A History of Journalism in China [1 ed.] 9789814332859, 9789814332262

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This series provides a comprehensive history of journalism in China. It chronicles two millennia of journalistic history from the 2nd century BC to the 1990s, and includes coverage of newspapers, periodicals, news agencies, broadcast television, photography, documentary film, journal cartoons, journal education, as well as information about reporters, journalists, and other aspects of journalism. Volume 2 discusses the development of Chinese journalism from the tumultuous days of the late Qing Dynasty (1895–1911) to the Hundred Days’ Reform and up to the early rumblings of the 1911 Revolution. This book also traces the evolution of the media as a tool for spreading political propaganda by looking at the power struggles of bourgeois reformists and revolutionists against the backdrop of the Qing Empire.

Fang Hanqi is a Professor, Doctoral and Graduate Supervisor of the Journalism School at the Renmin University of China, Counselor of the Journalism and Social Development Research Center, and Director of the Academic Committee of the Renmin University of China. He has been appointed a member of the Editorial Board of the “Encyclopedia of China • Press and Publication,” Editor of the “Chinese Journalism” section of the Encyclopedia, and President of the Chinese Association for History of Journalism and Mass Communication.

Chinese Historical Studies

Edited by Fang Hanqi

EDITOR IN CHIEF

JOURNALISM IN CHINA Volume 2

Volume 2

260 mm

A History of Journalism in China Volume 2

A HISTORY OF JOURNALISM IN CHINA

Examines the Development of Journalism in China from the Pre-Qin Period to the Modern Age

A HISTORY OF

Edited by Fang Hanqi

102mm

A History of Journalism in China

A HISTORY OF JOURNALISM IN CHINA 2 Volume

Edited by Fang Hanqi

Published by Enrich Professional Publishing (S) Private Limited 16L, Enterprise Road, Singapore 627660

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English edition © 2014 by Enrich Professional Publishing (S) Private Limited Chinese original edition © 2004 China Renmin University Press Translated by Vivien Lee Edited by Glenn Griffith and Vivien Lee All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage

and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without prior written permission from the Publisher.

ISBN (Hardback)

978-981-4332-26-2



978-981-4332-86-6 (epub)

ISBN (ebook)

978-981-4332-85-9 (pdf)

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to

the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged

in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional service. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Printed in Hong Kong with woodfree paper from Japan

Editorial Board (Chinese Edition) Editor-in-Chief Fang Hanqi Vice Editors-in-Chief Ning Shufan Chen Yeshao Editors Fang Hanqi

Ding Ganlin

Sun Wenshuo

Ning Shufan

Wei Yuanli

Yu Huanchun

Chen Yeshao

Yang Zhaolin

He Bingran

Zhao Yuming

Contributors (in alphabetical order) Bai Runsheng

Huang Hu

Wang Fengchao

Zhang Tao

Chen Yeshao

Jiang Hanzhen

Wang Hongxiang

Zhang Zhihua

Cui Qi

Jin Yaoyun

Wang Meizhi

Zhao Yuming

Ding Ganlin

Lei Yuping

Wei Yuanli

Zhong Zi

Fang Hanqi

Li Ruigang

Xia Xiaolin

Zhu Junzhou

Gao Guangang

Li Siyi

Xie Guoming

Gao Ning

Liang Honghao

Xie Jun

Gao Weijin

Ma Guangren

Yan Huanshu

Ge Sien

Ma Yunzeng

Yang Runshi

Gu Bingxiang

Mu Jiaheng

Yang Zhaolin

Gu Changling

Ning Shufan

Yao Fushen

Guo Zhenzhi

Qin Shaode

Yin Yungong

He Bingran

Sun Wenshuo

Yu Huanchun

Hu Taichun

Sun Xiaoyang

Yu Jiaqing

Hu Zhihuan

Sun Xupei

Zhang Shaozong

Contents Chapter 4

.Journalism during the Reform Period................................................... 1

Chapter 5

.Journalism during the Brewing of Revolution................................... 41

Notes................................................................................................................................ 143 Index................................................................................................................................ 145

4

Chapter

Journalism during the Reform Period

A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 2

During the 1890s, reforms initiated by the bourgeoisie reached their peak. Many

newspapers emerged. According to statistics, during 1895 to 1898, there were around 120 newspapers, magazines, and journals published in China, of which

80% were published by Chinese. Publications of the reformers and affiliated social parties were the most prevalent and influential. They were published in many cities and helped to promote reform. They represented public opinion. Foreign newspapers no longer had the edge in China’s publishing.

The Three Newspapers of Kang Youwei’s Society for the Study of National Strengthening The First Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1884. The Qing government suffered

a shattering defeat. In April 1885, the government was forced to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki with Japan. The Treaty stipulated that China cede Liaodong Peninsula and Taiwan to Japan and pay a war indemnity of 200 million taels of silver. China was at risk to be carved out by other imperial powers. Kang Youwei, as the representative figure of the bourgeoisie, led the Gongche Shangshu Movement 公 車 上 書 , which marked the beginning of the reformist activities. Newspapers and organizations were set up to accelerate the reform process.

Kang Youwei founds The Globe Newspaper Kang Youwei (1858–1927) was born in Nanhai District, Guangdong Province.

His family had been government officials for generations. Like his family, Kang

received traditional formal education and had abundant literary knowledge. He was most deeply influenced by the newspaper A Review of the Times (Wanguo

gongbao 萬國公報 ) founded by a foreign reverend. In 1888, the 30 year-old Kang sat the Shuntian central examination in Beijing. He was not selected. Depressed, he returned to Nanhai and wrote the First Letter to the Qing Emperor . He proposed reform and advised the Emperor to improve communication with the public and be cautious of morally inferior people. In 1891, Kang started giving classes in Chang Xing House (Changxing xueshe 長興學舍 ) and later in Wan Mu Cottage (Wanmu caotang 萬木草堂 ) in Guangzhou. Around 1,000 students enrolled in seven years. Most of them became the backbone of the reform movement. Liang Qichao, Xu Qing, Mai Menghua, He Shuling, Ou Jujia, Han Wenju, Chen Jiyan, Luo Xiaogao, Wang Jueren, Wu Xianzi, and Liang Boming became representative reformers in the newspaper industry.

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In early 1895, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao sat the central examination in Beijing together. Around 1,300 Juren 1 joined them in the Gongche Shangshu Movement by signing a petition. Although the petition was not handed to Emperor Guangxu, it symbolized the first large-scale patriotic movement initiated and led by the reformers. It also marked the beginning of reform. Shortly after the Gongche Shangshu Movement, Kang was awarded the title of Jinshi 2 and assigned as Manager of the Ministry of Works. He handed in the Third Letter to the Qing Emperor and the Fourth Letter to the Qing Emperor . Apart from reform, self-strengthening movements, and setting up a common council, he proposed opening newspaper offices to collect public opinion. In June 1985, Kang and Liang discussed the founding of organizations and newspapers. Kang believed that “self-strengthening was essential to saving the country. People should be open-minded and talents should work together.” Liang Qichao agreed: “A newspaper office shall be set up if we want to assemble talents. Discussion in the newspaper can mark an impression in people’s mind. Their mind would be broadened.” On August 17, 1895, the first reformist newspaper — The Globe Newspaper (Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 ) — was published in Beijing. The Globe Newspaper was named after the influential A Review of the Times (Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 ),3 which had been circulating among the Qing government officials. It was published every other day. Its format was similar to the Beijing Newspaper (Jing bao 京報 ).4 Each issue was numbered but without the date of publication. At first, the expense of The Globe Newspaper was solely born by Kang. The newspaper was edited by Liang Qichao and Mai Menghua. A commentary was published in each issue. Longer commentaries were published in consecutive issues. The commentaries were adopted from the publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese. Editorials were uncredited. Articles published included “Complete Map of the Myriad Countries of the Globe,” “Study on Trade Environment,” “Mining of the Myriad Countries,” “Schools around the World,” “Schools,” “Railways,” “Trade and Railways,” “Encyclopedia of Railway Engineering,” “The Charter and Value of Post Offices of the Myriad Countries,” “Fishing to Support the People’s Lives,” “Theories of Agriculture,” “Minting,” “The Military System of the West,” and “Newspaper Offices.” The variety of articles included topics on industry, agriculture, commerce, academic issues, the military, etc. The paper echoed the reform ideology of Kang: The prosperity of a country relied on its industries; the success of industries depended on education; education was given at schools; a proper schooling system was why Western countries flourish.

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When The Globe Newspaper was published, lead-free printing was not

available. It was printed at the Beijing Newspaper ’s printing office using

woodblock printing and delivered free-of-charge to government officials by the

Beijing Newspaper’s staff . After one month, 3,000 copies of The Globe Newspaper were printed. The publication of The Globe Newspaper generated fierce opposition. At first, the readers thought that it was a foreign newspaper or the official newspaper of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. When they knew that it was published by Kang, the conservative started to make false accusations. Nevertheless, the newspaper was popular among scholar-officials. As Kang said, “The reception of the newspaper improved after two months. At first, readers were surprised, but later they begin to understand the reform ideologies. Every day, I have discussion with scholar-officials and explain why organizations are assembled. More and more people are starting to understand.”5 The Globe Newspaper lasted for three months and 45 issues were published.6

The Society for the Study of National Strengthening in Beijing and the World Bulletin Inspired by The Globe Newspaper and Kang Youwei, some open-minded government officials and scholars established the Society for the Study of

National Strengthening in Beijing in mid-November 1895. Apart from reformers such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and Mai Menghua, its members included

government officials Chen Chi, Wen Tingshi, Shen Zengzhi, Shen Zengtong, Ding Lijun, Yuan Shikai, Wang Yuanpeng, Zhang Xiaoqian, Xu Shichang, Zhang Quan, Yang Rui, etc. Government officials who supported the Society included the Emperor’s supporters Wong Tongxie, Sun Jiading, Li Hongzao, and Zhang

Yinheng; governors Wang Wenshao, Liu Kunyi, and Zhang Zhidong; American

missionaries Timothy Richard and Gilbert Reid; and the British Ambassador Nicholas Roderick O’Conor. Chen was proposed to be the President and Liang

the Secretary. Kang, as the organizer, drafted the constitution. But it was not passed even after many discussions.

The Society renamed The Globe Newspaper to the World Bulletin (Zhongwai

jiwen 中 外 紀 聞 ). As the official Society newspaper, the World Bulletin made reporting its main aim. It was published on December 16, 1895. Kang personally “wrote the name” of the newspaper, and Liang and Wang were the chief editors (Mai Menghua was purchasing books for the Society under the order of Kang).

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Journalism during the Reform Period

The World Bulletin was published every other day. Sort typesetting was used to print the newspaper on bamboo paper. Each unnumbered issue was printed with the date of publication and had about 10 pages. They were sold at the Housun Park outside Xuanwu Gate.

The World Bulletin In the past, journalism historians only talked about the World Bulletin but not The Globe Newspaper because the former evolved from the latter, and the Chinese names of The Globe Newspaper and A Review of the Times were the same. It could get confusing. In fact, the World Bulletin and The Globe Newspaper were very different: First, when The Globe Newspaper was published, the Society for the Study of National Strengthening had not yet been established. It was not an official newspaper. On the contrary, the World Bulletin was an official newspaper of the Society. Second, The Globe Newspaper did not report news and only contained a commentary, but the World Bulletin did both. On January 20, 1896, Emperor Guangxu dissolved the Society in Beijing under the pressure from government officials who opposed reform. The World Bulletin also closed down. On January 29, the Society bookstore was taken and changed into the official government bookstore managed by Chamber Secretary Sun Jiading, publishing The Official Bookstore Post (Guanshuju bao 官 書 局 報 ) and The Official Bookstore Report (Guanshuju huibao 官 書 局 匯 報 ). The World Bulletin only lasted one month and five days. The last issue now preserved was published on January 16, 1896.

The Society for the Study of National Strengthening in Shanghai and the Self-Strengthening Journal In October 1895, The Globe Newspaper and the activities of the Society for the Study of National Strengthening in Beijing provoked the government officials who opposed reform. Chamber Secretaries Xu Tong and Censor Zhu Chengbo were planning to impeach Kang Youwei. Someone warned Kang and urged him to leave Beijing. Considering that the Society in Beijing had taken its shape and it would help to develop the Society in southern China, Kang fled Beijing on October 17 and went to Nanjing to persuade the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei Provinces Zhang Zhidong. During his stay of more than 20 days, he talked to Zhang many times. Zhang finally permitted him to set up the Society for the

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Study of National Strengthening in Shanghai and Guangzhou. Zhang donated 1,500 taels of silver to the Society. The reasons why Kang chose Shanghai and Guangzhou were that, since the Opium Wars, the two places had been where the bourgeoisie were most concentrated and where cultural and publishing industries were most developed. The first issue of the Self-Strengthening Journal (Qiangxue bao 強 學 報 ) was published on January 12, 1896 in Shanghai. It was the official newspaper of the Shanghai branch of the Society. It aimed to recruit talent, protect the land, promote reform, educate readers, tackle corruption, and report the ordeals of the public. Xu Qin and He Shuling — Kang Youwei’s students — were chief editors. It was published every four days using lead typesetting. The newspaper used bamboo paper, which was bound together. The page count varied. While Zhang donated money to the Society, he did not support the publication of the Self-Strengthening Journal . He did not agree with Kang’s Confucian reform ideologies. He even asked his crony Liang Dingfen to dissuade Kang. Kang was exasperated and would not compromise. Later, when the publication date of the Journal adopted the Confucian calendar,7 Zhang suspected that Kang had an ulterior motive in using Confucian ideologies in reform. He demanded the Confucian calendar not be used and planned on reforming the Journal. The Self-Strengthening Journal only lasted 14 days, from January 12 to January15, 1896. Only two of the three issues were preserved. Although the Society for the Study of National Strengthening was smothered in both Beijing and Shanghai by those who opposed reform and those who believed in Westernization, its influence was strong: First, the establishment of the Society symbolized the beginning of reform which had been brewing for decades. Reform activities evolved from the enlightenment of the mind to organized mass political movements at the official level. It was the first political party in Chinese history. Second, the publication of the three newspapers of the reformers in the bourgeoisie was a huge breakthrough from the imperial restriction of speech. Third, setting up organizations and newspapers provided training in planning political activities and using media as a channel for promoting reform ideologies. The members acquired experience which could be used in future political campaigns or activities.

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Journalism during the Reform Period

Liang Qichao and The Chinese Progress of the Society for the Study of National Strengthening The rise of the Hundred Days’ Reform and the founding of The Chinese Progress It had been less than a year between the First Sino-Japanese War and the closingdown of the Society for the Study of National Strengthening, but the political situation had changed dramatically. First, there was the Gongche Shangshu Movement, which stirred up the emotions of many people. The idea of reforming China was popular among higher-up government officials and scholarofficials. Even the most trusted master of Emperor Guangxu, Wong Tongxie, supported reform. The Emperor could feel the national humiliation. In society, new organizations and newspapers were founded. Although they could garner support and donations from some government officials at first, anti-reformist officials took action to curb their development. In a few months’ time, the World Bulletin and the Self-Strengthening Journal were banned. Many reformers were angry but not deterred. They planned to rise again. It was how The Chinese Progress emerged. Preparations for The Chinese Progress began in spring 1896. Huang Zunxian led the group and Kang Youwei supervised the preparations from Guangdong Province. Liang Qichao arrived in Shanghai in April to join Huang Zunxian, Wu Dexiao, Zou Linghan, and Wang Kangnian. Together, they founded The Chinese Progress , which was an important official newspaper of the Society for the Study of National Strengthening. On August 9, 1896, the first issue of The Chinese Progress was published. Wang was the manager of both internal and external affairs. Liang was the chief writer and reporter. A new issue was published every 10 days. Each issue consisted of 32 pages, around 30,000 words. On the front page were political commentaries, accounting for 3,000–4,000 words. The newspaper was printed on Lianshi paper using lithography. The newspaper office was in the British concession in Shanghai.

Liang Qichao and The Chinese Progress Liang Qichao (1873–1929) was awarded the title of Juren at 17 and sat the central examination in Beijing at 18. He did not pass the examination and hence returned home. During his return, he came across A Short Account of the Maritime Circuit

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A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 2

(Yinghuan zhi lüe 瀛環志略 ) and the translated books published by the Jiannan Arsenal. He realized that China was only a small part of the world. Back in Guangzhou, Chen Qianchou recommended him to be a private student of Kang Youwei’s. In the following year, he studied at Kang’s Wanmu Cottage. He valued his time there so much that he commented, “My classmates and I study Kang Youwei’s lecture notes every day. This is the most important year of my life in terms of the quest of knowledge.” He felt the national grief and humiliation of the defeat of the First SinoJapanese War. Therefore, he followed Kang and actively participated in the Gongche Shangshu Movement and other reform movements. After that, “KangLiang” became household names across the country. The founding of The Chinese Progress was significant in Liang’s political career. In his early career, he was involved in promotional work using newspapers as a medium. He started editing The Globe Newspaper in 1895. His journalism career lasted 27 years and ended with him being the chief editor at the Reform Magazine . He acted as the chief editor at more than 10 media organizations: The Globe Newspaper (1895), The Chinese Progress (1896), The China Discussion (1898), New China Press (1900), New Citizen Journal (1902), New Fiction Journal (1902), Political Discussion (1907), Odes of the State (1910), The Justice (1912), The Great China New Magazine (1915), and the Reform Magazine (1920). In November 1897, when Liang was invited to be the Provost of the Hunan School of Current Affairs (Shiwu xuetang 時務學堂 ), he was still an editor of The Chinese Progress .

The publicity of The Chinese Progress and its influence The first issue of The Chinese Progress published two pieces of political commentaries. “The Benefits of Newspaper Offices for the Nation” was one of the early articles of Liang Qichao’s which explains the functions of the press. It opened with “communication determines national strength.” He believed that why China had been weak for decades was that communication failed at every level, both internal and external. He treated newspapers as a medium between the government and the public, and China and the outside world. He wanted his newspaper to serve five functions: to facilitate communication; to report foreign news; to report on new policies in every province; to gather information on diplomacy; and to include important political and cultural literature. He hoped that the newspaper could not only spread news, but it also could be a medium to promote reform ideologies.

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Journalism during the Reform Period

“Discussion of Reform” was Liang’s first article which was aimed at

promoting reform ideologies. It outlined the political and reform ideologies of

the reformers at that time. It particularly targeted those who opposed change and emphasized that everything was changing and developing in the world.

Ideas mentioned in “Discussion of Reform” were further explained in articles

published in The Chinese Progress : opening more schools and reforming the

imperial examination mentioned in “Strengthening China” written by Xu Qin; national capitalism and anti-imperialist economy in “The War of Commerce” and

“How Chinese Should Exercise Self-protection” written by Wang Kangnian, and “Tax on Machine-Made Products in the Mainland” written by Mai Menghua.

From above, it can be seen that The Chinese Progress adopted the following

characteristics: First, it advocated that reform was essential during the difficult time. In the 1890s after the First Sino-Japanese War, the public was angry and

wanted reform. The paper constantly published political commentaries like “Discussion of Reform” which echoed The China Discussion .

Second, it highlighted the fact that everything was constantly changing which

was why reform was needed. The paper also targeted enlightening the mind. It

supported the logic of, and need for, reforms using examples from the evolution and equity of society.

Third, the paper’s target readers included a larger social group. It targeted

middle to upper-tiered government officials and scholar officials. In the previous decades, newspapers like the World Bulletin only targeted a few executive officials. It encouraged opening schools as well as establishing organizations

and newspapers. According to statistics, in the few years after the Society for the

Study of National Strengthening, there were 40–50 private organizations, schools, and newspaper offices in southern China. Participants in those communities were from different social classes.

The Chinese Progress garnered more supporters and momentum for reform. It received donations, and voluntary help with distribution and articles. Some schools adopted articles from the paper as teaching materials. Some local officials ordered subscriptions for government schools. The Chinese Progress was also an important organization of the reformers. It was a channel of communication between them and other supporters. Many readers wrote to, or visited, them at their office. The office was also their base and a meeting point. Many organizations shared the same office with them. Some even asked them to help with administrative work. This was resistance against the government’s ban on political discussion and assembling organizations, and a huge step forward of

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A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 2

the bourgeoisie towards democracy. This also signified the transformation of reform ideologies to action. The prospect of reform looked brighter.

The struggles of The Chinese Progress The Chinese Progress became more popular and influential. It was well-received by the public. However, at the same time, those who opposed reform and those who believed in Westernization were enraged. Members of the gentry such as Wang Xianqian and Ye Dehui publicly criticized The Chinese Progress and Hunan News (Xiang bao 湘報 ) and demanded them be banned. Those who believed in Westernization were more hypocritical like Zhang Zhidong. In the early stages, he appeared supportive of the newspaper. Later, it was revealed that he only pretended to support the newspaper so that he could seize control of them through Wang Kangnian. Wang Kangnian (1860–1911) was a professional in the newspaper industry. He was born in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. He was awarded the title of Jinshi in 1892. In 1890, at the invitation of Zhang Zhidong, he became an Instructor at Lianghu Academy (Lianghu shuyuan 兩 湖 書 院 ), editor at Self-Strengthening College (Ziqiang shuyuan 自強書院 ), and the private teacher at Zhang’s family. Zhang trusted him. When the Shanghai branch of the Society for the Study of National Strengthening was established in 1895, Zhang donated 1,500 taels of silver to the Society. Soon, the Society was closed down. The remaining funds were managed by Wang and used to fund The Chinese Progress . Zhang became the “owner” and Wang the manager of the paper. Nevertheless, in the early stages of The Chinese Progress , Liang Qichao had complete control over the contents. Zhang and Wang had to eliminate Liang in order to seize control. Wang claimed to be a reformer and wrote several articles on civil liberties, the need of a common council, self-strengthening, and resistance against foreign invasion. When someone told him to intervene with Liang’s work, he prevaricated that he, as a manager, did not have power over the chief editor. Not long after, his articles were criticized and Zhang and other officials intervened. He began to side with Zhang. The Chinese Progress was seized from the reformers. They wanted to change the paper into an official government post — the Official Current Affairs Post (Shiwu guanbao 時務官報 ) — with the help of Emperor Guangxu. Liang was to direct this movement. The struggles were noted by the palace, high-up officials, local governments, and the public. Unfortunately, the reformers failed. The Chinese Progress became Proper News (Changyan bao 昌 言 報 ). Under Wang’s

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administration, Proper News only published 10 issues. Even though the reformers

failed to put together the Official Current Affairs Post , the influence of The

Chinese Progress was far deeper than that of the Proper News . Many scholars, officials, and the public had high regard for The Chinese Progress .

The Medium of the Reformers in Southern China: The Reformer China The Reformer China: A newspaper similar to The Chinese Progress In summer 1896, reformist movements arose again under the auspices of some local officials. The Chinese Progress newly established was well-received by intellectuals. More reformist groups were encouraged to set up newspapers. One

of the earliest and longest-lasting reformist newspapers was The Reformer China .

This Macau-based newspaper had a strong influence on southern China.

The Reformer China in southern China The Reformer China was founded by Kang Youwei and He Suitian. He and Kang Guangren managed the daily running. The first issue of The Reformer China was published on February 22, 1897. Its preparations started four months earlier. There was a lack of experienced editors in Macau. So, the founders invited Liang Qichao, who was on his way to his hometown of Xinhui from Shanghai, to be the chief editor. Not intending to disrupt the running of The Chinese Progress , in November, Liang visited Macau for 20 days to assist the editorial board of The Reformer China . He instructed that the contents should fall into the following categories: promotion of reform; imperial edicts relevant to reforms; reports on new domestic policies; foreign news; and Western knowledge and technology. Apart from Liang, two experienced editors — Xu Qin and He Shuling — joined the editorial board. Most members were involved in the Self-Strengthening Journal while the newer members brought in new inspiration. The Reformer China was originally named Guang shiwu bao 廣 時 務 報 . It was named by adding the character “Guang 廣 ” to “Shiwu bao 時務報 [The Chinese Progress].” Liang Qichap explained that “Guang” had two meanings: to broaden, and Guangdong Province [Macau was in Guangdong in terms of geographic location even though it was a Portuguese colony]. The Reformer China had a lot of translated materials like the excerpt from

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the Chinese Scientific Magazine , news of the provinces around Beijing which were not reported in The Chinese Progress , and the balance of payments of many countries at the end of the newspaper. Its format followed that of The Chinese Progress , but it was only distributed around the Guangdong Province. It was published every five days. Each issue contained 15 pages. Copies for distribution in other provinces were different. Two issues were combined as one, and all imperial edicts were omitted. The Chinese Progress helped to market The Reformer China. The Reformer China was publicized in the The Chinese Progress before its first issue was published. After the first issue came out, The Chinese Progress advertised their consignment partnership. Except for Guangdong Province, Hong Kong, and Macau, the distribution of The Reformer China was handled by The Chinese Progress . The founder and director of The Reformer China was Macau billionaire He Suitian. Kang Youwei commended him for his generosity and strong sense of responsibility. He assisted Sun Yat-sen in medical service and was quite openminded. However, he was not a literary scholar. He mainly provided financial support to the newspaper. It was Kang Guangren, Kang Youwei’s younger brother, who managed the editorial work. Liang Qichao praised Kang Guangren for his English proficiency and talent in administration. Kang Guangren actively supported Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao during the Coup of 1898. He was executed and remembered as one of the “Six Gentlemen Martyrs.” The vision of The Reformer China was very similar to his. He believed that more schools should be opened to enlighten the mind of the public so that China would become stronger. Newspapers could serve the same function. After his death, Chen Jiyan and Liu Zhenlin became the chief editors, and Zhou Fengyuan and Kang Tongwei were responsible for translation. Although Mai Menghua and Ou Jujia were not credited, they were the chief writers of The Reformer China . They were all students of Kang Youwei. The Reformer China was in many ways under the influence and direction of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao.

Broadening knowledge and being outspoken The Reformer China was affiliated to The Chinese Progress . The former borrowed the style of the latter in terms of printing, design, paper, and pricing. However, the contents reflected specialization of functions, which had been determined during the preparatory stage of The Reformer China . Liang Qichao wanted The Reformer China to report foreign news and introduce ideas of Western agriculture, mining, commerce, crafts and industries,

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and sciences similar to News from the West (Xiguo jinshi 西 國 近 事 ) and the Chinese Scientific Magazine to supplement The Chinese Progress . In fact, the reformers publications were not the only ones which introduced technology from the West. The Hunan Journal (Xiang xuebao 湘學報 ) did so too, but it focused on the theories. The Reformer China concentrated on introduction and the articles were shorted and illustrated. The Reformer China was a more outspoken newspaper than The Chinese Progress . As The Reformer China was published in Macau, the Qing government had no control over it. It had more freedom of speech. Before the Hundred Days’ Reform, The Reformer China was bolder and more critical than other newspapers, but was still careful with the content. For example, it refrained from criticizing Empress Dowager Cixi (who opposed reform), the royal family, and powerful officials. The paper did not comment on the deepening conflicts between the reformers and the conservatives, and between the Emperor’s supporters and the Empress Dowager’s supporters. It was more outspoken on the issue of foreign invasion. It included translations of foreign news, utilizing foreign commentaries on China to imply its criticism. Its prudent speech reflected its hope to be legally published and well-received like The Chinese Progress , and that Emperor Guganxu would regain power from the regent Empress Dowager and succeed in reform. Sadly, the aftermath of the Hundred Days’ Reform shattered their dream. Then, they started to bash the supporters of the Empress Dowager such as Rong Lu and “traitors” such as Yuan Shikai.

The Reformer China after the Hundred Days’ Reform The Coup of 1898 took place on September 21, 1898 (August 6 of the 24th year of Guangxu in the lunar calendar). Eight days later, it was announced in the imperial edict that Kang Youwei was to be captured. The news did not reach Macau until two weeks after the Coup. The imperial edict was also published in the “Imperial Edicts” section in The Reformer China . After the Coup, all reformist newspapers were banned in areas under the jurisdiction of the Qing Empire. The newspapers were accused of being a means of conspiracy against the Qing government and manipulating and deceiving the public. Kwo Wen Pao [National News] was spared that fate because it was already sold to the Japanese. It published an article titled “Fear Death Not” about how Tan Sitong courageously refused to take refuge in the consulate. However, when it reported on the execution of the Six Gentlemen Martyrs, it used the news headline “Lawful Public Execution,” claiming that the Six Gentlemen Martyrs

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should not be spared and calling Kang Youwei a traitor. At that time, foreignowned newspapers and those based in foreign settlements dared not report or comment on the Coup. On December 23, 1898, The China Discussion was published in Yokohama, Japan. During those three months, Singapore’s Thien Nan Shin Pao and Macau’s The Reformer China were the only two newspapers which criticized the Empress Dowager’s supporters who instigated the Coup. When the news reached The Reformer China, it utilized translated foreign news to report on the details of the Coup to reveal the truth. It had been strongly criticizing the Empress Dowager and her supporters since issue 73 which was published on December 4, 1898. It contained articles such as “Integrity,” “Thoughts on Qingyuan Dang ,” and “Imperial Edict Regarding Secretary in the Council of State Tan Sitong” to praise those who died because of the Hundred Days’ Reform. The following three issues published the long commentary “Reform Is Not Radical,” which listed much evidence of the contribution of the reformers during the Hundred Day’s Reform to refute the claim that the Coup was a result of too much reform. When Empress Dowager Cixi’s conspiracy to get Emperor Guangxu off the throne leaked out, the political tension tightened. The Reformer China bashed the Empress Dowager ’s trusted aide Rong Lu. The founding of The China Discussion inspired many newspapers. Thien Nan Shin Pao , The Chinese Mail, the Taipeng Mail (Taipeng bao 台 澎 報 ) also supported reform. Newspapers under the protection of foreign investors and settlements also reported the corruption of the imperial court, such as the Universal Gazette , Kwo Wen Pao , and Shanghai News (Hu bao 滬 報 ). The Reformer China frequently adopted articles from these newspapers. While being the longest-lasting reformist newspaper (from February 22, 1897, to January 20, 1901), The Reformer China failed to become the most influential one like The Chinese Progress , The China Discussion , and New Citizen Journal . Unlike other reformist newspapers, its financial backup was relatively substantial and its political environment allowed some freedom of speech. Especially in the later stages of the Coup of 1898, it was rather radical in its commentaries on the Coup and criticizing the Empress Dowager and her supporters. Nevertheless, it failed to become one of the most important and influential official reformist newspapers. One of the reasons was geographical location. Macau was situated in a corner far away from the political and economic center of the country. News travelled slowly. By the time the newspaper was published, the news was outdated. Many readers commented that the news The Reformer China reported

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on had been covered by daily newspapers. Further, an authoritative newspaper needs to be managed by authorities. The chief editors of The Reformer China were not the most prominent reformers, which rendered the newspaper not as reputable as The Chinese Progress .

The Reformers’ Opinion Hubs in Central China: The Hunan Newspaper /Journal and Hunan News During the Hundred Days’ Reform, reformers in Hunan Province founded the Hunan Newspaper (Xiangxue xinbao 湘學新報 ) and Hunan News (Xiang bao 湘報 ) under the influence of The Chinese Progress . They actively introduced new The Reformer China and promoted reform. The social response in Hunan and Hubei Provinces was immense.

The Hunan Newspaper : The first modern periodical in Hunan Province Hunan Province is situated in Central China. The land is vast with a rich culture. From the Taiping Rebellion to before the First Sino-Japanese War, the landlords in Hunan Province seized control and suppressed agricultural revolution. They were brutal to the public. For 30 years, Hunan was known for its people’s closemindedness and conservative thinking. Their publication industry was stagnant, lagging behind other provinces such as Zhejiang, Hubei, and Guangdong. After the First Sino-Japanese War, some young scholars such as Tan Sitong and Tang Caichang were inspired by the ideologies of the Hundred Days’ Reform. They were determined to reform Hunan Province through education and political movements. Some prominent government officials in Hunan such as Governor-General Chen Baozhen and Provincial Education Commissioner Jiang Biao supported reform. They were in the minority in the country. Reform in Hunan gained momentum and accelerated with the officials’ support. Reform concentrated on revolutionizing education. The Hunan Newspaper was an example of educational reform. The Hunan Newspaper was founded in Changsha on April 22, 1897. It had been directed by Jiang Biao, Huang Zunxian, Xu Renzhu, and others. Tang Caichang and Chen Weiyi were the chief writers. The Hunan Newspaper was a xunkan ,8 which was published on the 1st, 11th, 21th day of each month. Each issue consisted of one volume, around 30 pages and 20,000 words. It was printed

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on Lianshi paper using woodcut printing and priced at 100 wen [penny]. The

Hunan Newspaper was renamed as the Hunan Journal (Xiang xuebao 湘 學 報 ) since the 21st issue. The last issue was published on August 28, 1898. A total of 45 issues were published. Jiang Biao (1860–1899) was awarded the title of Jinshi in 1889 and appointed as a Junior Compiler at the Hanlin Academy. In 1894, he was appointed as the Hunan Provincial Education Commissioner. He carried out educational reform. In provincial examinations, candidates were tested on practical subjects like geography and mathematics. He also reformed old colleges like Xiaojing College (Xiaojing shuyuan 校經書院 ). In autumn 1896, he requested 500 taels of silver be allocated to Xiaojing College to establish societies for dialects, mathematics, and geography and society newspapers. The Hunan Journal was issued under the name of Xiaojing College. The Hunan Journal aimed to broaden the mind of the public, nurture talents, and strengthen the country. It was a comprehensive academic journal on practical and new knowledge. It contained six sections: 1. History: History of countries around the world, e.g. “The History of Politics of the Oldest Countries,” “Japan’s Major Events since the Ansei Era” 2. Anecdotes (renamed as Current Affairs since the 25th issue): New policies, e.g. “On Schools,” “New Policies in Hunan Province” 3. Geography: e.g. “The Landscape of the Five Mountain Ranges”

4. Mathematics: e.g. “Four Ways to Find the Radical,” “Pythagorean Theorem” 5. Commerce: domestic and foreign trade, e.g. “Opinion on Tealeaves Trade,” “Opinion on the Ban of Opium”

6. Diplomacy: e.g. “How to Select Talents,” “The Diplomatic Situation of Korea”

Abstracts and references accompanied the articles in the first 20 issues. The first 19 issues also contained a Science section which included topics of natural sciences.

Although the Hunan Journal was an academic publication, it also published

news. Imperial edicts and letters to the Emperor related to reform, charters,

reports, and licenses of reformist groups were included in the Journal . The 2nd

to 7th issues contained an “Abstracts of News Articles” section. Articles were

adopted from newspapers published in more than 10 countries: Shun Pao , Universal Circulating Herald , Bowen News (Bowen bao 博聞報 ), The Reformer China , the Han Post (Han bao 漢報 ), the Chinese and Foreign Gazette (Zhong wai xinbao 中外新報 ), and The Times. Examples of news and commentaries adopted included the following: “Diplomacy between China and Portugal,” “TianjinLugouqiao Railway Will Soon Be Completed,” “New Audio-Visual Devices,” and “Foreign Trade in the Past Year.”

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The main writers of the Journal were: Tang Caichang, Yi Nai, Yang Yulin, Li Gusong, Li Junnai, Yang Gai, Zhou Chuanzi, Hu Zhaoluan, Zou Daijun, and Chen Weiyi. Most of them were young scholars at Xiaojing College or the School of Current Affairs. They saw Western knowledge as the key to saving China and made Hunan Province an important Western knowledge hub. However, as most writers received traditional formal education and had only started learning from the West, most content in the Journal was based on publications of foreign missionaries. The content was introductory and unstructured. Tang Caichang (1867–1900) was born to a humble family in Liuyang, Hunan Province. He studied at Yuelu Academy and Lianghu Academy. He was particularly interested in Buddhism, mathematics, and Chinese and Western history. In 1897, he was selected to study at the Imperial Academy (Guozijian 國子監 ). He and Tan Sitong were childhood friends. After the First SinoJapanese War, he and Tan supported reform and promoted the acquisition of new knowledge. They were active in political movements during the Hundred Days’ Reform. Tang was the most productive writer and chief editor at the Hunan Journal . His articles were rich in content, frank, and direct. They were some of the most radical entries. In February 1898, he taught at the School of Current Affairs. In March, he became the chief writer at the newly founded Hunan News . When the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, he plotted the Independence Army Uprising. Sadly, the plot was discovered and he was executed under the command of Zhang Zhidong, the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei Provinces. The Hunan Journal was well received by the public. A few thousand copies were sold in Changsha alone. The Journal was also sold in provinces other than Hunan and Hubei. It had distributors in many cities. As Huang Zunxian, Xu Renzhu, Liang Qichao, and Tan Sitong arrived in Hunan Province, the School of Current Affairs, Southern Society (Nan xuehui 南學會 ), and the Hunan Journal were founded, reform activities gained momentum. The promotion of reform in the Journal became more rampant. The Journal’s attitude towards Western knowledge and the promotion of Kang Youwei’s Confucian reform ideologies and the bourgeoisie’s view of civil liberties provoked the conservatives. In May 1898, Zhang Zhidong criticized the Journal for spreading fallacies. He pressured government officials in Hunan Provinces and ordered that Hubei Bureau of Pacification cancel its subscription of the Journal . Many conservative officials and the gentry in Hunan sided with him. In view of this, Xu Renzhu compromised. Since the 37th issue, the Journal published Zhang Zhidong’s “Exhortation to Learning,” which propagated the adoption of Western learning on the basis of Confucianism in every issue.

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As the Journal was founded by schools and officials, it was more academic

than political. The style of writing was also more sophisticated. Further, it was

the first journal in Hunan Province. The lack of experience in design and layout

did not fit the style of a journal. Six sections in each issue were too many and the articles were too long. When the articles were published section by section

in consecutive issues, there were no titles. When readers read a single issue, it seemed broken. These were some areas where the Journal was lacking.

The founding of Hunan News and its radical propaganda Hunan News was first published on March 7, 1898. It was Hunan Province’s first modern daily. The official of the newspaper was in the government building on Xiaodong Street, Changsha. It was connected to the School of Current Affairs and Southern Society. It evolved from the intensifying reform in Hunan. Reform activities in Hunan started to become more active in the latter half of 1897. In July that year, Huang Zunxian was appointed the Hunan Supervisor of Salt and Surveillance Commissioner. Soon, Xu Renzhu also arrived in Hunan to succeed Jiang Biao as Provincial Education Commissioner. They were both supporters of reform, which catalyzed the reform movements in the province. In October, the School of Current Affairs was established in Changsha. It was the first modern school in Hunan Province. Hunan local Hanlin scholar Xiong Xiling was appointed as the Supervisor, who employed Liang Qichao as the Provost. Under Liang’s lead, the School supported reform and civil liberties. It became the institute to nurture talents in Hunan. By the end of the year, Germany had invaded Jiaozhou Bay. There was a frenzy of imperialist countries to carve out the land of China. Reform and self-strengthening became more urgent. Tan Sitong and others founded the Southern Society in Changsha in February 1898. The Society contacted officials and gentry in Hunan Province. A meeting was held every seven days. The members discussed Western knowledge and political reform. The Society evolved into a leading organization in Hunan’s reform movements. Under the influence of the School of Current Affairs and the Southern Society, more schools and societies were set up in Hunan. Reform continued to develop. Hunan News was printed on a double-fold deckle-edged paper. The paper was cut into eight panels. The newspaper was printed on alternate panels using letterpress printing. Its contents included commentaries, letters to the throne, imperial edicts, new policies in local and other provinces, domestic and foreign news, foreign knowledge and book excerpts, replies to readers, etc. While the layout was similar to books, it had the framework of a modern daily newspaper.

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In April 1898, a page of advertisement was enclosed in each copy. Hunan News was founded by funds from several sources. It also received a subsidy of 200 taels from the provincial government. It had a board of directors. Xiong Xiling was the chief director. Other directors included Liang Qichao, Tan Sitong, Tang Caichang, Li Weige, and Zou Daijun. Liu Shanhong and Wang Zhaoyuan were general managers and chief proofreaders. Xiong and others published Hunan News not for business reasons. It was included in its charter that the newspaper aimed at broadening the mind of the public, and it should be a non-profit newspaper. From the start, the newspaper had its eyes on encouraging reform, which was a function they served well. From the second to sixth issue, Hunan News adopted the translated news reports on the Jiaojiu Bay incident from The Chinese Progress which gave a detailed account of Germany’s invasion of Jiaojiu Bay. It also reported the invasions of France and Russia in detail. However, Hunan News did not condemn imperialism. It gave little support to self-organized anti-imperialism or antiWesternization movements. Hunan News published many political commentaries and adopted the speeches of members of the Southern Society. The most prominent characteristic of the newspaper was that it applauded criticism of autocracy and supported civil liberties and equity. This political inclination in The Chinese Progress and the Hunan Journal was not as obvious. Hunan News could have been improved. Its introduction of civil liberties and equity were unstructured: First, the equity they wanted was equity for intellectuals and the gentry. Second, many articles argued that equity stemmed from Confucianism and Mencius, which seemed rather far-fetched. Yet, Hunan News showed major improvements in comparison to the Hunan Journal . It balanced news and commentaries and made argumentation its top priority. In order to facilitate the development of industries and commerce and the new boom in mining, Hunan News paid more attention to publicity. Different than the academic Hunan Journal , Hunan News knew early on that it needed to attract a larger audience. As it received a provincial subsidy, it set its price at 30%–50% lower than that of other newspapers. Through the connections of the School of Current Affairs and the Southern Society, the newspaper was widely distributed. Occasionally, free copies were given out to the branches of the School and Society to post on the walls in the streets. Hunan News generated more public response than any other reformist newspapers at that time. At first, only 5,000 copies were printed. The figure rose to 6,000 in three months. It quickly became the hub of the discussion of reform.

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Yan Fu, Kwo Wen Pao , and the National News Magazine Yan Fu founds Kwo Wen Pao By the time Kwo Wen Pao was founded in Tianjin, Shanghai’s The Chinese Progress had published more than 40 issues, and Macau’s The Reformer China , Hunan’s the Hunan Journal , and Guangxi’s Guangren News (Guangren bao 廣仁報 ) had been out in the market for more than six months. Reformist publications such as Global Affairs (Jingshi bao 經世報 ), Prosperity (Fuqiang bao 富強報 ), Learning (Tongxue bao 通 學 報 ), New Knowledge (Xinxue bao 新 學 報 ), the Journal of Agriculture (Nongxue bao 農 學 報 ), International Review (Qiushi bao 求 是 報 ), and Assembly (Cui bao 萃報 ) had been released. Despite this, Kwo Wen Pao held an irreplaceable position: It was based in the political center — Beijing and Tianjin. The editorial board included some of the best intellectuals, who also had some political influence. They were able to obtain insider news. Therefore, it was the only newspaper in the north that represented the reformers and the best daily newspaper. Kwo Wen Pao was first issued on October 26, 1897. In the beginning, Yan Fu and Xia Zengyou were responsible for the xunkan , and Wang Xiuzhi and Hang Xinzhai for the daily. Later, the xunkan was cancelled. It was printed on doublefold deckle-edged paper using letterpress printing. The paper was cut into eight panels. The layout was similar to the early Shun Pao : the first four pages contained news and commentaries, the remaining pages were advertisements. The newspaper was published every day with a free page of the Beijing Newspaper . About 1,500 copies were sold every day. The nominal owner of the newspaper was Li Zhicheng. In fact, the founder and directors were Yan Fu, Wang Xiuzhi, Xia Zengyou, and Hang Xinzhai. Teachers and students at the Beiyang Naval College participated in translation and editorial work. As the directors were all government officials, they would not admit that they were the main writers. Their office was strategically situated on Zizhulinhai Road in the settlement area in Tianjin so that the Qing government could not interfere. Yan Fu (1854–1921) was born in Houguan (now Minhou), Fujian Province. His family produced many reputable doctors. When he was young, he received traditional formal education in China. Later, he went abroad to Singapore, Penang Island, Japan, etc., to further his study. In 1877, he was sent to study at Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich, England. He was immersed in capitalist society and Western culture. He returned to China two years later. In the following year,

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he was appointed as the Provost at the Tianjin Naval College by Li Hongzhang. During his 20 years at the College, he also worked as the Manager and Administrator.

Seeing China’s defeat in the Sino-French War and the First Sino-Japanese

War, Yan lost all faith in the Westernization Movement. In the three months from

February to mid-June 1895, he published five articles on Zhili News (Zhi bao 直

報 ): “Extreme Changes,” “Strengthening China,” “Pi Han,” “Strengthening China II,” and “Salvaging China.” He fiercely criticized autocracy and propagated the

idea of civil liberties and reform. He proposed a set of political reform ideologies, which had a huge impact on the thinking at that time.

In 1897, Yan Fu, Wang Xiuzhi, and Xia Zengyou raised funds to organize Kwo

Wen Pao and the National News Magazine (Guowen huibian 國聞匯編 ). During the Hundred Days’ Reform, the Kwo Wen Pao published 42 editorials, of which 23 were written by Yan. Yan also joined forces with Xia to write an article — “The Fiction Section of Kwo Wen Pao” — to explain the influence of fiction on reform. One week before the Coup of 1898, he was summoned by Emperor Guangxu. He stayed in Beijing for a week after meeting the Emperor to talk to students at the School of Arts (Tongyi xuetang 通藝學堂 ) and other intellectuals on Western knowledge and politics. When the Coup happened, he hurried back to Tianjin. As he was not in close contact with Kang Youwei, he was not investigated. Under immense pressure from the conservatives, he could not participate in political movements. Thus, he devoted his time to translating foreign literature. From 1898 to 1911, he translated many Western classics including Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations , Montesquieu’s L’esprit des Lois , James Mill’s A System of Logic and On Liberty , Herbert Spencer’s The Study of Sociology , and Edward Jenks’s A History of Politics . Since 1908, the Qing government gave many benefits to social figures. Yan was awarded many higher-up but false titles. Yan became more conservative. After the 1911 Revolution, he was adamantly against the republican system. When Yuan Shikai became President, Yan was involved in the Chou’an Society (Chou’an hui 籌 安 會 ) which supported the revival of the monarchy. His reputation was tarnished. In the May Fourth Movement, he adopted a conservative attitude. He advocated that Confucianism and its literature should be introduced into the school curriculum and he disapproved of written vernacular Chinese. During his last years, due to poor medical conditions, he had little contact with the outside world. He died in his former home in Minhou. Wang Xiuzhi was born in Dinghai, Zhejiang Province. He obtained the title of

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Jinshi and worked at the Hanlin Academy. He was a Circuit Intendant awaiting appointment and Administrator and Manager at the Beiyang Naval College, as well as director at the official Western bookstore in Tianjin when he started to organize Kwo Wen Pao . Apart from contributing articles to the newspaper, he was also responsible for the distribution of the newspaper. He was also the one who represented the newspaper to sign the contract of the Japanese’s subscription of the newspaper. Xia Zengyou was born in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. He was awarded the title of Jinshi and appointed as the Secretary of the Ministry of Rites. In January 1897, during the hiatus when he waited for his next appointment, he taught at Tianjian Yucai Academy (Yucai xuetang 育才學堂 ) through Sun Baoqi’s recommendation. Before joining Kwo Wen Pao , he had published numerous articles on The Chinese Progress . He met Yan Fu through Wang Xiuzhi, who was an old friend of his. Hang Xinzhai arrived in Beijing in 1890. He studied mathematics and French literature at the Imperial Foreign Language Institute, which administered foreign affairs. After the First Sino-Japanese War, he presented a letter to Emperor Guangxu to express his view on reform. He was appointed as a Secretary of the Grand Secretariat. He arrived in Tianjin at the same time as Xia Zengyou to join Kwo Wen Pao . He was not yet 30 years old. Yan, Wang, and Xia were all equipped with Chinese and Western knowledge. They had the same vision. Before establishing Kwo Wen Pao , they planned to set up an anonymous translation society to introduce Western knowledge. The plan was dropped because of disagreement with other parties. During the preparation stage of Kwo Wen Pao , it was agreed that it would use an authoritative foreign bourgeois newspaper — The Times — as a model. The newspaper would mainly report foreign news.

The functions of Kwo Wen Pao during the reform period Kwo Wen Pao was praised for its accuracy, attention to details, quickness, and variety of news by the Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Wang Daxie. It was most active and successful during the Hundred Days’ Reform. As Tianjin is close to Beijing, news travelled fast between the two cities. The staff also travelled to many places and interviewed both domestic and foreign personnel. Other than that, Wang Xiuzhi once remarked, “The major news in Beijing usually came either from close contacts or foreign channels.” The accuracy and exclusivity of Kwo Wen Pao were incomparable.

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While Kwo Wen Pao gave foreign news its priority, the public called for more

reports on the political situation of their homeland. Kwo Wen Pao shifted towards domestic news, especially news of the political situation in northern China. Its continuous and detailed report on major events was exclusive.

Kwo Wen Pao revealed the incident that Russian army slaughtered Chinese

civilians in Pizi wan 貔 子 灣 . It also provided accurate details of Germany and

Russia’s invasions that other newspapers could not offer. While the public applauded its effort, Russia and the Qing government saw it as a thorn in the side. In February 1898, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs used the excuse that Kwo

Wen Pao published the letters to the throne about the Jiaozhou Bay Incident to investigate Kwo Wen Pao. Yan Fu and others knew they could not allow the Qing government to interfere. They made a deal with the Japanese Hiroshi Nishimura. Nishimura pretended to own Kwo Wen Pao since March 27, 1898. A statement from Nishimura was published and the date adopted the reign title of Japan: Meiji. Afterwards, Kwo Wen Pao was in closer contact with reformers in Beijing and it was more open about its political views. The article Gongche Shangshu Movement published on April 3, 1898 wrote the following: Mai Rubo from Shunde and Liang Qichao from Xinhui were patriotic and respectable scholars. They arrived in Beijing at the time when Russia was invading Lüda. They, together with juren’s from Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Zhejiang, initiated the Gongche

Shangshu Movement. They brought their petition to Ducha yuan 都察院

on the sixth day of the third month of the year [of the Lunar calendar] to

persuade the government to defend Lüda. However, none of the officials was present to receive them. In the end, the petition was not handed in to the Emperor.

On May 5 the same year, Liang Qichao wrote to Xia Zengyou from Beijing.

He mentioned in his letter that the Society for National Strengthening (Baoguo

hui 保國會 ) was under the pressure of some stubborn and conservative officials, but Emperor Guangxu supported it. He asked Xia to publish the charter of the Society on Kwo Wen Pao . Xia fulfilled Liang’s request on May 7. Kwo Wen Pao published follow-up reports. It published the names of all 186 members of the Society for National Strengthening in the “Name List of Beijing Society for National Strengthening,” Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao’s speeches at the

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meeting of the Society, and two commentaries — “Re: The Name List of Beijing

Society for National Strengthening” and “Response to the Society for National Strengthening.” It criticized the diehards at the imperial court for misdirecting

their anger. They should hate the foreign invaders but not their compatriots. They

should be worried about national defense rather than bringing down the morale of the country.

Kwo Wen Pao’s support of reform was evident in the article “The Emperor’s Decision on Reforming the Imperial Examination” published on June 27, 1898: What candidates are tested on in the Eight-part Essay examination is

not practical. On the fifth day of this month, Emperor Guangxu issued an imperial edit on reforming the examination system…. The Emperor is determined to reform even without much support from the court. He understands that we must recruit real talents to strengthen China, and the current examination cannot serve this purpose.

On the surface, the newspaper was only praising the Emperor. In fact, it was a reflection of the desire for reform.

The Hundred Days’ Reform was short-lived. On September 21, 1898, Empress

Dowager Cixi instigated the Coup of 1898. Emperor Guangxu was put under

house arrest. The Reform failed. The Empress Dowager issued imperial edicts on banning newspaper offices and investigating the editorial board. Kwo Wen Pao

was spared with the help of Japan. Six days after the Coup, it published the article “Fear Death Not” and reported on Kang Youwei’s escape. On October 21 and 22,

it adopted the article “The China Mail ’s Interview with Kang Youwei in Hong Kong” from The Chinese Mail to reveal the truth about the Coup.

Nominally, it was then a Japanese-owned newspaper, but it was administered

by Yan Fu, Wang Xiuzhi, and Xia Zengyou. In early December 1898, the three

resigned due to political pressure. It was not until February 1899 that it was sold

to the Japanese, who first paid 5,000 dollars. On April 29, the Japanese Consul in Tianjin, Zheng Yongchang, paid the remaining 6,000 dollars. Kwo Wen Pao was

completely owned by the Japanese. It continued to publish afterwards, but the nature of the newspaper changed.

The contribution of Kwo Wen Pao to China’s politics and culture was

remarkable. During the Hundred Days’ Reform, much news was reported on the

newspaper, and its introduction of new knowledge enlightened China’s academic

world. It revealed the truth of the Coup of 1898 and was unfazed by the Qing

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government. Its functions and influence were far-reaching so that it recorded much first-hand information of the reform movements. Even the 1911 Revolution benefited from it.

The National News Magazine publishes Evolution and Ethics The National News Magazine was the xunkan of the Kwo Wen Pao . It was first issued on December 8, 1897. It was printed using size three lead typesetting. There was one volume in each issue, which contained around 30,000 words. The National News Magazine comprised two sections: The first section was for translated articles which introduced foreign affairs and academic literature. The second section was foreign news and commentaries. Those articles were translated from Russian, English, French, and German. The translators were credited with their real name and ancestral home, and the source of the news was also credited. Yan Fu published two unfinished articles in the Magazine : First, “Herbert Spencer’s Exhortation to Learn” in issues one, three, and four. It was credited with “written by Yan Fu from Houguan.” Second, “Evolution and Ethics” in issue two, four, five, and six. It included “Preface to the Translated Version of Evolution and Ethics” and “Essence of Evolution and Ethics.” It was credited “theories by Huxley (English) and interpretation by Yan Fu from Houguan.” Evolution and Ethics was translated from British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley’s original. It was Yan Fu’s characteristic to add translator notes to articles or modify metaphors to express his views. In “Sample Translations of Evolution and Ethics ,” he said, “I translated the meaning of the article. I rearranged sentences. I did not translate word-by-word…. I keep the meaning intact and elaborate it in my own words.” This is evident in Yan Fu’s translation of Evolution and Ethics . Many of the views introduced in that article were not Huxley’s but Herbert Spencer’s, who held opposite views to Huxley’s. Huxley claimed that “survival of the fittest” was only applicable to nature and human beings were better than animals. They were inherently loving and giving so that the societal and ethical principles were different than those of nature. Spencer, however, thought that natural selection and “survival of the fittest” were also applicable to the human world and upheld Darwinism. When Yan was studying abroad in the U.K., Darwinism and Spencer’s thoughts were popular among the people. The traditional Chinese teachings of the fusion of nature and society also prompted him to side with Darwin and Spencer. However, he disagreed with Spencer on natural selection and supported Huxley for “competition with nature” due to the influence of Confucianism. Yan incorporated both schools of thinking and made

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his own call on the subject. He stressed that China must strengthen itself so as to defend against the growing powers in the West. If not, China would follow in the footsteps of the Native Americans and Africans in falling victim to Western powers. He also pointed out that one should exercise the mind to survive. The Chinese should be united to save themselves and the country. Yan’s Evolution and Ethics became influential literature during the reform period. It inspired many people at that time and contributed to the 1911 Revolution. Soon after the First Sino-Japanese War, Yan started translating Evolution and Ethics . He edited it multiple times for two years. The manuscript preserved showed corrections in different colors. He added many notes to supplement the main content. The academic theories he introduced ranged from Western contemporary social sciences and natural sciences to economics and politics.

Other Publications and the Publication Industry during the Reform Period The emergence of local periodicals The Hundred Days’ Reform marked the climax of China’s newspaper industry. According to statistics, from 1895 to 1898, the number of China’s newspapers grew 3.7 times. On June 11, 1898, Emperor Guangxu issued the imperial edict to announce the Hundred Days’ Reform. Periodicals were not taxed and could be freely established. The number of newspapers, magazines, and journals rapidly increased. Many local publications emerged across the country.

News-reporting newspapers Shanghai Shanghai was the place with the most newspapers. Some representative modern newspapers founded there included the following: Integrated News (Jicheng bao 集成報 ) was a xunkan founded by Xu Nianchuang. It was first issued on May 6, 1897. It was printed on Lianshi paper using stone lithography. Each issue consisted of around 30 pages. It contained imperial edicts, letters to the throne, commentaries, news, foreign telegraphs, etc. Apart from the imperial edicts and letters to the throne, other articles were mainly excerpts from domestic or foreign newspapers. Kong Zhaojin wrote in the preface of the first issue that every type of newspaper had its own strength and shortcomings.

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The newspaper used news extracts from other sources and categorized them into different types. This is why it was called Integrated News .

Prosperity was edited by Cheng Zhu. It was first issued on May 21, 1897 and published every five days. It published mostly the letters to the throne from provincial governors (e.g., Tan Zhongling and Zhang Zhidong) and the articles written by the Westernization reformers. Assembly was edited by Zhu Kerou. It was a weekly magazine first issued on August 22, 1897. The contents included imperial edicts, charters, reports on domestic and foreign affairs, and telegraphs. A “Commentary” containing excerpts from other domestic or foreign newspapers was occasionally enclosed. Zhang Zhidong’s “Exhortation to Learning: Promises” appeared in the 24th issue. Since its 21st issue, production moved to Wuchang. Authentic Knowledge (Shixue bao 實學報 ) was edited by Wang Renjun and others. It was first issued on August 28, 1897. It aimed at broadening the minds of the readers. Although it was an academic publication, it published many political articles which criticized reforms. For example, Wang wrote the articles “Against Democracy” and “Fallacies of Reforms” in the commentary section to attack the reformers based on the three cardinal guides and five constant virtues. At first, Zhang Taiyan was in charge of the contents. He said in the “Preface to Authentic Knowledge” that journalists were a different type of historian. Some of his articles such as “Confucianism and Daoism,” “Confucianism and Militarism,” “Confucianism and Legalism,” and “Confucianism and Moism” were first published in Authentic Knowledge . International Review was founded by Chen Jitong and Chen Shoupeng and edited by Chen Yan and Zeng Yandong. It was first issued on September 30, 1897. It contained two editions. The internal edition included articles on diplomacy, current affairs, and an appendix. The external edition included foreign news, articles on foreign laws, industries, and sciences. It advocated reform as well as published translated articles. The Translation Society Weekly Edition (Yishu gonghui bao 譯書公會報 ) was first published by the Book Translation Association on October 26, 1897. Yun Jixun and Tao Xiang were the Presidents, and Zhang Taiyan and Yang Mo were the chief editors. It often adopted foreign news from The Times and The New York Times , as well as newspapers from France, Germany, Belgium, and Japan. Zhang wrote the preface in the 2nd issue and published the articles “On the Annals of Japan” and “Sudden Growth of Population.”

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East Asia Times (Yadong shibao 亞東時報 ) was first issued on June 25, 1898. It was a monthly magazine but it changed into a fortnightly one since the seventh issue. It was an official magazine of Japan’s Eulmi Society. It was administered by the Japanese Yamane Toranosuke. Tang Caichang acted as chief editor after the fifth issue. In winter 1899, Zhang Taiyan joined the editorial board. The writers included Hua Yongnian, Song Shu, Wang Kangnian, Miyama Kotarou, and Munakata Kotaro. The content included editorials, letters from the readers, translated articles, articles on education and the military, and poetry. The magazine was bilingual in Chinese and Japanese. It aimed at strengthening the relationship between the two nations. However, some articles advocated expansionism. The magazine supported Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao for reform and strongly criticized the Qing government. After the Coup of 1898, reformist media was suppressed and investigated. It, however, continued to promote reform and exposed the schemes of the Empress Dowager Cixi and her supporters. Tan Sitong’s “The Book of Benevolence” was published in the 5th to 19th issue. It merged with Shanghai News — a Chinese newspaper owned by the Japanese — in 1900. The Women’s Journal (Nü xuebao 女 學 報 ) was first issued in July 24, 1898. It was the official journal of Shanghai Guishu Lane Women’s Society, as well as the newsletter of the Guishu Lane Women’s College. It was the first women’s publication in China. The office was located at Waiwenyuan Square in Ximen, Shanghai. The Journal aimed at promoting reform and women’s studies and fighting for women’s equity. It had several sections: “Commentaries,” “News,” “Essays,” “Confessions,” etc. Each issue was illustrated and more than 20 female writers were credited with their name and ancestral home in the Journal . Some of the chief writers were Kang Tonwei (Kang Youwei’s daughter), Li Huixian (Liang Qichao’s wife), and Qiu Yufang (founder of Wuxi Vernacular News (Wuxi baihuo bao 無錫白話報 )). It was printed on a double-fold white paper using stone lithography. It used single-side printing and the characters were written in regular script (kaishu 楷書 ). In September 1898, from the 10th issue, the Journal changed from publishing every 10 days to every 5 days. This arrangement continued for three issues. After February 1899, the office address, charter, and editorial board changed. The exact date of the last issue is unknown. Chinese Scientific Knowledge (Gezhi yiwen huibao 格致益聞匯報 ) was first issued on August 17, 1898. It was published every Tuesday. The publications Yiwen News (Yiwen lu 益聞錄 ) and the Scientific Review (Gezhi xinbao 格致新報 ) came together to make Chinese Scientific Knowledge . It aimed at introducing new knowledge to Chinese scholars for examinations. Apart from academic theories,

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it also published any imperial edicts, telegraphs, domestic and foreign news, and letters to the throne which were relevant to those who supported reforms.

Asian Current Affairs (Yazhou shishi huibao 亞洲時事匯報 ) was first published on September 5, 1899. It was published every fortnight. It was directed by the Japanese Sawara Tokusuke and managed by the Chinese Shen Shisun. The newspaper contained several sections such as “Commentaries,” “Imperial Edicts and Letters to the Throne,” and “Global News.” Articles published included: news pieces such as “Wishing the Emperor Good Health,” “The Coup of 1898,” “National Anecdotes”; commentaries including “Why China Remains Conservative”; and translated articles including “Records of the Three Great Nobles.” When Zhang Taiyan returned from Japan, he published “The Future of Asians,” “Prologue of Collected Works in Defense of Confucianism,” and “On Military Commanderies.”

Guilin Guangren News was first published in April 1897. It was the official newspaper of the Society of Confucianism (Shengxue hui 聖學會 ) founded by Kang Youwei and its students. It was the first modern publication in Guangxi Province. Chief writers included Zhao Tingyang, Kuang Shiying, and Long Yingzhong. It published news, academic articles, foreign articles, etc. It aimed at arousing the spirit of the public in strengthening China and promoting reforms.

Hangzhou Global Affairs was a xunkan first issued on August 2, 1897. Sixteen issues had been published by the time it closed down four months later. The magazine was printed on Lianshi paper using stone lithography. Each volume contained 30 to 40 pages, thread-bound. Founders Hu Daonan, Dong Xueqi, Zhang Taiyan, and Chen Qiuren were also the writers with Song Shu specializing in commentaries. The magazine included the following columns: “Imperial Speeches,” “Commentaries,” “Political Affairs,” “Educational Affairs,” “Agricultural Affairs,” “Industrial Affairs,” “Commercial Affairs,” “Military Affairs,” “Diplomatic Affairs,” “Science, Local” and “Foreign News,” and “Academic Articles.” Articles were adopted from foreign newspapers from the U.K., France, and Japan. The magazine was named “Jingshi 經世 ” in Chinese as it intended to comment on education and politics based on traditional teachings. Many articles in it expressed the view that the Four Confucian Subjects [moral education, language, politics, and literature] were all essential to statecraft.

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A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 2

Chongqing Chongqing News (Yu bao 渝 報 ) was a xunkan first published in October 1897. It was the first modern publication in Sichuan Province. It was directed by Song Yuren with assistance from Yang Daonan. Pan Qingyin was the chief writer and Mei Jixun was the assistant chief. Other employees were responsible for translation, editing, proofreading, accounting, and typesetting. Sixteen issues were published. It was printed on Sichuan white paper using woodcut printing. Each issue was printed on both sides of the paper and the issues contained around 30 pages each. Its contents included imperial edicts, letters to the throne, essays, translated articles, domestic, foreign, and local news, etc. It mainly introduced Western culture, science and technology, and information on mining in Sichuan Province. The magazine had more than 20 distribution points in Sichuan which sold more than 300 copies for each issue. Later, the magazine publishers also distributed The Chinese Progress , the Hunan Newspaper, and The Reformer China .

Guangzhou The Mountain Range Journal (Ling xuebao 嶺學報 ) was a xunkan first published on February 10, 1898. It was directed by Pan Yantong, Li Guolian, etc. The writers included Zhu Zhisun and Tan Yujian. It included the following sections: “State Affairs,” “Diplomatic Affairs,” “Education,” “The Military,” “History,” “Letters to the Throne,” and “Imperial Edicts.” It also adopted news from German, Japanese, and British newspapers. In March, it enclosed the Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune (Ling hai bao 嶺海報 ) to support reform.

Chengdu The Journal of Sichuan (Shu xuebao 蜀學報 ) was first issued on May 15, 1898. It lasted for three months and a total of 13 issues were published. It was managed by Song Yuren with assistance from Yan Daonan. Wu Zhiying was the chief writer and Liao Ping the chief editor. Its office was in Zunjing Academy (Zunjing Shuyuan 尊 經 書 院 ). It also published a supplement called the Book Collection (Congshu bao 叢書報 )

Wuhu Wang Rong and others, following Hunan News , founded Anhui News (Wan bao 皖報 ), which was also known as Jiang Wan Daily (Jiangwan ribao 江皖日報 ) to report on current affairs

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Journalism during the Reform Period

Hunan Province In June 1898, in Hengyang, Chen Zhenduan, Wangjia, Zhu Bingxiong, Wang Jiagui,

and others founded the Slang Post (Liyu bao 俚語報 ) with an aim to broaden minds.

At the same time, in Changsha, many newspapers were emerging: Great Unity

News (Datong bao 大 同 報 ) and the Hunan Loyal Post (Hunan gongzhong bao 湖 南 公 忠 報 ) founded by Dai Zhancheng, Qiu Jian, and Wu Xie; and Economic

Assembly (Jingji cuibao 經濟萃報 ) and Econmics (Jingji bao 經濟報 ) founded by Liu Fengcang, Zhang Mao, and Zhang Tongdian. On August 8, Bowen News was founded. It was a digest of domestic and foreign news.

Academic publications Domestic periodicals The Journal of Liji Academy (Liji xuetang bao 利濟學堂報 ) was a fortnightly journal.

It was first published in Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, on January 20, 1897. It was an official journal of the Academy and the first journal of medicine in China.

Chen Qiu established the Liji Hospital as well as the Liji Academy in Rui’an

County, Wenzhou. As the Hospital Director, he raised funds for and founded the

Journal and acted as the chief editor. The Journal was printed using woodcut

printing. It was published on the 24 days which matched the solar terms of a year.9 Two issues were published each month, each contained around 50 pages. There were 22 distribution points in Wenzhou, 26 in other cities in Zhejiang

Province, 3 in Beijing, and 16 in other cities across the country including Hong

Kong and Macau. More than 50 people made up the editorial board, which included: manager, assistant manager, editors, writers, and proofreaders.

The Journal published lecture notes and research results of the faculty at the

Academy. It included articles on medical theories, the status of the Academy, as

well as excerpts from other newspapers. It was written in “Samples of the Journal of Liji Academy”10:

This journal includes the materials of many subjects, including agriculture,

industry, politics, commerce, sports, geomancy…. They are grouped into

12 categories: lecture, politics, current affairs, foreign news, new academic knowledge, agriculture, arts and culture, commerce, science, recent news,

and extras. Each section was individually bound together. Readers can easily put the same section of different issues into a book.

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The lecture notes in the Journal were compiled into a series: The Liji

Collection (Liji congshu 利 濟 叢 書 ). The series comprised the following: Liji Academy’s Introduction to Chinese Medicine (Liji wanjing baoyao 利 濟 元 經 寶 要 ); Teaching and Enlightenment (Liji jiaojing 利濟教經 ); Answers to Teaching (Jiaojing wenda 教 經 問 答 ); Sports and Health (Weisheng Jing 衛 生 經 ); and Zhelu’s Clinical Findings (Zhelu zhen lu 蟄 廬 診 錄 ). The remaining contents were compiled to create the Liji Academy Miscellany (Liji xuetang huibian 利濟 學堂報匯編 ). The Liji Collection and the Liji Academy Miscellany contained some unsupported arguments which Tan Sitong disapproved of. After the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, the Qing government ordered the arrest of Chen Qiu. Liji Academy was shut down and the Journal of Liji Academy was banned. Chen integrated hospital, academy, and newspaper office into one. He was a pioneer in modern medical industry and journalism. The Journal of Agriculture was first published in Shanghai in May 1897. It was the earliest agricultural journal in China, as well as one of the first journals which only published contents of a professional subject. It was the official journal of the Society of Agriculture which Luo Zhenyu and Jiang Fu established in 1896. The founders were also the chief editors. During its first year, it was a fortnightly journal. It changed into a xunkan in the following year. It was printed on Lianshi paper. Each issue consisted of 25 pages. Three hundred and fifteen issues were published. The last one was published in January 1906. Liang Qichao, who was a member of the Society, wrote the preface to the first issue11: After the Qin and Han Dynasties, literature became less useful. Agriculture, industry, and commerce became separated from classical

knowledge…. Scholars do not farm, and farmers do not study literature. Agricultural knowledge has been accumulating for thousands of years. It would be regretful if knowledge was not passed on…. We intend to create

a trend, promote reform, and publish translated materials. Therefore, we follow the rules of the Essentials of Agriculture and Sericulture

(Nongsang jiyao 農 桑 輯 要 ) and use the Chinese Scientific Magazine as a model in categorizing articles: agricultural theories, animals and botany,

arboriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishery, manufacturing, chemicals, agricultural instruments, and discussion. We learn from Japan and Europe. We learn from history to cultivate our soil.

About 80% of the articles in the Journal of Agriculture were translated. Those 32

Journalism during the Reform Period

adopted from Japanese publications was categorized as “Eastern Selection,” and

those from Europe and the U.S. as “Western Selection.” They could be further categorized into the following:

•• Specialization in agricultural studies: “Introduction to Agriculture,” “Plantation,” “Pedology,” and “Forestry”

•• Foreign technology: e.g., “Improvement in Rice Growing,” “New Technology for Growing Maize,” and “Deep Plowing”

•• Experiments and research reports: e.g. “Test on Sweet Potatoes” •• Agricultural production and trade across the world

There were columns such as “Agriculture in Different Provinces” and

“Agricultural Products in Different Provinces” written by the editorial board.

Articles included “Cultivating Chrysanthemum,” “The Study of Ginseng,” and “How to Nurture Silkworms.” It also published excerpts of agricultural classics.

The Journal of Agriculture was on the market for 10 years. It introduced

foreign teaching materials, basic knowledge, technology, and the status of agriculture to China. It was an important publication to China’s modern agricultural science.

The Journal of Mathematics (Suanxue bao 算學報 ) was first published in July 1897 in Wenzhou. It was the first publication on mathematics in China. It was founded by Huang Qingcheng, who was born in Pingyang County, Wenzhou.

He was a reformist and had frequent discussions with Sun Yirang, Chen Qiu,

Chen Fuchen, and Song Shu. He wrote in the Journal that “it is a difficult time and foreign invasions multiplied…. I founded this journal to introduce science to enlighten the Chinese. [Therefore,] I chose the most important part of mathematics

and introduce it in a progressive manner. Whether the reader has training in the subject or not, he will be able to understand.”

The Journal was solely funded by Huang. He did not receive any donation.

Therefore, it was difficult to keep the Journal going at first. The content was also written by Huang alone. The first issue was on basic calculations and fractions;

the second on square roots; the fourth to seventh on algebra; the eighth to tenth on geometry; the eleventh on The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ; and

the twelfth on mathematics theories. To him, not understanding mathematics was one of the major failings of the Chinese.

The original office of the Journal was on Fuqian Street, Wenzhou. It moved

to Meifu Lane, New Road, Shanghai as of its second issue. It was then sold at the

office of The Chinese Progress , the Science Study Hall (Gezhi shushi 格致書室 ), Liuxian Bookstore (Liuxian shuju 六先書局 ), and Zuiliu Hall (Zuiliu tang 醉六堂 ).

It was popular among readers.

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According to the compilation of The China Discussion published in Yokohoma in 1901, the Journal of Mathematics was on the list of journal exchange. It can be seen that its influence was beyond China and it was one of the most important publications in the Chinese world of mathematics. New Knowledge was a fortnightly journal first published in August 1897 in Shanghai. It was co-edited by the Society of New Knowledge (Xinxue hui 新 學 會 ) and the Society of Mathematics. Ye Yaoyuan was the chief writer. Each volume contained around 20 pages. It was printed on Lianshi paper using stone lithography. Its charter printed in the first issue said12: This journal aimed at improving the quality of teaching and nurturing talents. The Society of New Knowledge has been set up for a few years. Its name was taken from Great Learning (Daxue 大學 ), which means to broaden the mind and learn something new every day. Last year, the Society of Mathematics was founded. Many scholars exchanged their views in discussions. At this moment, we decided to publish the four sections in this order: mathematics, politics, medicine, and natural history. Apart from Shanghai, Beijing, Tianjin, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Shaanxi Province, and Guangdong Province, the journal was also distributed in Hong Kong and Singapore.

Foreign periodicals At that time, there were also Chinese reformist periodicals overseas. East Asian News (Dongya bao 東亞報 ) was a xunkan first published on June 29, 1898, in Kobe. It was the first Chinese reformist publication in Japan. Xun Jingke was appointed as director, and Han Tanshou, Kang Tonwen, and Han Wenju as writers. Some Japanese writers also contributed. It aimed at “salvaging China” and “strengthening East Asia.” It contained several columns such as Political Commentaries, Religion, Politics, Commerce, and Arts. It published 11 issues. Publication was suspended soon after the Coup of 1898. In Taipei, reformist periodicals such as the Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo [Taiwan Daily Newspaper], Taiwan Business News (Taiwan shangbao 台 灣 商 報 ), and Takasagun (Gaoshan guo 高山國 ) also emerged in 1898. The periodicals did not completely see eye to eye on reform. Some were enthusiastic toward reform; some supported reform but did not concur with the ideologies; some were against reform. Their emergence was catalyzed by reform movements. Like other reformist publications, they took self-organized publishing

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to new heights. They were valuable entities in China’s history of journalism.

On October 9, 1898, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict on the

ban of newspapers. All chief writers were to be captured. Most of the above publications were suspended. Reformists could not publish in China. Therefore, they looked to foreign periodicals.

Reformist publications have an incredible status in the history of Chinese

journalism. It made Chinese publishing overtake the foreign press in society. They

became the discussion hub. They were also the first place where the bourgeois

ideologies were introduced to government officials, scholars, and the public. It broke through from the shackles of the Qing government. It was the first step towards the freedom of speech. The influence was substantial and long-lasting.

Improvement of periodicals during the reform periods The bourgeois reformers began running periodicals since the 1870s. After 20 years of trial and error, they acquired experience to better run the business in journalism.

Taking political commentaries seriously Reformist periodicals gave much attention to political commentaries. The elaboration and promotion of reform ideologies and the criticism of autocracy

were all included in political commentaries. Most founders of periodicals were leaders of the reformist groups, who were responsible for writing political commentaries. Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Tan Sitong, Yan Fu, and Zhang Taiyan

were all famous for their radical articles. They also abandoned the traditional

style used in the Eight-part Essay (Baguwen 八 股 文 ) and created a new style:

New-Style Writing. This style was thoroughly used in The Chinese Progress , and,

therefore, it was later called “The Chinese Progress style.”

The Hundred Days’ Reform was the first “emancipation of the mind.”

New thinking needs a new elaboration style. The freedom of mind needs to be expressed with a freedom of style. New-Style Writing evolved in the midst of political struggles. It was not simply a radical change in style from the traditional, rigid Eight-part Essay style to a modern style. It reflected the reformist groups’ desire for reform.

In October 1896, Tan Sitong published “The Style of Writing in Newspaper”

in The Chinese Progress . He praised New-Style Writing. He argued that the newspaper was a means to broaden the mind of the readers. It was only logical

to use a new style to elaborate one’s thoughts freely and start a new trend. He

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reviewed the historical Chinese style of writing and categorized traditional style into three groups and 10 types. He criticized that traditional articles were lacking

in the breadth of contents. He thought that only newspapers could record events that happened across centuries and across the world. Proper editing would refine the articles for readers.

One of the characteristics of New-Style Writing was that the topics of the

articles were closely related to daily life and required immediate attention. Reformers felt that traditional literature did little to strengthen China. Therefore, they adopted the “New Style” in their articles, aiming at promoting reform. Readers could feel their passion and would be inspired.

Another characteristic was that the language was less standard and more

informal. Liang Qichao stressed that the language of a newspaper should be simple,

flexible, and easy to understand. He strived to change the phenomenon that written and spoken Chinese were not identical. He wrote in the preface for the Journal of

Enlightenment (Meng xuebao 蒙學報 ) and Yanyi News (Yanyi bao 演義報 )13:

The reform in Japan relied on the power of folk songs and fictions. That

method failed. They only served as entertainment. The effect may be even

worse in China. Six out of 10 persons are illiterate, and three out of four are literate but do not understand grammar. So, it is the top priority for China to educate the young and illiterate.

Reformers tried to find a way to liberate language and writing styles from the

shackles of traditional rules. It also opened a channel for introducing Western and new knowledge to the public to open their mind. This is the reason why many

newspapers were written in vernacular Chinese or specially edited for women or children.

Not every article in the reformist newspapers had the two characteristics

mentioned above. Some contained profound thoughts and the diction was dated; some used simple language but the thinking was too complicated. Kang Youwei’s

articles were criticized for being inconsistent with the style; Tan Sitong’s for being too pompous; Yan Fu’s for being too obsolete. They were not completely freed from the traditional writing style.

Liang was the representative figure in New-Style Writing. His articles were

reputable for his sophisticated thoughts and crisp and polished writing style. He incorporated Western liberalism, political history and theories, literature, and

Buddhism and into his arguments. He started to form his own writing style when

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he was at the New Citizen Journal . By the time he was in charge of The Chinese Progress , he was regarded as the best writer in the circle of reformist periodicals. As the bourgeois writers were still influenced by the traditional writing style, New-Style Writing could not fully evolve. But, journalists continued to employ this style during the 1911 Revolution and May Fourth Movement. It was refined by the next generation.

Incorporating commentary into news reports During the reform period, the periodicals were not distinguished as newspapers, journals, and magazines, and news report was a less important component of the periodicals. In many reformist periodicals, political commentary took up a major part of contents. Some journalists started to incorporate political commentary into news report, which became a characteristic of reformist periodicals at that time. One of the methods was to add editor endnotes similar to the “Afterword” of the Records of the Grand Historian (Shi ji 史記 ). This method was used in the World Bulletin and The Chinese Progress . For example, on December 26, 1895, an endnote was added to a news report about a foreign bank opening in Shanghai published in the World Bulletin : “The bank is scheduled to open in next spring. Financing from Russia and France has been secured and the U.S. Consulate is involved. It is a lucrative business. How can China, being the landowner, let this opportunity slip away?” Similarly, a short commentary was added to a translated foreign news report “Russia May Set Up a Pacific Steamship Company” in The Chinese Progress on December 15, 1896: “Whether the news is true does not matter. Russia has wanted to conquer the East for many years…. This shows their intention. We should take this as a warning.” Another method was to add commentary into the main text. The following commentary was added to the new report of the Gongche Shangshu Movement published in Kwo Wen Pao on April 3, 1898: “Mai Rubo from Shunde and Liang Qichao from Xinhui were two patriots, and the public wanted to learn from them.” Kwo Wen Pao commented on the news of Jiang Biao being appointed as the Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the article “New Officials at the General Administration Office” on September 15, 1898: “[Jiang Biao] was successful as the Hunan Education Commissioner. He was one of the few officials who supported reform in Hunan Province. The Emperor appreciated that and that is why Jiang was promoted before even being summoned by the Emperor.” These commentaries showed the praise and support the periodicals had for the reformist activists. The reform also supplemented the political commentary.

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Improvement in editorial work In early modern periodicals, there was less news and little distribution. Readers

did not expect timely reports. Therefore, whether it was a magazine or a daily, all copies were designed like a book. The layout design was simple and without columns. The font size was the same for headlines and the main text. The design improved during the reform period. When Wang Kangnian founded The

Chinese Progress in 1898, he divided the layout into columns and the contents into sections. News articles were put into sections according to their nature (e.g. “Foreign News” and “Domestic News”) rather than categorized as imperial edicts, commentary, records, etc. Articles were edited in terms of length and content. The trend of using four-character headlines which summarized the news, e.g. “Records of Wulin (Wulin jishi 武林紀事 )” and “White Gate Willow (Baimen liuse 白門柳色 )”, was abandoned. News headlines usually referred to the news category or gave more information of the content, e.g. “Defense at Wusong (Wusong fangwu 吳 淞 防 務 )” and “The Delegation Is to Go Abroad (Jianfang chuyang qinshi 簡放出洋欽使 ),” were used.

Better news research As early as in 1896, Liang Qichao pointed out that newspapers should report news around the world, record policies in every province, and gather news

of important diplomatic events. In 1897, the telegraph cable from Shanghai,

through Tianjin, Beijing, and Mongolia connected with the one from Siberia near Kyakhta. Since then, telegraphs could be sent between Shanghai and Europe. The Shanghai branch of Reuters and other Shanghai press received telegraphs from

Europe every day. Reformist newspapers started to pay more attention to newsgathering. The focus changed from reporting local anecdotes and “yellow news [news with little research]” to current political affairs. Some editors specialized in news editing. Kwo Wen Pao received many press releases from other countries.

Most of them were excerpts of foreign newspapers. Some may be written specially for Kwo Wen Pao. As news-gathering was taken more seriously, news reports became more timely and well-written. For example, the Universal Gazette

published the article “Kang Youwei Arrived in Wusong” on September 25, 1898. It was published within 24 hours after they obtained the news. Four days after

the Coup of 1898 (September 24), the government was searching for Kang Youwei in Shanghai. Kang was on the way to Hong Kong under British protection. The

event was vividly described in the news report. It mentioned the several warships

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entering and leaving the port in Wusong, described the government’s hunting down of Kang, the British Consulate’s refusal of being searched, and Kang

Youwei’s escape. Although the language was simpler, its content was much richer than it was in the past.

Illustrated news The Narrative Post (Shu bao 述報 ) was founded in 1884 and the first to publish news with illustrations. During the reform period, reformist periodicals started

to be aware of the benefits of having illustrations. For example, in the 43rd issued of The Reformer China , there was a page of Russian czar Peter the Great. Under

the picture, a text was added to introduce the Biography of Peter the Great (Da Pide zhun 大彼得傳 ) which was about reform in Russia. It was a way to promote reform in China. Before, newspapers were printed on a single side on slick paper and Lianshi paper. Since reforms, a few reformist newspapers began to print on both sides of machine-made white newsprint paper. The printing quality improved. However, illustrations were still printed using woodcut printing. The printing version of the illustrations was not as accurate or delicate as that in the Dianshi Studio Illustrated in the 1880s.

The fiction section During the reform period, apart from literary periodicals such as Li Baiyuan’s Leisure (Youxi bao 遊 戲 報 ), reformist periodicals rarely published literature or had any kind of supplement. The only literature The Chinese Progress published was the Sherlock Holmes stories A Case of Identity and The Adventure of the Final Problem in its 24th to 30th issues. Among the reformists, Yan Fu and Liang Qichao were more aware of the power of fiction in society. They once had plans to include a fiction section in newspapers. For example, on November 15, 1897, Kwo Wen Pao published an article titled “The Fiction Section of Kwo Wen Pao ” written by Yan Fu and Xia Zengyou. It proposed that fiction should be included in the supplement of a newspaper. Later, Liang also published the article “Translating and Publishing Political Fiction.” He pointed out that foreign fiction related to China’s situation at that time should be translated and included in the end of the newspaper. Nevertheless, their suggestions did not become reality during the reform period. It was not until after the Coup of 1898 when they fled to other countries that a supplement was enclosed with the newspaper and political fiction began to be used as a means to enlighten the public.

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5

Chapter

Journalism during the Brewing of Revolution

A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 2

The brewing of revolution refers to the period from the Coup of 1898 to the

founding of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. During that time, Kang Youwei,

Liang Qichao, and other bourgeois reformists were running periodicals overseas. They continued to criticize Empress Dowager Cixi and her supporters, as well

as to introduce Western knowledge, broaden minds, and fight against foreign

invasions and the die-hards in the Qing government. However, reforms and constitutional monarchy could no longer satisfy the public. People wanted revolution and democracy. The democratic revolutionists started to replace the reformists in terms of social status and influence. The revolutionists began

running periodicals in Shanghai to promote their revolution ideologies. Bourgeois revolutionist periodicals flourished and reached new heights.

Liang Qichao and Periodicals in Japan The China Discussion: The first overseas official reformist newspaper After the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, the bourgeois reformists lost everything. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled to Japan. They recovered and established the first official newspaper overseas: The China Discussion.

The China Discussion was founded on December 23, 1898 in Yokohoma. The newspaper adopted the Confucian calendar1 and abandoned the era name of the Qing Emperor. Three issues were published every month. Each issue contained around 30,000 words printed on Lianshi paper stitched together like a book. A total of 100 issues were published. The last issue was published on December 21, 1901. There were several financing channels in the early stages of the newspaper: First, the majority of funds were donations from Chinese expatriates in Japan such as Feng Jingru and Feng Zishan, plus the money Li Duanshi gave Liang Qichao for fleeing China, and the donations from Huang Zhunxian. In order to avoid the Qing government’s intervention through the Japanese government, the newspaper was nominally printed by Japanese Suzuki Tsurutaro and published and edited by “British” Feng Jingru. In fact, Liang Qichao was the chief editor. He used several pen names to publish more than 300 articles, poems, and prose pieces. When Liang was not in Japan, Mai Menghua was in charge. Qin Lishan and Zheng Guangong, who became revolutionaries, acted as editors for some time. Zhang Tiayan also contributed articles.

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The first issue of The China Discussion Liang Qichao summarized the aims of The China Discussion in the beginning of the 1st issue as to strengthen China, to broaden the mind of the Chinese, to broaden and preserve Chinese knowledge, and to improve communication between China and Japan. In the 11th issue in “Amendments to the Charter,” he summarized the four aims as to voice opinion and broaden the minds of the public. By “voicing opinion,” it meant to criticize the Qing imperial court dominated by Empress Dowager Cixi and her supporters and to support Emperor Guangxu. This was the political inclination of the newspaper. By “broadening minds,” it meant to introduce the politics of the Western bourgeoisie and Western thinking. The center of promotion changed during the three years as the situation changed. When the newspaper was founded, it was not long after the Coup of 1898. Therefore, the newspaper dedicated most of its contents to the discussion of the Coup. Its slogan was “send the army, save the emperor, eliminate the enemies.” On July 20, 1890, Kang Youwei established the Chinese Empire Reform Association (CERA) in Victoria, Canada. The Association aimed at helping Emperor Guangxu regain his throne. That was the focus of the newspaper. Liang said in “Respect the Emperor” that the only way to save China was to support Emperor Guangxu. In January 1900, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an edict to name King Duan’s son, Pupo, as crown prince. The newspaper published commentaries such as “On Appointing a New Heir and Dethroning the Emperor” to recruit help to save the Emperor and eliminate the enemies. In the same month, Liang went to Hawaii. During April to May, the Boxer Rebellion spread from Shandong Province to Beijing and Tianjin. The Eight-Nation Alliance began to suppress the Boxers. The China Discussion was worried that the foreign forces would carve up China, but they also wanted to capitalize on this opportunity to help Emperor Guangxu regain the throne. Those working at the newspaper thought that provincial governors and governor-generals in the South, especially Zhang Zhidong who had a large army, would be able to suppress the Boxer Rebellion. They even asked the imperialists in China to provide military aid to help Emperor Guangxu. Tang Caichang set up the Independence Army in August to help but was soon suppressed by Zhang Zhidong. It was a blow to the reformists as well as The China Discussion . Frustration could be detected in its promotional slogan. Liang returned to Japan and The China Discussion in May 1901. On June 7, he published the article “On the Constitution.” It was one of the first articles in the newspaper to promote constitutional monarchy. Liang emphasized that

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“constitutional monarchy is the best political system,” but the conditions in China were not favorable for immediate implementation of such system. He suggested a 10- to 20-year preparatory period before constitutional monarchy would be implemented. Since then, the political focus of the newspaper shifted to “preparing for implementing constitutional monarchy.” In terms of broadening the mind of the public, The China Discussion tried to promote the idea of patriotism, civil liberties, and innovation. In order to help readers understand the status of China in the world and the relationship between China and other countries, the paper had a “Foreign News and Diplomacy” column beginning with its first issue. Commentary from the foreign press on China-related issues was translated and published. Since the 11th issue, the column was expanded and divided into “Foreign Commentary” and “World News.” From the 25th issue onwards, “Foreign Commentary” became “Wenjie Records” and “Mengsheng Records.” Many commentaries were about the economic basis of why imperialist powers invaded China and the dire situation China was in. Since the 6th issue, the newspaper had published installments of Liang’s “Patriotism.” The article elaborated on the concept of “nation” and “patriotism” and stressed that absolute monarchy must be abandoned. It said, “the nation is formed by the citizens” and “patriotism is citizens loving themselves.” “If there are civil liberties, the nation would gain authority; if citizens have no rights, the nation would not have authority.” “Therefore, civil liberties are the basis of patriotism.” Liang also elaborated on the concept of “national citizenship.”2 Later, Liang published articles such as “Ten Elements of National Citizenship” and “The Young China” to encourage the public to break away from traditional customs or thinking and help build a new China. He compared the young and the elderly: The elderly always look back at life and the young look forward. Thinking about the past makes one attached to the past. Thinking about the future makes one hopeful. If one does not move on, one becomes conservative; if one does, one becomes ambitious. If one is conservative, one does not change; if one is ambitious, one will learn new things every day…. The elderly are like dusk, and the young are like dawn. The elderly are like lean cows, and the young are like young tigers. He emphasized that the future of China depended on the younger

generation : 3

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The knowledge of the young is the knowledge of the nation; the wealth of

the young is the wealth of the nation…. If the younger generation Chinese is better than that of Europeans, China is better than Europe. If they are

the best in the world, China is the best in the world…. Bless the younger generation Chinese!

This article inspired the public. Many people called themselves “national citizens.” In the early Republican period, Chen Duxiu advocated in La Jeunesse

that “bureaucracy and autocracy should be abandoned. Freedom and autonomy

must be established.”4 During the May Fourth Movement, Li Dazhao and others

founded the Young China Association (Shaonian Zhongguo xuehui 少年中國學會 ) and published the Journal of the Young China Association (Shaonian Zhongguo

少年中國 ). The 94th issue of The China Discussion published Liang Qichao’s “Changes of National Ideas,” which introduced the idea of “nationalism.” It urged citizens to “see the threat of imperialism and that China should fight against imperialism.”

Since the 96th issue, there was a column of “Political Studies.” Articles appeared in that column included “The Study of Hobbes” and “The Study of Rousseau.” It systematically introduced Western social and political studies. During that

time, Liang and other scholars were seeking refuge overseas. They absorbed new knowledge and thinking from Western literature and culture. They had a deeper understanding of imperialism and the situation of the world. Therefore, The

China Discussion was better than The Chinese Progress in terms of broadening the mind of citizens and arousing nationalism. The China Discussion also improved the quality of editorial work. Liang had a lot of opinions on the editorial process. During his time at The Chinese Progress , he felt ashamed reading his old work because of the poor quality. Therefore, when he became in charge of The China Discussion , he paid much attention to editing. First, he made clear that the editorials were key to achieving the aims of the newspaper. For example, the political inclination was clear and consistent in criticizing the Empress Dowager and her supporters, and it constantly introduced Western knowledge to broaden the minds of the public. Second, the variety of articles was large and articles were categorized. At first, apart from “Editorial,” there were six more columns, which included “News in China,” “Foreign News and Commentary,” and “Political Fiction.” Later, columns such as “Chinese Philosophy,” “Letters from Readers,” “Political Studies,” and “The Book of Freedom of the Ice-Drinker’s Studio.” There were more than 30 columns during

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the 3 years when the newspaper was published. Articles were not copied from other newspapers or unorganized. Third, some columns had their own feature. For example, the “Comments on News in China” which appeared since the 26th issue was timely and straight to the point. This new style of news commentary became prevalent in the industry. The China Discussion was the newspaper which invented this style (in 1899), not the alleged Eastern Times (Shi bao 時報 ) (1904). Moreover, the Chinese terms for “journalists,” “party newspapers,” and “official newspapers” were also invented by The China Discussion . The 100th issue published on December 21, 1901, included an extra article of Liang’s titled “Congratulations to the 100th Issue and the Responsibility and Experience of The China Discussion .” It elaborated on the functions newspapers serve as the voice and information hub of the nation and proposed four parameters for assessing the quality of a newspaper. It reviewed the history of China’s journalism and summarized the functions of The China Discussion as follows: advocating civil liberties, introducing knowledge, reporting on the political situation, and arousing the spirit of the nation. It stressed that the four functions should be well-served. Sadly, on the day after the 100th issue was published, a fire destroyed the office, and The China Discussion closed down. The China Discussion sold usually 3,000–4,000 copies each issue. Under the ban from the Qing government, the sales were already good. The newspaper was sold in major cities in China including Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou, as well as overseas including Japan, Southeast Asia, the U.S., Canada, Australia, and Russia. It was in great demand. Reprints were needed and some distributors pushed up the price without consent. Guo Moruo recalled: “The China Discussion was easy to read. Although the language was simple, it created a new trend. At that time, Liang Qichao was a royalist and we despised him, but we loved his works. His translated The Three Founders of Italy (Yidali jianguo sanjie 意大利建國三傑 ) and the Running of a Nation (Jingguo meitan 經國美談 ) were praiseworthy. He made me idolize Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Benso more than I do Napoleon and Bismarck.” In many ways, the influence of The China Discussion was deep in both academia and culture.

The founding of the New Citizen Journal and its influence Within two months after The China Discussion stopped publication, Liang Qichao founded the fortnightly New Citizen Journal . The journal was published for six years, from February 8, 1902, to November 20, 1907. However, since 1904, the newspaper could seldom publish on time. Only 96 issues were published. Yet, it

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was the most influential official journal.

At first, the journal borrowed a few thousand dollars from the Translation

Bureau of the CERA as funding. A year later, it became a company with shares. Liang held two shares, and Feng Zishan, Huang Weizhi, Deng Yinnan, and Chen Lüsheng each held one share. Feng was the nominal publisher and editor, but

the actual editor in charge was Liang. Main writers included: Ma Junwu, Huang

Yuzhi, Kang Youwei, Zhang Taiyan, Xu Qin, Han Wenju, Ou Jujia, Tang Jun, Liang Qixun, Yang Du, and Xu Fosu. Huang Zunxian, Yan Fu, and Di Chuqing constantly contributed poetry and articles.

The New Citizen Journal contained 50,000–60,000 words in 120 pages. The

white newsprint paper it was printed on was divided into 32 panels on each side.

The design was what a modern magazine should be: It had a colored cover and

illustrations in the first few pages. The contents were divided into “Commentary,” “Political Situation,” “History,” “Academic Knowledge,” “Fiction,” “Words from Famous Figures,” “Foreign News,” “Collection of New Knowledge,” etc.

There were 24 columns with 10–15 constantly appearing in the first year. The

journal was very popular across the country even though the Qing government attempted to put a ban on it. It was more popular than The China Discussion . At

first, only 2,000 copies were printed. The number rocketed to 9,000 within a year

and reached 10,000 later. Sometimes, in China, an issue may be reprinted more than 10 times. The journal was distributed in more than 90 places, including rural areas in China.

The New Citizen Journal was published after the Hundred Days’ Reform

failed and the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion by the Eight-Nation Alliance.

During its six years, many disasters happened and the nation was in turmoil. Social reform movements were fierce and complicated. It was also the time when the bourgeois revolutionists and reformists were fighting each other. This made promotion of the newspaper different from before.

The New Citizen Journal was at its best in 1902. The “Confession” of the

journal stated the ideologies of the newspaper: First, “the journal believed in new democracy discussed in the Great Learning. In order to reform China, we

ourselves must improve…. We must incorporate both Chinese and Western knowledge and political theories to enlighten our mind.” Second, “the journal’s major aim was to educate. Political commentary is supplementary….

Commentary serves to cultivate the mind of the public.” Third, “the political commentary in the journal is just, subjective, and unbiased. It was not the doings

of one person only that China was destroyed. China needs to take its time to

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recover. Radical speech does not help.” The New Citizen Journal was not as radical as The China Discussion . It hoped to cultivate people’s minds with knowledge of the Western bourgeoisie. It advocated a new school of thought on the world, life, social and political sciences, and natural sciences. This could be reflected in the promotion of the journal. Its social influence was immense, which was an important contribution of Liang Qichao and the New Citizen Journal . Some statistics of the New Citizen Journal in 1902 are shown below: •• There were 80 illustrations, of which 75 were Western scenery or portraits. •• There were 24 issues. In 23 issues, the first two articles were about Western thinking. •• There were 340 headings, of which 180 were about the ideologies of the Western bourgeoisie. •• The more important headings included: “New Democracy,” “Two Schools of Thought in Recent Civilization,” “Biography and Theories of Darwin,” “The Philosophy of Montesquieu,” “The Trend of Changes in Western Thinking,” “The Three Founders of Italy,” “The Philosophy of Rousseau,” “Madame Roland,” “Political Thinking of Aristotle,” “The History of Constitution in Europe and the U.S.,” and “Chronicles of Philosophers across the World.” From the headings, it can be seen that the contents covered the history from ancient to modern times, philosophers from all around the world, and a wide range of academic subjects. Moreover, as mentioned, illustrations were used to introduce Western scenery and public figures. In terms of the contents, there were columns which specialized in introducing Western knowledge, publications, and news: “Foreign Tales,” “New Publication Release,” and “Foreign Imports.” At that time, it was rare for a Chinese periodical to devote so much content to introducing the Western bourgeoisie. The new knowledge inspired and broadened the traditional minds of the public. Therefore, it was the most important and representative bourgeoisie periodical in the years between the Hundred Day’s Reform and the 1911 Revolution, as well as an influential, comprehensive publication which the public adored. The important articles of the New Citizen Journal were mostly written by Liang Qichao. In early 1902, he attracted attention by doing three things related to new democracy: First, he closed down The China Discussion and founded the New Citizen Journal . Second, he changed his penname to “New citizen of China.”5 Third, the article “New Democracy” was published in the first few issues of the New Citizen Journal which explained his thoughts and support

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for the Counter-Enlightenment, as well as the aims of the journal. He stressed that establishing new democracy in China was a top priority. He also advocated bourgeoisie independence, freedom, and patriotism. He encouraged people to have self-respect, improve themselves and benefit the greater community, and be more ambitious. In May, he wrote to Kang Youwei saying that he wrote 5,000 words for the newspaper every day and he was exhausted. At that time, the bourgeois reformists wanted to be part of the government. In order to succeed, from the first issue of the New Citizen Journal , they used the influence of Rousseau’s “Social Contract” and Montesquieu’s “Separation of Three Powers” on revolutions and protecting freedom in Europe as examples to explain why China needed civil liberties, equity, freedom, and a bourgeoisie political system. It also criticized autocracy as well as previous monarchs for controlling the minds of the public. Furthermore, it believed that different schools of thought should be encouraged so that academia would flourish and disapprove of only learning from one school of thought. The New Citizen Journal was against capitalism and imperialism. It once published an article which said, “Imperialism is like robbers.”6 The newspaper was also angry at the Qing governments’ servile attitude towards foreign powers. It praised many Western revolutionary figures and their achievements. Apart from the introduction of Western political thoughts, the journal promoted the use of bourgeoisie theories to study Chinese “traditional” history and literature. Liang Qichao’s article “New History” appeared in the first issue. He criticized “The Emperor Is the Core” which represented the traditional way of historical studies. In the second issue, a fiction column was added. It published translated works such as Fifteen Little Heroes (Shiwu xiao haojie 十五小豪傑 ) and New Rome (Xin Luoma zhuanqi 新羅馬傳奇 ). In “To Fellow Journalists” published in the 17th issue, Liang stated that newspapers should shoulder the responsibilities of monitoring the government and guiding the public. This represented the general view on journalism in the early bourgeoisie times. Since 1904, Liang published many articles which criticized capitalism: “Trust,” “China’s Monetary Issues,” and “Issues on Foreign Investment.” He believed that national economy was most suitable for China. The New Citizen Journal also contributed a lot to reforming the writing style and other publishing areas. Liang refined New-Style Writing. He incorporated slang and grammar of foreign languages into Chinese to make language less pompous. This new style was then called the “New Citizen’s style.” He received a lot of praise from Tan Sitong and Huang Zunxian. In summer 1902, Huang said in the “Letter

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to the Master of the Ice-Drinker’s Studio”: “The China Discussion was much better than The Chinese Progress . Now, the New Citizen Journal is a hundred times better than The China Discussion.” He praised Liang so high that he said the writing in the New Citizen Journal was the best in history and would touch everyone’s heart. Liang had immense respect for Huang. Huang was one of the pioneers in poetry reform. The New Citizen Journal constantly published his works. Much of the promotion and highlighting of the New Citizen Journal, in fact, served political functions. Most of their readers were the educated youth, who despised the pro-government views of the reformists, but enjoyed reading the New Citizen Journal . This was because the journal’s stance was clear on antiimperialism, and it introduced new thinking and criticized traditional ideologies. It echoed the public’s view. To a certain extent, it prompted many people to support revolution and democracy. This was a rather unique aspect of the journal. Even today some proletarian revolutionists would talk about the inspiration they had from the New Citizen Journal . Wu Yuzhang [a democratic revolutionary] recalled: “In 1902, I returned to Weiyuan County to continue my study. I particularly like reading the New Citizen Journal and the New Fiction Journal (Xin xiaoshuo 新小說 ).” Zou Taofen [a journalist and publisher] remembered that he was given an issue of the New Citizen Journal in high school: “I was immediately enthralled. It inspired me to be a journalist.” Mao Zedong talked about his times as a student: “I was reading two periodicals about Kang Youwei’s reform movements which my cousin gave me. One was the New Citizen Journal . I read it so many times that I could remember every word.” The influence of the New Citizen Journal lasted a few generations. It was definitely the most important newspaper in Liang’s career. It cannot be denied that some of the political views of the newspaper were biased and distorted. Liang was confined by his background as a bourgeois reformer. The bourgeois reformists believed that reform movements were confined to the middle and upper class. Some of the articles in the newspaper were condescending to the lower class. Liang also constantly blamed the Chinese for selfishness and foolishness. These concepts were further promoted in Kang Youwei’s “Civil Autonomy” and “On Revolution.” In 1903, the bourgeois revolutions reached a climax. The contents of the New Citizen Journal and Liang’s political views changed dramatically. Liang toured the U.S. in February. During that time, Jiang Zhi was in charge of the editorial board. Jiang was born in Zhuji, Zhejiang Province. He was a member of the Education Association of China (Zhongguo jiaoyu hui 中國教育會 ) organized by

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Cai Yuanpei [a revolutionary, educationalist, and politician]. He was quite radical at that time. Later, he followed Kang and Liang and became one of the important figures in reformist media.

Since 1905, the reformists and revolutionists were engaged in political conflict.

The reformists and the New Citizen Journal openly supported royalism and autocracy and claimed that constitutional monarchy or a republic government did not suit China. They received strong criticism from the revolutionary The Minpao

Magazine .

The first modern literary journal: The New Fiction Journal Liang Qichao founded the New Fiction Journal in November 1902 in Yokohoma.

It was the first Chinese literary journal which published fiction, drama scripts, poetry, and literature theory. At first, it was a monthly journal, but publication

was often delayed since the fourth issue. Twenty-four issues were published in three years. The last issue was published in January 1906. The nominal editor and publisher was Zhao Yulin. In fact, Liang Qichao was in charge of the editorial board. Other editors included Han Wenju, Jiang Zhiyou, and Ma Junwu.

Liang explained the aims and features of the Journal in “The Relationship

between Fiction and Social Issues” in the first issue: Fiction has unimaginable power in changing people’s values. To change the thinking of the citizens, the morals, the religion, or politics, one must reform fiction. In “The Future of New

China,” Liang said that he believed in the power of fiction to strengthen China. He wanted to convey his political views through fiction.

Liang was the first Chinese to value the social functions that fiction could

serve. Before, fiction was regarded as (lower-class) entertainment. The New

Fiction Journal publicized the fact that it was trying to express political views and strengthen China. It pointed out that fiction could have both positive and negative influence. First, it mentioned highly regarded classics (Dream of the Red Chamber , Water Margin ) and praised them for being written in vernacular Chinese. It also tried to reform fiction to make it a new type of literature which served social functions. This was why the journal was called “New” Fiction Journal . Second, it believed that there should be publications which specialized in literature so that society would respond. The New Fiction Journal published political fiction, social science fiction, historical fiction, drama, and poetry. Some of the political views expressed included reforming society, supporting the women’s liberation and the Soviet Union’s Nihilism Movement. Wu Woyao’s “Strange

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Phenomenon Witnessed in the Past Twenty Years” gave a true description of the people’s lives at that time and exposed the darker side of society and the Qing government. It tried to change reader’s perception of the corrupted system. From December 1898 to November 1902, Liang founded The China Discussion , the New Citizen Journal , and the New Fiction Journal to promote the new bourgeois ideologies. It was the period when Liang was most influential. It was once said that his contribution during that time was so huge that it could cancel out all his mistakes. However, as democratic revolutions began to take form in the early 20th century, reformists faltered. Revolutionism became the most prevalent in the first 10 years of the century. The Qing Empire was eventually overthrown.

Other Reformist Publications Overseas reformist publications around 1900 Apart from The China Discussion and the New Citizen Journal , the bourgeois reformists controlled more than 30 overseas periodicals (mainly in America and Southeast Asia) around 1900. They strongly propagated constitutional monarchy. Chinese periodicals first appeared overseas in America. In April 1899, Kang Youwei left Japan and went to Canada. He established the CERA. Later, he set up branches of the Association in San Francisco, New York, Chicago, Sacramento, Honolulu, etc. He recruited Chinese expatriates to join the Association. America became an important base of overseas reformist periodicals in 1900. In San Francisco, there was a commercial newspaper called Propriety Tribune (Wenxiao bao 文憲報 ) before Kang was there. The political inclination of the newspaper was similar to Kang’s after the Coup of 1898. The newspaper soon became linked to the CERA. In 1899, Kang sent Xu Qin, Liang Qitian, and Long Zehou to San Francisco to establish the Mon Hing Po as the official newspaper of the CERA. The reception went well. When Sun Yat-sen established the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in 1905, the newspaper served as a battlefield for the royalists and the revolutionists. Golden Harbor Daily ( Jingang ribao 金港日報 ) was contemporary with the Mon Hing Po and administered by Kang’s students. But its influence was not as strong. The China Zhi Gong Party (Hongbang 紅 幫 or 洪 幫 ) refers to secret nongovernmental parties which opposed the Qing Empire and aimed at restoring the Ming Empire. As the Emperor Tianqi of Ming was called Hong Wu, members of the Zhi Gong Party were called “brothers of Hongmen 紅 門 .” The Heaven and Earth Society, the Gelao Society, and the Tree Harmonies Society were

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branches of the China Zhi Gong Party. During the reign of Emperor Tongzhi, members of the Guangdong Tree Harmonies Society were under pressure of the

Qing government. Some of them went to America as workers. They set up the headquarters of the China Zhi Gong Party (Ghee Hin Kongsi 義 興 公 司 ) in San

Francisco. Branches were later set up across the U.S. and in Canada. It became the largest Chinese Expatriate society in America.

Great Unity Daily (Datong ribao 大 同 日 報 ) was founded by Ou Jujia, Tang Qiongchang, and Zhu Sanjin in San Francisco in 1902. It was the first official newspaper of the Zhi Gong Party. Ou incorporated Kang’s Theory of “Great Unity (datong )” into the aim of the Party. It was well-received by the Chinese expatiates. Later, Great Unity Daily was controlled by the CERA. Ou was born in Weiyang, Guangdong Province. He was one of the best writers among Kang Youwei’s students. Before the Coup of 1898, he worked as an editor at The Chinese Progress and The Reformer China . He went to Yokohoma after the Coup to assist Liang Qichao at The China Discussion . Inspired by Sun Yat-sen, he supported revolution and wanted freedom and equality. He was reprimanded by Kang, who reassigned him to San Francisco to succeed Xu Qin as the chief editor of Mon Hing Po . In 1903, Kang assigned Tang Mingshan to establish Chinese Reform News (Weixin bao 中國維新報 ) in New York. It was the official newspaper of the CERA on the East Coast. On April 19, 1900, Liang Qichao founded the New China Press (Xin Zhongguo bao 新中國報 ). The header “First in Hawaii” was printed under the nameplate. Liang was the chief writer. As an official newspaper of the CERA, it claimed that “supporting royalism is revolution.” It was strongly criticized by the reformist Hawaiian Chinese News . Apart from the U.S., the CERA established official newspapers in Canada, Mexico, and Australia. Kang Youwei assigned Liang Qichao to set up News Daily (Rixin bao 日新報 ) in Canada. Liang Qitian and Liang Wenqing had been in charge of the editorial board. After 1907, News Daily was constantly in debate with the revolutionist Chinese American News (Hua Mei bao 華 美 報 ) and The Chinese Times until the outbreak of the 1911 Revolution. Mexico was one of the important regions in Central America where CERA activities were intense. Kang Youwei and Laing Qichao opened banks and established a tram company to raise funds for CERA. In 1905, Kang founded the official newspaper for the CERA branch in Mexico — the Mexico Morning Post (Moxige zhaobao 墨西哥朝報 ). It was the first Chinese newspaper in Mexico. It

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stopped publication soon due to too few readers. In September 1900, Liang went to Australia from India at the invitation of the Australian CERA branch. He met a lot of Chinese expatriates there and recruited many Chinese who were from Guangdong Province. He also set up branches in Sydney and Melbourne. In 1902, Kang assigned Tang Caizhi to establish an official newspaper — Tung Wah Times — in Sydney. Tang Caizhi was the third brother of Tang Caichang. His efforts at Tung Wah Times paid off. In 1906, Kang regarded it equally with the New Citizen Journal , Mon Hing Po , and the New China Press. Reformist newspapers were also active in Southeast Asia around 1900. Thien Nan Shin Pao was founded by Chinese expatriate and merchant Qiu Shuyuan on May 26, 1898, in Singapore. It was the first official CERA post in Southeast Asia. Qiu (1871–1941) was from Fujian Province. He was awarded the title Juren and involved in the Gongche Shangshu Movement. He lost hope in the Qing government and decided he would inherit his father’s rice trading business. After the Coup of 1898, he founded Thien Nan Shin Pao to “praise the Coup of 1898.” He invited Kang Yintian, Huang Shizhong, and Huang Boyao to be in charge of the editorial board. In 1899, when Kang Youwei established the Singaporean branch of CERA, Qiu was recommended for being the Chairman and Thien Nan Shin Pao became the official newspaper. The newspaper was distributed in Southeast Asia as well as in China. The Qing government felt threatened. On March 7, 1900, the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei Provinces Zhang Zhidong commanded the ban on the newspaper. In August 1900, Tang Caichang instigated the Independent Army Uprising. Qiu and his brother donated money and called for donation through the newspaper. When the Uprising failed, the Qiu brothers suffered huge financial loss, and the Thien Nan Shin Pao stopped publication. The Philippines was where reformist newspapers were more active. Upon Kang Youwei’s call, some Chinese expatriates in the Philippines set up a branch of CERA in Manila and the official newspaper Friendly News (Yiyou xinbao 益友 新報 ). It was solely funded by Pan Shufan, who was also the manager and editor. Friendly News was printed using lead typesetting and a printing machine. The contents, editing, and printing were more advanced than the earlier newspapers Chinese News (Hua bao 華報 ) and Min News (Min bao 岷報 ). The newspaper lasted for little more than a year. It was reorganized into Minyi News (Minyi bao 岷 益 報 ). Later, the number of readers dropped and the members of the CERA were scattered. It stopped publication in 1900. Chinese newspapers in Indonesia (The Dutch Indies at that time) flourished

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along with Chinese “nationalism” and the patriotic movement in the 20th century. Yu Zaixiang founded Li Bao 理報 in Sukabumi in 1901; Surabaya News (Sishui xinwen 泗水新聞 ) was founded in 1902; Business News (Shangye xinwen 商業新聞 ) in Jakarta in 1903; Cai Guanzhu founded the Chinese and Malaysian Translation News (Yi bao 譯報 ) in Solo in 1904; weekly newspapers, such as Ho Po 和報 , were published in Bogor and Argumentation (Lun wen 論文 ) in Surabaya. The newspapers were founded by local Chinese. They aimed at promoting Chinese culture and reporting on the business world. They did not have any political background. In summer 1903, Kang Youwei arrived in Indonesia from India to support the CERA in Java to set up the Surabaya Daily (Sishui ribao 泗水日報 ) and Chinese schools in Jakarta and Semarang. The newspaper and schools were administered by Kang’s students — Lin Kui and Lu Dunfan. In 1904, Kang helped the CERA in Sumatera to establish the Sumatra Daily (Sudao ribao 蘇島日報 ). He assigned his student Liang Boming to be in charge of the editorial board. The newspaper was published for a long time and was quite influential. A debate was launched between it and revolutionist newspapers in 1907. From 1899 to 1905, the reformist newspapers founded in America and Southeast Asia had the following characteristics: First, they were all established when China was going through a difficult time and Chinese expatriates were more patriotic than before. In earlier times, Chinese went overseas to eke out a living. They cared about the trade situation and the ship schedules but not the situation in China. Therefore, overseas Chinese newspapers in the 19th century reported mainly business news. The failure of the Hundred Days’ Reform, the corruption of the Qing government, and the dire situation of China aroused the Chinese expatriates. They began to pay more attention to China’s situation and news. The reformists took the opportunity to set up newspapers and motivated the development of overseas Chinese newspapers. Second, political newspapers replaced the commercial newspapers. Overseas Chinese newspapers entered into a new age. Kang declared all newspapers founded by the CERA as party newspapers or official newspapers. It was stipulated in the regulations of CERA that The Reformer China and The China Discussion were the “headquarters” of CERA. The CERA also sponsored some of the overseas commercial newspapers in an attempt to convert the newspapers to one of their official publications. Few newspapers remained purely commercial and politically neutral. Third, although Kang and Liang Qichao fled China, they continued to set up newspapers, schools, and organizations as part of their political activities.

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In Japan, they published The China Discussion and established the Great Unity Academy (Datong xuexiao 大同學校 ) and the CERA. In Canada, Singapore, and Java, they set up the branches of CERA, Daily News (Rixin bao 日 新 報 ), Thien Nan Shin Pao , and the Surabaya Daily , the Yi Academy (Yi xuetang 義學堂 ), the Strength Academy (Shili xuetang 實力學堂 ), and the China Academy (Zhonghua xuetang 中華學堂 ) at the same time. They contributed to broadening the mind of overseas Chinese and arousing their spirit.

Reformist newspapers in Hong Kong and Macau According to statistics, from 1900 to August 1905 before the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was established, around 200 types of newspapers appeared in China, Hong Kong, and Macau. They included: government official newspapers, reformist newspapers, revolutionary newspapers, specialized newspapers, entertainment newspapers, and newspapers founded by foreigners in China. After a period of suffering since the Qing government suppressed the publication of newspapers after the Coup of 1898, the newspaper industry recovered. Revolutionists developed quickly and overtook the government diehards and reformists. While the Qing government continued to hunt down Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, it became more lenient towards other reformists. It gave reformists a chance to start publishing newspapers in China again. Kang and Liang assigned people to set up newspapers in China and some reformists also set up their own local newspapers. Of these newspapers, the most influential were: in North China, Ta Kung Pao in Tianjin and the Jinghua Daily (Jinghua ribao 京話日報 ) in Beijing; in East China, Diplomatic Review , Select (Xuan bao 選報 ), Eastern Miscellany , and the

Universal Gazette in Shanghai; in South China, Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune (Linghai bao 嶺海報 ), Commerce Tribune (Shangwu bao 商務報 ), the Shimin Post (Shimin bao 時敏報 ), the Anya Post (Anya bao 安雅報 ), and Yangcheng Daily (Yangcheng ribao 羊城日報 ) in Guangzhou; in Southwest China, Enlightenment Vernacular News (Qimeng tongsu bao 啟蒙通俗報 ) Diplomatic Review was a xunkan founded on January 4, 1902 in Shanghai. The founder, Zhang Yuanji, was also the chief editor. At first, it was issued by the General Knowledge Study Hall (Putongxue shushi 普通學書室 ) until the 29th issue. Since then, the newspaper was published by the Commercial Press. It was the first periodical which specialized in international issues as well as domestic ones. In October 1901 during preparation, Cai Yuanpei wrote: “It publishes important issues and does not cover anecdotes.” The paper was originally named

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Pioneer (Kaixian 開先 ). In November, the newspaper was renamed as Diplomatic Review . It included the following columns: “Commentary,” “Imperial Edicts,” “Official Correspondence,” “Diplomacy,” “News,” “Translated News,” and “Telegraphs.” One of the characteristics of Diplomatic Review was that half of the contents were translated articles adopted from foreign periodicals. It was the first newspaper of that type in China. Zhang Yuanji (1867–1959) was born in Haiyan County, Zhejiang Province. He was awarded the title of Jinshi and appointed as Secretary at the Ministry for Justice and at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. During the Hundred Days’ Reform, although he did not see eye to eye with Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, he supported reform and was summoned by Emperor Guangxu. After the Coup of 1898, he was stripped of official titles and moved to Shanghai. Soon, he joined the Commercial Press and assumed the positions of head of translation and editorial board, manager, and director. He spent his life in the publishing industry and was eager to help the less experienced colleagues progress. Diplomatic Review , which he founded and edited, supported constitutional monarchy and “sensibly resisting the West.” It advocated salvaging China through education and disapproved of violent revolutions. Some of the more notable articles included Yan Fu’s “On Educational Books.” Contrary to the newspaper ’s view, Yan thought it was better to learn from the West rather than resist. He felt that “civil liberties” and “revolutions” were not helping China. He pointed out three failings of China: “little education,” “poverty,” and “fragility.” Of the three failings, “little education” was the most worrisome. This echoed the views of the newspaper that education was the key to saving China. Diplomatic Review had published 300 issues when it closed down in 1911. Select was a digest xunkan founded by Zhao Zude on November 11, 1901, in Shanghai. Its contents were mainly adopted news from other newspapers and a commentary. Jiang Zhiyou and Ma Xulun were the chief editors. The 6th issue of the New Citizen Journal introduced Select : “The Shanghai Select Press publishes three issues of Select each month…. The articles promote nationalism, the writing is profound and beautiful, and the editing was nicely done. It is one of the best newspapers in the region.” Guangdong was the earliest base for Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao to organize educational and political activities. After the Coup of 1898, Kang and Liang were still influential. Kang’s students were very active in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and Macau. Therefore, during 1900 to 1905, Guangzhou had a concentration of reformist newspapers. The more representative ones included the following:

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Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune was founded in March 1898. It was originally part of the Mountain Range Journal (Ling xuebao 嶺 學 報 ). It was a daily printed on a single side of a double-fold paper. The contents included: “Commentary,” “Excerpts of the Imperial Gazette,” “Beijing News,” “Provincial News,” “Guangzhou News,” and “Foreign News.” After the Journal stopped publishing, the Tribune became independent. Chen Qingcai, Ou Baoqing, Wang Shengxian, Zhu Zhisun, Yang Xiaoou, and Tan Rujian were chief writers, writers, and editors. The Tibune was founded at the height of reforms. A large part of the contents were dedicated to reform movements as well as speeches of Liang Qichao at the founding ceremony of the CERA. After the Coup of 1898, it continued to defend Kang Youwei and Liang, and received a warning from the Guangdong Governor-General office. Later, it was renamed as German Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune (Deshang linghai bao 德 商 嶺 海 報 ). In 1900, it published the “news” that the Boxers defeated the Eight-Nation Alliance. Together with the Chinese Daily Paper and Bowen News (Bowen bao 博 聞 報 ), it was banned and investigated by the Guangdong Province officials. Later, Su Yuhuan took over and funded the newspaper and Hu Yanhong became the chief writer. When Wu went to study abroad in Japan, his older brother Wu Yan’e succeeded him. They were supporters of Kang and Liang. In January 1903, the uprising of the revolution failed. The Tribune strongly criticized the revolutionaries for resisting the Manchu. Hong Kong’s China Daily retaliated. The debate lasted for several months. The sales of German Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune grew rapidly during that time. Yet, sales dropped soon after the debate was over. Business Daily (Shangwu ribao 商務日報 ) was founded in 1898. It was previously Bowen News . It was administered by Xu Langfu, edited by Chen Zhixuan, and written by Tan Rujian. In order to escape censorship from the Qing government, it reported news in the style of fiction, which was a pioneering effort in the industry. The Anya Post , originally the Anya Bookstore Post (Anya shuju shishuo bian 安 雅書局世說編 ), was founded in winter 1900. It was a daily of the Anya Bookstore. After Bowen News was banned, the shareholder of Anya Bookstore, Liang Boyin, bought the office of Bowen News and employed the staff of the Bookstore to work on the Anya Bookstore Post . The chief writers included Li Peishi, Zhu He, Tan Rujian, and Zhan Juyin. The columns included: “Excerpts of the Imperial Gazette,” “Commentary,” “Local News,” “Provincial News,” and “Foreign News.” At first, it aimed at promoting Western knowledge. Later, Zhan suggested that the Post should follow the trend and include more political commentaries. As the Post was not very radical or extreme, it was well received by the public and the

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Qing government. It continued to be published until 1918. It was regarded as the newspaper which knew best about the industry’s survival in Guangzhou. The Shimin Post was founded by the Shimin Bookstore in Guangzhou in 1903. It was managed by Deng Junshou, Chen Jianqiu, and Tan Shaoyuan. Kong Xibo was the chief writer. Chen Jingliang and Deng Bocui were editors and writers. Most newspapers in Guangzhou only included contents such as excerpts of the imperial gazette, news, and commentary, the Shimin Post was unique in having a supplement — Sleep Awakening (Xingshui fukan 醒睡副刊 ) — which published fiction, Guangdong songs, and comics. It was well-received by the readers. In 1905, due to lack of funds, it asked for financing from Jiang Kong and Wu Jieming. The newspaper was then controlled by those who supported constitutional monarchy. Cao Jiaou and Han Shanpu became chief writers. In 1900, the newspaper reorganized. Cen Yuhao became publisher and Chen Xinwu became editor. The newspaper was renamed as the New Shimin Post (Shimin xinbao 時敏新報 ) to echo the pending announcement of the beginning constitutional monarchy. It continued to be published after the 1911 Revolution. Later, Yuan Shikai bought the newspaper and it became a channel of the royalists. Yangcheng Daily was founded on February 12, 1903. It was managed by Zhong Zaiquan, Mo Boyin, and Luo Shao’ou. Mo Boji was the editor and Tan Rujian the writer. The Daily became popular shortly after it was first published. It was distributed in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, San Francisco, Honolulu, Manila, Yokohoma, Nagasaki, Kobe, Hai Phong, Hanoi, Saigon, Penang Island, and many overseas Chinese communities. It was the most influential reformist newspaper in southern China at that time and it sales topped Guangzhou for the following reasons: First, it supported constitutional monarchy and disapproved of violent revolutions. It also criticized corrupt officials, which echoed the government’s actions to improve the government structure. It was welcomed by the government and regarded as outspoken. Second, it was supported by the royalists. It often reported news related to Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, which opened doors for it overseas. Third, it was well-informed. Fourth, its financial situation was favorable. It was supported by the “72 Guilds” and the nine “Shantang ”8 in Guangzhou. It became a channel of the gentry, businessmen, and charity bodies. It continued publishing until 1923. The above newspapers share the following characteristics: First, the main publishers, editors, and writers were connected to or influenced by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. Zhu Zhisun, Li Peishi, Kong Xibo, and Zhong Zaiquan were enthusiastic about reforms. Tan Rujian was a fervent

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supporter of Kang and Liang. Tan Rujian (1848–1939) was born in Nanhai, Guangdong Province. Before and after the Coup of 1898, he was the chief writer at the Mountain Range Journal , Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune , and Mocking News (Xixiao bao 嘻笑報 ). Before the Revolution of 1911, he worked at the Anya Post , Business Daily , and Yangcheng Daily as a writer or editor. He supported constitutional monarchy. He worked in Yuan Shikai’s government as a censor. He deleted news of Japan and other foreign countries. His fellows despised him. In 1934, The Chinese Mail published Tan’s “History of the Guangdong Newspaper Industry over 47 Years.” It provided valuable information on the history of journalism in Guangdong Province. Guangzhou fell under Japanese occupation in 1938 and Tan died of starvation. Second, most of these newspapers also ran a bookstore and a school. Editors edited newspapers and books as well as taught in schools. For example, the Anya Post was associated with the Anya Bookstore and the Mingqiang Academy (Mingqiang xuetang 明強學堂 ), the Shimin Post with the Shimin Bookstore and Shimin Academy (Shimin xuetang 時敏學堂 ), and Yangcheng Daily with Kaixin Bookstore (Kaixin shuju 開新書局 ) and the New Youth Academy (Xin shaonian xuetang 新少年學堂 ). The newspaper advertised for the bookstore, the bookstore printed the newspaper, the newspaper and bookstore provided teaching materials for the academy, and the academy provided a channel for the publications to reach a larger audience. Third, most of the founders of the newspapers were wealthy gentry in Guangzhou. They often criticized and revealed the corruption of junior officials and the poorly devised government policies. However, some of them were connected to the government officials and some even accepted bribes. During the same period, the reformist newspaper Enlightenment Vernacular News started publishing in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. The founder of the newspaper Fu Qiaocun was regarded as the founder of Sichuan’s newspaper industry. Fu was born in Jiangyang, Sichuan Province. He founded the Ministry of Books (Tushu ju 圖 書 局 ) in 1900. In December the same year, he founded the Journal of Mathematics (Xuanxue bao 算學報 ). In 1901, he founded Enlightenment Vernacular News which also distributed newspapers from Beijing and Shanghai. In 1903, he set up two public reading corners in the Ministry of Books, which stored around 70 types of newspapers. In 1906, he established a printing commune in the Ministry which took orders for stone lithography and lead letterpress printing. He also renamed Enlightenment Vernacular News as Vernacular News (Tongsu ribao 通俗日報 ).

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Enlightenment Vernacular News was one of the more influential and longlasting newspapers in Chengdu. It promoted patriotism and stressed that only education could strength China and lead China toward prosperity. Therefore, the newspaper published many teaching materials. Sometimes, it even changed its name to Enlightenment Vernacular News on Books (Qimeng tongsu shubao 啟 蒙 通 俗 書 報 ) or Enlightenment Vernacular Magazine (Qimeng tongsu zhazhi 啟 蒙 通 俗 雜 誌 ). It also included many translated news articles on new Western inventions from foreign newspapers which the Ministry of Books ordered. Enlightenment Vernacular News was written in vernacular and colloquial Chinese. Fu also showed his drawing skills in the illustrations. Sometimes, he even used a picture to substitute text. Those who were illiterate were able to understand from the pictures. Apart from the Mainland, Hong Kong and Macau were regions where the reformists were active. After the Coup of 1898, reformist newspapers continued to emerge. In Hong Kong, The Chinese Mail , the Universal Circulating Herald , and Reform Daily (Weixin ribao 維 新 日 報 ) continued to promote constitutional monarchy. In 1902, the Hong Kong CERA established a new media and publishing company. It took orders for editing, publishing, printing, building printing machines, and distribution of new books. In 1903, the company set up the Truth Post (Shi bao 實報 ). The chief editor was Pan Feisheng. The newspaper mainly report current affairs and news related to the new government policies and the preparation for constitutional monarchy. As business was poor, the company sold the newspaper. It was renamed as the Real Post (Zhen bao 真報 ). Chen Zijue assumed the position of chief editor. In 1915, the newspaper was banned because of its criticism of Yuan Shikai’s support for royalism. On February 20, 1904, the Vice President of the CERA founded the official newspaper — Commercial Daily (Shang bao 商報 ) — in Hong Kong. It was issued by the Hong Kong Commercial Daily Company Limited. Huang Junren, Chen Yu, and Chen Kui had been publishers. Wu Xianzi and Wu Quangong assisted Xu Qin with the editorial. Wu Xianzi was born in Shunde, Guangdong Procince. He was a student of Kang Youwei’s. Before working at Commercial Daily , he had been the chief writer at Singapore’s Nanyang Union Times . Soon after Commercial Daily started publishing, it advertised in San Francisco’s Mon Hing Po : “Kang Youwei personally headed the editorial board at Hong Kong’s Commercial Daily . The newspaper is known for its political

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insight. It is unique and well-received in East Asia.” In 1906, the CERA wrote in

its “Letter to Members” that Commercial Daily was one of its official newspapers. It sold around 5,000 copies. The sales were unprecedented. It also asked members

to provide news materials to enrich the contents so that the newspaper would strengthen its leading status with the most news. As an official newspaper of the CERA, it often engaged in debate with the revolutionary China Daily . After the

1911 Revolution, Commercial Daily was renamed The Republic (Gonghe bao 共和報 ). It was managed by Wu Quangong. It stopped publishing 1921.

During that time, Eastern News (Dong bao 東報 ) and Good Morning Hong Kong (Xianggang zaochen 香港早晨 ) were also publishing. They sided with the reformists. In Macau, The Reformer China , which was founded in 1897, continued to publish after the Coup of 1898. It was the only surviving reformist newspaper after the Coup. In 1899, Macau News (Ao bao 澳報 ) was founded in Macau. Li Yinggeng and Wu Ruinian were the chief writers. It sided with the Macau Mirror (Haojing bao 濠鏡報 ) which the local CERA founded and Echo Macaense . They advocated constitutional monarchy. It helped the Macau CERA to establish during the years between the Coup of 1898 and the founding of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance.

Stillborn newspapers of Kang and Liang During the time between the Coup of 1898 and the 1911 Revolution, the bourgeois reformers had plans for more newspapers. Although it failed for various reasons,

it showed that they took periodicals as a medium of promotion of political ideologies very seriously.

In 1896, Tan Sitong was a Prefect waiting for appointment. In Nanjing, he

was one of the directors of Shanghai’s The Chinese Progress . He also planned on

founding the Mining Post (Kuang bao 礦報 ) to echo with The Chinese Progress . Unfortunately, the plan was abandoned due to the lack of funding. In 1897, he

planned on founding The People’s Voice (Minting bao 民 聽 報 ) in Hankou [one of the three cities which formed modern-day Wuhan], which failed for the same reason. Soon, he returned to Hunan Province to set up Hunan News (Xiang bao

湘報 ) with Tang Caichang.

In 1900, Kang Youwei assigned Liang Qichao to Honolulu to assist the local

CERA. Liang felt the need of a foreign newspaper to arouse the public interest in

the CERA overseas. On March 13 and 20, Liang wrote to Qiu Chuyuan (President

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of Singapore’s CERA) and Kang about his ideas. Qiu and Kang neglected Liang as they were plotting the Independence Army Uprising. In the autumn of 1902, Liang wrote in Huang Zunxian in Japan about setting up the National Academic Journal (Guo xubao 國 學 報 ) to preserve Chinese cultural heritage. He asked Huang and Ma Ming to help him. However, Huang rejected Liang, who soon dropped the plan. In the spring of 1903, Kang Youwei discussed the setting up of a Buddhist organization and a newspaper with GBP1 million with the Indians. He wanted to use the newspaper as a means to discuss China. A few months after the discussion, Ronglu [a statesman and Empress Dowager Cixi’s cousin] died. Kang expected the political situation to change. He left India and went to Hong Kong to prepare for another round of political movements. The plans for the newspapers were dropped. In 1906, Liang wrote to Kang about setting up newspapers in Beijing as part of the preparations for the establishment of a political party in the north. In spring, he also discussed with Xiong Xiling on the same matter and wanted to ask Xu Fosu to head the editorial board. In December, he wrote to Kang again, seeking funding of 150,000 dollars. He prepared to spend 50,000 on Beijing Post (Jing bao 京報 ) and the remaining amount for setting up an official fund. The funding for the newspaper was secure, but not that for the official fund. Later, Yang Du, Jiang Guanyun, and Xu Fosu could not come to a consensus. The plan failed. Yan founded the Society for a Constitutional Empire (Xiangzheng hui 憲政會 ) Liang and Jiang founded the Political News Agency (Zhengwen she 政聞社 ) on their own. In 1907, before the New Citizen Journal stopped publishing, Liang and Xu were in a discussion on setting up another newspaper which specialized in law, politics, and economics. However, Liang was busy with improving the contents and bringing up the sales of the New Citizen Journal as well as preparing the publication of the official paper of the political news agency — Political Discussion (Zheng lun 政論 ). The plan did not succeed. At the beginning of 1908, due to the rapid expansion of the revolutionary powers, the reformists seriously discussed plans to set up newspapers in Wuhan, Beijing, and Shanghai. Soon after the Political News Agency was founded, Liang suggested establishing a daily newspaper in Wuhan as the first step of promoting its political ideologies. He wrote in his letter to Jiang Guanyun that “Hankou is an important strategic base to capture if the Agency wants to expand in the Mainland. Fellow members agree that a newspaper official should be set up there as soon as possible (other parties have started activities there). I asked for a funding of 10,000

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from the official fund and intended to raise 20,000 by issuing shares…” Liang

Qichao, Xiong Xiling, Xu Fosu, Hou Tingshuang, Ma Xiangbo, Kang Youwei, and Mai Menghua were in constant discussion and reached the following consensus:

First, Wuhan was a strategic location for military as well as political reasons. They

agreed that Wuhan was the primary base for reformist activities and the new newspaper should be published within three months. Second, raise 50,000 dollars. The Political News Agency sponsored 10,000 and the remaining amount would be raised by issuing shares. Third, the newspaper would be named either Jianghan

Public News (Jianghan gongbao 江漢公報 ) or Dajiang Daily (Dajiang ribao 大江 日報 ). Fourth, the bursar of the Political News Agency Ma Xiangbo would be the sponsor; Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and Mai Menghua would not be credited to avoid suspicion. Fifth, Hou Tingshuang, member of the Political News Agency, would oversee the preparation work. Ying Lianzhi would oversee the actual running of the newspaper. Sixth, move all printing machines of the New Citizen Journal from Japan to Wuhan. Hou Tingshuang would be responsible for the recruitment and training of printing workers. The newspaper looked promising. However, it did not work out for the following reasons: First, the Political News Agency was unable to finance the newspaper and the shares were not popular. Second, Yang Du was against the newspaper and the Agency, and Hou Tingshuang wanted to withdraw. Third, there were disagreements within the Agency. During the preparatory stage, the Qing imperial court issues an edict to ban and investigate the Agency. The plans for a new newspaper were abandoned. The printing machines were transferred to Guangzhi Bookstore (Guangzhi shuju 廣智書局 ), and the shareholders were not compensated. Liang had to write to the overseas Society for a Constitutional Empire to apologize. Kang and Liang suffered a heavy blow but did not falter, not even after the Qing court announced the preparation for the transition to constitutional monarchy. In February 1910, Liang founded the xunkan — Odes of the State (Guofeng bao 國風報 ) — in Shanghai. In early 1911, he planned on setting up two daily newspapers in Shanghai and traveled to Taiwan to raise funds. In March, he wrote to Xu Fosu: “I would like to raise 100,000 dollars to set up two newspapers, 70,000 for Shanghai News (Hu bao 滬 報 ) and 30,000 for the Beijing Post . While little has been secured, the plans are hopeful. I will travel to Taiwan to raise funds. If it works out, I hope very much that you will agree to be in charge of them.” At the same time, Mai Menghua, Wu Xianzi, Pan Ruohai, He Tianzhu, and Luo Yinggong also proposed setting up a newspaper in Shanghai. He wrote to Liang

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after discussion with Mai Menghua and Wu Xianzi. He analyzed the situation in Shanghai: “Judging the current situation, we should set up a daily newspaper to strengthen our position. We face all this criticism and we do not have a channel to defend ourselves. Although we express our political ideologies in the Odes of the States , the newspaper does not reach a large audience. This is why our power did not improve…. A newspaper would give us a platform to refute malicious criticism.” They had high hopes for Liang Qichao’s trip to Taiwan. However, Liang failed to raise sufficient funds. They had to abandon plans to set up daily newspapers in Shanghai and Beijing. The failure of the reformists to establish newspapers was a reflection of the public reception of them and that they were slowly losing the battle with the revolutionists led by Sun Yat-sen.

Early Propaganda Activities of The Bourgeois Revolutionaries and the Birth of China Daily Early propaganda activities of the bourgeois revolutionaries As early as in the late 19th century, when reform was brewing, revolutionists began to emerge among the bourgeoisie and the petite bourgeoisie. They were the minority who were against the Manchus and autocracy and supported the establishment of a republic. The number of revolutionists continued to grow over the years. The bourgeois revolutionaries were the most invigorated and modern in the Chinese bourgeoisie. In order to overtake the dominating position of the landlord class, they initiated revolutions in China. They organized activities and movements to promote their political ideologies. They initiated the 1911 Revolution. During the 1911 Revolution, publications were a medium of promotion for the revolutionists. They issued more than 120 types of periodicals. This changed the political composition of the newspaper industry. Although the revolutionary publications were overpowered by the reformists in term of quantity, the political and cultural influence of them was profound. They propelled the progress of the 1911 Revolution as well as that of China’s journalism. The leader of the Chinese bourgeois revolutionaries was Sun Yat-sen. Sun (1866–1925) was born in Zhongshan, Guangdong Province. His upbringing was different from the traditional scholar officials. He went abroad at the age of 12. He received systematic bourgeois education in Honolulu and Hong Kong. He had an understanding of capitalism and bourgeois sociology. He already felt that

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China was lagging behind the West when he was only a student. He resented the Qing monarchy and corruption. He felt an urge to reform China and began participating in sociopolitical movements. In the beginning, Sun was mainly involved in propaganda activities. After the Sino-French War in 1885, he joined forces with Chen Shaobai, You Lie, and Yang Heling to promote revolution against the Qing Empire. They devoted after-school free time to political movements. They frequently traveled between Hong Kong and Macau. They were very radical and they were referred to as the “Four Bandits.” Hong Kong and Guangzhou were the birthplaces of modern newspapers in China. When Sun was studying in Hong Kong and practicing medicine in Macau and Guangzhou, he was in contact with people engaged in the newspaper industry. Under the influence of He Qi, a famous political commentator, he began to contribute to newspapers in Hong Kong, Macau, and Shanghai when he was still a student. His articles talked about his ideas of revolutionizing China. The earliest political commentary of Sun published in a newspaper was “On Agriculture.” It was written around 1891. The article advocated that China should learn from the West and improve its agricultural technology. It was included in Zheng Guanying’s Warnings to the Seemingly Prosperous Age (Shengshi weiyan 盛世危言 ). Another early contributions of Sun included: “Letter to Zheng Zaoru” in a Macau newspaper in 1892 and “Letter to Li Hongzhang” in The Globe Newspaper (Wanguo gongbao 萬 國 公 報 ) in 1894. The latter was edited by Zheng Guanying and Wang Taoxiu and handed in to Li Hongzhang. In the 8,000-word essay, Sun advocated reform in education, agriculture, industry, and commerce in order to strengthen China. He explained that reform would allow human talents, land, and goods to be used to their full potential and lead China toward capitalism. Different than his radical speeches, these articles published did not cross the line of reforming society. It was also said that Sun was involved in the founding of Macau’s Echo Macaense . Wu Ya wrote in “Newspapers Sun Yat-sen Founded in Macau” (published in Ta Kung Pao on January 29, 1965, in Hong Kong): “In 1893, Sun Yat-sen and Francisco Hermenegildo Fernandes (a Portuguese printer in Macau) set up Echo Macaense . Sun was said to be in charge of the Chinese edition. Whether it was true, it cannot be denied that Sun was in close contact with Fernandes and Echo Macaense .” Before the Revive China Society was established, some of the would-be members were involved in the newspaper industry. For example, Cheng Weinan, He Kuang, and Xu Zhichen had worked at Honolulu’s The Hawaiian Chinese News ; Yang Quyun and Xie Tongtai were the founders of Hong Kong’s Chinese Patriotic Mutual Improvement Association.

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Although the newspapers Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionists were involved in before the establishment of the Revive China Society had little political propaganda, they earned experience in using publications as a means of promotion for revolution. In November 1894, Sun founded the first bourgeois revolutionary organization — the Revive China Society — in Honolulu. It signified the beginning of the bourgeois democratic revolution. He recruited the manager and editors at the The Hawaiian Chinese News into the Society and made the newspaper an official publication of the Society. The newspaper was transformed from a business newspaper to a political one which centered on saving China. In 1895, it stated in the charter of the Society that newspapers would be set up to promote the political ideologies of the Society. However, as it was concentrating on plotting an uprising, which failed, a newspaper was not set up during that time. Yet, during the preparation for the First Guangzhou Uprising, Sun secretly printed and distributed the manifesto of the Society and drafted a political call to arms and other promotional materials in both Chinese and English. He recruited the help of He Qi, Thomas H. Reid (chief writer at The China Mail ), and Chesney Duncan (chief writer at the Hong Kong Telegraph ). On March 5, The China Mail continued to publish editorials and Kai Ho’s articles. It facilitated the activities and promotion of the Society. Sun also published articles in both domestic and foreign newspapers. For example, on October 6, 1895, Guangzhou’s Chinese Daily Paper published Sun’s “The Intention to Establish the Society for Agriculture.” Sun used the study of agriculture as a disguise to recruit revolutionists. The China Mail commented on December 3, 1896: “Sun began publishing political articles in early 1895 in Hong Kong. The articles soon reached Mainland China. His description of and comparison between the good and bad governments were very detailed. Readers could identify his implications and political views easily. He was also a meticulous writer. The fastidious government officials could not find faults in his articles.” When the First Guangzhou Uprising failed in 1895, Sun and his comrades were hunted down by the Qing government. They fled China and went abroad to continue with their political agenda. Sun and Chen Shaobai arrived in Japan. They compiled and distributed a brochure comprising anti-Qing literature such as Record of Ten Days in Yangzhou , The Three Massacres in Jiading , and Letter to Li Hongzhang . It was the first time that revolutionaries used this channel of promotion. Later, during his travel in East Asia, North America, and Western Europe, Sun constantly gave speeches to advocate that revolution was the only way to save China. From late 1896 to the first half of 1897, after he was kidnapped

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at the Qing Empire Embassy in London, he published articles such as “An Open Letter to Chief Editors at All Newspapers” and “The Current and Future Situation in China” in British newspapers. He later compiled his articles into Kidnapped

in London . These publications revealed the autocracy and violence of the Qing government and introduced China’s bourgeois revolutionary activities to the West. The first few years after the establishment of the Revive China Society were when the revolutionaries concentrated on promoting their ideologies. At that time, the Chinese were still stubbornly loyal. The bourgeois reformist ideologies were popular among the public. They found it hard to come to terms with revolution against the Qing government. When the First Guangzhou Uprising failed, Sun and his fellows were condemned as treacherous. Few people would want to be associated with them. Although they could not issue their own publications, they gave speeches, contributed articles to periodicals, and printed flyers and brochures to promote revolution.

The founding of the first official newspaper of the Revive China Society: China Daily From the failure of the Hundred Day’s Reform in 1898 to 1900, as Chinese capitalism

developed, the power of the middle and lower bourgeoisie, which formed the

majority of the bourgeois revolutionists, grew stronger. The failure of the Boxer Rebellion and the invasion of the Eight-Nation Alliance brought unprecedented

devastation to China. The conflict between imperialism and the Chinese sharpened. After the Boxer Protocol was signed, the Qing government was condemned as the

“imperial court of the West.” It was criticized for betraying its people. Although

the reformist ideologies continued to have influence on the public, the extent of the influence was considerably smaller than before. Some turned to the revolutionists. Revolutionist newspapers began to emerge and develop.

The first newspaper the bourgeois revolutionists published was the China

Daily . It was first issued on January 25, 1900. This newspaper administered by Sun Yat-sen was the official newspaper of the Revive China Society.9 The preparations for China Daily began in the summer of 1899 when Sun and Chen Shaobai was plotting their second uprising. They chose Hong Kong as the base of the newspaper as it was the door to southern China and they had been carrying out revolutionist activities there for some time. They would be able to manage the promotional work and other political activities at the same time. The newspaper was a secret agency of the Society for the communication between

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Guangdong Province and Hong Kong. Sun was denied admittance to Hong Kong by the British after the First Guangzhou Uprising failed. He assigned Chen to be in charge of the newspaper in Hong Kong. He raised funds, bought printing machines, and recruited editors and reporters in Japan. He named the newspaper China Daily based on the idea that “China is the nation of the Chinese.” After a few months of preparations, the newspaper was published at 24 Stanley Street, Central, Hong Kong. Although they did not have much funding, Sun and Chen were determined to continue running the newspaper. The publishing scale was quite large. It issued a daily and a xunkan — China Daily and the China Xunbao (Zhongguo xunbao 中國旬報 ). The two were collectively called the China Post (Zhongguo bao 中國報 ) The Daily was published every day. The printing paper was divided into eight panels of which six were printed on. (The number increased to eight later on.) The newspaper was divided into two parts. One included the main content and the other the shipping schedules, and price list. The contents included rumors on the street and anecdotes of the imperial court. They were divided into several columns: “Commentary,” “Domestic News,” “Foreign News,” “Guangdong News,” “Hong Kong News,” and “Contributions.” The newspaper valued political commentary very highly. “Commentary” included an editorial every day, which expressed the political views of the Daily and made it easier for readers to compare it to other newspapers. During the early days of the Daily , there was also an English commentary tailored for foreigners. The layout of the newspaper followed that used in Japanese newspapers. A page was divided into six columns. Each column was 15 words wide. Having fewer words in a row made it easier for readers. Many newspapers followed. The China Xunbao was published every 5th, 15th, and 20th day of the month. Each issue contained one volume. It mainly published domestic and foreign news, commentary of public figures, materials related to politics, science, gardening, crafts, commerce, and technology.10 It had numerous columns: “Commentary,” “Domestic and Foreign Current Affairs,” “Domestic and Foreign Telegraphs,” “Information” which included news excerpts, “Party Information,” and “Miscellaneous” which included literature. Since the 11th issue, “Miscellaneous” was renamed “Advocacy” and specialized in Southern tunes and songs and drama scripts. The Xunbao stopped publishing in February 1901 until the 37th issue. The “Advocacy” was transferred to the Daily as a supplement. Both the Daily and the Xunbao were published by Chen Shaobai under the name of Chen Shaonan. Other editors and writers included Wang Zhifu, Yang

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Xiaoou, Hong Xiaochong, Lu Bozhou, Wang Shizhong, Zheng Guangong, Chen Chunsheng, Lu Xin, Liao Pingzi, Chen Shizhong, Huang Luyi, and Wang Yunyan. Chen Shaobai (1869–1934) was born in Xinhui, Guangdong Province. He was a close friend of Sun Yat-sen’s when they were studying in Hong Kong and a core member of the Revive China Society. After the First Guangzhou Uprising failed, he fled to Japan under the pseudonym Jiro Hattori to administer the Japanese branch of the Society. His family was among the gentry. His knowledge of Chinese culture, literature, and art was deep. Chen was the first director at the China Daily . He was called the “gifted scholar.” The early proclamations of the Revive China Society were mostly written by Chen. In 1899, he returned to Japan after a round of fund-raising in Japan. He suggested to Sun Yat-sen that they should set up a newspaper in Hong Kong, which could act as a channel of promotion as well as the headquarters of the Society. As the first director at the Daily , from the first day to August 1906, he was responsible for management as well as editorial activities. He also published commentaries, poems, and comics. He was also the person in charge of the Society in Hong Kong, as well as the military affairs in nearby provinces. He communicated with other revolutionary parties to organize an uprising. He actively participated in economic and cultural activities in Hong Kong and Guangdong Province. He set up drama groups and used art as a channel to promote revolutionist ideologies. In 1903, the Daily spent a lot of money on the recovery of the Society after the First Guangzhou Uprising. It was suffering a deficit. The newspaper merged with the Wentu Tang Printing House (Wenyu Tang Yinwu Gongsi 文裕堂印務公司 ). He was appointed as manager which oversaw the newspaper. In 1905, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was founded. He became the president of the Hong Kong branch. In August 1906, the Wentu Tang Printing House declared bankruptcy. He vacated his position as director at the Daily . The position was then assumed by a new shareholder Feng Ziyou. Chen remained as the supervisor. Later, he became interested in business. After the Second Guangzhou Uprising in 1911, he became in charge of the Guangdong Chief Military Commission. He was one of the consultants at Sun’s government in 1921. He died in Beijing in 1934. The Daily received a lot of attention from Sun. In July 1900, December 1902, and October 1905, Sun stopped over at Hong Kong and met up with the employees at the Daily on board. In January 1902, he traveled to Hong Kong from Japan. He lived at the newspaper office and supervised the publishing process. The Daily also received support from Hong Kong capitalists and patriots.

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Kai Ho — a well-known member of the Hong Kong Legislative Council and the

Revive China Society and a political commentator — was very supportive of the founding of the Daily . Wealthy businessman Li Jitang funded the Daily and soon .

joined the Revive China Society.

The issuance of the Daily allowed another channel of the Revive China

Society to promote the bourgeois revolution. Promotion was no longer limited to

speeches, flyers, and brochures. The newspaper would allow the revolutionists to reach the masses.

Characteristics of the Revive China Society’s China Daily China Daily was published for almost 14 years until 1913. It was the longestlasting revolutionary newspaper before and after the 1911 Revolution. Before the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was established in 1905, it was the official newspaper of the Revive China Society. It was when revolution was first promoted through the newspaper. The Daily was at first circumspect about the revolution ideologies. As the situation changed, it became more public with its political inclination. In the beginning, due to the lack of experience in the industry and that the revolutionists still attempted to cooperate with the reformists, the newspaper did not openly advocate anti-Qing revolution. Rather, it focused on broadening the minds of the public, reforming society, and saving China. In the preface, it was written that the aims of the newspaper were: to enlighten the mind and to arouse the spirit of the Chinese, and to reform society. The ideas and advocacy mentioned were common in other reformist newspapers apart from the fact that it put a lot of emphasis on “the Chinese.” In the first 10 plus issues of the China Xunbao , there was a search for contributors so that the discussion in the newspaper would not be limited to the opinions of several main writers. Most of the contributors were reformists. Their articles were promoting reforms rather than revolution. One of the examples was Kai Ho and Hu Liyuan’s “New Policies and Changes,” which was published in installments from the first to ninth issues. Although it advocated bourgeois civil liberties, it still had faith in the monarchy. “Empress Dowager” published in the eighth issue went as far as praising the Empress Dowager for saving the situation and nurturing the young emperor. Publishing these articles may have been strategic in nature but they brought down the quality of the newspaper. Compared to the contemporary newspapers such as The China Discussion , the Daily had more character. It did not talk about royalism and even promoted

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revolution. For example, in the preface to the China Post , readers were reminded of the meaning of the name of the newspaper. It pointed out that the Chinese should not lose their true self and become servile to foreign powers. They should not forget about their origin and should think about reviving China. The antiQing attitude was showing through the text. Some articles showed traces of revolutionary spirit. For example, some praised Hong Xiuquan as a “hero” and bashed Zeng Guofan and Zuo Zongtang for “running the errands” for the Qing government. Some believed that China was so conservative and stubborn because of tyranny. They criticized Kang Youwei for not supporting civil liberties which China needed and labeled him as a royalist. After the Eight-Nation Alliance’s invasion, China was shaken. The public started to see the “crimes” of the Qing government. Since summer 1900, the Xunbao became more public with its inclination toward revolution. The stance of the Daily was firm after the AntiRussia Movement in 1903. From the perspective of the promotion of political ideologies, the Daily showed the following features: First, it advocated patriotism and rescuing China from the dire situation. It was the basis of the newspaper as well as that for the promotion of revolution. It reported the invasions of foreign imperialist powers and exposed the corruption of the Qing government. When the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded, the Xunbao published news reports and commentaries such as “A Month in Tianjin,” “How We Lost the Three Northeast Provinces,” “The Evidence of the Cruelty of Russian Soldiers,” and “On Sovereignty.” It strongly criticized the Eight-Nation Alliance for invading China and for other outrages. 11 During the 1903 AntiRussia Movement, the Daily concentrated on exposing the crimes of Russia and criticizing the Qing government for betraying its people. It also criticized Wang Zhichun for asking the French troops to suppress the revolutionaries. The imperialist powers hastened their invasion and the Qing government did not defend the nation. The Daily placed their only hopes on arousing the spirit of the Chinese. It blamed the Qing government for practicing obscurantism and begged the Chinese to be self-reflective and to improve themselves. It claimed that revolution was the way to reviving China. The Daily succeeded in arousing patriotism. However, it had little understanding of the reactionary nature of imperialism. Its arguments against imperialism were not very clear. As the newspaper was published in Hong Kong, a British colony, it seldom talked about British imperialism and knew little about American imperialism. A trace of fear toward imperialism could be detected in certain articles.

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Second, there was a lot of propaganda in the newspaper. In the beginning, the newspaper used the anti-Qing slogan “Revive China.” The Xunbao pointed out that the Manchus were why China was suffering from foreign invasion and losing its land and sovereignty. “The Qing government would rather be submissive to foreign powers than stand by the Han Chinese.” After the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China, the country was at risk of being carved up. The antiQing propaganda in the Xunbao intensified. The 19th issue published in August 1900 was filled with anti-Qing articles such as “Letter from Zhang Bingyan,” “The Manchus and the Mongolians Should Not Be Admitted to the Parliament,” and “On Cutting the Braids.” It enclosed a set of notes which praised Zhang Bingyan for writing these inspiring and heartfelt articles. In spring 1902, the revolutionists and Chinese students in Japan held a “Commemoration of the Subjugation of China for 240 Years” in Tokyo. The Daily gave a detailed report on the Commemoration. It published an exclusive speech of Zhang and invited the public to join in the political gathering in Hong Kong. Since then, the newspaper also utilized literature in the “Advocacy” column to promote their anti-Qing ideologies. The anti-Qing propaganda in the newspaper was well-received by the public who had been suppressed under the Qing Empire for a long time. More people became involved in revolution. Nationalism and Han chauvinism could be detected in the propaganda. Third, the newspaper constantly promoted bourgeois democracy and attacked the Qing government for autocracy. The early issues of the Xunbao published reformist articles which promoted civil liberties. In July 1900, the Xunbao published “On Civil Lordship.” It pointed out that “everyone wants freedom.” China’s monarch was “a thief” because “he alone had stolen every citizen’s rights.” Democracy and civil liberties in Europe and the U.S. were earned through wars and violence. China would need to go through the same process and “abandon 2,000 years of tradition and customs” to earn the same rights. These thoughts of using extreme measures showed a change in the revolutionists’ understanding of the fight for freedom and civil liberties. Both the Daily and the Xunbao censured Empress Dowager Cixi and her supporters more severely. They also commended Western countries on freedom and equality and promoted the ideas of natural rights and evolution. They believed that “freedom was a natural right and it was the source of happiness in life…. [and that] every country should become democratic and preserve citizens’ natural rights.” However, compared to the contemporary New Citizen Journal , the Daily seldom translated Western bourgeois sociopolitical literature. Most writers at the

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Daily did not have adequate understanding of the Western thinking. Therefore, the promotion of the bourgeoisie democracy was not very intense. Fourth, it exposed the reactionary nature of the royalists and retaliated against the reformists’ criticism of revolution. The Daily ’s attitude toward the royalists changed with time. During the early days, some articles criticized the royalists but were courteous in nature. Many articles praised them for their contribution during the Hundred Days’ Reform. The Daily even published reformist articles sometimes and called Kang Youwei a “hero.” As the situation changed, the royalists opposed revolution. Articles which attacked the royalists emerged. In early 1903, the uprising in Guangzhou that Hong Quanfu was plotting failed. The royalist Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune took up the opportunity to attack the revolutionists. It was engaged in a fierce written polemic with the Daily for a few months. It was the first conflict between the two sides. Later, the Daily was the first one to criticize Kang’s open declaration of his objection to revolution written in the “Discussion with Chinese Businessmen in North and South America about Why Constitutional Monarchy Should Be Implemented in China and Revolution Should Be Suppressed.” In 1904, Commercial Daily commissioned by Kang advocated preserving the monarchy and supporting the Qing Empire. China Daily fiercely attacked Commercial Daily as the newspaper of the “obsolete society” and declared that revolutionist newspapers would replace it. In spring of the same year, China Daily continued to publish articles which criticized the New Citizen Journal . It called Kang a “corrupt intellectual” and Liang Qichao a “chameleon.”12 However, due to the lack of understanding of Western thinking, the arguments China Daily made during that time were not as profound as those in The Minpao Magazine . Fifth, it actively promoted mass anti-imperialism and anti-Qing movements. The newspaper was founded during the time when the Boxer Rebellion was sweeping through Beijing and Tianjin. It reported on the Boxer Rebellion in detail, presented some official documents of the Boxers, and praised the Boxers for being brave. Different than official documents and many other periodicals, it did not call the Boxers “bandits.” However, its attitude changed after the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China. It began to publish articles, memorials to the throne, and telegraphs which were in support of the eradication of the Boxers. The commentaries also criticized the Boxers for beguiling the public. The newspaper revealed the fear of the Chinese bourgeoisie for imperialism and mass political movements. Nevertheless, when the Eight-Nation Alliance coerced the Qing government into “negotiation,” and the Qing government surrendered and abandoned its people,

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the newspaper once again changed its attitude. It condemned the invasion of the Eight-Nation Alliance and praised the Boxers for fighting against the invaders, which was a proof that the Chinese had not surrendered. It claimed that “the Boxers are the representatives of independence and freedom…. The power struggles between them and other parties would be the origin of democracy in China one day. Although the arguments of the newspaper seemed shallow, they were relative unique amidst the many criticisms of the Boxers. The Daily also reported on other anti-imperialism and anti-Qing movements, such as the Independence Army Uprising, the workers strike in Suzhou, the farmers riot in Wuzhou, the 1903 Case of the Jiangsu Post , and the anti-Russia and anti-French movements. The Daily reported military actions of the Revive China Society and revolutionary parties in detail. As an official post of the Revive China Society in southern China, it constantly reported the activities of different branches of the Society and coordinate military movements in Guangdong Province with other secret parties. The leaders of the parties and the Society secretly met in the newspaper office to discuss and plot their next uprising, handle armaments, and print public notices. For example, the preparation and the handling of the aftermath of the 1907 Huizhou Uprising took place in the office. After the Uprising started, the Daily published official documents and the call to arms. It stated that the Uprising aimed at “overthrowing the Qing government and implementing an independent and democratic system.” It publicized the ideas of democratic revolution as well as stimulated public discussion. The combination of publishing and military movements was one of the characteristics of the Daily . The early 20th century was when the bourgeois reformists faltered and the revolutionists started to gain power. The Daily was born during that time. Although the contents were not well-organized and the arguments were not particularly profound, its support for revolution was evident. It facilitated the rise of the revolutionists. In 1900, Sun Yat-sen was condemned by the public. However, after the Huizhou Uprising, few people hated him. Many intellectuals were sympathetic towards him. This change was the result of the work the Daily had done. Although the Daily was published in Hong Kong, two-thirds of its copies were distributed in Guanzhou and Southeast Asia. Before it was banned in China, it sold more than 200 copies at the office of the Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces. The newspaper often received contributions from revolutionists and intellectuals in Hong Kong, Guangdong, and Japan. The reporters and editors at the Daily were well-trained during their days there. Many

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went on to become the core members of future revolutionist newspapers.

Most of the contents of the Daily were written in classical Chinese rather

the vernacular. Its supplement “Advocacy” was quite rich and not written in

colloquial Chinese. It had several columns, which included Southern tunes and songs and drama scripts. The contents were witty, humorous, and sarcastic.

The propaganda was cleverly incorporated into the humor. Many revolutionist newspapers followed. The Daily even set up a department for the supplement.

Other revolutionary periodicals in Hong Kong The 1903 Anti-Russia and Anti-French Movements were larger mass antiimperialism movements. Many young intellectuals started to join in the

revolution. Many revolutionist newspapers followed the lead of China Daily in

promoting revolution in their content. During 1903–1905, reformist newspapers were most active both in China and overseas and this laid a solid foundation for the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance.

There were several newspapers which emerged during that period of

time: the World Welfare Post (Shijie gongyi bao 世界公益報 ), Guangdong Daily

(Guangdong ribao 廣東日報 ), It Does Not Matter (Wusuowei 無所謂 ), A Ring of

the Bell (Yisheng zhong 一聲鐘 ), and It Matters (Yousuowei bao 有所謂報 ). The World Welfare Post was founded on December 29, 1903. It was the second revolutionist newspaper that emerged. Zheng Guangong was the chief editor. Other editors and reporters included Huang Luyi, Li Daxing, Huang Shizhong, and Huang Yaogong. The newspaper was published every day. Each issue contained around 50,000 words in several columns such as “Commentary,” “World Affairs,” “Guangdong News,” and “Hong Kong News.” The editorial “Is the Empire Living or Dead?” advocated “transforming China from an autocratic state to a republic and overthrowing the Qing monarchy.” It also encouraged the readers to join in the movements to revive China. The paper was published until after the 1911 Revolution. Guangdong Daily was founded on March 31, 1904. Its office was at 26 Stanley Street, Central, Hong Kong. Zheng Guangong was the chief editor and supervisor. Li Daxing, Huang Shizhong, and Chen Shuren were editors. The newspaper included columns such as “Discussion,” “Investigation,” “Affairs in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces,” “Interviews in Japan,” “Mainland News,” “State Affairs,” “Foreign Affairs,” and “Translated Books.” It claimed to be true to nationalism and the revolutionary spirit. It supported the use of violence to build a democratic republic and strongly disapproved of constitutional monarchy. Influenced by

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anarchism, it published articles such as “20th Century Dynamite” and “The Party of Nothingness” and suggested overthrowing the Qing monarchy by assassination. In April 1905, Li Hansheng succeeded Zheng as the chief editor. Li and Huang also assumed the position of chief writers. The aim of the newspaper remained the same and it also began to promote anti-America movements. It claimed that it had undercover reporters in Beijing and Guangzhou to monitor the Qing government and would immediately publish the information it gathered. In 1906, it was against the arrangement that the Canton-Hankow Railway would be managed by the government but run by businessmen. It offended the Guangdong officials. As most of the shareholders of the newspaper were the gentry in the Mainland, they agreed to stop publishing the newspaper in April 1906. It Does Not Matter and Guangdong Daily were founded at the same time. The former was in fact a supplement of the latter, but was issued on its own. It Does Not Matter was printed on two pages. It included columns such as “Inscriptions,” “History of Vernacular Chinese,” “New Stage Songs,” “Social Voice,” and “Poetry.” It aimed at arousing the spirit of the public and promoting revolution and nationalism. It was written in vernacular Chinese to discuss history and expose the corruption of the Qing government. It introduced Rousseau’s The Social Contract and other bourgeoisie literature. Its stance to overthrow the monarchy and support revolution was apparent. At the same time, it also spread some ideas of anarchism. In April 1905, it was renamed A Ring of the Bell . The first issue of A Ring of the Bell was published on May 5, 1905. It lasted until the end of the year. Its aims and writing style were similar to It Does Not Matter , but the content was richer. In the Anti-America Movement, it encouraged the public to boycott American products and denounced Yuan Shikai for suppressing patriotic movements. It Matters was shorthand for It Matters: The Only Interesting Post (Weiyi qubao yousuowei 惟 一 趣 報 有 所 謂 ). It was founded on June 4, 1905, at 79 Hollywood Road, Hong Kong. On January 18, 1906, the office moved to 35 Des Voeux Road Central. Zheng Guangong was the chief editor and publisher. Writers included Huang Shizhong, Chen Shuren, Wang Fu, Li Mengzhe, and Lu Weichen. The content was categorized into formal and informal categories in the ratio of 3:2. The former section included: “General Discussion,” “Commentary,” “Interviews (Guangdong News),” “Headline News (Domestic News),” “Telegraphs (Foreign News),” “Hong Kong News,” and “Letters from Readers.” The latter section included: “Inscriptions,” “The Shadow of Fallen Flowers,” “History,” “The Humorous Spirit,” “Reflection of the Gentry and Officials,” “Fragments of Gold and Jade,” “New Advocacy,” and “Social Voice.”

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It Matters was funded by the members of the Wisdom Society (Kaizhi she 開 智 社 ) but not the gentry or government officials. It was very outspoken and radical. It declared early on that it aimed at intimidating the Manchus, the thieves, and the political traitors. It also said that “The Manchus are the lions, the traitors are the tigers, and the Han Chinese are just cows and horses. The public is angry but cannot change the situation much under the current system. If the monarchy is not overthrown (by assassination), the Han Chinese will be wiped out.” In May 1905, the Anti-America Movement broke out across the country. Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Hong Kong were the bases of the Movement. It Matters was at the forefront. It criticized the U.S. of boycotting and torturing Chinese workers and encouraged the public to boycott American products.13 After the Guangdong Boycott Society (Juyue Hui 拒約會 ) was established, It Matters published Zheng Guangong’s “The Boycott Society Needs to Set Up An Official Daily.” When the Qing government was forced by the imperialistic powers to suppress the Movement, It Matters published articles to denounce the Qing government for betraying the Chinese people and fawning on foreign powers. It Matters was against slavery, treason, and autocracy. Its stance was clear in its content, whether formal or informal. It attracted a wide audience in Hong Kong and Macau. It became the best-selling newspaper in Guangdong. It was regarded as one of the most unique newspapers in the industry. In the spring of 1906, It Matters was banned in the Mainland like Guangdong Daily for the same reason. In April, Zheng Guangong passed away. In July, the newspaper was renamed the Eastern Post (Dongfang bao 東方報 ). It was published until January 1907.

Zheng Guangong: A revolutionary and a journalist Most of the journalists mentioned in the previous section were once working

at China Daily . They were young intellectuals who supported revolution in

Guangdong Province and Hong Kong. The most famous one was Zheng Guangong. Zheng Guangong (1880–1906) was born in Xiangshan, Guangdong Province

to a humble family. He had to leave school at 16 and make a living in Japan. He continued to study on his own while working. After the Hundred Days’ Reform, he met Liang Qichao, who recommended him to study at Datong Academy

(Datong xuexiao 大同學校 ) on a full scholarship. He was introduced to the theories of Rousseau, Darwin, and Montesquieu. He met classmates Qin Lishan and

Feng Ziyou and was in contact with Sun Yat-sen. He began to lean towards

revolution. In winter 1900, he joined The China Discussion as an assistant editor

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but did not support the royalists. In his spare time, he, together with Feng Ziyou and Feng Siluan, set up the Wisdom Society and issued The Wisdom-Guide (a fortnightly magazine). As the magazine supported anti-Qing revolution, Zheng was dismissed from The China Discussion in spring 1901. Sun Yat-sen soon recommended him as a reporter for China Daily and chief editor for the China Xunbao . As his thoughts were original and novel, he was well-received by the readers and soon began to build up his reputation. Later, he left China Daily due to his conflict with Chen Shaobai. He established the World Welfare Post with members of the Wisdom Society. He left the next March because of the lack of freedom of speech and set up Guangdong Daily and It Does Not Matter . The newspapers were sold after about a year due to a lack of funds. Soon, he and his friends published It Matters which gained a reputation during the Anti-America Movement. Sadly, in less than a year since It Matters was published, he died of a disease at the age of 26. Although Zheng was not in the newspaper industry for a long time, his contributions were exceptional. He was one of the few revolutionary journalists in the early days. He was patriotic and devoted to his career. In six years, he edited six periodicals, of which four were chiefly edited and founded by him. In those publications, he enlightened the minds and aroused the spirit of the public. In order to attract a wider audience, instead of including a supplement at the end of the newspaper, it published a supplement for Guangdong Daily — It Does Not Matter — separately. Later, he founded It Matters , which was a unique blend of a traditional newspaper with a tabloid. It topped the sales of newspapers in the Guangdong region. Zheng valued the role newspapers played in the revolutions. He believed that the pen was mightier than the sword. When he was the chief editor at the Eastern Post and It Matters , he was known for his support of civil liberties, provocative thoughts, and a sarcastic tone in writing. His works were unparalleled. Furthermore, he stressed that journalists must be well-educated. If not, they would lack the ability to make correct judgments. His key thoughts on the newspaper business included ideas which stressed the importance of using market research to reach a wider audience and using illustrations, simple diction, and low prices to attract readers. He also felt that a newspaper should contain song lyrics and drama scripts and that a paper’s categorization of news and articles should be clear. Few of his fellow journalists could match his attitude and profound views on the industry. The contributions of Zheng to the promotion of revolutions were immense. He was called the “leader of nationalism.” More than 2,000 gathered after his death to pay tribute to this young talented revolutionary.

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Revolutionary Periodicals Founded by Chinese Students in Japan The emergence of revolutionary newspapers In the two years after the Coup of 1898, Mainland China was in turmoil. Events

such as the Boxer Rebellion, the Eight-Nation invasion, the Independence Army Uprising, and Russia’s seizing the three northeast provinces occurred.

The people realized that national peril was imminent. The overseas Chinese

students were most enthusiastic in reviving China as they were introduced to Western revolutionary ideologies. They believed in democracy and civil

liberties. Some reformist students were influenced by such ideologies and did not become royalists. In the first two years of the 20th century, three very influential revolutionary publications emerged: The Wisdom-Guide , the Compilation of

Translated Literature (Yishu huibian 譯書彙編 ), and the Citizen’s Tribune (Guomin bao 國民報 ). The Wisdom-Guide was widely considered the first political publication founded by Chinese students in Japan. It was first issued on December 22, 1900 in Yokohoma under the name “The First Issue of Reform.” Before that, The Wisdom-Guide had published several issues printed using mimeographs. As it was published by the Wisdom Society, it was also called Records of the Wisdom Society (Kaizhi hui lu 開智會錄 ). Five hundred copies were printed for each issue at The China Discussion . The last issue preserved was the sixth issue published on March 20, 1991. Zheng Guangong was the chief editor of The Wisdom-Guide . While he was at Yokohoma’s Datong Academy, the principal, Xu Qin, recommended him to study at Tokyo’s Higher Datong Academy (Gaodeng datong xuexiao 高等大同學 校 ). In the winter of 1900, editors of The China Discussion — Liang Qichao and Ou Jujia — were criticized by Kang Youwei because they were influenced by the revolutionary beliefs of freedom and equality. Soon, Liang and Ou were assigned to work in Honolulu and San Francisco. Mai Menghua succeeded Liang as the chief editor and employed Zheng as an assistant editor. Kang had a closer eye on The China Discussion than before. Zheng could only express his political views in The Wisdom-Guide . He capitalized on his position at The China Discussion that The Wisdom-Guide was distributed together with the former. The Wisdom-Guide showed a strong sense of patriotism and hatred for the imperialistic powers which invaded China. It was one of the first newspapers to

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introduce the concept of “imperialism.” In “On Imperialism and the 20th Century,” it denounced imperialism as a monster. It claimed that “This monster emerged because some countries had excess production and, therefore, needed to seek a larger market. The imperialistic powers were trying to exploit and enslave other countries that they thought were invaders and bandits.” It also pointed out that the only way to resist imperialism was to fight for freedom and autonomy. It supported the Boxer Rebellion, saying that the Boxers “showed the spirit of the Chinese in fighting against the invaders.” At that time, most revolutionists were criticizing the Boxers. The Wisdom-Guide was the minority. The Wisdom-Guide was able to consistently improve. In the third issue published on January 20, 1901, it published “The Benefits of Newspapers.” It openly stated the truth of revolution: “If a country wants to become a civilized state, its people must first become civilized and the savage government must be eliminated, just like what the Western countries have done.” In the sixth issue, it published “Calling Xiucai ’s from 18 Provinces to Condemn Kang Youwei,” implying that it was war between it and the royalists. As the inclination towards revolution was becoming more apparent in The WisdomGuide , the CERA dismissed Zheng Guangong as the editor and The China Discussion refused to print the newspaper. In late spring 1901, The Wisdom-Guide stopped publishing. Zheng left the CERA and joined the revolutionaries. The Compilation of Translated Literature was issued earlier than The Wisdom-Guide’s “The First Issue of Reform” using lead letterpress printing. Some called it the “father of Chinese overseas magazine.” The first official issue of the Compilation of Translated Literature was published on December 6, 1900, in Toyko. It was a monthly magazine. In the first year, only nine issues were published. The magazine was renamed the Journal of Politics and Law (Zhenfa xuebao 政法學報 ) on April 27, 1903, and eight more issues were published. The editor and publisher credited during the first and second years were Sakazaki Bin and Hu Yingmin, respectively. In fact, it was edited by Chinese students in Japan including: Ji Yihui (Ji Yuancheng), Yang Tingdong (Yang Yiyun), Yang Yinhang (Yang Busun), and Lei Fen (Lei Jixing). Most of them were members of the Endeavor Society (Lizhi hui 勵志會 ). They believed that introducing Western civilization and following the Japanese reform were the only way to save China. They recalled their thoughts two years after the magazine was first published: “During the first year, China was in turmoil. We were studying abroad and missed China. We felt the need to bring civilization to China by introducing translated literature. Therefore, we established the magazine…. It mainly contains political literature as it explains how foreign countries gain power. Literature

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on the military, agriculture, industry, and commerce are also translated and will

be published shortly.” At first, the magazine only published translated articles without commentary. Staring from the ninth issue, the content and the direction

of the magazine changed. It was written in “On the New Arrangements”: “The translated literature can only convey the writers’ views but cannot directly influence the thinking of the reader…. We shall assimilate the ideas of the West

into our own.” In order to “select the core issues of law and politics and to discuss

them with fellow scholars,” it was decided that “the magazine would publish the studies of its own editors.” The magazine was transformed into a journal that mainly published original articles. Figures were printed on the first page and a number of columns appeared, which included: “Fundamental Politics,” “Politics,” “Law,” “Economics,” “History,” and “Philosophy.”

The Compilation of Translated Literature was the first to translate Rousseau’s

The Social Contract and Montesquieu’s Del’Esprit des lois , Burgess’s Political Science , and Spencer’s Political Philosophy . It introduced the important ideas of the revolutionary movement. The magazine revealed the crimes of imperialistic powers and criticized the Qing government for surrendering. Its views, however, were that China should conduct reform in an orderly and organized manner. It did not promote revolution. This was why it was allowed to publish in the Mainland. Some officials even sponsored it. The magazine had its headquarters of distribution in Shanghai and distribution points in Hebei, Anhui, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Sichuan, Henan, Shanxi, Zhejiang, Jiansu Provinces, Beijing, Tianjin, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore. Each issue sold about 1,000 copies, which was a high number at that time. The editorial board also took care of new students from China by ordering textbooks for them. It was one of the reasons why the magazine was well-received by readers and lasted for a long time. Although the magazine was more reformist than revolutionist, the thinking it introduced was the basic ideology of a revolution. It spread the ideas of a democratic republic, which contributed to the outbreak of the 1911 Revolution. Among the earlier publications founded by Chinese students in Japan, the Citizen’s Tribune was the most supportive of revolution. It was founded on May 10, 1901, in Tokyo. It was a monthly magazine which published four issues until August 10 the same year. Qin Lishan was the chief editor. Shen Xiangyun and Ji Yihui were major supporters. It was published by Ma Jingru, who was a British Chinese living in Japan. He was credited with the name “Jing Sai’er,” which was the transliteration of Feng’s English family name “Kingsell.” The magazine was named the “Citizen’s Tribune” as the founders aspired to be responsible citizens

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and arouse Chinese patriotism. The columns in the magazine included “Editorial,” “Commentary,” “Chronicle,” “Translated Literature,” “Q&A,” and “Commentary on Western Literature.” All articles, except translated articles, were not credited. Each issue published one article in the “Commentary on Western Literature” column written by Wang Xianhui in English. Other writers included Feng Ziyou, Lei Fen, Yang Tingdong, and Zhang Ji. Two thousand copies were printed for each issue. They were distributed in Mainland China through Shanghai. Qin Lishan was born in Changsha, Hunan Province. During the early days, he worked under Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao and at The China Discussion . He was a commander during the Independence Army Uprising. When the Uprising failed, he travelled to Tokyo through Singapore. He accused Kang of misappropriating the overseas donations intended for the Independence Army, which resulted in multiple delays of the Uprising, and details of the Uprising were leaked. He soon severed ties with Kang and joined the revolutionists. The propaganda in the Citizen’s Tribune showed the following characteristics: While it criticized imperialism, it also pointed out that the invasion was brought about by the Qing government. It had rather radical political views. For example, it said, “The Emperor and the officials ceded land to foreign powers. It is equivalent to stealing our land for their own use. Ceding land like this is like conspiring with the foreign powers. In the end, China suffers. If we know this and do not react, it is our own fault that we lose our country.”14 It also publicly criticized the royalists. Liang said that “a true patriotic Chinese would not hate the Manchu.”15 The Citizen’s Tribune retaliated in the fourth issue by publishing Zhang Taiyan’s “Why the Hatred for the Manchu is Justified.” The article pointed out: “The Qing government failed to govern the state but ruined it instead. Those Liang Qichao were feeling compassionate for were not ordinary Manchus but the Emperor.” It was the first attack the revolutionaries struck at the royalists. The Wisdom-Guide , the Compilation of Translated Literature , and the Citizen’s Tribune had different political views and editorial policies. Judging from the propaganda in the three periodicals, they were supportive of one another because of their inclination towards revolution.

Newspapers as a propaganda tool in regional student organizations In order to find a way to save China and learn from the West, it was popular for Chinese intellectuals to study abroad at that time. As Japan was closest to China, it was where much Western literature was translated after the Meiji Reform, and

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where many new schools were established and many Chinese furthered their study. According to statistics, there were fewer than 100 Chinese students in Japan in 1900. The number skyrocketed to more than 3,000 in 1904. Most of them were self-financed. Only 23% of them were sponsored by the government. The students came from all over China, although many of them were from Hunan, Hubei, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang Provinces. In late 1902 and early 1903, many regional student organizations were set up across Japan to offer help to fellow Chinese students. Some publications advocating patriotism and revolution emerged. The more prominent ones included: Translated Materials from Study Tours (Youxue yibian 遊 學 譯 編 ), Students from Hubei (Hubei xueshengjie 湖 北 學 生 界 ), The Voice of the Municipality (Zhishuo 直說 ), Tides of Zhejiang (Zhejiang chao 浙江 潮 ), and the Jiangsu Magazine (Jiangsu 江蘇). Translated Materials from Study Tours was a monthly magazine first issued on December 14, 1902, in Tokyo. It was founded by the Hunan Student Association of Japan, edited by the Tokyo Chinese Student Society for Translation, and published by Changsha Mining Office. The chief editor was Yang Yulin. The editors included Zhou Jiashu, Liang Huanyi, Yang Du, Huang Zhen (Huang Xing), Chen Tianhua, and Fan Zhui. The first and second issues were published on the same day. The fourth issue and the issues after number eight were published under the name Xiong Yecui. It continued to be published until the 12th issue, which was issued on November 3, 1903. The contents were divided into several columns: “Academic Knowledge,” “Education,” “Military Affairs,” “History,” “Geography,” “Foreign Commentary,” as well as “Foreign Correspondence,” “Commentary on Current Affairs,” “Industry,” and “Fiction.” The contents consisted of mostly translated articles. The authors were credited with their last name, the source and the original title of the article was provided. This was a way to indirectly comment on current affairs and was the reason why it could be sold in Mainland China. The editors only expressed their own views in prefaces or afterwords. In the last few issues, it also published political commentary written by the editors themselves. Yang Yulin was born in Changsha, Hunan Province. He was a reform activist in the early days. After he went to study abroad in Japan, he was influenced by the ideology of democracy and became a revolutionist. Before taking up the position of chief editor at Translated Materials from Study Tour , he published a revolutionist brochure called New Hunan (Xin Hunan 新 湖 南 ). Translated Materials from Study Tour was the first publication issued by any Chinese student association in Japan. The first few issues of the Translated Materials from Study Tour were

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filled with reformist ideology. For example, Yang wrote in the preface that “the government should not be condemned for not improving the lives not bearing the hopes of its people” and China would be revived as long as “education and industry reform were properly implemented.” However, the Qing government continued to disappoint. The magazine criticized it for “investigating the students, shutting down societies, capturing Zhang Binglin and Zou Rong, and hanging Shen Jin without reason.” The editors started to lean towards revolution: “The dire situation the Chinese are in makes everything less important and less urgent than revolution.” That said, the magazine still supported local social reforms. Students from Hubei was a monthly magazine first issued on January 29, 1903 in Tokyo. It was organized by Chinese students from Hubei Province in Japan, published by the Society of Students from Hubei. It was edited and published by Wang Fufang, and Yin Yuanyi at first. In the third and fourth issue, it was edited and published by just Yin alone. From the fifth issue onwards, it was done Dou Yanshi. The last issues — the seventh and eighth — were published together on September 21, 1903. A separate publication Traditional Knowledge (Jiu xue 舊學 ) was issued on June 25, 1903. The main columns included “Commentary,” “Education,” “Economics,” “Industry,” “Military Affairs,” “History,” “Geography,” “Current Affairs,” “Fiction,” and “Miscellaneous.” Sometimes, it included records of the Hubei Investigation Bureau. It was the first overseas Chinese student publication which was named after a province. Its sales were decent. Some issues demanded a reprint. The charter of the magazine stated its aims as “introducing foreign knowledge and arousing the spirit of the Chinese.” What the magazine achieved was beyond the two stated aims. The editors Lan Tianwei, Yin Yuanyim Wang Fufang, Li Shucheng, and Liu Chengyu were core members of the Anti-Russia Volunteer Army (Ju E yiyong dui 拒俄義勇隊 ). Therefore, in the first to fourth issues, there were a lot of reports on the Anti-Russia student movement in Japan. The Qing government reacted quickly. It bribed Wang to make him withdraw from the movement. Yet, the anti-Qing propaganda in the magazine became more intense. In the fifth issue, the magazine adopted the Yellow Emperor calendar, was renamed The Voice of Han (Han sheng 漢聲 ) in the sixth issue, and issued Traditional Knowledge . It was a compilation of historical materials and poems on patriotism during the Song and Ming Dynasties. It aimed at arousing the revolutionary spirit of the Chinese to banish the Manchus and revive China. The Voice of the Municipality was a monthly magazine first issued on February 13, 1903, in Tokyo. It was founded by the Municipality (Hebei) Student

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Association of Japan and published by Chinese Student Association in Japan

(Qingguo liuxuesheng huiguan 清 國 留 學 生 會 館 ). One of the chief editors was

Du Yi. The magazine only lasted two issues. The columns includes: “Education,”

“Politics,” “Economics,” “Military Affairs,” “Diplomacy,” “Industry,” “History,” “Geography,” “Law,” “Foreign Commentary,” and “Miscellaneous.” All writers and translators were credited. The Chinese name of The Voice of the Municipality

— Zhishuo 直說 — also means “frank speech.” The magazine aimed at introducing foreign knowledge into Mainland China. It was very anti-imperialistic after the Eight-Nation Alliance invasion. The editorial board donated 200 dollars to the

Anti-Russia Movement, which was the highest amount at that time. The magazine also supported natural human rights and freedom and equality. It strongly

criticized “the Qing government for absorbing the money from the general public for private use” and called for the public to “fight against the cruel Qing royalty and officials.”

The magazine was not all about promoting revolution. In terms of the

introduction of new knowledge, it included a wide variety of materials from different periods.

Tides of Zhejiang was a monthly magazine first issued on February 17, 1903, in Tokyo. It was edited and published by the Zhejiang Student Association of Japan. Sun Yizhong (Sun Jiangdong) was the chief editor. Other editors included Jiang Fangyi, Jiang Zungui, Xu Shouchang, Wang Jiaji, and Jiang Zhiyou. Lu Xun was one of the contributors. The first 10 issues and the table of contents of the 11th and 12th issues were preserved. The magazine lasted until the end of 1903. In the first issue, it stated its aim as “introducing knowledge and arousing the spirit” of the Chinese. It was named Tides of Zhejiang as it was a metaphor of the revolution sweeping through the country like the tides in the rivers of Zhejiang. It included columns such as “Commentary,” “Translated Articles,” “Fiction,” “Records,” and “Miscellaneous.” Sun Yizhong was born in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. He was a teacher at the Qiushi Academy (Qiushi shuyuan 求是書院 ). He was investigated by the government as he decided on the anti-Qing topic “The Crime of the Braid” for an examination and did not delete certain radical sentences in students’ articles. In 1902, he furthered his studies in Japan. He soon joined the revolutionary association founded by Chinese students in Japan — Society for the Youth (Qingnian hui 青 年 會 ). He returned to China in summer 1903 and worked as chief editor at Hangzhou Vernacular News (Hangzhou baihua bao 杭州白話報 ). He was succeeded by Jiang Fangzhen and Wang Jiaji.

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The first Issue of Tides of Zhejiang Similar to other overseas Chinese student publications, Tides of Zhejiang

devoted most of its contents to the Eight-Nation Alliance invasion. The views it expressed were more in-depth: “Recently, any outbreak of events stemmed from imperialism.”16 It also criticized Liang Qichao’s view that “to reform China

must first reform its people.” It said, “For the past 10 years, the Chinese nation has acquired little new knowledge. The government has been giving land away,

paying indemnity and signing too many treaties. Everything it has done has put China in a dire situation. For generations, the Chinese would be the slaves of foreign powers and China will never recover…. [Therefore,] the government is to blame for the death of China. If the people do not blame and criticize the

government, the people are to blame.” It concluded that revolution was the only way to save China.

Tides of Zhejiang also included much materials related to natural science. It published “Geography of China,” “On Molybdenum” and the translation of Voyage au centres de la Terre . The sales of the magazine were remarkable. Five thousand copies were printed for each issue. The first few issues even called for a reprint. The Jiangsu Magazine was a monthly magazine first issued on April 27, 1903 in Tokyo. It was edited and published by the Jiangsu Student Association of Japan. It published a total of 12 issues up to May 15, 1904. The chief editor was Qin Yuliu (Qin Xiaolu). Other editors included Zhang Zhaotong, Wang Rongbao, Wang Zongyang, Chen Qubing, Ding Wenjiang. There were a number of columns in the magazine: “Commentary,” “Translated Articles,” “Current Affairs,” “Fiction,” “Records,” and “Miscellaneous.” The Jiangsu Magazine was founded later than the other magazines previously discussed. The revolutionary spirit was already high among the Chinese students in Japan, which was why the Magazine was relatively public with its support for revolution. It said in its first issue that it aimed at eradicating corruption, which could be understood as exposing the corrupt Qing government and fighting for democracy for China. Qin Yuliu was born in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. He was a radical revolutionary. He founded and administered the Society for the Youth, the Anti-Russia Volunteer Army, and the Military Education Association (Junguomin jiaoyu hui 軍國民教育會 ). When the Jiangsu Magazine stopped publishing, he returned to China to establish the China Revival Society (Huaxing hui 華興會 ) and planned on bombing the Wanshou Palace and joining the Zhannanguan Uprising (Zhennanguan qiyi 鎮南關起義 ). Since the third issue, the Jiangsu Magazine abandoned the era name of Emperor Guangxu

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and switched to the Yellow Emperor calendar. It published works like Sun Yat-sen’s “China: United or Divided?” and Huang Zongyang’s “Hiking to Peak Guanyue with

Yat-sen at Night.” It showed its support for revolution. Similar to other contemporary overseas Chinese student publications, it also advocated saving China through

education, industrial advancement, and establishing local self-government. It showed racial prejudice and Han chauvinism.

Vernacular Chinese (Baihua 白話 ) edited by Qiu Jin was another overseas Chinese student publication in Tokyo at that time. It was first published on September 24, 1904. It was edited and published by the Speech Practice Society (Yanshuo Lianxi Hui 演說練習會 ). Three issues were preserved. Studying Abroad (Haiwai congxue lu 海外叢學錄 ) was edited by three students from Yunnan Province: Liu Changming, You Zonglong, and Chen Zhaogong. It was first issued on September 29, 1904, by the Yunnan official bookstore. It aimed at broadening the mind of the public and promoted patriotism and democracy.

The characteristics of propaganda in Chinese student publications in Japan and their influence A feature that Chinese student publications in Japan shared was that they all

showed strong patriotism and hatred for imperialism. They called for the Chinese

to be united and fight against foreign invasion. Propaganda of this type took up a

considerable portion of the content in the publications. As this propaganda could

stimulate the Chinese to hate the foreign powers, the Qing government allowed the publications to be sold in Mainland China. Some received sponsorships from businessmen and former politicians.

Another feature was that they published translated articles to promote

democracy in the name of “widening the horizon and broadening the minds of the public.” Overseas Chinese students thought that the Western concept of civil

liberties would help China advance and therefore should be introduced as soon as possible. Although bourgeois revolution ideology like that was a threat to the Qing government, the government turned a blind eye, thinking that it did not

directly advocate anti-Qing ideas. Before May 1903, translated articles took up the majority of the contents. The thinking the articles talked about were new to the Chinese. Therefore, the sales of the publications were good.

The third feature was that the content changed with time. The 1903 Anti-

Russia Movement was a turning point. Chinese students in Japan were enraged

that Russia breached the treaty and refused to withdraw troops from Northeast

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China. They thought that the Minister of Beiyang and the Foreign Affairs Department — Yuan Shikai — was anti-Russia. They assembled the Anti-Russia

Volunteer Army and declared that they were willing to fight against Russia

“under the command and leadership of the government.” Nevertheless, the Qing government thought it was an army of the revolutionaries which was

trying to overthrow the monarchy while pretending to fight against Russia. The government secretly commanded that “should provincial governors find any returning students suspicious, they should investigate the suspects

immediately and execute any of those who supported revolution.” It alerted all the revolutionist students. They realized that “revolution would be the inevitable

future. It was only a matter of time.” Since then, many student publications dropped the era name of Guangxu and switched to the stem-branch calendar 17

or the Yellow Emperor calendar. They openly supported anti-Qing revolution.

They even called government officials “slaves of the Manchus” and the Empress Dowager a “slut.”

The improved editorial work was another characteristic. Before that time,

Chinese magazines were bound together using stitching. The Chinese student

publications in Japan were the first to adopt Western-style binding. Most of them printed pictures of China’s landscape and respected national heroes on the front page using copperplate. Tides of Zhejiang also used blue ink for illustration.

In the first four to five years of the 20th century, the diversity of the means for

conducting propaganda increased. Most of the publications added new columns such as “Chinese News,” “Foreign Affairs,” and “Records.” Most of the news

reported was about the imperialistic powers invading China or the corruption of the Qing government. Foreign commentary was sometimes used to support the

arguments of authors. For example, the third issue of the Jiangsu Magazine published the translation of “China Should Reform Its Government,” which was originally

published in Japan’s Current Affairs Weekly (Shishi zhoubao 時事週報 ). The translator commented, “If I tell the Chinese that the government needs reform, we would all be condemned as traitors…. This is why we need the help of foreign

commentary. As the proverb says, ‘The spectator knows better than the chess player’… I hope every Chinese would understand.” It was an effective strategy

before the public could accept revolution. The publications also widely promoted the stories of Yue Fei, Wen Tianxiang, Shi Kefa, and Zheng Chenggong who

fought against foreign invasion hoping that it would awaken the anti-Qing spirit in the public.

The publications also took surveys very seriously. They cooperated with

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fellow revolutionists in China to study China’s economy, politics, and culture. Specific columns were devoted to publishing survey reports. The Students from

Hubei was the first to implement this measure. They set up a specific survey department in the Hubei Association. Tides of Zhejiang and the Jiangsu Magazine were the two which perfected the job. The former published 34 reports and the latter 24 within a year. Some of the reports are still used as reference materials. Along the road of revolution, the intellectuals, especially those studying overseas, were the pioneers. The overseas Chinese student publications were a catalyst to recruit more students into joining revolution. Before 1900, Chinese intellectuals were stubbornly loyal to the monarch and saw revolution as treacherous. The situation changed little until August 1905 when Sun Yat-sen returned to Japan from the West. The Chinese students there gave him a warm welcome. He gave a speech: “I left Japan two years ago. Two years is not a long time, but the situation has changed dramatically. I did not foresee this…. The support for revolution now is so strong compared to two years ago. I see that there is still hope for China.” The change in attitude towards revolution was the effort of the student publications. In 1902, Ye Lan, Qin Yuliu, Dong Hongji, and Zhang Ji founded the first revolutionary association in Tokyo — Society for the Youth. There were only 20 members. More than 2,000 joined the Military Education Association the next year thanks to the Anti-Russia Movement and the propaganda in the publications. The student publications gave revolution a push and inspired many people across China. The cultural circus in Mainland China was responsive. After reading the Translated Materials from Study Tours , many intellectuals followed in the footsteps and founded the Translated Materials for Encouragement for Learning (Lixue yibian 勵 學 譯 編 ) and Translated Materials for Exhortation to Learning (Quanxue yibian 勸 學 譯 編 ). Some publishing houses were set up in Shanghai, such as the Zuoxin Society (Zuoxin she 作新社 ), Jingjin Bookstore (Jingjin shuju 鏡今書局 ), and Society for Chinese Studies (Guoxue she 國學社 ). They specialized in publishing translated revolutionary materials and reprinting banned books about nationalism. Shanghai’s Mainland China (Dalu 大陸 ) and Eastern Miscellany founded in 1902 and 1904, respectively, were the first two magazines to use Western-style binding. Other magazines followed and the Western-style binding became the standard. These publications were distributed across China. Their influence was farreaching. Zhou Shizhao wrote in “Our Teachers” that when Tides of Zhejiang was delivered to Zhounan Academy for Women (Zhounan nüxiao 周南女校 ) Changsha, Hunan Province, at the recommendation of the teachers — Xu Teli and Zhu Jianfan

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— “the whole school was filled with revolutionary thoughts.” Such influence was more obvious in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces. Jiang Menglin wrote in the “Western Trend”: “Revolutionary leaflets and publications were available at Zhejiang Higher

Academy (Zhejiang gaodeng xuetang 浙江高等學堂 )…. Students were enthusiastic

to read them…. The situation at other schools is similar.”

The overseas Chinese student publications facilitated revolution in Mainland

China. During the days when the Qing government tortured and killed Shen Jin, the Case of the Jiangsu Post , the shutting down of the Patriotism Academy (Aiguo

xueshe 愛國學社 ), and the suppression of Anti-Russia Movement, the publications echoed the public opinion. When revolutionary societies were still underground, the publications united them. The Restoration Society (Guangfu hui 光復會 ) in Zhejiang region embedded the words “Tides of Zhejiang” into the verse of a poem: “The yellow river originated from the tides of Zhejiang” to identify commanders of the society. The influence of the publications at that time was profound and farreaching.

The Jiangsu Post , The Case of the Jiangsu Post , and Other Revolutionary Periodicals The publication and development of the Jiangsu Post The Jiangsu Post (Su bao 蘇報 ) was first issued on June 26, 1896, in Shanghai. The founder Hu Zhang (Hu Tiemei) registered the newspaper under the name of his Japanese wife Ikoma Etsu at the Japan Consulate in Shanghai. The newspaper was officially a Japanese company. The chief writer, Zou Tao (Zhou Hanfei)

was from Wuxi. He had no power over the selection of news or the stance of

the newspaper. Hu had entire control. In the first few years, the newspaper was

printed on a slick paper, single-sided. Later, it was printed on newsprint on both

sides. At that time, the Jiangsu Post was in close contact with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan and the Kokuryukai (Black Dragon Society). Zou was

later fired and filed a complaint at the court in Shanghai International Settlement. He said in his testimony, “I do not know who established the newspaper, but

there has never been a woman. I advised Ikoma Etsu to be careful. She told me, ‘I’m not afraid. The newspaper was set up by Japanese higher-up officials. Not

even the Consul can interfere.’ Hu Tiemei once said, ‘Ikoma Etsu was an ordinary citizen. I recommended her to the Japanese gentry and officials. So, now she is

the head of the newspaper.’”18 Although the Jiangsu Post had a strong backing,

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its reputation was poor. Hu often attacked other individuals in his newspaper or even blackmailed some of them. Later, the newspaper reported often on cases of sexual misconduct to appeal to readers. The sales of the newspaper dropped and the newspaper was sold to retired official Chen Fan. Chen was from Hengshan, Hunan Province, but grew up in Changzhou, Jiangsu Province. He was awarded the title of Juren in 1889 and later appointed as District Magistrate of Yanshan, Jiangxi Province. He was dismissed in 1894 but he remained in Shanghai. He bought the Jiangsu Post from Hu Zhang in the latter half of 1900. When the Case of the Jiangsu Post broke out, he fled to Japan. During the Wuchang Uprising, he joined the Hunan and Guangxi Coalition Army. During the first year of the Republican Period, he was an editor at Shanghai’s The Pacific News (Taipingyang bao 太平洋報 ) and chief writer at Beijing’s The Democrat (Minzhu bao 民主報 ). He died in 1913 in Shanghai. Chen changed the font of the masthead from clerical script (lishu 隸書 ) to regular script and invited his brother-in-law Wang Wenpu (Wang Langao) to be the chief writer. The newspaper supported the reformists. After 1902, Chen realized that the royalists were too detached from the public and began to sympathize with the revolutionists. While the newspaper continued to use words like “bandits” in the headlines of reports on local revolutionary activities, the tone of the actual content was more objective. It did not add any commentary. In the winter of 1902, the

Jiangsu Post created a column “The Waves of Students” to report on domestic and foreign student movements. In April 1902, Cai Yuanpei, Huang Zongyang, Wu Jingheng, Jiang Zhiyou founded the Education Association of China in Shanghai. It aimed at “publishing textbooks and reforming education to revive China.” In fact, it was a revolutionary association. In summer, around 50 students at the Nanyang Public School (Nanyang gongxue 南洋公學 ) withdrew due to suppression of speech. The students asked the Association to establish a school. On November 16, the Association founded the Patriotism Academy in Shanghai. Cai was the administrator, Wu the supervisor, and Huang, Zhang Binlin, and Jiang Weiqiao volunteer teachers. The next year, around 40 students at the Nanjing Army College (Nanjing lushi xuetang 南 京 陸 師 學 堂 ) also enrolled in the Patriotism Academy for the same reason. The Patriotism Academy and the Jiangsu Post had an agreement that the Academy would contribute an article to the Jiangsu Post every day, which in turn would sponsor the Academy 100 dollars every month. As a result, pro-revolution articles continued to appear in the newspaper. Those articles included: “Explanation of the Hatred for the Manchus,” “Identifying the

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Han Traitors,” “Devising Policies to Govern the Han for the Qing Government,” and “On the Founding of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance.” The Jiangsu Post became almost like an official newspaper of the Patriotism Academy. It alerted the Qing government. According to the correspondence between Duanfang (the Governor-General of the Hubei and Hunan Provinces) and the Grand Council, and the “Records of the Case of the Jiangsu Post,” Duanfang and Enshou had their eyes on the Academy since May 1903. They decided that the Academy should be investigated and punished. Under such circumstances, Chen, although hesitant, eventually chose to support revolution. He regarded Zhang Shizhao very highly. On May 27, 1903, Zhang accepted the invitation to be the chief writer at the Jiangsu Post . Zhang was born in Changsha, Hunan Province. He enrolled in the Nanjing Army College in 1902 but withdrew the next year to enroll in the Patriotism Academy. When he became the chief writer at Jiangsu Post at the invitation of Chen Fan, he was only 22 years old. Chen gave him total control and asked him not to be worried about offending anyone. Zhang was officially the chief writer from May 27 to July 7, 1903 when the Jiangsu Post was banned and investigated. The 40-plus days that Zhang assumed the position were the best days of the newspaper. There was a revolutionist article almost every day. The following are the excerpts of some of the more influential articles: “Kang Youwei” was published on June 1. It did not deny the contributions Kang made for reforming China, but pointed out: “Revolution has been declared and the public supports it. It is a fact…. If Kang was so against revolution, he would become an inferior man.” “Confidential Imperial Edict on Capturing Overseas Chinese Students” was published on June 5. It said, “A close friend told me about the confidential edict: ‘Yesterday, Yuan Shikai issued an imperial edict saying that some Chinese students studying in Tokyo including Lan Tianwei were forming an army trying to launch a revolution…. The students are trying to overthrow the imperial court. We should not tolerate that…. Should provincial governors find any returning students suspicious, they should investigate the suspects immediately and execute any of those who supported revolution.’ ” Zhang wrote an article “On Reading The Revolutionary Army ” which was published on June 9: “Everyone is singing the folk song about partly following the Manchu custom. Everyone calls the Manchus ‘Dazi ’ 19 in the same sense that everyone calls the Westerners ‘Guizi .’20 Everyone hates the Manchus. The monarch now is Manchurian; the provincial officials which suppress the Han are

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Manchurian. The meaning of revolution is to overthrow the monarch, the special rights of the noble class, and those who suppress revolution. The hatred for the Manchus shows the potential for revolution. Revolution is inevitable.”

During that time, there were several more radical articles such as “Citizens

Without A Nation,” “The Uninvited Emperor,” “Blessings to the Students at

Peking University,” “The Revolutionary Parties Are in Power,” “Anger at the Confidential Imperial Edict on Capturing Overseas Chinese Students,” “The

History of Policemen of the Manchus,” “Arguments Against ‘Arguments Against Revolution,’” “The Royalists, Alas!” “Murderism,” “To Everyone at the National

Council,” and “The Relationship between Kang Youwei and the Qing Monarch.” While the opinions of the articles may be biased, they aroused the spirit of the public. Society was inspired.

The prelude and aftermath of the Case of the Jiangsu Post and its influence In April 1903, Zou Rong returned to China after studying abroad in Japan. He wrote a revolutionary propaganda brochure called The Revolutionary Army

(Gemingjun 革命軍). There were seven chapters and around 20,000 words. It advocated overthrowing the Qing monarchy, resisting foreign invasion, and establishing an

independent democratic “Republic of China.” In May, it was published by Shanghai’s

Great Unity Bookstore (Datong shuju 大同書局 ) sponsored by fellow revolutionaries Jin Tianhe, Cai Yin, and Tao Gengxiaong. Zhang Binglin had a high regard for Zou Rong and called Zou his “young friend.” He commented on The Revolutionary

Army : “The language was simple, but it did not fail to inspire the public.” He also wrote the preface to the brochure. Zou also wrote a preface himself: “I lived in Sichuan Province for 6 of the past 10 years. I travelled to Shanghai during the year of Xinchou. The next year, I travelled outside China for more than a year. I share quotes and ideas of respected individuals which have marked an impression on my mind in this brochure with my compatriots…. There are people who criticized me and people who believe in me. I believe that Rousseau, Washington, and other philosophers would say, ‘This young man proves that knowledge is flowing to the East.’ I believe that Zheng Chenggong and Zhang Huangyan would say, ‘There is someone to succeed us. We can rest in peace.’ If my words move people, revolution will rise.” He signed his name as “the servant of the Revolutionary Army — Zou Rong from Sichuan.” Zou was born in Baxian County, Sichuan Province in 1883. He was not

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yet 20 years old when he wrote The Revolutionary Army . His brochure and revolutionary attitude inspired many people at that time. The Jiangsu Post did a lot of promotional work for the brochure. On June 9, 1903, the Jiangsu Post published an article “Introducing The Revolutionary Army ” in the column “New Books Release”: “It talks about overthrowing the Qing Empire and reviving China. The tone is sharp and the words heartfelt. Anyone who has a sense of nationalism would be deeply moved. If many people read this book, China will revive.” In the same issue, it also published Zhang Shizhao’s “On Reading The Revolutionary Army ” which praised Zou very highly. The next day, the newspaper published the preface Zhang wrote for The Revolutionary Army . In the preface, Zhang emphasized that “the brochure was a prelude for revolution and almost everyone thinks the same.” He also explained the meaning of “revolution”: “ ‘Revolution’ is uniting the race and changing the political system; ‘revival’ is banishing the other races. China died when the Manchus invaded. What we do now is reviving, not revolutionizing, China. Why did Zou used the word ‘revolution’? It is because he envisions more than banishing the Manchus from China. He suggests change in the political system, education, and etiquette.” Thanks to the Jiangsu Post , The Revolution Army was reprinted several times. It set a record by selling almost 1 million copies. Its success was very encouraging for the revolutionists. On June 29, 1903, the Jiangsu Post published Zhang Binglin’s “The Relationship between Kang Youwei and the Qing Monarch,” which was a reply to Kang Youwei’s “Discussion with Chinese Businessmen in North and South America about Why Constitutional Monarchy Should Be Implemented in China and Revolution Should Be Suppressed” published on September 16, 1902, in the New Citizen Journal .21 Zhang’s article was originally part of an open letter to Kang entitled “Arguments Against Kang Youwei’s View on Revolution.” It expounded on the importance and inevitability of revolution. Kang once praised the Qing government very highly. Zhang strongly criticized him: “Since the days of Emperor Kangxi, Dai Mingshi, Cha Siting, Wang Jingqi, Qi Zhouhua, Hu Zhongzao, and Wang Xihou have been subjected to literary inquisition. It was a means to muffle and intimidate the Han Chinese. Although Li Fu and Sun Jiagan were innocent, they were bullied and abused. In more recent times, Kang initiated the Hundred Days’ Reform, but said that the Qing Empire was unparalleled in the world. Alas! It is indeed unparalleled.” When he talked about the Emperor Guangxu’s intention to reform China, he said, “Since the year of Yiwei, the Emperor has been worried about his throne. The Empress Dowager wanted to overthrow him. The Emperor was wary of the supporters of the Empress

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Dowager and sought help from outside the imperial court for reform. If he did not implement reform, he could not please the foreign powers. If the foreign powers were not pleased, he could not regain power to resist the Empress Dowager. The clown knew little about the world. Kang took advantage of the situation and won the Emperor’s trust. But, the Hundred Days’ Reform was only implemented because the Emperor wanted to keep his throne.” Zhang concluded that only revolution would revive and strengthen China. In May 1903, the Qing government began plotting measures against the Patriotism Academy and the Jiangsu Post . The Governor-General of Jiangsu Province commanded the Circuit Intendant of Shanghai to ask the Consuls of various countries in Shanghai International Settlement to capture Cai Yuanpei, Chen Fan, Zhang Binglin, Wu Jingheng, and Huang Zongyang. However, the municipal committee in the settlement did not agree. Chen and Zhang Shizhao were well aware of the circumstances. Zhang later explained that someone had to be outspoken. People would not be inspired if no one dared to speak out. As the Jiangsu Post became more and more outspoken and radical, the Qing government felt the threat of revolution. Finally, on June 26, the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei Provinces appointed Yu Mingzhen (substitute Circuit Intendant of Nanjing) and Yuan Shuxun (Circuit Intendant of Shanghai) to investigate and shut down the Jiangsu Post . Three days later, the Jiangsu Post published “The Relationship between Kang Youwei and the Qing Monarch,” calling Emperor Guangxu a “clown.” It further irritated the Qing government. On that day, Yu and Yuan approached the municipal committee, which agreed to issue a warrant to capture “Chen Fan, Chen Shuchou, Chen Jifu, Zhang Binglin, Zou Rong, Qian Yunsheng, and Long Jizhi.” The Qing government miswrote Cheng Jifu as “Chen Jifu” and did not know that “Chen Fan” and “Chen Shuchou” referred to the same person. Zhang and Wu were not on the list because of their friendship with Yu’s son (Yu Dacun), and Zhang was a former student of Yu. Yu was a relatively open-minded official. In this Case of the Jiangsu Post , it seemed that Zhang and Wu were protected. The municipal committee acted immediately after the warrant was issued. It captured the treasurer Cheng Jipu. Chen was at the office but others covered up for him. Cai Yuanpei had already left for Qingdao. Wu was warned by Yu and later fled with Chen. Zhang Binglin refused to leave and said, “Revolution is paid for by blood. It is the seventh time that the Qing government wanted me.” The next day, the committee dispatched policemen to the Patriotism Academy and the office of the Women’s Journal. They captured Chen’s son Chen Zhongyi

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and clerk Qian Baoren. Zhang was resting in the account room. He said, “Others are not here. I am Zhang Binglin. Take me.” He was captured. Zou was hiding at a missionary’s place. When he heard that Zhang was captured, he surrendered himself at the police office the next night. Long also turned himself in that night. The law of the Shanghai International Settlement stated that the defendant should be tried at the Mixed Court. Only a convicted defendant could be subject to legal sanctions. Therefore, the Jiangsu Post should not be shut down before any of the members was convicted. John Ferguson, who sided with the Qing government, assigned a journalist of his News Daily (Xinwen bao 新聞報 ) to wage a psychological war against Zhang by promoting traditional ethics. Zhang retaliated: “Be gone!... The world will judge. Fifty years later, we will see who is regarded more highly by the people. I have nothing more to say.” Zhang Shizhao published “Zhang Binglin’s Interview in the Jail” in the Jiangsu Post . The Qing government was surprised and asked Ferguson to help shut down the Jiangsu Post immediately. The municipal committee decided that it would ignore the law and closed down the newspaper and dissolved the Patriotism Academy on July 7. On July 15, 1903, the Mixed Court held the first trial of the Case of the Jiangsu Post . Apart from the six defendants, judicial officers, Prefect of the Qing government Sun Jianchen, District Magistrate of Shanghai Wang Yaoting, British Consul B. Giles, and the lawyers of the Qing government and those of Zhang Binglin and Zou Rong were present. The lawyers of the Qing government first presented his arguments: “The Jiangsu Post was outrageous. It insulted the monarchy. On the fifth day of the fifth month,22 it published ‘The Relationship between Kang Youwei and the Qing Monarch’; on the 23nd day, it published articles about the hatred for the Manchus; on the eighth day, it published ‘The Uninvited Emperor’; on the 14th day, it published The Revolutionary Army …. The newspaper slandered the Emperor and called him a ‘clown.’ Everything was done intentionally. What I have presented is not all. Zhang and Zou were plotting against the Qing government.” The six defendants were interrogated by judicial officers. Cheng Jifu and three other defendants stated that they were not involved in the editorial work and did not take any anti-Qing actions. Zou Rong said that he wrote The Revolutionary Army because he despised autocracy. Zhang Binglin said that he wanted to criticize Kang Youwei for shielding the Qing government. He further scorned the Qing government: “I only know the Emperor is Manchurian. I do not know his name. ‘Clown’ means child. I did not write the commentary in the Jiangsu Post .” The lawyers of Zhang and Zou questioned, “Which party is the plaintiff? Is it the Beijing government? Is it the Governor-

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General of Jiangsu Province? Or is it the District Magistrate of Shanghai?” Judicial officer Sun Jianchen answered that “the capture of Zhang and Zou were ordered by the Governor-General of Jiangsu Province. I, as the Prefect, acted accordingly.” The lawyer continued, “Is it acceptable for the Chinese government to bring a private case to a low-level court? Is the government to be judged by the court?” Sun was speechless. In the end, the lawyers of the Qing government requested an adjournment and the court agreed. The lawsuit lasted 10 months and seven trials. The Qing officials appeared disgraceful. The defendants appeared calm. Zhang and Zou sounded confident when they said “they would not acknowledge a barbaric government.” They transformed the court which had been designed to suppress the people into a platform for promoting revolution. “After the trails ended, they were transferred back to the jail. Many passers-by were crying and singing ‘The wind carries the smell of the shackles and everyone wants to see the Vice Director.’” People were touched by their courage and fighting spirit. They became public heroes. Zhang Binglin (1869–1936) was born in Yuhang, Zhejiang Province. Because of his appreciation for Gu Yanwu, a famous revolutionary thinker, he changed his name to Zhang Taiyan. He was once a writer at The Chinese Progress , but was isolated as he did not support Kang Youwei’s beliefs of a Confucian educational system. Later, he became the chief editor at Hangzhou’s Global Affairs (Jingshi bao 經 世 報 ), Shanghai’s Authentic Knowledge (Shixue bao 實 學 報 ) and the Translation Society Weekly Edition (Yishu gonghui bao 譯書公會報 ), and writer at Taiwan Nichinichi Shimpo . He joined the Revive China Society in Japan in 1902. He returned to Shanghai and became involved in the Education Association of China and the Patriotism Academy. He was sent to prison because of the Case of the Jiangsu Post in 1903. He left prison in June 1906 and became chief editor at The Minpao Magazine — the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Japan. He once again returned to China after the 1911 Restoration of Shanghai. The next year, he left the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and founded The Republic Daily (Dagonghe ribao 大共和日報 ). He was Sun Yat-sen’s temporary Consultant to the President. He joined the Anti–Yuan Shikai movement after Song Jiaoren was assassinated in 1913. He was captured and released after Yuan died. After the May Fourth Movement, he became devoted to the study of phonology and was against the New Culture Movement. He established the China Monthly (Huaguo yuekan 華國月刊 ) in Shanghai and the Zhang Taiyan’s Society for Nation Studies (Zhangshi guoxue yanxi suo 章氏國學講習所 ) in Suzhou and edited the official semi-monthly newspaper Zhiyan 制言 . In his twilight years,

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he published “Manifesto of Two Old Men” with Ma Xiangbo. His works were compiled into three volumes and preserved. When Zhang and Zou were in custody, the Qing government made many offers to the municipal committee and various consulates and even sold the rights to build the Shanghai-Nanjing Railway in order to extradite Zhang and Zou. The American Consul John Goodnow agreed to the extradition, but the British government refused. The matter was discussed at the British House of Lords. At that time, Shen Jin was tragically hanged by the Qing government. Almost every country condemned the Qing government. It was why the British government did not agree to extradition. On December 24, 1903, the “additional court” of the Mixed Court sentenced Zhang and Zou to lifetime imprisonment. Other defendants were released. The public was angered, and the Consuls in Shanghai did not agree to the sentence. The Consuls entered into discussion with the Qing government. The Qing government wanted to end the case as soon as possible. It agreed with the British Consul and worked out a new sentence. On May 22, 1904, the trial resumed. Zhang was sentenced to three years and Zou to two years imprisonment. They were to be banished from the international settlement after serving their time. Zou could not bear the hardships in prison and fell seriously ill after a year. One day before he was on parole (April 3, 1905), he took medicine at the municipality committee hospital. He died that night at the age of 21. Zhang was short-sighted. He was slow in doing penal labor and was, therefore, constantly beaten up. However, he had a strong mind. He even put on a hunger strike. When Cai Yuanpei visited him, they discussed setting up revolutionary organizations. He was one of the founders of the Restoration Society in winter 1904. On June 29, 1906, Zhang was released. The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance sent some members from Tokyo to accompany him to Japan. The effort that the Qing government made in the Case of the Jiangsu Post was not only to put Zhang and Zou to death, it was more important to warn the other revolutionists through cruel suppression. It wanted to suppress the Chinese by literary inquisition. However, China had come a long way in the last few hundred years. The public were not intimidated to talk about the Case. In fact, the Case inspired the Chinese to launch a revolution. Because of the special political circumstances in the international settlement, the Qing government was regarded as an ordinary plaintiff against the commoners. Zhang regarded himself as the representative of the Han Chinese and referred to the lawsuit as the “battle of the Han against the Qing government.”

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It inspired many revolutionists and the public. Therefore, the Qing government was, in some sense, the loser in the lawsuit. The Case did not intimidate the people. Rather, it facilitated the development of revolutionary publications.

The further development of revolutionary newspapers in China Revolutionary intellectuals began to establish bases in China in 1902 in order

to expand their influence. Most of the newspapers at that time had their offices

situated inside the international settlements to cooperate with foreigners. It was a

way to keep the Qing government at bay. In terms of disseminating revolutionary propaganda, apart from the Jiangsu Post , the other revolutionist newspapers

at that time (1902–1904) were not as radical. They were concerned about the reception from the public and the Qing government.

Mainland China (Dalu 大 陸 ) was the first revolutionary periodical in China. It was first issued on December 9, 1902, in Shanghai. The first two issues were published every month. From the third issue onwards, it was published every fortnight. Credited editors and publishers included: Publishing House of Mainland China, Lin Zhiqi, Liu Luqing, and Wang Tun. But, in fact, the chief editor was Ji Yihui, a student who returned from studying abroad in Japan. Other editors and writers included: Yang Tingdong, Qin Lishan, Lei Fen, Yang Yinhang, and Chen Leng. The editorial board of Mainland China was almost the same as that of Citizen’s Tribune and the Compilation of Translated Literature . Mainland China had the following columns: “Commentary,” “Academic Materials,” “Records of China,” “Foreign Records,” “Fiction,” “Military Affairs,” “Industry and Commerce,” and “Education.” Illustration was printed using copperplate printing. Ji Yihui was born in Yunyang, Hubei Province. He was the first student chosen to be sent to study politics in Japan after the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1900, before the Independence Army Uprising, Sun Yat-sen appointed him to oversee the revolutionary activities in Hunan and Hubei Provinces. When the Uprising failed, he fled to Japan. With Sun’s support, he founded the Society for Modern Education (Zuoxin she 作新社 ) with Utako Shimoda (Japanese educationist and principal at the Chinese Women’s Academy) and brought over Japan’s printing techniques. The Society published Mainland China and other publications on sociology. In 1905, with Sun’s approval, he accepted the Qing government’s invitation to serve at the Foreign Affairs Department. In 1907, Yuan Shikai accused him of “communicating with the revolutionaries and jeopardizing the imperial court.” He was dismissed and escorted back to his hometown. He died

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in Wuchang in 1908. Ji was not simple-minded. Mainland China published many articles criticizing Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, as well as some criticizing the Qing government for torturing and killing revolutionaries. It also published articles that praised the Qing government, such as “The Empress Dowager Is Determined to Implement Constitutional Monarchy.” In fact, the editors at Mainland China were not all revolutionists. They tried to be objective in reporting different types of news. However, the articles which praised the Qing government were brief and commentary was not added. Other articles were filled with more emotion. It can be argued that Mainland China was leaning to the revolutionists. The editors were very meticulous with propaganda and made sure the Qing government could have nothing against them, which was why the newspaper lasted three years. Kids’ World (Tongzi shijie 童 子 世 界 ) was the first modern revolutionary publication which was targeted at teenagers. It was first issued on April 4, 1903, in Shanghai by the Patriotism Academy. At first, it was published daily on slick paper. From the 21st issue published on April 26 onwards, it became a two-day periodical. From the 31st issue published on May 27 onwards, it was published every 10 days using lead letterpress printing. Major columns included: “Commentary,” “Current Political Situation,” “History,” “Geography,” “Fiction,” and “Miscellaneous.” He Meishi (He Mishi) was one of the chief editors. Most of the writers were students who had withdrawn from Shanghai’s Nanyang Public School. They wrote in simple classical Chinese or vernacular Chinese. The paper advocated fighting against foreign invasion and banishing the Manchus from China, as well as showed support for independence and equality in society. Some of its articles criticized traditional beliefs and concepts. For example, Jun Yan’s “Following the People in the Ancient Times” said, “Why do some people respect Confucius so much? It is because Confucius tells everyone to obey the Emperor. Of course the Emperor will love him.” Kids’ World only lasted for a short time. It stopped publishing in June 1903 when the Patriotism Academy was shut down. After the Jiangsu Post and Kids’ World closed down, The China National Gazette published its first issue on August 7, 1903, in Shanghai. Zhang Shizhao was the chief editor. Zhang Ji, He Meishi, Chen Qubing, Jin Tianhe, Gao Xu, Liu Shipei, and Chen Youji (Chen Duxiu), and Su Manshu were involved with editorial work. The newspaper was funded by Xie Xiaoshi and published by Lu Hesheng. In order to avoid Qing government intervention, it was registered at the British Consulate under the name of A. Gomoll, which was Lu’s English name. The contents and layout of the newspaper were more modern than those of the Jiangsu

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Post . It had a supplement called the “Dark World” and columns called “Political Ocean,” “Wind of Academia,” “Swan Geese in the North and South,” “Eccentricity in the World,” and “Local Diaries.” The China National Gazette learnt a lesson from the Jiangsu Post ; its opinions were not as radical. It focused on exposing the corruption of the Qing government. It published detailed reports of the Case of the Jiangsu Post and the Case of Shen Jin in installments and commented to a large extent on those two cases. It also asked readers not to be superstitious. Wei Guangdao, Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei Provinces, panicked when The China National Gazette emerged while the Case of the Jiangsu Post was still in trial. He issued an order that the public was not allowed to buy The China National Gazette . He thought that, now without sales channels, the Gazette would soon close down on its own. His plan backfired. The public notices helped to promote the Gazette and the sales rose rather than dropped. Ironically, conflict caused the editorial board and the administrative body to part ways. The Gazette stopped publishing in early December 1903. The last, preserved issue was the 117th issue published on December 3. Within two weeks after The China National Gazette stopped publishing, the official newspaper of the revolutionary Against Russia Association (Dui E tonzhi hui 對俄同志會 ) — the Cautionary News of Russia (Eshi jingwen 俄事警聞 ) — emerged. It was first issued on December 15, 1903, in Shanghai. It was funded by former District Magistrate of Shandong Province Chen Jingquan. Wang Xiaoxu was the chief editor. Other editors and writers included: Cai Yuanpei, Wang Yunzong, Lin Xie, Liu Shipei, Chen Qubing, Liu Yazi, and Lin Zongsu. On February 26, 1904, the newspaper was renamed the Cautionary Bell Tribune (Jingzhong ribao 警鐘日報 ) and Cai became the chief editor. On April 26, Sun Yat-sen posted a letter from Honolulu to Huang Zongyang to introduce the Chinese Revolutionary Army (Zhonghua geming jun 中華革命軍 ). He outlined the mission of the Army: “To banish the Manchus, to revive China, to establish a democratic nation, and to equalize land ownership.” On August 31, Cai resigned and was succeeded by Wang, and then Liu. In spring 1905, the Qing government interfered as the newspaper revealed the German invasion of Shangdong Province. Soon, the Circuit Intendant of Shanghai Yuan Shuxun asked the Mixed Court in the Shanghai International Settlement to investigate and shut down the newspaper on March 25, citing “slander and deception” as the reasons. The manager Li Chunbo and chief writer Liu Shipei were warned beforehand and fled the office. Dai Puhe (publication manager) and Hu Shaoqing (proofreader)

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were sentenced to one-year and six-month imprisonments. All printing machines were confiscated. Other revolutionary periodicals published in Shanghai during 1903 to 1904 included Lin Xie’s China Vernacular News (Zhongguo baihua bao 中國白話報 ) and the first theatre magazine in China — The Grand Stage of the 20th Century (Ershi shiji dawutai 二十世紀大舞臺 ). The latter was first issued in October 1904. It was published every fortnight. Chen Qubing (Chen Peiren) assumed the position of chief editor. Liu Yazi wrote the preface for the magazine, stating that the aims were “to eliminate poor customs, broaden the mind of the public, and arouse nationalism.” Famous actor Wang Xiaonong also contributed articles. The magazine was banned after two issues were published. Shanghai was the center of revolution and media. Many revolutionary publications entered China through Shanghai. In the south, revolutionary publications in Hong Kong had a deep impact on the Guangdong region. That type of publications began to emerge in coastal cities, e.g. Lingdong Daily (Lingdong ribao 嶺東日報 ) founded in 1902 in Shangtou (chief editor: Yang Yuan), Guangzhou’s Asia Daily (Yazhou ribao 亞洲日報 ) (chief editor: Xie Yingbo), Shanghai’s Juemin Monthly (Juemin 覺民 ) founded in 1903 (chief editor: Gao Tianmei). After 1904, the first batch of revolutionary periodicals emerged, e.g. Changsha’s Slang Post (Liyu bao 俚語日報 ) (chief editor: Song Yunqing), Jinhua’s New Green Paper (Cuixin bao 萃新報 ) (chief editor: Zhang Gong), Chongqing’s The Chungking Daily News (chief editor: Bian Xiaowu), Wuhu’s Anhui Common Saying Newspaper (Anhui suhua bao 安徽俗話報 ) (chief editor: Chen Duxiu). Under pressure from the Qing government, many revolutionist periodicals were fighting the war alone. They experienced strong suppression. For example, the New Green Paper and the The Chungking Daily News were quickly banned, and Zhang Gong and Bian Xiaowu were sentenced to imprisonment. Bian was tragically killed in prison. The Slang Post , the Anhui Common Saying Newspaper , and Asia Daily were also banned and investigated. The chief writer at Asia Daily , Su Shenzhi, was captured. Juemin Monthly only lasted 10 issues. Only Lingdong Daily lasted longer until it voluntarily stopped publishing in 1908, but only because it was registered as a Japanese newspaper and published imperial edicts or other official notices. According to a survey published in Ta Kung Pao in May 1905, there were 302 periodicals running, or which had recently stopped publishing, at that time. Only around 10 were revolutionary periodicals.

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Revolutionary Periodicals in America and Southeast Asia, and Other Overseas Chinese Periodicals Revolutionary periodicals in America and Southeast Asia during 1900–1904 Overseas Chinese were enthusiastic about participating in revolution. The early revolutionary activities Sun Yat-sen planned were targeted at winning the support of overseas Chinese. However, there was not an official revolutionary newspaper between 1894, when the Revive China Society was founded, and 1890, when China Daily was founded. During that period of time, revolutionary propaganda was spread through the speeches of Sun and other revolutionaries, and antiQing books such as Record of Ten Days in Yangzhou and The Three Massacres in Jiading . Very few people supported revolution at that time. The situation did not change until the early 20th century. In order to promote revolution among overseas Chinese, the revolutionaries began planning activities in 1900 which were aimed at audiences of overseas Chinese in America and Southeast Asia. First, they established newspaper agencies, selling periodicals from Hong Kong and Japan. Then, they began publishing their own newspapers and reprinted revolutionary publications to create an atmosphere of revolution in society. From 1900 to 1905, the revolutionary periodicals founded in America and Southeast Asia included the following: The Hawaiian Chinese News was founded in Honolulu by Cheng Weinan, who was originally from Xiangshan County, Guangdong Province. At first, it was a weekly printed by stone lithography. In 1899, it was issued twice a week using lead letterpress printing. In the early days of the Revive China Society, the newspaper was a channel for financing and a medium for communicating with other revolutionaries. In December 1903, it became the official publication of the society. Thoe Lam Jit Poh , another official newspaper of the Revive China Society, was founded in Singapore in 1904 by Tan Chor Lam and Teo Eng Hock. Tan was originally from Xiamen, Fujian Province. He lived in Singapore all his life and ran a grocery store. Teo was from Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. He sold fabric for a living. They believed in democratic revolution. In summer 1903, the Case of the Jiangsu Post occurred. Zhang Taiyan and Zou Rong were imprisoned and were to be extradited. Tan and Teo called the British Consul in Shanghai under the name “Xiao Taoyuan Club,” requesting that Britain deny extradition, quoting the law on the protection of political prisoners. At the same time, they republished 5,000

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copies of The Revolutionary Army using a fake cover of Tucun bian 圖存篇 . The copies were distributed in Southeast Asia, as well as in Fujian and Guangdong Provinces. Tan also contributed to China Daily under the name “A Young Man

who Misses the Ming Dynasty” to criticize the Qing government. In order to awaken the public, Tan and Teo funded Thoe Lam Jit Poh . They invited Chen Shizhong, who was a reporter of China Daily in Hong Kong, to be the chief editor.

Other editors included Huang Boyao, Kang Yintian, He Deru, Qiu Huanwen, and Hu Boxiang. Thoe Lam Jit Poh was the first revolutionist newspaper in Southeast

Asia. It communicated closely with Chung-wo Tong (Zhonghe tang 中和堂 ), an

affiliated organization of the Revive China Society. You Lie — the organizer of the Chung-wo Tong — was credited as honorary editor of the newspaper. At first, 1,000

copies of Thoe Lam Jit Poh were printed every day. Few people subscribed. Most copies were given out for free. In order to increase the sales, in late 1904, calendars

were enclosed with the newspaper. On top of the calendar was “Happy New Year” in English, and the year “1905” was printed on both the left and right sides, and

the slogan “China is dying, let us unite to revive China” was printed at the bottom. There was also a graphic of a bell. Below the bell was a “flag of independence.” On

both sides of the flag were two arches, which had four columns. On each column,

there was a sentence, which included: “The day the words pay off,” “To change the situation,” “Words reaching everywhere in the world,” and “Revolution across the

world.” Since then, the sales climbed steadily to 2,000 copies each issue. It became quite influential among the Chinese in Southeast Asia.

The Chinese Free Press (Datong ribao 大同日報 ) was founded in San Francisco

in 1902. It was once a self-financed newspaper of the China Zhi Gong Party. Tang

Qiongchang was the manager and Ou Jujia was the chief editor. Ou was a student of Kang Youwei and a core member of the Chinese Empire Reform Association (CERA). Under Ou’s direction, the newspaper became a medium of the reformers.

In “Founding of the Chinese Free Press ,” Ou combined Kang’s theory of Great Unity with the China Zhi Gong Party’s aim of “reviving the Ming Dynasty.” Later,

he changed his mind and said: “The Zhi Gong Paty should cooperate with the CERA to advocate constitutional monarchy.” In 1904, the Chinese Free Press was

reorganized and it became the first revolutionist periodical in the U.S.

The New Yangon Paper (Yangguang xinbao 仰光新報 ) was founded in Yangon

in 1903. The founders were local leaders Chen Ganquan, Zhuang Yinan, and Zhuang Zanzhou. Zhuang Yinan was a businessman originally from Fujian

Province. He was the President of the Yangon branch of CERA. In the early days,

the Paper was rather conservative. In spring 1905, Qin Lishan, reporter of Tokyo’s

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Citizen’s Tribune  (Guomin bao 國民報 ), arrived in Yangon from Hong Kong. He revealed the “wrong deeds” of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao to Zhuang. Zhuang immediately severed ties with the CERA and invited Qin to be the chief editor. The Paper published Qin’s long commentary “Revolution Motto.” The 60,000-word commentary was sharp and incisive. Every Chinese residing in Burma read it. The New Yangon Paper became a very popular revolutionist newspaper.

Sun Yat-sen and The Hawaiian Chinese News In 1903, Sun Yat-sen visited Honolulu for the fourth time on his trip around the world meant to promote revolution. He gave immense support to the development of revolutionary publications in America and Southeast Asia. The strongest opposing force that revolutionary activities faced was the CERA. On October 5, 1902, Sun travelled from Vietnam through Thailand and Japan to Honolulu. He was “welcomed” by malicious comments from the local newspapers of the CERA. When the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao fled to Japan. Sun showed sympathy towards them and wanted to cooperate with them in the anti-Qing revolution. However, Kang was grateful for the appreciation of Emperor Guangxu. He refused to meet with Sun. Liang, on the contrary, was in constant contact with Sun. In the winter of 1899, Kang was informed of the connection between Liang and Sun. He ordered Liang to leave Honolulu. Liang asked Sun to write to fellow revolutionaries in Honolulu saying that Liang believed in revolution and would cooperate with them. Sun thought Liang was sincere and therefore planned to introduce Liang’s brother to Li Chang, a member of the Revive China Society. When Liang later returned to Honolulu, he forgot what he had promised to Sun. He founded the New China Press (Xin Zhongguo bao 新中國報 ) on April 19, 1900 as an official newspaper of the CERA, and spread royalist propaganda. Honolulu was the place of origin of the Revive China Society. Sadly, many people withdrew from the Society and joined the CERA under Liang’s deception that to “support constitutional monarchy was revolution.” Within a year, the number of branches of CERA increased to eight in Hawaii, while there were less than 20 people in the Revive China Society. Those in the Revive China Society “were intimidated by the CERA and they could only wait for Sun to come back and reorganize the Society.” In September 1903, the development of revolution in China and Japan was steady. Sun decided to go to Honolulu to help to fight against the CERA. He

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transformed The Hawaiian Chinese News into an official newspaper of the Revive China Society and was engaged in the debate against the New China Press . In December the same year, Sun published “To Fellow Compatriots” in The Hawaiian Chinese News to expose the deception the New China Press made regarding revolution. On December 29, the New China Press editors and writers defended themselves in “To Fellow Members of the Chinese Empire Reform Association.” In January 1904, Sun retaliated in “To Refute the New China Press.” Sun criticized the CERA in the two articles in the following ideas: the idea that supporting constitutional monarchy was revolution; CERA’s view on patriotism; that revolution would lead to China being carved up; that a transition period was needed for democracy. Not only did Sun expose the deception that the CERA made about revolution, but he also pointed out that Liang Qichao and Chen Jiyan were die-hard royalists who obeyed every order of Kang’s. The publication of the two articles by Sun was a turning point in the history of democratic revolution. The articles publicly announced the split between the revolutionaries and the royalists. The articles also awakened some of those who believed the CERA. Many withdrew from the CERA and joined the Revive China Society. The Society was revived in Honolulu. This debate was the prelude to a larger debate between revolutionary and royalist newspapers which began in 1905, as well as a blow to the royalist newspapers. Sun took this debate very seriously. He personally conducted it and even asked revolutionaries in Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Japan for support. He relocated some of the best people at China Daily in Hong Kong to Honolulu in order to strengthen the team at The Hawaiian Chinese News .

The reorganization and the influence of the Chinese Free Press In 1904, revolution and the Revive China Society were gaining more support in Honolulu. Sun Yat-sen therefore decided to travel to the U.S. to garner support for revolution. It was the second time that Sun was in the U.S. At that time, the influence of CERA was much bigger than that of the Revive China Society in America. There were 78 CERA branches across America and almost 10,000 members in San Francisco alone, accounting for one-third of local Chinese expatriates. When Liang visited the U.S. in 1903, he was welcomed with military music by the CERA members. Most of the Chinese newspapers in America were controlled by the CERA, including the major newspapers in San Francisco, e.g. Propriety Tribune ,

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Chinese World (Wenxing ribao 文興日報 ), and Golden Harbor Daily (Jin’gang ribao 金港日報 ). Even the China Zhi Gong Party’s Chinese Free Press was controlled by CERA. About 89,000 Chinese expatriates in the U.S. at that time joined the China Zhi Gong Party. This number shows how influential the Party was. Before Sun travelled to America from Honolulu, his aunt persuaded him to join the China Zhi Gong Party. She thought that why he did not succeed during his last tour in America was because he lacked support. The CERA had spread across America. If Sun did not cooperate with the China Zhi Gong Party, he could hardly fight against the CERA. Sun took the advice to heart. The royalists in the Party were strongly against the idea of Sun joining the Party. Fortunately, with the help from the head of the Party, Peng Fu, Sun joined the Party and became a “Honggun 洪棍 ” (a most highly ranked official). On April 6, 1904, Sun arrived in San Francisco. Local CERA members conspired with the Qing Empire Consulate against Sun. They accused Sun of being a traitor and using a fake birth certificate. Sun was in custody at the Immigration Office for more than 10 days. Wu Panzhao, manager at The Chinese Paper , was notified and he immediately informed the head (Huang Sande) and the secretary (Tang Qiongchang) of the China Zhi Gong Party. Huang and Tang were enthusiastic about revolution and admired Sun. They employed a lawyer for Sun and raised USD500 to bail him out. Several weeks later, the Immigration Office granted admittance to Sun. The conspiracy of the CERA had been shattered. In fact, several years before Sun joined the China Zhi Gong Party, Liang Qichao, Xu Qin, and Ou Jujia were already members of the Party. They used the Party to expand the CERA. At the time, some of the officials of the Party were also committee members of the CERA. Soon after Sun arrived, the CERA started to attack him. Ou continued to publish articles in his Chinese Free Press to scorn Sun as a “fake revolutionary.” By then, Huang and Tang were close friends with Sun. They supported his revolutionary vision. They tried to persuade Ou to cooperate with Sun, but Ou refused. Huang would not tolerate that and eventually dismissed Ou as the chief editor at the Chinese Free Press . He then invited Sun to be in charge of the Press . Sun recommended Feng Zhiyou as a correspondent in Japan and asked Feng to recommend a chief writer. Feng recommend Liu Chengyu. Liu was born in Wuchang, Hubei Province. He once worked as an editor at Students from Hubei . In 1903, he was disqualified as a government-sponsored student due to his speech on revolution at the Meeting Hall of Overseas Chinese Students in Tokyo (Dongjing liuxuesheng huiguan 東京留學生會館 ). He went to San Francisco in the summer

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of 1904 to become the chief editor at the Chinese Free Press . Others who were on

the editorial board included: Xu Gantang, Jiang Menglin, and Liu Zhuo’an.

The reorganization of the Chinese Free Press transformed the newspaper from

a platform for royalist propaganda to one for revolutionary propaganda. The revolutionaries would then be free to advocate revolution as they liked.

During the reorganization of the Press , Sun saw that the organization of the

China Zhi Gong Party was loose. The financial situation of each branch suffered. There was a need for reform in order to make it a powerful organization to support

revolution. He suggested registration of all members in the U.S. Other officials of

the Party agreed. He was then engaged to write an “Outline of the New Charter of the China Zhi Gong Party” and he added 80 more clauses to the new charter. The new clauses showed the spirit of anti-Qing and democratic revolution.

The new charter stated the aims as “banishing the Manchus, reviving China,

establishing the Republic of China, and equalizing land ownership.” It also stated that it was the Party’s duty to “unite the public and gather forces to revive China and save the Chinese.” The original aim of “overthrowing the Qing Empire and

reviving the Ming Empire” was then replaced with bourgeois revolutionary goals. The new Chinese Free Press published the new charter as well as Sun’s speeches given in multiple cities including San Francisco, New York City, and Boston.

The influence of the Chinese Free Press was strong. Some other Chinese

newspapers began to lean toward revolution. For example, the Chinese Daily

Paper founded by the Christian Association of Overseas Chinese (Huaqiao jidujiao hui 華 僑 基 督 教 會 ) in San Francisco supported and showed sympathy towards revolution. It gifted more than 11,000 copies of Zou Rong’s The Revolution Army to Sun for distribution among overseas Chinese. The Paper also appointed Chen Shaobai and Zheng Guangong as correspondents in Hong Kong at Sun’s recommendation. The paper continued to publish many revolutionary articles. On December 14, 1904, Sun left New York City for Europe. He stayed in the U.S. for about 15 months and obtained remarkable results. The people were more suspicious of the CERA and so warmed toward the revolutionary ideology. The power was shifting from the royalists to the revolutionaries.

The further development of overseas Chinese newspapers Before Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao were forced to go into exile, the

development of overseas Chinese newspapers was slow. The first overseas Chinese newspaper — Golden Hills News — was founded on April 2, 1854. In

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the next 40 years, only around 10 more Chinese newspapers were established

overseas. When Kang and Liang began their movements in overseas Chinese communities, 11 newspapers emerged within 5 years. Until 1903, the reformers

(royalists) had great influence in America and Southeast Asia. Almost all Chinese newspapers in those regions were reformist newspapers. From December 1903

to April 1904, Sun Yat-sen reorganized The Hawaiian Chinese News in Honolulu

and the Chinese Free Press in San Francisco. The reformers no longer dominated the overseas Chinese newspaper industry. The reformers and revolutionaries

engaged in constant written polemics. Wherever there was a reformist newspaper, the revolutionaries set up their own newspaper. Later, there were more

revolutionary newspapers than reformist ones. The newspapers of both sides

competed with and motivated each other. The industry flourished under such circumstances.

The number of overseas Chinese newspapers increased rapidly. Before the

1911 Revolution, there were 34 overseas revolutionary Chinese newspapers, the reformers had 30, and together with some other business newspapers, the number reached 70.

The contents were enriched. Few overseas Chinese newspapers published

imperial edicts or excerpts from newspapers in China. Instead, they devoted more attention to reporting news around the world, new knowledge, and the discussion of revolution and reform.

The layout and printing technology improved. Many overseas Chinese

newspapers were printed using machines, color-printing, and illustrations. Bigger fonts were used for headlines, and punctuations were used. Each page included a few columns of text rather than just a single column.

At that time, many overseas Chinese newspapers were mediums for political

parties to spread their propaganda. There were business newspapers as well as newspapers which did not show any political inclination:

The Chinese Daily Paper was founded on February 16, 1900, in San Francisco

by Chinese Pastor Wu Panzhao. Before that, he founded the weekly Chinese American Morning Paper (Hua Mei xinbao 華美新報 ) in May 1899. The weekly newspaper only lasted until autumn the same year. He then set up the Chinese Daily Paper . It followed the Christian doctrine and was politically neutral. However, Wu showed sympathy towards Sun Yat-sen. After the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt, the Paper published an article supporting revolution. Translation News (Yi bao 譯報 ) was a Chinese and Indonesian weekly newspaper founded in 1904 in Solo, Dutch East Indies. It was solely funded by its editor

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Cai Zhuguan. It mainly translated and introduced Chinese culture and literary works.

The Java Post (Zhaowa gongbao 爪哇公報 ) was founded in 1909 by Ma Jueru, the owner of the Semarang Java Printing Ltd. Company. He also managed the newspaper. The paper mainly reported news promoting Chinese Culture and the ideology of Confucius and Mencius.

Alarm Bell News (Jingduo xinwen 警鐸新聞 ) was founded by Manila’s China Business Bureau in 1908. Wang Hanquan was the general manager. The director of the Bureau Chen Sanduo was the manager. They employed the principal of the Philippine Tiong Se Academy, Shi Jianan, to be the chief editor. Guo Gongque was a foreign correspondent. Alarm Bell News was printed on high quality white paper. It was printed on eight panels on two sheets. The layout was similar to foreign newspapers. It was one of Manila’s newspapers that showed the deepest sense of Chinese patriotism. In 1907, the Qing government assigned Yang Shiqi, Vice Minister of Ministry of Industry and Commerce to visit Chinese expatriates in Southeast China. He took the largest and strongest cruiser of China “Hai Chi.” It arrived at Manila Bay in early November. Local Chinese, who were bullied for a long time, gave Yang a warm welcome. The local Spanish newspaper Ei Commercio scorned China for using mixed steel from both Western steel and China tin plate to build the fragile cruiser. The local Chinese were exasperated. At that time, there was not a Chinese newspaper for them to use to express their anger. Therefore, in 1908, the China Business Bureau collected 8,000 dollars to found Alarm Bell News . An anticolonialist paper, it encouraged Chinese patriotism.

Ta Kung Pao , Eastern Miscellany , Eastern Times , and Other Periodicals The first 10 years of the 20th century (the last 10years of the Qing Dynasty) were the time when bourgeois revolution flourished and many influential

periodicals emerged. During that period of time, the conflict between the Qing

Empire and Chinese citizens sharpened. The target of revolution shifted from

the imperialistic powers to the Qing monarchy. The social class struggle in China

intensified. In order to strengthen its status, the Qing government suppressed revolution through military means and tried to muffle the public. However, the

government was too corrupt to keep all the periodicals from publishing. It could

only concentrate on tackling the revolutionary ones and turn a blind eye to those

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which were not connected to the revolutionaries or did not threaten the status of the Qing monarchy. Some private periodicals took the advantage and began publishing. Some of the representative ones included: Ta Kung Pao , Eastern Miscellany (Dongfang zhazhi 東方雜誌 ), Eastern Times , Jinghua Daily (Jinghua ribao 京話日報 ), Wang Kangnian’s The Chinese Progress Daily (Shiweu ribao 時務日報 ), and Beijing News (Jing bao 京報 ).

Ying Hua and Tianjin’s Ta Kung Pao Tianjin’s Ta Kung Pao was one of the private publications that emerged during the period when the Qing government was more lenient towards nonrevolutionary periodicals. It was published from June 17, 1902 until January 1949. It was the most influential political and reporting newspaper among the bourgeoisie, petite bourgeoisie, and intellectuals during the late Qing Dynasty. In the early days, it was situated in the Tianjin French Concession until it moved to the Japanese Concession on September 5, 1906. Its founder, Ying Hua [also known as Ying Lianzhi], was responsible for management, writing, and he was the editor. During the 10 years when he served the newspaper, he partnered with many chief writers, including Fang Shouliu, Liu Mengyang, Wang Yingsun, Huang Yuzhi, Guo Dingsen, and Fan Zirong. It was printed on bamboo paper and with a layout similar to books. It published eight pages every day. Excluding advertisements, the news, commentary pieces, and articles amounted to 10,000 words in every issue. It was sold in many cities in China, Southeast Asia, Japan, and America. It had more than 60 distributors. At first, 3,800 copies were printed for each issue. The number rose to 5,000 in three months. In July 1909, Ta Kung Pao claimed itself to be “the bestselling and most reputable newspaper in the Beijing and Tianjin region.”23 Ying Hua (1867–1926) was Manchurian. His humble family was placed under the Plain Red Banner [an administrative division]. He was self-taught by reading traditional and modern literature. Growing up in the late Qing era in the midst of political struggles and corruption, he was determined not to serve at the government when he was a teenager. He hated corrupt officials who treated the public with little respect and he blamed them for ruining the Empire. In 1898, he wrote articles to show support for some of Kang Youwei’s political views. When the Coup of 1898 was suppressed, he fled Beijing, but remained a supporter of reform. On August 26, 1899, he published “The Party’s Woe” on The Reformer China and expressed regret for the failure of the Hundred Days’ Reform. In spring 1901, he returned from Shanghai to Tianjin. His fellow church member and

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capitalist, Chai Tianchong, wanted to set up a newspaper and Ying was invited

him to direct it. Chai raised 10,000 dollars for financing the newspaper. After a year of preparation, Ta Kung Pao published its first issue in June 1902.

As Chai was a Christian church member and Catholic churches in Beijing and

Tianjin were under the control of France, Ta Kung Pao was intervened by French

political forces. Ying Hua was troubled and he disapproved of the intervention but continued to run the newspaper.

The reason why Ying persisted was just what wrote in the paper: to broaden

the mind of the public and introduce Western knowledge to enlighten the Chinese. In other words, the newspaper was introducing Western capitalist ideology. Ta

Kung Pao was sympathetic towards the Hundred Days’ Reform. In its second issue, it published an article to expose the corruption of the Empress Dowager and her supporters. It stated that “if one knows the truth but refuses to tell the public, it is like seeing the nation die but refusing to save it.” It did not intend to “be stubborn with its own opinion or attack those who had a different opinion.” It would not “publish twisted comments, ‘call a stag a horse,’ or make irresponsible remarks to appeal to readers and put its reputation at stake.” In a short period of time, Ta Kung Pao was regarded as an outspoken newspaper. It did not refrain from criticizing local officials or even higher-up officials at the imperial court. One of the notable events was that it became entangled in a power struggle with Yuan Shikai. Yuan ordered a ban on “posting and reading” Ta Kung Pao but it did not deter Ying. Later, he tried to bribe Ying, who refused to accept the bribe. Apart from being outspoken, Ta Kung Pao was regarded as a newspaper that published mostly articles on serious topics that “encouraged the public to learn or were relevant to government policies.” It was against publishing trivial or vulgar materials. It took commentary very seriously. The “Commentary” column commented on national policies such as constitutional monarchy and reform, criticized corruption, and drew attention to public sufferings and social problems. The column was always on the front-page right after “Imperial Edict” and before “Current Affairs.” Since June 1909, it published a political commentary and two general commentaries every day. There was also an “Appendix” after the advertisement. Despite its name, the Appendix was a column with unique characteristics: It was usually written in vernacular Chinese; it recorded anecdotes and often used metaphors in commentary; it was targeted at readers who were not well-educated; and it was one of the first major newspapers to write commentary in vernacular Chinese. The newspaper also advocated anti-imperialism and independence for the

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Han Chinese. It criticized Russia for invading Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning Provinces and exposed the torture inflicted by the British in South Africa on

the Chinese workers there. It is worth mentioning that, in 1905, it significantly encouraged people in Tianjin to boycott American products because the U.S.

had forced the Qing government to sign an act banning Chinese workers from emigrating to the U.S.

After the 1911 Revolution, Ying Hua was only nominally administrating Ta

Kung Pao . In fact, he had retired and then lived in Jingyiyuan Graden in Beijing to focus on religious duties, charity, and education. In September 1916, Ying sold the newspaper to Wang Zhilong. The newspaper stopped publishing on November 27, 1925. The newspaper resumed publishing on September 1, 1926, after being transferred to Wu Dingchang, Hu Zhengzhi, and Zhang Jiluan. In August 1937, the Japanese army invaded Tianjin and publication moved to Hankou. When Hankou was taken, publication moved to Chongqing. During the Second SinoJapanese War, it published a Chongqing edition as well as a Guilin edition. After the Japanese forces in China surrendered, on September 9, 1945, publication relocated back to Tianjin. Publication ended in January 1949 when control of Tianjin went to the Communist forces. It was renamed Chin Pu Jih Pao . In May 1949, control of Shanghai went to the Communists. On June 17, Shanghai’s Ta Kung Pao resumed publication and published a “Declaration.” On January 1, 1953, the Shanghai Ta Kung Pao merged with Tianjin’s Chin Pu Jih Pao to publish Tianjin edition of Ta Kung Pao . On October 1, 1956, Tianjin’s Ta Kung Pao moved north to Beijing. The Cultural Revolution broke out in 1966. The newspaper stopped publishing on September 10 the same year. Ying died in January 1926. His articles published in Ta Kung Pao were compiled into two volumes of Yashi ji 也是集 and Bizhouqianjin 敝帚千金 .

The Commercial Press and Eastern Miscellany Eastern Miscellany was the longest-lasting comprehensive magazine in the history of China. The monthly magazine was founded March 11, 1904 in Shanghai. The 12 issues published each year were compiled into a volume. The Commercial Press was responsible for publishing and editing. Editors involved included: Xu Ke, Meng Sen, Cheng Zhongyi [Du Yaquan], Qian Zhixiu, Hu Yuzhi, Li Shengwu, Zheng Yungong, and Su Jiwu. It published 44 volumes in total. The last issue was published in December 1948, making it the only magazine that lasted this long. The Commercial Press was established in 1897 by Xia Ruifang. To this day,

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it is one the longest-lasting and most influential publishing houses in China. In Octoberm1903, the publishing house entered into a partnership with the Japanese. In one editorial board meeting, Xia proposed setting up the East of Asia

Magazine . Zhang Yunji, the head of the editorial board, agreed. At that time, there was a German publication of the German Consulate in Shanghai with the same name. In order to avoid confusion, the magazine was named Eastern Miscellany . Commentary in Eastern Miscellany included articles written by the editorial board as well as excerpts of articles in other publications and contributions. At that time in Shanghai, the split between the revolutionaries and reformers was evident. The articles in Eastern Miscellany generally reflected the idea of “peaceful reform” which many of the gentry, businessmen, and intellectuals in Shanghai supported. There were several columns in each issue, including “Internal Affairs,” “Diplomacy,” “Finances,” “Education,” and “Industry.” Most of the content was adopted and translated from both domestic and foreign publications. Each issue contained more than 100,000 words and covered a wide range of topics. The magazine was more like a digest. Before the first issue of the eighth volume was published in 1911, there was a rearrangement of the magazine. The number of words of each issue doubled. It changed from being printed on paper with 32 panels to 16 panels. It was printed on white paper and bound using the Western style. The first page of the magazine was usually filled with four to eight pictures printed using copperplate. Previously, the imperial edicts had been on the first page. They were gone. Columns had been renamed according to the government and many articles or memorials to the throne written by government officials were published. After the rearrangement, columns were divided into literature, philosophy, business and industry, and science sections. The content was adopted from scholars across the globe and there were materials for the Chinese to study. The material was more readable and academic. In the past, the anti-Western magazine had aimed at strengthening the connection between East Asian countries and the value of Chinese knowledge. Following that, any Western materials relevant to politics, economics, science, and culture were discussed in the magazine. The content was filled with more ideas of the bourgeoisie. The articles discussed idealism as well as materialism; traditional Chinese as well as Western knowledge; traditional science as well as parapsychology; socialism as well as social reform. It also expressed its own view as well as those of others. Compared to other contemporary publications, the reorganized Eastern Miscellany was more up-todate, longer, better designed, and cheaper. It was popular with the readers. It set a

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record by selling more than 10,000 copies an issue. After the 1911 Revolution, the political situation in China changed dramatically: the First World War broke out in 1914, the New Culture Movement in 1915, the October Revolution in Russia in 1917. The intellectual war also broke out. At that time, Eastern Miscellany changed its attitude toward Chinese and Western knowledge. It believed that “Western science flourished in the 19th century and materialism became popular. Ethics, however, suffered thanks to revolutions. The wars happening then killed a lot people every day. They did not stop because ethics were destroyed.” It suggested that China needed to salvage Western materialism using its civilized mind, promote Chinese ethics, and resist the bourgeoisie idea of democracy. It was fiercely against the October Revolution and Marxism. It called the Bolsheviks “radical.” In fact, Eastern Miscellany was on the same side with the revivalists such as Gu Hongming. It was against the New Culture Movement. After the May Fourth Movement, many new ideas emerged and flourished. The magazine was once again reorganized. It said that when the world changed, the magazine needed to adapt accordingly. There were more articles on social sciences and fewer on science than before. New columns such as “New Global Trend” were introduced. Eastern Miscellany supported liberalism, which became more evident after Hu Yuezhi took over the editorial board. Since the fourth issue of volume 29 was published in 1932, there was an “Eastern Forum.” It published a lot of articles which promoted resistance against Japanese invasion, introduced Soviet socialism, commented on the international situation, and exposed the fascist forces. The new column was welcomed by readers. Since April 1933, a few intellectuals assumed the position of chief editor, the situation changed, and the magazine had its ups and downs. In 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident instigated the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Eastern Miscellany called for the public to fight against the Japanese and was the first to publish articles on military strategies such as protracted war, mobile warfare, and guerrilla warfare. It continued to include scholarly articles of social sciences and natural sciences. Each issue sold 50,000 to 60,000 copies. It was the most prosperous time of the magazine. In winter 1937, the Japanese army invaded Shanghai. The magazine first moved to Changsha, then Hong Kong, and finally Chongqing. Editorial work was disrupted and the quality of the magazine dropped. When China won the war, the magazine moved back to Shanghai in January 1946. The magazine stopped publishing in December 1948.

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Di Chuqing and Eastern Times Eastern Times was an influential modern newspaper sold across China. It was founded on June 12, 1904, in Shanghai. In order to avoid intervention from the Qing government, it was nominally published by Japanese Munakata Kotaro. In fact, it was founded by Di Chuqing. The following were once chief editors at the newspaper: Luo Xiaogao, Chen Jinghan, Lei Jixing, Bao Xiaotian, and Ge Gongzhen. The daily was printed on two pieces of paper, each divided into four panels. It once increased to four pieces of paper and each was divided into eight panels during the Republican Period. It was known for its determination to reform the newspaper industry. In the early days of Eastern Times , it received support from Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. In the spring of 1904, Di returned to Shanghai from Japan under the command of Kang to prepare for the publication of Eastern Times . In April, Liang secretly traveled to Shanghai from Hong Kong to assist with the preparation. “The name, the preface to the first issue, and the style of the newspaper were Liang’s ideas.” “In earlier issues, most of the commentaries were sent by contributors in Yokohoma.” They also contributed to the finances of Eastern Times . During the preparation stage, the publication received a lump sum of 70,000 dollars for founding the newspaper, and further subsidies every month. By 1908, it had received more than 100,000 dollars. Kang’s student Luo Xiaogao was the first chief editor at the newspaper. Therefore, at that time, the newspaper was one of the channels for Kang and Liang to express their views in China. In terms of politics, the newspaper supported constitutional monarchy, social reform, and resistance against foreign invasion. It criticized the Qing government for pretending to set up a constitution. In 1904, it advocated regaining the rights of the Guangzhou-Hankou railway. In 1905, it encouraged the public to boycott American products and was against the U.S. for the breach of the agreement. Its social influence was great. Di Chuqing (1873–1921) was originally from Liyang, Jiangsu Province. He was once a supporter of the Hundred Days’ Reform and a renowned bourgeois intellectual. In 1900, he joined the Independence Army mission to save the Emperor. When that failed, he escaped to Japan. He returned to China in 1904 to take charge of Eastern Times for 17 years. After 1908, he became less involved in the royalist activities and was therefore called a “traitor” by Xu Qing. Since then, he became distant to Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao and closer to constitutionalists in Zhejiang Province. After the 1911 Revolution, the newspaper was financed by Di alone. It supported the Progressive Party and was against

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the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Later, Yuan Shikai boycotted the Progressive Party and assumed the dictatorship. Since 1914, the newspaper criticized Yuan’s government for being hypocritical that it was never going to establish a republic. The greatest contribution of Eastern Times was that it reformed the newspaper industry. First, apart from the longer and more in-depth commentary, it also had a column for commentary on current affairs. Articles in that column were shorter but timelier. Second, it was known for its ability to give timely news reports. Correspondents sent over their reports through telegraphs. Compared to other newspapers, Eastern Times received more news through telegraphs. During the Russo-Japanese War, it appointed a war correspondent, who sent firsthand reports to the newspaper. It attracted many readers. Third, in order to satisfy readers who enjoyed literature, it had a supplement which contained a “Fiction” column. Since the first issue, one to two installments of fiction were published. Chinese and, predominantly, translated fiction were included. It believed that fiction should be interesting as well as educational. Only fiction that satisfied both criteria could impact society. This was why many classics were translated into vernacular Chinese. Those translated included: Jules Verne’s Le Tour Du Monde En QuatreVingt Jours (December 1905), Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables (August 1907), William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (April to May 1910), the romantic Orchid in an Empty Valley , and the suspense The Sinner in the Flames . After the 1911 Revolution, it introduced Victor Hugo’s Quatrevingt-treize as a revolutionary novel. It commented that “what the novel described was closely related to the current situation in China and readers would find it gripping.” It was part of its propaganda. Eastern Times was also innovative in terms of design and layout. Before, periodicals were bound like books. Eastern Times was the first to use the modern layout in use today: “a single-folded paper forming four panels, printed on both sides.” Many periodicals followed after the 1911 Revolution. Based on The Chinese Progress , Eastern Times improved its layout design to be more appealing. The reform Eastern Times made influenced more traditional newspapers and created a trend of reform in the industry. Di died in 1921. Eastern Times was then taken charge of by Huang Cheng’en. The newspaper shifted its focus from politics to current news, sports, and entertainment. It eventually stopped publication in 1939 when it suffered financially and Shanghai fell to the Japanese.

Peng Yizhong and Jinghua Daily Jinghua Daily was a small newspaper targeting urban citizens. It was first

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published on August 16, 1904, in Beijing. It was founded by Peng Yizhong, edited by Wu Zizhen, Wen Ziyu, and Qin Zhixian. Wang Zizhen and Liang Juchuan frequently contributed. The characteristics of the newspaper were it was written

in a Beijing dialect using simple diction and it recorded important events. In the beginning, only 1,000 copies were sold every day. The sales climbed to 7,000 in the next year and later 10,000.

Peng Yizhong (1864–1921) was originally from Suzhou, Jiangsu Province.

He came from a family of government officials. He assumed minor positions in the government and lived in Beijing for a long time. In 1900, when the EightNation Alliance invaded Beijing, he took some traditional lower class jobs.

Therefore, he understood and was sympathetic towards the lower class. He began to set up newspapers in 1902. He had little funds to start with, so he pawned

his possessions and exhausted his savings. He was forced to sell his cousins’

properties to repay his debts. He founded three newspapers during his lifetime.

Jinghua Daily was the most reputable and influential. There were three reasons why Jinghua Daily was renowned at that time: First, it advocated patriotism and anti-imperialism. According to Peng, there were two aims for setting up newspapers: to broaden the minds of the public and seize the power of speech from foreign press. Therefore, since the first issue, “hua shang 華商 [Chinese Business]” was printed on the masthead as a token to show that Peng’s heart was with China. Second, it strongly criticized corruption in the government and reflected the sufferings of the lower class. From August 19 to September 3, 1905, it exposed the savage act of the prince at Na Wangfu [a royal residence] who ordered his butler to bury his concubines alive. Third, it maintained close contact with readers. It took contributions from readers seriously. It had a specific column which listed the authors and titles to be published in the next few issues. It also set up more than 40 reading halls in Beijing so that readers could easily access the newspaper. It was very wellreceived. Some donated newspapers and some volunteered to read the newspaper aloud for illiterates. The newspaper received accolades for its services to readers and the lower class. At the same time, many government officials felt offended. It constantly received letters of threats or condemnation. Some of its bulletins were vandalized. Eventually, it was shut down by the Qing government on September 28, 1906, with the accusation of slander and hiding criminals. The day before the incident, someone warned Peng about the imminent government action and advised him

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to seek refuge in consulates. Peng replied, “I live a respectable life. I put ‘hua

shang ’ on the masthead. If I went to a consulate, the reputation of the newspaper and I would be tarnished. Therefore, I will not go.” He remained at the newspaper office and waited for the arrest. He was sentenced to 10-year exile in Shinjiang. On the day Peng was to be sent to Shinjiang (April 12, 1907), countless citizens saw him leave. A reader who volunteered to read Jinghua Daily at reading rooms, Guo Rui, volunteered to accompany Peng. It reflected the readers’ love for the newspaper and protest against government suppression. Jinghua Daily published a total of 753 issues in 25 months. The newspaper resumed publishing twice. The first time was in 1913 when Peng was released in Shanjiang and returned to Beijing. It only published for a short time before it was shut down by Yuan Shikai. The second time was when Yuan died. The newspaper continued to publish until 1922. In the later days, the newspaper was taken charge of by Wu Zizhen. The financial situation and editorial board were not as good as before, and the quality of the newspaper dropped.

Wang Kangnian and the newspaper industry during his later days Wang Kangnian began preparation for The Chinese Progress with Huang Zunxian

and Liang Qichao in 1896. He spent most of his life working in the industry. He also worked at other newspapers including the Universal Gazette , the capital gazette,

and the Fodder Post (Chuyan bao 芻言報 ). He published some articles on civil liberties and the development of the national economy in the early issues of The

Chinese Progress . Later, he became more politically conservative. Yet, he remained a pioneer in reforming the newspaper industry. His contribution was huge. A characteristic of Wang’s newspapers was that news reports were timely. As early as in 1896, he was adamant that The Chinese Progress should publish every day. On May 5, 1898, he, Zeng Guangquan, and Wang Dajun founded Current Affairs Daily . It stated its aims: “The daily is following the practice of the imperial gazette. It is a means to transfer information and a channel of communication…. In the current situation, we want to broaden the minds of the public. A daily newspaper serves the purpose best.” At that time in Shanghai, most of the newspapers were old and traditional, such as Shun Pao and News Daily (Xinwen bao 新聞報 ). Therefore, the Current Affairs Daily intended to bring something new in order to compete with the traditional ones. As a daily, it reported more news as stated in its charter: “This newspaper

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intends to report on current affairs across the globe.” “Important events or news are sent to the office through telegraph so that readers will be informed as soon as possible...Excerpts of foreign news and commentary are included.” The Coup of 1898 was an important piece of political news. However, most of the press were intimidated and did not report on the incident. Only Current Affairs Daily continued to provide updates. On August 17, 1898, the newspaper changed its name to Universal Daily . The Coup happened on September 21. Four days later, Universal Daily reported that the government was looking for Kang Youwei in Wusong and described how the British Consul picked up Kang and helped him flee. On September 27, it reported on the Empress Dowager arresting the Six Gentlemen. In order to update readers as soon as possible, it decided on September 24 that breaking news would be first published and distributed as extras. It showed that Universal Daily took news reporting very seriously. At that time, whether it was a journal or a daily, it was printed on slick paper, single-side. The layout was simple. There was no column on a page. The articles were arranged as imperial edicts, commentary, or records, written from right to left. Current Affairs Daily changed the practice. A page was divided into several columns and news was categorized. The newspaper was printed on four panels on both sides of a single-folded paper. Each page was divided into four columns (only two columns per page in the Art and Culture section). It was written vertically and from right to left. A 40cm X 278cm paper was cut into two pieces, each was folded once, giving eight panels to be printed on. News items were categorized into “Telegraphs,” “Global News,” “Foreign News,” and “Local News.” The headlines and the text were printed in different fonts and sizes. The headlines used were not confined to four characters as before. They were written with reference to the news itself or the type of news. All these were new at that time and some people objected to the changes. After a while, many people welcomed the changes as they made the newspaper easier to read. Current Affairs Daily was also involved in the community in many other ways. For example, it introduced new books and commended on invention after inspection. It was the only newspaper which took care of the readers in such a way. It was the one which created the trend in which newspapers became more involved in community. Some added columns like “reader service” and “social service” and organized fund raising activities. The political inclination was not consistent. In the early days, it claimed to be a supporter of reform. But the content showed the opposite. For example, it published Zhang Zhidong’s “Exhortation to Learning,” which advocated

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adopting Western learning on the basis of Chinese Confucianism and resisting reform. Three days after the Coup of 1898 (September 23), Current Affairs Daily (then Universal Daily ) demonstrated its support for Empress Dowager Cixi to rule the country “behind the curtain” in its commentary. On September 30, Wang Kangnian published a notice in the newspaper, saying that Zeng Guangquan had taken over the newspaper since August 21, and Kang was no longer attached to the newspaper. On October 14, the Daily announced that the manager of British Libert. & Co. (Laogongmao yanghang 老 公 茂 洋 行 ), C. J. Dadgeon had become the publisher. With a British company backing the newspaper, it could still be published after the Coup of 1898. In January 1900, Empress Dowager Cixi announced that the son of Prince Duan, Pupo, was to be crowned Crown Price. Current Affairs Daily was opposed. When the Daily was first founded, it sold around 3,000 copies. In June 1898, there was the violent incident of the French army occupying the Siming Hall (Siming gongsuo 四明公所 ). The public was exasperated and protested against the French. The newspaper supported the protest and its sales rose to almost 10,000 copies. After the Coup of 1898, the sales dropped drastically to a few thousand copies because of its support of Empress Dowager Cixi. The sales rose again in 1900 when it supported the Boxer Rebellion. In 1905, the sales plummeted as it was against boycotting American products. The sales figure reflected that the public did not always agree with the Daily . The Daily ran into a financial crisis in 1906 and borrowed money from the Qing government. Since then, it relied on government subsidy to sustain itself. On March 28, 1907, Wang Kangnian founded Beijing News , which lasted for a short while until it was banned on August 26. Wang then returned to take charge of the Daily . In 1908, the Daily offended the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei Provinces — Duanfang — because of its criticisms of the corrupt Nanjing police. Later, under financial and political pressure, the Daily was sold to Cai Naihuang. The Daily was transferred several times. The quality, reputation, and sales deteriorated. It stopped publishing in 1911. Wang’s Beijing News was banned after less than half a year after it was first published. It was shut down because it commented on the case of Yang Cuixi which offended some of the officials and it had political conflicts with some of the powers in the imperial court. After the Coup of 1898, Empress Dowager Cixi appointed Prince Yiwan to supervise the Grand Council and Yuan Shikai as Governor-General of Zhili. At that time, Qu Hongji (Grand Minister of State)

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and Yiwan were both working at the Grand Council. They were in constant disagreement. The public opinion was that Yiwan lacked the talent and Yuan was cruel. Beijing News often criticized the two. As Wang was a student of Qu, the conflict between Qu and Yuan and Yiwan sharpened. In June 1907, Yuan and Yiwan ordered Yun Yuding to accuse Qu of communicating secretly with Beijing News . Empress Dowager Cixi stripped Qu of his titles and ordered Qu to return to his hometown. The Beijing police also issued an order that the Beijing News be closed down by August 26. In November 1908, both Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi died. Prince Chun ruled the country as a regent. Yuan Shikai was stripped of his titles. In November 1910, Wang once again returned to Beijing to set up the Fodder Post . He alone handled editorial duties and distribution. The paper published six issues every month. Each issue consisted of eight pages with the whole publication divided into internal and external sections. The internal section included: “Q&A,” “Commentary,” and “Research.” The external section included: “Investigation,” “Cases,” and “History.” The Post “mainly published commentary and recorded information and did not intend to report news.” It was solely financed by Wang. It did not raise funds or earn money by hosting advertisements. Wang was already 51 years old at that time. His health condition was not favorable. His friends and family asked him to retire, but he replied that managing the newspaper was “medicine for my illnesses.” The Fodder Post stopped publishing in September 1911 and Wang passed away the next month. The more influential periodicals in the late Qing Dynasty period had their own unique features, but each showed similar characteristics in terms of political propaganda: First, they all advocated self-strengthening and were against foreign invasion. They showed sympathy to the lower class and criticized the corrupt government. They were patriotic and tried to arouse the spirit of the Han Chinese to save China. They served the role of exposing the flaws of the system and facilitating social reform and revolution. Second, they advocated a progressive transformation from autocracy to constitutional monarchy and supported social reform. They were against revolution or overthrowing the Qing monarchy. While they criticized the Qing government, they were far less radical than the revolutionary publications. Third, they intended to broaden the horizon and the mind of the public through news.

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The Publication and Development of Periodicals Written in Vernacular Chinese Periodicals written in vernacular Chinese evolved from those written in classical Chinese. They were not well-received when they first came out. They only gained notice from the public after the Hundred Days’ Reform and the 1911 Revolution. From 1876 to 1919, there were about 200 periodicals which were written in vernacular Chinese. These began to replace those written in classical Chinese and by a certain point, almost all modern periodicals were written in vernacular Chinese.

The first modern periodical written in vernacular Chinese: The Minpao Magazine The first modern periodical written in vernacular Chinese — The Minpao Magazine — was published on March 30, 1876, by Shanghai’s Shun Pao . It was a tabloid magazine targeting the lower class readers. It was advertised for three days on Shun Pao : “We will publish a new magazine and are seeking distributors. The magazine targets the general public and is therefore written in colloquial speech with punctuation. Anyone who can read can understand it. It will be out every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. A copy costs five wen locally and six wen in other cities. The first issue is free and out on the fifth day of this month (Thursday). Any parties interested in distributing the magazine in Shanghai please visit our office.” 24 The publication of The Minpao Magazine attracted the public’s attention. Shanghai’s English newspaper North China Daily News commented that the Magazine would be able to reach an audience that Shun Pao failed to reach. The publication of The Minpao Magazine was a testimony that journalists tried write in vernacular Chinese to cater to the lower class as early as in the 1870s. To a certain extent, it reflected reform and development in the publishing industry.

Periodicals written in vernacular Chinese during the period of reform Although The Minpao Magazine was the first ever periodical written in vernacular Chinese, it did not sell and soon stopped being published. Also, it was founded by foreign businessmen. The first periodical written in vernacular Chinese and founded by Chinese appeared during the reform period.

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Before the First Sino-Japanese War, the bourgeois reformers reformed the

style of writing in order to serve their political propaganda better. In 1887, Huang

Zunxian proposed that speech and writing should be the same. In 1896, Liang Qichao began to write in a more colloquial manner, but it was still far from vernacular Chinese. The bourgeois reformist periodicals written in vernacular Chinese did not emerge until 1897.

There were five periodicals written in vernacular Chinese during the reform

period: the Vernacular Post of Historic Narratives (Yanyi baihua bao 演義白話報 ),

Pinghu Vernacular News (Pinghu baihua bao 平 湖 白 話 報 ), Wuxi Vernacular News (Wuxi baihua bao 無錫白話報 ), Popular News (Tongsu bao 通俗報 ), and the Women’s Journal . The Vernacular Post of Historic Narratives was founded on November 7, 1897, in Shanghai. It was a small literary daily edited by Zhang Bochu and Zhang Zhonghe. It contained a sheet of articles and a sheet of advertisements. Each sheet could be folded into four pages and bound as a book. The masthead was written vertically on the top right corner. The newspaper was printed using lead letterpress printing. The words were written vertically. Although without punctuation, after each sentence, a space signified an end. The writing style, layout, and binding of the newspaper were imitated by many later vernacular Chinese posts. In the first issue, it said, “The Chinese should make up their mind not to be the underdog and they should read the newspaper to understand the world. Only newspapers written in vernacular Chinese would provide a clear understanding.” The newspaper took literature seriously. It published The Eastern KnightErrant (Dongxia ji 東 俠 記 ), The Gentleman Thief (Xiazei ji 俠 賊 記 ), and The Story of Daoshi Wang (Wang daoshi ji 王道士記 ). The most important literature it published was the long story — The Story of Trade (Tongshang yuanwei yanyi 通商原委演義 ). It was based on the true story that the British army entered the Yangtze River without China’s permission and forced the Qing government to sign a treaty. At the same time, it scorned those officials who were servile to foreign powers. Despite being a literary newspaper, it reported on international, domestic, political, and economic news. All reports were short. The shortest only contained less than 20 words. The longer ones such as “New Telegraphic Technology” and “Anecdotes of Aircrafts” were around 200 words. The Vernacular Post of Historic Narratives was patriotic and anti-imperialist. It was partial to reform and learning from the West. It did not support revolution.

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On October 26, 1897, it called Sun Yat-sen a “traitor” and the “scourge of China.”

Qiu Kefu had high regard for the the Vernacular Post of Historic Narratives .

He, together with his niece Qiu Yufang, founded Wuxi Vernacular News on May 11, 1898 in Wuxi, using the Vernacular Post of Historic Narratives as

a model. Wuxi Vernacular News was printed on deckle-edged paper using

woodcuts with typesetting and bound using stitched binding. There were 28

lines on each page, 25 words in each line. Each issue was around 15 pages and contained around 10,000 words. The contents were divided into two sections:

The front section contained largely news columns such as “Excerpts of Global Telegraphs,” “Domestic and Foreign News,” and “News of Wuxi.” The rear section contained articles written in vernacular Chinese. Those articles were

rather long and therefore published in installments. Also in the rear section were

foreign anecdotes and other literary installments. The newspaper was originally

published every five days. After four issues, it published two issues together every 10 days. It also said, “Readers may mistake the newspaper as being tailored

to Wuxi judging from the name. In order to reach a larger audience, following the advice of a friend, the newspaper will be renamed the Chinese Official Baihua

Journal (Zhongguo guanyin baihua bao 中國官音白話報 ). The aim of the newspapers was clear: to spread reform propaganda. In July 1897, Qiu strongly persuaded Wang Kangnian to set up a vernacular Chinese post but Kang did not agree. Later, with the inspiration of the Vernacular Post of Historic Narratives , he set up his own newspaper.

An influential newspaper during the reform period: Wuxi Vernacular News Qiu specified three missions for Wuxi Vernacular News : First, to introduce history,

classical literature, the teachings of Confucius, and Western inventions. Second,

to publish foreign fiction and excerpts of articles written by both domestic and foreign reputable figures. Third, to report on domestic and foreign news on politics and culture which could benefit the Chinese. The writing was to be crisp and interesting to appeal to the readers.

Qiu highly valued Western politics, art, and current affairs. In the first four

issues, apart from the “Chronicles of Mencius,” and “Annotated Version of Ban Zhao’s Lessons for Women ,” other articles revolved around the three aspects,

such as “National Prosperity,” “New Policies to Support the People’s Lives,” “New Approach to Historical Studies,” and “New Agricultural Technology.” This

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arrangement was a manifestation of the Qiu’s intention to broaden the public’s mind and to reform. Since Wuxi Vernacular News was renamed the Chinese Official Baihua Journal , the propaganda and the ways to spread the propaganda changed. The focus of the articles it published shifted from Western economics and technology to Western politics. The articles included “A New History of Europe,” “Reform of Peter the Great,” “Japanese Reform,” and “Advice from Foreign Newspapers.” Since the 13th and 14th issues, there was a new column to record Emperor Guangxu’s imperial edicts. By the 24th issue, the newspaper had published around 20 imperial edicts, accounting for one-tenth of all the imperials edicts announced during the Hundred Days’ Reform. The selection of imperial edicts to print was meticulous. It was the high time of the Hundred Days’ Reform. The power struggle between the reformers and die-hards at the imperial court was reflected in Emperor Guangxu’s over 200 imperial edicts. The editors edited out the parts irrelevant to new policies or political doctrine. They avoided being involved in the power struggle between Emperor Dowager Cixi’s supporters and the Empress’s ones. One such example was when the Empress Dowager’s supporter and Imperial Scribe, Wenti, impeached the reformers for “abusing their power.” On July 8, 1898, Emperor Guangxu announced an imperial edict, reprimanding Wenti for “not serving as the Imperial Scribe and that he should be sent back to his original yamen [local or regional office].” It was also announced that Liang Qichao was appointed as a sixth-rank official and would serve at the Translation Bureau. Wuxi Vernacular News did not publish the imperial edict. The imperial edicts it published were mostly about social reform. Soon after the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, Wuxi Vernacular News stopped publishing. Qiu Kefu (1857–1943) lived in Bianliang in his early days until the family moved back to Wuxi when he was 11. There, he studied history and literature under famous scholar Gong Shudu. He was one of the “seven sons of Liangxi.” He was awarded the title of Juren in 1885. He sat the central examination twice but failed to proceed to the next round. He abandoned hope on the imperial examinations and began to promote knowledge from the West. During the First Sino-Japanese War, Qiu believed that “revolution of text was the key to saving China…. While traditional texts were beautiful, but those who were not well educated could not understand.” Not only did he set up a newspaper written in vernacular Chinese, but he also established schools which were taught in vernacular Chinese and bookstores which sold vernacular Chinese books, and translated books in foreign languages. He hoped that the literate would be able to

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enrich their knowledge, be inspired, and break with tradition.25 His enthusiasm

about vernacular Chinese was unprecedented.

In the 19th and 20th issues, he published “Vernacular Chinese Is the Way

to Reform.” He strongly criticized classical Chinese: “China is not a nation of

wisdom even though there is a writing system, and the Chinese are not wise even though we are literate…. All these are the results of using classical Chinese.”

He also elaborated on eight advantages of using vernacular Chinese: easier to

read, less pompous, reduced misunderstanding, preserved Confucianism, easier to learn, trained the mind, little waste of talents, catered for the less educated. He concluded that “classical Chinese is the tool to cloud the people’s mind and

vernacular Chinese is the one to open the people’s mind…. If Classical Chinese continued to prevail, knowledge would be lost. If knowledge was lost, the people

suffered.” His opinion was an extension of Huang Zunxian’s proposal that speech and writing should be the same.

The vernacular Chinese newspapers all reflected anti-imperialism sentiments, an

eagerness to learn from the West and Japan, and the hope for reform. They echoed Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao’s The Chinese Progress and became a force in spreading reform propaganda.

The development of vernacular Chinese periodicals during the democratic revolution period When the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, corruption of the Qing government deepened, and China was on the verge of bring carved up. In order to salvage

China and garner support from the public, both the bourgeois revolutionaries and reformers actively set up newspapers in vernacular Chinese for spreading

propaganda. This accelerated the development of vernacular Chinese periodicals during the democratic revolution period.

First, the number of vernacular Chinese periodicals increased. During the

reform period, there were only five. This number jumped to 170 during 1899– 1918. The periodicals were scattered across China, from Harbin in the North,

Guangzhou in the South, Shanghai in the East, to Ili in the West. There was even

a Tibet Vernacular Newspaper (Sizhuang baihua bao 西 藏 白 話 報 ) which was founded in Lhasa in 1907 and six in Tokyo. Of the vernacular periodicals that appeared at that time, many were founded by

revolutionary intellectuals. Some of the periodicals included: Hangzhou Vernacular

News (Hangzhou baihua bao 杭州白話報 ), China Vernacular News (Zhongguo

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baihua bao 中 國 白 話 報 ), the Anhui Common Saying Newspaper (Anhui suhua bao 安 徽 俗 話 報 ), the Zhili Vernacular Post (Zhili baihua bao 直 隸 白 話 報 ), and the New Vernacular Post (Baihua xinbao 白話新報 ). The Anhui Common Saying Newspaper edited by Chen Duxiu was the most representative one. Chen Duxiu (1880–1942) was from Huaining, Anhui Province. He was a supporter of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao in his early days. He studied abroad in Japan in 1901. There, he joined revolutionary organizations such as the New Youth Society, the Anti-Russia Volunteer Army, and the Military Education Association. In 1903, he and Zou Rong were repatriated because they cut off Superintendent’s Yao Wenfu’s braid. Later, he became editor at The China National Gazette in Shanghai. He returned to Anhui soon and began spreading revolutionary propaganda in Anqing and Wuhu. He had become a revolutionary when he established the Anhui Common Saying Newspaper . The Anhui Common Saying Newspaper first came out on March 13, 1904, in Wuhu. It published a total of 22 issues until September 30, 1905. Apart from Chen Duxiu, Fang Zhiwu, Wu Yucheng, and Wang Mengzou were involved in editing and publishing the newspaper. It was published every fortnight. The major columns included: “Commentary,” “Critical News,” “Local News,” “History,” “Geography,” “Education,” “Industry,” and “Fiction.” New columns such as “Military Affairs,” “Hygiene,” and “Science” were added in later issues. The manuscripts were sent to Shanghai for printing by Chen. The newspapers were then send back to Wuhu to the Science Bookstore (Kexue tushu she 科 學 圖 書 社 ) for publishing. The newspaper was targeted at teachers, farmers, craftsmen, businessmen, government officials, soldiers, women, and children. The aim of the newspaper was to “educate the Anhui citizens and report on current affairs in simple vernacular language.” It was very direct in calling for people to save the country. In the first issue, Chen said, “Dark times are coming…. The imperialistic powers are about to carve up China. We should be patriotic and not be afraid to die for the country…. Everyone should shoulder their responsibilities and protect China.” It also advocated that China should regain economic rights from foreign powers and develop its own commerce and industry, reinforce its military, educate its citizens, promote science and literature, and fight against imperialism and the Qing Empire. Under the circumstances at that time, the Anhui Common Saying Newspaper could not be too radical in terms of propaganda. It still managed to appeal to readers thanks to its fresh content, illustrations, and language. In the 12th issue published in August 1904, it said, “It has only been half a year since the first issue

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was published. The sales grew from 1,000 to 3,000 copies each issue. It topped every other vernacular newspaper.” There were some reformist vernacular Chinese newspapers which advocated reform and constitutional monarchy. The more well-known ones included Peng Yizhong’s Jinghua Daily , Bao Tianxiao’s Suzhou Vernacular News (Suzhou baihua bao 蘇州白話報 ), and Zhuang Jingzhong’s Official Newspaper of the Preparation for Constitution (Yubei lixian guanhua bao 預備立憲官話報 ). Bao Tianxiao (1876–1973) was from Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. He subscribed to Shun Pao in his childhood and supported reform. He translated Yan Fu’s and Tan Sitong’s works into vernacular Chinese in Shanghai and Suzhou. After the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, he founded Translation Materials for Encouragement for Learning (Lixue yibian 勵學譯編 ) to introduce the situation in Japan after reform. He worked as editor at Shanghai’s Eastern Times during 1906–1919. He was a well-known journalist and writer at that time. Suzhou Vernacular News was first published on October 21, 1901 in Shapi Alley, Hulong Street, Suzhou. Bao Xiaotian was the founder, editor, proofreader, and publisher. Main columns included; “Commentary,” “News,” “Music,” and “Miscellaneous.” The language was easy to understand. A space was added between pauses and footnotes were added to explain difficult terms. The newspaper aimed at broadening the mind of the public. It was against foreign invasion, supported Emperor Guangxu, and advocated reform. The Official Newspaper of the Preparation for Constitution was a monthly founded in November 1906 in Shanghai. The founder and manager was Zhuang Jingzhong. The newspaper was published by the Constitutional Preparation Guild (Yubei lixian she 預 備 立 憲 社 ). Major columns included: “Commentary,” “Constitution,” “Local Self-Governance,” “Education,” “Industry,” and “Current Affairs.” Its aims were stated in its charter and preface, which were to reform society, as well as promote and prepare for constitutional monarchy. It praised the “new policies” and the preparations for constitutional monarchy the Qing government implemented in 1901. Vernacular newspapers which had the same stance as the Official Newspaper of the Preparation for Constitution included Enlightenment Vernacular News founded in Chengdu in 1902, Ningbo Vernacular News (Ningbo baihua bao 寧波 白話報 ) founded in Shanghai in 1904, Yangtze River Vernacular News (Yangzi jiang baihua bao 揚 子 江 白 話 報 ) founded in Zhenjiang in 1904, and Jilin Vernacular News (Jilin baihua bao 吉林白話報 ). Reformist intellectuals had high hopes for instilling reform ideology into the mind of the public through issuing vernacular

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newspapers. They specifically targeted women, children, and the lower class that were not well-educated. As revolution spread, some newspapers altered their political inclination. Some supporters of reform became supporters for revolution. Hangzhou Vernacular News was one of those. Hangzhou Vernacular News was first published on June 20, 1901. It started out as a monthly, then it became a xunkan , weekly, three-day, and daily consecutively. Major columns included: “Commentary,” “Beijing News,” “Domestic and Foreign News,” “Geography Q&A,” and “Vernacular Chinese.” Wang Peiquan and Wang Kesheng were those who proposed setting up the newspaper, but Xiang Zaoxin was the actual founder. Chief writers included Zhong Yin, Wang Wen, and Dong Xueqi. Editors included Chen Jingdi and Cheng Guangfu. The majority of the editorial board was supporters for reform. Only one or two were anti-Qing. The aims of the newspaper were “to broaden the people’s minds and to unite the people.”26 It believed that “reform was a matter of life and death,” and as long as Emperor Guangxu assumed power, China would be safe. The newspaper became a supporter of revolution after 1903 when Sun Yizhong joined in. Sun Yizhong (1896–) was born in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. He was antiQing from a young age. He taught at Hangzhou’s Qiushi Academy in 1901 and went abroad to study in Japan the next year. In Japan, he joined the revolutionary New Youth Society and became chief editor at Tides of Zhejiang . He returned to Hangzhou in the summer of 1903. He joined and supervised Hangzhou Vernacular News under Xiang Zaoxin’s recommendation. He soon joined the Restoration Society and transformed the newspaper into a channel for spreading revolutionary propaganda. The sales increased from 800 to 2,000 copies each issue. Under Sun’s direction, Hangzhou Vernacular News bashed the Qing government for corruption. It pointed out that “selling official positions, greed, and bureaucracy were the three vices which harmed society the most.” He often criticized Empress Dowager Cixi for fawning over foreigners and being servile to imperialistic powers. From 1903 to 1906, Hangzhou Vernacular News became a channel of communication between underground revolutionaries. Members of the Restoration Society such as Tao Chengzhang, Gong Baoquan, and Wei Lan stayed at the newspaper office when they were on the way to join revolutionary activities. Sun left the newspaper in 1906 and the newspaper dissociated itself from the Restoration Society despite its continuous support for revolution. It published until February 1910 and became the longest-lasting and more influential

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vernacular Chinese periodical during the revolutionary period. Among the vernacular newspapers which supported revolution, the most influential periodical was China Vernacular News in Shanghai. Since it was first published on December 19, 1903, the newspaper was very public with its political stance. It was the first newspaper solely founded and chiefly edited by Lin Xie, as well as the first vernacular newspaper set up by a revolutionary in Shanghai. It was issued every fortnight until it became a xunkan by the 13th issue. On October 8, 1904, it published issues 21, 22, 23, and 24 together. This marked the last time an issue of China Vernacular News was published. Major columns included: “Commentary,” “News,” “Science,” “Industry,” “Fiction,” “Introduction to Modern Knowledge,” and “Wartime Alert.” Lin Xie (1873–1926) was born in Houguan, Fujian Province. He was first engaged in the journalism industry during the reform period. When the Hundred Days’ Reform failed, he joined Hangzhou Vernacular News . In 1902, he founded the Education Association of China with Cai Yuanpei and Zhang Taiyan. He studied in Japan in the same year and actively participated in the Anti-Russia Movement. He returned to China in 1903 to work at Cautionary Bell Tribune . At the same time, he contributed to Min Li Pao and Eastern Times . After the 1911 Revolution, he assumed a position in the Beiyang warlord government. Later, he established Society Daily (Shehui ribao 社會日報 ) and strongly criticized the warlords. He was a famous late-Qing journalist and propagandist. He was killed by warlord Zhang Zongchang in Beijing on August 6, 1926. The target audience of the China Vernacular News was not intellectuals but the lower-class workers and teenagers. During Lin’s days, the newspaper published articles in vernacular Chinese to inspire and educate the lower class. Its focus of propaganda was on the following aspects: first, patriotism and anti-imperialism; second, that revolution was the way to overthrow the Qing monarchy; third, anti-autocracy and the establishment of a republic. The newspaper also advocated natural rights, equality, and a harmonious society. It echoed with revolutionary ideology. It also promoted Han chauvinism and anarchism. It was very open with their political values and its influence was much deeper than many other contemporary revolutionary vernacular newspapers. The time passed form the birth to the climax of China’s vernacular Chinese periodicals was barely more than 30 years. The development of such periodicals was closely tied with the enlightenment of the mind, sociopolitical reform, and democratic revolution. Whether reformers or revolutionaries, they both needed

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vernacular periodicals to reach a wider audience and deepen their influence. The

newspapers generated public response to the propaganda as well as facilitating the development of the journalism industry. It also paved the way for the promotion of Vernacular Chinese during the New Culture Movement.

Foreign Newspapers during the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries The development of newspapers founded by the Japanese Since the late 19th century, the newspapers founded by the Japanese in China began to flourish. Before 1895, there were only four Japanese newspapers in

China, which was a small number when compared to the number founded by the British or Americans. From 1895 to 1911, 55 Japanese newspapers appeared and their growth was unparalleled.

The first peak in the production of newspapers founded by the Japanese

in China appeared after the First Sino-Japanese War. Taiwan, which was under Japanese rule, was where most Japanese periodicals were published. Japan

refused to allow the Chinese to set up newspapers in Taiwan while the Japanese

began to establish their own newspaper industry. On June 17, 1896 (exactly one

year since Japan took control of Taiwan), the first Japanese newspaper in Taiwan — Taiwan Shimpo [Taiwan New Newspaper] — was founded. By the outbreak of

the Russo-Japanese War, there were 20 Japanese newspapers in Taipei, Taichung, and Tainan. The longest-lasting and most influential was the Taiwan Nichinichi

Shimpo [Taiwan Daily News] in Taipei. It was a merger of the Taiwan Shimpo and Taiwan Daily (Taiwan ribao 台灣日報 ). It published six sheets every day, four in Japanese and two in Chinese. The head of the newspaper was Moriya Zenbei and chief writer was Shinzaburo Kinoshita. There were two Taiwanese reporters — Xie Ruling (Xie Xueyu) and Li Shu (Li Yitao). In 1899, Zhang Taiyan acted as a correspondent. The Japanese government in Taiwan was in fact controlling the newspaper. The head and the chief writer were in close contact with government officials. When Japan took Taiwan, it censored and suppressed private publications. There was no freedom of speech. In 1900, the Governor-General of Taiwan announced the Regulations of Journalism of Taiwan to further suppress the industry. Japanese Congressman Sasaki Yasugoro founded Takasagun 高山國 . It was forced to stop publishing in December 1090 because it criticized the Japanese

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government In Taiwan and scorned the Governor-General. The Taiwan Minpao founded in April 1900 by Japanese lawyers in Taipei suffered a similar fate. It was banned in May 1904 by the Governor-General for criticizing Japan’s colonial policies. Suppression continued throughout Taiwan. In Mainland China, newspapers founded by the Japanese also developed quickly. They founded 12 newspapers by the time of the Russo-Japan War in 1895. Most of the newspapers were published in Shanghai. There were three in Japanese and three in Chinese. The first that came out was the Jiangsu Post founded by the Japanese wife of Hu Zhang —Ikoma Etsu — on June 26, 1896. It was closely linked with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan and the Kokuryukai. The newspaper was sold to retired Chinese government official Chen Fan in 1899. In June 1898, the Eulmi Society 乙未會 founded the Chinese monthly (later a fortnight magazine) East Asia Times (Yadong shibao 亞 東 時 報 ). It was organized by Toraomi Yamane. Since the sixth issue, it invited famous Chinese reformer Tang Caichang to be the chief editor. Wrtiers included wang Kangnian, Zhang Taiyan, Hua Yongnian, Miyama Kotarou, and Munakata Kotaro. It aimed at strengthening the relationship between the two nations. It merged with the Shanghai News in 1900 and became Tung Wen Hu Bao on February 3 the same year. It was published by Tôa Dôbunkai (East Asia Common Culture Association of Japan). Saburo Ide was the chief writer. It advocated the implementation of Japanese reform in China. It was the most influential Chinese newspaper founded by the Japanese in Shanghai. After the First Sino-Japanese War, more Japanese lived in Shanghai, amounting to 30,000 people in the early 20th century. Newspapers in Japanese emerged. The first one was Shanghai Current Affairs (Shanghai shishi 上 海 時 事 ). It addressed the aims of the newspaper in the first issue: “After the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, China opened four harbors and two trade ports. This publication is to help Japanese traders and businessmen understand the business situation in Shanghai.” Later, in October and December 1903, it published Shanghai Weekly (Shanghai zhoubao 上海週報 ) and The Chinese Shipping List & Advertiser . The latter was renamed Shanghai Daily (Shanghai ribao 上海日報 ) in March 1904. Tianjin and Beijing were also important bases for the Japanese newspaper industry. In 1899, the Japanese set up two Chinese newspapers in Tianjin. Xian Bao 咸報 was founded by Hiroshi Nishimura with the support from the Japanese Navy officials stationed in Tianjin. It was attacked by the Boxers the next year and later resumed publishing under the name Tianjin Daily News (Tianjin riri xinwen 天津日 日新聞 ). The other one was Kwo Wen Pao . Before April 1899, it was owned by Yan

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Fu and Wang Xiuzhi. It experienced financial difficulties and was “sold” to Hiroshi Nishimura. After the Coup of 1898, the Qing government requested Japan to suspend and investigate the newspaper. “On the 20th day of the third month in the 25th year of Guangxu, Wang Xiuzhi officials sold all printing machines, lead types, and other properties to Japanese Consul Zheng Yongchang at 11,000 dollars.” Then, the newspaper became an important media channel of Japan in Tianjin. In August 1903, the Japanese newspaper Northern China Daily was started. The most influential Chinese newspaper founded by the Japanese — Shuntian Times (Shuntian shibao 順天時報 ) — was founded in October 1901 in Beijing. It was the first Chinese newspaper founded by foreigners in Beijing. The Qing government prohibited foreigners from establishing any newspapers in Beijing. Shuntian Times was published because Nakajima Nao bribed the Magistrate of Shuntian, Chen Bi, in the midst of the Eight-Nation Alliance invasion in Beijing and the Emperor’s fleeing to Xian. In the following 30 years, Shuntian Times was the major channel for Japan to spread political propaganda. The last issue was published on March 26, 1930. Apart from the Shuntian Times , the Japanese also took over Han Bao 漢報 from the Chinese. After the First Sino-Japanese War, Munakata Kotaro bought the newspaper and later sold it to Zhang Zhidong in 1900. Before the Russo-Japanese War, Japan had established a newspaper network and system in Shanghai, North, Central, and South China. While the newspapers were privately owned, they were in close contact with Japanese government officials. They were loyal supporters of the Japanese government. At that time, Chinese reformers were anti-Russia and wanted to bond with Japan and Japan wanted the reformers to help it resist Russia. Some newspapers founded by Japanese in China such as East Asia Times , Tung Wen Hu Bao , and Han Bao showed support for Chinese reform movements. East Asia Times published articles which spread reform propaganda and criticized Empress Dowager Cixi and Tan Sitong’s “Benevolence” after the Coup of 1898. Tung Wen Hu Bao even encouraged the Independence Army Uprising. After the Russo-Japanese War, newspapers founded by the Japanese in China reached another peak. During 1905–1910, there emerged 23 such newspapers. After the victory in the War, Japan expanded its power in Northeast China and used it as a base for further invasion. More than 78% newly founded newspapers by the Japanese were then based in Northeast China. They were scattered across the region in Shengyang, Andong, Changchun, Dalian, Liaoyang, Yingkou, and Tie Ling. The remaining ones were set up in Hankou, Tianjin, Yantai, Xiamen,

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and Hong Kong. 82% of the newly founded newspapers were in Japanese. The increase in proportion was huge compared to 25% in the period after the First Sino-Japanese War. It reflected the growing number of Japanese expatriates in China after their country invaded China. Major Japanese newspapers included the Liaodong New Newspaper (Liaodong xinbao 遼 東 新 報 ), the Andong New Newspaper (Andong xinbao 安 東 新 報 ), Southern Manchuria Daily (Nanman ribao 南 滿 日 報 ), Liaoyang Daily (Liaoyang meiri xinbao 遼 陽 每 日 新 聞 ), Northern China Daily , Hankou Daily News , and the Honkon Nippō [Hong Kong Daily]. The Liaodong New Newspaper was founded by Junichiro Suenaga on November 25, 1905, in Dalian. It was the first Japanese newspaper in Northeast China and received support from the Japanese government and the South Manchuria Railways Co. Later, it merged with Manchuria News (Manzhou xinwen 滿洲新聞 ), and then Mainland China Daily News (Dalu riri xinwen 大陸日日新聞 ) in 1923. The newspaper was renamed Manchuria Daily . It was quite influential in Northeast China. Chinese newspapers founded by the Japanese were Sheng-ching Shih-pao (Shengcheng Times) in Shenyang, Chefoo Daily (Zhifu ribao 芝罘日報 ) in Yantai, and Taidong Daily (Taidong ribao 泰東日報 ) in Dalian, and New Fujian Daily (Quanmin xin ribao 全閩新日報 ) in Xiamen. Sheng-ching Shih-pao first published on October 18, 1906. It was the first newspaper of Japan which came out in China after the Russo-Japanese War. Nakajima Nao founded the newspaper with the support from Ogiwara Morikazu, the Japanese Consul in Fengtian. It was the most influential and longest-lasting Chinese newspaper founded by the Japanese in Northeast China. It was published for 38 years until September 14, 1944. Compared to other foreign newspapers in China, those founded by the Japanese were under strict government control. There were government official posts. Even if it was privately owned, it was in close contact with the government. It was not surprising that they were openly supportive of the Japanese government. It became more obvious after the Russo-Japanese War. Shuntian Times became an official post of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Tung Wen Hu Bao received 10,000 dollars from the Ministry after the War and was, therefore, manipulated by the Ministry. Some Japanese journalists were suspected spies sent to China by the Japanese Military. They included the heads of Manuria Daily and Hankou Daily . The Chinese were fiercely against the Japanese propaganda of invasion. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan took notice and employed a new strategy of

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spreading propaganda. It bribed many newspapers for serving Japan. During the Russo-Japanese War, the Ministry bribed journalists who worked at foreign newspapers, including those at North China Daily News , Wenweipo , and The

Shanghai Times . In 1908, it began to bribe Chinese newspapers. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, it was difficult to make an existing newspaper become an official publication of Japan. Based on its experience with Tung Wen Hu Bao , there were not enough benefits. The best way was to become a shareholder of a large scale newspaper. If not, one should bribe the journalists in order to manipulate the newspaper. Eastern Times , News Daily (Xinwen bao 新聞報 ), Beijing Daily , and the New Public Opinion (Gonglun xinbao 公論新報 ).

The development of newspapers founded by the Brits and Americans in China From the first Sino-Japanese War to the 1911 Revolution, newspapers founded by

the British and Americans in China continued to develop. There were some major changes.

More than 20 English newspapers emerged during that period. The most

influential one was the South China Morning Post in Hong Kong. It was founded

by the British Alfred Cunningham’s South China Morning Post Group Limited

on November 7, 1903. Cunningham was the general manager and chief editor.

Xie Zantai, a member of the Revive China Society, worked as an editor. It was different from other English newspapers in that the target audience was not the

upper class but the general public. It was sold at 10 cents per copy, cheaper than other newspapers. It soon became the bestselling English newspaper in Hong

Kong in 1904. It showed support for Sun Yat-sen’s revolutionary movements. A weekly and an evening paper followed. It is still being published as of 2012.

New English newspapers were mostly based in Shanghai and they made

little impact on society. One of the less obscure ones was Shanghai Daily Press

founded by Cunningham in 1897. It was transferred and renamed several times.

It stopped publishing approximately in 1905. Shanghai Times was founded in

1901. It was founded by the American J.H. Bush and later sold to the British E.A. Nottingham. J.C. Ferguson was once the publisher and he received subsidies from

the Provincial Governor of Jiangsu. It was sold to the Japanese before the 1911 Revolution and became a media channel of Japan. After the Second Sino-Japanese

War, it was taken over by the Kuomintang and renamed Shanghai Herald . It did not last long. During the same period of time, there were other magazines and

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journals, including the East of Asia Magazine , National Review , Educational Review , Social Shanghai , and the Temperance Union Weekly Newspaper . In North and Central China, the development of English newspapers was better. In spring 1901, British John Cowan founded the first English newspaper — China Times — in Beijing. Its headquarters relocated to Tianjin the next year. China Times continued to publish in Beijing while the Tianjin office published Evening Express . Later, the Peking Post and China Review came out in Beijing and Tianjin, respectively. Two English newspapers came out in Hankou. The first one was the Central China Post . It was the most influential and longest-lasting foreign newspaper in Hankou. It was founded in 1904 by American businessmen. It also had a Chinese version edited by famous Chinese author Wu Jianren, who resigned when the Anti-America Movement broke out. It was transferred to John Archibald (British) in 1913, whose son continued to manage the newspaper after Archibald’s death. It stopped publishing in 1938 when the Japanese Army took Wuhan. The other newspaper was Hankou Daily News 27 founded in 1906. It continued to publish during the 1911 Revolution. In the early 20th century, some English newspapers appeared in coastal cities in Shandong Province. They included: Wei-Hai-Wei Lyre , Chefoo Daily News , the Chefoo Morning Post , and the Kiautschou Post . Most of them were published by the British. The development of different types of Chinese newspaper founded by foreigners varied. The development of business newspapers stalled. No new Chinese business newspaper came out during that period of time. Some of the newspapers were sold. North China Daily News founded by the Brits was not performing well and was sold to Tôa Dôbunkai in 1900. Shun Pao founded by a British company achieved success soon after it was first published. No other newspaper could compare to it at first. It was not until the early 20th century that the competition became keener when the Universal Gazette and Eastern Times appeared. Shun Pao was targeted at the government officials and the upper class. It was rather conservative and did not support reform or revolution. It made little improvement during the year and its position was, therefore, soon taken over by other newly emerged newspapers. In early 1905, it was forced to reform and adjust: it became a supporter of reform; published a wide variety of news, telegraphs, and correspondence; split the text into columns and polished the language; employed Liu Shipei and Wang Zhongqi as editors, Jin Jianhua as the chief writer, and Zhang Yun took over the

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commentary column. The sales improved. In 1908, its founder Ernest Major died. The next year, Xi Yufu bought the newspaper. It became Chinese-owned. News Daily was transferred from the British to J.C. Ferguson, an American. Wang Jiwei, the manager, had some new policies in both news reporting and business. News Daily suddenly became a major competitor of Shun Pao . It supported the Qing government but it continually attacked the Boxers and the bourgeois revolutionaries. It became a limited company in 1906 and registered in Hong Kong, trying to become a British company and seek refuge in the midst of the Anti-America Movement. As the revolutionaries gained more power, the newspaper tried to be “politically neutral” and rarely commented on China’s politics. Missionaries also became more active in the newspaper industry. A Review of the Times of the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge Among the Chinese resumed publishing in 1899. It focused on introducing Western politics and Late Qing Reform. During the Hundred Days’ Reform, it supported reform and offered a platform for discussion of China’s politics. Even Emperor Guangxu read the paper. At first, it only printed 1,000 copies. The number rose to 38,400 in 1898 and set a record. While the newspaper did agree not entirely with the Chinese reformers in terms of aims and propaganda, it facilitated reform activities in China. The diehards at the imperial court gained control after the Coup of 1898. After 1900, the Anti–Foreign Religion Movement gained momentum. Missionaries were under high pressure. A Review of the Times had to reconsider its contents and promotion strategies. There were fewer articles on China’s politics and more on religion. Sales plummeted. It stopped publishing after the 222nd issue was published in July 1907 due to the death of chief editor Lin Lezhi. Since the Eastern Western Monthly Magazine , many other Chinese periodicals founded by missionaries emerged. Many of those periodicals primarily introduced Western knowledge and published articles on politics rather than preached. In the late 19th and early 20th century, most newly founded periodicals intended to preach and discuss religion rather to comment on politics. There were more than 30 such newspapers, the more important one included: the Christianity Magazine (Jidu jiaohui bao 基督教會報 ), Youth (Qingnian 青年 ), Chinese Christian Review , Christian Intelligence , Signs of the Times , True Light Review , and Chinese Christian Advocate . Most of the Missionaries were American and they employed Chinese workers. Many of those newspapers lasted a fairly long time. Signs of the Times continued to publish after the New China was established.

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The development of newspapers founded by Continental Europeans Germany began extending its colonial power into Beijing and Tianjin in the 1880s. Gustar von Detring, German Inspector-General of Chinese Maritime Customs

Service participated in the founding of Tianjin’s Eastern Times in 1886. In January 1895, Constantin von Hanneken founded Zhili News (Zhi bao 直報 ). It was known

for publishing Yan Fu’s “Extreme Changes,” “Road to Prosperity,” “Pi Han,” and “Salvaging China.” It only lasted for a short time.

There was little development of newspapers founded by the Germans in

China until the German invasion of Jiaozhou Bay and the Eight-Nation Alliance invasion. During 1897–1911, there were more than 20 newspapers (written in Chinese or German) founded by the Germans in China. Before, there were fewer

than three. The Newspapers in German concentrated in Shanghai. There were five there including the original Der Ostasiatische Lloyd . Others based in Beijing (1), Tianjin (2), Qingdao (2), Yantai (1), and Harbin (1). Shanghai’s Der Ferne Osten

was founded by the publisher of Der Ostasiatische Lloyd . Shanghai Nachrichten

and Handelsnachrichten were set up in 1907 to cater for German expatriates in Shanghai. Peking Deutsche Zeitung was founded in January 1900. It was the

first newspaper written in a foreign language in Beijing. Tianjin’s Tageblatt Für

Nordchina was founded by the publisher of Der Ostasiatische Lloyd , who also founded Tsingtauer Neueste Nachrichten in Qingdao in the same year. On August 14, 1917, China declared war on Germany. All newspapers founded by Germans were banned. The French began to set up newspapers in China in the early 1870s. Development did not pick up speed until the First Sino-Japanese War and the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China. Most of the newspapers were in French. During 1896–1901, 10 French newspapers appeared, mainly in Shanghai, Beijing, and Tianjin. L’Echo de Chine was founded on July 1, 1897, in Shanghai. It was an important media channel of France in China and Far East. It was funded by a Catholic church and administered by the French Consulate in Shanghai. At first, Marcel Tillot managed publishing and J. Emile Lemière was the chief editor. The newspaper was a strong supporter of the Catholic Church and the French government. It constantly refuted the viewpoints of the British and American newspapers in China. After the Boxer Rebellion, the newspaper devoted more ink to reporting on the situation in China and criticizing the revolutionaries. Its attitude changed in 1907 when it criticized the Qing government and was

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sympathetic toward the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. It continued to be published until 1927. Other French newspapers appeared in Shanghai included Le Journal de Changhai , Revue de L’Extreme-Orient and Bulletin Municipal . Bulletin Municipal was the official newspaper of the Shanghai French Concession. In Beijing, L’ Echo de Pékin and Le Journal de Pékin came out in 1905 and 1910, respectively. The latter published 10 sheets each issue, with 2 written in Chinese. In Tianjin, the French newspaper Le Courrier de Tientsin appeared in 1903. A Shanghai edition was published every two months starting from 1907. It claimed that it was a representative of the French and the Belgians. Around 1909, L’Echo de Tientsin came out and was regarded as an official newspaper of the Tianjin French Concession. Different from other foreign powers, the French did not set up any newspaper of their own before the 1911 Revolution. They voiced their opinion through Catholic Chinese newspapers such as Yiwen Lu 益聞錄 and Sacred Heart News (Shengxin bao 聖心報 ). They were also influential with Tianjin’s Ta Kung Pao . The Russians began to be involved in the newspaper industry in China in the early 20th century. After the First Sino-Japanese War, Russia extended its power in Northeast China. After the Eight-Nation Alliance invasion, the conflict between Russia and Japan sharpened. Newspapers founded by the Russians began to develop as a media channel for Russia to attack Japan and defend itself. First, in 1904, when the Russo-Japanese War broke out, Russia used the funds of the Russo-Chinese Bank to establish the Chinese Yandou Post (Yandou bao 燕都報 ) to counter the Shuntian Times . It soon stopped publishing. In the same year, Russia set up the Chinese Northeast Newspaper (Guandong bao 關東報 ) in the military strategic city Lüshun and the Shengjing Newspaper (Shengjing bao 盛京報 ) in the political center Fengtian (now Shenyang). After the Russo-Japanese War ended, Russia made Harbin the base for further invasion in China and the Far East. It founded The Far East Paper (Yuandong bao 遠東報 ) there in 1906 as a channel to spread its political propaganda. It received 170,000 ruble every year from the Chinese Eastern Railway, which was under Russia’s manipulation. Its distribution area expanded to Xinmin, Shenyang, and Mongolia. It was engaged in a fierce debate with Harbin’s Northeast Frontier Bulletin (Dongchui gongbao 東陲公報 ) regarding Russia’s invasion in China. The Portuguese also established many newspapers written in Portuguese. Most of them were published in Macau and two in Hong Kong. Since 1880, more people emigrated from Macau to Hong Kong. At the end of the 19th century, young Portuguese then residing in Hong Kong founded O Porvir as the voice of

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the Portuguese immigrants. The next year, O Patriota came out. It acted as a balm to both those Portuguese immigrants who supported Portugal and those who supported the U.K. Other newspapers set up by Continental Europeans included the following: Tianjin’s Bollettino dell’Estremo Oriente founded by Italians in 1898; Shanghai’s French newspaper Le Courrier de Chine founded by the Swiss in 1896; and Shanghai’s English newspaper Israel Messenger Monthly founded by the Jews in 1904. During 1895–1911, the development of foreign newspapers in China could be summarized as follows: First, newspapers founded by the Japanese, Germans, French, and Russians gained momentum. The Brits and Americans no longer dominated the industry. Second, new foreign newspapers were scattered across Northeast China, Beijing, and Tianjin unlike earlier foreign newspapers which concentrated in the Yangtze River basin and several cities in South China. It was a reflection of the foreign powers’ new direction of invasion in China.

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Notes Chapter 4 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Juren refers to a candidate who has passed the provincial examination.—Ed. Jinshi refers to a candidate who has passed the central examination.—Ed. On the cover of the first issue of Kang Youwei’s Wanguo gongbao kept at the National Committee of Three-Self Patriotic Movement of the Protestant Churches Library, there is a English note which says that the name of their publication is exactly the same as that of the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese. Jingbao was an unofficial newspaper. Most of its content was similar to the capital gazette. It can be divided into three major parts: news from the imperial court, imperial edict, and memorial to the throne. —Ed. “Kang Nanhai zibian nianpu” 康南海自編年譜 (The Chronicle Self-Edited by Kang Nanhai), in vol. 4 of Wuxu bianfa 戊戌變法 (Hundred Days’ Reform). (Shenzhou guanguo she, 1953), 133. Originally published in 1895. The entire collection is kept at the National Committee of Three-Self Patriotic Movement of the Protestant Churches Library. The Confucian calendar is a time scale which has the birth year of Confucius as the first year.—Ed. A xunkan was published every 10 days.—Ed. The 24 solar terms are points in the traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar. Each solar term matches a particular solar position or signifies some seasonal or climatic phenomena.—Ed. “Liji Xuetang bao li” 利濟學堂報例 (Samples of the Journal of Liji Academy ), Liji Xuetang bao 利濟 學堂報 (Journal of Liji Academy), January 20, 1897. Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Nonghui bao xu” 農會報序 (Preface to the Journal of Agriculture ), Shiwu bao 時務報 (The Chinese Progress), April 12, 1897. “Jielu benbao zhangcheng” 節錄本報章程 (Excerpts of the Charter), Xinxue bao 新學報 (New Knowledge), August 1897. “Meng xuebao, Yanyi bao hexu” 蒙學報、演義報合敘 (Preface to the Journal of Enlightenment and Yanyi News ), Shiwu bao 時務報 (The Chinese Progress), November 5, 1897.

Chapter 5 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

See Ch.4 note 7. A Sorrowful Guest 哀時客 [Liang Qichao梁啟超]. “Lun jinshi guomin jingzeng zhi dashi ji Zhongguo zhi qiantu” 論近世國民競爭之大勢及中國之前途 (The Recent Trend of Competition among Citizens and the Future of China), Qingyi bao 清議報 (The China Discussion), October 15, 1899. Rengong 任公 [Liang Qichao梁啟超]. “Shaonian Zhongguo shuo” 少年中國說 (The Young China), Qingyi bao 清議報 (The China Discussion), February 10, 1900. Chen Duxiu 陳獨秀 . “ Wuren zuihou zhi juewu” 吾人最後之覺悟 (My Final Realization), Xinqingnian 新青年 (La Jeunesse), February, 1916. The Chinese characters for Liang Qichao’s new penname (新民) literally can mean “new democracy” or “new citizen.”—Ed. Yu Chengzi 雨塵子. “Lun shijie jingji jingzeng zhi dashi” 論世界經濟競爭之大勢 (The Trend of Economic Competition in the World), Xinmin congbao 新民叢報 (New Citizen Journal), July 5, 1902.

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Notes

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26. 27.

144

See Ch.4 note 8. Shangtang refers to charity associations.—Ed. “Daipai Zhonguo Ribao guanggao” 代派中國日報廣告 (Advertisement of the China Daily ), Min bao 民報 (The Minpao Magazine), February 25, 1908. “Zhongguo bao xu” 〈中國報〉序 (Preface to the China Post ), Zhongguo xunbao 中國旬報 (China Xunkan), January 25, 1900. “Tianjin yiyue ji” 天津一月記 (A Month in Tianjin), Zhongguo xunbao 中國旬報 (The China Xunkan), October 8 to November 6, 1900. “Yi zai xinmin zhi zongzhi” 異哉新民之宗旨 (The Aims of the New Citizen Journal ), Zhongguo ribao 中國日報 (China Daily), April 7, 1904. “He Cai yan yiming zhi jiaji” 何采言一命之價值 (The Value of Life by He Cai), Yousuowei 有所謂 (It Matters), June 20, 1905. “Yuan Guo” 原國 (The Nation), Guomin bao 國民報 (Citizen’s Tribune), May 10, 1901. Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Jiruo suyuan lun” 積弱溯源論 (Why China Has Become So Weak), Qingyi bao 清議報 (The China Discussion), April 29, 1901. “Guohun bian” 國魂篇 (The Ghost of China), Zhejiang chao 浙江潮 (Tides of Zhejiang). “Geming qi kemian fu” 革命其可免乎 (Revolution is Inevitable), Jiangsu 江蘇 (Jiangsu Magazine), June 25, 1903. 18. “Zhaolu huixun zhubi gongci” 照錄會訊主筆供詞 (Transcription of the Testimony of the Chief Writer), Shen bao 申報 (Shun Pao), March 11, 1898. Dazi was a degrading name for the Manchus.—Ed. Guizi was a degrading name for Westerners.—Ed. The article was originally published under the title “The Nanhai Gentleman’s View on Revolution.” The dates here were based on the lunar calendar.—Ed. “Shijin shi” 試金石 (Touchstone), Dagong bao 大公報 (Ta Kung Pao), July 29, 1909. “Xinchu xin baozhi zhaoren daiwei fenshou” 新出新報紙招人代為分售 (New Magazine Seeking Distribution), Shen bao 申報 (Shun Pao), March 30, 1876. “Kaiban Baihua xuehui jianming zhangcheng” 開辦白話學會簡明章程 (Brief Charter for Establishing the Society for Vernacular Chinese), Zhongguo guanyin baihua bao 中國官音白話報 (Chinese Official Baihua Journal), August 27, 1898, 19 and 20. “Jingao yuebao zhugong” 謹告閱報諸公 (To Readers), Hangzhou baihua bao 杭州白話報 (Hangzhou Vernacular News), June 1902. Not to be confused with the one founded by the Japanese although both newspapers had the same name. —Ed.

Index academy 31-2, 56, 60, 93 activities, political 6, 55, 57, 68 advertisements 19-20, 112-13, 125 agriculture 3, 20, 31-3, 66-7, 82 America 52-3, 108, 112 anarchism 77, 132 Anhui Common Saying Newspaper 103, 128-9 Anti-America Movement 77-9, 138-9 Anti-French Movements 75-6 anti-Qing 74﹣5, 109, 131 Anti-Russia Movement 72, 86, 89-91, 132 Anti-Russia Volunteer Army 85, 88-9, 129 Anya Bookstore 58, 60 Anya Post 56, 58, 60 Australia 46, 53-4 Authentic Knowledge 27 Beijing 2-3, 5-7, 12, 20-3, 31, 34, 38, 43, 46, 59-60, 63, 113-14, 119-20, 134-5, 138-40 Beijing News 58, 112, 123, 131 Beijing Newspaper 3-4, 20 Beijing Post 63-4 bourgeois reformers 35, 50, 125 bourgeois reformists 42, 49-50, 52, 75 bourgeois revolutionaries 65, 128, 139 bourgeois revolutions 50, 71, 111 bourgeoisie 2, 6, 10, 17, 49, 65, 112, 115 Bowen News 16, 31, 58 Boxer Rebellion 43, 47, 68, 74, 80-1, 122, 140 British government 99 British newspapers 30, 68 Business Daily 58, 60 business newspapers 67, 110, 138 Cai Yuanpei 50, 56, 92, 96-7, 99, 102

Canada 43, 46, 52-3, 56 capitalism 49, 66 CERA branches 54, 56, 107-8 charter 3, 16, 19, 23, 27-8, 34, 67, 85, 121, 130 Chen Duxiu 45, 102-3, 128-9 Chen Shaobai 66, 69-70, 79 Chengdu 30, 60-1, 130 chief editor 4, 8, 10-12, 27-8, 30-2, 56-7, 61, 76-7, 79-80, 83-7, 98, 100-3, 105-6, 1089, 116-17 chief writers 7, 12, 15, 17, 28-30, 34-5, 53, 58-62, 67, 77, 91-3, 103, 109, 112, 133-4 China 31-7, 43-7, 54-7, 65-6, 68-9, 72-6, 815, 87-91, 94-5, 100-1, 109-12, 115-19, 127-9, 131-6, 139-42 reviving 72, 80, 95, 109 China Business Bureau 111 China Daily 65, 68-71, 74, 76, 78-9, 104-5 China Discussion 8-9, 14, 34, 42-50, 52-3, 55, 71, 79-81, 83 China Mail 24, 67 China National Gazette 102 China Revival Society 88 China Vernacular News 128, 132 China Zhi Gong Party 52-3, 105, 108-9 China’s journalism 46, 65 China’s newspapers 26 Chinese 2-3, 9, 28-9, 33, 48-50, 54-5, 67-9, 71-2, 80-1, 84-90, 100, 105-6, 124-6, 1336, 138-40 Chinese bourgeoisie 65, 74 Chinese Daily Paper 109-10 Chinese Empire Reform A ssociation (CERA) 43, 47, 52-6, 58, 61-2, 81, 105-9 Chinese expatriates 54-5, 108 Chinese Free Press 105-10

145

Index

Chinese government 98 Chinese intellectuals 84, 90 Chinese Mail 14, 24, 60-1 Chinese Official Baihua Journal 126 Chinese Progress 7-15, 19-20, 22, 30, 33, 35, 37-9, 45, 50, 53, 62, 98, 118, 120, 128 Chinese reformers 135, 139 Chinese Revolutionary Alliance 42, 52, 56, 62, 70-1, 76, 93, 99, 118, 140 Chinese Revolutionary Army 102 Chinese Scientific Knowledge 28 Chinese Scientific Magazine 12-13, 32 Chinese students 85, 88-90, 93 Chungking Daily News 103 citizens 44-5, 51, 73, 120, 129 Citizen’s Tribune 80, 82-3, 100 civil liberties 10, 17-19, 21, 44, 46, 49, 57, 71-3, 79-80, 88, 120 commentaries 3, 19-20, 24-9, 37-8, 43-5, 47, 57-9, 69-70, 76-7, 82-3, 85-7, 100-1, 11314, 121-3, 129-32 Commercial Daily 61-2, 74 Commercial Press 56-7, 114-15 Compilation of Translated Literature 80-3, 100 Confucian calendar 6, 42 Confucianism 17, 19, 21, 25 Confucius 101, 111, 126 constitutional monarchy 42-4, 51, 59, 61, 64, 74, 77, 95, 106-7, 113, 123, 129-30 consulates 13, 37, 99, 120 correspondents 109, 118, 133 corruption 6, 14, 55, 60, 66, 72, 77, 89, 102, 112-13, 128, 131 Coup of 1898 12-14, 21, 24, 28, 34, 38-9, 423, 52-4, 56-8, 60-2, 80, 113, 121-2, 134-5, 139 Cultural Revolution 114 Current Affairs Daily 121-2

146

daily newspapers 15, 63-5, 120 Dalian 135-6 democracy 10, 42, 50, 73, 75, 80, 84, 87-8, 107, 116 democratic revolution 52, 75, 105, 107, 109, 132 Di Chuqing 47, 117 Diplomatic Review 56-7 Duanfang 93, 122 East Asia Times 28, 134-5 East of Asia Magazine 115, 137 Eastern Miscellany 56, 91, 111-12, 114-16 Eastern Times 111-12, 117-18, 137 editorial board 11, 20, 24, 28, 31, 33, 50-1, 53-5, 57, 61, 63, 82, 86, 100, 115-16 editors 8, 10-11, 31, 38, 42, 47, 51, 53-4, 5860, 76, 80-2, 84-7, 100-2, 129-31, 137-8 education 3, 15, 28-30, 57, 61, 66, 84-6, 88, 95, 100, 114-15, 129-30 Education Association of China 50, 98, 132 Eight-Nation Alliance 43, 47, 58, 68, 72-5, 86-7, 119, 135, 140-1 Eight-part Essay 35 Emperor Guangxu 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, 21-4, 26, 57, 88, 96, 106, 127, 131, 139 Empress Dowager Cixi 13-14, 24, 28, 35, 423, 45, 63, 71, 89, 96, 101, 113, 121-3, 127 English newspapers 137-8 Enlightenment Vernacular News 56, 61 equity 9, 19, 49 Europe 32-3, 38, 45, 49, 73, 109, 127 fiction 21, 36, 39, 47, 51, 58-9, 84-7, 100-1, 118, 129, 132 First Guangzhou Uprising 67-70 First Sino-Japanese War 2, 7-9, 15, 17, 21-2, 26, 100, 125, 127, 133-5, 137, 140-1 foreign newspapers 2, 4, 26-7, 29, 38, 61-2, 67, 111, 133, 136, 142

Index

foreign powers 49, 72-3, 78, 83, 87-8, 96, 125, 129, 141-2 France 19, 27, 29, 37, 113, 140 freedom of speech 13-14, 35, 79, 133 gentry 10, 17-19, 59, 70, 77-8, 115 German Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune 58 Germany 18, 23, 27, 139-40 Globe Newspaper 2-5, 8, 66 Gongche Shangshu Movement 2-3, 7-8, 23, 37, 54 government 2, 8, 23, 25, 38, 49, 56, 59, 77, 84-7, 89, 98, 112, 119, 136 Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune 30, 56, 58, 60 Guangdong Province 2, 7, 11-12, 34, 53-4, 58, 60, 65, 70, 75, 78, 104-5 Guangzhou 2, 6, 8, 30, 46, 56-7, 59-60, 66, 74, 77-8, 128 Han Chinese 73, 78, 96, 100, 114, 123 Hangzhou Vernacular News 87, 128, 130-2 Hankou 62-3, 114, 135, 138 Harbin 128, 140-1 Hawaiian Chinese News 66-7, 104, 106-7 Hiroshi Nishimura 134 Hong Kong 12, 38, 56-7, 61, 63, 66-73, 758, 82, 103, 105-7, 109, 116-17, 135, 139, 141 Honolulu 52, 59, 62, 66-7, 80, 104, 106-8 Huizhou Uprising 75 Hunan Journal 13, 16-17, 19-20 Hunan News 15, 18-19, 30, 62 Hunan Newspaper 15-16, 30 Hunan Province 15-18, 31, 37, 62, 83-4, 91-3 Hundred Days’ Reform 7, 13-15, 17, 21-2, 24, 26, 32, 35, 42, 47-8, 55, 57, 96, 113, 127-8

Huxley 25 ideologies 6, 15, 17, 34, 47-8, 68, 80, 84, 111 Ikoma Etsu 92, 134 illustrations 39, 47-8, 61, 110, 129 imperial edicts 11-13, 16, 18, 26, 29-30, 35, 38, 57, 93, 104, 110, 113, 115, 121, 127 imperial gazette 58-9, 120 imperialism 19, 45, 49, 68, 72, 74, 81, 87-8, 129 intellectuals 11, 19, 21, 75, 90, 112, 115-16, 132 invasion 19, 68, 72, 75, 83, 135-6, 141-2 Japan 2, 14, 16, 23-4, 27, 29, 42-3, 69-70, 83-4, 87-90, 99-101, 106-7, 117, 128-33, 135-7 Japanese 13, 24, 28, 30, 33, 115-16, 118, 133-7, 142 Japanese government 42, 133, 135-6 Japanese Reform 81, 127, 134 Jiangsu Magazine 84, 87-90 Jiangsu Post 75, 91-100, 102, 105, 134 Jinghua Daily 56, 112, 119-20 Journal of Agriculture 20, 32-3 Journal of Liji Academy 31-2 Journal of Mathematics 33-4, 60 journalists 27, 37, 46, 50, 78-9, 97, 124, 130, 137 Kang Youwei 2, 4, 7-8, 11-14, 21, 24, 28-9, 35, 39, 42-3, 47, 49-50, 52-5, 61-4, 93-8 Kwo Wen Pao 13-14, 20-5, 37-9, 134 Li Hongzhang 21, 66-7 Liang Qichao 2-4, 7-8, 10-12, 17, 23, 28, 32, 35-6, 42-3, 45-6, 48, 51, 53, 64, 127-8 Lianshi paper 7, 16, 26, 29, 32, 34, 39, 42 Liji Academy 31-2 Lingdong Daily 103

147

Index

Macau 11-14, 20, 56-7, 62, 66, 141 magazine 2, 25-30, 37-8, 79, 81-3, 85-7, 91, 103, 115-17, 124, 137 Mai Menghua 2-4, 9, 12, 42, 64-5, 80 Mainland China 67, 80, 83-4, 86, 88, 90-1, 100-1, 134 Manchus 58, 65, 73, 78, 83, 86, 93-5, 97, 1012, 109 masthead 92, 119-20, 125 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan 92, 134, 136-7 Minpao Magazine 51, 74, 98, 124 Mixed Court 97, 99, 103 Mon Hing Po 52-4 Montesquieu 21, 48-9, 78 Mountain Range Journal 30, 58, 60 Munakata Kotaro 28, 134-5 national citizenship 44 National News Magazine 20-1, 25 New China Press 8, 53-4, 106-7 New Citizen Journal 8, 14, 37, 46-52, 54, 57, 63-4, 74, 95 New Culture Movement 99, 116, 132 New Fiction Journal 8, 50-2 new knowledge 16-17, 20, 24, 34, 36, 48, 867, 110 New-Style Writing 35-7 newspaper industry 2, 10, 56, 65-6, 79, 11718, 120, 133, 139, 141 newspapers commercial 52, 55 official 4-6, 29, 46, 52-6, 61-2, 68, 71, 93, 98, 102, 104, 106-7, 130, 140-1 reformist 13-14, 19, 36, 38-9, 54-7, 59, 61, 71, 76, 110 revolutionist 55, 68, 74, 76, 100 royalist 107 North China Daily News 124, 136, 138

148

Overseas Chinese 55-6, 104, 109 patriotism 44, 49, 81, 86, 107, 132 periodicals foreign 34-5, 57 non-revolutionary 112 reformist 34-5, 37, 39 revolutionary 76, 91, 103-4 petition 3, 23 political commentaries 7-9, 19, 34-5, 37, 47, 58, 84, 113 Portuguese 141 power, imperialistic 78, 81-2, 111, 129, 131 power struggle 75, 113, 127 printing machines 54, 64, 69, 103, 134 proletarian revolutionists 50 propaganda 67, 73, 76, 83, 88-90, 101, 110, 118, 123, 125-6, 129, 132, 135, 139, 141 revolutionary 104, 109 publisher 50-1, 59, 61, 77, 81, 100, 122, 130, 137, 140 Qing Empire 13, 52, 66, 73-4, 95-6, 109, 129 Qing government 13, 20-1, 23, 46-7, 52-6, 58-9, 67-8, 72-5, 77-8, 82-3, 85-6, 88-9, 93, 95-103, 111-12 reform 2-3, 6-7, 9-11, 13-19, 21-2, 24, 289, 34-7, 39, 57-9, 96, 113, 117-18, 124-8, 130-2 reform ideologies 3-4, 6, 8-10, 35 reform period 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 213, 25-7, 29, 35, 37-9, 124-6 reform propaganda 126, 135 Reformer China 11-16, 20, 30, 39, 53, 55, 62, 113 reformers 2-4, 6-7, 9-11, 13-15, 20, 23, 27, 36, 62, 105, 110, 115, 127-8, 132, 135 reformists 20, 33, 35, 39, 42-3, 47, 50-2, 55-6, 61-3, 65, 71, 74, 82, 92, 110

Index

Restoration Society 91, 99, 131 Revive China Society 66-8, 70-1, 75, 104-7, 137 revolution 25-6, 41-3, 47-9, 53, 57-63, 65-9, 71-7, 79-91, 93-101, 103-11, 113-19, 1235, 127, 129-33, 137-9 revolutionaries 42, 50-1, 58, 67-8, 72, 78, 81, 89, 101-2, 104, 107, 109-10, 112, 131-2, 139-40 revolutionary activities 100, 106, 131 Revolutionary Army 94-5, 97-8, 105 revolutionists 42, 51-2, 56, 65, 67-8, 71, 73-5, 82-4, 92, 95, 100-1 Rousseau 45, 48-9, 77-8, 82, 95 royalists 46, 52, 59, 72, 74, 79-81, 83, 92, 107-10 Russia 19, 23, 37, 39, 46, 72, 80, 89, 141 Russo-Japanese War 118, 133, 135-6, 141 San Francisco 52-3, 59, 80, 105, 108-10 scholar-officials 4, 7 Second Sino-Japanese War 114, 116, 137 Self-Strengthening Journal 5-7, 11 Shanghai 5-7, 26, 32-4, 37-8, 56-7, 59-60, 62-6, 82-3, 90-2, 98-103, 113-15, 117-18, 128-31, 134-5, 140 Shanghai International Settlement 92, 96-7, 103 Shanghai News 14, 28, 64, 134 Shanghai Times 136-7 Sheng-ching Shih-pao 136 Shun Pao 16, 124, 130, 138 Shuntian Times 135-6, 141 Sichuan Province 30, 60, 94-5 Singapore 20, 54, 56, 82-3, 104-5 Six Gentlemen Martyrs 13 social reform 115, 117, 123, 127 Society for National Strengthening 23-4 Society of New Knowledge 34 South China 56, 135, 142

South China Morning Post 137 Southeast Asia 46, 54, 105, 112 Southern Society 17-19 stone lithography 26, 28-9, 34, 60, 104 students 2, 12, 20-1, 29, 50, 66, 80, 84-6, 88, 90-4, 97, 100-1, 109, 123 Sun Yat-sen 12, 52-3, 65-6, 68, 70, 75, 79, 88, 90, 99-100, 102, 106-7, 110-11, 125, 137 suppression 47, 91-2, 133 Ta Kung Pao 66, 104, 111-14 Taiwan 64-5, 82, 133 Tan Sitong 13, 17-19, 28, 32, 35-6, 62, 130, 135 Tang Caichang 17, 19, 28, 54, 62 telegraphs 27, 29, 38, 57, 74, 118, 121, 138 Thien Nan Shin Pao 14, 54, 56 Tianjin 20-2, 34, 38, 43, 59, 72, 74, 82, 11314, 134-5, 138-40, 142 Tokyo 73, 80, 82-8, 90, 93, 99, 128 translated articles 25, 27-30, 57, 82-4, 86-9 Tung Wah Times 54 Universal Daily 121-2 vernacular Chinese 36, 51, 77, 88, 101, 11314, 118, 124-8, 130-2 Wanguo gongbao 2-3, 66 Western bourgeoisie 48 Western knowledge 11, 17, 21-2, 42, 45, 58, 113, 115, 139 Westernization 6, 10 Wisdom-Guide 79-81, 83 Women’s Journal 28, 97, 125 World Bulletin 4-5, 7, 9, 37 writing style 36, 49, 77, 125 xunkan 15, 20, 25-6, 29-30, 32, 34, 56, 64, 69, 131-2

149

Index

Yan Fu 20-5, 35-6, 47 Yokohoma 34, 42, 51, 53, 59, 80, 117 Young China Association 45

150

102 mm

187 mm

187 mm

This series provides a comprehensive history of journalism in China. It chronicles two millennia of journalistic history from the 2nd century BC to the 1990s, and includes coverage of newspapers, periodicals, news agencies, broadcast television, photography, documentary film, journal cartoons, journal education, as well as information about reporters, journalists, and other aspects of journalism. Volume 2 discusses the development of Chinese journalism from the tumultuous days of the late Qing Dynasty (1895–1911) to the Hundred Days’ Reform and up to the early rumblings of the 1911 Revolution. This book also traces the evolution of the media as a tool for spreading political propaganda by looking at the power struggles of bourgeois reformists and revolutionists against the backdrop of the Qing Empire.

Fang Hanqi is a Professor, Doctoral and Graduate Supervisor of the Journalism School at the Renmin University of China, Counselor of the Journalism and Social Development Research Center, and Director of the Academic Committee of the Renmin University of China. He has been appointed a member of the Editorial Board of the “Encyclopedia of China • Press and Publication,” Editor of the “Chinese Journalism” section of the Encyclopedia, and President of the Chinese Association for History of Journalism and Mass Communication.

Chinese Historical Studies

Edited by Fang Hanqi

EDITOR IN CHIEF

JOURNALISM IN CHINA Volume 2

Volume 2

260 mm

A History of Journalism in China Volume 2

A HISTORY OF JOURNALISM IN CHINA

Examines the Development of Journalism in China from the Pre-Qin Period to the Modern Age

A HISTORY OF

Edited by Fang Hanqi

102mm