the amount of maximum von Mises stress received is the lowest and does not exceed the initial yield stress of the material. For this hull form, the external load applied is also only the sea water pressure

Design 5

The hull is reinforced with a bottom corrugated section. The result shows that the amount of von Mises stress received is more than the initial yield stress of the material. This could lead to a damaged hull if the maximum stress is applied during sailing since the external load applied is also only the sea water pressure. The corrugated section failed to prevent the deformation on the hull

19 The Strength Analysis of a Leisure Craft with a Transparent Hull Table 19.4 Comparison hull form data

Design

227

Property Deformation scale m

Min von Mises N/m2

Max von Mises N/m2

No. 1

1.54836

5.362e+01

4.467e+07

No. 2

1.20529

2.530e+01

5.360e+07

No. 3

1.33243

2.979e+01

5.051e+07

No. 4

0.849486

9.744e+00

1.113e+07

No. 5

1.20044

1.660e+00

6.534e+07

19.3.2 Result Discussion Based on the data gathered in Table 19.4, it can be concluded that the corrugated section on the hull structure did not achieve the expectation of the researcher. The same pressure was applied to all the designs and design no. 4 that has no corrugated section shows the lowest deformation scale and is able to maintain the max von Mises stress under the initial yield stress of the material. The hulls are able to dissipate the energy uniformly along the hull and maintain their shapes without corrugated section [8]. Unfortunately, for all designs, the rear side hull experienced a slight deformation. Among all the designs, design no. 5 has the lowest minimum von Mises stress, 1.660e+00 N/m2 , while the highest stress is obtained for design no. 1, 5.362e+01 N/m2 . Between all designs, design no. 4 has the lowest max von Mises stress, 1.113e+07 N/m2 . To determine the best hull form design, the max von Mises stress must be compared with the initial yield stress of the hull material, 4.500e+07 N/m2 . The design with the lowest von Mises is design no. 4 with the value of 1.113e+07 N/m2 while the highest is design no. 5 with the value of 6.534e+07 N/m2 . To evaluate these designs, the deformation scale and max von Mises will be compared [9]. Von Mises is the stress that the structure or hull form is forced to endure. The amount of von Mises encountered by the hull form must be less than the hull material’s yield stress of 4.500e+07 N/m2 . Design no. 2, no. 3 and no. 5 the maximum von Mises already exceed the yield strength of the material. Design no.1 and no.4 has 4.467e+07 N/m2 and 1.113e+07 N/m2 respectively. The initial yield stress indicates the material limit of elastic behaviour and the beginning of plastic behaviour. Prior to the yield point, a material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied load is removed. It is important for the design to have lower deformation scale as deformations on the hull structure will lead to fracture or structural strength failure [10]. For deformation scale, design no. 4 has lower scale which is 0.849486 m compared to design no. 1 which is 1.54836 m. Considering the main purpose of this project is to focus on a transparent leisure boat without neglecting its strength, design no. 2, no. 3 and no. 5 will not be taken

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into the consideration for choosing the optimal design. Design no. 2, no. 3 and design no. 5 has higher max von Mises value than the material initial yield stress indicating that the hull will collapse at a certain force. Overall, design no. 4 is the best hull form design among the five designs because it has the lowest deformation scale and lowest max von Mises between all designs.

19.4 Conclusion Based on all the results, the project can be concluded as a successful project. The project managed to meet all of its objectives. Based on the calculation and analysis carried out by the researcher, it can be concluded that the design of the vessel meets all the requirements of the owner. The researcher is able to describe and analyse the hull’s design in extensive detail and finally select the best form of the hull based on all the results. The structural strength analyses of the hull based on the finite element analysis, was conducted and the data were recorded. It was able to construct a transparent vessel without neglecting the strength and safety of the vessel. In terms of strength and cost, it is reasonable to conclude that acrylic is the best material to use for ship hulls. The weight of acrylic and the percentage of light transmitted are the main reasons why it was chosen. Although polycarbonate has higher strength, acrylic is a lighter material and less expensive. Furthermore, the acrylic’s transparency is higher compared to polycarbonate, which is very useful for the vessel’s main purpose. Finally, it can also be assumed that computer-assisted design can be used in all phases of the construction, such as analysing and selecting hull forms, drawings and comprehensive structural analysis. Acknowledgements This paper was presented during the 2nd International Conference on Marine and Advanced Technologies 2021. The authors would like to thank Universiti Kuala Lumpur for the provided conference grant.

References 1. Alhareb A, Akil H, Ahmad Z (2017) Impact strength, fracture toughness and hardness improvement of PMMA denture base through addition of nitrile rubber/ceramic fillers. Saudi J Oral Dent Res. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjdr.2016.04.004 2. Bahrebar M, Kabir M, Zirakian T, Hajsadeghi M, Lim J (2016) Structural performance assessment of trapezoidally-corrugated and centrally—perforated steel plate shear walls. J Constr Steel Res 122:584–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.03.030 3. Eyres D, Bruce G (2012) Other shipbuilding materials. Ship Constr 53–59. https://doi.org/10. 1016/b978-0-08-097239-8.00006-4 4. Hoover M (2016) Aluminium boat hulls versus steel boat hulls. https://yachting-pages.com/art icles/aluminium-boat-hulls-vs-steel-boat-hulls.html. Accessed on 2 Nov 2021

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5. Mai S, Wen C, Lu J (2018) Surface-modified steel sheets and corrugated panels in three-point bending. Int J Mech Sci 142–143:10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2018.04.024 6. Pawar E (2016) A review article on acrylic PMMA, IOSR-JMCE. 3(2):1–4. https://doi.org/10. 1182/blood-2006-06-029850 7. Pawling R, Percival V, Andrews D (2017) A study into the validity of the ship design spiral in early stages ship design. J Sh Prod. https://doi.org/10.5957/JSPD33.2.160008 8. Zhou J, Guan ZW, Cantwell WJ (2016) Scaling effects in the mechanical response of sandwich structures based on corrugated composite cores. Compos B Eng 93:88–96. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.compositesb.2016.02.061 9. Pommier R, Grimaud G, Prinçaud M, Perry N, Sonnemann G (2016) Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of materials In wooden boat ecodesign. Wood And Other Renew Resour 21(2):265–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-1009-1 10. Faegh S, Fanaie N (2018) Comparative study on shear strength of corrugated steel plate shear walls. Lat Am J Solids Struct 12(4):763–786. https://doi.org/10.1590/1679-78251469

Chapter 20

The Conceptual Design of a Leisure Craft with a Transparent Hull Nurul Asyikin Binti Mohd Yunus, Azman Ismail, Fauziah Ab Rahman, Bakhtiar Ariff Baharudin, and Darulishan Abdul Hamid

Abstract Transparent boats are widely used in the tourism industry, especially in Malaysia. Applying this project will give a special increase to the economy. The most suitable material that is used to construct the transparent boat is acrylic and polycarbonate. However, polycarbonate is considered to be the best among these two. It is stronger more than acrylic but a bit more expensive. The main intention for this project is to propose an additional asset and adding another branch of equipment of marine tourism in Malaysia. Marine tourism is quite active in Malaysia. Instead of snorkeling, there is a need for a transparent hull to be developed to cater for marine tourism purposes. A complete conceptual design for this leisure craft is proposed. A stability and hydrostatic data with complete general arrangement is developed. Keywords Transparent boat · Snorkeling · Acrylic · Polycarbonate · Tourism

N. A. B. M. Yunus · A. Ismail (B) · F. A. Rahman · B. A. Baharudin Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. A. B. M. Yunus e-mail: [email protected] F. A. Rahman e-mail: [email protected] B. A. Baharudin e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Hamid Kolej Universiti Poly-Tech MARA, Jalan 6/9, Taman Shamelin Perkasa, 56100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_20

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20.1 Introduction The main intention for this project is to propose an additional asset and adding another branch of equipment of marine tourism in Malaysia. Marine tourism is quite active in Malaysia. Instead of snorkeling, there is a need for a transparent hull to be developed to cater for marine tourism purposes. A complete conceptual design for this leisure craft is proposed. The stability and hydrostatic data with complete general arrangement are developed. The importance of this project is that it gives a lot of advantages. For example, student gets a chance to apply and learn more details about the software that they already learned. Second, there is the opportunity to get to use a new software to achieve this project such as SOLIDWORKS. This software need to be used to facilitate the project in order to complete it quickly and perfectly.

20.1.1 Stage of Design The development of the design demands to meet a variety of technoeconomic requirements and ship design process. It involves some experience from naval architects with respectable background in a variety of fundamental scientific and engineering subjects and to be able to apply these capabilities. The naval architect also needs to be the one who leads the numerous possible structures of the hull, turbine, and electronics through drawing and calculation [1]. This is because one obstacle with designing such new concepts may occur if the designer lacks some of experience from which to draw from while performing design studies. According to [2], the design process may take many man-months to redesign and update before the final design is considered ‘optimal.’ Author [3] suggests that to always remain competitive, all companies in shipbuilding industry are constantly looking on aspect to lower the cost and to develop the quality of their products. Therefore, optimization skills may be particularly beneficial in shipbuilding industry during the ship design process. Generally, ship design is addressing the complete ship’s life cycle. One of the ship design processes that provides the descriptions of the ship design process is the ship design spiral. The cycle being created of several stages, namely besides the preliminary design or traditional process, the detailed design and contractual, the stages of the ship where the fabrication and construction process is conduct.

20.1.2 Type of Hulls In the whole ship design and shipbuilding process, the hull of a ship plays the most important role. The ship’s object of service normally verifies the hull dimensions, form, and shape that often affect the ship’s cargo, housing, machinery structure

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spaces from the wind, floods, and structural damage; thus, it can save a lot of money automatically from dropping fuel consumption and carbon footprints. Each shape operator is created while taking two major quality criteria into account such as independent modification of the parameters and hull fairness [4]. The hull is split up into three regions which are the entrance, middle, and run. Each of the regions is represented individually. In this way, a manufacturer has more versatility in the construction process such that greater hull configuration changes can be accomplished. Roughly, among all of these common basic hull types, the planning hull gives the highest cruising speed which is mainly contributed by its low frictional drag as the hull cruises on top of the water. As for the application, in some aspects of maritime transport, the hull planning can be used for patrol boats, pilot ships, cargo transport, and sea taxis [5]. For more complex activities such as racing, some of the hull preparations were designed properly. Furthermore, planning hull was also used in a few small boats, for example, for leisure activities.

20.1.3 Type of Material The performance and efficiency of a boat are directly dependent on the choice of the boat building material which also has a direct effect on the environment. By taking these facts into account, a boat designer can choose the best possible alternative for building a boat of high efficiency and durability. Acrylic is the best choice for this project. Acrylic is a thermoplastic that is translucent. Due to its properties such as lightweight, solid, and break resistance, it is a good alternative to glass, which is mostly used in sheet form. Author of [6] found that the acrylic density ranges from 1.171.20 g/cm3 to half the glass density and impact power of acrylic is stronger than that of glass and polystyrene. Generally, as for many purposes, acrylic sheets still are an ideal replacement for conventional glass. There are various applications for this flexible form of plastic, and it is also much cheaper than regular glass.

20.1.4 Basic Stability Consideration Author [7] explained that a vessel’s stability is sufficiently well reflected by the metacentric height that was eventually replaced by the knowledge that the characteristics of the right arm give a stronger insight into the problem, which finally headed to the mathematical parameters being developed. According to author [8], Leonhard Euler (‘Scientia Navalis’, 1749) and Pierre Bouguer (‘Traité du Navire’, 1746) developed the most recent concept of hydrostatic stability of ships independently and almost instantaneously. Stability is a system’s propensity or potential to revert to its initial state when disrupted or displaced from its natural condition of equilibrium [9]. The minimum stability requirements for various vessel types have been provided by the

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IMO, and these criteria are taken into consideration at the design stage of the vessel and in the measurement of the stability book data [10]. Metacentric height (GM) value and righting arm (GZ) value can calculate the stability of the vessel under a tiny heel, often called initial stability. Thus, it can be simplified that the wider the GM, the greater the GZ righting lever for any given heel angle would be.

20.2 Methodology The explanations regarding the methodology, the methods, or the techniques used in this project will discuss in this chapter to collect and analyze data. Regarding the topic that has been explained in the literature review, several researchers give their own opinion about the methodology on the most suitable strategy in exploring the contextual determinants and dimensions of public understanding of, and response to, hull monitoring.

20.2.1 Maxsurf Stability The stability test for the hull design analysis is done by MAXSURF Stability software. Moreover, this software enables to export to a variety of CAD formats, as well as DXF and IGES in order to produce correct CAD drawings to display several analysis of results.

20.2.2 AutoCAD Computer-aided design (CAD) is the advanced way to design a structure. One of the most common CAD software packages is AutoCAD. The AutoCAD is used to draw the line plans and general arrangement of this boat. All the parameters are here as well to ensure the result accuracy. Figure 20.3 shows the example of a general arrangement made by the AutoCAD software.

20.3 Results and Discussion All five were designed with different shapes but same dimension. All the final decision requirements of hull design for this project are shown in Table 20.1. The requirements were specifically decided for a leisure craft which will commonly operate within the near shore or shallow water. The dimension was determined in such a way that up to

20 The Conceptual Design of a Leisure Craft … Table 20.1 General requirement

235

Size

Length = 12 m, Beam = 4 m, Depth = 2m

Function

Recreational craft made from acrylic, a transparent material

Area of operation

Mainly within the near shore and shallow water operation

General

Seating for ten adults

ten adults can be transported. The hull form was designed by using one of the fast and most convenient software packages, for example, MAXSURF modeler software. This software is suitable and easy for modeling of complex vessels using dynamically trimmed 3D NURB surfaces. Figure 20.1 shows design number 4 which is one of the hull forms that was designed using MAXSURF modeler. The design was tested on stability and complied based on the selected criteria. Table 20.2 shows the stability result based on criteria. According to the results obtained, the max GZ for design 4 is 68.2° which is more than 30° with the GM value of 1.62 m. The angle of vanishing stability (AVS) in the GZ curve for design 4 can be roughly extracted as 175°. It can be concluded from the results that design number 4 completely fulfills the RESOLUTION MSC.267(85) Chapter 2—General Criteria. In addition, the stability results also illustrates the result in GZ curve that shows in Fig. 20.2. The illustration of the GZ curve for design 4 explains that as the boat continues to heel, the righting lever will increase to a maximum (68.2 deg). The angle of vanishing stability (AVS) is above 175 deg. Once heeled past AVS, the GZ will become negative which means that boat will capsize. Unless affected by some outside force, the boat will continue to 180° of heel. As for the hydrostatic result, the ship is stiff when the result gives a very large GM caused by KG being too small. It means that the ship will be stable, righting moments will be so large, and this can be the reason the ship to return to the upright quickly when heeled. Table 20.3 reveals that design 4 gives the highest GM, which shows

Fig. 20.1 Design number 4

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Table 20.2 Stability result based on criteria Code

Criteria

Value

Units

Actual

Status Margin %

267(85) Ch2—general 2.2.1: Area 0 to 30 criteria

3.1513 m.deg 12.7008 Pass

+303.03

267(85) Ch2—general 2.2.1: Area 0 to 40 criteria

5.1566 m.deg 22.5719 Pass

+337.73

267(85) Ch2—general 2.2.1: Area 30 to 40 criteria

1.7189 m.deg

9.8710 Pass

+474.27

267(85) Ch2—general 2.2.2: Max GZ at 30 or criteria greater

0.200

1.371

Pass

+585.50

Pass

+172.73

Pass

+974.00

267(85) Ch2—general 2.2.3: Angle of Criteria maximum GZ 267(85) Ch2—general 2.2.4: Initial GMt criteria

25.0 0.150

m deg m

68.2 1.611

Fig. 20.2 GZ curve

that it is the most stable among the five designs. Lastly, the general arrangement for design 4 illustrates all the important elements usually required for a leisure craft. This whole process was done by using AutoCAD software. All the rechecking of the parameters process was also done by using the same software as well to ensure the result accuracy. Figure 20.3 shows the general the arrangement for design number 4 in plan view and profile view.

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Fig. 20.3 General arrangement

Table 20.3 Hydrostatic result Criteria

Design 1 (m)

Design 2 (m)

Design 3 (m)

Design 4 (m)

Design 5

GMT >=0.15 m

0.213

−0.559

1.467

1.62

0.339

KMT

1.754

1.488

1.467

1.630

1.868

KG

1.541

2.047

1.037

2.035

1.529

KB

0.917

0.651

0.546

0.622

0.941

20.4 Conclusion Based on the results, it can be concluded that this project successfully achieved its objective. The project meets all criteria in expectation. The requirement of this project includes the design of hull form, the hydrostatic test and stability test. Last but not least, the general arrangement. The demonstration for the application of the corrugated part of the hull form which explained that it was not a good idea to include it in designing a hull. This is because the result for all the testing including the simulation shows that the design without corrugated part gives a better result rather than the design with a corrugated part. Moreover, regarding material’s selection, the acrylic material is the suitable material to be used for this project in terms of strength and cost. The characteristic of acrylic in terms of weight, the percentage of light transmitted, is the reason why it was chosen. Acrylic is lighter and cheaper than polycarbonate, although polycarbonate has a higher strength. Furthermore, the most important is that acrylic is the

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best material for this project because it clearly can satisfy the passenger or tourist for this boat because the part for the view of underwater is very clear and wide. Acknowledgements My special thanks go to my family members for their love, prayers, caring and their constant source of inspiration.

References 1. Ni B, Zeng L (2019) Ship design process. Encycl Ocean Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-98110-6963-5_36-1.1-8 2. Ang JH, Goh C, Li Y (2016) Smart design for ships in a smart product through-life and industry 4.0 environment. https://doi.org/10.1109/CEC.2016.7748364 3. Wilson W, Hendrix D, Gorski J (2010) Hull form optimization for early stage ship design. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-3584.2010.00268.x 4. Khan S, Gunpinar E, Dogan KM (2017) A novel design framework for generation and parametric modification of yacht hull surfaces. Ocean Eng 136: 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.oceaneng.2017.03.013 5. Danı¸sman DB (2015) An experiment study of the effect of change in LCG on resistance and planning capability of a fast vessel. isu september 2015, 2–3 6. Pawar E (2016) A review article on acrylic PMMA Eshwar Pawar. ISOR J Mech Civ Eng 13:1–4. https://doi.org/10.9790/1684-1302010104 7. Baˇckalov I et al (2016) Ship stability, dynamics and safety: status and perspectives from a review of recent STAB conferences and ISSW events. Ocean Eng 116:312–349. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2016.02.016 8. Nowacki H, Ferreiro LD (2011) Historical roots of the theory of hydrostatic stability of ships. Fluid Mech ed Appl 97:141–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1482-3_8 9. Biran AB, Ruben LP (2013) Ship hydrostatics and stability (2nd Edn). Butterworth-Heinemann, p 414 10. Shipowners (2007) Basic stability small vessels, Shipowners Club 44:1–53

Chapter 21

Water Quality Assessment at Various Levels of Depth at Sungai Manjung, Perak Norazlina Abdul Nasir, Asmalina Mohamed Saat, Nurain Jainal, Fathul Ikmal Samsuddin, and Muhammad Ezat Emir Ramli Abstract This study analyzes the quality of the water particularly at Sungai Manjung, Perak at various depth levels. In this research context, the water quality index is used to determine the quality of the water and water parameters are used as determinants. Environment Quality Report for Rivers in 2017 has shown that Sungai Manjung is categorized as a slightly polluted river. This study is conducted near the shipyard water area. The observations around the area are conducted and water samples are collected for 60 days in three different depth levels which include, 0.5, 1 and 1.5 m. The pH, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO) and total dissolved solid (TDS) are measured. It is found that the pH for all samples is between the range of 7.4 to 8.4 whereas DO varied from 9.42 to 12.85 mg/L, TDS is 4002–9795 p.p.m, temperature ranged from 30 to 34.6 °C and salinity is revealed changeless at values between 23 and 24‰. Thus, the findings of this study have revealed that the water quality status in Sungai Manjung is moderately polluted in various depth levels due to several maritime activities in the surrounding area. Keywords Water pollution · Water quality · Maritime activities

N. A. Nasir (B) · F. I. Samsuddin · M. E. E. Ramli Maritime Management Section, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Saat Maritime Engineering and Technology Section, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. Jainal Students Development & Campus Lifestyle Section, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Lumut, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_21

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21.1 Introduction Water is an important element in any living thing. The main source of drinking water comes from rivers. River compromises the most important resources for domestics used, industry and other purposes in daily life. However, the water quality could be deteriorated by the threat of pollution. Pollution is one of the perils to the rivers as a result of human activities [1]. Therefore, preventing and controlling river pollution and conducting reliable evaluation of the water quality are both imperative for effective management [2]. The water quality can be characterized by a high level of heterogeneity in time and space and it could be identified in terms of its physical, chemical and biological parameters. Industrial activities that are ongoing in the surrounding river area contribute to the quality of the river water and ultimately, it may lead to water pollution. The issue regarding the status of low water quality levels has arisen in which it could bring negative impact towards human life, sea life and environment [3]. Hence, it is necessary to identify the water condition and pollution sources. This would directly recognize the solution to control the pollution, in addition, to construct strategies to minimize the contamination resources. Sungai Manjung (see Fig. 21.1) is connected to Sungai Segari, Sungai Raja Hitam and Sungai Ayer Tawar at the upstream. Sungai Manjung is surrounded by maritime industries, where the Lumut port is the key industry. Most industrial areas are located near the river area. The green port concept is promoted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to sustain a healthier environment. This initiative is developed to create a condition for an efficient operation, low impact on environment and rational to economy [4]. In the near future, ports would become vital spots in the wide-ranging transportation system. This is a long-term major development for the future in which construction works, environment and natural resources could be affected as well as humans. Sungai Manjung has become the main route for all the marine activities surrounding the area which have been operating for years. Some examples of marine activities include the operation of ports, shipyards, jetties, fishing and agricultural

Fig. 21.1 Sungai Manjung, Perak

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activities. These activities have been polluting the river water and ultimately, affect the water quality. Human activities particularly farming, live-stock and agriculture industry play a significant role in contributing to river water contamination compared to other pollutants. The aim of this research is to determine the status of the water quality at three different depth levels whether it is in a good condition, moderately polluted or overly polluted specifically in Sungai Manjung, Perak.

21.2 Methodology Sampling techniques were used by collecting the water samples. The water depth level was measured before sampling to choose a suitable location for the research. The measurement which has been done indicated that the maximum depth level at the sampling area was three metres during high tide and two metres during low tide. The water samples in Sungai Manjung have been collected daily for sixty days perpetually. The location of the sampling methods was fixed but it has been conducted at three different depth levels, 0.5, 1 and 1.5 m. The water samples were collected by using a steel syringe mechanism with a 2 m steel rod in length as shown in Figs. 21.2, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5 and 21.6.

Fig. 21.2 Syringe mechanism for collecting data

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Observation is one of the methods used for completing this research. The water surface was observed based on the colour, whether it is clear or dull. Based on the observation during the daily water sample collection, the water tended to be clear during high tides and clearer if it was raining before the data were collected. However, the water tended to be duller during low tides. This observation was made during the water sample collection. As a result, there are activities that contribute to the direct water discharge from the river to the sea such as small recreational boats and agricultural activities.

Pi j =

     2  Ci M + Ci 2 R  Li j Li j 2

,

(21.1)

where, Pij is the pollution index for specified water quality, Ci is measure water quality parameters, Lij is a standard water quality parameter for each parameter at specified water quality purposes. While M is the maximum value from total Cij divide by Lij and R is average value for Cij divide by Lij. Water samples that have been collected were tested based on the pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, temperature and total dissolved solid (TDS). The pollution index used to analyze the data using the function of Ci/Lj in which, Ci indicates the concentration of parameter i while Lj indicates the concentration permissible value of parameter based on the National Water Quality Standard of Malaysia (NWQS) as shown in Table 21.2. The pollution index is calculated by Eq. (21.1) to determine the status of pollution and water quality based on Table 21.1. Table 21.1 Pollution index and water quality status criteria

Pollution index

Water quality status

0 ≤ Pij ≤ 1.0

Good condition

1.0 < Pij ≤ 5.0

Slightly polluted

5.0 < Pij ≤ 10

Moderately polluted

Pij ≥ 10

Heavily polluted

Table 21.2 National water quality standard of Malaysia (NWQS) Parameters

Unit

Class I

IIA

IIB

III

IV

V

pH

–

6.5–8.5

6–9

6–9

5–9

5–9

–

DO

Mg/L

7

5–7

5–7

3–5

50) on days 1, 2, 7, and 10 indicating moderate pollution. Based on the error percentage result, the error percentages of air quality in Kuala Selangor were found to be increased following the Seri Manjung experiment. This might be because the calibration process, which was not performed before conducting the experiment in Kuala Selangor, contributes to the less accurate gas sensors. The calibration of sensors is required before conducting the experiment to ensure accurate results, as factors such as environmental effects may influence their accuracy [3]. This study has shown that the use of gas sensors may certainly serve as a cost-effective and user-friendly complementary solution for the establishment of an ambient air quality monitoring network. Nevertheless, special attention should be given to the selected sensors to ensure their accuracy. The findings also show that most of the air quality data in both areas; Seri Manjung and Kuala Selangor have values of AQI less than 50 which means low pollution. This might be related to the experiment period which was conducted during the implementation of the Movement Control Order (MCO) by the Malaysian governments to

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Fig. 22.6 Determination of air pollutant index (API)

isolate the source of the COVID-19 outbreak. Several activities, including company operation, are prohibited during MCO, except for necessary services. Since people are working from home and some companies have ceased operations, traffic congestion and industrial emissions have decreased, resulting in improved air quality [5].

22.4 Conclusion This study proposes an IoT-enabled air pollution system on smartphones for the monitoring air quality in real-time at any desirable location. The IoT idea enables comprehensive data assimilation, revealing crucial information regarding air quality levels. The cloud database that was developed can be searched for relevant information related to the air quality analysis. In this study, the Blynk platform is shown to be highly useful for analyzing cloud data on the environmental condition, as an air quality monitoring system. In conclusion, this system is cost-effective when compared to the existing system of stationary monitoring. The use of this system helps the people to know about the degree of air pollution in a certain area as well as

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Table 22.4 Values of API, status, and effects on human health API value

Status

Health effects

Health advice

Low pollution with no adverse health effects

No restriction for outdoor activities to the public. Maintain health life

Moderate pollution with no adverse health effects

No restriction for outdoor activities to the public. Maintain healthy life

Limited outdoor activities for the high-risk people

Unhealthy (for sensitive group)

Worsen the health of the elderly, pregnant women, children and those suffering from heart and lung complications

Very unhealthy

Worsen the health condition and low tolerance of physical exercises to those suffering from heart and lung complications Affect public health

Old and high-risk people are advised to stay indoors and reduce physical activities. People with health complications are advised to see doctor

Hazardous to high risk and public health

Old and high-risk people are prohibited for outdoor activities. Public are advised to prevent from outdoor activities

0–50

Good

51–100

Moderate

101–200

201–300

> 300

Hazardous

Source Department of Environment Malaysia, DOE [6]

the health risk associated with it. Because it is based on a cloud platform, the system is scalable and supports any number of IoT devices that may be deployed.

22 Monitoring Air Quality Using an IoT-Enabled Air Pollution … Fig. 22.7 Visual graphic of the air quality by the Blynk

Fig. 22.8 A pop-up notification by the Blynk

261

262 Table 22.5 Air pollution level, temperature, and humidity at Seri Manjung and Kuala Selangor

S. A. Shamsuddin et al. Day (12 p.m) Air pollution level

Temperature (°C)

Humidity (%)

Seri Manjung (20 April–3 May 2020) Day 1 (20 April 2020)

56

24

64

Day 2 (21 April 2020)

56

24

64

Day 3 (22 April 2020)

54

23

65

Day 4 (23 April 2020)

50

23

67

Day 5 (24 April 2020)

47

22

67

Day 6 (25 April 2020)

38

22

69

Day 7 (26 April 2020)

39

22

69

Day 8 (27 April 2020)

38

22

65

Day 9 (28 April 2020)

33

22

66

Day 10 (29 April 2020)

40

22

67

Day 11 (30 April 2020)

33

22

68

Day 12 (1 May 2020)

33

22

68

Day 13 (2 May 2020)

28

21

68

Day 14 (3 May 2020)

22

21

68

Kuala Selangor (11 May–24 May 2020) Day 1 (11 May 2020)

48

24

64

Day 2 (12 May 2020)

46

23

64

Day 3 (13 May 2020)

43

23

65

Day 4 (14 May 2020)

36

22

67

Day 5 (15 May 2020)

44

24

66

Day 6 (16 May 2020)

42

22

67 (continued)

22 Monitoring Air Quality Using an IoT-Enabled Air Pollution … Table 22.5 (continued)

263

Day (12 p.m) Air pollution level

Temperature (°C)

Humidity (%)

Day 7 (17 May 2020)

44

23

65

Day 8 (18 May 2020)

33

21

67

Day 9 (19 May 2020)

33

21

67

Day 10 (20 May 2020)

48

24

64

Day 11 (21 May 2020)

42

23

67

Day 12 (22 May 2020)

35

22

66

Day 13 (23 May 2020)

34

22

66

Day 14 (24 May 2020)

34

21

68

AQI (Monitoring station) Air pollution level (Measured) Error %

Seri Manjung 70 60

59

60

56

56

54

60

Air Quality

50

56

50

40

52 42

42

44 40

47

35 38

30

39

35

36

33

33

30

40

38 33

28

20 10

10

6.67

5.08

1

2

10.71

9.6

9.5

7.1

5

5.71

8

9

9.1

5.71

8.33

6.67

12

13

30

22 8.33

0 3

4

5

6

7

10

Day (20 April - 3 May 2020)

Fig. 22.9 Air quality at Seri Manjung

11

14

264

S. A. Shamsuddin et al. AQI (Monitoring station) Air Pollution Level (Measured) Error %

Kuala Selangor 60

56

54 50

50

50

54

52

49

48

43

Air Quality

42 40

48

46

38 43

42

14.3

14.8

14

14.3

3

4

15.4 12

41

42

34

34

42 33

14.3

48

44

36

30 20

44

39

13.2

35

33 15.4

14.3

18.6 17.07 16.67

11.1

10 0 1

2

5

6

7 8 9 10 Day (11 May - 24 May 2020)

11

12

13

14

Fig. 22.10 Air quality at Kuala Selangor

References 1. Ta¸stan M, Gökozan H (2019) Real-time monitoring of indoor air quality with internet of things-based e-nose. Appl Sci 9:3425 2. Lee YW (2020) A stochastic model of particulate matters with al-enabled technique-based IoT gas detectors for air quality assessment. Microelectron Eng 229:111346 3. Shah J, Mishra B (2020) IoT-enabled low power environment monitoring system for prediction of pm 2.5. Pervasive Mob Comput. 67:101175 4. Singh D, Dahiya M, Kumar R et al (2021) Sensors and systems for air quality assessment monitoring and management: a review. J Environ Manage 289:112510 5. Abdullah S, Abu Mansor A, Mohd Napi N AL et al (2020) Air quality status during 2020 Malaysia movement control order (MCO) due to 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCOV) pandemic. Sci Total Environ 729:139022 6. Department of Environment Malaysia (2020) Air quality. https://www.doe.gov.my/portalv1/ en/info-umum/kualiti-udara/114 7. Gunawan TS, Saiful Munir YM, Kartiwi M et al (2018) Design and implementation of portable outdoor air quality measurement system using Arduino. Int J Electr Comput Eng Syst 8(1):280– 290 8. Aloi G, Calicuiri G, Fortino G et al (2017) Enabling IoT interoperability through opportunistic smartphone-based mobile gateways. J Netw Comput Appl 81:74–84 9. Abbas FN, Abdalrdha ZK, Saadon MM et al (2020) Capable of gas sensor MQ-135 to monitor the air quality with Arduino Uno. Int J Eng Res Technol 13(10):2955–2959 10. Biswal A, Subhashini J, Pasayat AK (2019) Air quality monitoring system for indoor environments using IoT. AIP Conf Proc. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5112365 11. Azahar MA, Zainal MS, Mohd Shah MS et al (2020) IoT-based air quality device for smart pollution monitoring. Adv Eng Softw 1(1):284–295 12. Kalia P, Ansari MA (2020) IOT based air quality and particulate matter concentration monitoring system. Mater Today Proc 32:468–475 13. Chowdhury S, Das I, Bhuria P et al (2018) IOT enabled air pollution meter with digital dashboard. Int J Sci Res 8(10):610–615

Chapter 23

Introduction of Futuristic Warehouse Synergy: A Warehouse Storage Space Reservation Hub System Nur Hazwani Karim, Rudiah Md Hanafiah, Noorul Shaiful Fitri Abdul Rahman, and Saharuddin Abdul Hamid Abstract The growing era of e-commerce is great news for the business to generate revenues, but it poses a difficulty for warehouse managers as retailers develop and expand, keeping track of an enormous amount of inventory becomes a difficult core. Upon the empirical findings, the primary indicator to enhance the warehousing by means of information system. In addition to logistics 4.0, this research puts forward a conceptual concept on smart warehouse, named the futuristic warehouse synergy incorporating both internal and external blockchain of the warehouse. Traditionally, the warehouse storage area is filled through business and marketing agreements. The innovative idea proposed in this research is an online smart contract, which will be more reliable, less time consuming, data analytics and end-to-end inventory tracking. Therefore, this proposed solution promotes a single online platform that allows shippers and warehouse operators to participate in warehouse online booking and cargo storage. In addition, the implementation of an integrated warehouse management system (iWMS) will organise and carry out warehouse activities at maximum use of technology. The efficient iWMS manages the storage facilities of the warehouse and integrates the available storage space into the warehouse storage space reservation hub system. Given this, the proposed conceptual futuristic warehouse synergy also has consulted with professional experts on the realizability of this idea to be implemented in the future. As such, these technologies work together to enable cargo owners to reserve warehouse storage space online and warehouse operators can increase the warehouse fill rate through continuous online booking. N. H. Karim (B) · R. Md Hanafiah · S. Abdul Hamid Faculty of Maritime Studies, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] R. Md Hanafiah e-mail: [email protected] S. Abdul Hamid e-mail: [email protected] N. S. F. Abdul Rahman Logistics Management, International Maritime College Oman, Sohar, Sultanate of Oman e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_23

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Keywords Logistics and transportation · Warehousing · Industrial revolution 4.0 · Smart contract · Storage reservation

Abbreviations 10PL 3PL AGV AI ASRS CPS ERP FMCG GPS IoT iWMS NOA NOD RFID SKU WCS WES WSSRH

Tenth Party Logistics Third Party Logistics Automated Guided Vehicle Artificial Intelligence Automatic Storage and Retrieval System Cyber-Physical Systems Enterprise Resource Planning Fast-Moving Consumer Goods Global Positioning System Internet of Things Integrated Warehouse Management System Advanced Notice of Arrival Notice of Departure Radio-Frequency Identification Stock Keeping Unit Warehouse Control System Warehouse Execution System Warehouse Storage Space Reservation Hub

23.1 Introduction Warehousing and warehouse management is an important constituent of the supply chain management as it provides a focal area for inbound functions (shipment arrival, moving goods into the warehouse facility, goods identification, arranging and putaway to their designated locations) and outbound functions (consolidation, pack, ship and update the record). Significantly, this facility offers economies of scale by buffering inventory and balancing the supply and demand of the goods for long term and seasonal storage. The business profitability needs to make the goods available in the market for short at a certain time when goods are in demand. Various types of goods, either perishable or non-perishable, are stored in the warehouse facilities (for storage). The warehouse is undefinable without the meaning of space for storage. Due to that, all its square metres must be ideally used for guaranteeing that the particular goods can be retrieved, prepared and delivered in the fastest conceivable way.

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Amid the industrial revolution 4.0, new technologies such as automation create new opportunities for the industries to create competitive advantages in different management areas, including logistics and supply chains (warehousing). This sector requires information, communication and automation technologies that significantly enhance the speed at which data is identified, processed, analysed and sent while maintaining high accuracy [1]. Warehouses are continually moving up the value chain by not depending on storage space alone but offering value-added services in the warehouse to eventually offer an efficient operation [2]. The smart warehouse is no longer a new topic for discussion in the pool of literature; thus, the internet of things (IoT), cyber-physical systems (CPS), big data, artificial intelligence (AI) and cloud computing are ideal applications of the emerging technologies driven environment introduced by industry 4.0 [3]. Additionally, an evolution of smart warehousing services incorporating best practices of data management, operation automation management, robotics or automatic handling equipment and other technologies [4]. Custodio and Machado [5] present a comprehensive literature survey on automation applied in the warehouses, summarised in Table 23.1. The level of automation success, on the other hand, is determined by the use of the proper technology for the application, as well as the availability of the necessary organisational infrastructure, culture and management techniques [6]. Malaysia’s logistic services are developing in the direction of making the country a regional hub for integrated logistics services [7]. The industry should improve the productivity, efficiency and performance of local logistics activities to attach great importance to the future development of the nation’s transportation. Bahrin et al. [8] emphasised that warehouse operations will meet a large number of shipments in the next few years by investing in advanced technology. Ultimately, Malaysian Table 23.1 Type of technologies applied in the warehouses or distribution centres Technology type

Construct

Element/Technology

Automated equipment

Automated storage

AS/RS, vertical lifts, carousels and AS/RR mini-loads

Robotics

Options for palletizing, picking, or packaging

Transportation systems

Conveyor system and automatic guided vehicles (AGV)

Labelling technologies

RFID and barcode scanners

Picking technologies

Put-to-light, pick-by-light and pick-by-voice

Software solutions

Warehouse management system (WMS), warehouse control system (WCS), warehouse execution system (WES)

Routing of mobile robots

A centralised controller was used

Picking optimisation

Improve the order fulfilment process as a whole

Data collection technologies

Management solutions

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warehouses should be prepared for changes in these advanced technology sensors or wearable devices to manage information to avoid disruptions in the entire supply chain. Also, Krishnan and Wahab [9] suggested that local Malaysian warehouses need to upgrade technologies in the warehouse to revamp the business opportunities compared to MNC companies to enhance productivity, efficiency and provide realtime information resulting in good customer satisfaction. This can be supported by Shah and Khanzode [10] that utilising such advanced equipment and IT appliances will increase the level of accuracy and productivity of the warehouse. Wong et al. [11] found that insufficient technological improvement and lack of innovation resulted in lower productivity performance among Malaysia logistics industry (including warehousing). Therefore, it clearly shows the need to implement the innovation to improve the warehousing productivity for the logistics service sector to become the most advanced regional distribution centre and logistics hub.

23.2 Methodology 23.2.1 Research Design This research adopts the form of exploratory research and uses qualitative methods to collect data on research issues in order to introduce innovative ideas to improve the performance of warehouse productivity Qualitative case studies use naturalistic strategies to view and examine happenings and events within a specific function, which has a limited and clearly defined scope [12]. The significance of qualitative research is to obtain more information and provide deeper knowledge about the scope of the subject [13]. Incorporating surveys and interview sessions are the tools of methodologies utilised in this study. Figure 23.1 depicts the research framework of this study.

23.2.2 Data Collection Figure 23.2 shows the process of data collection conducted in this study to propose an innovation means tackling to improve the warehousing productivity. The data collection for this study was conducted in two phases: (i) before proposing the innovation idea through qualitative data and (ii) after proposing the innovation idea through quantitative data. Expert survey sampling method is utilised for both data collections.

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Fig. 23.1 Research framework of the study

Fig. 23.2 Data collection by phases

23.2.2.1

Phase 1 Data Collection

In this phase, a non-random sampling design approach is used where the data were collected to determine elements for improving the warehousing productivity. Also,

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expert sampling in the sampling strategy is adopted to select respondents cautiously for providing information [14]. The focus for this data collection phase is specific and clear where it involves finding elements to improve the warehousing productivity performance. The quality of the data gathered is based on the data obtained from all the experts. The sample size consists of 12 experts from 12 different companies at managerial positions in the logistics and warehousing department with more than five years of experience. All 12 companies from the service provider involve cross-docking, industry/factory warehouse, control-temperature warehouse, distribution centre, e-commerce, transhipment and reverse logistics. The interview was done using an open-ended question and the outcome from the interviews has been recorded. The data have then been analysed. Figure 23.3 depicts the five elements coded extensively, namely automation, information exchange, equipment investment, labour training and process improvement. All of the experts believed that automation would lead to excellent warehousing productivity performance. Thus, the innovation idea is presented in the next chapter by considering the elements gathered from the interview with experts. Additionally, the experts claimed that warehouses in Malaysia are still left behind in the implementation of advanced technologies in this industry. Almost all respondents’ warehouses utilise labour-intensive nature and high time-consuming warehouse operation, specifically during the order picking process. All experts believed that automating the warehouse operation could be beneficial to improve the warehousing productivity by reducing labour intensity, reducing time consuming and increasing accuracy. Fig. 23.3 Elements to improve the warehouse productivity

Factors that have led to improve the warehouse productivity Automation

Process improvement

Labour training

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Information exchange

Equipment investment

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23.3 New Innovation Idea—Futuristic Warehouse This concept is based on the online hotel booking platform, which can be realised through an online digital platform. “Warehouse Storage Space Reservation Hub System” is a brand-new smart contract on the market, which brings all storage companies into one network. Figure 23.4 (see appendix A) depicts several conceptual innovations. The “Future Warehouse Synergy” has two parts, which the idea takes into account the larger picture of the global company’s internal warehouse operations and external warehousing blockchain. Information technology is the main issue for the warehousing productivity performance and aligning it with the digital revolution is required. In addition, the integrated warehouse management system and the warehouse storage reservation hub system are combined to illustrate the internal operation and external blockchains of the warehouse, respectively.

23.3.1 Integrated Warehouse Management System (iWMS) An integrated warehouse management system (iWMS) shall be adopted among the industrial players from an independent entity of logistics and warehouse operations. The main purpose of iWMS is to connect the end-to-end logistics and fulfilment process with the access control and visibility of all network nodes. In other words, warehouse operations will link the system with logistics or transporters in order to make predictions in the value chain and meet customer delivery deadlines.

Fig. 23.4 Futuristic warehouse synergy

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According to iWMS, the warehousing industry must prepare for digital transformation. This field uses high-tech equipment and intelligent robots such as automatic storage and retrieval systems (ASRS), monorail systems, automatic storage systems, automatic guided vehicles, conveying systems and radio frequency identification (RFID) drones. By installing cutting-edge technology and equipment, which instantly convert data over the wireless network and create data analytics into the iWMS. The machines then interact with the whole warehouse operation’s big eye clouding network, which includes receiving, putaway, returns (defect items), storage placement planning, picking, kitting, packing, cross-docking and shipping. In other words, the notion of ‘product-to-human’ may be applied to warehouse operations by combining essential components of the digital revolution, resulting in increased productivity. As a result, the operation is known as smart warehouse and it has been adopted in a number of industrialised nations as well as large corporations with significant quantities.

23.3.2 Warehouse Storage Reservation Hub System The warehouse storage reservation hub system is a new concept created in response to the digital revolution. The empirical results of this research have proven the importance of information systems. This concept is based on the online hotel booking platform, which can be realised through web sites and mobile applications. In the future, a new smart contract will appear on the market, which will gather all warehouse companies into a one-stop central network. The characteristics and advantages of the warehouse storage space reservation hub system are summarised in Table 23.2. According to Fig. 23.5, the warehouse storage space reservation hub system’s process flow is further described in Table 23.3 and the design process is specified in Fig. 23.5 (see appendix B).

23.3.3 Phase 2 Data Collection of Experts’ Feedbacks on Futuristic Warehouse Synergy The proposed solution is validated by chosen experts in the area using a closed-ended questionnaire for additional discussions to assess the realisation of this concept to be implemented in the future. On the futuristic warehouse synergy idea concept, an online-based survey was performed to gather information and discuss with experts. Six experts, including four industry professionals and two academic specialists with at least eight years of experience in the warehouse and logistics area, took part in the web-based survey using the Google form online survey link. The outcome from the online-based survey feedbacks covered three main aspects, including (i) marketability; (ii) potential customers; and (iii) efficacy in improving

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Table 23.2 The features and advantages of warehouse storage space reservation hub system The features of warehouse storage reservation hub system • • • • • • •

This is a real-time online service Booked business hours are 9 a.m. to 6 p.m Transparent information used to reserve storage space in the warehouse Reserve warehouse storage space in the warehouse of their choice Queuing option requests when the selected warehouse is not available Real-time update to the system through RFID to track the movement of SKUs The availability of tracking cargo movement via land transportation is updated to the system in real time via the global positioning system (GPS) application • Integrate the import and export transhipment and transhipment system of the royal Malaysian customs system into the system to enhance customs form applications and transactions • Financial transactions through electronic receipts or invoices and checks • Cargo insurance policy transaction options The advantages of warehouse storage reservation hub system • • • •

The solution website system should be the most profitable Great sales and marketing synergy Increase revenue by up-selling to customers through online booking Automatically execute manual tasks through the online booking system, thereby saving time for manual tasks • The solution allows customers and warehouse operators to communicate on the same platform • Seamless payment through electronic financial transaction gateways, which enables users to track financial transactions

warehouse productivity. Figure 23.6 depicts the potential of futuristic warehouse synergy’s suggested solution in business and trade, with 33.3% of experts scoring 75–99% and 50–74%, respectively. Meanwhile, 16.7% of experts scored 0–24% and 25–49%, respectively. As all experts agreed, the warehouse operator is the primary actor in this solution, Fig. 23.7 depicts the possible users participating in the futuristic warehouse synergy. While 66.7% of experts agreed on cargo owner, 83.3% agreed on transporter, 50% agreed on custom participation, 33.3% agreed on insurance institution and the least voted user was financial institution. experts agreed 16.7% of the time. As a result, Fig. 23.8 depicts the impacts of the suggested solutions, futuristic warehouse synergy, on improving the warehouse productivity. Experts evaluated extremely agree and agreed with 66.6% of the time. In the meantime, 16.7% and 16.7% of experts disagreed and strongly disagreed, respectively.

23.4 Comparison Between Conventional and Innovation Concepts In many aspects, putting this new notion into practice is beneficial. Through seven criteria, Table 23.4 outlines the differences between present warehouse operations and futuristic warehouse synergy. Furthermore, the findings of this study will enable

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Fig. 23.5 Futuristic warehouse synergy design process Table 23.3 An overview of futuristic warehouse synergy process flow Steps number Description of process activity for futuristic warehouse synergy smart contract) 1

The iWMS system updates the availability of storage space in registered warehouses

2

The term “group client” refers to a global customer who has access to the network and may choose their preferred mode of communication

3

A virtual agreement between a customer and the corresponding warehouse is formed when one client decides to conduct business with the relevant warehouse

4

The client’s personal account is then created. They can communicate on (i) notice of receiving products; (ii) ingoing/outgoing inspection products; (iii) inventory management; (iv) order management system; and (v) notification of delivery time through an individual account of the customer

5

Cargo is delivered from each client/manufacturer to the appropriate warehouse/3PL company

6

Application and transaction of customised forms in an electronic format (if any)

7

Using the appropriate transporter/freight forwarding service, the warehouse/3PL business ships items to the retailer/end customer/manufacturer

8

Through the banking institution and the appropriate insurance institution, an electronic financial transaction is made between the client and the respective warehouse/3PL

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275

33.3%

33.3%

50-74%

75-99%

[WERT]6.7% [WERT]6.7%

0-24%

25-49%

100%

Potential users Custom

50%

Insurance institution

33.3%

Financial institution

[WERT]6.7%

Transporter

83.3%

Cargo owner

66.7%

Warehouse operator

100% 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Fig. 23.7 Potential users to be involved in futuristic warehouse synergy Fig. 23.8 The futuristic warehouse synergy indirectly improves the warehouse productivity performance

The solution help to imporve the warehouse productivity performance 6.7% 33.3% 6.7% 33.3%

Strongly agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly disagree

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Table 23.4 Comparison between conventional warehouse practice and the innovation means ‘Futuristic Warehouse Synergy’ Characteristic

Current warehouse practice

Futuristic warehouse synergy (iWMS) and warehouse space reservation hub)

Operation

• Deploy WMS/Excel/enterprise resource planning (ERP) • Senior worker plan for warehouse operations • Performance metrics prepared by the warehouse manager to monitor • Labour-intensive with the concept of “people-to-product”

• Implement a sophisticated integrated warehouse management system • Use artificial intelligence to forecast overall warehouse operations • The system provides analytical reports to measure performance • Automated guided vehicles based on the “product-to-people” concept

Transparency

• The availability of spatial information is not transparent (direct communication between the two parties)

• Providing public access to business and trade information

Tracking

• Traditional warehouse inventory tracking written records and the customer coordinator updates the inventory to the system/excel book

• Inventory is updated in real time through radio frequency identification and SKU movement is continually recorded • The use of GPS aids in tracking inventory movement via land transportation • Notice of early arrival (NOA) and notice of departure (NOD) from the carrier

Order management

• Communicating orders via email • An organised order management system that allows customers to examine their inventory and make order requests

Technology

• Lack of technology adoption

Cost and investment • Less cost and investment Reservation

• Maximise the use of technology • High cost and investment

• Face-to-face contract agreements • Through the system’s virtual (for example, sales and marketing protocol • Accessible network for a larger departments need to find key community to conduct commerce customers or long-term contract and trade with their respective customers) • Ordinary customers need to find warehouses warehouse services, in which they directly communicate with the corresponding warehouses selected

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the sector to profit from effective warehouse management and high-tech workspaces. Therefore, the futuristic warehouse synergy, also known as the smart contract, is an effort to realise the digital revolution in the context of the internet of things. It will provide new access to smart process control in warehouse operations through the combination of iWMS total value chain processes and financial supply chain management.

23.5 Conclusion The industrial revolution 4.0 is the trend, while the revolution from third-party logistics (3PL) to 10 party logistics (10PL) has added many responsibilities to warehousing and inventory management. Not just that, warehousing is depending largely on the customer industry with the e-commerce, fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) and other drivers that radically reshaping many warehouses in multiple industries has played their part along with the growing revolution. Due to this, many companies began to start door to door services. Overall, the solution proposed in this study seems to expedite the booking process of warehousing storage space and improve warehouse management. However, the main consequences are the need for huge investments for implementing the solutions into the warehouse operation and the industry’s readiness to adopt the kind of solution. Another concern involves much time for consultation, implementation, adoption, labour training which indirectly can disrupt the daily operations. Meanwhile, the nature of the warehouse business should be discussed further to meet a harmonisation of the solutions proposed. Automation adoption in the warehouse industry solutions can reduce the risk while boosting the warehousing productivity performance. Conclusively, the ‘Futuristic Warehouse Synergy’ smart idea concept is accepted as presented in this study. Also, the innovation enables the industry to improve its competitiveness and to serve the client efficiently. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the anonymous Malaysian experts for their participation and contribution to this research. The authors are also grateful to the Malaysian Ministry of Education and Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT) for providing funding under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) with vote number 59510.

References 1. Chaudhari N (2019) Impact of automation technology on logistics and supply chain management. Am J Theor Appl Business 5(3):53–58 2. Soinio J, Tanskanen K, Finne M (2012) How logistics-service providers can develop valueadded services for SMEs: a dyadic perspective. Int J Logist Manag. https://doi.org/10.1108/ 09574091211226911

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3. Zúñiga ER, Moris MU, Syberfeldt A (2017) Integrating simulation-based optimization, lean, and the concepts of industry 4.0. In: Proceeding of 2017 winter simulation conference (WSC) (WSC 2017). IEEE, pp 3828–3839 4. Jabbar S, Khan M, Silva BN, Han K (2018) A REST-based industrial web of things’ framework for smart warehousing. J Supercomput 74(9):4419–4433 5. Custodio L, Machado R (2020) Flexible automated warehouse: a literature review and an innovative framework. J Adv Manuf Technol 106(1–2):533–558 6. Cascio WF, Montealegre R (2016) How technology is changing work and organizations. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 3:349–375 7. Economic Planning Unit (2021) Twelve Malaysia Plans (MP 12), 2021–2025. https://rmke12. epu.gov.my/en. Accessed 24 Oct 2021. 8. Bahrin MAK, Othman MF, Azli NHN, Talib MF (2016) Industry 4.0: a review on industrial automation and robotic. J Teknol 78:6–13 9. Krishnan ERK, Wahab SN (2019) A qualitative case study on the adoption of smart warehouse approaches in Malaysia. In: International conference on building energy conservation, thermal safety and environmental pollution control (ICBTE 2019). EDP Sciences, pp 1–9 10. Shah B, Khanzode V (2017) A comprehensive review of warehouse operational issues. Int J Logist Manag 26(3):346–378 11. Wong WP, Soh KL, Goh M (2016) Innovation and productivity: insights from Malaysia’s logistics industry. Int J Logist Res Appl 19(4):318–331 12. Patton MQ (2002) Two decades of developments in qualitative inquiry: a personal, experiential perspective. Qual Soc Work 1(3):261–283 13. Aspers P, Corte U (2019) What is qualitative in qualitative research. Qual Sociol 42(2):139–160 14. Taherdoost H (2016) Sampling methods in research methodology; how to choose a sampling technique for research. Int J Acad Res Manag 5(2):18–27

Chapter 24

The Analysis of Barge Bridge Collision Response Wan Nur Fatihah Amirah Nik Wan (a) Wan Senik, Anuar Abu Bakar, Ahmad Fitriadhy, and Zaimi Zainal Mukhtar

Abstract Barge collisions with bridge piers are frequent accidents that may result in intensive damage, even the collapse of bridges. Due to the difficulty and high expected cost of model testing, this study will use a finite element simulation tool to perform collision analysis. This study investigates the structural behaviour of an impacting barge against a single square and circular bridge piers. The barge and bridge piers are modelled by using a nonlinear finite element model (FEM). The body of the barge and both the bridge piers are assumed to be rigid. The detailed numerical model of the barge and bridge piers is modelled in the Abaqus software. Impact results were obtained at different collision positions to show the consequences of the bridge piers and barge damage. Thus, the kinetic energy, impact force–time, impact force– deformation relationship of the barge are established based on the model results of the impacted structure. Keywords Finite element model (FEM) · Abaqus · Ship collision · Square pier · Circular pier

W. N. F. A. Nik Wan (a) Wan Senik · A. Abu Bakar (B) · A. Fitriadhy · Z. Zainal Mukhtar Faculty of Ocean Engineering Technology and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Fitriadhy e-mail: [email protected] Z. Zainal Mukhtar e-mail: [email protected] A. Abu Bakar Faculty of Maritime Studies, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia Z. Zainal Mukhtar Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Dataran Industri Teknologi Marin, Bandar Teknologi Maritim, Jalan Pantai Remis, 32200 Lumut, Perak, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_24

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24.1 Introduction Vessel collision has become a major issue in recent decades, as the number of accidents caused by vessel collisions has increased dramatically. These accidents might cause intensive damage, even the collapse of bridges. Vessel collisions are divided into two types which are ship collisions and barge collisions. There are numerous computational studies of ship collisions and grounding performances by using the finite element method (FEM), including the impact of the ship’s bow during collision [1], ship grounding damage [2], the progressive collapse of box girder [3] and a barge collided with a rigid wall [4]. A barge colliding with a bridge pier is an extreme loading condition that usually dictates the design of bridges that cross-navigable waterways. Therefore, the magnitude and time variation of impact forces are determined by various factors including the mass and speed of the barges, stiffness of the impacted structure and structural behaviour of the barge. As reported by [5], the maximum impact force developed during the collision and the energy absorption capacity of the barge determines the structural behaviour of the impacting barge. Hence, it is crucial to prevent and protect bridges from vessel impacts. Vessel–pier impact experiments should be performed on theoretical or numerical models to predict vessel–bridge collision responses accurately [6]. Minorsky carried out the pioneer experimental tests to quantify the impact load during vessel–pier collision, by conducted the 26 ship–ship impact tests. He proposed an empirical formula that relates the deformed steel volume and impact energy based on his testing data [7]. Woisin had modified Minorsky’s method based on experiments on several high-energy ship collisions and proposed an empirical formula for ship–bridge collisions that relate the impact force, impact energy and ship deformation. Meir-Dornberg carried out static and dynamic pendulum hammer testing of reduced-scale European hopper barges to evaluate the barge–pier impact force, and an equivalent static method has been developed to calculate the impact force. According to this research, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) published the Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges in 1991 [8]. According to the impulse–momentum law [9], the time duration of the impact t d is approximated as in Eq. (24.1): td =

1 + eB m B v1 PB

(24.1)

For a perfectly elastic collision, e B is 1 while for a perfectly inelastic collision e B is 0. The AASHTO guide [10] and [7] presents the following formula to determine the kinetic energy and also absorbed energy of the striking vessel in Eqs. (24.2) and (24.3), respectively:

24 The Analysis of Barge Bridge Collision Response

1 m 1 v12 2

(24.2)

m 1 m 2 (V1 sin θ )2 , 2m 1 + 1.43m 1

(24.3)

Ek = Ek =

281

where m 1 is the mass of struck vessel, m 2 is the mass of striking vessel and v1 is the initial velocity of the striking vessel. The objective of this study is to simulate the structural behaviour of the barge impact with different bridge structures. A finite element (FE) simulation of the barge bridge collision was conducted by representing the Jumbo barge model and impacted structures which are a square pier and a circular pier. Based on the simulation results, the kinetic energy conserved, impact force history and force–deformation of the barge were analysed and taken into account the influence of different collision positions.

24.2 Methodology 24.2.1 Structural Geometry The dimension of the barge model [11] followed the AASHTO guide specifications and is presented in Table 24.1. In this study, the barge structures are divided into the deformable structure and rigid structure, as shown in Fig. 24.1. The raked bow of the barge structure is supported by 14 trusses which have an equal spacing. The bridge piers, which are square and circular piers, are set as a rigid structure, respectively. The square impacted face width is bc is 2.134 m and the circular impacted face diameter is D is 2.134 m as shown in Fig. 24.2. The height L is 24.55 m for both piers. In addition, the barge collides with the pier at 11.34 m from the base. Table 24.1 The structural parameters of the barge [11]

Symbols

This study (m)

Length (L B )

59.400

Width (B M )

10.700

Depth of vessel (DV )

3.810

Depth of bow (D B )

4.110

Bow rake length (R L )

8.380

Head log height (HL )

0.610

Thickness of the plate

0.013

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Fig. 24.1 The barge structure geometry model Fig. 24.2 Structural geometry model of the square pier and circular pier

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24.2.2 Mesh and Elements In this study, the barge bow area is modelled with a mesh size of 0.13 mm. The barge’s hopper section is modelled with a 1 m mesh size. The barge structure was created with 25,320 shell elements. Both square and circular piers were modelled with a mesh size of 0.50 m. The total shell elements of the square pier and circular pier were 784 and 624, respectively.

24.2.3 Material Properties The material used in this analysis was the high-strength steel S355. The properties of the material were taken from [12], where the mass density is 7850 kg/m3 , Young’s modulus is 210 GPa, the initial yield strength is 390 MPa, and Poisson’s ratio is 0.3. No deformation will occur for both piers as they were set as rigid.

24.2.4 Boundary Conditions The barge was set moving in the x-direction. The initial velocity is set as 3.09 m/s at the centre of gravity of the barge as a predefined field. The square pier and circular pier are set as a rigid body. The collision scenario for different positions for the square pier and circular pier is shown according to Table 24.2. Table 24.2 Collision position of the barge between piers Damage condition

Case simulation

Collision position

Lateral collision

LCSQR1

5.335

1.0670

100

LCSQR2

3.557

1.0670

100

LCSQR3

2.668

1.0670

100

LCSQR4

0.000

1.0670

50

LCSQR5

0.000

1.6005

75

LCSQR6

0.000

0.5335

25

LCCLR1

5.335

1.0670

100

LCCLR2

3.557

1.0670

100

LCCLR3

2.668

1.0670

100

LCCLR4

0.000

1.0670

50

LCCLR5

0.000

1.6005

75

LCCLR6

0.000

0.5335

25

Square pier

Circular pier

Collision Impacted width Impacted width engagement % of Barge B M (m) of Pier (m)

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Fig. 24.3 Comparison of impact force–time between the present model and the model from reference [10]

24.3 Results and Discussion 24.3.1 Model Test The barge and square rigid pier are model according to [10], as well as the setting parameters employed for the nonlinear FE analysis. The results of the impact are shown in Fig. 24.3, showing promising results which where almost identical to [10] where the initial contact impact force was approximately 25.00 MN in reference [10] and for the current method. The collision of impact time settled at 1.04 s and 1.28 s for the current model and [10], relatively. The phenomenon occurred due to unsimilarity of the rigidity of the internal forward structure of internal structure of forward structure of the barge. These results in present model are in good agreement with [10] which indicates the reliability of the present model to be employed for the current study.

24.3.2 Kinetic Energy Losses According to [10], a significant part of energy dissipates via the deformation of the barge bow with the impacted pier during the collision event. The kinetic energy is calculated based on Eq. (24.2) and equals 8.23 MJ. The kinetic energy of the barge just before impact is transformed into an equal amount of energy that the pier must absorb through deformation. The kinetic energy system is constantly decreasing due to the energy is dissipated via the deformation of the barge bow [13].

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Fig. 24.4 a Kinetic energy–time of square piers, b kinetic energy–time of circular piers

It can be seen that the kinetic energy constantly decreases for the barge–pier collision with different collision position. The dissipation of the kinetic energy during barge hitting the square pier and circular pier is represented in Fig. 24.4a,b, respectively. For cases of the square pier, the energy is fully absorbed by the square pier and barge bow. Therefore, the barge is completely stopped and bounced back in the opposite direction. For the cases of the circular pier, the energy is fully absorbed by the circular pier and barge bow except for LCCLR6 due to the fact that the kinetic energy not being fully absorbed by the circular pier and the damaged bow.

24.3.3 Impact Force–Time Between Barge and Piers The results of the impact force–time of barge impact between the barge and square pier and circular pier are as shown in Fig. 24.5a,b, respectively. The time taken for the barge to stop after a collision or to change the direction is 1.27 s, 1.26 s, 1.11 s, 1.04 s, 0.98 s and 0.89 s for LCSQR2, LCSQR3, LCSQR5, LCSQR1, LCSQR6 and LCSQR4, respectively. The maximum forces are 24.44 MN, 24.30 MN, 23.25 MN, 18.65 MN, 12.86 MN and 7.65MN for the LCSQR1, LCSQR3, LCSQR2, LCSQR5, LCSQR4 and LCSQR6, respectively. For the result of impact force–time of the barge impact between the barge and circular pier, the time taken for the barge to stop after collision or the change of direction is 1.22 s, 1.20 s, 1.12 s, 0.97 s, 0.97 s and 0.25 s for LCCLR2, LCCLR5, LCCLR3, LCCLR1, LCCLR4 and LCCLR6, respectively. In addition, the force increased from 11.77 MN, 9.06 MN, 8.16 MN, 7.57 MN, 7.23 MN and 4.84 MN from the cases LCCLR1, LCCLR4, LCCLR5, LCCLR2, LCCLR3 and LCCLR6,

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Fig. 24.5 a Impact force–time of square piers, b impact force–time of circular piers

respectively. According to [14], the peak forces of flat-faced pier data increase with increasing pier width. This is because of the number of internal trusses inside the barge which are directly engaged with the width of the pier.

24.3.4 Impact Force–Deformation Between Barge and Piers The impact force–deformation of the barge between the square pier and circular pier is shown in Fig. 24.6a, b. The maximum barge deformation during the barge impact with the square pier is 1.00 m, 1.05 m, 1.06 m, 1.06 m, 1.09 m and 1.21 m for LCSQR4, LCSQR3, LCSQR1, LCSQR2, LCSQR5 and LCSQR6, respectively. The maximum barge deformation during the barge impact with the circular pier varied between 0.72 m, 1.05 m, 1.14 m, 1.26 m, 1.27 m and 1.32 m for LCCLR6, LCCLR1, LCCLR4, LCCLR3, LCCLR5 and LCCLR2, respectively. According to [15], the catenary force produced in the head log and the hull plate created the largest deformation. The different deformations of barge during the collision with the square piers and circular piers, respectively, are shown in Figs. 24.7 and 24.8. The barge stops moving and bounces back in the opposite direction because the barge bow fully absorbs the kinetic energy. However, the case LCCLR6 has the most minor damage of the barge bow as shown in Fig. 24.8 due to the fact that the barge is not stopping and bouncing back to the opposite direction. The square pier produces a larger impact force compared to the circular pier according to [9]. In this analysis, the square pier produces as well as a larger impact force compared to the circular pier. As reported

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Fig. 24.6 a Impact force–deformation of square piers, b impact force–deformation of circular piers.

by Yuan and Harik [13] and Consolazio and Cowan[16], the different impact forces of the barge are influenced by the geometry.

24.4 Conclusion In conclusion, the study shows that the results developed in the present study are comparable with the available empirical formula and show good agreement with [10]. Overall, the results obtained from the FEA simulations of the barge bridge response with different collision positions are acceptable to predict the barge collision response. The structural behaviour of the barge has been predicted for both square and circular piers. The shape of the piers and the collision positions between the barge and piers have been found to influence the relationship between the force and deformation during collision. Most of the kinetic energy during this analysis is dissipated at the barge bow. However, for the case CLCLR6, the kinetic energy did not entirely dissipate because the barge moved away from the pier after 0.25s. Therefore, the circular pier is the most suitable structure in bridge design to avoid barge collision with bridge piers.

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Fig. 24.7 Deformation of the barge at different collision position at square piers

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Fig. 24.8 Deformation of the barge at different collision position at circular piers

References 1. AbuBakar A, Dow RS (2019) The impact analysis characteristics of a ship’s bow during collisions. Eng Fail Anal 100:492–511 2. Abubakar A, Dow RS (2013) Simulation of ship grounding damage using the finite element method. Int J Solids Struct 50:623–636 3. Benson S, AbuBakar A, Dow RS (2013) A comparison of computational methods to predict the progressive collapse behaviour of a damaged box girder. Eng Struct 48:266–280 4. Leheta HW, Elhewy AM, El Sayed MW (2014) Finite element simulation of barge impact into a rigid wall. Alex Eng J 53:11–21

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5. Luperi FJ, Pinto F (2015) Structural behavior of barges in high-energy collisions against bridge piers. J Bridge Eng 21:1–15 6. Sha Y, Hao H (2013) Laboratory tests and numerical simulations of barge impact on circular reinforced concrete piers. Eng Struct 46:593–605 7. Minorsky VU (1959) An analysis of ship collisions with reference to protection of nuclear power plants. J Sh Res 1–4 8. Sha Y, Hao H (2012) Nonlinear finite element analysis of barge collision with a single bridge pier. Eng Struct 41:63–76 9. Yuan P (2005) Modeling, simulation and analysis of multi-barge flotillas impacting bridge piers. University of Kentucky 10. Yuan P, Harik IE, Asce M (2010) Equivalent barge and flotilla impact forces on bridge piers. J Bridge Eng 15:523–532 11. Zhang J, Chen X, Liu D et al (2016) Analysis of bridge response to barge collision: refined impact force models and some new insights. Adv Struct Eng 19:1224–1244 12. AbuBakar A, Dow R, Tigkas IG et al (2010) Investigation of an actual collision incident between a tanker and a bulk carrier. 11th Int Symp Pract Des Ships Other Float Struct PRADS 2010 1:201–211 13. Yuan P, Harik IE (2008) One-dimensional model for multi-barge flotillas impacting bridge piers. Comput-Aided Civ Inf 23:437–447 14. Consolazio GR, Davidson MT, Cowan DR (2009) Barge bow force-deformation relationships for barge-bridge collision analysis. Transp Res Rec 2131:3–14 15. Kantrales GC, Asce SM, Consolazio GR et al (2016) Experimental and analytical study of high-level barge deformation for barge—bridge collision design. J Bridge Eng 21:1–10 16. Consolazio GR, Cowan DR (2003) Nonlinear analysis of barge crush behavior and its relationship to impact resistant bridge design. Comput Struct 81:547–557

Chapter 25

Navigating the Blockchain Trilemma: A Supply Chain Dilemma Bryan Phern Chern Teoh

Abstract Supply chain practitioners are constantly searching for optimization methods to improve the effectiveness of the supply chain. The emergence of blockchain technology has promised high hopes for the industries to solve many prevalent issues such as tedious documentation trails, lack of transparency, counterfeit products, and many others. The inherent immutability and decentralized nature of the blockchain technology has allowed developers to come out with ways to potentially improve these issues. One of the major issues faced by blockchain companies is the blockchain trilemma, which dictates that no blockchain can be simultaneously decentralized, secured, and scaled. Blockchains should only be able to achieve two of these elements at a high level and somewhat sacrifice the remaining element. This has been a major criticism toward the technology, hindering mass adoption among users. This paper studies this phenomenon and its effects from the standpoint of supply chain users. This paper also proposes a diagram to plot a supply chain’s position within the blockchain trilemma, which should lead to different course of actions. Ultimately, this paper sheds light into the effects of the blockchain trilemma on the supply chain mass adoption. Keywords Blockchain · Supply chain management · Decentralization · Scalability · Security

25.1 Introduction The blockchain technology, the underlying technology to Bitcoin, Ethereum, and other cryptocurrencies, has been making waves the past several years as we enter 2021. The technology carries the promise of solving many problems in the business sector and in our society such as legal issues, political systems, and economic B. P. C. Teoh (B) Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Jalan Genting Klang, 53300 Setapak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_25

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improvements [1]. The technology has had ongoing developments in various industries such as pharmaceuticals, cross-border payments, anti-money laundering initiatives, Internet of things operating systems, voting mechanisms, and many others [2]. Many large organizations such as Walmart, HSBC, DHL, and MetLife are already deeply involved in blockchain implementation initiatives [3]. As the development process expands into various sectors, problems with implementation have been gradually surfacing. These problems include internal culture, cost of implementation, operational costs, security concerns, and regulatory concerns [4]. Another major problem that has yet to be completely resolved is the blockchain trilemma. The trilemma involves three essential components of a successful blockchain network: decentralization, security, and scalability. The trilemma involves a tradeoff between these three components where at least one component will be sacrificed to improve another component [5]. If mass adoption is to be seen in global supply chains, the blockchain trilemma needs to be addressed to see what impact it might have on supply chains. Each supply chain has its unique characteristics, each aiming for its respective objectives. Therefore, the impact that the blockchain trilemma may have on each supply chain should differ among supply chains. This paper examines the blockchain trilemma from the standpoint of several supply chains most likely to adopt the blockchain technology such as the pharmaceutical and food supply chains, and supply chain finance. This paper also proposes a methodology to plot the likely position that these supply chains will have in the blockchain trilemma based on their unique business nature. This methodology can then be used in other supply chains by practitioners that fully understand their own unique business environment.

25.2 Literature Review 25.2.1 Blockchain Technology The blockchain technology is also known as digital ledger technology (DLT) as it digitally stores large volumes of transaction information on its ledger [6]. The popularity of this technology has been accelerated by the rise of cryptocurrencies, which have demonstrated how the technology can potentially disrupt the finance industry. The blockchain technology is known for various characteristics such as being decentralized, consensus-based, digital, immutable, chronological, and timestamped [7]. Due to these characteristics, it has a high potential to enhance several aspects of the business environment, such as risk reduction, supply chain visibility, eliminate fraudulent transactions, and overall transparency. The main components of a blockchain include the blocks themselves, miners of these blocks, and nodes connecting to one another in the network. Transactions and other relevant information are kept in the blocks, which are created by miners. Miners around the world need to compete to solve a complex mathematical equation to be selected to mine the next block on the blockchain. Each block will record the data on the previous block in

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addition to the newly added information. Nodes are computer devices that have a copy of all the information in the blockchain. Nodes are geographically dispersed, and each node holds a duplicate of the information, making it a decentralized system [8]. Despite the claims and promises that this technology can disrupt the technology, it represents a foundational technology that needs to be developed on to be mass adopted and be a part of the society [1]. For example, the Ethereum blockchain network acts as the foundation for many other organizations to build their decentralized applications (dApps), which are then used to solve real-world problems. Entering 2021, many blockchain startups have already developed live projects that are being used in the industry. IBM uses Hyperledger to help large organizations such as Walmart and other large banks to create their own blockchain systems. Banks such as HSBC have been using their blockchain network to drastically shorten the time used for cross-border payments. AIA Group is developing a blockchain system to significantly reduce the resources used to share documentation. Maersk is using blockchain technology to upgrade the logistics and supply chain system [4]. The long list of applications shows the strong belief toward this technology but does not hide the fact that there are still many inherent problems that are slowing down the path toward mass adoption. The next section will discuss one of the largest issues in the underlying technology.

25.2.2 The Blockchain Trilemma The blockchain trilemma claims that no blockchain network can achieve all three blockchain elements at the same time, including decentralization, security, and scalability. One of the three elements will be sacrificed when another element undergoes an attempted upgrade [9]. Decentralization refers to not relying on central points of control, security refers to the ability of a blockchain network to sustain and defend attacks such as distributed-denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, while scalability refers to the ability of the network to handle large volumes of transactions [5]. Bitcoin is a decentralized blockchain network, using a proof of work consensus algorithm which is arguably one of the more secure consensus algorithms around, thereby having high security against hackers and high decentralization throughout the network. However, the network is unable to handle large volumes and transactions, and it usually leads to slow transaction times and high transaction fees, up to $60 per transaction in 2017 [10]. Decentralization has been the main reason many industries have high hopes for this technology, such as decentralized finance (DeFi) and cryptocurrencies. However, it is often sacrificed to achieve higher scalability. For example, Ripple operates centrally and favors security and scalability as they facilitate cross-border payments which requires high transaction speeds [11]. Security is more constant among the three elements and is almost always an inherent feature of the blockchain. However, several malicious users have been able to gather 51% of a given network and launched attacks in the past years. For example, Ethereum Classic, Krypton, Shift, and Bitcoin Gold have all suffered 51% attacks before [12]. This is because

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the cost to gather 51% was lower than the stolen amount, incentivizing hackers to attack the system. Several companies have attempted to solve the blockchain trilemma, but there has not been a foolproof blockchain project so far. Ethereum is planning an upgrade in 2021 or early 2022 to use the proof of stake consensus protocol instead of the proof of work protocol along with sharding and side chains to achieve all three elements of the blockchain trilemma [10]. Sharding means to break down blockchain transactions into small pieces, which are processed simultaneously. This also means that each node does not need to keep all the information since the genesis block until the present timeline. Other blockchain projects that are pioneering sharding include Zilliqa and Tezos [13]. Whereas side chains work together with the main chain where side chains are responsible to process transactions in large volumes quickly, while the main chain is responsible for maintaining security. Instead of improving current blockchains struggling with the blockchain trilemma, Algorand boasts a layer 1 blockchain network that solves the trilemma from the beginning. This is done by a unique consensus algorithm where 1000 token holders are randomly selected to verify new information on the next block. Only the token holders are notified at this point, and they need to determine whether the transaction is valid or otherwise. This process is completed in 5s, and attackers do not have enough time to identify the nodes responsible for the next block and attack them [14]. These are current projects revolving the blockchain space, but we still have to wait until the project is launched and live to determine if the blockchain trilemma has actually been solved.

25.3 Methodology This paper will examine the blockchain trilemma from the perspective of various supply chains, namely the food supply chain, pharmaceutical supply chain, and supply chain finance. The blockchain technology has been implemented in the food supply chain by retailers such as Walmart and various beer, tea, and agriculture companies to improve the traceability in the supply chain [15]. The pharmaceutical supply chain sometimes involves life and death risks such as in the case of counterfeit medicine. The supply chain applications will be to ensure that the product is what it says it is, like luxury products and jewelry supply chains [16]. Therefore, this paper will use pharmaceutical products as a blanket category. Lastly, this paper will also examine the blockchain trilemma from the supply chain finance perspective, including the processes revolving invoice processing, secure transactions, payments, etc. [17]. This paper will also attempt to use the blockchain trilemma diagram to plot the positions of the respective supply chains based on their business nature (Fig. 25.1). The diagram consists of three blocks that each have a bias toward two elements, with the middle being the sweet spot where all three elements have been achieved simultaneously. This method can also be applied to other supply chains, which subsequently guide supply chains to different course of actions.

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Fig. 25.1 The blockchain trilemma with supply chain plotting

25.4 Discussion 25.4.1 Food Supply Chain In the past years, the food supply chain has faced several common issues including food tampering, fraudulent cases, food wastage, food contamination, and not being able to identify the source of a certain food product [18]. Blockchain adoption in this supply chain may improve these situations in the following ways. Administrative documentation regarding each stage of the supply chain can be safely stored in the blockchain. This information can include some form of certification or authentication that a food product is what the label says it is [19]. This can provide visibility and traceability of each food product from the source to the consumer. If the technology is paired with the Internet of things (IoT) devices, additional real-time information regarding the products can be recorded in the blockchain. For example, the humidity level and temperature within a container that is transporting coffee beans can be tracked using IoT sensors and transmitted into the blockchain. Without blockchain, IoT is at risk of DDoS attacks because IoT sensors will typically transmit information back to a centralized server, making it an easy target for cyberattacks. Besides, scalability is also an issue as higher volumes would require higher investments in servers and transaction speed [20]. In the case of food tampering, foodborne illnesses, food fraud, or food contamination, the traceability feature can easily track the impact of a situation, quickly facilitating recalls and investigation [21]. Consumers can also feel safe while purchasing and consuming these products. Collectively, these benefits can present cost-saving opportunities for practitioners. For example, the savings potentially generated from food fraud can be up to $31 billion if blockchain technology can be implemented successfully [19]. Blockchain firms such as VeChain have already launched marketready solutions pairing IoT and blockchain to cover the ‘farm-to-retail’ process,

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where consumers can quickly scan a QR code or NFC tag to verify the details of individual products such as wine, fruits, dairy products, and many more [22]. With regards to the blockchain trilemma, the food supply chain needs security based on the various security-related issues mentioned previously. The food and grocery supply chain alone represented $11.9 trillion as of 2019 [23], indicating that scalability is essential as well. If these two are more essential, decentralization will have to be sacrificed, according to the blockchain trilemma. Decentralization is important for a supply chain to be fair, and transparent, making it less likely to be manipulated. However, businesses in the field may feel that if they can trust the system, not achieving full decentralization may not be a significant issue. Danny, the CEO of MustangChain, mentioned that blockchains built for supply chains and businesses should not be fully decentralized or else it will be messy [24]. VeChain, for instance, understands their position in the blockchain trilemma and tackles this by partnering with a neutral audit firm: DNV GL. Since the blockchain network cannot be fully decentralized, it will be centralized around DNV GL, assuring consumers of the authenticity even though losing decentralization [25]. For many businesses, this should be sufficient to adopt the technology. Therefore, the food supply chain is plotted between scalability and security in Fig. 25.1.

25.4.2 Pharmaceutical Supply Chain The pharmaceutical supply chain faces several common issues which have been prevalent over the years. Falsified drugs such as drugs using no active ingredients or wrong ingredients, drugs having false packaging, tampered drugs, and stolen drugs, are a common issue in the industry. Besides, the quality of a certain pharmaceutical product depends on the collective responsibility of all the supply chain entities such as the suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, retailers, and others. This includes having the right quantity, storing under the right temperature, and the strength of the drug [26]. Currently, the estimated annual loss globally due to this issue is around $200 billion [27]. Reportedly being more profitable than selling heroin and cocaine, the Chinese triads, Colombian drug cartels, Mexican drug gangs, and the Russian mafia have been involved in this trade [28]. Theoretically, the technology can ensure end-to-end traceability from the suppliers to the end consumers, the losses due to counterfeit drugs can be eliminated or reduced, transparency throughout the supply chain can encourage accountability of each party, and it can expedite recalls if necessary [29]. Companies such as Novartis, TraceRX, IBM, VeChain, SAP, and many others already have pharmaceutical-related blockchain projects ongoing in view of solving this issue. With regards to the blockchain trilemma, the pharmaceutical supply chain mirrors the food supply chain such that security is of the highest priority. However, some expensive drugs that cost millions are moved in small quantities. These drugs amplify the need for blockchain security but may not require high scalability due to the smaller volume [30]. Of course, there are also other products that are transported in

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high volumes such as mainstream OTC drugs or the COVID-19 vaccine that requires high security and high scalability. There may be a potential bias, but IBM mentioned that a permissioned blockchain should be used in this industry as data needs to be private. This proprietary information that may involve cross-industry data may spark other supply chain risks if it is exposed in the pursuit of decentralization [31]. A permissioned blockchain, usually in a private or consortium blockchain, typically allows several participants to govern the system, making it somewhat centralized. Due to the nature of this supply chain, the blockchain trilemma will not be a limiting factor toward blockchain adoption. The pharmaceutical supply chain is plotted close to the food supply chain in Fig. 25.1.

25.4.3 Supply Chain Finance Supply chain finance is another large area targeted for blockchain finance. Supply chain finance refers to a financial solution mainly to address working capital problems, which involves suppliers selling their receivables to another party so that they can receive payment before the actual due date [32]. It is common practice for buyers to be allowed 60–90 days, or even more, to settle their payables as they use that time to generate income. This period may be critical for suppliers as they too have payables and expenses on their own. Typically, the stakeholders in this ecosystem include buyers, suppliers, financial institutions, logistics providers, and any upstream and downstream entities. The transparency diminishes quickly as it moves further away from the two main parties involved in the transaction [33]. This service is currently only being provided by financial institutions for larger suppliers or first-tier suppliers. This service cannot be open to all suppliers as financial institutions cannot afford to take on this risk due to the lack of credibility [34]. Therefore, smaller suppliers and SMEs within the supply chain are vulnerable to a lack of working capital, potentially causing supply chain disruptions. Blockchain technology’s inherent immutability and distributed ledger technology directly addresses the lack of transparency and lack of trust mentioned previously. With this technology available, the service can now include SMEs and higher tier suppliers since all the relationships and transactions can be viewed by all parties. Previously, smaller suppliers with lower credibility may be accepted into the ecosystem but will have to lose a larger percentage of their receivables because of the lack of trust. This creates an unfair disadvantage for smaller players, cutting off their access to working capital. With blockchain-based supply chain financing, the verification process of each entity will be reduced significantly compared to conventional financial institutions [32], improving the overall financial health of the supply chain, reducing the occurrence of defaults and supply chain disruptions. With regards to the blockchain trilemma, security is once again of utmost importance since the transactions may potentially involve large sums of money. This system requires a permissioned blockchain because all entities in the ecosystem need to be identified. As mentioned previously, the relationships of upstream and downstream

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entities need to be verified before being allowed to participate in this transaction. Blockchain operators will also ensure that there is only one version of each invoice, eliminating the occurrence of fraudulent claims. Marco Polo, a blockchain-based institution operating supply chain finance services, ensures that all transactions are secure and private from the public [32]. Therefore, decentralization in the blockchain is not a priority in this system. The need for private and permission blockchains naturally gives way to incorporate scalability into the system, allowing operators to onboard various parties, record more transactions, store all logistics and financial documents at a faster speed. The position is plotted near the food supply chain and pharmaceutical supply chain in Fig. 25.1 as well.

25.5 Conclusion Based on the application of three different supply chain systems, the criticism of the inability to solve the blockchain trilemma does not impact blockchain adoption within this space. The blockchain technology is not a solution to solve all problems embedded within the current system, but it certainly has the potential to solve many serious issues that are still prevalent through the years, such as counterfeit products and other illicit issues. There are other blockchain implementations such as decentralized finance (DeFi) or most public blockchains that require a decentralized, secure, and scalable blockchain. While the community races to solve the blockchain trilemma, institution adoption within supply chains should not be affected. There are other challenges for blockchain adoption such as supplier onboarding, culture changes, migration from legacy systems, and many others, but the blockchain trilemma should not be one of them. The evaluation method used in this paper can also be applied in other supply chains to determine if the blockchain trilemma will negatively impact them. Future research may include empirical data to strengthen the views of this paper.

References 1. Iansiti M, Lakhani KR (2017) The truth about blockchain. Harv Bus Rev 2017 2. Daley S (2021) 30 ways blockchain applications and real-world use cases disrupting the status quo. Built In. https://builtin.com/blockchain/blockchain-applications. Accessed 15 June 2021 3. Iredale G (2020) List of top 50 companies using blockchain technology. 101 Blockchains. https://101blockchains.com/companies-using-blockchain-technology/. Accessed 15 June 2021 4. Swanson T (2021) Key challenges. Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ uk/Documents/Innovation/deloitte-uk-blockchain-key-challenges.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2021 5. CertiK (2019) The blockchain trilemma. Medium. https://medium.com/certik/the-blockchaintrilemma-decentralised-scalable-and-secure-e9d8c41a87b3. Accessed 15 June 2021 6. CB Insights (2021) Banking is only the beginning; 58 big industries blockchain could transform. CB Insights. https://www.cbinsights.com/research/industries-disrupted-blockchain/. Accessed 15 June 2021

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7. Deloitte (2017) Key characteristics of blockchain. Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/con tent/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/industries/in-convergence-blockchain-key-characteristicsnoexp.pdf. Accessed 15 June 2021 8. Built In (2021) Blockchain technology defined. Built In. https://builtin.com/blockchain. Accessed 15 June 2021 9. Li S, Yu M, Yang S, Avestimehr S, Kannan S, Viswanath P (2020) PolyShard: coded sharding achieves linearly scaling efficiency and security simultaneously. IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Scuur 99:1–12 10. Shrimpy (2021) What is the blockchain trilemma. Shrimpy. https://academy.shrimpy.io/post/ what-is-the-blockchain-trilemma. Accessed 16 June 2021 11. SEBA Bank (2021) The bridge: the blockchain trilemma. Seba Bank. https://www.seba.swiss/ research/the-blockchain-trilemma. Accessed 16 June 2021 12. Frankenfield J (2019) 51% attack. Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/1/51-att ack.asp. Accessed 16 June 2021 13. Cryptopedia (2021) The blockchain trilemma: how to achieve fast, secure, and scalable networks. Gemini. https://www.gemini.com/cryptopedia/blockchain-trilemma-decentral isation-scalability-definition. Accessed 16 June 2021 14. Ricc (2020) Examining the blockchain trilemma. Hackernoon. https://hackernoon.com/examin ing-the-blockchain-trilemma-from-algorands-prism-2kcb32qd. Accessed 16 June 2021 15. Logistics Bureau (2020) Who’s using blockchain in 2020, and how? Logistics Bureau. https:// www.logisticsbureau.com/whos-using-blockchain-in-2020-and-how/. Accessed 16 June 2021 16. Rosencrance L (2020) 7 real-life blockchain in the supply chain use cases and examples. Tech Target. https://searcherp.techtarget.com/feature/4-key-blockchain-in-supply-chain-use-casesand-examples. Accessed 16 June 2021 17. Morley M (2020) Top 5 use cases of blockchain in the supply chain in 2021. Open Text. https:// blogs.opentext.com/blockchain-in-the-supply-chain/. Accessed 16 June 2021 18. Enwood D (2021) How blockchain is revolutionising food supply chains. Blockhead technologies. https://blockheadtechnologies.com/how-blockchain-is-revolutionising-food-supplychains/. Accessed 16 June 2021 19. Sharma SK, Singh V (2020) Applications of blockchain technology in the food industry. New food magazine. https://www.newfoodmagazine.com/article/110116/blockchain/. Accessed 16 June 2021 20. Jain S (2021) Can blockchain accelerate Internet of Things (IoT) adoption? Deloitte. https:// www2.deloitte.com/ch/en/pages/innovation/articles/blockchain-accelerate-iot-adoption.html. Accessed 16 June 2021 21. LeewayHertz (2021) Food supply chain blockchain- solving food supply problems. LeewayHertz. https://www.leewayhertz.com/supply-chain-blockchain-reinventing-food-sup ply/. Accessed 16 June 2021 22. VeChain Foundation (2020) VeChain announces a market ready blockchain food safety solution powered by VeChain ToolChain. VeChain Foundation. https://medium.com/vechainfoundation/vechain-announces-a-market-ready-blockchain-food-safety-solution-powered-byvechain-toolchain-c51bff3f20b3. Accessed 16 June 2021 23. Grand View Research (2019) Food grocery retail market size, share & trend analysis report by product (packaged food, unpackaged food), by distribution channel, by region, and segment forecast, 2020–2027. Grand view research. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-ana lysis/food-grocery-retail-market. Accessed 16 June 2021 24. Milano A (2018) VeChain arrives: what to know about the $1.5 billion blockchain for business. Coindesk. https://www.coindesk.com/vechain-arrives-know-1-5-billion-blockchain-bus iness. Accessed 16 June 2021 25. Henderson J (2020) Audit giant DNV GL partners with VeChain to push blockchain technology. Supply chain digital. https://supplychaindigital.com/technology-4/audit-giant-dnv-gl-partnersvechain-push-blockchain-technology. Accessed 16 June 2021 26. PWC (2017) Accurate, audited, and secure. How blockchain could strengthen the pharmaceutical supply chain. PWC. https://www.pwc.co.uk/healthcare/pdf/health-blockchain-supply chain-report%20v4.pdf. Accessed 17 June 2021

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27. Real (2021) Blockchain: a game changer for pharmaceutical supply chain? Real staffing. https://www.realstaffing.com/en-sg/blog/2018/08/blockchain-a-game-changer-for-pharmaceu tical-supply-chain/. Accessed 17 June 2021 28. O’Hagan A, Garlington A (2018) Counterfiet drugs and the online pharmaceutical trade, a threat to public safety. Forensic Res Criminol Int J 6(3):151–158 29. LeewayHertz (2021) Blockchain in pharma supply chain—reducing counterfeit drugs. LeewayHertz. https://www.leewayhertz.com/blockchain-in-pharma-supply-chain/. Accessed 17 June 2021 30. Musamih A, Salah K, Jayaraman R, Arshadm J, Debe M, Al-Hammadi Y Ellaham S (2021) A blockchain-based approach for drug traceability in healthcare supply chain. Middle east medical portal. https://www.middleeastmedicalportal.com/a-blockchain-based-approach-fordrug-traceability-in-healthcare-supply-chain/. Accessed 17 June 2021 31. Treshock M (2020) How the FDA is piloting blockchain for the pharmaceutical supply chain. IBM. https://www.ibm.com/blogs/blockchain/2020/05/how-the-fda-is-piloting-blockc hain-for-the-pharmaceutical-supply-chain/. Accessed 17 June 2021 32. Marco Polo (2021) Transforming supply chain finance. Marco Polo. https://www.marcopolo. finance/supply-chain-finance/. Accessed 18 June 2021 33. Lin A (2020) How blockchain-based supply chain finance helps solve financing pressures. Assure dam. https://assuredam.com/2020/03/supply-chain-finance-helps-solve-current-financ ing-pressures/. Accessed 18 June 2021 34. Taulia NK (2020) Demystifying the role of technology in supply chain finance: Blockchain. Spend matters. https://spendmatters.com/2020/08/25/demystifying-the-role-of-technology-insupply-chain-finance-blockchain/. Accessed 18 June 2021

Chapter 26

Innovative Approach for Biomimicry of Marine Animals for Development of Engineering Devices Mohamad Asmidzam Ahamat, Nur Faraihan Zulkefli, Nurhayati Mohd Nur, Azmin Syakrine Mohd Rafie, Eida Nadirah Roslin, and Razali Abidin Abstract This paper proposes an innovative approach of biomimicry of marine animals to produce engineering devices with high efficiency. The biomimicry approach creates an opportunity to improve the hydro/aerodynamic performance of objects moving in fluids. However, the characteristic of each animal is usually made to fulfill its specific task. In contrast, engineering devices may need to achieve more than one objective. Thus, we believed that the biomimicry strategy should not only adopting one feature or process from an animal, but it should combine features from a group of animals. Locomotion and propulsion modes, and hydrodynamic efficiency are briefly discussed in this paper. At the end of this paper, a recommendation of an innovative biomimicry approach is proposed. This approach is expected to facilitate the production of engineering devices with higher efficiency without neglecting other important aspects. Keywords Biomimicry · Marine animals · Aerodynamics · Hydrodynamics

M. A. Ahamat (B) · N. F. Zulkefli · N. M. Nur · E. N. Roslin Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Jalan Sultan Ismail, 50250 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. F. Zulkefli e-mail: [email protected] N. M. Nur e-mail: [email protected] E. N. Roslin e-mail: [email protected] A. S. M. Rafie Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] R. Abidin Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_26

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26.1 Introduction This paper proposed a method to implement multiple features of biomimicry into an engineering device for performance improvement. In general, efficiency is one of the key objectives in the development of an engineering device. For instance, a car consumes less fuel if it has a good aerodynamic design through the reduction of drag force experienced by the car. Many strategies can be adopted in designing a welldesigned car including applying the concept of biomimicry. However, mimicking a single feature of a living organism is usually insufficient to reduce the drag coefficient of a car. Thus, this paper attempt to propose an innovative approach where the combination of biomimicry from more than one living organisms are integrated into an engineering device. Biomimicry concerns the design and production of engineering devices based on the principle found in biological entities or processes. In general, imitation of nature can be categorized into bio replication, biomimetics, and bio-inspiration [1]. Bioreplication is a direct imitation of a structure or process found in nature into engineering devices. It is different from biomimetics where only the functionality of any structure or process in a biological organism is approximately reproduced. Bio-inspiration focuses on the reproduction of a biological function or a combination of biological function and structure. Biological organisms usually have complex functions and structures. It is almost impossible to build a complete replication of a biological organism, but some simplified functions and structures enable incremental progress in engineered biomimicry. For instance, the development of advanced step in innovative mobility (ASIMO) has been started in 1986 [2]. As a humanoid robot, ASIMO can communicate using sign language. However, its movement is not yet as smooth as a human. The development of ASIMO shows significant technical and engineering challenges that are prohibiting rapid progress in biomimicry. Since the replication of a living organism is very demanding and requires various disciplines of knowledge, it is worth to combine several simple features from living organisms to achieve an objective. As an example, the hydrodynamic and aerodynamic efficient body may be engineered by biomimicking many features of marine animals. Recent advances in fish robotics are presented in [3]. Numerous efforts are made to replicate the swimming ability of fish using robotic technologies. A broader overview of possible solutions to the aerodynamic problems is presented in [4]. However, the methods to adopt a biomimicry strategy need further investigation. Thus, this paper attempts to provide a different perspective on the implementation of biomimicry for engineering devices. A brief overview of propulsion and locomotion of marine animals and attempts to improve the hydrodynamic or aerodynamic efficiency of engineering devices based on biomimicry of marine animals are presented. Recommendation on the innovative approach on the implementation of biomimicry strategy is also included in this paper.

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26.2 Locomotion and Propulsion of Marine Animals Marine animals have various shapes such as the Megalaspis cordyla (see Fig. 26.1) and Formio niger (see Fig. 26.2). In general, fishes have a pectoral fin, dorsal fin, pelvic fin, anal fin, and caudal fin. There are various shapes of each type of those fins. The shape of body and fin determines other factors such as its habitat and propulsion system. The function-morphology of a plane of fish [5] is depicted in Fig. 26.3. This plane can be used as a fundamental reference for biomimicry of the fish function. The locomotion of a fish is divided into body and/or caudal fin or median and/or paired fin [6]. Figure 26.4 shows the swimming modes of body and/or caudal fin. Anguiliform involves undulatory movement of more area of the body. For instance, eels move their bodies in S-shape to push water at an angle between the lateral and axial axes. The resultant force moves eels forward. However, excessive head and body movement make it not suitable to adopt this swimming mode in some engineering devices such as vehicles for human transportation. Too much movement will lead to an uncomfortable ride. On another extreme, ostraciiform involves oscillatory movement of the caudal fin which involves little or no movement of the body. For the median and/or paired fin (Table 26.1), the propulsion is produced by the fin without

Fig. 26.1 Shape of body and fins of Megalaspis cordyla

Fig. 26.2 Shape of body and fins of Formio niger

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Fig. 26.3 Functional-morphology plane for fish

Fig. 26.4 Swimming mode of body and/or caudal fin

Table 26.1 Classification of swimming mode for median and/or paired fin [6] Fin use for swimming Pectoral

Dorsal

Anal

Anal and dorsal

Undulatory fin motions

Rajiform

Diodontiform

Amiiform

Gymnotiform

Balistiform

Oscillatory fin motions

–

Labriform

–

–

Tetraodontiform

any movement of body. The fins either move in undulatory or oscillatory motion [6]. This leads to a very steady movement of the aquatic robot if median and/or paired fin propulsion is adopted. The aspect ratio (A) of the caudal fin is defined as A = h2 /s, where h is the height of caudal fin and s is the surface area of the fin. For the fish which uses a caudal fin as a main propulsion system, higher aspect ratio means that the fish can swim at a higher speed. Greater body length means that the fish can swim faster if the aspect ratio of the caudal fin is identical [7]. The shape of caudal fins for M. Cordyla (see Fig. 26.5a) and F. Niger (see Fig. 26.5b) show some differences in their morphology. For the biomimicry of a fast-moving engineering device using a caudal fin as the propulsion system, it is necessary to opt for a caudal fin with a higher aspect ratio. The fluke of a fin whale can reach an efficiency of 87% for the amplitude pitch of 30° and an advanced ratio of 4.5. Although the range of the swimming speed of fin

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Fig. 26.5 Caudal fin of a Megalaspis cordyla and b Formio niger

whale is about 2 m/s to over 10 m/s, its best efficiency occurs at 6 m/s [8]. This shows that the efficiency of the propulsion system of marine animals is also determined by its swimming speed.

26.3 Hydrodynamics of Marine Animals The drag force can be divided into two categories which are frictional drag or pressure drag. Frictional drag arises due to the relative motion between the surface of a body and the surrounding fluid. The morphology of the surface and the properties of fluid influence the magnitude of frictional drag. Pressure drag is contributed by the shape of the body and the existence of vortices around the moving body. The total drag experienced by a body moving in a fluid is the summation of frictional drag and pressure drag. The flow of fluid in the boundary layer is either attached or separated, and in the laminar, partly laminar, or turbulent regions. In general, the total drag is lower for attached boundary flow compared to separated boundary flow. The frictional drag dominates the attached flow while the pressure drag has a larger portion for separated boundary flow [9]. This indicates that the surface morphology and shape of the body are important to reduce the frictional and pressure drag. It is generally believed that the most efficient shape in avoiding high drag resistance when moving through a fluid is a streamlined body. This leads to the concept of adopting a streamlined shape for vehicles. However, in certain conditions, nature proofs it otherwise. For example, the ridges of leatherback turtles are not streamlined to generate streamwise vortices and delay the separation of flow [10]. Delayed separation reduces the size of the wake generated by leatherback turtles which helps in reducing the pressure drag. The consequences are that leatherback turtles consume

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less energy when moving in the water, and they can swim at a higher speed. This indicates that it is not always necessary to adopt a streamlined shape in engineering devices. A box fish has a drag coefficient in the region of 0.1. Three vortices formation were observed at the rear part of the box fish which induce a pressure drag. Those three locations are at both sides and at the bottom of the rear part of the box fish [11]. The role of the tail of the box fish in reducing the size of wake in the fluid behind the fish may be significant. Smaller vortices were formed instead of a single larger vortex. The significance of the tail of a box fish in reducing the drag coefficient is confirmed when the shape of the box fish was mimicked for a car design. In the absence of a tail, the drag coefficient of this car is around 0.24, more than two times higher than the drag coefficient of the box fish [12]. Although the drag coefficient of a car that is biomimicking the shape of the box fish is slightly lower than other cars, some modification to the shape of the car may be needed to ensure that its esthetic value is acceptable. The size of the humpback whale limits its maneuverability without the existence of its unique flipper with tubercles. The flippers of humpback whales have the main function to assist in prey hunting. Humpback whales rely on their maneuverability to get food from prey-laden water. The prey is smaller than the whale, thus agility is required by a humpback whale. The tubercles at the leading edge of its flippers delay the separation of fluid from the surface which increase lift and reduce drag [13]. This shows that a small change in design leads to a large difference in the ability of a living organism to move efficiently. The unique features of the humpback whale can be adopted in engineering devices. In engineering applications, the tubercle shape can be applied to many devices such as airplane wings, turbines, and vehicles. The electrical output power of wind turbines with tubercles leading-edge blades is higher compared to the blades without any tubercles [14]. Incorporation of tubercles at the leading edge of turbines improves their esthetic value. This shows that the appropriate application of biomimicry in engineering devices is required to achieve multiple design objectives. Shark skin attracts researchers to investigate its effect in drag reduction. It is of great interest to evaluate how the denticles on the surface of the shark skin do assist the shark when it is swimming. Disturbance of flow in the boundary layer mitigates the separation from the surface of biomimetic shark skin. The thickness of the boundary layer is changing according to the state of locomotion [15]. It is worth noting that the shark skin is not a purely passive strategy in controlling flow in the boundary layer. It is reported in [16] that sharks can bristle their skin when swimming at a higher speed. The speed of fluid close to shark skin is higher which indicates an active boundary layer control that leads to a longer attached flow before separation occurred. If this mechanism is to be mimicked in engineering devices, it is not sufficient to only reproduce the morphology of shark skin; the control mechanism of the angle of denticles relative to the direction of water flow is required. This requires advanced engineering knowledge, particularly in materials engineering.

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The morphology of shark skin can be mimicked to construct vortex generators for airfoils. An increase in lift coefficients is up to 5% at an angle of attack of ~14°, compared to triangular vortex generators. For the drag-to-lift ratio, the highest magnitude is at 6° for the shark skin vortex generator [17]. It is proven that the use of the biomimicry concept can be adopted to enhance the performance of airfoils. In the future, investigation on the effect of leading-edge tubercles and shark skin vortex generator on lift coefficient and lift-to-drag ratio of airfoil is worthful. The spine-covered surface of the putter fish may lead to a lower drag force experienced by the fish. The biomimetic surfaces inspired by the spine-covered surface lower the drag by 5.9% compared to the flat sample surface, due to less opposing flow in the viscous sub layer [18]. This finding shows that not only shark skin can contribute to the reduction in drag coefficient, but other marine animals may also have a skin morphology with drag reduction capability.

26.4 Recommendation on Innovative Approach in Biomimicry Instead of using fins and body movement as a method to produce propulsion, the Coanda-effect jet device was used to propel underwater robots. This compact jet propulsion is able to produce a jet in four directions using a servo motor and a pump. It is claimed that this jet device can maneuver underwater robots with a fast and steady response [19]. This is an example of how to navigate challenges in efficient propulsion for biomimicry underwater robots. It is not compulsory to replicate the movement of the body and fins as per marine animals, it is worth searching for other alternatives that may suit the design objective of a specific device. A combination of several locomotion and propulsion approaches as depicted in Fig. 26.3 could be adopted to suit the objectives set in development of engineering devices. The fabrication of shark denticles is proven complex since their size is ~5 µm. Recent literature reported that the photo reconfigurable azopolymer technique can produce a shark skin mimetic denticle structure with superior hydrophobicity and anti-fouling characteristics [20]. This recent technology enables the production of a shark skin surface with similar characteristics to the one found on the real shark. New technologies in manufacturing should be used to assist development in biomimicry. In the design of a new engineering device, it is necessary to determine the objectives of biomimicry. To incorporate biomimicry strategies into the design process, it is recommended to use the matrix in Table 26.2. The purpose of this table is to demonstrate a method to incorporate several features of marine animals into objectives of biomimicry. For instance, hydrodynamic efficiency may be obtained through Feature 1, Feature 2, and Feature 3. This illustrates that hydrodynamic efficiency is not only related to skin morphology and the shape of body, movement of body is also important. For propulsion efficiency, the movement of the body and aspect ratio of the caudal fin can be combined to create a better propulsion system instead

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Table 26.2 Multiple features biomimicry to achieve objectives Objectives

Feature 1 (e.g., skin morphology)

Feature 2 (e.g., body shape)

Feature 3 (e.g., movement of the body)

Hydrodynamic efficiency

X

X

X

Propulsion efficiency Esthetic value

X X

X

Feature 4 (e.g., aspect ratio of caudal fin)

X X

Fig. 26.6 Hard protrusion scale at the rear part of Megalaspis cordyla is shown in the dashed circle

of optimizing the aspect ratio in isolation. In some cases, the esthetic value of an engineering device is also important. In this example, the skin morphology, body shape, and aspect ratio of the caudal fin are important to ensure the appearance of the engineering device has a good esthetic value. It is also worth observing other species of marine animals to ensure that their good features are not neglected in the effort to build bio-inspired engineering devices. For instance, it is worth investigating the hard protrusion scale at the rear part of the M. cordyla (see Fig. 26.6). This structure may have significant effect on the hydrodynamic, rigidity, and propulsion efficiency. The diverse observation reduces the chance of missing an important feature from marine life. For instance, a small change in the shape of a body, such as the exclusion of the tail of box fish doubled the drag coefficient [12].

26.5 Conclusion Implementation of biomimicry in the development of engineering devices requires an innovative approach where it is not sufficient to imitate a specific structure or process from living organisms. It is recommended to state the design objectives to ensure that biomimicry does follow the requirement set for an engineering device. A combination of more than one feature from living organisms could be adopted to improve the aerodynamic and hydrodynamic performance. For example, the shape of

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the body may need to be combined with appropriate surface morphology to produce a body with a lower drag coefficient. Other aspects such as the aesthetic value should be incorporated into the biomimicry engineering device. By adopting this proposed strategy, it is expected that the outcomes of biomimicry will not only efficient but will also be attractive to the consumer. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2018/TK08/UNIKL/02/1).

References 1. Lakhtakia A, Martín-Palma RJ (2013) Engineered biomimicry. Elsevier, Massachusetts 2. American Honda Motor Co. Inc. (2021) Say hello to ASIMO. Available: https://www.honda. com/mobility/say-hello-to-asimo. Accessed 25 June 2021 3. Lauder GV (2015) Fish locomotion: recent advances and new directions. Annu Rev Mar Sci 7:521–545 4. Siddiqui NA, Agelin-Chaab M (2021) Nature-inspired solutions to bluff body aerodynamic problems: a review. J Mech Eng Sci 15(2):8095–8140 5. Webb PW (1984) Form and function in fish swimming. Sci Am 251(1):72–83 6. Sfakiotakis M, Lane DM, Davies JBC (1999) Review of fish swimming modes for aquatic locomotion. IEEE J Oceanic Eng 24(2):237–252 7. Sambilay VC Jr (1990) Interrelationships between swimming speed, caudal fin aspect ratio and body length of fishes. Fishbyte 8(3):16–20 8. Bose N, Lien J (1989) Propulsion of a fin whale (Balenoptera physalus): why the fin whale is a fast swimmer. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 237(1287):175–200 9. Fish F (1998) Imaginative solutions by marine organisms for drag reduction. Proc Int Symp Seawater Drag Reduction 1:443–450. Newport, Rhode Island 10. Bang K, Kim J, Lee S et al (2016) Hydrodynamic role of longitudinal dorsal ridges in a leatherback turtle swimming. Sci Rep-UK 6(1):1–10 11. Kozlov A, Chowdhury H, Mustary I et al (2015) Bio-inspired design: aerodynamics of boxfish. Procedia Engineer 105:323–328 12. Chowdhury H, Islam R, Hussein M et al (2019) Design of an energy efficient car by biomimicry of a boxfish. Energy Proced 160:40–44 13. Fish FE, Battle JM (1995) Hydrodynamic design of the humpback whale flipper. J Morphol 225:51–60 14. Fish FE, Weber PW, Murray MM et al (2011) The tubercles on humpback whales’ flippers: application of bio-inspired technology. Integr Comp Biol 51(1):203–213 15. Guo P, Zhang K, Yasuda Y et al (2021) On the influence of biomimetic shark skin in dynamic flow separation. Bioinspir Biomim 16(3):034001 16. Lang AW, Motta P, Hidalgo P et al (2008) Bristled shark skin: a microgeometry for boundary layer control?. Bioinspir Biomim 3(4):046005 17. Zulkefli NF, Ahamat MA, Safri NF et al (2020) Aerodynamic performance of shark skin shape vortex generator. In: Proceedings of international conference of aerospace and mechanical engineering 2019, Springer, Singapore 18. Zhou H, Zhu Y, Tian G et al (2021) Experimental investigations of the turbulent boundary layer for biomimetic surface with spine-covered protrusion inspired by pufferfish skin. Arab J Sci Eng 46(3):2865–2875

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19. Li Y, Gao P, Wang Y et al (2021) The implementation and evaluation of a multi-DOFs coandaeffect jet device for underwater robots. Appl Ocean Res 108:102545 20. Jo W, Kang HS, Choi J et al (2021) Light-designed shark skin-mimetic surfaces. Nano Lett. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c00436

Chapter 27

Water Retention Properties of a Fused Deposition Modeling Based 3D Printed Polylactic Acid Vessel Muhammad Nur Farhan Saniman, Nadzir Akif Dzulkifli, Khairul Anuar Abd Wahid, Wan Mansor Wan Muhamad, Khairul Azhar Mohamad, Erny Afiza Alias, and Jamilah Mohd Shariff Abstract The applications of fused deposition modelling (FDM) based 3D printing have gone beyond merely simple prototypes to where functionalities are expected. One of such functionalities is the water retention properties, especially for fluid handling products, either completely waterproof or deliberately porous. Issues arise especially in determining crucial parameters and their optimization to achieve the desired water retention properties. This study established the relationship among printing parameters (layer thickness and wall thickness) and water temperature with leakage flow rate. A series of 3D printed polylactic acid (PLA) vessels were fabricated at various layer height and wall thickness. Then, the volumetric loss of water at various temperatures was measured, elapsed time was recorded, and the leakage flow rate was calculated for each 3D printed vessel. It has been found that the leakage flow rate decreased when layer height decreased, wall thickness increased, and water temperature decreased. Based on multilinear regression analysis, the magnitude of M. N. F. Saniman (B) · N. A. Dzulkifli · K. A. A. Wahid · W. M. W. Muhamad · K. A. Mohamad Mechanical Engineering Section, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France Institute, 43650 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] K. A. A. Wahid e-mail: [email protected] W. M. W. Muhamad e-mail: [email protected] K. A. Mohamad e-mail: [email protected] E. A. Alias Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] J. M. Shariff Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40000 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_27

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influence for the layer height was the highest, which could reach at a point where variation in wall thickness and water temperature had no effect. A regression model having 81.27% fitness that provided a quantitative relationship among all parameters had also been obtained. ANOVA analysis revealed that all parameters were statistically significant in optimizing as well as predicting the value of the leakage flow rate. Keywords FDM · 3D printing · Vessel · Water retention · Layer height

27.1 Introduction Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is one of the methods in additive manufacturing (AM) that belongs to the family of materials extrusion. In FDM, a three-dimensional (3D) object is constructed by selectively depositing the melted material in a layer-bylayer manner [1]. A significant growth in FDM 3D printing applications is observed recently due owing to its availability, user friendliness, and most importantly, its economical values [2]. Thermoplastic polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), are the materials used commonly by FDM [3]. For a wide range of research and commercial applications, the optimizations of objects and products fabricated by FDM has actively been conducted. Despite the fact that a FDM 3D printed structure might composed of voids which possibly reduce the mechanical properties [4], such behaviors can be exploited for amelioration of beneficial objects. One of the aims is to fabricate functional 3D printed objects used in fluid handing at different level of voids such as pipes for liquid transportation, vessels for liquid containers, and particle filters for fluid–solid mixtures, rather than just objects for display or simple prototypes. To successfully fabricate liquid handling 3D printed objects, it is important to investigate the liquid retention properties [5]. Such properties could be addressed in terms of water leakage rate. In FDM 3D printing, there are a lot of parameters that might be influencing the liquid retention properties, since the nature of fabrication in the layer-by-layer approach will produce a lot of air gaps and pores between one layer and the successive layers [6]. It is important to note here that eliminating such air gaps to produce a completely waterproof or watertight 3D printed vessel or pipe is not always the main purpose. One of the advantages of FDM 3D printing over other fabrication methods lies in the ability to freely design the meso-structure of an object. As a consequent, not only the fluid retention properties could be understood, but also the degree of water retention could be controlled. Moreover, over-extruding the PLA layer might simply solve the water-tightness issue and produce a waterproof vessel [7]. However, such straightforward solution comes together with extra printing material, rough finish surface, and increased printing time as drawbacks. In addition, the ability to regulate the water retention properties cannot be achieved. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the influencing factors that affect the water retention properties as well as understand its mechanism

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in order to optimally control the parameters depending on the expected purpose of 3D printed objects. To date, there are very limited researches have been done on the specific issue of water retention properties of 3D printed vessels [8]. Most of the time, the 3D printing parameters have been investigated in relation to the tensile or flexural strength [9]. Commonly studied parameters are the layer height [10, 11], wall thickness [12, 13], printing speed [14, 15], infill density [16, 17] and extruding temperature [18, 19]. These parameters were used to relate strength with porosity, which could also be affiliated with the watertightness behavior. Generally, water leakage is associated with the condition of the vessel’s wall [20]. In concern to that, two fundamental parameters related to the geometry of the wall, which are the layer height and wall thickness, must firstly be researched. Layer height is about the wall’s fabrication process in vertical direction while wall thickness is related to the horizontal or radial aspect. Additionally, since the water retention properties are of interest, instead of the extruding temperature, the water temperature is more intriguing to be studied along with the layer height and wall thickness, considering that a high liquid temperature usually is associated with high rate of leakage and failure in pipes [21]. In this study, the changes of water retention properties of FDM 3D printed vessels at various layer height, wall thickness, and water temperature are investigated experimentally. The inter-correlations among all variables are demonstrated and the water leaking mechanism is discussed.

27.2 Methodology 27.2.1 Specimen Design and Fabrication The 3D model of the water vessel was designed using a CAD software (Solidworks) with the inner diameter, height, and base thickness of 30 mm, 35 mm, and 3 mm, respectively, as shown in Fig. 27.1. As for the outer diameter, the value is changed depending on the wall thickness, w, which were 0.8, 1.6, and 2.4 mm. All 3D models Fig. 27.1 3D model of vessel

314 Table 27.1 Experimental parameters

M. N. F. Saniman et al. Parameter

Value

Layer height, h (mm)

0.15, 0.25, 0.35

Wall thickness, w (mm)

0.8, 1.6, 2.4

Water temperature, T (°C)

25, 40, 60, 80, 100

then were exported in the STL format, which is compatible to be used by a slicing software or slicer (Cura). Literally, the slicer will slice the 3D models into a series of layers [22]. Various printing parameters must be defined such as infill density, infill pattern, and layer heights. In this study, we are using 100% infill density and grid infill pattern for all specimens. Table 27.1 shows the parameters and their corresponding values in order to study the water retention properties of 3D printed water vessel. Then, each model is converted into printing instructions for the 3D printer, called GCODE. In addition to a series of coordinates for the extruder motion, various printing parameters are also included, such as the printing speed and extruder temperature. A FDM 3D printer (Ultimaker Original) with a nozzle diameter d n = 0.4 mm is used to fabricate the specimens at an extruding temperature of 200 °C. Polylactic acid (PLA) printing filaments have been used in consideration for its food safe grade and biodegradability [23]. In Table 27.1, since there are 5 different values for the water temperature to be tested, therefore, 45 specimens in total have been prepared. Each specimen is monitored closely during and post fabrication in order to identify any defects, such as warping and delamination.

27.2.2 Water Retention Test The 3D printed vessel has been designed to contain 50 ml water. To avoid overflow, only 45 ml of water is used as initial water volume V i during the water retention test. Additionally, a red dye is added into the water to increase the contrast in detecting water leakage through the vessel’s wall. The water is heated in a Berzelius beaker with accuracy of 1 mL using a rod heater with preset temperatures at 25, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C. A digital thermometer is used to continuously monitor the water temperature. The moment the heated water is poured into the 3D printed water vessel, the elapse time t is recorded using a digital stopwatch. At the same time, constant heating and temperature monitoring are continued to preserve the water temperature. After 300 s, the final volume of water left in the vessel V f is measured. The difference in water volume before and after testing, which indicates the total leaked water volume V through the overall surface of inner wall is recorded. In a case where the water is completely leaked through the wall for less than 300 s, the corresponding time is taken for the leak rate analysis. In this study, the commonly used leak rate equation which has been derived from the Bernoulli equation [24] is unapplicable since there

27 Water Retention Properties of a Fused Deposition …

315

is no specific outlet opening and the discharge coefficient for 3D printed area is not yet established. Moreover, there is no pressure difference as well as no elevation difference. Thus, a fundamental equation of flow rate that defines the volume V flowing pass through a point in time t [24], which is given by Eq. (27.1), has been used instead. Q = (Vi − Vf )/t = V /t

(27.1)

In Eq. (27.1), Q is defined as the volumetric flow rate of water that is leaking through the overall inner wall for each 3D printed water vessel in t seconds, and henceforth is called the leakage flow rate.

27.2.3 Statistical Analysis of the Influencing Factors For the purpose of evaluating the relationship between the layer height h, wall thickness w, and water temperature T and the leakage flow rate Q of the 3D printed vessel, statistical analysis has been conducted, such as regression analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Such approach is utilized to assess the magnitude of influence of each variable as well as to optimize the parameters for any desired outcomes. In this study, since there are three variables of interest and the minimum value of leakage flow rate is zero, a multiple linear regression model without constant term has been employed. A general form of a single order regression equation that expresses the relationship among all variables is given by: Q = ah + bw + cT + ε

(27.2)

Here, a, b, and c are coefficients for each parameter, and ε is residual error. The value of a, b, c, and ε will be determined by ANOVA, which calculates the levels of variability or dispersion via square of sample correlation R2 and test the statistical significance of the regression model via the P value.

27.3 Results and Discussion In order to investigate the water retention properties of the 3D printed PLA vessels, the volume of leaked water and its corresponding leaking time have been recorded. Then, using Eq. (27.1), the leakage flow rate Q (ml/s) for all 45 specimens have been calculated as shown in Table 27.2. The changes of leakage flow rate Q with layer height h, wall thickness w, and water temperature T are shown graphically in Figs. 27.2, 27.3, and 27.4, respectively.

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Table 27.2 Volumetric leakage flow rate for various layer height, wall thickness and water temperature Volumetric leakage flow rate, Q (ml/s) Layer height, h (mm)

Wall thickness, w (mm)

Water temperature, T (°C) 25

40

60

80

100

0.15

0.8

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

1.6

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

2.4

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.8

0.000

0.013

0.273

1.071

1.500

1.6

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.409

0.763

2.4

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.8

1.667

2.143

3.214

4.091

4.500

1.6

0.417

1.184

1.800

2.250

3.214

2.4

0.017

0.417

0.750

1.406

2.045

0.25

0.35

Fig. 27.2 Changes of leakage flow rate Q with layer height h for various wall thickness w and water temperature T

27.3.1 Influence of Layer Height It is shown in Fig. 27.2 that in general, when the layer thickness h increases, the leakage flow rate Q also increases. In particular, the layer thickness of 0.15 mm had the best water retention properties with Q = 0 mL/s regardless of water temperature T. On the other hand, for 0.35 mm of layer height, water leakage was not able to be prevented even for water at room temperature (25 °C). Such a condition could be understood by investigating the mechanism of the extruded PLA layers at various

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Fig. 27.3 Changes of leakage flow rate Q with wall thickness w for various layer heights h and water temperature T

Fig. 27.4 Changes of leakage flow rate Q with water temperature T for various layer height h and wall thickness t

layer height h. Since a 0.4 mm nozzle diameter d n has been used, the maximum extrudable layer height h is also 0.4 mm. However, in the actual 3D printing process, the layer heights h must be lower than the nozzle to avoid any delamination due to a lack of adhesive surface between layers l. The geometrical deformation of the cross-sectional shape of the extruded layer under a vertical compression can be determined mathematically under the assumptions that: (1) the total cross-sectional area and its circumferential length are constant;

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and (2) the non-compressed regions are approximately a semi-circle curve. Thus, the inter-layer adhesive surface length l can be determined as: l = π (dn − h)/2

(27.3)

As shown in Fig. 27.5, when a 0.35 mm layer height is used, the extruded layers are slightly compressed, and the adhesive surface length is l = 0.08 mm. Further reduction of the layer height h to 0.25 mm and 0.15 mm had compressed further the extruded layer, and thus, resulted in an increase in the adhesive surface l to 0.24 mm and 0.39 mm, respectively. Increased l means that the number of water molecules which are seeping through in between layers is reduced due to an increase in flow resistance and the aggravating choke phenomenon [25]. Moreover, it can be observed in Fig. 27.6 that for a total height of 1 mm, reducing the layer height h leads to a consequent increase in the number of extruded layers per millimeter, and therefore, contributing to a multiplied increase in the total length of l, which explained the results in Fig. 27.2 where the leakage flow rate Q reduced to zero as the layer height h decreased.

Fig. 27.5 Leak mechanism through various layer heights h of a 0.35 mm, b 0.25 mm, and c 0.15 mm

Fig. 27.6 Leak mechanism through various wall thickness w of a 0.8 mm, b 1.6 mm, and c 2.4 mm

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27.3.2 Influence of Wall Thickness From Fig. 27.3, it can be observed that generally, an increase in wall thickness w reduces the value of leakage flow rate Q linearly. In other words, a zero leakage flow rate (Q = 0 ml/s) can be achieved at a certain value of wall thickness w depending on the values of layer height h and water temperature T. Specifically, for w = 0.8 mm, Q = 0 ml/s was achieved when h = 0.15 mm regardless of T. On the other hand, when w = 2.4 mm and h = 0.35 mm, a perfect water retention where Q = 0 ml/s cannot be achieved even for water at room temperature (25 °C). In FDM 3D printing, the fabricated wall of the water vessel is not solid as that of injection moulding, due to the fact that the maximum wall thickness is limited to the nozzle diameter d n . For the wall thickness w that is larger than the nozzle diameter d n , the vessel’s wall must be printed using multiple layers horizontally. As a result of the inter-layer temperature difference, air pockets or pores existed between the layers [26], as shown in Fig. 27.6. The number of air pockets can be calculated by: n air = w/dn − 1

(27.4)

In this study, for wall thicknesses of 0.8, 1.6, and 2.4 mm, the number of air pockets are 1, 3, and 5, respectively. For the water to leak through the vessel’s wall, it must seep through one or more air pockets. Each air pocket acts as a water sack that traps the seeped water through the layers. Once the air pockets filled with water, it functions as a water barrier that gradually reduces the bulk velocity of water to zero. Such velocity reduction is due to the friction [27] with the solid boundary of the air pockets in a non-slip condition, in addition to the molecular attraction between water and PLA molecules that caused the kinetic energy to disperse.

27.3.3 Influence of Water Temperature Figure 27.4 shows that the leakage flow rate Q increases when the water temperature T increases. Such trend is similar with the changes of Q with h as shown in Fig. 27.2, albeit different magnitude of influence. For water at room temperature T = 25 °C, water leakage from the 3D printed water vessel has successfully been prevented, except for h = 0.35 mm. In other words, it is feasible to control the leakage when h = 0.35 mm is used regardless of water temperature T. On the contrary, it is observed that water at 100 °C is more difficult to be contained completely. The changes of leakage flow rate Q with water temperature T can easily be understood by looking at the fundamental properties of water molecules. Higher temperature means a higher internal energy that agitates the water molecules. In such agitated condition, the mass flux of water increases and thus, contributes to a relatively high dynamic motion. In the same time, the heat energy from water is also being absorbed

320

M. N. F. Saniman et al.

by the PLA material which possibly softens the polymeric chain [28] and thus, weakens the inter-layer bonding on the wall.

27.3.4 Quantitative Contribution of Affecting Factors In this study, the qualitative influences of the layer height h, wall thickness w, and water temperature T to the volumetric leakage flow rate Q of 3D printed water vessels could be observed in Figs. 27.2, 27.3, and 27.4. Nevertheless, the quantitative magnitude of influence by each factor is vital in order to efficiently control the involved parameters so that the desired water retention could be achieved. To do so, regression analysis has been conducted. Based on Table 27.2, it can be observed that the layer height is overwhelmingly influencing the leakage flow rate, which is expected to overshadow the influence of wall thickness and water temperature. Thus, in the regression analysis, in addition to the first order term for all parameters, a second order term for the layer height is also included. Using multiple linear regression analysis, the regression equation is given by: Q = −7.63h + 35.83h 2 − 0.527w + 0.01653T

(27.5)

With the R2 value of 81.27%, these regression models have a good fit to the experimental data, which means that the changes in leakage flow rate due to layer height, wall thickness, and water temperature could be predicted with a relatively high accuracy. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the regression model is given by Table 27.3. As expected, the highest influencing parameter towards the leakage flow rate is the layer height h, which contributed 58.01% of total variation, followed by the wall thickness w and water temperature T with the contribution of 19.58% and 3.68%, respectively. It is also observed in Table 27.3 that the P values of all parameters are less than α = 0.05. This indicates that the layer height h, wall thickness w and water temperature T are statistically significant to influence the leakage flow rate, even though the Table 27.3 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for multilinear regression model Source

DF

Seq SS

Regression

4

71.583

H

1

41.441

W

1

T

1

h2

Contribution (%)

Adj SS

Adj MS

F-Value

P-Value

81.27

71.583

17.8956

44.46

0

47.05

2.485

2.4849

6.17

0.017

17.246

19.58

5.543

5.5425

13.77

0.001

3.24

3.68

9.199

9.1994

22.86

0

1

9.655

10.96

9.655

9.6553

23.99

0

Error

41

16.502

18.73

16.502

0.4025

Total

45

88.085

100.00

27 Water Retention Properties of a Fused Deposition …

321

magnitude of influence are different. In other words, the layer height provides a rough control while wall thickness and water temperature provide a precise control on the leakage flow rate. Therefore, in designing a FDM 3D printed water vessel, the layer height must be defined first while the water temperature becomes a minor concern. In a case where low Q is expected, low value of h could be selected regardless of water temperature. Nevertheless, the regression model given by Eq. (27.5) consists of 18.73% of error and experimental validations is expected to be conducted in the future.

27.4 Conclusion In this study, the water retention properties of FDM 3D printed water vessels had been investigated. The influence of the layer height, wall thickness, and water temperature to the volumetric leakage flow rate were obtained experimentally. Generally, low value of layer heigh, high value of wall thickness, and low value of water temperature resulted in a low value of leakage flow rate, and vice versa. It had become apparent through the multilinear regression analysis that layer thickness had the greatest influence on the leakage flow rate, followed by the wall thickness and water temperature. With approximately 50% of variance, the layer height could be used to roughly control the leakage flow rate while the wall thickness and water temperature are suitable for fine control. Such results provide evidence that water retention properties could be optimized depending on the expected value of leakage flow rate and the purpose of 3D printed objects. It is expected in the near future that further investigations could be conducted on various printing parameter related to the mesostructured of the wall such as the infill density, infill pattern, and infill orientation. Moreover, since the current study was conducted at atmosphere pressure, investigation at high pressure is of interest especially for the fabrication of 3D printed pressure vessels. Acknowledgements Financial aid under Short Term Research Grant (STRG: str19015) and facilities provided by Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UniKL) is acknowledged and very much appreciated.

References 1. Romanov V, Samuel R, Chaharlang M et al (2018) FDM 3D printing of high-pressure, heatresistant, transparent microfluidic devices. Anal Chem 90:10450–10456 2. Stansbury JW, Idacavage MJ (2016) 3D printing with polymers: challenges among expanding options and opportunities. Dent Mater 32:54–64 3. Raheja K, Jain A, Sharma C et al (2021) Comparative study of tribological parameters of 3D printed ABS and PLA materials. In: Singari RM, Mathiyazhagan K, Kumar H (eds) Advances in manufacturing and industrial engineering. Springer, Singapore, pp 95–108

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4. Brenken B, Barocio E, Favaloro A et al (2018) Fused filament fabrication of fiber-reinforced polymers: a review. Addit Manuf 21:1–16 5. Swartzmiller SG (2019) Development of a fused deposition 3D printed buoy and method for quantifying wave tank reflections. Open access master’s thesis, Michigan Technological University, Michigan, pp 8–12 6. Shahrubudin N, Lee TC, Ramlan R (2019) An overview on 3D printing technology: technological, materials, and applications. Procedia Manuf 35:1286–1296 7. Instructables (2018) 3D printing: make water tight and air tight containers. Instructables. https:// www.instructables.com/3D-Printing-Make-Water-Tight-and-Air-Tight-Contain/. Accessed 11 Dec 2020 8. Morales-Planas S, Minguella-Canela J, Lluma-Fuentes J et al (2018) Multi jet fusion PA12 manufacturing parameters for watertightness, strength and tolerances. Materials 11:1472 9. Harris M, Potgieter J, Archer R et al (2019) Effect of material and process specific factors on the strength of printed parts in fused filament fabrication: a review of recent developments. Materials 12:1664 10. Loflin WA, English JD, Borders C et al (2019) Effect of print layer height on the assessment of 3D-printed models. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 156:283–289 11. Naik TP, Rana RS, Mishra RR et al (2021) Parametric optimization of FDM process for fabricating high-strength PLA parts. Advances in engineering design. Springer, Singapore, pp 15–22 12. Aslani K-E, Chaidas D, Kechagias J et al (2020) Quality performance evaluation of thin walled PLA 3D printed parts using the taguchi method and grey relational analysis. J Manuf Mater Processing 4:47 13. Wagner N, Handayani D, Okhuysen V et al (2020) Mechanical testing of 3D printed materials. In: TMS 2020 149th annual meeting and exhibition supplemental proceedings. Minerals, metals & materials series, pp 153–163 14. Travieso-Rodriguez JA, Jerez-Mesa R, Llumà J et al (2019) Mechanical properties of 3Dprinting polylactic acid parts subjected to bending stress and fatigue testing. Materials 12:3859 15. Afonso JA, Alves JL, Caldas G et al (2021) Influence of 3D printing process parameters on the mechanical properties and mass of PLA parts and predictive models. Rapid Prototyp J 27:487–495 16. Saniman MNF, M Hashim MH, Mohammad KA et al (2020) Tensile characteristics of low density infill patterns for mass reduction of 3D printed polylactic parts. Int J Automot Mech Eng 17:7927–7934 17. Srinivasan R, Ruban W, Deepanraj A et al (2020) Effect on infill density on mechanical properties of PETG part fabricated by fused deposition modelling. Mater Today Proc 27:1838–1842 18. Akhoundi B, Nabipour M, Hajami F et al (2020) An experimental study of nozzle temperature and heat treatment (annealing) effects on mechanical properties of high-temperature polylactic acid in fused deposition modeling. Polym Eng Sci 60:979–987 19. Wang J, Xiang J, Lin H et al (2020) Effects of scanning strategy and printing temperature on the compressive behaviors of 3D printed polyamide-based composites. Polym 12:1783 20. Tan YH, Chen BM (2020) A lightweight waterproof casing for an aquatic UAV using rapid prototyping. In: 2020 international conference on unmanned aircraft systems (ICUAS). IEEE, pp 1154–1161 21. Sadr-Al-Sadati SA, Jalili Ghazizadeh M (2019) The experimental and numerical study of water leakage from high-density polyethylene pipes at elevated temperatures. Polym Test 74:274–280 22. Song Y, Yang Z, Liu Y et al (2018) Function representation based slicer for 3D printing. Comput Aided Geom Des 62:276–293 23. Singhvi MS, Zinjarde SS, Gokhale DV (2019) Polylactic acid: synthesis and biomedical applications. J Appl Microbiol 127:1612–1626 24. Munson BR, Young DF, Okiishi TH et al (2009) Fundamentals of fluid mechanics, 6th edn. Wiley, New York

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25. Zhang J, Yu H, Wang MJ et al (2019) Experimental study on the flow and thermal characteristics of two-phase leakage through micro crack. Appl Therm Eng 156:145–155 26. Zhu Z, Majewski C (2020) Understanding pore formation and the effect on mechanical properties of high speed sintered polyamide-12 parts: a focus on energy input. Mater Des 194:108937 27. Adedeji K, Hamam Y, Abe B et al (2017) Leakage detection and estimation algorithm for loss reduction in water piping networks. Water 9:773 28. Yelamanchi B, Mummareddy B, Santiago CC et al (2021) Mechanical and fatigue performance of pressurized vessels fabricated with multi jet fusion™ for automotive applications. Addit Manuf 44:102048

Chapter 28

The Effect of Compaction Pressure and Sintering Temperature on the Properties of Sayong Ball Clay Membranes Maisarah Mohamed Bazin and Norhayati Ahmad Abstract In this study, Sayong ball clay was used as a main material for the fabrication of low-cost ceramic membranes. A micro-filtration ceramic membrane was fabricated from a mixture of Sayong ball clay and starch. Starch with 30 wt% was added to the ball clay to act as a pore former. The effect of compaction pressures and sintering temperature on the properties of the membrane was studied. Compaction pressures of 50 and 200 MPa and sintering temperatures ranging from 900 to 1100 °C were chosen. It was found that the apparent porosity and shrinkage reduced, while the bulk density and strength increased when the compaction pressure increased. On the other hand, the apparent porosity decreased when the sintering temperature increased, while the bulk density, shrinkage, and strength increased when the sintering temperature is increased. The compaction pressure of 200 MPa and sintering temperature of 1000 °C were considered as optimum conditions for the membranes with bulk density of 1.51 g/cm3 , apparent porosity of 31%, and flexural strength of 2.3 MPa. The results have shown that Sayong ball clay can be a potential material to formulate low-cost membranes at optimum fabrication parameters. Keywords Ceramic membrane · Compaction pressure · Sintering temperature · Porosity · Clay

M. M. Bazin (B) Mechanical Engineering Section, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France Institute, Section 14, Jalan Teras Jernang, 43650 Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. Ahmad Department of Materials, Manufacturing and Industrial Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Ismail et al. (eds.), Advanced Maritime Technologies and Applications, Advanced Structured Materials 166, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_28

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28.1 Introduction Wastewater treatment is important to allow the disposal of human and industrial effluents without human health hazards and damage to the natural environment. The wastewater must undergo some degree of treatment before it can be re-used as water supply in agriculture or aquaculture and others. According to Belibi et al. [1], the problem associated with conventional methods is the lack of removal efficiencies. Furthermore, secondary contamination may occur from concentrated sludge and pollutants that also represent a subject of concern when utilizing these conventional techniques. Recently, membrane technologies have become a promising alternative in wastewater treatment due to their efficiency. Even though organic membranes have been developed rapidly, ceramic membranes have always been an option in certain applications, such as in high-temperature application and harsh environment due to their excellent properties, such as thermal stability, good chemical resistance, high separation efficiency, and high pressure resistance [1–4]. The emergence of new types of ceramic materials and simple fabrication techniques may lead to the preparation of low-cost membranes. The applications of alumina-based ceramic membranes are limited due to high cost and high sintering temperature during fabrication. Therefore, the natural clay-based low-cost ceramic membranes would be an attractive alternative. Several works have been done to investigate the potential of natural clay as a ceramic membrane material [5–13]. Budi et al. [14] have studied the effect of temperature and additive coconut shell charcoal on density and porosity of ceramic membranes based on zeolite and clay. They found that more pores are generated with rising temperature and high amount of additives contained in the membrane. On the other hand, Yoleva et al. [15] prepared and characterized ceramic membranes containing halloysite clay, limestone, and waste diatomite by dry pressing at 50 MPa and sintering at 1100 °C. They found that the addition of waste diatomite greatly enhanced the water absorption and the apparent porosity but at the same time reduced the apparent density and the mechanical bending strength of the ceramic membranes. Sayong ball clay is one type of ball clay that is abundant in Sayong, Perak, Malaysia. This type of clay is mainly used in fabrication of Labu Sayong, which is one of Malaysia’s traditional craft heritages. To date, there are only few papers on ball clay as a membrane material that have been published [16–18]. Sayong ball clay is a low-cost ceramic material that has not been commercialized yet in other areas. Therefore, the porous structure of ball clay makes it suitable as a membrane material. The properties of the membrane can be controlled by optimizing their fabrication process, such as compaction pressure and sintering temperature. Barma and Mandal [19] found that the flexural strength of the alumina membrane was influenced greatly by both sintering temperature and compaction load. Therefore, it is important to understand the main variable that can be controlled to produce a good ceramic membrane. The objective of this work is to identify the optimum fabrication parameters (compaction pressure and sintering temperature) to produce the ceramic membranes from the Sayong ball clay.

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327

Table 28.1 Chemical composition of Sayong ball clay [20] Component

SiO2

Al2 O3

Fe2 O3

K2 O

MgO

Na2 O

CaO

TiO2

Others

Ball clay (wt %)

51.28

23.78

0.46

1.34

1.48

2.07

0.81

0.36

18.42

28.2 Methodology The material used in this work is Sayong ball clay from Perak, Malaysia. Table 28.1 shows the chemical composition of the ball clay characterized by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) using a Philip PW2400 spectrometer. The raw ball clay contains mainly silica and alumina [20]. The ball clay powder was sieved in a 150 μm standard mesh screen size to get a uniform particle size. Corn starch (Glow-San Sdn. Bhd.) with 30 wt% was added to the clay as a pore former. Experiments were done using the as-received starch without any subsequent processing. The mixture powder was milled using a stirrer machine (IKA RW 20), with an addition of ethanol as a medium for 1 h at 1300 rpm. The slurry was then dried in an oven for 24 h. The dry powder was sieved again to get homogeneous powder particles. The mixture powder with an addition of glycerol as a binder was pressed in a stainless steel mold under the pressure of 50 and 200 MPa, with 10 min holding time using a universal testing machine (Instron 600 DX) to form a 80 mm × 30 mm × 6.5 mm (length × width × height) rectangular bar. Then, the green bodies were sintered at the desired temperature (900–1100 °C) for 2 h with a heating and cooling rate of 10 °C/min. The bulk density and the apparent porosity of the membranes were measured according to the Archimedes’ principle, with an immersion medium of distilled water, following the ASTM C373-88 standard. Shrinkage of the membrane was calculated by the thickness measurements before and after the sintering process. The surface morphology of the sintered clay membrane at different corn starch weight percentages was analyzed using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM: Zeiss Supra 35VP). A three-point bending strength measurement was done on the rectangular bars (80 mm × 30 mm × 6.5 mm) using a universal testing machine (Instron 5982) according to ASTM C-1161-02c. A span of 40 mm and crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/min were used. Five specimens were used to obtain the average values.

28.3 Results and Discussion The effect of compaction pressures and sintering temperatures on the apparent porosity of the membranes is shown in Fig. 28.1. The plotted graph shows that the apparent porosity for the membrane at the compaction pressure of 50 MPa is higher than for 200 MPa. At higher pressure, the particles are forced to become closer to each other and the finer particles are forced to fill the voids between the coarser particles. The chances for the finer particles to fill the voids are greater with

Fig. 28.1 Effect of pressure and sintering temperature on the apparent porosity of ball clay membranes

M. M. Bazin and N. Ahmad

Apparent porosity, %

328

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

50 MPa 200 MPa 900

950 1000 1050 Temperature, OC

1100

higher compaction pressure. During sintering, the starch will evaporate and leave pores in the membrane structures. Therefore, the porosity will come from the voids and will remain during the compaction process and starch evaporation during the sintering process. According to Emani et al. [21], high compaction pressure reduces the porosity because of the arrangement of the particles in the porous texture. On the other hand, the sintering temperature has strongly affected the apparent porosity of the membranes. Overall, the apparent porosity decreases with increasing sintering temperature (Fig. 28.1). For 50 MPa, the porosity slightly increased from 46 to 49% at temperatures of 900–1000 °C. The formation of open pores may increase the porosity. Then the porosity reduces rapidly from 49 to 16% at sintering temperatures of 1000–1100 °C. However, for 200 MPa, the porosity continues to decrease from 40 to 4.9% at temperatures of 900–1000 °C. The decrease in porosity is due to the densification of the porous structure during sintering and thus allows for an increase in structural density. Above 1000 °C, a more glassy viscous phase is present. The viscous phase will penetrate and close the pores and finally isolating the nearby pores. The pores become closer together due to liquid surface tension and the capillary effect which reduce the porosity [22]. Figure 28.2 shows the bulk density of membranes at different compaction pressures and sintering temperatures. The bulk density of the membranes increases with increasing compaction pressure. This result is in good agreement with Mosadeghkhah et al. [23]. Membranes compacted at 200 MPa produce higher bulk density than for 50 MPa. This is because of the high contact points between powder particles at higher pressure that leads to a better crystal growth during sintering. Membranes with high density will have low porosity and high strength. Moreover, the bulk density of the membranes increased proportionally with the sintering temperature. In the first temperature range (900–1000 °C), the densification was very slow. This may be due to the weight loss during the sintering process. In the second temperature interval, the density increased abruptly from 1.52 to 2.01 g/cm3 . Most of the densification process occurred at this interval. The temperature boundary between the first and second interval (~1000 °C) may be regarded as the glass transition temperature, T g .

28 The Effect of Compaction Pressure and Sintering Temperature … 2.0 50 MPa 200 MPa

1.9 Bulk density, g/cm 3

Fig. 28.2 Effect of compaction pressure and sintering temperature on the bulk density of membranes

329

1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 900

950

1000

1050

1100

Temperature,OC

Above this temperature, plastic deformation of glass materials is caused by viscous flow. The presence of flux materials (K2 O, Na2 O, and Fe2 O3 ) leads to the formation of a glassy viscous phase and facilitates the densification process. As has been discussed, the decrease in porosity leads to the increase of density [23, 24]. Others have found similar findings [25–27]. The variation of shrinkage at different compaction pressures and sintering temperatures is shown in Fig. 28.3. The shrinkage is higher at 50 MPa than for 200 MPa. Lower compaction pressure provides more space between the individual particles. The particles packing leads to plastic deformation when the particles slide over each other to fill the residual pores thereby contribute to shrinkage. At 200 MPa, only small molar volume change occurs during the sintering process. Therefore, less displacement occurs. In addition, shrinkage increased with increasing sintering temperature. The increase in shrinkage was attributed to the evaporation of binder, moisture, and the densification. Theoretically, the volume of sintering shrinkage is equal to the pore volume eliminated [28]. The shrinkage has reduced the pore surface and pore volume, and increased the density. The excessiveness of shrinkage will cause deformation of particles during sintering process.

9

50 MPa 200 MPa

8

Shrinkage, %

Fig. 28.3 Shrinkage of ball clay membranes at 50 and 200 MPa pressures at different sintering temperatures

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 900

950 1000 1050 Temperature, °C

1100

330

M. M. Bazin and N. Ahmad

Fig. 28.4 FESEM of the ball clay membranes at different pressures and sintering temperatures a 50 MPa, 900 °C; b 50 MPa, 1100 °C; c 200 MPa, 900 °C; d 200 MPa, 1100 °C

Morphological analysis was done to further understand the effect of compaction pressure and sintering temperature on membrane properties. Figure 28.4 shows the FESEM of the membrane cross section at different sintering temperatures for the compaction pressure of 50 and 200 MPa, respectively. The sintering starts earlier for membranes compacted with 50 MPa compared to the 200 MPa. The number of pores reduced at higher compaction pressure (200 MPa) shows that the porosity is decreased. According to Mosadeghkhah et al. [23], the membrane continuity reduced at high compaction pressure. However, at 1100 °C, the pores are more obvious for 200 MPa than for 50 MPa compacted membrane. These pores may be regarded as closed pores, which reduced the density of membranes compacted at 200 MPa at 1100 °C (Fig. 28.2). Nevertheless, the porosity is not affected by the presence of closed pores. The sintering temperature has the most obvious effect on the microstructure analysis, whereby all the membranes showed a rough morphological structure. At lower sintering temperature (