A History of Journalism in China [1 ed.] 9789814332880, 9789814332279

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A History of Journalism_V3_Cover_OP.pdf 1 12年12月18日 下午6:30

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A History of Journalism in China

A HISTORY OF JOURNALISM IN CHINA 3 Volume

Edited by Fang Hanqi

Published by Enrich Professional Publishing (S) Private Limited 16L, Enterprise Road, Singapore 627660

Website: www.enrichprofessional.com

A Member of Enrich Culture Group Limited Hong Kong Head Office:

2/F, Rays Industrial Building, 71 Hung To Road, Kwun Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China China Office:

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trademarks of Enrich Professional Publishing (S) Private Limited and/or its affiliates in Singapore and other countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

English edition © 2013 by Enrich Professional Publishing (S) Private Limited Chinese original edition © 2004 China Renmin University Press Translated by Janet Cheng Edited by Janet Cheng and Glenn Griffith All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage

and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without prior written permission from the Publisher.

ISBN (Hardback)

978-981-4332-27-9



978-981-4332-89-7 (epub)

ISBN (ebook)

978-981-4332-88-0 (pdf)

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to

the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged

in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional service. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Printed in Hong Kong with woodfree paper from Japan

Editorial Board (Chinese Edition) Editor-in-Chief Fang Hanqi Vice Editors-in-Chief Ning Shufan Chen Yeshao Editors Fang Hanqi

Ding Ganlin

Sun Wenshuo

Ning Shufan

Wei Yuanli

Yu Huanchun

Chen Yeshao

Yang Zhaolin

He Bingran

Zhao Yuming

Contributors (in alphabetical order) Bai Runsheng

Huang Hu

Wang Fengchao

Zhang Tao

Chen Yeshao

Jiang Hanzhen

Wang Hongxiang

Zhang Zhihua

Cui Qi

Jin Yaoyun

Wang Meizhi

Zhao Yuming

Ding Ganlin

Lei Yuping

Wei Yuanli

Zhong Zi

Fang Hanqi

Li Ruigang

Xia Xiaolin

Zhu Junzhou

Gao Guangang

Li Siyi

Xie Guoming

Gao Ning

Liang Honghao

Xie Jun

Gao Weijin

Ma Guangren

Yan Huanshu

Ge Sien

Ma Yunzeng

Yang Runshi

Gu Bingxiang

Mu Jiaheng

Yang Zhaolin

Gu Changling

Ning Shufan

Yao Fushen

Guo Zhenzhi

Qin Shaode

Yin Yungong

He Bingran

Sun Wenshuo

Yu Huanchun

Hu Taichun

Sun Xiaoyang

Yu Jiaqing

Hu Zhihuan

Sun Xupei

Zhang Shaozong

Contents Chapter 6

.Journalism around the 1911 Revolution................................................ 1

Chapter 7

Journalism in the Early Republic Period of China........................... 141

Notes................................................................................................................................ 215 Index................................................................................................................................ 221

6

Chapter

Journalism around the 1911 Revolution

A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 3

The official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, The Minpao Magazine (Minbao 民報 ), was first published in November 1905. This signaled a new page for modern Chinese journalism as bourgeois revolutionaries became the main drivers of journalism. Newspapers had stronger party characteristics and became tools of political parties. This developed into a polemic between revolutionist newspapers and reformist newspapers. As revolutionary and constitutional movements began, newspapers were once again actively published by various factors in China, forming a second peak in domestically produced newspapers. During this peak, the idea of capitalistic journalism was formed, and the publishing industry developed rapidly.

The Start of The Minpao Magazine and the Polemics between Two Main Political Factions through Newspapers and Journals The establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and the start of The Minpao Magazine In the early twentieth century, revolutionary movements in China became increasingly active. The activities of bourgeois revolutionary organizations such as Revive China Society, Restoration Society, and China Revival Society were scattered and could no longer meet the needs of revolution development. The objective situation required that the revolutionary powers be united and a comprehensive guideline be drawn up, so as to strengthen united movements across China. In July 1905, Sun Yat-sen arrived in Tokyo and held repeated discussions with members of the China Revival Society including Huang Xing and Song Jiaoren. On July 30, a preparatory meeting for the formation of a new party was held, and more than 70 members from Revive China Society, China Revival Society, Restoration Society, and other revolutionary organizations attended. After discussion, the new party was named the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. The Establishment Ceremony of the party was held on August 20. More than a hundred people attended, and there were participants from all of China’s provinces except Gansu. Following the suggestion of Huang Xing, it was decided that the periodical Twentieth-century Shina (Ershi shiji zhizhina 二 十 世 紀 之 支 那 ), then published in Tokyo, would be reformed as the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance.

Twentieth-century Shina is a revolutionary journal founded by Chinese

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Journalism around the 1911 Revolution

students in Japan from Hunan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, and Guangdong Provinces. It was first published on June 24, 1905,1 and was headed by Song Jiaoren and Cheng Jiacheng. Participants in the editing and publishing processes included Tian Tong, Chen Tianhua, Li Heqing, Lei Daoxiang, Guo Yaojie, Zhang Buqing, Gao Jiangong, and Liu Gong. The journal promoted patriotism and used the Yellow Emperor calendar.2 The first issue of Twentieth-century Shina contained the portraits of the Yellow Emperor and George Washington, as well as verses written by Song Jiaoren in the style of Songs of Chu — implying the antiQing, revolutionary political stance of the journal. On August 27 when the Twentieth-century Shina was being transferred to the new party, the journal was banned by Japanese police. This was because the second issue of the journal contained an article “On the Japanese Politicians’ Operation of China” which revealed Japanese ambition to occupy the Liaodong Peninsula. This enraged the Japanese government. The journal was said to be detrimental to public order and had to be detained and taken over in accordance to the orders of the Prime Minister of Japan. On August 28, the police tracked the publisher and the accountant of the journal, asked for the member list,

interrogated the author of the article, and demanded for the manuscript. As a result, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance thought that it was inappropriate to retain the name Twentieth-century Shina for its official newspaper, thus renaming and republishing it as The Minpao Magazine . After two months of preparation, The Minpao Magazine was first published on November 26 in Tokyo. The Minpao Magazine covered political commentaries and current affairs, and had sections such as “Analysis,” “News Commentary,” “Forum,” “Chronicles,” and “Translated Works.” Each issue had about 60,000 to 70,000 words and was about 150 pages long. It had a few photogravure prints as well as some advertisements mainly of other publications. The newspaper was meant to be published monthly, but publication stopped due to frequent delays. When The Minpao Magazine was finally stopped after February 1910, only 26 issues had been published. Zhang Ji was listed as the editor and publisher of the first five issues of The Minpao Magazine since his Japanese was better and he could conveniently manage external communications. However, Hu Hanmin was the actual head of the newspaper. Since the sixth issue, the former main writer of Jiangsu Tribune (Subao 蘇報 ) — Zhang Taiyan — had just been released from prison. The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance headquarters sent someone to Shanghai and invited him to head The Minpao Magazine in Tokyo. Thus, Zhang Binglin (another name of 3

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A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 3

Zhang Taiyan) was listed as the publisher of The Minpao Magazine beginning from the sixth issue of The Minpao Magazine . This could be seen on the back cover of the third edition of the sixth issue of the newspaper, published on October 1, 1907. Zhang Taiyan went on hiatus due to a brain disease in December 1907, and Zhang Ji was once again listed as the editor and publisher on the 19th issue. Not long after, Zhang Ji left Tokyo and Tao Chengzhang became the chief editor. Zhang Taiyan resumed his position as chief editor in the 23rd and 24th issues. Due to Tang Zengbi’s article “Revolutionary Psychology” published in the 24th issue, The Minpao Magazine was banned by Japanese officials. After a year and two months, Wang Jingwei secretly restarted publication of the newspaper in Tokyo. The newspaper was finally stopped in February 1910 after two more issues were published. In its early stages, The Minpao Magazine had gathered the best publishing personnel among the bourgeois revolutionaries. There were 68 authors who had written for the newspaper — including Zhang Taiyan, a knowledgeable revolutionary famous for his Jiangsu Tribune case; Chen Tianhua, writer of famous revolutionary pamphlets such as “Cautionary Bell” and revolutionary novels such as Lion Roar (Shizi hou 獅子吼 ); Zhu Zhixin, a brave democracy fighter and an early introducer of the Communist Manifesto ; Liao Zhongkai, a close ally to Sun Yat-sen and a remarkable revolutionary; Hu Hanmin, the chief editor of Guangzhou’s Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune (Linghaibao 嶺海報 ); Wang Jingwei, a talented writer of inflammatory articles; Song Jiaoren, a famous political activist and publisher in modern China; Liu Shipei, an editor of Shanghai’s Cautionary Bell Tribune (Jingzhong Ribao 警鐘日報 ); Huang Kan, Zhang Taiyan’s student and a famous revolutionary political commentator; and Tang Zengbi, writer of “Revolutionary Psychology” which had caused some trouble. In addition, active contributors of articles, translated works, paintings, and poems also included Wang Dong, Chen Qubing, Su Manshu, Ma Junwu, Feng Ziyou, Tao Chengzhang, Zhou Zuoren, Tian Tong, Liu Yazi, and Lei Zhaoxing. Most of them were in their twenties except for Zhang Taiyan and Chen Tianhua who were over 30 years of age, while the youngest, Wang Dong and Feng Ziyou, were only about 15. The majority of them were students from a few Japanese universities. Together, they formed a vibrant and young publicity team, fiercely criticizing the tyranny of the Qing government, and the fallacies of the reformists. They publicized the six principles of The Minpao Magazine , and had great influence over their readers. However, similar to the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance which was a loose political alliance that included various anti-Qing forces, editors and writers of

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Journalism around the 1911 Revolution

The Minpao Magazine would sometimes reflect their personal political opinions despite having a similar tone. They differed in points of view, resulting in a harmony in discord. This had been reflected in the writings of Hu Hanmin, Liu Shipei, Wang Jingwei, Zhang Taiyan. Yet under the situation then, organizing a newspaper with a common goal was something that had never been done before. They concentrated on attacking the dictatorship of the Qing Dynasty and countered the fallacies of the reformists. They were the main forces in spreading revolutionary thoughts. Song Jiaoren, Cao Yabo, Cheng Jiacheng, and Huang Fusheng had taken up the responsibility of publishing The Minpao Magazine one after another. The publishing department and the editorial team of the newspaper were separated. The editorial was located in the headquarters of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, while the publishing department was set up in the home of Miyazaki Toten — Sun Yat-sen’s friend. There were only six domestic and international distribution points when the first issue was published. This was increased to 15 distribution points in the second issue, and 28 distribution points in the 13th issue.

The publicity content and method of The Minpao Magazine in its early stages The Minpao Magazine was at its strongest between the time when it was first published on November 26, 1905 and when the 12th issue was published in March 1907. It was most vibrant and had the strongest influence then. During this period, Sun Yat-sen used the name Nakayama Sho and lived in 21 Tsukudohachimancho near the newspaper office. The chief editor and other managers would often go to his home to discuss publishing methods with him. Sun Yat-sen confirmed the titles and dictated the main ideas of some important articles before they were written by others in the team. Such articles were published under the name “Public Will 民意 ” or other pseudonyms. Three articles were published in the name of Sun Yat-sen — “Inaugural Issue Address” and “Speech to Overseas Chinese and Students in Tokyo” in the first issue, and “Speech Given on The Minpao Magazine Empire Day Celebration” in the 10th issue. In the “Inaugural Issue Address,” Sun Yat-sen first raised the political framework of the Principle of Minzu (nationalism), the Principle of Minquan (democracy), and the Principle of Minsheng (the people’s livelihood), later known as the Three People’s Principles. Lenin once commented that the Three People’s

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A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 3

Principles was filled with aggressive and sincere democratic ideas. Under the direct leadership of Sun Yat-sen, The Minpao Magazine directly announced its fundamental political ideals in the first article of General Principles of this Publishing House (Benshe jianzhang 本社簡章 ): to overthrow the current faulty government; to set up a Republic; to maintain real world peace; to support that land should be state-owned; to encourage cooperation between Chinese and Japanese citizens; and to demand that other nations support the reform of China. In the third issue of The Minpao Magazine , the editorial board published “The 4

Six Principles of The Minpao Magazine ” under a pseudonym, and rearranged the six principles raised in General Principles of this Publishing House by placing “to maintain real world peace” after “to support that land should be stateowned.” The first three principles were about domestic issues and reflected the Three People’s Principles. The last three principles concerned foreign affairs and reflected the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance’s attitude towards imperialism. The main content publicized by The Minpao Magazine included the Three People’s Principles and the political principles of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance — to expel the Tartar barbarians, to revive the Chinese nation, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people. These were mainly summarized in the following three points: The first main ideal was a nationalism that centered on expelling the Manchus. This was heavily publicized as the newspaper not only contained many articles strongly favoring the expulsion of the Manchus, but the paper also published various reports of anti–Qing incidents and excerpts of historical sources in the late Ming Dynasty. It also contained the portraits of historic Han heroes such as the Yellow Emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang, Hong Xiuquan, and Yue Fei. However, The Minpao Magazine ’s publicity of anti-Manchu sentiment was seriously flawed. It excessively quoted and referenced historical sources that showed how Manchus and Han killed and oppressed each other in late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. Manchu rulers were not differentiated from Manchu commoners. The publicity of nationalism in The Minpao Magazine aroused the people’s hatred towards the Qing government, and had a major effect on encouraging the wave of revolution. However, simply concentrating all hatred towards the government had clouded people’s understanding of imperialism and feudalism. This affected the knowledge and criticism of such concepts. The second main ideal was democracy on the basis of building a republic. Articles by Sun Yat-sen, Zhu Zhixin, Chen Tianhua, Zhang Taiyan, and Wang Jingwei published in The Minpao Magazine had clearly raised the ideals of

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Journalism around the 1911 Revolution

freedom and equality. They emphasized citizens’ rights and criticized autocracy and constitutional monarchy. The newspaper called upon all citizens to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and to build a capitalist democratic republic. The articles of Sun Yat-sen, Zhu Zhixin, and others were consistent with the principles of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. As fighters for nationalism, they advocated forming a republic through revolution, and insisted on fighting with those in support of a constitutional monarchy. The third main ideal was to support people’s livelihoods through stateowned land and shared land among the people. Zhu Zhixin’s articles “Parallel Development of Social Revolution and Political Revolution” and “State-owned Land and Finances” published in The Minpao Magazine had pointed out the differences between the rich and powerful and the common people. It recognized farmers’ needs for land to a certain extent, and touched on the fundamental problem of private land ownership in a bourgeois democratic revolution. It had a positive impact in mobilizing the lower-class public to participate in the revolution. Yet in general, publicity on this topic was relatively weaker and lacking in theoretical explanations. In its early stages, The Minpao Magazine had a strong focus on capitalist democratic revolution and the fight for liberation from colonialism both in the past and occurring then. It had introduced the French and Russian capitalist democratic revolution, as well as the Asian liberation movement — with 17 reports and commentaries on Indian’s rebellion against the United Kingdom. In addition, the newspaper also focused on introducing modernized Western culture and various new ideologies. Most of the content of The Minpao Magazine was publicized in the sections “Analysis,” “News Commentary,” and “Forum,” though other sections complemented the effect. The “Images” section published many photos of nationalists and revolutionaries, as well as editorial cartoons. The “Novels” section published novels and operas such as Lion Roar and The History of Mount Ya (Yashan shi 崖山史 ) set in the historic backgrounds of resisting the Yuan and Qing Dynasties. Revolutionary poems and encouraging words were added in blank spaces between articles. The publishing matters of the newspaper were taken up in succession by teams organized by members such as Song Jiaoren, Cao Yabo, Cheng Jiacheng, and Huang Fusheng. Utilizing various methods including fake covers, paid postage, and smuggling were used to widely distribute the newspaper in China. It aroused widespread and strong repercussions. It was reported that students were honored to have a copy of The Minpao Magazine ,

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A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 3

and they shared and treasured it despite bans imposed by teachers. Thus the newspaper’s ideas became widespread and many were willing to be pioneers

for them. Some schools became secret distribution and circulation centers for the newspapers. The Wuchang revolutionary organization Daily Renewal Society

(Rizhihui 日知會 ) entreated help to mail a few thousand copies of the newspaper from Tokyo for its members. Many soldiers from Hubei New Army and students from Nanjing Army High School, Chendu Higher Police Academy, and Changsha Army Officer Academy were enthusiastic readers of the newspaper. Since The

Minpao Magazine was widely popular, various issues had to be reprinted. According to an advertisement on the 11th issue of The Minpao Magazine , the inaugural issue had seven print runs, the 2nd and 3rd issues had five print runs, the 4th and 5th issues had four print runs, the 6th issue had three print runs, the 7th and 8th issues had two print runs, while the 9th and 10th issues had 4 print runs. Circulation reached 17,000 for the bestselling issue. Under the publicity and encouragement of The Minpao Magazine , the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance had more than 100,000 members in less than a year of its establishment. The seeds of revolution were planted all over China and in Chinese enclaves all around the world.

Polemics between The Minpao Magazine and New Citizen Journal on China’s future Bourgeois democratic revolution entered a new stage of widespread development after 1905. The fight between revolutionaries and reformists intensified and occurred in a wider scope.

The conflict between the revolution and royalism began as early as 1900. In

August 1901, Citizen’s Tribune (Guominbao 國民報 ) — established in Tokyo by Tai Lishan and others — published Zhang Taiyan’s article “Justification of Anti-

Manchu Sentiment.” This was the first article against the reformists. In 1902, Guangzhou-based Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune attacked the revolutionaries

for planning the First Guangzhou Uprising, while in turn, the Hong Kong–based China Daily (Zhongguo Ribao 中 國 日 報 ) sternly denounced the Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune . The media feud lasted longer than a month, and this was the first direct debate between the two newspapers. In June 1903, Zhang Taiyan published the article “The Relationship of Kang Youwei and Gioro” in Jiangsu Tribune , while Huang Shizhong published “Political Views against Kang Youwei” in China Daily . Both criticized Kang Youwei’s support of royalism and the cooperation between Manchu and Han people. In December 1903 and

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January 1904, Sun Yat-sen wrote and published the articles “Advice to My Fellow Townsmen” and “Against Royalist Newspapers” in The Hawaiian Chinese News (Tanshan Xinbao 檀山新報 ), denouncing the fallacy of “royalism is revolution” publicized by reformists in New China Press (Xinzhingguobao 新中國報 ). Since then, revolutionaries and royalists parted ways, and the media feud between the two factions intensified. When The Minpao Magazine was established in 1905, there was a complete break between the two factions, and large-scale polemics broke out. The intensity, size, duration, and coverage of the media feud were rare in modern China history. There were a few dozen newspapers and journals in both China and overseas participating in the debate. The clash between The Minpao Magazine and New Citizen Journal (Xinmin Congbao 新民叢報 ) was the most intense, and it became the main battlefield in the debate. Since its establishment, The Minpao Magazine had fought against the spurious constitutionalism of the Qing government and the idea of constitutional monarchy of the reformists. Sun Yat-sen had laid down the guiding principles of the polemic in his “Inaugural Issue Address” in The Minpao Magazine . Meanwhile, New Citizen Journal published more than 20 articles criticizing the revolutionaries. Important articles included “Enlightened Autocracy” in issues 75 and 77, “On the Pros and Cons of Racial and Political Revolution” in issue 76, “In Answer to the Criticism by a Certain Newspaper, Issue 4” in issue 79, “Riots and Foreign Intervention” in issue 82, “In Criticism of the Idea of State-owned Land of a Certain Newspaper” in issue 89. All articles were written by Liang Qichao under the pseudonym “ice-drinker 飲冰 ”. He was the major activist of the reformists in the media feud, though Kang Youwei, Xu Fosu, and others had written quite a few articles too. In summary, the debate focused on the following issues: To carry out revolution or to support royalism; to set up a democratic republic or to carry out constitutional monarchy; and whether to change land ownership and distribute land equally among citizens. The main point of controversy lay in whether to overthrow the Qing Dynasty completely through revolution. It was worth noting that when the Qing government announced its preparation in the Constitutional Movement, Liang Qichao, on one hand, wrote that “The issue of political revolution can come to a rest.” Yet on the other hand, Liang thought that during the transition of constitution formation to a directlyelected parliament, constitutional monarchy could not be carried out, and 5

enlightened autocracy had to be continued. Thus Liang published articles such as “Enlightened Autocracy” in New Citizen Journal . He argued that China could not be a constitutional republic, and that the time was not right for a constitutional 6

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monarchy. China should prepare for constitutional monarchy through enlightened

autocracy. Liang’s political ideals had regressed from constitutional monarchy to enlightened autocracy. In other words, he regressed from his original opposition of autocracy to stand on the same front with the dictators. He had went against the public and the revolution through his support of enlightened autocracy. Reformists were especially against the social revolution raised by the revolutionaries — including the advocacy of state-owned land, fairly distributed land, and controlled capitalism. Liang Qichao emphasized repeatedly that political revolution could not be carried out concurrently with social revolution. He stated that the social revolution advocated by the revolutionaries was inciting “gamblers, thieves, beggars, and rogues” to wreak havoc. The Principle of Minsheng advocated “the killing of half of the Chinese people through barbarous 7

force and robbing them of their land.” Liang’s strong stance against the social revolution of the revolutionaries was related to his representation of the capitalist class and his protection of the traditional benefits enjoyed by the gentry. He believed that the extreme wealth disparity in Europe and United States was not present in China. The whole of China is poor, thus Liang commented that under the economic conditions of China then, capitalists should be rewarded. It was only through rewards that Chinese capitalists’ industries could be developed, and that they could be strong enough to resist foreign competition. This was the 8

only way that China’s economy could be saved. Thus, he emphasized that if land was distributed and capitalism was controlled according to the Principle of Minsheng , it would suppress the motivation for gaining personal wealth and destroying national capitalism. This would be greatly convenient for foreign capitalists to replace Chinese capitalists, and that “those without capital, or those 9

with little capital, would be forever exploited by the foreign capitalists.” Liang Qichao pointed out some possible consequences of the Principle of Minsheng , and considered the relationship between Chinese national capitalism and imperialistic capitalism. This was a caution worthy of the people’s attention. The polemics between the revolutionaries and reformists reached a peak in 1906. In July 1906, the reformists felt that they were losing, and they published an article “Suggestion and Advice to Stop Polemics” in issue 83 of New Citizen Journal . The revolutionaries thought that the reformists were insincere in this appeal, and rejected the suggestion. In December 1906, Liang Qichao wrote in a letter to Kang Youwei, “To fight with the government is our second priority; to fight with revolution is our first 10

priority. [The revolutionaries and I] cannot exist together.” In the winter of 1907, the media feud ended with the revolutionaries being victorious. 11

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After the polemic, the revolutionaries and the reformists completely separated from each other in terms of both politics and ideology. Support for constitutional monarchy diminished while the idea of a democratic republic was deeply rooted among the public. Revolutionary ideology was widespread and unstoppable. On the eve of the 1911 Revolution, the polemics had pushed forward the development of the bourgeois democratic revolution. Even the reformists had to recognize the situation. In November 1906, Huang Yuzhi’s article in New Citizen Journal stated, “Revolutionary thoughts are rampant in these few years…they have a clear stance and a strong defense. Their powers are great and accumulating. Even the common man on the street talks about revolution, and commits acts of destruction” and

“The power of the revolutionaries is unstoppable like a river in a dam failure.” Before the polemic, reformists’ Chinese Empire Reform Associations are very powerful, and had “a few hundred thousand members in more than 170 cities all

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over the world.” After the media feud, the powers of the reformists diminished, and many demanded to quit the Chinese Empire Reform Associations. According to The Minpao Magazine in 1906, “Between 1904 and 1906, there were more than thousands of people quitting Chinese Empire Reform Associations and 13

joining revolutionary socities.” In Vancouver, Canada, there were “non-stop newspaper announcements on former members quitting Chinese Empire Reform Associations.” In Yangon, Myanmar, even the main writer of the Chinese Empire Reform Association official newspaper Business Herald (Shangwubao 商 務 報 ) announced his acceptance of revolutionary thoughts and broke ties with the reformists. In Singapore, many overseas Chinese influenced by the reformists also 14

changed their minds and attacked royalism. It is worth noting that after the polemics, the most important mouthpiece of the reformists — New Citizen Journal — stopped publishing in November 1907. Liang Qichao explained that it was due to a fire in its Shanghai branch which had severed its domestic sales. However, by tracing the history of the newspaper from its establishment to its stoppage, it could be known that the fire was not the main reason for its close. When the newspaper was first published in 1902, 2,000 copies were sold. In less than a year, sales increased to 9,000 copies despite bans from the Qing government. It was hugely popular among the public then. Yet, since February 1904, there were frequent delays of the newspaper. Only 24 issues were published at the peak of the polemics between January 1906 and November 1907. The number of columns was greatly reduced too. There were often more than 10 columns in each issue at first, but there were only four columns in issue 91 with insubstantial content. Many articles were not finished, and were labeled “To be 15

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continued” when they were first published, but were never completed. Even Liang Qichao’s main article during the media feud — “Enlightened Autocracy” —

was not completed. This hinted at the embarrassing defeat of the reformists in the polemics.

The Publicity and Influence of The Minpao Magazine in Its Late Stages Zhang Taiyan headed The Minpao Magazine for the second time from March

1907 (Issue 13) to October 1908 (Issue 24). During this period, Sun Yat-sen, Hu

Hanmin, Wang Jingwei and others went in succession to Nanyang (South China Sea region) in preparation for armed uprising. Zhu Zhixin and Liao Zhongkai

returned to China to carry out underground activities, while Song Jiaoren and

Zhang Ji left Tokyo one after the other as well. Although the headquarters of the

Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was located in Tokyo, the center of activity had moved to Nanyang. Liu Shipei, Tao Chengzhang, Huang Kan, Wang Dong, and others stayed in Tokyo to help Zhang Taiyan in the editorial work of The Minpao

Magazine . Zhang Taiyan, as the chief editor, was looked up as the leader. During this stage, The Minpao Magazine further strengthened the publicity of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance’s principles. It criticized the Qing government’s racial oppression, exposed its spurious constitution, and supported Southeast Asian uprising against imperialism. The paper also encouraged the idea of stateowned land based on small producers and economic egalitarianism. However, since Zhang Taiyan and Sun Yat-sen had different political and ideological beliefs, The Minpao Magazine during this period also contained some articles not conducive to revolution. Zhang Taiyan’s fundamental belief was “to increase confidence through religion, so as to improve citizens’ morals; and to excite innate nationalism through Chinese culture, so as to raise patriotism.” On July 15, 1907, Zhang Taiyan spoke on this topic in his address on the welcoming party of Chinese students in Tokyo. Not long after, Zhang spoke on Sinology and Buddhism in a Sinology Seminar. Thus while publicizing the Three People’s Principles, Zhang was more interested in promoting the revival of the Chinese nation. In its late stage, The Minpao Magazine had stronger nationalistic features. Although Zhang Taiyan emphasized that he promoted Chinese culture for the revolution against Qing, such publicity had negative effects. He promoted the protection of all Chinese culture, and praised the Confucian three cardinal guides

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and five constant virtues. He also used the Confucian morals of “consciousness of

shame,” “prudent and honest,” “strict moral principles,” and “keeping promises”

as the guiding moral principles in the revolution. In addition, Zhang Taiyan wrote in Classical Chinese which was difficult to understand, and had thus weakened the spread of bourgeois revolutionary thoughts. Sun Yat-sen was dissatisfied with this.

In the later stages of The Minpao Magazine , differences between Zhang

Taiyan and Sun Yat-sen became increasingly great. Moreover, the center of activity

of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance moved South in preparation for armed uprisings, and there was not enough funding to support the newspaper. The Qing government took the chance to intervene, and oppressed The Minpao Magazine

through collusion with the Japanese officials. After 24 issues, publication of The

Minpao Magazine was forced to stop in October 1908. In 1907, through the temporary Japanese deputy ambassador to China, Abe Moritaro, the Qing government demanded that bourgeois revolutionary publications in Tokyo be banned. After the Great Qing Periodical Ordinance was promulgated in 1908, Qing’s special envoy to the United States, Tang Shaoyi, 16

negotiated with the Japanese government again when he passed by Japan. When Issue 24 of The Minpao Magazine was published in October, the Superintendent-

General of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, Kamei Eisaburo, notified

Zhang Taiyan that the newspaper had to be banned. Tang Zengbi’s article “Revolutionary Psychology” violated Article 33 of Japan’s Newspaper Ordinance ,

as it was found to “promote revolution and assassination;” as well as destroy Japanese public order and tradition. Zhang Taiyan sent three letters to the Prime Minister of Japan in defense of the newspaper, and at the same time entrusted progressive activist Miyazaki Toten to hire lawyer Hanai Takuzo to appeal the case. Zhang Taiyan was thrice on trial in Tokyo District Courts on November

25 and 26. On December 12, the original judgment was upheld. The articles “Revolutionary Psychology” and General Principles of this Publishing House had

violated the law, and a 100 dollar fine was sentenced. Moreover, an additional

15 dollar fine was imposed on the reason that changes in the publisher and publishing house had not been reported. If the fine was not paid within the set time, hard labor of 115 days would be imposed in place of the fine.

On the day after the judgment was made, Zhang Taiyan held a three-hour

meeting with Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren, He Tianjiong, Lü Fu, and others.

After discussion, it was thought that the Japanese government had finalized the outcome and any appeals would be useless. It was thus decided that the

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newspaper would be republished elsewhere. However, Sun Yat-sen was busy managing the aftermath of the failed Hekou Uprising then, so republishing of the newspaper was suspended. It was on January 1, 1910 that The Minpao Magazine was finally republished in Tokyo secretly with the support of Sun Yat-sen. A false claim that the newspaper was published in 4 Rue Broca, Paris was made. Wang Jingwei became the new editor and publisher of the republished newspaper, while assisting editors included Hu Hanmin, Yi Benxi, Du Xueheng. Wang Jingwei stated in the “Republishing Address” — “Until the revolution finally succeeds, we have to encourage its undying spirit, such that the fallen will stand, and the standing will act. We shall not give up and our progress will not stop, until we reach the day of success.” Yet, this was but the radical revolutionary image put up by a political opportunist. Only two issues of The Minpao Magazine were published before Wang Jingwei left the newspaper and returned to Beijing to assassinate the Qing regent. After 26 issues, publication of The Minpao Magazine finally stopped in February 1910.

The Development of Newspapers and Journals of the Two Main Political Factions Overseas, and Further Polemics The further development of revolutionary newspapers by Chinese students in Japan The establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance created a common goal for various revolutionary organizations, and thus raised morale. There were about 13,000 Chinese students in Japan then, and according to Sun Yat-sen, three-quarters of them were in support of the revolution. There were student participants in the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance from all the 18 provinces in China except Gansu. In order to increase publicity, many revolutionary publications were set up by students in Japan in the two to three years after the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance — amounting to about 30 to 40 journals and newspapers. They had the following characteristics: First, when compared to earlier stages, the number of publications had increased two times, and publications had a clearer revolutionary goal. They separated themselves from the reformists, and emphasized practical action. They coordinated closely with the recovery movements of land- and mine-rights in China.

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Second, although most of the publications were established by regional Chinese students, and their titles had regional characteristics, most editors were either members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance or revolutionary organizations affiliated to it. Regional characteristics became increasingly diluted with time, and authors were no longer limited by their provinces. Third, all of the publications were published in Tokyo. Shina Revolutionary Paper (Zhina geming congbao 支那革命叢報 , established in summer 1908) was a semimonthly publication. Morning Bell (Chenzhong 晨鐘 , established in autumn

1905 with Shangdong students Jiang Yansheng and Ding Dingcheng as the chief editors) and River Weekly (Dajiang qiribao 大江七日報 , with Zhang Taiyan as the chief editor) were weekly publications. Japanese-Chinese Daily News (Rihua xinbao 日華新報 , established in 1908 with Xia Zhongmin as the chief editor) was a fiveday publication. All others were comprehensive monthly publications printed in thirty-twomo with letterpress, and Western book-binding. Main columns included “Analysis,” “Politics and Law,” “Education,” “History,” “News Commentary,” “Forum,” “Novel,” “Literary World,” and “Varia”. Some publications had columns such as “Industry,” and “Major Domestic and International Events”. Fourth, publishing of such revolutionary publications was severely limited in China due to bans imposed by the Qing government, and the Qing Consulate also worked with Japanese officials to ban activist magazines. Moreover, due to a lack of funds, many publications were stopped just after a few issues. However, students worked in succession, and would often start a new publication once they had gathered enough money. Thus, many publications were “inherited” and shared a common history despite having different names. Fifth, the revolutionary publications were, to a certain extent, limited by the era. While publicizing revolution, they often contained Han chauvinism and encouraged terrorist methods such as assassination. Some of the publications with greater influence were listed below. Awakened Lion (Xingshi 醒獅 ) was established on September 29, 1905, with Li Tan listed as the publisher and the chief editor. Major writers included Li Shutong, Chen Qubing, Liu Yazi, Gao Tianmei, Song Jiaoren, Ma Junwu, and Jin Tianhe. The publication was named Awakened Lion due to the metaphor of China being a sleeping lion waiting to be wakened. There was no inaugural address, and a poem on the front page took its place instead. The poem mentioned to “kill the tyrant” and “remove the thieving minister,” showing the advocacy for revolution by the Awakened Lion . The publication stopped after five issues. Restoration Tribune (Fubao 復報 ) was established by Liu Yazi. Its predecessor

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was Autonomy Tribune (Zizhi bao 自治報 ), a mimeographed weekly journal published in 1905 by Student Council of the Jiangsu Wujiang Autonomy School (Jiangsu Wujiang zizhi xueshe 江蘇吳江自治學社 ). It was later renamed Restoration Tribune with the idea to restore China, and there was one sheet in each issue. On May 8, 1906, letterpress printing was used instead of the mimeograph. Before the contents of the first issue of the tribune produced by letterpress printing, “Originally Issue 68” was printed to signify the relationship of the two versions. When editorial work had been mostly completed in Shanghai, the journal would be mailed and published in Tokyo. Tian Tong was the chief editor in Japan, while major writers include Chen Qubing, Gao Tianmei, Gao Chuiwan, Ma Junwu, and Cai Zhimin. They were basically the same writers of Awakened Lion . Later, these people formed the first anti-Qing activist literary group — South Society — in modern China. The Restoration Tribune refused to recognize the Guangxu era name and used “The 4,604th year of the Founding of China” to date itself. It upheld the revolutionary stance of The Minpao Magazine and was called “the satellite of The Minpao Magazine .” The Restoration Tribune also published popular and colloquial articles and poems in an attempt to popularize the publicity of revolutionary ideas. Publication stopped after 11 issues. Cry of the Cuckoo (Juansheng 鵑聲 ) was established in September 1905 and was edited and published by the Cry of the Cuckoo Society (Juansheng she 鵑聲社 ).17 It was a revolutionary publication established by students from Sichuan Province studying in Japan. It was written in vernacular Chinese. The Qing government was disturbed after two issues of the Cry of the Cuckoo were published, and the Governor-General of Sichuan — Xi Liang — promulgated a ban on the publication. Ownership of the journal was illegal, and the family of the owner was guilty by association. The ban also announced that any arrested writers would be killed on the spot.18 As a result, the Cry of the Cuckoo stopped publication. In 1907, Sichuan students in Japan including Lei Tieya, Dong Xiuwu, and Li Zhaofu reorganized the journal and published a “Renewed First Issue.” The republished journal was written in classical Chinese, while the layout and the editors were changed too. However, the original name Cry of the Cuckoo was used, as the journal had once made the Qing government panic and thus “increased the value of the journal.” In the latter half of 1907, the Association of Sichuan Students in Japan decided to build on the foundation of Cry of the Cuckoo , and set up the Sichuan Magazine Publishing (Sichuan zazhishe 四川雜誌社 ), establishing The Sze-Chuen Magazine (Sichuan 四川 ). The original leaders of Cry of the Cuckoo ,

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including Lei Tieya and Deng Chong continued to participate in editorial work for The Sze-Chuen Magazine , and supported Wu Yuzhang to become the chief editor and publisher of the magazine. On January 5, 1908, the first and second issues of The Sze-Chuen Magazine were published together, and they were reprinted after 10 days. Sales of each issue reached 4,000 copies. The third issue sold 5,000 copies. However, due to financial difficulties, many editors returned to China after graduation. The fourth and fifth issues were only sent to the printing house in autumn. By that time, the Qing government had reached an agreement with the Japanese government. Japanese officials accused The Sze-Chuen Magazine of advocating revolution and assassination, inciting Japanese colonies to rise against the empire and the Emperor of Japan. The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department was ordered to raid the publishing house, and to confiscate all published copies of The Sze-Chuen Magazine . Finally, the Japanese court ruled that the magazine was to be banned and a 100 dollar fine would be imposed. Chief editor and publisher Wu Yuzhang was sentenced to imprisonment for six months. Considering that Wu Yuzhang was still studying, a suspended sentence was allowed. Thus, The Sze-Chuen Magazine was suppressed. Shanxi students in Japan once published a magazine with revolutionary inclination — First Shanxi Magazine (Diyi jinhuabao 第一晉話報 ) in July 1905. When nine issues were published, differences in opinion broke out within the Association of Shanxi Students in Japan, and publication came to a halt. One of the editors — Jing Dingcheng — invited Jing Yaoyue, Gu Sishen, Wang Yongbin, Rong Bing, Rong Futong, and others to establish a new magazine named Jincheng ( 晉乘 ) in September 1907. Jincheng was the title of an ancient Shanxi historical record. By choosing this name, the editors hoped to incite the patriotism and nationalism of the Shanxi people, as well as to encourage independent and progressive thoughts. The publication had strong revolutionary characteristics, and firmly supported Shanxi people in restoring their rights. Through struggles, the British firm Pekin Syndicate Limited was forced to return five “stolen” mine rights, while the Shanxi Provincial Governor Hu Pinzhi, who sold mines without authorization, was removed from office and was never appointed again. An article “Method on Uniting Citizens” based on this incident was published in Shanxi History , and it concluded the experience of the public movement. The magazine was easy to understand and lively, and played a leadership role in actual struggles in the province. Three issues were published and they were popular among the readers. However, publishing stopped due to a lack of funds. Among publications named after a region set up by overseas students, Yuen

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Nan Journal (Yunnan 雲南 ) lasted the longest. It was first published on October 15, 1906, and did not stop until after the Wuchang Uprising in 1911. A total of 23 issues were published. A supplement Essence of Yunnan (Dian Cui 滇 粹 ) was also published. Yunan students in Japan — Li Genyuan and Zhao Shensuo established the magazine, while Zhang Yaozeng, Xi Pinchen, and Sun Zhizeng were the chief editors. Major writers also included Yang Zhenhong, Lü Zhiyi, and Li Xiexi. Yuen Nan Journal had a large influence with distribution points in 39 cities all over China, as well as many overseas distribution points. According to Li Genyuan’s memoirs in “Prologue for the Selections from Yuen Nan Journal ,” Sun Yat-sen met five Yunnan students in Japan — Lü Zhiyi, Yang Zhenhong, Zhao Shen, Li Genyuan, and Luo Peijin — in January 1906. He pointed out that there were two factors that could lead to revolution in Yunnan province. Corrupt officials had aroused public anger, while foreign powers such as Japan, the United Kingdom, and France saw Yunnan as an invasion target. Thus it was crucial to establish a regional revolutionary publication in Yunnan. Sun Yatsen also appointed Tao Chengzhang and Song Jiaoren to provide help to the students. With Sun Yat-sen’s concerns, the Yunnan Magazine Publishing House was established in April of the same year. One major publicity characteristic of the magazine was that it quoted the actual words of foreign invaders and published real but shocking evidence, revealing the invasion of Yunnan by British and French imperialism. The Yuen Nan Journal promoted the redemption of road-rights, as well as domestically financing and building the Yunnan-Vietnam Railway. This not only received the support of the public, but was also supported by some officials and businessmen with Yunnan origins. They donated a large part of the funding of the Yuen Nan Journal . Although the journal promoted democracy and freedom, another characteristic of the journal was that it never directly mentioned slogans such as “anti-Qing’ and “expel the Manchus,” and never openly publicized the principles of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Such relatively subtle publicity had allowed the publication to enter Yunnan and to be sold around the country — with publication lasting over five years. From the actual publicity effect it achieved, such a strategy was wise. Before Yuen Nan Journal was published, Yunnan students in Japan had published The New World of Translation (Xinyijie 新譯界 ) in October 1906. It was headed by Fan Renqing, Xi Pinchen, Gu Zhongxiu, Liu Gengzao, and others. The journal mainly contained translated works and was not radical. After Yuen Nan Journal was published, a sister publication Words from Yunnan (Dianhuabao 滇話報 ) was also established in April 1908. It was a lowbrow, progressive journal with Zhonghua as the chief

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editor. The journal was once subsidized by Li Genyuan, Zhao Shen, and others. Six issues of Words from Yunnan were published, and in May 1910, it was incorporated into Yuen Nan Journal due to a lack of funds and manpower, and one issue was published each season. The Association of Henan Students (Henan liuri xuesheng tongxianghui 河南 留日學生同鄉會 ) in Japan established the Yu Journal (Yubao 豫報 ) in November 1906. The leader was relatively conservative in terms of politics and some members were reformists. This led to the dissatisfaction of some radical students. The Henan Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance sent Zeng Zhaowen, Zhu Binglin, Liu Jixue, and others to investigate. In the end, Yu Journal was stopped with the reason that there was a lack of funds. A female Henan overseas student and member of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, Liu Qingxia, donated 20,000 dollars to form a fund for the establishment of the new Henan Journal (Henan 河 南 ). Liu Jixue was the chief editor while Zhang Zhongrui was the publisher. It was first published on December 20, 1907. The journal had a clear stance and openly declared that “the way to remove obstacles to freedom is to destroy the emperor.”19 The journal encouraged strikes and demonstrations, tax boycott movements, assassinations, unifying various provinces for a revolution, and, finally, expulsion of the emperor. Such hard-edged revolutionary publicity was written to the great satisfaction of the readers, and the Henan Journal was referred to as one of the top publications for overseas students. Feng Ziyou commented that it was comparable to The Minpao Magazine . Sales of each issue could reach a few thousand copies. Even Lu Xun had written and translated articles for the journal. The revolutionary publicity of Henan Journal greatly disturbed the Qing government. The Qing Consulate requested that the Japanese government ban the journal. The journal was eventually banned by Japanese officials after nine issues were published. Publisher Zhang Zhongrui was arrested for a few days, and was stripped of his government scholarship for overseas studies in Japan after he was released. Other revolutionary publications established by Chinese students in Japan during this period included: Dongting Lake Wave (Dongtingbo 洞庭波 ) was established on October 18, 1906 by students from Hunan such as Chen Jiading, Ning Tiaoyuan, Chou Shikuang, and Yang Shouren. Only one issue was published. Originally, it was planned to be republished under the name Central Magazine (Zhongyang zazhi 中央雜誌 ), but was officially named Han Flag (Hanzhi 漢幟 ) when it was republished on January 25, 1907. Issue number was restarted, and only two issues were published

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before it was stopped.

Han Trend (Hanfeng 漢 風 ) was established on February 20, 1907 with Hubei student Dan Dao as the chief editor. It mostly collected banned books and unpublished works, and published them word for word. Only one issue was published. New Chinese Women (Xinnüjie 新女界 ), also known as (Zhongguo xinnüjie 中國新女界 ), was established in February 1907. A Henan student in Japan, Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Yan Bin was the chief editor. Four issues were published. Shaanxi and Gansu Journal (Qinlong 秦隴 ) was established on August 26, 1907 by Shaanxi students such as Dang Jiling and Xi Chaojun. Only one issue was published. Considering that publication had stopped for a long time, it was renamed Guanzhong and Gansu Journal (Guanlong 關 隴 ). Issue numbers were restarted, and publication stopped due to a lack of funds after only three issues. West Guangdong Journal (Yuexi 粵西 ) was established on November 15, 1907. Chief editors included Guangxi students Bu Shiwei, Liu Jue, and Lu Shechuan. Publication stopped after seven issues. River Monthly (Dajiang yuebao 大江月報 ) was established near the end of 1907. Chief editors included Huang Zenggou, Xia Zhongmin, and Lu Xin. Several issues were published before it was stopped. Sharh Shing (Xiasheng 夏聲 , lit. Summer Sound) was established on February 26, 1908. Chief editors included Shaanxi students Zhao Shiyu and Li Yuanding. Publication stopped after nine issues. Jiangxi Journal (Jiangxi 江西 ) was established on July 10, 1908 by Jiangxi students in Japan. Min Sheng was listed as the chief editor, and four issues were published in nearly a year’s time. Cautionary Bell of Hunan Railways (Xianglu jingzhong 湘 路 警 鐘 ) was established in 1909 with Hunan student Jiao Dafeng as the chief editor. It was published by Overseas Students in Tokyo Research Society on Hunan Railways (Dongjing liuxue Hunan tielu yanjiushe 東京留學湖南鐵路研究社 ). Only one issue could be located. Not long after it was published, the magazine was renamed Alarmist Talk on Hunan Railways (Xianglu weiyan 湘路危言 ). During that period, Chinese students in Japan had also established some publications that advocated democracy and patriotism but without obvious revolutionary views. Examples included Chinese Women of the Twentieth-Century (Ershishiji zhi zhongguonüzi 二十世紀之中國女子 ) which was established in 1907 and advocated feminism, Martial Arts (Wuxue 武學 ) which was established in May

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1908 and advocated patriotism and the learning of martial arts, National Journal (Guobao 國報 ) which was established in February 1908 and advocated regional autonomy, as well as Sea of Knowledge (Xuehai 學海 ) which was a comprehensive academic journal established in February 1908 that was based mainly on translated works. These periodicals had also exerted their effect among revolutionary publications established by Chinese students in Japan.

The flourishing development of overseas revolutionary newspapers At the same time when The Minpao Magazine was established and revolutionary periodicals organized by Chinese students developed, overseas revolutionary newspapers and journals had flourished. Bourgeois revolutionaries had established more than 30 revolutionary periodicals in Southeast Asian countries and North American, South American, and Oceanian cities where overseas Chinese had settled. These periodicals can be classified into three categories: Official newspapers of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance branches, periodicals established by members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance through their own initiative, and periodicals under the China Zhi Gong Party, Hongmen (also known as Chinese Freemasons). Revolutionary publications established in Singapore during this period included the Nanyang Union Times (Nanyang zonghuibao 南洋總匯報 ), Chong Shing Yit Pao (Zhongxing ribao 中 興 日 報 ), Singapore Chinese Morning Post (Xingzhou chenbao 星洲晨報 ), and Nan Chiau Jit Pao (Nanqiao ribao 南僑日報 ). Nanyang Union Times was established in winter 1905 by Tan Chor Lam, Teo Eng Hock, Xu Zilin, Shen Lianfang, and others. It was established on the foundation of the stopped Thoe Lam Jit Poh (Tunan ribao 圖 南 日 報 ), through encouraging more overseas Chinese businessmen to buy shares. When it was first published, the newspaper did not use the Guangxu era name and referred to the Guangxu Emperor by his name Zai Tian. This was consistent with the principles and the revolutionary stance of its predecessor Thoe Lam Jit Poh .20 However differences of opinions occurred among the investors, and eventually investors withdrew their stocks. It was then decided through a ballot who would continue to run the paper. In the end, overseas businesspeople Chen Yunqiu and others, who were relatively conservative, got control of the newspaper. Xu Qin was hired as the main writer, and the newspaper was gradually controlled by royalists. Chong Shing Yit Pao was established on August 20, 1907. It was the official newspaper established by the Singapore Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance under the direct participation of Sun Yat-sen. Hu Hanmin, Wang Jingwei,

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Tian Tong, Ju Zheng and others who had been the chief editors of the newspaper. Leaders of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, including Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing, Tao Chengzhang and Lin Shishuang had written articles for the newspaper and participated in the media feud between Chong Shing Yit Pao and Nanyang Union Times . Gradually, Chong Shing Yit Pao became a major mouthpiece of the revolutionaries in Nanyang, and was published all through Malaya and the Dutch East Indies. Sales reached more than 4,000 copies. After May 1909, Sun Yat-sen and the backbone of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance went to carry out revolutionary activities in other areas, and as a result, the influence of the newspaper was greatly weakened. In addition, the two largest shareholders —Tan Chor Lam and Teo Eng Hock — were either involved in family property disputes or business failures. They could no longer support the expenses of the newspaper, and publication stopped in early 1910. Singapore Chinese Morning Post was established in 1909 with funds raised by Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members Zhou Zhizhen and Xie Xinzhun. Revolutionaries used the Singapore Chinese Morning Post as their mouthpiece after publication of Chong Shing Yit Pao stopped. Singapore Chinese Morning Post ceased publication in 1911 due to insufficient funds. Nan Chiau Jit Pao was established in 1911 by Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members Huang Jichen and Lu Yaotang, and publication stopped after the Wuchang Uprising. The newspaper ’s publicity of the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt and the Wuchang Uprising had stirred great excitement among Chinese in the region. Revolutionary publications established in Malaya during this period included Penang Sin Poe (Bincheng xinbao 檳城新報 ), Kuala Lumpur Daily News (Jilongpo ribao 吉隆坡日報 ), Kwong Wah Yit Poh (Guanghua ribao 光華日報 ), and Four Seas Weekly (Sizhou zhoubao 四洲周報 ). Penang Sin Poe was established in Penang in 1907. It was established and edited by wealthy overseas Chinese businessmen Wee Kim Kheng, Goh Say Eng, and Tan Sin Cheng. Before setting up the newspaper, they had established the underground organization Penang Publishing House (Bincheng shubaoshe 檳 城 書報社 ), and had used it as a foundation for setting up the Penang Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Thus, the Penang Sin Poe was established as an official newspaper of the branch. Kuala Lumpur Daily News was established in 1909 by Lin Daonan, an overseas Chinese of the region. Four Seas Weekly was established in 1911 in Kuala Lumpur by Chan Zhanmei. All three newspapers did not last long and had limited influence.

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Kwong Wah Yit Poh (also known as the third Kwong Wah Daily ) was established on December 20, 1910 in Penang. The exiled leader of the Yangon Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, Zhuang Yinan, joined forces with Wee Kim Kheng, Tan Sin Cheng, and others to raise funds and establish the Kwong Wah Yit Poh . They hired the main writer of Cry of the Cuckoo — Lei Tieya — to be the chief editor. Editors included Fang Cishi, Zhou Dujuan, and others. When publication of the Chong Shing Yit Pao stopped in Singapore, Hu Hanmin, Wang Jingwei, and others moved to Penang and participated in editorial work of the Kwong Wah Yit Poh too. There were more than 20 frequent writers for the newspaper, including Dai Jitao and Chen Gengfu. Penang was the capital of Malaya then. In May 1909, The Nanyang Headquarters of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance moved from Singapore to Penang. Leaders of the alliance, such as Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing, Zhao Sheng, and Deng Ze frequently visited the two cities and, gradually, Penang replaced Singapore as the center for revolutionary activities in Nanyang. As the official newspaper of the Nanyang Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, Kwong Wah Yit Poh had influential power over the entire Southeast Asia. Publishing continued even after the 1911 Revolution. Revolutionary publications established in Burma during this period included the Kwong Wah Daily (Guanghua ribao 光華日報 ), Evolution Paper (Jinhuabao 進 化報 ), and the Burma Public News (Quanmian gongbao 全緬公報 ). The publication histories of these newspapers were more complicated. Yangon Chinese businessman Zhuang Yinan was influenced by Kang Youwei and set up a Chinese Empire Reform Association branch in Yangon. Zhuang Yinan was the branch leader and he established the New Yangon Paper (Yangguang xinbao 仰光新報 ) as the branch’s official newspaper. In May 1905, Qin Lishan arrived in Yangon from Tokyo, and related his experience in participating in the Independence Army’s failed uprising in Hankou, as well as Kang Youwei’s swindling of overseas Chinese’s donations. Zhuang Yinan announced his quitting of the Chinese Empire Reform Association after this, and published Qin Lishan’s article “Revolution Motto” in the New Yangon Paper . When 16 chapters of the article were published in installments, directors of the newspaper in favor of Kang Youwei objected to the article. Due to differences in opinions, publication of New Yangon Paper stopped. In April 1904, Sun Yatsen sent Wang Jingwei to set up a Yangon Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Zhuang Yinan joined the alliance and was elected as the branch leader. He then raised funds and set up Kwong Wah Daily , on the foundations of New

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Yangon Paper , as the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance official newspaper. The paper was first published on August 27, 1908 in Yangon with Zhuang Yinan as the manager. Yang Qiufan, Ju Zheng, Lü Zhiyi, and Tao Chengzhang had been the chief editor in succession, while assistant editors included Huang Daling, He Ronglu, Su Tieshi, Xu Zanzhou, and Chen Shaoping. They were all members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Since its establishment, the newspaper had strongly promoted the expelling of Manchus and of revolution. It attacked Kang Youwei’s and Liang Qichao’s ideas of a constitutional monarchy. Thus, supporters of Kang saw Kwong Wah Daily as a thorn in the flesh. They called upon royalist Chinese businesspeople to withdraw their investments, and later cooperated with the Qing consulate in Yangon — Xiao Yongxi — to threaten other shareholders with confiscating their properties in their hometowns in China. This forced shareholders to auction off all the property of the publishing house. Kwong Wah Daily was forced to cease publication. Its property was bought by royalists and later, the royalists set up Business Herald at the original office. The new paper advocated a constitutional monarchy. The takeover of Kwong Wah Daily greatly angered the members of the Yangon Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. They immediately held a meeting to raise funds and search for a new office. Kwong Wah Daily (also known as the Second Kwong Wah Daily ) was republished on November 24, 1908. Chen Zhonghe and Chen Hanping were the managers while Ju Zheng and Lü Zhiyi were the main writers. The newspaper continued to promote revolution and most of its content rebutted the constitutional monarchy promoted by the Business Herald . Supporters of Kang once again colluded with Xiao Yongxi and accused the Kwong Wah Daily of promoting anarchism to the Qing government. The Qing government then cooperated with the British Governor of Burma to exile and deport Jiang Juzheng and Chen Hanping back to China for judgment. When they passed through Singapore on their way, the Singapore Chinese Revolutionary Alliance hired lawyers to fight for their case with the Singapore Governor. The ruling was adjusted and Ju Zheng and Chen Hanping could leave Burma freely. Kwong Wah Daily was heavily hit by the incident. In addition, there were rumors that the newspaper would be banned and its personnel arrested, so employees of the newspaper fled to other cities. The second Kwong Wah Daily stopped publication in March 1910. Leader of the Yangon Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, Zhuang Yinan, then went to Penang to establish the Kwong Wah Yit Poh (the third Kwong Wah Daily ). A few months after the cessation of Kwong Wah Daily , Lü Zhiyi, Chen

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Zhongling, Xu Zanzhou, and others established the Evolution Paper in Yangon. Chen Zhongling was the manager while Lü Zhiyi was the main writer. It had the same stance as Kwong Wah Daily, and promoted the expelling of Manchus and the importance of revolution. There was nothing that Xiao Yongxi could do, but supporters of Kang Youwei continued to cooperate with Yangon officials to create troubles for the paper. Publication stopped after eight months, and Lü Zhiyi returned to China. A few months later, Xu Zanzhou, Chen Zhongling, and others established the Burma Public News under the name of Federation of Education Affairs (Xuewu zonghui 學 務 總 會 ). Publication was maintained until after the Wuchang Uprising. Revolutionary publications established in Thailand (known then as Siam) during this period mainly included the China-Siam Daily (Huaxian ribao 華暹日 報 ) and the Overseas Chinese Paper (Tongqiao bao 同僑報 ). Beautiful South Daily (Meinan ribao 美南日報 ) was the predecessor of the China-Siam Daily . Beautiful South Daily was established in 1906 by Chen Jinghua, Xiao Focheng, and Shen Xingsi in Bangkok. It was only an ordinary overseas Chinese newspaper with no obvious inclination towards revolution. It had to raise capital among overseas Chinese due to a shortage of funds, and was reformed as the Me Nam Daily (Meinan ribao 湄南日報 ). At that time, Xu Qin of the Chinese Empire Reform Association went to Thailand and persuaded the directors of the Me Nam Daily . This resulted in differences in opinion among the shareholders, and royalists finally set up the Enlighten South Daily (Qinan ribao 啟南日報 ) at the original office of the Me Nam Daily . Enlighten South Daily promoted the constitutional monarchy. Revolutionaries sought a new office and established the China-Siam Daily in 1907, with Xiao Focheng as the director, and Chen Jinghua as the main writer. The newspaper was published in both Chinese and Thai, and the Thai version was managed by the daughter of Xiao Focheng. Shen Xingsi, Wang Xingzhou, Chen Meitang, Ma Xingshun, and others assisted in editing, writing, and publishing work. The Siam Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was established in 1908 with Xiao Focheng elected as the leader. China-Siam Daily then became the official newspaper of the alliance, and actively promoted democracy and revolution. China-Siam Daily also had close connections with the Hong Kong based China Daily . China Daily had recommended journalist Wang Fu of It Matters (Yousuowei bao 有所謂報 ) and journalist Kan Yingtian of Thoe Lam Jit Poh to be writers of the China-Siam Daily . Overseas Chinese Paper was established in Bangkok in 1908 by one of the Four Bandits — Yau Lit. Yau Lit went to Singapore in 1902 to organize

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revolutionary activities, and had helped Tan Chor Lam set up the Thoe Lam Jit Poh and Chinese Revolutionary Alliance branch in Singapore. He was imprisoned in 1908, and exiled from Singapore after his release. Yau Lit then went to Bangkok to establish the Overseas Chinese Paper in coordination with China-Siam Daily . As a result, the influence of the revolutionaries increased greatly. Revolutionary publications established in Dutch East Indies included Chinese Bell (Huaduo bao 華鐸報 ), Sibin Daily (Sibin ribao 泗濱日報 ), Sumatra Post (Sumendala bao 蘇門答臘報 ), People’s Bell (Minduo bao 民鐸報 ), Java Post (Zhaowa gongbao 爪 哇公報 ), and New Chinese Paper (Hanwen xinbao 漢文新報 ). Chinese Bell was established in 1909 in Jakarta (known then as Batavia) and Batavia Publishing House (Bacheng chubanshe 巴 城 出 版 社 ) was listed as the publisher. The head of the Dutch East Indies Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, Chen Baipeng, was the director of the newspaper, while Zhu Maoshan was the chief editor. It started as a weekly publication, and was later changed to a three-day publication. It was published as a book with 20 pages in total. Its mission was to nurture independent, gregarious, and active overseas Chinese supporting nationalism. It had a relatively moderate stance. Since 1911, it was transformed into a daily paper, and Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members such as Bai Pingzhou, Zhong Gongren, and Liao Silan held the position as chief editor in succession. They strongly promoted the revolutionary principles of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, exposed the corruption of the Qing government, and attacked the idea of constitutional monarchy advocated by the royalists. They also united local overseas Chinese and fought with the limiting and oppressive policies of the Dutch East Indies colony. It was popular among overseas Chinese and sales reached more than 3,000 copies. Chinese Bell was one of the more influential newspapers in Nanyang in this era. Publication stopped in 1919 due to financial difficulties. Sibin Daily was established in Surabaya in 1909. All shareholders were members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, and Tian Tong — the former chief editor of Singapore’s Chong Shing Yit Pao — was hired as the chief editor. The newspaper actively promoted Sun Yat-sen’s revolutionary ideals, and called for overseas Chinese to support the revolution in China. Not long after, Tian Tong published the Southern Countries Chronicles (Nanguopian 南國篇 )21 in Sibin Daily , exposing how Dutch East Indies officials abused overseas Chinese. As a result, Tian Tong was exiled, but publication of Sibin Daily continued, and was an important mouthpiece for overseas Chinese in East Java. Sumatra Post was established in Medan in 1908, People’s Bell and New

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Chinese Paper was established in Surabaya in 1908, while Java Post was established in Semarang in 1909. These newspapers were mainly inclined towards criticizing the monarchy and advocating revolution. The chief editors of Sumatra Post and New Chinese Paper were exiled by the Dutch East Indies officials as a result. Other than Chinese revolutionary publications, revolutionaries had also published some newspapers in Malay to advocate revolution among Chinese who were born in the Dutch East Indies. Sin Po (Xin bao 新報 ) and Commercial News (Shang bao 商報 ) were such major Malay newspapers. Moreover, People’s Bell and New Chinese Paper had versions in Malay too. Kong Li Po (Gongli bao 公 理 報 ) was the main revolutionary publication established in the Philippines during this period. It was established in October 1911 in Manila, with Tee Han Kee as the manager. Wu Mengjia, Wu Zongming, Yan Wenchu, and others held the post of chief editor in succession. The newspaper was published by the Inspire Intellect Publishing House (Puzhi shubaoshe 普智書 報社 ), but was in reality the official newspaper for the Philippines Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. After a year, the newspaper expanded with more shareholders, and more equipment was purchased. It was changed to a quarto format with eight pages. Its distribution network spread across various islands of the Philippines, Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Xiamen, Beijing, and other places. After the establishment of the Republic of China, the newspaper continued to exist as the official newspaper of the Kuomintang Philippines Branch. Publication was continued until the Pacific War broke out in 1942. Other than Southeast Asian countries, revolutionaries had also established revolutionary publications in Honolulu and San Francisco in United States, Vancouver and Victoria in Canada, Lima in Peru, as well as Sydney and Melbourne in Australia. There were People’s Livelihood Daily (Minsheng ribao 民生日報 ), New Freedom Press (Ziyou xinbao 自由新報 ), Out Loud Magazine (Dasheng zazhi 大聲雜誌 ), and Enlightenment (Qizhi bao 啟智報 ) in Honolulu. People’s Livelihood Daily was established in summer 1907. Overseas Chinese in the region and Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Zeng Changfu raised funds and bought The Hawaiian Chinese News , and reformed it to form the People’s Livelihood Daily . Sun Yat-sen recommended journalist Lu Xin of China Daily to be the chief editor of the newspaper. Lu Xin led the editorial work for a few months, but resigned in anger when the shareholders frequently interfered with his opinions. Lu Xin wanted to leave Honolulu, but Zeng Changfu

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persuaded him to stay. Lu Xin thus suggested to set up another newspaper where editors had freedom of speech and shareholders had no right to interfere. Zeng Changfu agreed and raised funds to set up New Freedom Press as the official newspaper of the Honolulu Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in September 1908. Lu Xin, Wen Xiongfei, Xie Yingbo, Wu Rongxin, and others had held the position as chief editor in succession. Sun Fo was also a translator for the newspaper. Since the establishment of the New Freedom Press , it had a clear mission to overthrow the Manchu government and to establish the Republic of China. It advocated the use of uprising, assassination, strikes, refusal of handing in crops, and any other means in the struggle with the Qing government. It became the most influential newspaper in Honolulu of the period. The newspaper was published on the alternate day. It also published brochures and leaflets such as Free Speech , Humanity , Revolutionary Ideal , Yangzhou Blood , and First Aid for China . Lu Xin and others also set up the Out Loud Magazine in 1909 as a companion to New Freedom Press . Other than the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, the Hongmen organizations in Honolulu also published the Enlightenment , with Deng Xiulung and others as the chief editors. In San Francisco, main revolutionary publications in this period included Great Unity Daily (Datong ribao 大同日報 ) and The Young China Morning Paper (Shaonian Zhonguo chenbao 少 年 中 國 晨 報 ). Great Unity Daily was originally a Hongmen newspaper controlled by Chinese Empire Reform Association. Reforms were carried out in Spring 1904, and Sun Yat-sen recommended Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Liu Chengyu to be the chief editor. Xu Gantang, Jiang Menglin, Liao Yunxiang, Feng Ziyou, and others had participated in editorial work. The newspaper publicized revolutionary thoughts and the expelling of Manchus, and debated fiercely with royalist papers. Great Unity Daily had a certain level of influence among overseas Chinese. The Young China Morning Paper was established on August 18, 1910. Chinese youths including Li Shinan and others organized a Youth Society in San Francisco, and set up a mimeographed weekly journal called American Youth (Meizhou shaonian 美 洲 少年 ). In February 1910, Sun Yat-sen arrived in San Francisco to plan and set up in person the San Francisco Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. All members of the Youth Society joined the alliance, and elected Li Shinan as the branch leader. American Youth was changed into a daily letterpress publication, and was renamed The Young China Morning Paper as the official newspaper of the San Francisco Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Wang Chaowu was the chief editor, Li Shinan was the chief editor for the supplement, while

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other editors included Huang Yunshu, Cui Tongyue, Huang Boyao, and Zhang Aiyun. In June 1911, the American branches of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance cooperated with the China Zhi Gong Party. The Young China Morning Paper worked together with the Great Unity Daily , and promoted democracy and revolution while denouncing constitutional monarchy. They had a relatively large influence among American Chinese. In Canada, revolutionary publications during this period included American and Chinese Daily (Huamei ribao 華美日報 ), The Chinese Times (DaHan bao 大 漢報 ), and The New Republic (Xinminguo bao 新民國報 ). American and Chinese Daily was established in Vancouver in December 1906 by overseas Chinese in the region — Zhou Tianlin and Zhou Yaochu. At first, its mission was to promote Christianity and to enlighten the public. Later, it formed close ties with Hongmen, and hired Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Cui Tongyue to be the chief editor, promoting revolution and thoughts of expelling Manchus. The Chinese Times was established in 1901 in Vancouver by the regional Hongmen China Zhi Gong Party leader, Chen Wenxi. Chief editors included former main writer of The Hawaiian Chinese News Zhang Zeli, former director of the Hong Kong China Daily Feng Ziyou, and former chief editor of American and Chinese Daily Cui Tongyue. Since its establishment, the newspaper had begun a media feud with royalist newspapers in the region. The New Republic was established in Victoria in March, 1911. At first, it was a mimeographed journal with no fixed date of publication. Letterpress printing was later use, and it was transformed into a daily newspaper in 1912. The New Republic was the official newspaper of the Canada Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, set up under the support of Sun Yat-sen. The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance had sent Xia Zhongmin, Xie Yingbo, Feng Ziyou, Zhen Yinu, Chen Shuren, and others in succession to head the editorial work. After the 1911 Revolution, The New Republic became the official newspaper of the Canada Branch of the Kuomintang. People’s Awakening (Minxing bao 民醒報 ) was a newspaper established by the revolutionaries in Peru. It was set up in March 10, 1911 in Lima by patriotic Chinese businessmen such as Li Shuofu and Zhou Zhuowu. It was at first a weekly publication, but was reformed as a daily newspaper after the 1911 Revolution. It had the longest history among newspapers established by overseas Chinese in South America. When People’s Awakening was established, there were no Chinese Revolutionary Alliance organizations in Peru, Nevertheless, the newspaper had “spread much ideas about revolution” among the overseas Chinese community.22

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Revolutionary publications established in Australia during this period included

The Chinese Times (Jingdong xinbao 警東新報 ) and the Chinese Republic News (Minguo bao 民國報 ). The Chinese Times was established in Melbourne by a group of revolutionary youths who also raised funds for the newspaper. They maintained a close contact with Hong Kong China Daily , and encouraged revolution while attacking royalism. Publication stopped in 1912 due to a shortage of funds. Chinese Republic News was established in 1910 in Sydney by the Hongmen China Zhi Gong Party of the region. Its mission was to “Oppose the Qing, Restore the Ming,” as well as to advocate revolution. Liu Dihuan, Wu Hongpei, Huang Shigong, and others had held the post of chief editor in successor. Publication continued even after the 1911 Revolution, and the newspaper was forceful in criticizing Yuan Shikai and the Beiyang warlords. In conclusion, between the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in August 1905 and the Wuchang Uprising in October 1911, the Chinese bourgeois revolutionaries (including the Hongmen) had fought fiercely. More than 30 revolutionary publications were established overseas and called for revolution. They had contributed much in inciting the patriotism of overseas Chinese and in supporting bourgeois revolutionaries in China.

The media feud between the two main factions and the expansion of polemics The flourishing overseas revolutionary publications broke the monopoly of the

royalist publications in Chinese overseas media. Debates among the publications of the two factions had expanded the polemics started by The Minpao Magazine

and the New Citizen Journal .

In Singapore, the polemics were mainly carried out between the royalist Nanyang Union Times and the revolutionary Chong Shing Yit Pao from 1907 to 1908. The main participants from Nanyang Union Times included Xu Qin, Ou Jujia, Wu Xianzi and Liang Boming, while main participants from Chong Shing Yit Pao included Hu Hanmin, Tian Tong, Ju Zheng, Huang Xing, Wang Jingwei, Lin Shishuang, and Tao Chengzhang. Since participants from both sides were the backbone personnel on the publication front, Singapore gradually became the main battlefield of the media feud. Nanyang Union Times began the debate by publishing articles such as “Constitution is the Only Way to Save Our Country Today,” “On Why Revolution Cannot be Carried Out Now,” “On How Revolution Would Result In the Partition of China,” “On Manchus Being the Same Race As

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Us,” “On Revolution Cannot Be Forcefully Carried Out,” and “On Why Only the Constitution Can Save Today’s China but Not Revolution.” These were mainly repetitions of the stance of Kang Youwei’s and the New Citizen Journal . Chong Shing Yit Pao gave tit for tat and published more than 50 articles such as “Despicable Means of Those Begging for a Parliament,” “The Fallacies of the Union Times ,” “Rebuttal of Union Times ’ Theory That Revolution Will Result In Partition,” “See How the Royalist Union Times Make a Fool of Themselves,” “The Crimes of the Chinese Empire Reform Association,” and “See Union Times ’ Poorly Disguised Failure.” It rebutted the arguments of the reformists one by one. Sun Yat-sen, who was in Singapore then, also participated in the polemics. Using the pen name “Nanyang Primary Student,” Sun had published articles in the Chong Shing Yit Pao such as “Those Who Fear That Revolution Will Lead to Partition Do Not Understand the Times,” “Pingshi Had Yet to Admit His Mistakes,” and “Pingshi Is Wrong from the Start.” He rebutted the constitutional monarchy advocated by the royalists. Sun Yat-sen quoted the recent affairs in Turkey and Morocco in “Those Who Fear That Revolution Will Lead to Partition Do Not Understand the Times,” and proved that revolution will not lead to the country being partitioned, and those who fear foreigners or were pro-Manchu could not argue against the evidence. He also pointed out that the revolutionary parties forming in Southern China then were different from the Boxers who were anti-foreigners but pro-Qing. Sun stated that the new revolutionary parties were civilized and not against foreign culture, showing that Chinese people could evolve. The royalists however, “were still using arguments from before the Boxer Uprising, and were outdated without an understanding of the times.”23 In the articles “Pingshi Had Yet to Admit His Mistakes” and “Pingshi Is Wrong from the Start,” Sun Yat-sen rebutted articles listed under the pen name “Pingshi 平實 ” published in the Nanyang Union Times — especially criticizing Pingshi’s ideas that all things had their natural courses. Sun pointed out that Pingshi quoted the Mandate of Heaven raised by Confucius and Mencius and said that the Manchu invasion of China was a part of the natural course of things. This showed that Pingshi was willing to flatter the Manchus. While Sun thought that although Confucius and Mencius were great sages, they were not modern scientists and had never known modern science. Some of their sayings were right but others were not. Pingshi was caught in the past and failed to apply their teachings in modern times. Moreover, if Pingshi were really to follow Confucius’ and Mencius’ teachings word for word, Pingshi himself should not participate in politics, as Confucius said “He who is not in any particular office has nothing to do with

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plans for the administration of its duties,” and “the common people do not discuss.” Sun thus questioned Pingshi’s participation of Manchu’s administration, and Pingshi’s petition for the Manchus to start a parliament, as common people had no place to discuss such issues. Pingshi also quoted Mencius in his discussion of current affairs, arguing that “Things that are done without the participation of men is the doing of heaven. Things that came to without the participation of men are fate.” However, following such an argument, it did not make sense for Penshi to say that “Now is the time to save our country.” If it was the will of heaven to end the Qing regime, Pingshi should just wait for nature to run its course and there would be no “saving” needed. Such logical argument by Sun Yat-sen overwhelmed the other faction.24 The media feud between the two newspapers also escalated into fist fights. During a gathering of overseas Chinese, Tian Tong and Wang Jingwei slipped into the meeting hall with some employees of the Chong Shing Yit Pao . When Xu Qin started his speech, the employees of the Chong Shing Yit Pao rushed up to overturn the podium and hit Xu Qin. Xu Qin ran to avoid the blows, and left Singapore to return to China not long after the incident. Tan Chor Lam, the leader of the Singapore Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, recorded the incident in his memoirs: “Not long after the establishment of the Chong Shing Yit Pao , we carried out a media feud with the royalists of the Nanyang Union Times . The Chinese Empire Reform Association advocated a constitutional monarchy, while we advocated revolution, the overthrowing of the Qing government, and the establishment of a republic. At that time, the polemics were fierce with raging battles of words that awakened our fellow citizens in Nanyang. Those who were against the revolution and in support of the revolution both wanted to read the Chong Shing Yit Pao . Later, journalists from Tokyo’s The Minpao Magazine came to Singapore and joined in the polemics too. We successfully destroyed the royalists in an uplifting way.”25 In Yangon, the two main adversaries were the royalist Business Herald and the Kwong Wah Daily of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. The main writers of the Business Herald were Zhang Shipeng (with pen name “Obstinate Stone 頑石 ") and Li Yacong (with pen name "Deaf Person 聾子 "). The main writers of Kwong Wah Daily were Ju Zheng (with pen name “Sheng Gong 生公 ") and Lü Zhiyi (with pen name "Tianmin 天民 ").26 Debates between the two parties lasted for several months, with Zhang Shipeng suddenly convinced by the revolutionaries and left the Business Herald . Li Yacong could not maintain the debate on his own and gradually became silent. People wrote a couplet in jest of the situation:

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“Sheng Gong’s teachings made the obstinate rock nod; The sage’s power made the deaf fall to the ground.”27 However, the Chinese Empire Reform Association was dissatisfied with their defeat, and they cooperated with the Qing consulate in Yangon to exile Ju Zheng and Lü Zhiyi. In Honolulu, the two main adversaries were the royalist New China Press and the New Freedom Press of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. New Freedom Press was the official newspaper of the Honolulu Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. From 1907 to 1911, “New Freedom Press had debated with the royalist New China Press almost every day. Other than editorial work, publishers were often involved in court cases with the royalists due to trivial wordings in the newspaper…Thus, other than the normal expenses of running a newspaper, the publishers had to prepare extra funds for litigation costs. It was more difficult to manage a newspaper in Honolulu than in the main continent of the United States.”28 In San Francisco, the feud was mainly carried out by the royalist The World (Shijie ribao 世 界 日 報 ) and the revolutionary Great Unity Daily and The Young China Morning Paper . Propriety Tribune (Wenxian bao 文憲報 ) was the predecessor of The World . It was renamed and reformed in 1906, and was headed by the disciples of Kang Youwei — Liang Chaojie and Liang Junke. Polemics with the official newspaper of San Francisco Branch of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, The Young China Morning Paper , and the Hongmen paper — Great Unity Daily , lasted until after the 1911 Revolution. In Vancouver, the polemics were mainly carried out by the royalist Daily News (Rixin bao 日新報 ) and the revolutionary The Chinese Times in 1909 and 1910. At that time, the main writer for Daily News was the reformist backbone Liang Wenqing, while the main writer for The Chinese Times was revolutionary backbone Feng Ziyou. Both sides were well-matched in the media feud, though Daily News lost in the end since it held on to ideas that were against the trend of the era. Feng Ziyou was proud when recalling this period in history: “The polemics with Daily News began just two months after I came into the position. It has been one and a half years now, and most of my time was spent on the media feud. Canada was where Kang Youwei first established the Chinese Empire Reform Association — it was the place of origin. Yet, after fierce debate, most fellow overseas Chinese citizens who were once misled into the evil thoughts of constitutional monarchy have awoken, and are now in support of revolution.”29 In Hong Kong, the two main adversaries were the royalist Commercial Daily (Shang bao 商報 ) and the revolutionary China Daily . The two newspapers had

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fierce debates over fundamental issues such as whether a nationalistic revolution should be carried out. China Daily published some articles that “had a strong stance based on legal and logical facts” and which were mostly written by Zhu

Zhixin. Moreover, China Daily also published articles on how some royalists

“cheated overseas Chinese of huge amounts of money” and how they took the

opportunity to extort money, and was often involved in court cases because of such articles. In winter 1905, China Daily revealed that the second daughter of

Kang Youwei, Kang Tongbi, cheated overseas Chinese in America. Kang Youwei then asked Chinese Empire Reform Association member Ye En to sue China

Daily for libel through the Hong Kong judiciary, demanding 5,000 dollars as compensation for loss. The case lasted for years, and China Daily could have won the case. However, according to Hong Kong law, if the defendant could not afford to continue recruiting a lawyer, the defendant would lose the case. Sun Yat-sen, who was in Nanyang at that time, transferred 3,000 dollars to Chan Siu-bak and asked him to hire a lawyer for the case. Yet Chan Siu-bak thought that it would be too time-consuming to continue with the case, and finally, China Daily lost. In March 1903, overseas Chinese raised funds for the Canton-Hankow Railway. The Chairman of the Guangzhou General Chamber of Commerce (Guangzhou zongshanghui 廣州總商會 ), a royalist called Ye Huibo, took the opportunity to search for shareholders in America and helped the Chinese Empire Reform Association expand and fight for benefits. China Daily published articles to attack Ye Huibo. The Chinese Empire Reform Association once again hired lawyers to sue China Daily and demanded a compensation of 10,000 dollars for libel. The royalists also published the article “Letter to Fellow Citizens” and criticized the China Daily as “had always attacked the Chinese Empire Reform Association for undermining the public good. In the Boycott last year,30 the movement was initiated by societies in America, and later supported by Commercial Daily and Eastern Times (Shibao 時報 ). When the Boycott Society ( Juyue hui 拒約會 ) was almost formed, the China Daily came snooping, and accused us of undermining the Boycott. They are now using the same technique again in the Canton-Hankow Railway issue.”31 It could be seen that newspapers of the two factions not only debated on major political issues, but also on specific issues. In addition, the debate between constitutional monarchy and democratic revolution was also carried out between the royalist Enlighten South Daily and the revolutionary China-Siam Daily in Thailand, the royalist Sumatra Daily and the revolutionary Sibin Daily in the Dutch East Indies, as well as the royalist Tung Wah Times and the revolutionary The Chinese Times in Australia.

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The polemics of overseas newspapers of the two factions were a continuation and development of the polemics between The Minpao Magazine and New Citizen Journal . After the media feud, the influence of the royalists in Nanyang and North America diminished sharply, while the popularity of the revolutionaries rose sharply. Bourgeois revolutionary thoughts were widely spread and this raised the determination of overseas Chinese and the support for democratic revolution. Just a few years before the polemics, most overseas Chinese in Nanyang and North America were supportive of royalists. Thus, revolutionaries “were afraid to reveal themselves.”32 After the polemics, many former members of the Chinese Empire Reform Association quit the society and joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. As a result, the alliance developed rapidly, and more than 100 branches were set up in Nanyang alone. After 1910, “there were Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members almost wherever there were Chinese.”33 Revolutionary overseas Chinese were not only active in donation for the democratic revolutionary cause, they were also active in participation of armed uprisings in China. The Chaozhou Huanggang Uprising and Huizhou Uprising in 1907, as well as the Qinlian Uprising in 1908 were mainly organized by overseas Chinese. Of the 72 martyrs in the Guangzhou Yellow Flower Mound Revolt, 23 were overseas Chinese. These all proved that the publicity of overseas revolutionary publications were very effective.

Yu Youren and His Newspaper Activities You Youren and the Establishment of The National Herald A year after the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, the publicity emphasis of revolutionary periodicals shifted from overseas back to domestic matters, so as to strengthen to organization of revolts in various places. Shanghai became an important base for the publicity and organization of revolts in the middle and lower reaches of Yangtze and Zhejiang. From 1905 to 1911, the revolutionaries published more than 10 periodicals in succession. The National Herald (Shenzhou ribao 神州日報 ), The People’s Wail (Minhu ribao 民呼日報 ), Min Hu Pao (Minxu ribao 民吁日報 ), and Min Li Pao (Minli bao 民立報 ) — established by Yu Youren — had relatively larger influence. They were important mouthpieces of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance that publicized revolution in the eight Southeastern provinces. Yu Youren (1879–1964) had an original name of Bo Xun and a courtesy name of Youren ( 誘人 ), while Youren ( 右任 ) was his pen name. He was born in Shaanxi

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Sanyuan, and was a student of famous Confucian teachers such as Mao Banxiang, Ding Xinfu, and Zhu Xianzhao in his youth. His studies in the poems of Wen Tianxiang and Xie Dieshan, as well as the essays of Huang Zhongxi, instilled ideas of patriotism and nationalism in him. He was later recognized and taught by the Shaanxi Superintendent of Training (Xueshi 學使 ) Ye Erkai, and began to take note of international events. There was a huge drought in Shaanxi in 1898, and Youren was given the responsibility of managing a soup kitchen. He then had a better understanding of the people’s suffering. When Cixi and Guangxu fled to Shaanxi in 1900, Yu Youren wanted to submit a memorandum to Shaanxi Provincial Governor Cen Chunxuan (Yunjie), to suggest that the Governor take the chance to assassinate Cixi. However, Yu Youren’s schoolmate Wang Linsheng stopped him. Yu later wrote poems to show his determination, and the poems were published in the collection Half-Crying Half-Laughing Drafts of Poems (Banku banxiao lousicao 半哭半笑樓詩草 ). His poems include lines such as “This ashamed student had no courage, with empty talk of justice and love for Rousseau”, and “I love freedom like my wife, I exchange my blood for peace.” Yu’s poems prompted the Shaanxi and Gansu Governor-General to report his crime of “speaking for the revolution and treason” to the imperial court. Yu was removed of his title as Juren (recommended man),34 and was wanted as a criminal in secret. Yu Youren fled to Shanghai, and got to know revolutionaries like Wang Yunzhong. Yu was later discovered by the principal of Aurora University ( 震旦公學 ), Ma Xiangbo, and was admitted for free. After a year, Yu taught in the university. In August 1905, Yu left Aurora University and established the Fudan College ( 復旦公學 , later Fudan University) with Ye Zhongyu and others. Next, Yu established China College ( 中國 公學 ) with Wang Jingfang, Zhang Bangjie, and others. When Japan promulgated the Rule for Suppressing Chinese Overseas Students , many overseas Chinese students opposed the rule. China College then invited these students to return to China to continue their studies, and most of the teachers and students in the college were revolutionaries. During this period, publication of the Cautionary Bell Tribune and The China National Gazette (Guomin riribao 國民日日報 ) were forced to stop and revolutionary publicity came to a standstill. Yu Youren felt a deep need to set up a periodical, and thus established The National Herald with the people of Fudan College and China College. Yu then went to Japan to learn about editorial work and business management, as well as to raise funds. Yu arrived in Tokyo near the end of September 1906, and met with Sun Yat-sen. Yu then joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Under the suggestion of Sun Yat-sen, Yu Youren set up the

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Overseas Chinese from Shaanxi, Gansu, Henan, and Shanxi in Japan Association (ShanGanYuJin sisheng lüri tongxiang xiehui 陜 甘 豫 晉 四 省 旅 日 同 鄉 協 會 ), and Yu was elected the Chairperson. In February 1907, more than 30,000 silver coins were raised. Before Yu returned to Shanghai, Sun Yat-sen named Yu Youren the Yangtze Commander in Chief, and encouraged Yu to run The National Herald as a revolutionary official newspaper. Yu should also make use of The National Herald as a base to connect the parties in the eight southeastern provinces, so as to begin publicity organization work. Yu Youren returned to China, and after two months of preparation, The National Herald was established on April 2, 1907. The inaugural address was written by Yang Dusheng and Wang Wusheng, edited by Yu Youren, and published under the name of “Three Letters.” Yang Dusheng (1871–1911) was also called Shouren. His original name was Yulin, his courtesy name was Shuren, while his pen name was “Rubbing Cold Ashes 棰印寒灰 ”. Yang Dusheng was from Changsha, and he taught in the School of Current Affairs (Shiwu xuetang 時務學堂 ) during the Hundred Days’ Reform. Yang later participated in revolt activities of the Independence Army, and with Wu Yue, planned the assassination of the five officials going on a diplomatic mission to the West to investigate constitutionalism. Yang Dusheng fled to Japan after the assassination attempt, and joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance due to the influence of the revolutionaries. Yang had been the editor of Translated Materials from Study Tours (Youxue yibian 遊學譯編 , established by Huang Xing), and had published a pamphlet New Hunan (Xin Hunan 新湖南 ) that publicized the ideas of civil liberties. Yang Dusheng then returned to China at the invitation of Yu Youren to be a main writer for The National Herald . Yang wrote boldly and had strong opinions, and covered issues on politics, economy, diplomacy, law, education, and other aspects. He also wrote quite a number of short essays, columns, poems, and short stories, and was said to be the “most diligent person in The National Herald. ” 35 Yang Dusheng went to study in Europe in 1908. When Yang knew that the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt failed July 8, 1911, he committed suicide in Liverpool in grief, and left his savings of 100 pounds to the revolutionaries in his will. He was only 40 years old when he died. Wang Wusheng (1890–1914) had an original name of Zhonglin and a courtesy name of Yuren. He used the pen names “Mediocre Person 庸人 ” and “Tianmousheng 天繆生 .” Wang was from Jiangsu Yangzhou, and had a reputation as “Jiangdu scholar.” Wang Wusheng was skilled in writing and learned in history. His essay “Three Problems of China’s Future,” serialized in The National Herald

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and spanning more than 10,000 words, discussed problems such as the Qing government’s constitutionalism, people’s livelihoods, and religion. He was one of the influential writers of the early The National Herald . Others who had assisted in the editing and publishing of the newspaper included Li Mengfu, Wang Yunzhong, Fan Hongxian, Tan Shanwu, Chen Feiqing, Yang Qianli, Ye Zhongyu, Wang Pengnian, Shao Wentai, Tan Jieren, Zhang Junsheng, Huang Zhencheng, and Jinhuai. Yu Youren stated that The National Herald was named as such “to evoke the nationalism of the Chinese nation with the struggles of the ancestors and the rich history of the country.”36 Since its publication, The National Herald attracted widespread attention, and over 10,000 copies were issued in a short amount of time. It became one of the best-selling newspapers in Shanghai. However, just 37 days after its first publication, a fire on May 8, 1907, destroyed all the equipment, manuscripts, and materials of the newspapers. However, most of the founders of the newspaper were not discouraged and publication resumed just after a day. Publication was supported by insurance compensation while the Commercial Press helped with the printing. In the article “Commemorating the 37th Issue of this Newspaper” when the periodical was republished, the editors wrote with confidence: “There was endless hope for our countrymen, endless business for our country, and thus endless responsibilities for our publishing house. Luckily, none of our members were hurt in the fire, so we immediately worked to resume publication in gratitude of our readers’ support. Fire was said to destroy the old in preparation for renewal. This incident seems to signal the eventual removal of the darkness over China and the revival of light.” However, due to the heavy workload of the republishing and people relations, Yu Youren published a notice on the front-page of the newspaper on June 20, 1908 to announce his resignation. After just 80 days, the Yu Youren period of The National Herald ended. For more than a year afterwards, The National Herald was managed by Ye Zhongyu and Wang Pengnian, while Yang Dusheng remained one of the main writers. When Yang left for Europe, The National Herald entered a third stage where it was managed solely by Wang Pengnian. Since many revolutionaries left the newspaper, it was no longer as closely related to revolutionary associations as during the first two stages. It did not have the vivid revolutionary characteristics of The People’s Wail , Min Hu Pao , and Min Li Pao , and even had a swaying stance and once supported the constitutional monarchy. After the establishment of the Republic of China, Wang Pengnian was threatened by Yuan Shikai to hand over the newspaper to Yuan Naikuan. Sun

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Zhong, a parliament member of Yuan Shikai’s empire, became the main writer.

After Yuan Shikai’s death, Wu Guanyin, Zhang Dongsun, and Hu Zhengzhi

participated in editorial work. Publication stopped on December 31, 1926. Jiang Guangtang restarted publication in April 1937, but publication ceased soon again due to the Second Sino-Japanese War. Publication resumed on December 2, 1946 with an issue number of 8,745, and it was listed on the newspaper that it was

“established five years before the Republic of China.” However, it was greatly different from when it was first published.37

The National Herald was the first modern daily broadsheet established by

the revolutionaries. It had four printed broadsheets per day when it was first

published, but was changed to three broadsheets since day four. Advertisements and articles each occupy half of the newspaper. Around 20,000 to 50,000 copies were printed daily.

Learning from the lesson when Jiangsu Tribune and The China National Gazette were banned quickly, and considering the differences in power between the government and the revolutionaries, public acceptance, and the special situation of running a newspaper in a concession territory, Yu Youren was careful with his words. When recalling his experience during this period, Yu said, “On the one hand we had to uphold justice and evoke nationalism, on the other hand we had to speak mildly, so as not to give any excuse for the Qing government. Writing the editorial was the hardest.”38 Yu noted a few points when running the newspaper: 1. To not present a revolutionary outlook. Glaring headlines and strong words were rarely used. Although the newspaper did not use the Qing era name, it published edicts from the imperial court and memorials to the throne.

2. News articles of the revolutionary movement were not published under the names of the journalists but were reported with the spirit of “all news should be included.” News on revolutionary activities was from official telegraphs and wanted notices of the various levels of the Qing government, or from quoting overseas telegraphs and newspapers. The platform of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and the Three People’s Principles were promoted through the quoted statements of alliance members and through the publication of found revolutionary documents. 3. Strong wordings were avoided. Commentaries and editorials rarely encouraged revolution directly, and only hinted at it. For example, they condemned the tyranny of Qin Shi Huang and the Tsar to indirectly attack the Monarchism of the Qing government. However, the newspaper would take a strong stance in critical moments. After Qiu Jin’s execution, Wang Yuzhong

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wrote an editorial accusing Shaoxing Prefect Gui Fu of being a “national pest” who harmed innocent citizens and hated modern progress.39 For The National Herald , its news section contained stronger revolutionary messages than its commentaries. Just in the first 80 days of the first stage, 62 articles on armed uprisings in various places were published, focusing on the Qinliang, Huanggang, and Huizhou Seven Sisters Lake Uprisings. The newspaper also revealed the corruption of the Qing government. More than 10 articles published in May 1907 — “A Suggestion for Duan Wushuai to Improve Prisons,” “Fund Raising,” “Tragedy in Fufeng County,” “Qing Wang Family Concerned about Their Birthday Ceremony,” “On the Impeachment of Qing Di and His Son,” “On the Trial and Punishment of Zhu Baokui by the Ministry of Posts and Communications,” “In Praise of Yang Cuixi,” “Criticisms of the Different Schools of Thought,” “The Absurdity of the Political Field,” “Closing Words on Duan’s Case,” “On the Fundamental Reform of the Responsibilities of Officials” — had exposed the corruption and tyranny of the Qing government. At the same time, the newspaper had also exposed and attacked the fallacious constitutional monarchy proposed by the government. It published the long editorial “On the Stance of This Newspaper and Good Wishes for Its Future” not long after its establishment, stating that the constitutional monarchy of the Qing government only “disguises its absolute power with a weak constitution, and is a bait to deceive all citizens.” Although The National Herald did publish articles on the crucial factors in preparation of a constitution, it had more articles that were entirely against the idea of a constitution, detailing its hypocritical nature and the impossibility in implementation. The National Herald pointed out the absurdity of various policies, and broke up the monopoly of royalist newspapers in Shanghai.

The National Herald also had strong reports on the aggression of imperialism

in China. Not long after its establishment, it published reports such as “Recent News of Japanese Administration in Kwantung Leased Territory,” “The Current Japanese Navy,” “Japanese Meeting on Manchu Railway,” “The Russian Plan in Setting Up a Heilongjiang Navy Fleet,” and “The Chinese Policies of Various Foreign Powers, “ to expose the aggressive schemes of imperialism. As a young bourgeois newspaper in China, The National Herald was the first to use columns such as “Commerce of this Port City,” “Business Investigation,” “Translated Business Commentaries,” “Current Discussions of Industries, “ and “Collections of Foreign Commentaries.” It also contained a daily “Price List of

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Various Industries of the City” that detailed the opening and closing activities

in the Shanghai financial, commercial, logistics, taxation, and capitalist fields. The newspaper introduced the foreign and domestic economic development,

and provided comments for the domestic industrial development and railway development. These publicized the development and prosperity of national capitalism.

Like The Minpao Magazine and the China Daily , The National Herald

exerted a huge influence in the spread of democratic revolution ideologies and the drive of revolution. However, due to the loose ties of the newspaper and the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance headquarters, as well as the lack of democratic

revolutionary ideas of most of the writers, the newspaper was relatively weak in spreading such ideas. It did not directly introduce the political platform of the

Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and Sun Yat-sen’s Three People’s Principles. The

newspaper did not participate actively in the polemics between the revolutionary

and reformist publications. The National Herald also lack theoretical insight in its

articles that attacked imperialism.

Setting up the “Three People Newspapers” in succession In the two years of 1909 and 1910, Yu Youren established The People’s Wail , Min

Hu Pao , and Min Li Pao in succession. Since all three newspapers began with the word “Min” (People) and were related to one another, they were called the “Three People Newspapers.” After Yu Youren left The National Herald , he became the main writer for Public Opinion (Yulun ribao 輿論日報 ) — established by Shanghai Circuit Intendant Cai Naihuang. You Youren left shortly since he had different opinions with Cai, and You then actively sought to establish a new periodical. Later, Yu Youren was sponsored by Shaanxi businessman Bai Xiaoyu, Assistant Manager of The Sin Chun Bank of China Shen Manyun, compradors Zhang Jingjiang and Pang Qingcheng, as well as Zhou Bocheng. After eight months of preparation with 60,000 dollars raised, Yu Youren established The People’s Wail on May 15, 1909. You Youren held the position of director while Chen Feiqing was the overall main writer. Editors included former employees of The National Herald such as Li Mengfu, Wang Wusheng, Wang Yunzhong, Tan Shanwu, Yang Qianli, and Fan Hongxian, as well as Dai Tianchou, Wu Ailin, Zhu Shaoping, and others. On May 5, 10 days before the newspaper was first published, advertisements of the newspaper were placed in various Shanghai periodicals, announcing that The

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People’s Wail would adopt the missions of “crying out loud” and “to speak for the people.” It did not directly advocate any ideology or publicize democratic revolution, but rather, focused on exposing officials’ corruption, and the injustice done to people. The newspaper emphasized the accusations that GovernorGeneral of Shaanxi and Gansu Sheng Yun did not report natural disasters in the area for three years and did not exempt agricultural tax, resulting in widespread famine and even cannibalism. Yu Youren also invited leaders of townsman from Shaanxi and Gansu in Shanghai — Liu Dingrong and Li Yuerui — to form the Gansu Disaster Relief Hall at the newspaper office. This evoked anti-government hatred among the people. Five days after the Gansu Disaster Relief Hall was set up, Shanghai Circuit Intendant Cai Naihuang received a telegraph from the Acting Governor-General of Shaanxi and Gansu Mao Qingfan that accused Yu Youren of embezzling disaster relief donations. Cai Naihuang then instigated Assistant Manager of Anhui Railway Company Zhu Yunjin, New Army Leader Chen Delong, and the son of the late Shanghai Circuit Intendant Cai Jun — Cai Guozhen — to sue The People’s Wail for libel. The Shanghai International Settlement officials arrested Yu Youren and Chen Feiqing, and attempted to punish Yu Youren to stop the publication of The People’s Wail . During the trial, the defense lawyer Fei Xindun stated that the defendant had no relations with the disaster relief funds, and raised the point that the GovernorGeneral of Shaanxi and Gansu did not investigate the case thoroughly. Fei also pointed out that someone initiated several lawsuits at once in an attempt to punish Yu Youren, but the embezzlement of disaster relief donations was the most serious accusation among the cases. According to the law, the plaintiff had to raise reliable evidence to the court before trial could begin. Yu Youren was thus wrongly arrested and should not be detained. Defense lawyer Fei Xindun demanded that Yu Youren be released while pending hearing. However, Cai Naihuang worked in cohorts with British judge Brad, who insisted on detaining Yu Youren due to the difficulty in calculations without the invoice of disaster relief funds. Only Chen Feiqing was granted bail while pending hearing. The People’s Wail was thus forced to stop publication on August 14 after 92 issues. Hearing began on September 8 and a judgment was passed hastily: “What The People’s Wail newspaper did was out of its place. Considering that it was their first offence, the penalty would be relatively light. Since Yu Youren had already been detained for a month and seven days, he would no longer be jailed, but would be exiled from the Shanghai International Settlement… If further similar offense such as libel was carried out through private newspapers in the future,

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heavier punishment would definitely be ruled.” During the period Yu Youren was detained, dozens of readers wrote letters to The People’s Wail in support of him every day. A couplet from a reader stated, “Ninety issues of sound arguments that shook the officials, and the fully exposed high ranking officials ordered the death of the newspaper; The fame of the newspaper shalt remain, but how can we common people live with the publication being stopped?” After Yu Youren was released, he organized a new newspaper with Jing Yaoyue — a helper sent by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. On October 3, 1909, Min Hu Pao was established in the Shanghai French Concession. Yu Youren published a manifesto under the pen name “Sea 海 ," stating that “I will continue to be concerned with the entire country with my pen, so as to restore my lands. There are things to learn from elders of other countries, let’s unite to control this disaster.” Yu expressed his determination to fight for democratic revolution with his pen. Yu Youren also explained the name of the newspaper Min Hu Pao ( 民吁報 ). Yu ( 吁 ) was used to replace Hu ( 呼 ) in The People’s Wail ( 民呼報 ), as the two words look similar and both expressed the sad voices of the people. Moreover, Yu ( 吁 ) was made up of the radicals “mouth” ( 口 ) and “Yu” ( 于 ), and thus represented the mouth of Yu Youren. This served as humor in times of pain. Another interpretation was that replacing Hu ( 呼 ) with Yu ( 吁 ) implied that the eyes of the public were made blind.40 Since Yu Youren was exiled from the Shanghai International Settlement and could not appear in public, Zhu Baokang became the publisher and Fan Hongxian was the president. In reality, Yu Youren was responsible for most of the work. Not long after the establishment of Min Hu Pao , the newspaper exposed the ambition and aggression of Japanese imperialism towards China with many articles. In late October, it focused on the conspiratorial activities of Japanese Prime Minister Ito Hirobumi in northeastern China. After Ito Hirobumi was assassinated by Korean nationalist An Jung-geun at the Harbin Station, Min Hu Pao published more than 20 commentaries and reports in praise of the brave and patriotic act of An Jung-geun. In early November, Japanese Consulate-General in Shanghai Matsuoka demanded that Shanghai Circuit Intendant Cai Naihuang punish the newspaper since it “made assumptions, incited destruction, and gloated at a misfortunate event, thus affecting Sino-Japanese relations.” On November 19, Cai worked with officials of the Shanghai International Settlement to close down the newspaper. Fan Hongxian was arrested and tried, with a judgment passed as follows: “Publication of the newspaper would cease forever. The machinery cannot

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be used for further printing of newspaper, but the main writers would not be punished.”41 Thus publication of Min Hu Pao stopped just after 48 days. The banning of Min Hu Pao resulted in strong reactions from the public. Some set up placards in protest on the day the newspaper was banned. There were people pasting elegies on the newspaper offices for a few days after the publication was stopped. More than 200 Jiangnan students in Shanghai jointly telegraphed the Ministry of Civil Affairs of the Qing government and requested that the publication of the newspaper be resumed. Japanese and Hong Kong readers also telegraphed the Shanghai officials and threatened them with bombs and guns to remove the ban over Min Hu Pao . Even the North China Daily News and the English Herald (Yingwen jiebao 英文捷報 ) condemned the incident in their editorials, directing the discussion towards the Japanese.42 After the cessation of Min Hu Pao , Yu Youren was determined to set up another newspaper. However, due to the ruling that the machinery could not be for again for printing newspapers, Yu had to raise funds to buy various facilities again. Fortunately, he was sponsored by people such as Shen Manyun, and had even more funds than the previous two newspapers. On October 11, 1910, Yu Youren established another newspaper Min Li Pao in the Shanghai French Concession. Yu Youren himself held the position of president, while Wu Zhongxin and Dong Bichen were managers. Editors included Fan Hongxian and Jing Yaoyue, but also Song Jiaoren, Chen Qimei, Xu Xieer, Lü Zhiyi, Ma Junwu, Zhang Shizhao, Ye Chucang, Zhang Jiluan, and other talents in the newspaper industry. Yu Youren wrote an inaugural speech titled “Long Live China! Long Live Democracy!” The newspaper was first published on the Chung Yeung Festival, thus Yu Youren compared Min Li Pao to a noble chrysanthemum which blooms despite of wind and snow in the autumn. Yu Youren wanted the newspaper to work for the benefit of the country in autumn times, and spread the voices of justice across the country. Other than the inaugural article, Yu Youren also published many commentaries, articles, and poems under the pen names of “Sad Heart 騷心 ,” “Peeled Fruit 剝果 ,” and “Gale 大風 .” These showed his concern for the country. Song Jiaoren, who had just returned from Japan, became the main writer of Min Li Pao . Under the pen names of “Fisherman in Peach Blossom Land 桃源漁父 ” and “Fisherman 漁父 ,” Song Jiaoren wrote many editorials to analyze the dangerous situation of China under the threat of imperialism. He also attacked the policies of the Qing government and the fallacies of those in support of a constitutional monarchy. His strong arguments and rich knowledge made him very influential

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among readers. Song Jiaoren thus became quite famous. Chen Qimei — who was called the “four quick journalist” with quick words, quick wits, quick means, and quick actions — and famous modern commentator Zhang Jiluan both established their places while they worked in Min Li Pao . Moreover, Min Li Pao also hired both full-time and part-time correspondences in major cities such as Paris, London, Washington, Berlin, and Geneva. Not long after its establishment, the 20,000 copies of the newspaper were printed, making it one of the most popular daily newspapers in China. It was also the most influential revolutionary newspaper then. The publication of Min Li Pao signified the revival of revolutionary activities in Shanghai and regions along the Yangtze River. Thus, the newspaper was not only the official publicity channel of the revolutionaries, but also the means of communication of revolutionaries in Shanghai. Many revolutionaries in China went to Shanghai to carry out liaison work, information reports, and ammunition transfer, making use of Min Li Pao as their host. On July 31, 1911, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance Central Headquarters that led revolutionary activities in the Yangtze Region was set up. Yu Youren, Song Jiaoren, Chen Qimei, Fan Hongxian, Lü Zhiyi, and others held positions in the headquarters. The Min Li Pao became the official newspaper for the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance Central Headquarters. Before the restoration of Shanghai, the Min Li Pao was also the revolutionary headquarters of the city. When Sun Yat-sen visited Shanghai after his return to China, he first visited the newspaper office and wrote “Comrades Joining Hands” in Chinese and “Unity” in English for the newspaper. After the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China in Nanjing, members of the newspaper such as Yu Youren, Jing Yaoyue, Lü Zhiyi, Song Jiaoren, Ma Junwu, and Chen Qimei all became cabinet members. They no longer had time to manage the newspaper, and thus the Min Li Pao was gradually managed by Fan Hongxian. In 1913, the Second Revolution against Yuan Shikai failed. Yu Youren fled to Japan while Fan Hongxian was assassinated. Publication of Min Li Pao was forced to come to a stop, with a total of 1,036 issues. You Youren and The National Herald , The People’s Wail , Min Hu Pao , and Min Li Pao established by him left a glorious page in the history of Chinese journalism. Yu Youren once compared the publicity effect of the four newspapers: “The National Herald was euphemistic, The People’s Wail and Min Hu Pao used strong words, while Min Li Pao saw the era of rapid development of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance movements. Our mission was to expose the corruption of the Qing government and awaken the public on one hand, and to analyze

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problems practically in preparation for a new country on the other hand.”43 This observation was rather objective. However, since the Qing government exercised tight control over revolutionary publications after the case of the Jiangsu Tribune, even The People’s Wail and Min Hu Pao avoided direct introduction of the political platform of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, as well as commentaries on the Han-Manchu racial problem. They focused on exposing practical problems, and indirectly hinted at revolutionary ideologies. Moreover, the two newspapers only attacked corrupt officials instead of the Qing government as a whole. For example, between July 18 and 20, 1909, The People’s Wail analyzed the reasons behind the weakening of China saying that the main cause was “neither the emperor nor the public, but the officials in between, who were like zombies, demons, wolves, and locusts.” The article suggested reforming the bureaucratic group. This was clearly a solution that did not address the root of the problem. In addition, The People’s Wail focused on reporting natural disasters but neglected to report the causes of such disasters directly. It only wrote, “Since there was history, there were usually two phenomenons before the end of a dynasty. The first being the government losing public support, the second being widespread natural disasters. There was never a dynasty that did not end when both occurred.”44 This was an indirect, euphemistic expression. Learning from the lesson of the ban of The People’s Wail , the mission of the Min Hu Pao became “investigating public livelihoods,” “providing just comments,” “preserving the country,” and “reporting unusual news.” The emphasis was placed on exposing the aggression of imperialism towards China. Yet its publication was also forced to stop due to reports on the assassination of Ito Hirobumi. When Min Li Pao was established, revolution activities developed rapidly. Moreover, the Qing government’s suggestion of drafting a constitution improved the freedom of speech. The newspaper developed from firm arguments in the beginning to increasingly radical articles that attacked the fallacious constitution suggested by the Qing government. The newspaper supported the Sichuan tide in protecting the ownership of railways, and focused heavily on the assassination of Qing officials by Wen Shengcai, Chen Jingni, Lin Guanci, and others. It also reported the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt in great details. After the Wuchang Uprising, Yu Youren published an article “The Bloody Waters in the Upper Reaches of Yangtze” under the pen name “Sad Heart 騷 心 ,” praising the revolt — “War horses in the autumn wind, Blood flying among clashing weapons. The cuckoo cries blood while the ghosts weep, the revolutionary flag is raised

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before the Yellow Crane Tower!” Min Li Pao heavily publicized the eventual

success of the revolution and the eventual fall of the Qing government. It drove

the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China and strengthened the revolution.

The National Herald and the “Three People Newspapers” were closely

related to one another in terms of length, layout, columns, and writing style.

The National Herald had three printed sheets (12 pages) daily, while the “Three People Newspapers” had four printed sheets (16 pages). The People’s Wail once had five sheets, while the Min Li Pao had three sheets after the Republic of China was established. Articles and advertisements each occupied half of the newspaper, while the front-page was used to publish advertisements. All four newspapers used both the Gregorian calendar and the Chinese sexagenary cycle instead of the Qing era name. All four newspapers did not contain a supplement. Published novels, poems, biographies, anecdotes, essays, collections, and translated works were mostly concentrated in the sixth page of The National Herald , the fifth page in The People’s Wail , the eighth page in Min Li Pao , and scattered in various pages in Min Hu Pao . Vernacular Chinese was increasingly used in the titles and articles of the four newspapers, such as “Another Traitor” on May 24, 1909 in The People’s Wail ; “We’ll See What Crimes You Judge Him With” on November 18, 1909 in Min Hu Pao ; and “Ghosts and Monsters Were All Included” on May 23, 1911 in Min Li Pao . Readers could understand them easily, and this strengthened the power of publicity. Yu Youren and the newspapers he established exerted great propaganda effects during the 1911 Revolution. Of course, due to the complex nature of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members and differences in opinions, some of the articles were biased and promoted Han chauvinism and pro-aristocratic ideology. When Yu Youren was in Japan and Min Hu Pao was led by Jing Yaoyue, it even promoted thoughts that support Yuan Shikai and an alliance with the United States of America. Min Li Pao also became less radical in its late stages, and some said that it had not maintained its initial values. Yet these were just minor defects and could not affect their overall merits.

The Rise of Periodicals Run by Revolutionaries in China Publicity activities by revolutionary periodicals in Shanghai Shanghai was the national center for publishing and cultural industries, as well

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as a land and water transportation hub. Overseas revolutionaries had to contact revolutionaries in China through Shanghai. Important offices of both the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and Restoration Society were established in Shanghai, and as a result, the city became the base and publicity center of revolutionaries in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze Delta region. Almost all revolutionary periodicals of Shanghai were published within the international settlement. Although the municipal council of the settlement did not favor the revolutionary publications, it was also difficult for the Qing government to ban periodicals published within the settlement. The settlement shielded the revolutionaries to a certain extent. Although the Qing government could work in cohort with the municipal council to ban conspicuous newspapers such as the Jiangsu Tribune and The People’s Wail , the government had to pay a certain price in exchange for the cooperation. Since it was not easy to influence the municipal council, the Qing government could not outlaw all revolutionary publications. Even after the ban of Cautionary Bell Tribune in March 1905, the revolutionary discussion did not die down completely despite it being a relatively quiet period. China Vernacular News (Zhongguo baihuabao 中國白話報 ), established by Lin Baishui, encouraged patriotism, anti-imperialism, and the expulsion of the Manchus, and it continued publication for some time. Women’s World (Nüzi shijie 女子世界 ), established by Ding Chuwo, encouraged women’s participation in politics, and it was also maintained albeit with some difficulties. In February 1905, intellectuals learned in Chinese classics and with strong nationalistic feelings established National Legacy Academic Journal (Guocui xuebao 國 粹 學 報 ) to “protect the quintessence of Chinese culture.” It was a journal with retro characteristics, and was a publication with stitched binding in the midst of a sea of publications with Western-style bindings. Deng Shi was the chief editor, while Zhang Binglin, Liu Shipei, Chen Qubing, Huang Jie, Huang Kan, Tian Beihu, Ma Xulun, and Luo Zhenyu participated in editorial work. Although these people had different political inclinations, some of them were revolutionaries. They praised the patriots of Sung and Ming Dynasties in their nationalistic fight against foreign rule, so as to evoke the Han race’s determination to restore China. With the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, the focus of the revolutionaries shifted back to China, so as to organize armed uprisings as well as to strengthen publicity within the country. In September 1906, students of the Public School of China — set up by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance — established the Business Strife Post (Jingye xunkan 競業旬刊 ). Editors and publishers included Fu Junjian, Xie Qiaozhuang, Hu Shi, and others. Liu Fuji, a 1911 Revolution martyr,

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and Jiang Yiwu, the leader of the First Wuchang Uprising, were once editors of the publication too. The Business Strife Post maintained a close relationship with the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance Hong Kong headquarters, and was quick to report any news of armed uprising to China Daily . All content of the Business Strife Post was written in vernacular Chinese, so as to spread revolutionary thoughts among the youth in schools. Qiu Jin was an active propagandist in this period. Women’s World was the longest running women’s publication then and it lasted from January 1904 to 1906. In order to continue this influential publication, Qiu Jin published another issue in February 1907. Moreover, Qiu Jin felt that the articles in Women’s World were too difficult for the common, barely literate Chinese women. Therefore Qiu Jin was determined to set up a vernacular women’s magazine to be the “official newspaper” among females. This was the China Women News (Zhongguo nübao 中國女報 ) established in January 1907. Qiu Jin was both the editor and publisher of the publication, and she also invited one of the leaders of the Restoration Society, Chen Boping, to be an editor. Due to a shortage of funds and the fact that the editors were busy with organizations of armed uprisings, only two issues of China Women News were published. After the martyrdoms of Qiu Jin and Chen Boping, China Women News was merged with Chen Yiyi’s New Women’s World (Xinnüzi shijie 新女子世界 ), and was renamed The Shenzhou Women’s Paper (Shenzhou nübao 神州女報 ). It published articles that encouraged democratic revolution and nationalism, such as “Biography of Qiu Jin — a Great Female Personality in Modern China,” and “Sophia — a Saint of Nihilism.” In January 1909, Chen Yiyi and Xie Zhen also set up another revolutionary women’s publication Women’s Tribune (Nübao 女報 ). The tribune published an extra issue named Yue Regret (Yuehen 越恨 ) to expose the truth in Qiu Jin’s case. Yu Youren established The People’s Wail and Min Hu Pao around 1909, leading revolutionary publicity to a new height. In this stage, revolutionary periodicals such as Yue Post (Yuebao 越報 ), China Bulletin (Zhongguo gongbao 中國公報 ), Voice of the People Paper (Minsheng congbao 民聲叢報 ), Overcome Academic Journal (Kefu xuebao 克復學報 ), Rush Academic Journal (Ruijin xuebao 銳進學報 ), and the English The China Press . These periodicals worked with The People’s Wail , Min Hu Pao , and the later Min Li Pao , until the establishment of a democratic system. Yue Post was a monthly publication established in November 1909. It had a mission to “save the country and the citizens,” and Zhao Hansheng was the chief editor. Only one issue was published.

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China Bulletin was a daily publication established on January 1, 1910. Chen Qimei, Chen Yuchuan, and Chen Qubing were the editors and publishers. It published the “Manifesto of China Bulletin ” over the span of three days since its establishment, and printed a warning aphorism in a large size, such as “Our government is a self-interested government. Those who want to be officials must be self-interested, and those with self-respect do not join the court.” The main content of the newspaper included essays, special news, records of major world events, records of major events in the country, novels, and comics. China Bulletin was sold both in China and in Japan. However, publication did not last long and it was stopped after March 1910. Voice of the People Paper (Minsheng congbao 民聲叢報 ) was also printed as Minsheng bao 民聲報 on the cover of the journal. It was a semimonthly publication established on May 23, 1910. Chen Kuang was listed as the editor and publisher, but the actual directors were Chen Qimei and Yao Yongchen. Lei Zhaoxing, Lin Baishui, Tan Chang, and others participated in writing the articles. The journal contained mainly discussion essays with a focus on attacking the Qing’s government’s constitutional monarchy, but it also questioned whether Western capitalist democracy could save citizens from autocracy. The main columns included “Pictures,” “Current Affairs Commentary,” “Translation and Comments,” “Imperial Instructions,” “Major Events in the Country,” “Major Events in the World,” “Special News,” “Investigations,” “Laws and Decrees,” “Literature,” “Poems,” “Novels,” and “Miscellaneous.” Overcome Academic Journal was established in April 1911 with Li Ruichun as the chief editor. It published articles such as “A Complete Record of the Guangdong Censure,” and “Collected Biographies of Revolutionaries.” The journal was string-bound and only three issues can be located now. The main columns included “Academic Essays,” “Discussions,” “Overseas Discussions,” “Overseas Articles,” “Biographies,” “Major Events of the World,” “Major Events in the Country,” “Printed Materials of the Overcome School,” “Essays from the Overcome School,” “Talk,” “Novels,” and “Poems.” Rush Academic Journal was established in July 1911 by the Rush Academic Society. Yi Ruizhi and Yi Weijun were the chief editors. It was a publicity newspaper of the Restoration Society, and it was supported by people such as Tao Chengzhang, Li Xie, and others. Publication stopped not long after. The China Press was established on August 29, 1911, and was the only English paper set up by the revolutionaries in China around the 1911 Revolution. Funds for the newspaper were raised overseas by Sun Yat-sen, and the paper was set up

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by Sun’s American friends Thomas F. Millard, Carl Crow, and B. W. Fleisher. The newspaper was formed to gain international support for the Chinese revolution. Publication continued after the 1911 Revolution, though ownership was transferred to an American business after the failure of the Second Revolution against Yuan Shikai. There were some other newspapers which were not established by revolutionaries, though there were many revolutionaries on their editorial boards. As a result, these newspapers were also inclined towards the revolution. The Bell (Tianduo bao 天鐸報 ), set up on March 11, 1910, and The National Herald under the lead of Wang Bangnian, were examples of such newspapers. The Bell was first established by Tang Shouqian, a famous supporter of the constitution. After a year, it was taken over by Chen Zhilan, who was the nephew of Hong Kong media capitalist Chen Aiting. Both Tang Shouqian and Chen Zhilan were not too concerned about the editorial work of the newspaper. The chief editor Chen Xunzheng during Tang Shouqian’s leadership, and the chief editor Li Huaixiang under Chen Zhilan’s leadership were either members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance or intellectuals who sided with the revolutionaries. This was also true for the main writers of the newspaper such as Dai Jitao, Chen Bulei, Hong Yunxiang, Feng Kai, Hu Liangzhen, Ma Zhiqian, Xu Xiaoquan, and Lin Yingqing. The newspaper had an increasingly strong revolutionary stance. Dai Jitao wrote editorials that attacked the corrupt Qing government with strong words under the pen name “Heaven’s Hatred.” He was thus wanted by officials in the Spring of 1911 and fled to Japan. Chen Bulei’s original name was Xunen, he began to write commentaries under the pen name Bulei. During the Wuchang uprising, he wrote 10 articles titled “On Hubei” and published one each day in support of the revolution. The radical talk of The Bell made it one of the most popular newspapers in Shanghai. Since Yu Youren, Yang Yulin, Ye Zhongyu and others left The National Herald , the newspaper had little connections with revolutionary organizations. However, there were still quite a few Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members on the editorial board, and thus the newspaper would still publish some revolutionary articles now and then. In these ways, the revolutionary publications complemented one another, pushing revolutionary publicity in Shanghai to a new height on the eve of the Wuchang Revolution.

Publicity activities by revolutionary periodicals in Hong Kong and Guangzhou During this period, the Hong Kong and Guangzhou regions were another

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publicity center of the revolutionaries in Southern China. There were 13 revolutionary periodicals published in Hong Kong, but the most influential newspaper with the strongest editorial board was China Daily , which was established before the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. When the Hong Kong Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was set up in October 1905, China Daily became the official newspaper of the branch. In autumn 1906, the Southern Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was set up, and China Daily also became the official newspaper for the branch. Feng Ziyou, Xie Yingbo, and Lu Xin held the positions of both president and chief editor in succession. Editors and journalists included Liao Pingzi, Chen Chunsheng, Chen Difu, and Xie Xinzhun. Leaders of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance such as Sun Yat-sen, Hu Hanmin, Wang Jingwei, Zhang Ji, Zhu Zhixin, Liao Zhongkai, and Cao Yabo had also contributed articles. This made China Daily one of the most important official newspapers of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. The main publicity content of China Daily during this period included: First, to work together with The Minpao Magazine in publicizing the Three People’s Principles. Not long after Sun Yat-sen mentioned the principles of Minzu (nationalism), Minquan (democracy), and Minsheng (the people’s livelihood) in the inaugural speech of The Minpao Magazine , China Daily used the term Three People’s Principles for the first time in an advertisement for The Minpao Magazine . Then, China Daily published a long article that was serialized for more than 10 issues titled “The Principle of Minsheng and the Future of China Revolution.” The article explained in details the Three People’s Principles, especially the principle of Minsheng , and was effective in uniting the ideas of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members. Second, China Daily carried out prolonged polemics with the Hong Kong royalist paper Commercial Daily over the future of China. China Daily criticized a constitutional monarchy, and revealed the deceptive nature of the Qing’s government attempt to draw up a constitution. Third, China Daily had strongly reported and driven the antiAmerica boycott and protection of railway rights in Guangdong and Hong Kong. In 1905, a nation-wide boycott of American products broke out in protest to the Chinese Exclusion Act of the United States. Commercial, industrial, academic, and publishing associations of Guangzhou and Hong Kong organized boycott societies in support. China Daily and It Matters reported heavily on the issue and pressured the American Chamber of Commerce to send representatives to discuss the issue with Guangzhou and Hong Kong representatives. In the same year, Governor-General of Guangdong Cen Chunxuan forcefully nationalized

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the Canton-Hankow Railway. Shareholders from Guangzhou and Hong Kong organized a “Railway Rights Protection Society” to fight for their rights. China Daily not only voiced its support, and was also the organizer and originator of the movement. “The Director’s Office of China Daily became the de facto Secretariat of the Railway Rights Protection Society,” and some called China Daily the “official newspaper of the Canton-Hankow Railway shareholders.”45 Fourth, China Daily reported in detail on the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance’s various armed uprisings. The newspaper sent commissioners with the army so as to obtain firsthand news. The assistant of the Commander-in-chief Huang Xing of the Qinlian Uprising — Li Zhong — was a commissioner of China Daily . Thus the entire progress of the uprising was reported to the China Daily immediately, and both domestic and overseas revolutionary newspapers all based their facts on the reports of China Daily . Other than reporting news of armed uprisings, China Daily also published the revolutionary proclamations of these uprisings, including “Letter to Fellowmen in Guangdong” and “Proclamation Calling for the Surrender of Manchuria Officials.” During this period, China Daily was not only the official mouthpiece of the Hong Kong and Southern Branches of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, but also an important base for revolutionaries to carry out party and military activities. Many important revolutionary activities and armed uprisings were planned in the Director’s Office of the China Daily . The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance also made use of the China Daily office to send and receive overseas funds, store and transfer arms, experiment with the production of explosives, house and transport revolutionaries who had fled to Hong Kong after failed uprisings, as well as print propaganda pamphlets such as “Revolutionary Pioneers.” In sum, the China Daily office was a special and supporting base of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Hong Kong, and was called the “main hub of the revolutionaries.” During this period, World Welfare Post (Shijie gongyi bao 世 界 公 益 報 ), Guangdong Daily (Guangdong Daily 廣東日報 ), and It Matters were newspapers already in print that worked together with China Daily . There were nine other revolutionary newspapers that were established later in succession: Every Day News (Ririxin bao 日日新報 ) was established on February 8, 1906 with a sole mission to encourage nationalism. Not long after its establishment, it was banned in Guangzhou and thus publication stopped. Hong Kong Youth (Xianggang shaonian bao 香港少年報 ) was established on May 28, 1906 with a mission to enlighten the public, monitor the government,

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correct society, and encourage nationalism. The chief editor was Huang Shizhong, while editors included Huang Boyao and Feng Lisheng. The newspaper was quite popular as it had a clear stance and used strong words. Publication stopped after a year due to a shortage of funds. Eastern Post (Dongfang bao 東方報 ) was established on July 29, 1906, based on the foundation of It Matters , after publication of It Matters stopped. Xie Yingbo was the chief editor, while editors included Chen Shuren, Liu Sifu, Yi Xia, and Hu Zijin. The mission of the newspaper was “to awaken the lion’s thousand-yearlong sleep, destroy the thousand-year-long autocracy, and correct the barbarous officials in the 18 provinces.” It follows the spirit of “speaking what others dare not speak.” The newspaper had a strong stance and used easy words, so it was relatively popular among readers. Other than in Hong Kong and Guangzhou, it was also sold in Singapore, the Philippines, Saigon, Japan, Honolulu, and New York. Publication of Eastern Post stopped on January 13, 1907 due to financial losses. Social Bulletin (Shehui gongbao 社會公報 ) was established on December 5, 1907 with the mission to “awaken the national spirit, enlighten the public, exert justice, and strike public enemies.” Huang Boyao was the chief editor and publisher of the newspaper. The Social Bulletin stopped publication not long after. Truth Tribune (Zhenbao 真報 ) was originally the royalist The Truth Post . It was renamed when ownership of the newspaper changed in 1908. Chen Zijue was the chief editor. The newspaper adopted an increasingly strong stance. Publication stopped in 1915. New Youth (Xinshaonian bao 新少年報 ) was established in 1911 and publicized democratic revolutionary thoughts through popular culture. Its editors could not be traced. The stance of New Youth could be inferred from its sentence “Raise the Han flag, attack the Hu children; The rise of people’s party, the restoration of China.” Humanity Post (Rendao ribao 人道日報 ) was established in 1908 with Li Mengzhe as the publisher. Pearl River Mirror (Hong Kong Edition) (Zhujiang jingbao , Xianggang ban 珠江鏡報 , 香港版 ) shifted its publication base from Guangzhou to Hong Kong on May 27, 1906. He Yan and He Mingtan were the chief editors. Publication stopped in July of the same year. Current Affairs Pictorial (Hong Kong Edition) (Shishi huabao, Xianggang ban 時事畫報 , 香港版 ) shifted its publication base from Guangzhou to Hong Kong in autumn 1909. It was edited and published by Xie Yingbo, Pan Dawei, Zheng

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Lüquan, He Jianshi, and others. Publication stopped after 10 issues. The newspapers published in Hong Kong listed above all had strong democratic and revolutionary characteristics. They worked closely with China Daily and played a large role in exposing corruption of the Qing government, attacking the royalists’ support for constitutional monarchy, publicizing the Three People’s Principles, reporting various armed uprisings, opposing the American exclusion laws, and fighting for the Canton-Hankow Railway rights. However, they lacked systematic explanations of the democratic revolutionary thoughts, and some of the newspapers were even anarchistic. Other than in Hong Kong, revolutionary newspapers published in Hong Kong were sold mainly to Guangdong. This alarmed the Guangdong officials and thus they forbid the entry of many newspapers with accusations such as “insolence talk,” “libel,” “publishing falsehood,” and “inciting the public.” This forced some newspapers such as It Matters , Every Day News , and Pearl River Mirror (Hong Kong Edition) to stop publication. The British Hong Kong Government also placed some limitations over the revolutionary newspapers so as not to offend the Qing government. In 1905, the British Hong Kong Government exiled the chief editor of World Public Interest Post Li Daxing. In August 1907, the Hong Kong Executive Council promulgated a “Ban on Newspapers Inciting Revolt in an Ally Country.” The newspapers of offenders would be taken over, and the publisher would face a fine not more than 500 dollars and jail for not more than two years, including hard labor if necessary. However, due to the rapid development of the revolutionary camp and Qing government’s announcement that it was preparing for a constitution, the law was not strictly enforced. The British Hong Kong Government turned a blind eye to revolutionary newspapers, and would usually ignore them as long as the newspapers do not use overly strong wordings. Thus the revolution base in Hong Kong could be maintained despite close geographical proximity with Mainland China. During this period, there were 18 revolutionary newspapers established in succession in Guangzhou: Boycott Post (ten-day publication) (Juyue bao 拒約報 ) was established on August 21, 1905. Huang Huiwen was the chief editor while Hu Zijin was the publisher. Editors included Xie Yingbo and Wang Junyan. The newspaper was set up in protest of the American exclusion laws. Only nine issues were published and publication stopped in the end of October of the same year. Current Affairs Pictorial was established in September 1905. Its content was drawn and edited by famous artists of the Lingnan School including Pan Dawei,

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Gao Jianfu, He Jianshi, as well as Xie Yingbo, Chen Yuan, and others. Current Affairs Pictorial was a ten-day publication and each issue consisted of one volume. Publication stopped in 1907, but was restarted in Hong Kong in autumn 1908. Crowd Post (Qunbao 群報 ) was established in winter 1905. A sheet was printed each day, and Lu Esheng, Hu Zijun, and Shen Houci were chief editors in succession. Publication stopped in Spring 1906 Spring. Pearl River Mirror (Zhujiang jingbao 珠江鏡報 ) was established in Spring 1906 with He Yan as the chief editor. Writers included “Time Awareness 覺 時 ”, “Enemy Attack 敵攻 ”, “Show of Strength 彰武 ”, and “Huya 滸亞 ” (all of the above were pen names). Not long after the newspaper was set up, it exposed that Qing officials had worked in cohort with the rich gentry. This was unacceptable for the Qing officials and the publication of the newspaper was forced to stop on May 13. Publication was later restarted when the newspaper moved to Hong Kong. Established in April 1906, Twentieth Century Post (Nianshiji bao 廿 世 紀 報 ) was set up from the reorganization of Crowd Post . Main writers included Kang Chukuang, Huang Xuanzhou, and Deng Zipeng. The newspaper was sued by Nanhai County for exposing the conspiracy behind the Canton-Hankow Railway, and was warned for “interfering with politics.” Publication of Twentieth Century Post finally ceased at the end of 1906. Citizen Post (Guomin bao 國民報 ) was established on November 1, 1906. Lu Esheng was the director and the editor, while writers included Deng Zipeng, Li Mengzhe, Huang Xuanzhou, Feng Baili, and Deng Beiguan. After a year, Lu Esheng had to flee arrest by Qing officials, and the newspaper was reorganized. Li Mengzhe and Cui Bingmin provided funding and took over the newspaper. Feng Baili, Deng Zipeng, and Yi Jiansan became the main writers. Publication continued until after the establishment of the Republic of China. Vernacular Paper (Guangdong baihua bao 廣東白話報 ) was a 10-day publication established on May 31, 1907. Editors included Huang Shizhong, Ou Boming, and Feng Pingjiu. Publication stopped soon after it was set up. Twentieth Century Militarism Post (Nianshiji junguo minbao 廿世紀軍國民報 ) was a weekly periodical established on November 13, 1907, and published every Saturday. Lu Esheng was the chief editor and the journal was a sister publication of Citizen Post . However, the Twentieth Century Militarism Post had an even more radical stance and was dreaded by the Guangzhou General. Lu Esheng fled to Hong Kong to avoid arrest, and the publication of the newspaper stopped after seven issues.

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Humorous Pictorial (Shixie huabao 時諧畫報 ) was established in November 1907 with Pan Dawei as the chief editor. Major painters and editors included He Jianshi, Cui Qin, and Wu Deyi who had formerly worked at Current Affairs Pictorial . In general, Humorous Pictorial shared the same mission and content with Current Affairs Pictorial . Publication stopped not long after. Lingnan Vernacular Magazine (Lingnan baihua zazhi 岭 南 白 話 雜 誌 ) was a weekly magazine established on February 9, 1908. Editors included Ou Boming and Huang Yaogong. It was unclear when publication of the magazine stopped. Southern Yue Post (Nan Yue bao 南 越 報 ) was established on June 22, 1909. Main writers included Su Lengfeng, Lu Bolang, Li Mengzhe, and Yang Jibai. It was seen as the secret official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Guangdong. However, the newspaper was relatively moderate, and publication continued after the establishment of the Republic of China. Plebeian Daily (Pingmin ribao 平民日報 ) was established on October 31, 1910. One-and-a-half to two sheets were printed each day. The newspaper was directed by Deng Mohan, while Deng Jingya, Lu Bolang, Li Mengzhe, Pan Dawei, Chen Shuren, Liao Pingzi, Huang Xiaojiu, Wang Qiumei, and others participated in editorial work. It had gathered together the elites of revolutionary newspapermen in Guangdong Province, and was called the “first revolutionary official newspaper in the Mainland.” Publication ceased after a few months due to a shortage of funds. Publication began again after the independence of Guangdong was declared, with Deng Jingya as the chief editor. Yes Post (Ke bao 可報 ) was established on March 30, 1911. At that time, military leaders Huang Xing and Zhao Sheng of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance were planning armed uprisings in Guangzhou, and they needed a mouthpiece to incite the activities. They planned to republish the Plebeian Daily but it was not approved. Later, under the lead of Chen Jiongming, the office of the Plebeian Daily was rented for free to establish the Yes Post . There was a story behind the name of the newspaper. At that time, Guangdong set up an Advisory Bureau in preparation for the drawing up of the constitution. During a meeting, when members voted for a gambling ban, members who supported the ban wrote “Yes” while opposing members wrote “No.” Chen Jiongming was a “Yes-member” and thus named his newspaper the Yes Post . Zhun Zhixin was the chief editor while editors included Zou Lu, Ye Xiasheng, Ma Yuhang, Chen Dasheng, Ling Ziyun, Gao Cang, and Lu Datong. On the first day of publishing, every one of the newspaper offices took to the streets with a large pen, showing their mission to speak for democratic revolution. The newspaper was only in print for 24

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days, and was then banned for reporting the assassination of Acting Guangzhou General Fu Qi by revolutionary Wen Shengcai. Human Rights Post (Renquan bao 人權報 ) was established on April 27, 1911. Chen Gengfu, Lao Weimeng, Li Mengzhe, Huang Yaogong, Huang Xiaojiu, and others had participated in editorial and writing work. Publication continued until after the independence of Guangdong. People of the Heaven (Tianmin bao 天民報 ) was established on June 22, 1911. Lu Esheng, Guo Weimie, Huang Xiaojiu, Liu Bolang, Li Jingsheng, and others had participated in editorial and writing work. The newspaper was banned two days after it was published. Plebeian Pictorial (Pingmin huabao 平民畫報 ) was established on July 16, 1911 with Deng Jingya as the publisher. Editors and painters included He Jianshi, Pan Dawei, Zheng Lüquan, Feng Runzhi, Tan Yunbo, and Li Yueping. After the independence of Guangdong, the periodical was renamed Current Affairs Pictorial (Shishi huabao 時事畫報 ) and publishing continued. Central Plain Post (Zhongyuan bao 中原報 ) was established on September 19, 1911, with Guo Weimie, Lu Esheng, Li Jingsheng, Li Jibai, and others participating in editorial and writing work. It was banned two days after it was published, but publication resumed after the independence of Guangdong. United People Post (Qimin bao 齊民報 ) was established on September 22, 1912 and directed by Deng Muhan. Editors included Deng Jingya, Wang Qiumei, and Liang Xiangwu. The newspaper was the successor of Plebeian Daily , and resumed with the name Plebeian Daily after the independence of Guangdong. Other than Guangzhou, other revolutionary publications had been published in Guangdong during this period. New China Post (Xinzhonghua bao 新中華報 ) and China New Paper (Zhonghua xinbao 中華新報 ) in Shantou, as well as Xiangshan Circulation (Xiangshan xunbao 香山循報 ) in Xiangshan (present day Zhongshan), were relatively famous examples. New China Post was established in 1907 and editors included Xie Yiqiao, Chen Qubing, Ye Chucang, and Lin Baiju. The newspaper was eventually banned by officials. China New Paper was established on April 17, 1908 and was reformed from New China Post . Two sheets were printed daily, while Ye Chucang was the chief editor. It was banned for discussing Wen Shengcai’s assassination of Guangzhou General Fu Qi in April 1911, but publication resumed after the independence of Guangdong. Xiangshan Circulation was established in 1908. Xiangshan Chinese

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Revolutionary Alliance member Zheng Anfu raised the necessary funds to set up the newspaper. The newspaper was renamed Xiangshan New Post (Xiangshan xinbao 香山新報 ) after the independence of Guangdong, and publication continued. Other than newspapers established by revolutionaries, there were also newspapers set up by patriotic intellectuals who sided with the revolution. Zhendan Daily (Zhendan ribao 震旦日報 ) was a relatively famous example. It was established in February 1911 in Guangzhou and funded by a Catholic Church. Kang Zhongluo, Liang Shenyu, and Chen Yuan were the chief editors. Commentaries written by Kang Zhongluo under the pen name “Kangzi says 康子曰 ” and the supplement Rooster Crow (Jiminglu 雞鳴錄 ) were quite influential in Guangzhou. The revolutionary publications in Guangzhou during this period had a few characteristics: First, except for a few newspapers organized by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance or funded by overseas Chinese Revolutionary Alliance branches, most of the newspapers were self-funded and set up under a personal name by revolutionaries. Such revolutionaries included former directors of the Hong Kong and Guangdong Chinese Revolutionary Alliance branches, such as Xie Yingbo, Huang Shizhong, and Gao Jianfu. Some were revolutionaries who were also professionals in the publishing industry, such as Lu Esheng, Lu Bolang, and Li Mengzhe. Some were famous people or officials, such as Chen Jiongming and Zhu Zhixin who were members of the Advisory Bureau, and Pan Dawei who was a famous painter of the Lingnan School and a philanthropist. Others were normal members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Second, since Guangdong was an important base for revolutionaries in organizing armed uprisings, the Qing government had guarded the province cautiously, and had tighter control on revolutionary publications in the area. Thus many revolutionary newspapers had relatively moderate or indirect missions, such as “to awaken nationalism and patriotism” (Citizen Post ); “Enlighten the people, strengthen their spirit” (Current Affairs Pictorial ); “Speaking for justice, correcting speeches, and improving social customs” (Lingnan Vernacular Magazine ); and “Not to abuse but to dissuade” (Pearl River Mirror ). In response to official bans and prosecution, some publishers used pseudonyms. The publisher of United People Post was listed as Feng Guangyu while that of People of the Heaven was listed as Huang Ping. In fact, both were pseudonyms and no such persons existed. On the other hand, some editors and publishers made use of their well-known identities or statuses to negotiate with officials and gentries, and provided some degree of protection for the revolutionary newspapers. Third, the revolutionary newspapers were unrelenting in exposing the

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corrupt rule of the Qing government and attacking the royalist support for a

constitutional monarchy. The newspapers supported the retaking of railway and mine rights. They also reported various activities of the revolutionaries, and

introduced revolutions across the world. These were common throughout various revolutionary newspapers. However, the tone of publicity varied according to

different stances and attitudes among different newspapermen. Some newspapers used more subtle words while some used radical words with strong revolution ideas. For example, Central Plain Post openly announced its wish for “expelling

the barbarians” and “retribution.” Twentieth Century Militarism Post raised

the slogan of “expel the barbarians, divide land rights, and exert communism.” People of the Heaven encouraged revolution in its preamble, and even published a “Declaration of the Military Government of the Republic of China.” Yes Post commented that the “holy and inviolable Qing Emperor” was the “greatest traitor of the country.”46 Fourth, some newspapers were especially focused on influencing the new recruits of the Qing army so as to compete for these new armed forces. The Twentieth Century Militarism Post called for new soldiers to “cut ties with the different race,” and that “it was better to die in battle than to bow down to the different race.”47 Most of the articles of Yes Post were also related to soldiers, and the newspapers were sent to the barracks of new soldiers or guard camps every day, either sold for half-price or given out for free. This sowed the seeds of revolution among the new soldiers. Fifth, due to the strong control by the officials, most of the revolutionary newspapers did not last long. Some were even banned right after they were published. People of the Heaven and Central Plain Post were banned just two days after they were published. Others such as Crowd Post , Current Affairs Pictorial , Pearl River Mirror , Citizen Post , Twentieth Century Post had also received punishments such as warnings, summons, fines, and orders to cease publication. Editors had to flee and some even had to move their publication to Hong Kong. Since the revolutionary publications in Guangdong in this period were limited by various factors, they could neither fully explain the political platform of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance nor Sun Yat-sen’s Three People’s Principles. However, they were influential in raising people’s awareness and driving the democratic revolutionary movement. After the establishment of the Republic of China, Sun Yat-sen, as the President of the Provisional Government, presented

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certificates of commendation to the still in-print Citizen Post , Plebeian Daily , and

Southern Yue Post in recognition of their contribution.

Publicity activities by revolutionary periodicals in Wuhan Wuhan in this period was a large commercial port second only to Shanghai.

It was also the activity center of revolutionaries in the upper middle reaches

of the Yangtze. In summer 1904, the first revolutionary science school was set

up in the Wuhan region. Not long after, members of the organization set up a religious Daily Renewal Society that provided a free library. Many revolutionary

publications were ordered from Japan and Shanghai under the name of the

church, and were made free for the public to read and borrow. This attracted

many progressive youths. After the science school was taken over, the Daily Renewal Society became an even larger revolutionary organization. When the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was set up, revolutionary groups such as the

Gongjinshe ( 共進會 ) and Wenxueshe ( 文學社 ) joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, resulting in further growth of revolutionary powers. After 1905, revolutionary publications appeared one after another in Wuhan, with Chu News (Chu bao 楚報 ), Hubei Daily (Hubei ribao 湖北日報 ), Popular Vernacular News (Tongsu baihuabao 通俗白話報 ), Yangtze and Han River Daily (JiangHan ribao 江 漢 日 報 ), Yangtze Fiction Press (Yangzijiang xiaoshuo bao 楊 子 江 小 說 報 ), Commercial Post (Shangwu bao 商 務 報 ), Strong Wind (Xiongfeng bao 雄 風報 ), Great River Vernacular Post (Dajiang baihua bao 大江白話報 ), The Great River (Dajiang bao 大江報 ), Summer Post (Xiabao 夏報 ), Politics Daily (Zhengxue ribao 政學日報 ), and New Vernacular Post (Baihua xinbao 白話新報 ). The Great River and its predecessor Great River Vernacular Post will be discussed in details in section 6 of this chapter, while other newspapers will be introduced below: The first revolutionary newspaper in Wuhan was the Chu News established in the Hankou concession in 1905. Two sheets were printed every day for the newspaper, and it was funded by the businessman Liu Xinsheng. Zhang Hanjie was the chief editor, while Lu Feikui was the main writer. In order to prevent the prosecution and intervention of the Qing government, the newspaper was registered in Hong Kong, and Jernigan, a Westerner, was hired to be the director. In winter 1905, the Governor-General of Huguang Zhang Zhidong drafted a loan contract with foreign businesses in order to build the Sichuan-Canton-Hankou Railway. The Chu News published the entire draft of the contract and criticized

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it as a humiliating contract. Zhang Zhidong accused the newspaper of “inciting revolution,” and banned the newspaper through the British Consulate. Zhang Hanjie was sentenced to imprisonment for 10 years while Lu Feikui managed to flee to Shanghai. Zhang wrote a letter in defense of himself in prison, and the letter was widely distributed. After four years of imprisonment and many rescue attempts, Zhang was finally released. In this first battle between Wuhan officials and revolutionary newspapermen, Governor-General Zhang Zhidong failed to sign an official loan contract in the end. Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Zheng Jianghao returned to China from Japan in early 1908. In summer of the same year, Zheng Jianghao established the Hubei Daily in Hankou. Gongjinshe members such as Xiang Bingkun, Li Jielian, and Wang Bosen had assisted Zheng Jianghao in the setting up of the newspaper. The newspaper often criticized political matters, and published articles such as “Chinese Newspapers Had Special Benefits in Chinese Official Circles.” In 1909, there was a rumor that a stone dragon appeared in Yichang, and Xiang Bingkun took the opportunity to draw a comic in satire of Huguang Governor-General Chen Kuilong, with the caption “How useless is this stone dragon, it hides in a southern cave and sits with its head held high. It takes the local offerings but does nothing. It is useless even with its claws and teeth. Alas! No wonder it was manipulated by people in everything.” Another comic of a monster is drawn in satire of Zhang Biao, Commander-General of the Eighth Brigade. The caption of the comic read, “Like a tiger yet not a tiger, like a cat yet not a cat. He sleeps with a female beast and eats with rodents. A monster that is neither fish nor fowl.” The caption referred to the fact that Zhang Biao was a former personal attendant of Zhang Zhidong, and Zhang Biao married a servant girl of Zhang Zhidong. Chen Kuilong ordered the newspaper office to be taken over and the imprisonment of Zheng Jianghao and Xiang Bingkun who were accused of “insulting officials.” With the support of the journalism industry, Zheng and Xiang were soon released. After Hubei Daily , Zheng Jianghao set up another newspaper Politics Daily in spring 1911. The newspaper was only in print for a short period of time. It was stopped because it reprinted an article by royalist Kang Youwei, even though it was a revolutionary newspaper. Popular Vernacular News was established in 1909 in Wuchang, and was also called the Wuchang Vernacular News (Wuchang baihua bao 武昌白話報 ). Chen Shaowu, a member of the Army Alliance ( Jundui tongmenghui 軍隊同盟會 ), was the main writer. The then-imprisoned Daily Renewal Society member Li Yadong also

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participated in the planning of the newspaper and wrote articles under the pen name “Shang Yi 上逸 " Qing officials noticed this arrangement and further limited the activities of Li Yadong. This caused a lot of problems for the newspaper and publication soon ceased. Yangtze and Han River Daily and Yangtze Fiction Press were both established by Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Hu Shi’an. Yangtze and Han River Daily was established on March 17, 1908, by Hu Shi’an, Jiang Xuming, and others. Two sheets were printed every day. It was banned on August 15, 1908. Yangtze Fiction Press was a monthly magazine established on May 19, 1909, printed by The Chinese Western Daily News Office (Zhongxi ribao guan yinhang 中西日報 館印行 ). Five issues of different sizes can be located at present. The first issue was printed in thirty-twomo, while the fifth issue was printed in twenty-fourmo. Commercial Post was established on October 8, 1909. It was originally a commercial paper with a mission to discuss commercial matters. The director died from illness. Daily Renewal Society member Wan Siyan sold his patrimony and bought the newspaper in December 1909. The newspaper was renamed Commercial Daily (Shangwu ribao 商務日報 ), with Wan Siyan as the manager and Zhan Dabei as the chief editor. He Haiming, Mei Baoji, Cha Guangfo, Yang Wangpeng, Li Liuru, and others were the editors and writers. Liu Fuji was both the accountant and the publisher. They were all members of the State Affairs Academic Society (Qunzhi xueshe 群 治 學 社 , predecessor of Wenxueshe ), and thus the Commercial Daily became the official newspaper of the State Affairs Academic Society. Funds ran out after a month, and Zhan Dabei sold his property to maintain the newspaper. The State Affairs Academic Society used the newspaper office as a secret point of contact, and firearms were hid in the office. A rice riot broke out in Hunan in April 1910, and the Qing government planned to send the Hubei New Army to repress the riots. The State Affairs Academic Society members decided to take the chance to carry out an uprising, but information leaked. Many of the revolutionaries managed to flee, but publication of the newspaper stopped when the Governor-General of Huguang Rui Zheng requested that the British Consulate take over the office. Strong Wind was a small, daily newspaper established on April 24, 1910 in Hankou by Zhao Kongda and Yang Yuru. Yang Yuru was both a Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member and a backbone member of the Gongjinshe . He was the main writer of the newspaper, and was skilled in using metaphors that did not catch the Qing government’s attention. The newspaper was unregistered and thus taken over by officials not long after it was set up. Another application

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was submitted and publication resumed on May 9. Later, Gongjinshe leaders Liu Gong and Yang Shijie participated in editorial and written work. They used

Strong Wind as their base to promote revolution. Publication stopped after a few months due to a lack of funds. Summer Post was established in Hankou on February 13, 1911 by Gongjinshe member Gao Hansheng. Peng Yimin was the chief editor. The newspaper emphasized “speaking the truth, encouraging the just, reporting the details, providing news rapidly.” Other newspapers reported that Summer Post was quite outspoken and outstanding among the recent newspapers. The newspaper reported on the incestuous relationship between Brigade Commander Xiao Guobin and his sister, and thus Xiao led his army to destroy the newspaper office. The author of the article, Hu Zushun, had to report to the Governor-General of Huguang Rui Zheng that Hu’s personal safety was threatened due to the incident. Rui Zheng had no choice but to deal with the case, and Summer Post was temporarily maintained. However, the newspaper was banned soon after due to their articles. New Vernacular Post was established in August 1911 in Hankou by Yu Cifang. The newspaper caught the attention of the authorities as soon as it was established, as officials thought that the newspaper was the The Great River restarted. On September 2, 1911, officials ordered the newspaper to cease publication, due to its articles that defended the Summer Post , the article “Lamenting the Army,” and the article “Elegy for the One-Month Ban of The Great River .” Yu Cifang argued that all the articles did not violate the newspaper law. Publication was allowed to be resumed after his fight. After the Wuchang Uprising, Yu Cifang became an editor of The Chinese Times . Wuhan was located in central China and the control of the Qing government was stronger in the area than in coastal areas. The concession territories provided little protection for the revolutionary newspapers, thus many publications were prosecuted once they became prominent. The lifespan of most periodicals was short. Yet, the publication of revolutionary periodicals did not cease and continued one after another which showed the determination of the revolutionaries.

Publicity activities by revolutionary periodicals in Beijing and Tianjin The Beijing and Tianjin area was the political center of the Qing government. As a

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result, the control over periodicals was tighter there than in other areas. Although revolutionaries were secretly active in the area since 1905, they could not set up a public official newspaper. In order to pacify internal conflicts and repress the rising revolution movement, Empress Dowager Cixi, in September 1906, ordered the preparation for a constitution, and announced that although power had to be centralized, public debate was allowed to discuss the constitution. The decree provided the legal basis for public newspapers to voice their political views, and thus both royalist and revolutionary newspapers appeared in the Beijing and Tianjin area. Due to the limitations of the area, revolutionary newspapers could not encourage revolution directly like overseas newspapers, and could not directly criticize the government policies like newspapers in concessions. The Beijing and Tianjin newspapers had to pretend that they were in support of the constitution. However, they adopted the method of “reporting all news,” and exposed the corruption of the Qing government and officials, so as to point out that the government was no longer salvageable. The newspapers made use of metaphors and satires to belittle the government and vilify officials. Stories in praise of anti-Qing heroes in late Ming dynasties, as well as nationalistic poems filled the supplements. Such publicity helped make the public sympathize with the revolutionary cause, and set a foundation for the overthrowing of the monarchy. The first revolutionary newspaper in Beijing was Empire Daily (Diguo ribao 帝國日報 ) with Lu Hongkui as the president. Established in December 1909, the newspaper had a mission of “supporting the constitution, directing the discussion, expanding national rights, and expressing political views.” Since Lu Hongkui had close connections with revolutionaries such as Tian Tong, and that there were many revolutionaries among the editors, the newspaper had a revolutionary inclination. In March 1910, Ning Tiaoyuan accepted the newspaper’s invitation and went from Changsha to Beijing to hold the position of chief editor. He managed the writing duties of news reports and current affairs commentaries. His novel Bloodstains for a Nobel Cause (Bi xue heng 碧血痕 ), written while he was in prison, was also serialized in the supplement of the newspaper. Other editors included Bai Yuhuan and Liu Zihe. In winter 1911, Yuan Shikai launched a large-scale arrest of revolutionary party members. Lu Hongkui was afraid of the consequences, and thus merged the newspaper with Great Unity Daily News (Datong ribao 大 同 日 報 ) that was set up by Huan Jun of the royal family. The merged newspaper was renamed Great Unity Empire News (Diguo datong bao 帝國大同報 ). In the end of 1911, the Qing Emperor stepped down and publication of the newspaper ceased.

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Odes of the State Daily (Guofeng ribao 國風日報 ) was a newspaper established by revolutionary party members on February 8, 1911. It was funded by Jing Dingcheng and others, and Bai Yuhuan was the president. Editors included Tian Tong, Cheng Jiacheng, Chou Liang, Jing Dingcheng, Wang Yaru, and Wang Huchen. At the time of establishment there was only a fund of 200 dollars. Bai Yuhuan registered the newspaper with the name Wu Youshi (homophone for “no such person”). With various forms of support, the newspaper became popular within three months of its publication. The mission of the newspaper was “to support the drafting of a real constitution, to promote patriotism, to provide accurate commentaries with a global perspective, to guide the government so that policies do not go astray, and to lead the public so they do not forget their responsibilities.” Odes of the State Daily was accused to be the official newspaper of the revolutionaries not long after its first publication, but the case was dropped due to insufficient evidence. Revolutionaries who were prepared to carry out uprisings in the North, such as Xiong Kewu, Wen Chuheng, Zhang Qiubai, Leng Gongjian, and Chen Ke, had lodged in the newspaper office. The peripheral organization of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance — Allies Corps (Tongzhituan 同志團 ) — had also planned an armed attack on the arsenal in the office. After the Wuchang Uprising, the newspaper fabricated many news articles and telegraphs that encouraged revolution. When the police removed such articles, the news column was left blank, leading readers to think that all news had been censored. As the public became increasingly alarmed, the Qing government promised not to exercise news censorship anymore. Odes of the State Daily then took the chance to forge a large amount of telegraphs and news. When Yuan Shikai became the Prime Minister, he ordered the Beijing police to ban the newspaper. National Light News (Guoguang xinwen 國光新聞 ) was also a newspaper established by revolutionary party members on August 9, 1911. Tian Tong was the editor and publisher, while writers and editors included Jing Dingcheng, Xu Xifeng, Jin Wumu, and Gong Guohuang. After the Wuchang Uprising, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance used the newspaper office to plan a New Army uprising in Luanzhou. Peng Jiazhen also made his preparations in the office before his assassination of the Loyal Society (Zongshedang 宗社黨 ) leader Liang Bi. The Qing government noticed something was amiss and searched the newspaper office. The newspaper was banned after many printed revolutionary notices from the “Hubei Area Commander-in-Chief” were found. However, the Qing government could not trace the revolutionaries as they had moved, and the newspaper was registered under pseudonyms.

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There too, were progressive publications and revolutionary periodicals by

party members in Tianjin before the 1911 Revolution. These included Advice Post

(Zhongyan bao 忠言報 ), Northern Daily (Beifang ribao 北方日報 ), Recover Journal (Kefu xuebao 克復學報 ), Chinese Republic Post (Minguo bao 民國報 ), and Public

Opinion Post (Minyi bao 民意報 ).

There was little record on the Advice Post . It had a revolutionary inclination

and was established in 1909. Its office was situated before a grass hut on the South

Road. Northern Daily was established on May 9, 1910 by Wang Houqi and others.

Although they were not members of the revolutionary party, the newspaper had a

progressive and democratic mission of “monitoring the government and bringing about a republic.” The Governor-General of Zhili and the concession officials

stated that the newspaper was “disrespectful to the imperial court,” and banned it

on the day it was published. The unreasonable ban of the Northern Daily evoked

protests among the journalism industry in the region. The Governor-General of Zhili was forced to agree to the republication of the newspaper. A reception was held in Tianjin News Asia Hotel in celebration of the republication of the

newspaper. More than 100 members of the society attended to the humiliation of the Qing government. Recover Journal was the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance peripheral organization — Recovery Society

(Kefu xuehui 克復學會 ). It was established in 1911 with Li Jizhi as the chief editor.

The newspaper was influential among Tianjin high school students, but only a few issues were published. Chinese Republic Post was established in September

1911 by Ye Fanyu. Zhen Yuanxi was the president while Sun Bingwen was the

chief editor. Editors included Ren Rui and Liang Shuming. Since the editorial board was controlled by revolutionaries, the Chinese Republic Post became the official post of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance when the Beijing and Tianjin Branch was set up in November 1911. The newspaper office was soon moved to

Beijing. Public Opinion Post was directly managed by the deputy chairman of the

Beijing and Tianjin Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance — Li Shizeng.

Editors included Zhao Tieqiao, Zhang Xuan, and Luo Shixu. It was also an official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, and had a mission to encourage “centralized revolution.” It was the most influential revolutionary newspaper in Tianjin around the time of the 1911 revolution.

Beijing and Tianjin were the vital areas of the imperial court. The emergence

of revolutionary papers in the region signified the end of the Qing government.

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Publicity activities by revolutionary periodicals in Other Areas According to current records, there were about 100 types of revolutionary or

revolutionary inclined periodicals in China between 1905 and 1911. Publications

in Shanghai, Hong Kong and Guangzhou, Wuhan, as well as Beijing and Tianjin

accounted for half of these publications. The rest were published in various other provinces and cities. The number did not include the large amount of temporary revolutionary newspapers that emerged after the Wuchang Uprising.

North China The first revolutionary periodical in northern China was the Zhili Vernacular Post

(Zhili baihua bao 直隸白話報 ) established in Baoding, Heibei in January 1905. It

was a bimonthly journal and a total of 14 issues were published. Wu Yue, who was teaching in Liangjiang Public School in Baoding, set up the newspaper to

introduce militaristic national education. Wu Yue went to Beijing in September of

the same year to plan the assassination of the five officials going on a diplomatic

mission to the West to investigate constitutionalism. He was killed in the incident and as a result, publication of the newspaper ceased.

Revolutionary publications of the Shanxi Province were concentrated in Taiyuan.

Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Wang Yongbin was the most active Shanxi newspaperman in this period. He was the chief editor for Jin Academic Journal

(Jin xuebao 晋 學 報 ), Jinyang Vernacular Post (Jinyang baihua bao 晋 陽 白 話 報 ), and Jinyang Public News (Jinyang gongbao 晋 陽 公 報 ). Jin Academic Journal was established in 1906 and was the first private newspaper in Shanxi. Editors and

writers included Guo Kejie and Liang Songguang. When the newspaper was

renamed Jinyang Vernacular Post in 1907, Chinese Revolutionary Alliance

members such as Jing Dingcheng, Liu Mianruo, and Jing Yaoyue also joined in the editorial work. Not long after, the newspaper was banned by officials

for its radical stance. In November 1907, Wang Yongbin made use of the old office of Jin Academic Journal to establish the Jinyang Public News . It was a

three-day periodical, with Liu Mianruo as the manager and Wu Zuanxu, Chou Yuanshu, Zhang Shuzhi, Jiang Huchen, and others as editors and journalists. The newspaper was banned by officials in Spring 1910 with the offence of “inciting revolution” when it reported the massacre of more than a hundred people by

the Shanxi Provincial Governor in the name of destroying opium. Journalists Zhang Shuzhi and Jiang Huchen were arrested while Liu Mianruo was handed over to local officials. Wang Yongbin fled to Japan, but more than 10 people were

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involved by association in the incident. After the restoration of Taiyuan, the military government used the equipment of Bingzhou Official News (Bingzhou guanbao 并州官報 ) to publish the Bingzhou Daily (Bingzhou ribao 并州日報 ). This was the first daily newspaper in Shanxi. Zhang Qifeng was the director, Shi Rongzhang was the manager, while editors included Zhang Langcun and Wang Xijiu. The former staff of Jinyang Public News also established the Shanxi People News (Shanxi minbao 山西民報 ) in winter 1911.

Northeast China The revolutionary publications of northeastern China were mainly concentrated in Shenyang in Liaoning and Changchun in Jilin. The first revolutionary newspaper in Shenyang was the Northeast Provinces People Post (Dongsansheng minbao 東三省民報 ) established around 1908. Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Zhao Zhonghu was both the chief editor and publisher. Zhao was also an influential figure in the Fengtian Province education field. Publication of the newspaper stopped due to financial difficulties. On July 11, 1910, Yuan Kunqiao established the Justice Public News (Dazhong gong bao 大中公報 ), which had a Fengtian Province Catholic background. Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Shen Ganruo was hired as the chief editor. Two sheets were printed daily. The newspaper emphasized reporting on political events, and exposed the hypocritical nature of the Qing government’s constitutional preparation. The newspaper office was destroyed by thugs in January 1911 because the paper exposed how the Police Disease Prevention Unit ravaged the public. Justice Public News became more radical after its republication, and started the “Three Thousand Mausers” column which criticized current affairs with strong words. The Qing government did not ban the newspaper, fearing that such an action would offend the church. Voice of the Public (Minsheng bao 民聲報 ) was a daily paper established in Shenyang on July 10, 1911. It had a mission to “enlighten the public, correct the folk customs, encourage the public spirit, expand public rights, and express public opinions.” The Shanghai Min Li Pao once advertised for the newspaper, implying that Voice of the Public was also inclined to the revolution. Northeast Provinces Daily (Dongsansheng ribao 東三省日報 ) was originally a government-business joint venture. On August 30, 1911, it became a wholly private newspaper, and changes in editorial work were carried out. Not long after, the newspaper office was destroyed by thugs as the newspaper encouraged independence and wrote in favor of a republic.

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After the Wuchang Uprising, revolutionary Zhang Rong established the Citizen Paper (Guomin bao 國 民 報 ) in Shenyang. Editorial work was managed by Yang Dashi, Zhao Yuanshou, Tian Youheng, and others. The newspaper encouraged a republic jointly built by Manchus and Hans. Local officials could not ban the newspaper as the revolutionary force had become very powerful. However, publication stopped when Zhang Rong and Tian Youheng were assassinated by Zhang Zuolin. The first revolutionary newspaper in Jilin was Changchun Daily News (Changchun ribao 長春日報 ) established in 1909. It was managed by Jiang Datong and the main writers were Xu Zhuping and Dong Gengyun. They were all members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Publication was intermittent, and the newspaper was renamed Changchun Times (Changchun shibao 長春 時報 ) for a period. In February 1910, the newspaper was involved in the case of Xiong Chengji. Xu Zhuping was arrested and Jiang Datong was forced to flee. Publication of the newspaper thus ceased. Publication resumed in 1911, but it was finally banned due to radical opinions. Between 1910 and 1911, a revolutionary newspaper Changchun Public Post (Changchun gongbao 長春公報 ) was also published in the region, and existing copies of the paper can currently be found in the Shanghai Library.

Northwest China The first revolutionary periodical in northwest China, Xingping Post (Xingping bao 興平報 ), was established in Xingping, Shaanxi in 1909. It was a weekly publication with Zhang Ruiji as the chief editor. It was later moved to Xi’an, and renamed Xingping Weekly (Xingping xinqibao 興 平 星 期 報 ). Publication was suspended for a while before the journal was renamed Empire Post (Dizhou bao 帝州報 ) and republished in 1910. Publication lasted until after the Wuchang Uprising. The semimonthly Essays on Kindness (Lize suibi 麗 澤 隨 筆 ) was published by Xi’an Jingyang Hall. It was reorganized in 1910 with a new issue order. Editors included Guo Xiren, Wang Mingdan, He Fuzhi. It exposed the corruption of the Qing government and publicized democratic revolution. Other Shaanxi revolutionary publications included Words from the Shengduo Commune (Shengduo gongshe zhiyan 聲 鐸 公 社 質 言 ) established in 1910, as well as Tun

Society Journal (Tunshe xuetan 暾 社 學 談 ) and Restoration Academic Journal (Guangfu xuebo 光復學報 ) established in 1911. Revolutionaries published the Lli Vernacular Post (Yili baihuabao 伊犁白話報 ) in Huiyuan, Xinjiang in March 1910. This was the first and only newspaper in the

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region before the 1911 Revolution. Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Feng Temin was the chief editor, while editors included Zheng Fanglu and Li Xiaofeng. The newspaper was published in four languages: Han Chinese, Manchu, Mongolian, and Uyghur. Later, the Qing government banned the newspaper, saying that it ridiculed current affairs and spoke untruths.

East China The mimeographed revolutionary paper Jinan Vernacular Post (Jinan baihuabao 濟南白話報 ) emerged in the Shangdong area as early as in 1906. The publication was established and edited by Chinese Revolutionary Alliance members such as Liu Guansan, Wang Ne, Ding Gengnong, and Wang Zhuchen. It was banned not long after. Bohai Daily (Bohai ribao 渤海日報 ) was established by the Yantai academia. Editorial work was managed by Li Fengwu, Qi Feinan, Ding Zhouchu, and others. It was a publicity machine and secret communication base for the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Eastern Wind (Dongchui bao 東吹報 ) was another periodical in Yantai that encouraged overthrowing the Qing Dynasty. It was quite influential despite its short-lived publication. Qingdao Times (Qingdao shibao 青島時報 ) was established in the Qingdao German concession in 1908. It promoted antiQing sentiments and criticized the Qing government as a factory that produced corruption. Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces were located near Shanghai, thus most revolutionary periodicals were published in the Shanghai International Settlement, and there were few local publications. Zhang Gong established the New Green Paper (Cuixin bao 萃新報 ) in Jinhua in 1904, but the paper was quickly banned. In September 1911, Ningbo Martial Arts Branch Society (Ningbo shangwu fenhui 寧波尚武分會 ) established the Wind of Martial Arts (Wufeng guchui 武風鼓 吹 ), which was also known as the Martial Arts Society Journal (Shangwuhui xunkan 尚武會旬刊 ). It had a mission “to explain martial morals and encourage martial arts, so that the people will be united in fighting enemies and have the qualities of citizens in a military state.” The chief editor Zhang Zi was relatively influential among students. Before the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, Chen Duxiu and Fang Zhiwu had already established the Anhui Common Saying Newspaper (Anhui suhuabao 安徽俗話報 ) in Wuhu, Anhui. In winter 1911, the Wanjiang Daily (Wanjiang ribao 皖江日報 ) was established. Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Chen Zifan was the main writer, and had published many articles publicizing

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the revolution. The supplement of the newspaper also published many poems with anti-Qing sentiments, such as “The poor cows and horses were so innocent, that they shared the stables in peace for 200 years.” In 1908, the Anhui Popular Post (Anhui tongsu gongbao 安徽通俗公報 ) was established in Anqing. It was managed by Han Yan while editors included Chen Baixu, Sun Yangqu, and Gao Yuhan. Main writer Han Yan was stabbed in November 1910 for supporting a farmers’ riot and for exposing the officials’ sale of mine rights. Publication of the newspaper was thus suspended. In December of the same year, thugs destroyed the newspaper office and warned the publishing house to never print the newspaper again. In winter 1911, the military governments of Hefei and Wuhu were established. They funded 2,000 dollars to publish the Anhui Daily (Anhui ribao 安徽日報 ). Li Gongcai was the general manager while Xia Yinnong was the chief editor. The newspaper publicized the revolutionary platform of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Revolutionaries established the Autonomy Daily (Zizhi ribao 自治日報 ) and Jiangxi People Post (Jiangxi minbao 江 西 民 報 ) in Nanchang around 1910. Wu Zhongci was the chief editor for both newspapers. Gan Post (Ganbao 贛報 ) was published in Ganzhou in 1911. It was the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance peripheral organization — Gan Academic Society (Gan xuehui 贛學會 ). The Fujian Branch of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance established the official newspaper Suggestions Paper (Jianyan bao 建 言 報 ) in Fuzhou in January 1911. Three issues were published each week, and editors included Zhang Haishan, Liu Tong, Lin Sichen, and Huang Guangbi. Some royalists participated in the newspaper when it was first set up, so it once supported the constitution. However, such ties were soon cut and the newspaper supported the revolution. Another revolutionary paper Nanxing Tribune (Nanxing bao 南興報 ) was also established in Xiamen in 1911. It was directed by Zhang Haishan.

South Central China After failed uprisings in Pingxiang, Liuyang, and Liling, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance placed their emphasis in South China and strengthened publicity in Guangdong and Guangxi. Other than in Guangzhou, a revolutionary publication Zhonghua New Post (Zhonghua xinbao 中華新報 ) was established in April 1908 in Shantou. Ye Chucang was the main writer. Chen Qubing and others were wanted by Qing officials then because they assembled in memory of Qiu Jin. They fled to Shantou and worked for the Zhonghua New Post . The newspaper

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was banned in June 1911 for commenting on Wen Shengcai’s assassination of the Guangzhou General.

Lingdong Daily (Lingdong ribao 嶺東日報 ), set up by progressive people from Shantou, had been in print for many years. It became increasingly inclined towards the revolution and publication stopped in 1908. Dongguan Ten-day Post (Dongguan xunbao 東莞旬報 ) was established in Dongguan in July 1908 while Xiangshan Ten-day Post (Xiangshan xunbao 香山旬報 ) was established in Xiangshan in September 1908. Both newspapers were run by revolutionaries and strengthened the revolution publicity in southern Guangdong. There were many revolutionary publications in Guangxi in this period too. In Guilin, there were the People’s Bell Daily (Minduo ribao 民鐸日報 ) established in 1908; Tide of Li River (Lijiang chao 灕 江 潮 ) and Duxiu Mountain (Duxiufeng 獨秀峰 ) established in 1909; Militarism Guide (Junguo zhinan 軍國指南 ), Martial Arts Post (Wuxue bao 武學報 ), and South Post (Nanbao 南報 ) in 1910; and South Wind Post (Nanfeng bao 南風報 ) in 1911. After 1907, Guangxi Daily (Guangxi ribao 廣西日報 ), Wuzhou Daily (Wuzhou ribao 梧州日報 ), and Wujiang Daily (Wujiang ribao 梧江日報 ) were published in succession in Wuzhou. These periodicals were not in-print for long. The most influential papers were the official newspapers of the Guangxi Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance — South Post and South Wind Post . Zhao Zhengping was the chief editor for both newspapers. South Post was banned after issue four due to its radical opinions, and it was renamed South Wind Post and republished in February 1911. It encouraged revolution until the restoration of Guangxi. There were comparatively fewer revolutionary publications in Henan and Hunan. The official newspaper of the Henan Branch of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was the only one of its kind in the region. Named the National Paper (Guoshi bao 國是報 ), it was established in spring 1911 in Kaifeng with Liu Jixue as the chief editor. There was a revolutionary paper Slang Daily (Liyu ribao 俚語 日報 ) in Changsha, Hunan, before the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Song Haiwen was the president. After the newspaper was banned for distributing revolutionary pamphlets, there were no more revolutionary publications in the region. It was only after the Wuchang Uprising that the Hunan Han Post (Xiangsheng daHan bao 湘省大漢報 ) was published in Changsha. It branched off from the Hankou Great Han Post (DaHan bao 大漢報 ), and was renamed the Han People’s Post (DaHan minbao 大漢民報 ) from the eighth issue onwards. The Han People’s Post was managed by Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Yang Zongshi. Editors included Li Renmin, Liu Bi, and Liu Daying.

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The newspaper office was destroyed by soldiers after the newspaper exposed a scandal of Wang Longzhong, the Division Commander of the Fourth Hunan Division. Thus, publication was forced to stop in March 1912.

Southwest China The Universal Progressive Journal (Guangyi congbao 廣 益 叢 報 ) was published in Congqing, Sichuan as early as April 1903. It was a 10-day, comprehensive periodical that included many perspectives, and was established by Zhu Yunzhang, Yang Shukan, and others. They later became revolutionaries, and the journal became increasingly inclined towards the revolution after 1905. In September 1904, a radical newspaper Chungking Daily (Chongqing ribao 重慶日報 ) was established by Bian Xiaowu. Bian Xiaowu hired his Japanese friend Takekawa Fujitaro as the president of the newspaper, and thus the Qing government did not carry out any action. When Takekawa returned to Japan in April 1905, Bian Xiaowu was arrested and the newspaper was banned. No other revolutionary publications were established. It was not until after the Wuchang Uprising that revolutionary publications such as Citizen Paper (Guominbao 國民報 ), Great Han Memorabilia (HuangHan dashiji 皇漢大事記 ), and Republican Daily (Gonghe ribao 共和日報 ) appeared in Chengdu and Chongqing. Most periodicals of Yunnan were concentrated in Kunming. Since 1905, revolutionary newspapers such as Yunnan Daily News (Yunnan ribao 雲南日報 ), Voice of Justice (Yisheng bao 義聲報 ), Public Opinion Paper (Minyi bao 民意報 ), Weekly Post (Xingqi bao 星期報 ), and Yunnan Public Paper (Yunnan gongbao 雲 南 公 報 ) were established in succession. Just before the restoration of Yunnan in 1911, the Yunnan revolutionary organization Citizen Society (Guominhui 國民會 ) joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Citizens’ Voice (Guomin huabao 國民 話報 ), which was originally established by the Citizen Society and it became the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. The newspaper office was also a secret base for planning armed uprisings. The first newspaper in Guizhou, Guizhou Tribune (Qian bao 黔 報 ), was established on June 8, 1907. The newspaper was once inclined towards the revolution under the leadership of editor and publisher Zhou Peiyi. In 1909, Zhou resigned from his positions due to pressure from his colleagues. Since then, the Guizhou Tribune took an oppositional stance towards the revolution. Guizhou Autonomous Academic Society (Guizhou zizhi xueshe 貴州自治學社 ) was the main revolutionary organization in the region. It established an internal publication Autonomous Academic Society Magazine in 1907. However, print

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runs were small and the magazine had little impact on the society. Publication stopped soon after. In 1909, the society established the West-South Daily News

(Xinan ribao 西南日報 ) with Zhang Bailin as the chief editor. Editors included Zhou

Peiyi, Xu Geshu, and Huang Zelin. The West-South Daily News had a greater influence, and carried out fierce polemics with the Guizhou Tribune .

In all, revolutionary publications could be found all over China. Although

they were banned and prosecuted, new publications were continuously established, depicting the determination of the revolutionaries.

The Rise of the Constitutional Movement and the Publications in Support of It Facing the threat of a flourishing revolution after the establishment of the

Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, the Qing government was forced to announce its “Preparation for Constitutionalism” in 1906. In 1907, the Qing government

established Central Advisory Councils and Advisory Bureaus, which had

characteristics of the parliament, in the central government and in various provinces. In 1908, it promulgated the Outline of Imperial Constitution (Qinding

Xianfa Dagang 欽定憲法大綱 ) which stated that a parliament would be set up after nine years. These policies were political measures taken to salvage the crumbling monarchy. The policies were supported by royalists and reformists overseas and in the country, led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. Together, they formed a huge Constitutional Movement and established many publications in support of the constitution. Such publications could be classified into three main categories: publications of the Chinese Empire Reform Association under the direct control of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao; publications established by various constitutional organizations in the country; and publications established by individual supporters of the constitution.

Constitutional periodicals under the control of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao The reformists, led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, were the leaders of the

Constitutional Movement. The Qing government announced its “Preparation for Constitutionalism” on September 1, 1906. On October 21 of the same year, Kang

Youwei announced the renaming of the Chinese Empire Reform Association to

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the Citizen Constitutionalism Association (Guomin xianzheng hui 國民憲政會 ). It was renamed the Imperial Constitutionalism Association (Diguo xianzheng hui 帝 國 憲 政 會 ) soon after. Official newspapers of the Chinese Empire Reform Association, such as Chinese Reform News (Zhongguo weixin bao 中國維新報 ) in New York, Mon Hing Po (Wenxing bao 文興報 ), New China Press in Honolulu, Tung Wah Times in Sydney, Nanyang Union Times in Singapore, New Citizen Journal in Yokohama, Commercial Daily in Hong Kong, and Eastern Times in Shanghai, became official newspapers of the Citizen Constitutionalism Association. They continued to encourage royalism and constitutionalism. However, most of these publications were established overseas, and Eastern Times was not under the direct leadership of Kang and Liang. Thus Kang and Liang decided to establish other periodicals in China, so as to strengthen their voices in the Constitutional Movement. The main periodicals set up by Liang Qichao during this period included Political Discussion (Zhenglun 政論 ), Odes of the State Post (Guofeng bao 國風報 ), and Kwok Sze Po (Guoshi bao 國事報 ). Political Discussion was a monthly publication established in Shanghai in October 1907 under Liang Qichao’s plans. In winter 1906, Liang Qichao had contacted Yang Du, Jiang Zhiyou, Xu Fosu, Xiong Xiling, and others to organize a political party. Liang Qichao returned to Shanghai in June 1907 to make preparations, and decided to first establish a newspaper as the mouthpiece of this future party. He planned to first place equal efforts on developing the newspaper and the party, but he gradually placed emphasis on the party. On October 17, 1907, the Political News Agency (Zhengwenshe 政聞社 ), with a mission to urge the Qing government to establish a parliament, was set up in Tokyo. At the same time, the official newspaper of the Political News Agency — Political Discussion — was established in Shanghai with Jiang Zhiyou as the chief editor. Jiang Zhiyou was also named Guanyun. He was born in Haining, Zhejiang. He went to Japan to further his studies in 1991. He was originally inclined towards the revolution, and had joined revolutionary organizations such as Education Association of China and the Restoration Society. He had also published poems in praise of the revolution. However, he lost confidence in the revolution, and gradually became a reformist. Jiang Zhiyou published many poems and essays in The China Discussion (Qingyi bao 清議報 ) and New Citizen Journal (Xinmin congbao 新民叢報 ), winning the recognition of Liang Qichao. In 1907, Jiang Zhiyou participated actively in the organization of the Political News Agency and became an assistant of Liang Qichao. Since Liang could not openly

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carry out activities in China, Jiang Zhiyou volunteered to become the chief editor of Political Discussion . The mission of Political Discussion was to “establish a parliamentary system and build a responsible government.” It published articles such as “Manifesto of Political News Agency,” “Major Policies for China after Reform,” “Parliament and Political Parties,” “Two Major Reasons for Constitutionalism,” “On Political Parties,” and “Evolution of Society and Nation.” Most of these articles were written by Liang Qichao and Jiang Zhiyou. They stressed repeatedly in their articles that the “Political News Agency had no intention to disrespect the monarchy, the association and had no intention to disrupt the law and order of the country.”48 At the same time, the newspaper published suggestions for the Qing government on issues such as building a parliamentary system, regional autonomy, national finance, diplomacy, and currency. Yet the Qing government did not appreciate their efforts. It ordered the Ministry of Civil Affairs and Provincial Governors to ban the newspaper and arrest related personnel under the crimes of “inciting chaos” and “disturbing law and order.”49 Thus, publication of the Political Discussion stopped after just seven issues. The ban of Political Discussion came as a blow for Liang Qichao and caused him “to fall into desolation” where he made a living “only out of reading and writing.”50 After Advisory Bureaus were set up in various provinces in October 1909, people began to petition for a parliament. This helped Liang Qichao recover from the blow and plan for a new publication. Odes of the State Post was established on February 20, 1910 in Shanghai. He Guozhen was listed as the publisher, but the actual leader of the newspaper was Liang Qichao. Tang Juedun and Mai Menghua assisted in editorial work. Odes of the State Post was a large-scale 10-day publication. Each issue contained about 80,000 words with more than 100 pages. There were 14 columns including “Imperial Decree,” “Analysis,” “Commentaries on Current Affairs,” “Translated Works,” “Investigation,” and “Chronicles.” The periodical had a mission of “advising the government, reporting news, teaching world knowledge, and encouraging healthy discussion.”51 The manuscripts of each issue were confirmed by Liang Qichao in Japan before they were sent to print in Shanghai. More than half of the articles were written by Liang Qichao. The newspaper published articles such as “Warning Citizens on the Deadline of Setting up a Parliament,” “Parliament and Duty,” “Cabinet Collective Responsibility and Politicians,” and “Advice for China’s Industrialists.” On one hand, it provided suggestions for problems of constitutionalism, such as problems of parliament, cabinet, officials,

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legal system, currency, diplomacy, and industries. On the other hand, it led the Constitutional Movement both theoretically and in actual actions. When the Odes of the State Post was first published, it used relatively moderate words in an attempt to urge the Qing government to draw up a constitution and set up a parliament. Yet the Qing government delayed the constitutional deadline repeatedly. After November 1910, the Odes of the State Post became increasingly radical. When Liang Qichao recalled the periodical in 1912, he said, “The call for a parliament was strong throughout the country, yet the government delayed action again and again. I was infuriated and wailed through the newspaper, saying that if the situation did not change, the era name of Xuantong would disappear from the world dictionary. Looking back, that had become a prophecy.”52 A total of 53 issues of the Odes of the State Post were published. Publication stopped after the Wuchang Uprising. Kwok Sze Po was a daily newspaper established in September 1906 in Guangzhou. Content included edicts, public notices, special letters, news from the Magistrate’s Office, news in the province, news from Beijing, international news, and supplements. Xu Qin was the director while the main writers included Li Yanyiu, Li Yonhsi, Wu Bodian, and Chen Liukan. The newspaper was an important mouthpiece of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao before the 1911 revolution. The newspaper was conservative and had little substantial content. It once serialized articles such as “Quotes of Famous Officials from Resurging States as Officials’ Code of Conduct.” After the announcement of constitutionalism by the Qing government, the newspaper also published news such as “Kwok Sze Po Congratulates the Constitutional Ceremony.” The supplement also published “Four Songs to Celebrate the Constitution,” with one of them stating, “With Great Unity comes a legendary emperor, who set up a cabinet. The country will last 10,000 years, the dragons will raise their heads. The upper and lower houses will expand, the emperor will hold his power. Ah! The emperor and the people will strive together, the emperor will hold his power.” After the failure of the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt, Kwok Sze Po accused the revolutionaries of disrupting law and order and that they had no place in the era of constitionalism. 53 As Kwok Sze Po held a stubborn royalist stance, it was attacked fiercely by revolutionary newspapers since its establishment. A media feud over the problem of constitutionalism broke out and lasted until the 1911 Revolution. After the independence of Guangdong, Kwok Sze Po admitted their mistakes through a notice outside its office, and continued to publish.

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Other than Political Discussion , Odes of the State Post , and Kwok Sze Po ,

Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao also planned to establish daily newspapers in Wuhan, Beijing, and Shanghai. However, these plans were never realized due to various reasons.

Constitutional publications established by various constitutional organizations in China After the Qing government announced its “Preparation for Constitutionalism” in 1906, many capitalist constitutional organizations were established around

the country. They worked closely with Kang Youwei’s and Liang Qichao’s Imperial Constitutionalism Association and Political News Agency that were overseas. Together, they pushed forward the Constitutional Movement in

China. Some of the main bourgeois constitutional organizations included the

Constitutional Preparation Guild (Yubei lixian gonghui 預備立憲公會 ) organized by constitutionalists from Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Fujian in 1906; the Parliament

Petition Comrades (Guohui qingyuan tongzhihui 國 會 請 願 同 志 會 , also known as the Advisory Bureau Union, Ziyiju lianhehui 諮 議 局 聯 合 會 ) organized by the Advisory Bureau representatives of 16 provinces in 1908; Friends of the

Constitution (Xianyouhui 憲友會 ) organized by some members of the Parliament Petition Comrades in 1911; Constitutional Progress Society (Xianzheng shijinhui 憲政實進會 ) organized by selected members of the Central Advisory Council in 1911; and the 1911 Club (Xinhai julebu 辛亥俱樂部 ) organized by officials in the

Central Advisory Council in 1911. Moreover, there were Constitutional Unions,

Constitutional Preparation Associations, and Autonomy Societies in various provinces. These organizations fought for political positions in the future, and thus established publications to publicize the constitutional monarchy.

The main periodicals established by nation-wide constitutional organizations

included:

Constitutional Preparation Guild Post (Yubei lixian gonghui bao 預備立憲公會報 ) was a semimonthly periodical established in Shanghai in February 1908. Meng Zhaochang was the chief editor. Since organizers of the Constitutional Preparation Guild, such as Zhang Jiang, Meng Zhaochang, Zheng Xiaoxu, Tang Shouqian, and Leifen were all famous people in the political, industrial, and academic fields, the periodical was strong with ample funds. Constitutional Preparation Guild Post was later moved and published in Beijing, and was renamed Constitution Daily (Xianzhi rikan 憲志日刊 ).

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New Records of Constitutionalism (Xianzheng xinzhi 憲政新誌 ) was a monthly publication established in Tokyo in September 1909. It was organized by the Advisory Bureau Affairs Investigation Committee, with Zhang Jialin and Wu Guanyin as the chief editors. The publication mainly investigated the powers and policy administration of the central and provincial governments, and urged improvements using the powers of the Advisory Bureau. National Gazette (Guomin gongbao 國民公報 ) was established in Beijing in July 1910. It was originally the official newspaper of the Parliament Petition Comrades, with Xu Fosu as the chief editor. After the Parliament Petition Comrades reorganized themselves as the Friends of the Constitution in 1911, provincial representatives agreed to let Xu Fosu run the newspaper on his own. After the establishment of the Republic of China, the newspaper once again came under the control of the Progressive Party (Jinbudang 進步黨 ) and the Research Clique (Yanjiuxi 研究系 ). The newspaper was finally banned by the Duan Qirui government on October 25, 1919. Chief editor Xu Fosu was born in Hunan. He joined the China Revival Society in his early days, and was arrested with Huang Xing after a failed attempt at organizing a Changsha uprising. Xu fled to Japan after he was released and gave up his revolutionary ideals to become a royalist. He had actively written articles for the New Citizen Journal and was recognized by Liang Qichao. Xu Fosu joined the Political News Agency in 1907 and was appointed as a standing committee member of the Shanghai branch. He assisted Liang Qichao in establishing the Political Discussion and in planning daily newspapers in Wuhan, Beijing, and Shanghai. After the ban of the Political News Agency, Xu Fosu followed Liang’s orders and contacted constitutionalists in China to publicize the setting up of a parliament. He also established the National Gazette . The National Gazette was not only the official newspaper of the Parliament Petition Comrades, it was also the communication hub of Liang Qichao which was used to contact other constitutional organizations, and the platform for Liang to voice his opinions. Liang Qichao would on average send an article to the newspaper every three to four days. The National Gazette on one hand criticized the Qing government and encouraged constitutionalism. On the other hand, the newspaper office was a meeting place for various provincial representatives and petition groups.54 It was the headquarters of the Constitutional Movement during the period. Central Advisory Council Public Post (Zizhengyuan gongbao 資政院公報 ) was established in Beijing in September 1911 by the Central Advisory Council Secretariat. Publication stopped in November of the same year.

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Periodicals established by regional constitutional organizations could be found in provinces such as Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Shanghai, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Henan, and Liaoning. Periodicals in Sichuan included Sichuan Post (Shu Post 蜀 報 ), Trend of Sichuan Magazine (Shufeng zazhi 蜀風雜誌 ), The West Post (Xigu bao 西顧報 ), Vernacular Journal (Baihuabao 白話報 ), Enlightenment Pictorial (Qizhi huabao 啟智畫報 ), and Reports of the Sichuan Railway Protection Comrades (Sichuan baolu tongzhihui baogao 四川保路同志會報告 ). Sichuan Post was a semimonthly publication established in Chengdu in August 1910 by the Sichuan Society for a Constitutional Empire (Sichuan Xianzhenghui 四川憲政會 ) and Legal Studies Association (Faxue yanjiuhui 法學研究會 ). It was funded by members of the Sichuan Advisory Bureau. The president was Pu Dianjun, who was also the President of the Sichuan Advisory Bureau and a famous constitutionalist. Thus, the newspaper was seen as an official mouthpiece of the Sichuan Advisory Bureau. Zhu Shan was the chief editor, while the editors and writers included Wu Yu and Deng Xiaoke. The Sichuan Post urged for the early setting up of the parliament, a realization of a constitutional monarchy, and the formation of a constitutional party. It published articles such as “On the Sichuan People’s Apathy Towards the Petition for a Parliament,” and “Sichuan People Should Exhaust Their Dedication, Wisdom, and Power to Assist Constitutionalism.” A total of 22 issues were published. The publication was banned on September 7, 1911 by Zhao Erfeng, the Governor-General of Sichuan. Trend of Sichuan Magazine , The West Post , Vernacular Journal , and Enlightenment Pictorial were all official newspapers of the Sichuan Railway Protection Comrades. They were also funded by the association. The chief editor of Trend of Sichuan Magazine was Deng Xiaoke, the chief editor of Vernacular Journal was Jiang Xulun, while the chief editors of The West Post were Advisory Bureau members Chi Ruqian and Du Wanqing. Moreover, the Sichuan Railway Protection Comrades also printed pamphlets such as Reports of the Sichuan Railway Protection Comrades with print runs of 50,000 to 60,000 copies. These publications were all established in Chengdu during the popular movement against the nationalization of Sichuan railways in 1911. They were sold throughout the province. The publications tried to control the popular movement within the limits of the “legal and civilized protection of railways.” They requested participants to focus on the abolishment of the railway contract and the protection of railway rights, without touching on other issues. 55 Yet, the Governor-General of Sichuan Zhao Erfeng still could not tolerate them. On

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September 7, 1911, Zhao Erfeng suppressed the Railway Protection Movement with the military police, and the newspapers were banned as well. In the end, the popular movement escalated into armed uprisings, thus speeding up the fall of the Qing government. Guizhou Tribune and Guizhou Public Post (Guizhou gongbao 貴 州 公 報 ) were official newspapers of the Guizhou Constitutional Preparation Society (Xianzheng yubeihui 憲政預備會 ). Guizhou Tribune was established on July 17, 1907 in Guiyang. It was originally a comprehensive publication established by enthusiastic gentries with a mission to enlighten the public. Zhou Peiyi was the chief editor. After the establishment of the Guizhou Constitutional Preparation Society in 1909, the Guizhou Tribune gradually became the official newspaper of the society. It was managed by constitutionalists such as Ren Kecheng, Tang Eryong, and Chen Tingfen. Zhou Peiyi was ostracized and thus resigned from the newspaper. Guizhou Public Post was established in Guiyang in 1909 and was an official newspaper for the Constitutional Preparation Society from the beginning. It worked closely with the Guizhou Tribune and encouraged a constitutional monarchy. Simultaneously, the newspapers carried out a fierce polemic with the revolutionary West-South Daily News . Guangdong Regional Autonomy Research Records (Guangdong difang zizhi yanjiulu 廣東地方自治研究錄 ) was established in September 1906 in Guangzhou by the Guangdong Regional Autonomy Research Society (Guangdong difang zizhi yanjiulhui 廣 東 地 方 自 治 研 究 會 ). Lu Naizhong and Mo Mingqiu were the chief editors while editors included Ye Xiasheng and Luo Hongxiang. It was active in publicizing the constitution and the Advisory Bureau election. Guangdong Regional Autonomy Research Records published articles that praised the preparation for constitutionalism, such as “On the Relationship between Autonomous Societies and the Country,” and “Comparison of the Election Criteria of the Advisory Bureau and the Criteria of a Citizen.” In Shanghai, there were the Official Newspaper of the Preparation for Constitution (Yubei lixian guanhuabao 預備立憲官話報 ), established by the Shanghai Constitutional Preparation Society (Shanghai yubei lixianshe 上海預備立憲社 ), and the Constitutionalism Magazine (Xianzheng zazhi 憲政雜誌 ), established by the Shanghai Constitutionalism Research Society (Shanghai zhengxian yanjiuhui 上海政 憲研究會 ). Both were established in December 1906. There were three constitutional publications in Hubei. Constitutionalism Vernacular Post (Xianzheng baihuabao 憲政白話報 ) was established in Hankou in January 1910 by the Comrades Petitioning for the Early Setting Up of Parliament

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(Qingyuan sukai guohui tongzhihui 請 願 速 開 國 會 同 志 會 ). Hubei Autonomy Public Post (Hubei zizhi gongbao 湖北自治公報 ) and Hubei Regional Autonomy

Vernacular Post (Hubei difang zizhi baihuabao 湖 北 地 方 自 治 白 話 報 ) were established in Wuchang in October 1910 by the Hubei Autonomy Preparation Office (Hubei zizhi choubeichu 湖北自治籌備處 ). In Hunan, there were the Hunan Regional Autonomy Vernacular Post (Hunan difang zizhi baihuabao 湖南地方自治白話報 ) and the Changsha Regional Autonomy Vernacular Post (Changsha difang zizhi baihuabao 長 沙 地 方 自 治 白話報 ). Hunan Regional Autonomy Vernacular Post was established by Hunan Autonomy Preparation Office (Hunan difang zizhi choubeichu 湖 南 自 治 籌 備 處 ) in February 1910. Changsha Regional Autonomy Vernacular Post was established by Changsha Autonomy Preparation Governing Office (Changsha chouban zizhi gongsuo 長 沙 籌 辦 自 治 公 所 ) in September 1910. There were also the Ningxiang Autonomy Vernacular Post (Ningxiang zizhi baihuabao 寧鄉自治白話報 ) established by the Ningxiang Autonomy Preparation Governing Office (Ningxiang chouban zizhi gongsuo 寧 鄉 籌 辦 自 治 公 所 ) and the Hengshan Vernacular Autonomy Post established by the Hengshan Preaching Hall (Hengshan xuanjiangsuo 衡山宣講所 ). These publications all encouraged regional autonomous rule. Jiangxi Advisory Bureau Daily (Jiangxi ziyiju huiqi rikan 江西諮議局會期日刊 ) was established in Nanjing on October 4, 1910. Henan Autonomy Post (Henan zizhibao 河南自治報 ) was established in Kaifeng in 1910 by Henan Autonomy Preparation Office (Henan difang zizhi choubeichu 河南自治籌備處 ). Methods for Fengtian Autonomy (Fengtian zizhi banfa 奉 天 自 治 辦 法 ) was established in Shangyang by the Fengtian Province Regional Autonomy Preparation Office (Fengtian quansheng difang zizhi choubeichu 奉天全省地方自 治籌備處 ).

Publications established by individual supporters of the constitution During this period, publications established by individual constitutionalists could be found both overseas and in the country. They formed a strong publicity

team for constitutional monarchy. Some were old reformist periodicals published

before the “Preparation for Constitutionalism” announcement in 1906, but most

were established after 1906 to encourage constitutionalism. The publishers had different backgrounds too. Some were constitutionalists influenced by Kang

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Youwei and Liang Qichao, some were progressive Manchus, while some were Westernization reformists close to government officials. The main overseas constitutional periodicals included: Window Post (Youbao 牖報 ), The New World of Translation , Japan New Journal (Dongyang xinbao 東洋 新 報 ), and China New Post (Zhongguo xinbao 中 國 新 報 ) published in Tokyo; Golden Port Daily (Jingang ribao 金港日報 ) in San Francisco; New York Daily (Niuyue ribao 紐 約 日 報 ) in New York; Mexico Morning Post (Moxige zhaobao 墨西哥朝報 ) in Mexico; and Bird Island Post (Niaodao ribao 鳥島日報 ) in Java. Among them, the most influential was the China New Post established by Yang Du on January 20, 1907. Yang Du (1874—1931) had a courtesy name of Zhezi and a pseudonym of Hugong. He was born in Xiangtan, Hunan, and he was a juren in the late Qing era. He studied in Japan twice in 1902 and 1903, and participated in editorial work for Translated Materials from Study Tours . At the same time, he also published poems and articles in New Citizen Journal , and was a famous commentator among overseas Chinese students in Japan. However, he neither participated in Sun Yat-sen’s Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, nor did he join the Chinese Empire Reform Association of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. He was once invited to draft the report for the five imperial officials sent to study constitutionalism abroad. He was also appointed as the Supervisor of the Constitution Drafting Department, and participated actively in the Preparation for Constitution. After the 1911 Revolution, Yang Du was a member of the National Council, and supported Yuan Shikai as the Emperor. He finally gave up his ideas of constitutional monarchy in his old age, and joined the Communist Party of China. New Citizen Journal was a monthly constitutional journal established by Yang Du in his early days. It was printed in Tokyo but also published in Shanghai. The journal consisted mainly of political commentaries, and other than Yang Du, writers also included constitutionalists such as Xue Dake, Gu Zhongxiu, Hu Maoru, and Fang Biao. They advocated the Preparation for Constitutionalism and the early setting up of parliament. Yang Du wrote and published a representative article “Gold and Iron Ideologies.” The article stated that China should have both gold (economy) and iron (military) ideologies and become an economic and military power so as to break away from the control of foreign powers. Moreover, Manchus were Chinese too, so there was no need for anti-Manchu sentiments. Both the democratic system and the monarchy system could work, but the emphasis should be on reforming politics, drawing up the constitution, setting up a parliament, and building a responsible government. For these purposes,

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Yang Du was preparing to organize a political party then. He established the publication as publicity preparation for his party. In January 1908, Yang Du returned to China to take up a fourth rank official position.56 Publication of the New Citizen Journal stopped after nine issues. Main constitutional periodicals published in China included: Jinghua Daily (Jinghua ribao 京話日報 ), Zhonghua Post (Zhonghua bao 中華報 ), Constitutionalism News (Xianzheng xinwen 憲 政 新 聞 ), Constitutional Vernacular Post (Xianfa baihua bao 憲法白話報 ), Beijing Times (Beijing shibao 北京時報 ), Capital Daily (Jingdu ribao 京都日報 ), National Journal (Guobao 國報 ), Gazette (Xianbao 憲 報 ), Beijing Daily (Beijing ribao 北京日報 ), and Simplified Post (Jianzi bao 簡 字報 ) in Beijing; Tianjin Daily News (Tianjin riri xinbao 天津日日新報 ) in Tianjin; Diplomatic Review (Waijiao bao 外 交 報 ), Eastern Miscellany (Dongfang zazhi 東方雜誌 ), Legal and Political Magazine (Fazheng zazhi 法政雜誌 ), Journal on Current Affairs (Shishi xinbao 時 事 新 報 ), Passion Post (Recheng bao 熱 誠 報 ), and Southern Post (Nanfang bao 南方報 ) in Shanghai; New Shimin Post (Shimin xinbao 時 敏 新 報 ), Yangcheng Daily (Yangcheng ribao 羊 城 日 報 ), Seventy-two Merchants Post (Qishier xingshang bao 七 十 二 行 商 報 ), Awaken Post (Xingbao 醒 報 ), Rising China Five-day Memorabilia (Zhenhua wuri dashiji 振 華 五 日 大 事記 ), and Semiweekly News (Ban xingqi bao 半星期報 ) in Guangzhou; China and Western Post (Zhongxi bao 中西報 ) in Hankou; Chengdu Business News (Chengdu shangbao 成 都 商 報 ) in Chengdu; as well as Guangxi New Post (Guangxi xinbao 廣西新報 ) in Guilin. Among these publications, Jinghua Daily , Journal on Current Affairs , Diplomatic Review , Eastern Miscellany , and New Shimin Post were the most influential. Jinghua Daily was established after the Qing government announced its “Preparation for Constitutionalism.” It published commentaries such as “An Introduction on Constitutionalism,” and “Constitution,” praising a constitution as “the foundation for 10,000 years of government,” “the people’s great happiness,” and that it could “save our people from the difficult situation they are in.” It praised Empress Dowager Cixi and Guangxu Emperor as “noble and wise,” emphasizing that “the constitution could not damage the power of the monarchy,” and that “constitutionalism could teach those revolutionaries that there is hope in China yet.”57 Journal on Current Affairs was the successor of Current Affairs Post (Shishibao 時事報 ) and Public Opinion (Yulun ribao 輿論日報 ). Current Affairs Post was established on December 5, 1907, with Wang Jianqiu as the chief editor. Public

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Opinion was established on March 31, 1908, with Di Baofeng and Luo Pu as the chief editors. The two newspapers merged in 1910 and the newspaper was renamed Opinion and Current Affairs Journal (Yulun shishi bao 輿論時事報 ). It was renamed again to Journal on Current Affairs on May 18, 1911, with Wang Dainian as the manager. The directors of the newspapers were all closely related to Liang Qichao. Thus the publication advocated royalism since it was published, and encouraged constitutionalism. Both the Diplomatic Review and Eastern Miscellany were established by the Shanghai Commercial Press. During the Constitutional Movement, Diplomatic Review published articles such as “On the Relationship between a Constitution and Diplomacy.” It discussed the necessity of a constitution from the perspective of diplomacy, stating that “our country will be strong with a constitution, our country will be subjugated without one.”58 Eastern Miscellany published articles such as “The Essentials of China Constitutionalism,” “On the Relationship between Constitution and Education,” “On the Urgency of Regional Autonomy,” and printed an issue of Framework of Constitution which collected articles and commentaries related to the constitution. It thus advocated the Constitutional Movement New Shimin Post was reorganized from the old Guangzhou reformist newspaper Shimin Post (Shimin bao 時敏報 ) in 1909. Although the newspaper encouraged a constitutional monarchy, it was also dissatisfied with the ineffective constitutionalism in Guangdong. The newspaper published a short commentary “There Were Still Such County Magistrates in the Era of Constitutionalism Preparation” to criticize the County Magistrates of Nanhai and Panyu. They were still punishing the public inappropriately and destroying the commercial field, three years after the announcement of Preparation for Constitutionalism. The article exclaimed, “Alas! The Imperial Court stayed the Imperial Court, and the officials remained as officials. With such County Magistrates that ignore the public and the constitution, the result of constitutionalism is predictable.” Periodicals established by progressive Manchus included the Ta Kung Pao (Dagongbao 大公報 ) established by Ying Lianzhi in Tianjin, Datong Post (Datong bao 大同報 ) established by the overseas Manchurian Imperial Clan in Tokyo, and Central Datong Post (Zhongyang datong ribao 中央大同日報 ) established by bannermen in Beijing. Ta Kung Pao advocated royalism and constitutionalism since it was established in 1902. Every essay contest organized by the newspaper after 1905 was on the topic of constitutionalism. The topic for the 2,000th issue essay contest

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announced on February 10, 1908, was “What Will Happen if a Constitutional System Is Adopted,” while the topic for the 3,000th issue announced on November 30, 1910, was “The Parliament and the Constitution are the Two Elements of a Constitutional State. Yet which Should We Set Up First? The Parliament or the Constitution?“59 Datong Post was a monthly publication established in May 15, 1907. It was established by Manchurian Imperial Clan students studying in Tokyo Higher Normal School (Dojing youji shifan 東京優級師範 ), including Cun Zhong and others. The publication’s mission was to “advocate constitutionalism and to fuse the Manchus and the Han.” It had four major ideas: to build a constitutional monarchy; to set up a parliament to form a responsible government; advocate equality for Manchus and Hans; to build a united nation of Manchus, Hans, Mongols, Hui, and Tibetans. Building a constitutional monarchy was viewed as the fundamental problem. Central Datong Post was established in 1909 with Heng Shifeng as the president. One sheet was printed each day. The newspaper strived to reform the Eight Banner system and to advocate a constitution. These publications established by Manchurian nobles were supported both by the government and by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. The Qing Ministry of Civil Affairs once notified Provincial Governors to assist in the selling of these publications. The Political News Agency had also considered sending some main writers to Datong Post and Ta Kung Pao . Main periodicals established by Westernization reformists included Universal Gazette (Zhongwai ribao 中外日報 ) in Shanghai, as well as Beijing Post (Jingbao 京報 ) and Fodder Post (Chuyan bao 芻言報 ) in Beijing. All three were established by Wang Kangnian. Universal Gazette had a long history, while Beijing Post was established in March 1907 with two printed sheets each day. Fodder Post was a five-day publication established in November 1910. All three newspapers were advocates of the Constitutional Movement. Universal Gazette had once jointly organized a Celebration for Constitutionalism with some newspapers in Shanghai. Some long-standing newspapers — such as Shun Pao (Shen bao 申報 ), News Daily (Xinwen bao 新聞報 ), Tung Wen Hu Bao (Tongwen Hu bao 同文滬報 ) in Shanghai, as well as Chinese Mail (Xianggang huazi ribao 香港華字日報 ), Universal Circulating Herald (Xunhuan ribao 循環日報 ) and Reform Daily (Weixin ribao 維新日報 ) in Hong Kong — had also advocated constitutional monarchy in the Constitutional Movement.

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Moreover, many tabloids and periodicals also appeared in Tokyo, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and other places during this period. They were mainly focused on literary works, but publicized the constitutional monarchy through poems, essays, fiction, and operas. Some of the more influential periodicals included New Fiction Journal (Xin xiaoshuo 新小說 ) in Japan with Liang Qichao as the chief editor, Tapestry Fiction (Xiuxiang xiaoshuo 繡像小說 ) in Shanghai with Li Boyuan as the main editor, The All-story Monthly (Yueyue xiaoshuo 月月小說 ) in Shanghai with Wu Jianren as the chief editor, and Monthly Fiction (Xiaoshuo yuebao 小說月報 ) in Shanghai with Xu Zhiyan as the chief editor. They demonized revolution and praised constitutionalism, and were a special publicity branch in the Constitutional Movement. The three types of publications mentioned above had created a lot of voices. The newspapermen wanted to make use of the publicity to force the Qing government into building a constitutional monarchy through peaceful means. In this way, they would be able to hold a portion of the power in a political system where the “monarch and the people rule together.” At the same time, the newspaper suppressed the capitalist revolution, so that the benefits of the reformists will not be threatened. Thus the constitutionalist newspapers were criticized by the revolutionary newspapers. The revolutionary papers said that the Preparation of Constitutionalism was “a ploy to deceive the Hans,” and that the constitutionalists were a “plague,” “dogs,” and “turtles.” They condemned those who urged for a parliament as “fawning on the government,” and called them “parroting talents,” and “traitors” who were concerned about their own gains.60 Yet, from an objective perspective, some publicity activities of the constitutionalists had a positive influence on the revolution. At first, the constitutionalists rejoiced over the Qing government’s announcement of Preparation for Constitutionalism. Their newspapers used moderate words. However, after the repeated failures of their petitions, especially after the third failed petition movement in October 1910, the constitutional newspapers became increasingly radical. They condemned the Qing government as “heartless,” “disastrous for the country,” and “demonic.” This added to the people’s hatred for the corrupt and autocratic government, and awakened some constitutionalists bent on petition. They “lost all hope in the Qing government, and thus returned to their hometowns to work with the revolutionaries to solve the problem at the root.”61 People like Pu Dianjun from Sichuan and Tang Hualong from Hubei returned to their hometowns and contributed to the Sichuan Railway Rights

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Protection Movement and the Wuchang Uprising. Moreover, constitutionalist

publications introduced the constitution, parliamentary system, government

functions, and media monitoring. They taught intellectuals and aristocrats general knowledge of the capitalist state so as to raise their determination for democracy.

These theories helped lead to the building of a capitalist government after the establishment of the Republic of China.

Revolutionary Periodicals after the 1911 Revolution Many periodicals in support of the revolution were established in Wuhan,

Shanghai, Guangzhou, and other cities around the time of the 1911 Revolution.

Among them, The Great River , Great Han Tribune (Da Han bao 大 漢 報 ), and

Chinese Republic Public News (Zhonghua minguo gongbao 中華民國公報 ), all published in Wuhan, were the most influential. Together with other regional newspapers, they reported on the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt and the Wuchang Uprising in detail.

Zhan Dabei and The Great River On the eve of the 1911 Revolution, Wuhan had become a publicity center for

revolutionary periodicals. The Great River , managed by Zhan Dabei, was one of the best-known newspapers in Wuhan during this period.

Zhan Dabei (1887–1927) was born Peihan and was later renamed Han, with

a courtesy name of Zhicun. He was born in Qichun County of Hubei. When he

was attending middle school in Huangzhou Prefecture, he organized the Witness Academic Society (Zhengren xuehui 政人學會 ) with classmates Wan Siyan and Mei

Baoji to publicize revolution. Zhan Dabei arrived in Wuhan in 1909 and participated in revolutionary activities. He became the backbone of various revolutionary

organizations in Hubei, such as State Affairs Academic Society, Academic Society for the Promotion of Martial Arts (Zhenwu xueshe 振武學社 ), and Wenxueshe . Zhan

Dabei also established the Commercial Post , Great River Vernacular Post , and The

Great River in succession with Wan Siyan. Zhan Dabei was the main writer of these newspapers, as well as the main actor in the revolution publicity in Hubei before the 1911 Revolution. He also participated in combat and liaison work. During the NorthSouth peace talks between Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai, Zhan Dabei planned to establish East Asia Daily (Yadong ribao 亞東日報 ) to awaken the public. However, the plan was abandoned due to a lack of funds. Yuan Shikai once sent secret agents

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to assassinate Zhan Dabei, and Zhan was finally arrested together with Wen Chuhen. Zhan Dabei was rescued from imprisonment after Yuan Shikai’s death. Zhan then participated actively in the Constitutional Protection Movement as well as the New Culture Movement together with Zhang Guowei, Li Hanjun, Dong Biwu, and others. In winter 1920, Zhan became a publicity officer for the Guangzhou Military Government. Zhan Dabei advocated the polices of Sun Yatsen. Zhan had also been a representative in the first and second National Congress of the Kuomintang, as well as a candidate for the Central Executive Member. Zhan Dabei arrived in Wuchang together with the Northern Expedition Army in 1926, and was a member of the Political Council and the Financial Council in Hubei. In 1927, Zhan Dabei became the Head of the Hubei Province Financial Department. On December 17 of the same year, Hu Dabei was killed by Hu Zongduo, warlord of the Guangxi Clique, for the crime of being a “communist.” Before he managed The Great River , Zhan Dabei took over and ran the Commercial Daily with Wan Siyan and Wen Chuheng in October 1909. After Commercial Daily was banned, Zhan Dabei prepared for a new publication with Wan Siyan and Wen Chuheng. With funding from Hu Weilin, Great River Vernacular Post was published on December 14, 1910, with one printed sheet each day. Hu Weilin was the manager, Zhan Dabei was the main writer, and He Haiming was the deputy main writer. On January 21, 1911, an English policeman beat a rickshaw puller Wu Yigou to death, leading to public outrage. The English Navy landed on January 22 and killed 21 people when they suppressed the riots. In addition, the Governor-General of Hubei, Rui Zheng, sent the CommanderGeneral of the Eighth Brigade Zhang Biao to suppress the riots with the New Army. The Qing officials posted a notice stating: “All rioters who do not return home will be killed without questions.” The incident shocked the country but the officials ordered that coverage of the incident be censored in newspapers throughout the country. The Qing Judiciary was also forced to announce that “Wu Yigou was not beaten to death as there were no marks on his body.” However, the Great River Vernacular Post reported the case in detail with an eye-catching, large headline. It published an editorial “Why the Foreigners Dare to Beat Wu Yigou to Death in Hankou,” condemning the English Imperialism. The Great River Vernacular Post even published the Qing government’s threat to the newspaper demanding that it not report on the incident. Later, Hu Weilin’s father was afraid that the situation would get out of hand, and thus called back Hu Weilin and withdrew funding for the newspaper. Publication came to a halt. Zhan Dabei then invested 3,000 dollars and took over the newspaper, renaming it as The Great

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River . Zhan became the manager, while the editors included He Haiming, Cha Guangfo, Mei Baoji, and Wan Siyan. Many former journalists of Commercial Daily and Great River Vernacular Post also joined the newspaper. Not long after that, revolutionaries in Hubei reorganized the Academic Society for the Promotion of Martial Arts as Wenxueshe . Jiang Yiwu was the president while Zhan Dabei was the secretary of publication. The Great River became the official newspaper of the Wenxueshe . The targeted readers of The Great River were mainly soldiers and low-ranking officers of the New Army. The newspaper office set up distribution outlets in various New Army barracks in Hubei, and sent a complimentary copy of the newspaper to all camps. Many soldiers of the New Army pooled their money to subscribe to the newspaper. The newspaper office even had part-time journalists, editors, and liaison officers who wrote timely news and commentaries for The Great River . An army recruit Chen Xiaofen recalled, “I went to the newspaper office every night, doing some editorial work or writing short commentaries.”62 The Great River often reflected the hardships of the soldiers and voiced their grievances. It was closely related to the soldiers and the soldiers treated the paper as their mouthpiece. They are willing to reflect and discuss their problems with the newspapermen. When the newspaper faced financial difficulties, the soldiers donated their money through the representatives of their barracks. Under the influence of The Great River , many soldiers of the New Army joined local revolutionary bodies. After half a year of the establishment of Wenxueshe , there were more than 3,000 members in the New Army. There were 5,000 revolutionaries in the army if members of the Gongjinshe were also counted — amounting to one-third of the Hubei New Army. They became an important force in the armed uprising. Other than spreading revolutionary thoughts amidst the army, The Great River also commented on current affairs and revealed the corruption of the Qing government through news reports. There were two famous editorials which made the newspaper famous. The newspaper first published a short commentary on July 17, 1911, written by deputy chief editor He Haiming titled “Peace Destroys China.” The writer denounced the constitution framework of the Qing government as “a monster that destroys the people’s spirits,” and opposed the constitutionalists’ idea of making suggestions for improvements to the Qing government. The article claimed that the suggestions would be stupid and ineffective, and “the country will die if the imperial government is not overthrown by revolution.” This article

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caught the attention of the Qing officials. On July 26, another short commentary titled “Chaos is the Medicine to Save China,” by Qitan was published. It stated that China was “incurable,” and only chaos, such as a revolution, could save China. The commentary added oil to fire, and the Governor-General of Hubei, Rui Zheng, was furious. He accused the newspaper of being “arrogant” and “destroying the political system and public order,” then sent police to surround the newspaper office on August 1. Zhan Dabei was arrested and He Haiming turned himself in after he heard the news. The office was also banned. This was the infamous The Great River Case. During the trial, Zhan Dabei announced publicly that “our citizens had been dreaming for too long and only chaos could awaken them. I am eager to save the country and thus say these radical words.” When the judge asked for the writer of the article, Zhan Dabei shouldered all responsibility, saying, “The commentary was approved by me and the writer was not responsible.” Two days after the ban of The Great River , the newspaper office sent telegraphs to various newspapers across the country: “Our humble newspaper was banned yesterday with our manager arrested. Please voice this injustice.” This caused outrage among the media. The National Herald , Eastern Times , and Vernacular Daily (Baihua ribao 白話日報 ) in Shanghai all wrote commentaries on the incident. Yu Youren published an article “The Weeping River” in Min Li Pao on August 3, saying “I cry for them,” and “The river has swept East, but will the true heroes be swept away by the river?” On August 6, he published another article “Newspapers and Officials” to show his fury. Vernacular Daily also published “An Elegy One Month after the Ban of The Great River ” in support. There were accusations of the Qing government’s censorship around the country, and public organizations and journalism unions of Hankou held public gatherings in protest. People pasted elegies and condolence messages on the office door of The Great River . Rui Sheng originally planned to punish Zhan Dabei and He Haiming heavily. Yet afraid of the enraged public, Zhan and He were only fined 800 dollars. They were only jailed for 18 months when they could not pay the fine. The Great River was banned only eight months after it was first published. However, its news reports revealed the corruption of the Qing government. The shocking commentaries and bold headlines had enlightened and encouraged the readers. Three months after the ban of the newspaper, the Wuchang Uprising occurred. People praised the newspaper — “The river flows day and night and its contribution will not be forgotten.”

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The publicity of the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt by revolutionary newspapers The Yellow Flower Mound Revolt broke out in Guangzhou on April 27, 1911. Many workers of the revolutionary newspapers participated in the combat and the journalistic reports of the event. The main writer of Min Li Pao Song Jiaoren arrived in Hong Kong at Huang Xing’s invitation to be the chief of the uprising organizing section. Zhu Zhixin, Chen Qimei, Tan Renfeng, Lü Zhiyi, Song Yulin, and others had travelled between Shanghai, Hong Kong, Guangzhou, and Wuhan as visitors to liaise and participate in active combat. Seven of the 72 martyrs of the revolt were members of revolutionary newspapers: main writer Lin Juemin of Advice Daily (Jianyan ribao 建言日報 ) in Fuzhou, manager Li Wenfu of China

Daily in Hong Kong, Luo Zonghuo of Chong Shing Yit Pao , as well as Zhou Hua, Lao Pei, and Li Wenkai of Singapore Chinese Morning Post in Singapore. The revolutionary publications in Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and Wuhan managed to publicize the revolt despite bans from the Qing government. Some newspapers reported consecutively on the event for three months. On the third day of the revolt, Min Li Pao published seven telegraphs from a reporter in Guangzhou on its front page. After May 3, it also published special stories such as “The Bloodbath in Guangzhou” and “The Revolutionary Blood in Guangzhou” that elaborated on the revolt in detail. There were more than two pages of related articles on May 6. The National Herald also began a new column “Revolt Chronicles” and publicized the uprising heavily. It also published the full text of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance documents such as “Manifesto of the Republic of China’s Military Government” and “Proclamation Calling for the Surrender of Manchuria Officials” under the name of a “traveling journalist in America.” The revolutionary newspapers also published many commentaries and editorials as companion pieces to the news reports. Yu Youren published a series of short commentaries in Min Li Pao , stating that “such shocking battle cries will give our nation courage,” and “revolutionaries were created by poor politics.” He also warned the Qing government, “Although your army is strong and your punishments cruel, I dare foretell that those will be your instruments of suicide.” The revolutionary-inclined Sentiments of the People (Minxin 民心 ) immediately published “Funeral Oration for the 72 Martyrs” after news of the failed revolt. It wrote, “There were heroic daughters and great sons, who will be shined on by the moon and sun for their nationalism; not for the emperor and not for officials, they fought to the death for the equality of Manchus and Hans, their spirits compare

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to mountains and rivers.” The article “Thoughts on the Guangdong Event” stated that “it was glorious despite defeat and it would live on despite failure,” and the Yellow Flower Mound “would definitely become a place of memory for China.”63 Many revolutionary newspapers published biographies of the martyrs and praised their sacrifices for the revolution. The National Herald and the Min Li Pao published the photos of martyrs Fang Shengdong and Yu Peilun. The Great River published a booklet of collected articles and letters of the martyrs, and gave it out together with its newspaper. Literary works in praise of the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt were also published. Famous works included the Naamyam “Revolutionaries Will Die” in Xiangshan Ten-day Post (Xiangshan xunbao 香山旬報 ),64 the Cantonese Ou “Shadows of Yellow Flowers” in Southern Yue Post ,65 and the Banben “Storm in Yangshi” in New Youth .66 The 1,088th issue of Awakened Chinese Daily (Xinghua rinao 醒華日報 ) in Tianjin published a current affairs pictorial “ Governor-General of Guangdong in Fear” with the caption “Although the revolution in Guangzhou was not a success, our hearts will not die. According to reports…there will be a large-scale revolution in Guangdong this year. The Governor-General of Guangdong Zhang Mingqi was shaken when he heard the news…he had sent for reinforcements, and if that could not be met, he would pretend to be sick and take leave.” Plebeian Pictorial also published a current affairs pictorial including “Burning the Guangdong Governor-General’s Office,” and “Memorial Picture of March 29.” The massive publicity on the Yellow Flower Mound Revolt taught and encouraged the people, and spread revolutionary thoughts across the country. In this period, any newspaper that published news about uprisings would see an increase in sales, while the reverse was true for newspapers that condemned the revolution. Under the incitation of revolutionary publications, more and more people supported the revolution. Many people joined the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, and pushed the democratic revolution to a climax. Just half of a year later, the Wuchang Uprising broke out.

Periodicals after the Wuchang Uprising The publication of revolutionary periodicals in Wuhan had stopped at the start of the Wuchang Uprising. In order to further advocate the uprising and to publicize the political goals of the provisional government, the revolutionaries immediately established a series of newspapers. They were the Great Han Tribune by Hu Shian, Chinese Republic Public News by the Hubei Military Government, New Han Post (XinHan bao 新 漢 報 ) by Hankou Military Branch Government, Sentiments of the People Post (Minxin bao 民心報 ) by Wenxueshe , and Zhendan

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People Post (Zhendan minbao 震旦民報 ) by Zhang Zhengwu. Great Han Tribune and Chinese Republic Public News were more influential. Great Han Tribune was established in Hankou five days after the Wuchang Uprising on October 15, 1911. It was the first revolutionary newspaper published after the Wuchang Uprising. At first, the entire newspaper was written, edited, and managed by Hu Shi’an. One small sheet was printed each day. Later, Zhang Yunyuan, Ni Qinfang, Yan Guangtang, Fan Yunluan, Zhu Duntuo, Chen Cuimei, Yu Cifang, and others assisted in editorial work, and three broadsheets were printed each day. When this single-sided newspaper printed on glossy paper was first established, people were eager to read the revolutionary news and the publicity written about it. Sales on the first day reached 10,000 copies, and increased to 48,000 copies after a week. The printing machines ran non-stop both day and night during these early days. The print run was later reduced due to printing difficulties but about 10,000 copies were still printed each day for a year. According to the article “Real Records of the 1911 Revolution” written by the journalists of Great Han Tribune , readers from Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Fujian, Hunan, and other provinces telegraphed subscription requests to the newspaper. In provinces that were further away, such as Shanxi, Shaanxi, Sichuan and Guangdong, the selling price of the newspaper rose to one to two dollars. In regions controlled by the Qing government, such as Beijing and Tianjin, people were even willing to buy copies of the newspaper with gold. Newspapers of various regions would reprint news from the Great Han Tribune , or the entire paper, or print excerpts from it and distribute them as pamphlets in secret. American, European, and overseas Chinese news agencies also reprinted news and commentaries from the newspaper. The newspaper was described as being “a pioneer in revolution,” “having the power to shake China,” and “better than one hundred thousand Mausers.”67 Hu Shi’an (1880–1926) was originally named Renjie and Jinmen, and was also called Tianshi. He was born in Tianmen, Hubei. He was a zhusheng (government student) at the age of 17, and he went to Beijing to follow Tan Sitong at 19. He fled and returned to Hubei after the Coup of 1898, and participated in uprisings of the Independence Army, assassinations, and activities of the Daily Renewal Society. He was arrested and imprisoned twice. Later, he actively wrote articles for Shanghai and Wuhan publications, and was the chief editor of Yangtze Fiction Press . He had published serialized fiction and essays such as New Stories of the Scholars (Xin rulinwaishi 新 儒 林 外 史 ), Chronicles of Horse-riding Sons and

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Daughters (Mashang ernüzhuan 馬上兒女傳 ), and Ten Days of the Prisoner (Chuqiu shiriji 楚囚十日記 ), and was a famous novelist in Wuhan. In 1910, He established the Dachenghanji Printing Company in Hankou with his own funds, and printed The Great River . He also supported the revolutionary publicity of Wenxueshe and printed revolutionary booklets such as Looking Back (Menghuitou 猛回頭 ) and Alarm Bell (Jingshi zhong 警世鐘 ) in secret. Great Han Tribune not only advocated for uprisings, but also provided support in the Defense of Hankou against the Qing government — supplying water and housing soldiers. When Hankou fell in November 1, 1911, three employees of the newspaper were sacrificed, and the office lost more than 15,000 dollars. However, with just two days of preparation, Hu Shi’an resumed publication in Wuchang. When Hanyang fell in December, the Qing army fired at Wuchang. The Commissioner-in-Chief House caught fire, and Li Yuanhong fled to Gedian. The office of Great Han Tribune was also hit, but publication continued. Once, six special printings were published in a day to announce victories from the frontline, and the newspaper had a great effect in stabilizing morale. Even children’s rhymes in Wuchang during that period stated: “Great Han Tribune , has great courage, everyone is scared, but it isn’t,” and “It’s funny, Great Han Tribune , I see it, my courage grows.”68 After the establishment of the Republic of China, Li Yuanhong, as the Vice President of the country, wrote and gave the newspaper a plaque which read “Countering the Waves Bare-handed.” He also telegraphed the highest authority to present Hu Shi’an with a First Class Badge of the Order of Golden Grain. Great Han Tribune placed a great emphasis on news reporting. Hu Shi’an went to the frontline with other journalists, and wrote many vivid and specific reports. Although they had a great effect on the revolution, the newspaper had also unscrupulously published many fallacious notices and reports in order to meet their goals. Hu Shi’an published the article “A Call to Arms from the Military Government” in the inaugural issue of the Great Han Tribune , and passed himself off as Sun Yat-sen to write “Letter to Fellowmen from President Sun” the next day. In fact, the provisional military government had not been set up, and the presidential election had not been carried out yet. However, many people believed in the articles. Some articles were even entirely fictional. Four telegraphed news reports in the inaugural issue were made up: “Huangzhou Barracks Declared Independence,” “Army in Jingsha and Yichang Declared Independence, Will Reinforce Wuhan Immediately,” “Revolt of Hunan Army, Reinforcements Will Be Arriving in Hubei Soon,” and “Jiujiang Declared

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Independence, All Warships Sailing Upstream Were Captured.” Many similar fabricated news and special reports were published when Wuchang was under attack. Hu Shi’an commented on such fabricated stories, “Exaggerating our forces can increase our morale and threaten the enemy. It is a necessary lie.”69 It would seem that the bourgeois revolutionaries did not value the principle of truth in journalism much. Chinese Republic Public News was established in Wuchang on October 16, 1911. It was the official newspaper of the first bourgeois regime in China. After the Wuchang Uprising, many revolutionaries of the Gongjinshe believed that newspapers were essential for evoking public support of the uprising. Li Yuanhong took 600 taels of silver from the government repository to fund the newspaper. After a short preparatory period, the Hubei Government Gazette Department was used as the newspaper office for publishing. Mou Hongxun was the first president. The inaugural issue of Chinese Republic Public News was printed with a red tint. The general principles stated that the newspaper would temporarily be a subsection under the General Staff of the military government, and thus was named Chinese Republic Public New . It shared the same mission as the military government, which was to overthrow the defective government and to build a Republic. The newspaper would publish global events, explain academic theories, lead the nation’s progress, and connect to the world emotionally. It declared that it would be available for free, and charity advertisements were published for free as well. When the Chinese Republic Public News was first established, it reported the uprisings and the restoration of various provinces, as well as the battles between the Qing government and the army of the republic. The newspaper also commented on the situation of the revolution, the policies of the military government, and published many notices of the military government and revolutionary organizations. In the early stages, 4,000 copies of the newspaper were printed. They were mailed to affiliated schools in various provinces, and 200 copies of the newspaper were also posted for public viewing, attracting many readers. Although the Chinese Republic Public News was an official newspaper of the military government, it was directly controlled by the Gongjinshe . Unlike other official papers, it was impartial to various revolutionary organizations, and had no clear bias. It emphasized upholding justice, maintaining independence, not joining parties, not having an official stance, and based its commentaries on justice and news on truth. After the establishment of the Republic in China in

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1912, the Provisional Government in Nanjing established its own public news on January 29. The Chinese Republic Public News of Wuchang was no longer the

government official newspaper, and became a mouthpiece under Li Yuanhong’s control.

When news of the Wuchang Uprising reached Shanghai, people were

overjoyed and ran to spread the news. More than 30 small-scale revolutionary publications appeared on Wang Ping Street, the center of newspaper offices in

Shanghai. Every day, people gathered in front of the offices to inquire about the latest news. Sometimes, more than 10,000 would gather, and block traffic.

Some newspapers would print up to seven special editions in one day. When the printing could not catch up with important news, the newspapers would write news on paper or wooden boards and post them in front of the offices for readers.

The newspapers established by revolutionaries became the main source of

the news of the uprising. Min Li Pao published news of the Wuchang Uprising on the next day. It also created the column “Storm of Wuchang Revolution” and used an entire page to explain the progress of the revolution. It explained in detail the geographic situation of Wuhan and the process leading to the uprising, thus

providing background materials for readers. The National Herald also set up

various columns to publish materials related to the uprising and the notices of the Hubei military government, and published the Provisional Supplement (Linshi

zengkan 臨時增刊 ). The Bell also published special stories every day. Chen Bulei, who just took up the position as the main writer, wrote many commentaries that propagandized the military government. Among the temporary, small-scale periodicals, Alarm (Jingbao 警報 ) was the most influential. It was established by Liu Yazi and others on October 19. Two to three issues were published each day. It was printed in color, and had rapid and accurate news. Other than news, it also contained many photographs and revolutionary poems and songs, making it popular among readers. Revolutionary newspapers of other provinces also broke through the blockade of the Qing government and published news of the Wuchang Uprising. Although the Qing government warned against the publication of news of the Wuchang Uprising in Beijing, and carried out news censorship, the revolutionary Empire Daily openly disregarded the censorship and reported the uprising in detail. Odes of the State Daily also did not yield to censorship despite being threatened by the Qing army with “cannons at the door.”70 Many restored provinces or provinces which had declared their independence

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also established revolutionary periodicals. Main publications included the Great Han People’s Paper (DaHan minbao 大漢民報 ) and Hunan Han Post in Hunan, Jiangxi People Post in Jiangxi, Shanxi People News and Hedong Daily (Hedong ribao 河東日報 ) in Shanxi, Great Han Yunan Post (DaHan Dian Post 大漢滇報 ) in Yunnan, Anqing Daily News (Anqing ribao 安慶日報 ) in Anhui, Citizen Tribune (Guomin bao 國民報 ), Republican Daily , and Great Han Memorabilia in Sichuan, as well as Jiangsu Great Han Post (Jiangsu DaHan bao 江蘇大漢報 ) in Suzhou. Some were official newspapers newly established by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, some were official newspapers of new revolutionary regimes, and some were newspapers established by individual members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. They had the same stance as previous revolutionary publications and were active in encouraging renewal and reform. They launched a “Donate to Help Military Pay” activity, and advocated a northern expedition to attack the Qing government. Some newspapers that originally had constitutional stances changed their attitudes during this period and drew closer to the revolutionaries. Some even gave up their past stance entirely. The constitutionalist Eastern Times and Journal on Current Affairs , as well as the conservative Shun Pao , also issued afternoon, evening, and special editions to report on the situation after the Wuchang Uprising. All in all, revolutionary periodicals had encouraged the revolution extensively in the month after the Wuchang Uprising. Such publicity created a strong media force that made the establishment of a Republic inevitable, and sped up the crumbling of the empire.

Literary and Other Professional Periodicals in the Late Qing Era Under the aggression of imperialism and the corrupt rule of the Qing government, as well as the development of nationalism, capitalism, and the people’s demand for change and reform, late Qing literary and professional periodicals were developed. In the unstable social situation, some people established literary periodicals to publish their works and express their feelings, ideals, and goals. Some intellectuals studying Western knowledge also set up various professional periodicals to introduce scientific knowledge and to study various social problems in China in order to realize their political ideals. These periodicals made up the branches of Chinese journalism in this era.

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Literary periodicals in the late Qing era A large amount of literary periodicals appeared around the 1890s. The first literary tabloid was Guide News (Zhinan bao 指南報 ) established on June 6, 1896 in Shanghai by Li Boyuan. It was the first newspaper with literary works as its main content in the history of Chinese journalism. It was a daily publication printed on single-sided lianshi paper. Contents included imperial decrees, commentaries,

domestic and international news, advertisements, and other features. Its objective was to “include the best of all countries,” “increase the knowledge of both the public and the government,” “publish literary works of the country,” and “educate the public.”71 After half a year, the number of literary works increased, and Guide News became a literary newspaper that mainly reported interesting tidbits on society and life, with poems and other literary works. It was different from the literary supplements of Shun Pao and Shanghai News (Hu Bao 滬報 ), and was not the same as later small-scale periodicals that published only literary works either. Guide News had both news and literary works, and reflected the transition from periodicals focused on news to those focused on literary works. The Leisure (Youxi bao 遊 戲 報 ) was another influential literary tabloid established on June 24, 1897. It was a daily publication also founded by Li Boyuan. The publication was similar in style to Guide News , and had four pages. The first page published commentaries, followed by news tidbits, and finally poems and essays. With the increasing number of literary works, the newspaper expanded to six to eight pages, and some literary works were even published on the front page. The publication aimed to publish “leisure essays with humorous words” which observed “the great [and] small slices of life” so as “to advise against wrongdoing” through moral instruction and thus “awaken the ignorant.”72 It had a wide range of content from international politics to regional culture, and even ghost stories. Columns included “Debate,” “Biographies,” “Poems and Songs,” “Songs on Historical Narratives,” and “Riddles and Drinking Games.” Free ballads and fiction leaflets were attached with the newspaper, making it popular among readers. This practice was also used by later literary periodicals. Lu Xun had also submitted his works to Leisure when he was young. Leisure was a giant among literary periodicals in the late Qing era, with about 5,000 issues published in total. In 1901, Li Boyuan established his third literary tabloid — Prosperous World (Shijie fanhua bao 世界繁華報 ) — in Shanghai. It included columns such as “Satires,” “Records of Art,” “Unofficial History,” “ Officials’ Code of Conduct,” “Tales from Pingkanli,”73 “ “Advocacy,” “Laughs at Current Affairs,” “Fiction,”

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“Commentaries,” “Forum,” and “Unparalleled People of Shanghai.” The

tabloid published many short news pieces and short articles which exposed the corruption of the courts. Famous literary works such as Li Boyuan’s True Features

of Court Officials (Guanchang xianxing ji 官場現形記 ) and Ballads of the Boxer Rebellion (Gengzi guobian tanci 庚子國變彈詞 ), as well as Wu Jianren’s Muddle World (Hutu shijie 糊塗世界 ) were first published in the newspaper. Prosperous World was in-print for 10 years before publication stopped in 1911. The three aforementioned tabloids were the most influential literary newspapers in the late Qing era. All three were established and edited by Li Boyuan, and as a result, Li was a famous personality in the fields of journalism and literature then. Li Boyuan (1867–1906) was named Baojia and had a pseudonym of “Leader of South Pagoda 南亭亭長 .” He ranked first in the county level imperial examination and became a xiucai (someone who passed the lowest level of the imperial examinations), but failed to pass the provincial level examination. Thus Li gave up his career as an official. Li went to Shanghai in 1896 and founded the Guide News , Leisure , and Prosperous World in succession, becoming a famous literary newspaperman. His essays were cynical and full of political satire. He exposed the dark reality under the rule of the Qing government, and his “condemnation novels” were well-received by readers. Li Boyuan died in poverty at the age of 40. Li Boyuan’s newspaper activities were greatly influential to the development of literary newspapers in the late Qing era. After the publication of Leisure , many similar copycat publications were established.74 From 1897 to 1910, more than 40 literary tabloids were published in China. Other than those established by Li Boyuan, other famous papers included Vernacular Post of Historic Narratives (Yanyi baihua bao 演義白話報 ), Recreation Post (Xiaoxian bao 消閒報 ), Folk Culture Collection (Caifeng bao 采風報 ), Heavenly Joy (Tianqu bao 天趣報 ), Mocking News (Xixiao bao 嘻笑報 ), and Elegance (Fengya bao 風雅報 ). The large number of literary periodicals brought about some influential literary newspapermen. Other than Li Boyuan, some famous personalities included Wu Jianren, Xi Qiusheng, Ouyang Juyuan, Ren Dongshu, Gao Taichi, Sun Yusheng, and Xie Nongying. They satirized the imperialistic aggressors and the corrupt officials in their editorials and literary works. Although they demonstrated a certain degree of patriotism, they had also written many ornate and empty works which were not of high quality. Other than literary tabloids, nearly 100 literary periodicals were also published in the late Qing era. They could be traced back to 1872, and their

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development could be classified into two main stages. The Early Stage of Literary Periodicals lasted from 1872 to 1901. Trivia of the World (Yinghuan suoji 瀛寰鎖記 ) and Book on the Sea (Haishang qishu 海上奇書 ) were representative works in this stage. Trivia of the World was established on November 17, 1972 in Shanghai by the Shun Pao office. It was a string-bound, twenty-fourmo publication issued monthly. Content included casual literary notes, essays, letters, poems, biographies, and translated works that introduced international knowledge. The English novel Night and Morning translated by “Tablespoon Hermit 蠡勺居士 ,” and the Japanese masterpiece The Prosperous River translated by “Hermit of the Quiet Hut 靜軒居士 ”, were among the first translated literary works in China. Trivia of the World was published for two years and four months through 28 issues. Publication ceased in January 1875. It was renamed as Trivia of Four Seas (Siming suoji 四溟鎖記 ) and republished in February of the same year. In January 1876, the periodical once again changed its name to Trivia Around the World (Huanyu suoji 寰宇鎖記 ), and publication lasted until the end of the year. After publication of Trivia Around the World ceased, Book on the Sea was one of the more influential literary periodicals. Book on the Sea was a fiction periodical established by Han Ziyun on February 28, 1892, in Shanghai. After 15 issues of the periodical had been published, publication ceased in November of the same year. The publication was divided into three sections: “Writings of the Immortals,” “Story of the Flower on the Sea,” and “Traveling through Reading.” All sections had accompanying illustrations. “Writings of the Immortals” contained short stories in classical Chinese, “Story of the Flower on the Sea” contained a serialized novel, while “Traveling through Reading” contained short sketches. Story of the Flower on the Sea , written by Han Ziyun in the Wu language, was one of the first literary works written in dialect in modern China. The Stage of Large-Scale Production of Literary Periodicals lasted from 1902 to 1911. Representative periodicals during this period included: New Fiction Journal , Tapestry Fiction , The All-story Monthly , and Forest of Fiction (Xiaoshuo lin 小說林 ). Tapestry Fiction was established in 1905 in Shanghai with Li Boyuan as the chief editor. The journal was published by the Commercial Press. Content included novels, lyrics, biographies, operas, songs, and translations. All works were accompanied by illustrations. The main contributors included Li Boyuan, Liu E, and Wu Jianren, while the main translators included Wu Jian and Wei Shi. Operas such as Xi Qiu’s Dream of Reform (Weixin meng 維新夢 ), and Common Singer’s Opera of Grecian Politics (Jingguo meitan xinxi 經國美談新戲 ) were highly praised

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by readers. Xia Suiqing’s (Bie Shi 別士 ) “Principles of Novels” was one of the most important literary criticisms. Of the four major literary periodicals in the late Qing era, Tapestry Fiction was the most influential and was in-print for the longest period of time. The All-story Monthly was established in Shanghai in 1906 by Association Academic Society (Qunxueshe 群學社 ). It was founded by Wang Weifu, while Wu Jianren, Xu Fumin, Zhou Guisheng, and others were the chief editors in succession. The inaugural issue included a prologue written by Wu Jianren that emphasized the relationship between fiction and polity. He advocated the education of “morals through the interest of fiction.”75 The main contents of the periodical were historical fiction, social fiction, romance, translated fiction, and essays which reflected current affairs. The All-story Monthly was effective in promoting short stories. In the two years after its establishment, it had published more than 20 short stories on various topics. Publication ceased in 1908 after 24 issues. Forest of Fiction was established in February 1907 in Shanghai. It was established by Zeng Pu (using the pen name “Sick Man of East Asia 東 亞 病 夫 ”), Xu Nianci (with the pen name “Aware 覺我 ”) and Huang Ren (with the pen name “Moses 摩西 ”). Xu Nianci was the chief editor. The publication aimed to introduce Western literary ideas and to raise the status of the novel in literature. It had a heavier emphasis on literary translation, but also contained novel criticisms, essays, and notes. Publication of Forest of Fiction ceased in 1908 after a total of 22 issues had been published. Wu Jianren was one of the influential literary newspapermen of this period. Wu Jianren was originally named Baozhen, and was later named Woyao. His courtesy name was Xiaoyun and his pen name was “Foshan Person 我佛山人 .” Born in Guangdong Nanhai, Wu went to Shanghai to make a living in 1883 and began to write for various newspapers. From 1897 to 1901, he had been the chief editor for Recreation Post , Folk Culture Collection , Novelty Post (Qixin bao 奇新報 ), and Fable Post (Yuyan bao 寓言報 ). After New Fiction Journal was established in 1902, Wu Jianren published his novels — such as Eyewitness Account of Bizarre Events over the Past Twenty Years (Ershinian mudu zhi guaixianxiang 二十年目睹之怪現象 ), Painful History (Tongshi 痛史 ), Stange Tales of Electrometry (Dianshu qitan 電術奇談 ), Injustice of Nine Lives (Jiuming qiyuan 九命奇冤 ) — in it. After the establishment of The All-story Monthly in 1906, Wu continued to publish works such as Ashes After a Disaster (Jieyu hui 劫余灰 ) and Secrets of Making a Fortune (Facai mijue 發財秘訣 ). Wu Jianren thus became a famous writer of “condemnation novels” in the late Qing era.

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With people inspired by the rise of the aforementioned literary periodicals,

many other literary journals were launched in succession. From 1902 and 1911,

more than 30 literary periodicals were established — a great deal more than had

been published in the first stage of development. The major publications included

New New Novel (Xinxin xiaoshuo 新 新 小 說 ) and The Grand Stage of the 20th Century (Ershi shiji da wutai 二 十 世 紀 大 舞 台 ) in 1904, Seven-day Fiction Post (Xiaoshuo qiribao 小說七日報 ) and Literary Works (Zhuzuo lin 著作林 ) in 1906, Fiction World (Xiaoshuo shijie 小說世界 ) and Jinglishe Fiction Monthly (Jinglishe xiaoshuo yuebao 競立社小說月報 ) in 1907, Vernacular Novel (Baihua xiaoshuo 白 話小說 ) in 1908, Novel Times (Xiaoshuo shibao 小說時報 ) and Flower Magazine (Huaxie zazhi 花諧雜誌 ) in 1909, as well as Southern Society (Nanshe 南社 ) in 1910. The Grand Stage of the 20th Century had a focus on serialized opera works, while Southern Society mainly published classical Chinese poems. There are a few points to note regarding the characteristics of the late Qing literary periodicals: First, most of the periodicals were established in cities with well-developed economies such as Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Wuhan, with Shanghai being the most popular city. The few most representative literary periodicals with the most print runs, such as Guide News and Leisure , were established in Shanghai. The earliest literary periodicals, such as Trivia of the World , were also established in Shanghai. Most of the literary works published in the journals also had Shanghai as their background. Their content mainly reflected the lives and attitudes of the Chinese people living and working in the half-colonial Shanghai International Settlement. Second, most of the literary newspapermen had a certain political inclination. Some, such as Li Boyuan and Wu Jianren, sided with the reformists. Others like Chen Qubing and Zeng Pu were inclined towards the revolutionaries. The newspapermen strived to advocate their political ideals through the publications they established in the form of literature. Third, most of the newspapermen behind the literary periodicals had prior experience in journalism. For example, Sun Yusheng was once the main writer of News Daily of Shanghai, while Gao Taichi had been the main writer of Shun Pao , Jiangsu Post , and Shanghai Word Post (Zilin Hubao 字林滬報 ). Similarly, Chen Qubing had been the main writer of The China National Gazette and the Cautionary Bell Tribune , while Wu Jianren had been the main writer of Chu News of Hankou. Before establishing and running literary periodicals, most of the founders were well-experienced in running newspapers. The literary tabloids

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which they established also included news and current affairs commentaries. This showed that the newspapermen still viewed the newspapers as tools for spreading news and ideas, even though much space was devoted to publishing literary works. Moreover, many literary periodicals were supported by daily broadsheets which focused on news and commentaries. For example, Trivia of the World was originally a literary supplement of Shun Pao , while Recreation Post was a literary supplement of Shanghai Word Post . They were only published independently at a later stage. Fourth, due to different founders, literary periodicals had different styles and readers. Publications like New Fiction Journal and Southern Society had the idea of reforming politics through fiction and encouraging revolution through anti-Qing poems. Many readers were enthusiastic youths. Some other literary periodicals focused on the romantic pursuits of the scholarly class and the extravagance of officials. They included vivid descriptions but had little meaning. Such periodicals were more lowbrow, and their news reports were also focused on local news or happenings in the red light districts. The novels serialized in the literary periodicals were also different. Romantic stories between scholars and beauties led to the later development of modern Chinese romance. Other novels reflected the lives of gentry and officials, revealing the dark side of society. They ridiculed the scandalous behaviors of officials, and such fiction helped drive the development of “condemnation novels.” The literary periodicals also translated the works of Tolstoy, Byron, Shelley, and Shakespeare, and contributed to the cultural exchange between East and West, as well as to the birth of modern Chinese literature.

Other professional periodicals in the late Qing era The rise of various professional periodicals was a noteworthy phenomenon in the field of journalism in the late Qing era. These publications represented the efforts of Chinese intellectuals in introducing modern Western scientific technologies and cultural knowledge, so as to enlighten the public and drive the development of Chinese society. The number, range, and depth of such professional periodicals reached an unprecedented level in that period. Generally, such professional periodicals could be divided into four types: technology periodicals, educational periodicals, business periodicals, and political periodicals. Technology periodicals were the first to emerge, and were also the most common. These included general technology periodicals and specialist technology periodicals.

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Chinese Scientific Magazine (Gezhi huibian 格 致 匯 編 ) was the first general technology periodical in China, and it was established in February 1876 in Shanghai. Fryer, an Englishmen, was the chief editor of the journal, while famous Chinese scientists such as Xu Shou were editors. The Chinese Scientific Magazine started out as a monthly publication and later became a seasonal publication. It was in print for seven years and a total of 60 issues were published. Columns included “Commentaries,” “Technology News,” and “Correspondence.” It had an emphasis on introducing Western scientific technologies. Print runs reached 7,000 copies and the journal was sold in 70 cities including Beijing, Shanghai, and Hong Kong, as well as in Japan and Singapore. On November 29, 1900, Yaquan Magazine (Yaquan zazhi 亞泉雜誌 ), with Du Yaquan as the chief editor, was established in Shanghai. This was the first comprehensive magazine on natural science that was established by a Chinese person. Yaquan Magazine was a monthly publication printed by the Commercial Press and published by the Yaquan School. Content included knowledge of mathematics, physics, chemistry, agriculture, industry, business, and other subjects. The magazine aimed to promote scientific knowledge and to drive political reform and social progress. On the other hand, the first specialist technology periodical Xu Jiahui’s Observatory Public Post (Xu Jiahui tianwentai guance gongbao 徐家匯天文台觀 測公報 ) was published in Shanghai in 1872. It reported on the observations and research results of geomagnetism, meteorology, and earthquakes. Later in 1880, Kerr, an American, established the New Medical Journal (Yixue xinbao 醫學新報 ) in Guangzhou, and The China Medical Association (Boyihui 博醫會 ) established The China Medical Association Journal (Boyi huibao 博 醫 會 報 ) in Shanghai. More specialist technology periodicals were published during the Hundred Days’ Reform, with such examples as Journal of Agriculture (Nongxuebao 農學報 ) and Journal of Mathematics (Suanxuebao 算學報 ). Educational periodicals made up a large part of specialist technology periodicals in the late Qing era. The St. John’s Echo (Yuehansheng 約翰聲 ), established around 1890, was the first of this type of periodical. The journal was edited by students of Shanghai’s St. John’s University, and published by the St. John’s Echo newspaper office. There was both Chinese and English content, and the Chinese section contained columns such as “Discussion,” “Translations,” “Literary Works,” “Miscellany,” “Novels,” and “Chronicles.” Most of the articles were written by students of St. John’s University. The journal was a monthly publication at first, but was later changed to a seasonal publication. Publication lasted for at least 29 years.

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The educational periodical of most importance in the late Qing era was the Journal of Enlightenment (Mengxue bao 蒙學報 ) established in 1897. It was edited by the Shanghai Enlightenment Society (Shanghai mengxue gonghui 上海蒙學公會 ), and published by The Chinese Progress Daily newspaper office in Shanghai. Ye Han was one of the main editors. The Journal of Enlightenment was a textbook-like journal that taught basic knowledge to children. Content included moral lessons from Confucian classics, as well as scientific general knowledge such as astronomy, geography, and mathematics. The journal had both modern and classical teachings, and was written in both vernacular and classical Chinese. Illustrations were placed alongside the words. The weekly publication was printed by lithography and bound by string. Journal of Enlightenment was the first children’s enlightenment publication in China. Educational periodicals were further developed in the twentieth century, and some official educational periodicals appeared. Examples included the Zhili Official Education Journal (Zhili jiaoyu guanbao 直隸教育官報 ) published in Tianjin in January 1905, Imperial Educational Ministry Journal (Xuebu guanbao 學部官報 ) in Beijing in 1906, Henan Official Education Journal (Henan jiaoyu guanbao 河南教育 官報 ) in Kaifeng in 1907, Hunan Official Education Journal (Hunan jiaoyu guanbao 湖南教育官報 ) in Changsha in 1908, as well as the official educational journals published in provinces such as Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Guizhou. These journals helped spread much education-related news among the regions. They introduced the education systems of the West and Japan, and influenced the reform of public schools and the establishment of a modernized educational system. Business periodicals served the development of the capitalistic business industry. Most of these periodicals were published in Shanghai where the business industry was well-developed. Famous business periodicals included Journal of Industry and Commerce (Gongshang xue bao 工商學報 ), Chinese Federation Review (Huashang lianhe bao 華商聯合報 ), and Jiangnan Commercial Review (Jiangnan shangwubao 江南商務報 ). Journal of Industry and Commerce was established in Shanghai in September 1898, with Wang Dajun as the chief editor. It was a monthly publication which had the objectives of promoting the business industry and recovering rights. The journal reported on Chinese business policies and various industrial and commercial situations. It also published the effective and common business laws of various countries.76 Chinese Federation Review , established in March 1903 in Shanghai, was a semimonthly business publication on an even larger scale. Chief editors included Chen Yishou and Jin Xianzong. Objectives of the periodical included

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"uniting Chinese merchants and strengthening our country with patriotism."77 The journal was rich in content, with reports on national business policies and business situations in society. It covered the market competition all over the world, translated famous works, discussions, and business regulations of various industries. Jiangnan Commercial Review and Commercial Review (Shangwu bao 商 務 報 ) were different types of business periodicals as they were established by the government. Jiangnan Commercial Review was the official paper of the Jiangnan

Administration of Commerce, and it was established in March 1900 in Shanghai. It was a 10-day publication with the objectives of opening up the business culture, assisting communication between officials and merchants, delivering international business news, and developing Chinese businesses. Commercial Review was the official paper of the Beijing Department of Commerce established in December 1903. It was also a 10-day publication and it was managed by Wu Xianglin, a supervisory official in the Department of Commerce. The print run reached 5,000 copies. The journal promulgated the idea of the creation of a commercial federations, enterprises and business schools. This would strengthen the country’s businesses and thus starts a business war with the foreign powers to recover rights. The developing Chinese capitalism was strongly connected yet deeply in conflict with foreign capitalism and China's feudalism. This was reflected in business periodicals. On one hand, these periodicals advocated the recovery of rights, the abolishment of heavy taxes, and the promotion of business industries, so that the country could be rich and powerful. On the other hand, the periodicals sided with imperialism and feudalism, and were against a democratic revolution. These attitudes could be found in both private periodicals such as the Journal of Industry and Commerce and the Chinese Federation Review , as well as the official Jiangnan Commercial Review and Commercial Review . They were more obvious in the private publications, which reflected the viewpoints of the capitalists. Political periodicals were first established by Chinese students studying in Japan. The first was Collected Translations (Yishi huibian 譯書匯編 ) established in December in 1900 in Tokyo. It was a monthly publication managed by students, including Ji Yihui and Yang Tingdong. At first it mainly published translated Western and Japanese works on bourgeois philosophy and social sciences. Later, it published works on politics and the legal system written by Chinese. It aimed to introduce Western political theories, expose the corruption of the Qing government, and to call for social reform. Collected Translations published famous works such

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as Rousseau’s The Social Contract , Montesquieu’s The Spirit of the Laws , and part of Spencer’s Principles of Sociology . It also introduced socialism, and the article “Comparison between Socialism and Darwinism” written by Ma Junwu introduced Marx. The article explained that “Marx used the dialectical method to explain history, and said that class struggles were the key to history.” Collected Translations was renamed Journal of Politics and Law (Zhengfa xuebao 政法學報 ) in April 1903. It was focused entirely on commentaries, and the journal aimed to be the guiding light in the political and legal fields. The journal published articles such as “Overview of Administrative Law” by Weifan, “Theory of Constitutionalism” by Naixian, and “On the Effects of International Law on China’s Future” by Shousu. The journal introduced the International Law and the bourgeois legal system. Publication of Journal of Politics and Law ceased in 1904. In March 1906, another important political periodical — Politics and Law Magazine (Zhengfa zazhi 政法雜誌 ) — was established in Tokyo. This was a monthly magazine with overseas Chinese student Zhang Yipeng serving as the chief editor. The objective of the magazine was to prepare political policies for the relevant officials and to provide political knowledge to the public. The journal mainly translated Japanese political books, and had columns such as “Discussions,” “Translations,” “Speeches,” “Laws,” and “Tidbits of the Political and Legal Industry.” Moreover, the Politics and Law Magazine regarded the study of China’s social problems as of great importance. Articles such as “The Trade Policies of Western Powers towards Qing,” and “The Tibet Problem” exposed the aggression of imperialism towards China, while “On the Above-the-Law Status that Foreigners Enjoy in China” exposed how imperialism destroyed China’s legal rights. Six issues of Politics and Law Magazine were published before it was incorporated into the Beiyang Journal of Politics and Law (Beiyang fazheng xuebao 北洋法政學報 ) in September 1906. The 10-day journal was published by the Beiyang Administration of Official Papers, with Wu Xingrang as the chief editor. Publication ceased in November 1910. Other than the publications stated above, other political periodicals in the late Qing era included the Fujian Politics and Law Magazine (Fujian zhengfa zazhi 福建政法雜誌 ) published in Fuzhou in 1908, and the Law Society Magazine (Faxuehui zazhi 法學會雜誌 ) published in Beijing in 1911. These publications had contributed to the spreading of ideas such as the rule of law, freedom, and equality in China. The establishment of various professional periodicals in the late Qing era was related to the intellectuals’ insistence on enlightening the public, which had begun since the Hundred Days’ Reform. Moreover, the publications were related to the

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intellectuals’ ideas of saving the country through science, education, and industry. The journals reflected the good intentions of the intellectuals who wanted to

make use of their specialized knowledge to help the people and strengthen the country. Professional periodicals not only introduced specialized knowledge through theses, they also related a large amount of related information through

short news pieces. Thus the periodicals had both the characteristics of magazines

and news media. Most of the founders, editors, and writers of the professional periodicals were returning graduates or overseas students. The majority of them were students studying in Japan. This was another contribution of the overseas students to the Chinese publishing industry in the late Qing era.

The Emergence of Official Gazettes and the Persecution of Journalism by the Qing Government Official gazettes published by the central and local governments There were no official gazettes by the Qing government before 1896. Although the

capital gazettes reprinted official documents and reported news in the court, it did not represent the government and was not considered an official gazette.

In 1851, the Jiangxi Education Commissioner Zhang Fei wrote a memorial

requesting the establishment of an official gazette since the “capital gazette had limited content, took a long time for delivery, and was too expensive.” Zhang

Fei was ridiculed as “having wrong conceptions of the political system” and for

being “ridiculous” for his idea.78 After the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, the

Qing government had to deal with the aftermath of the war, and Timothy Richard

suggested the establishment of an official gazette. Timothy Richard also recommended John Fryer and Gilbert Reid to run the gazette. Li Duanfen, Left Assistant Minister of Ministry for Justice, also suggested the establishment of gazette offices when

discussing the establishment of official schools. In 1896, the Zongli Yamen (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) approved the reorganization of the reformists’ Society for the

Study of National Strengthening (Qiangxue shuju 強學書局 ) into the Official Society for Studies (Guan shuju 官書局 ). The Official Society for Studies not only translated

books, but also published an Official Society for Studies Gazette (Guanshuju bao 官 書局報 ) similar to the capital gazette, and an Official Society for Studies Translated

Gazette (Guanshuju yibao 官書局譯報 ) that translated foreign articles. The Official Society for Studies Translated Gazette reprinted entire telegraphs from various sources, but those with political content were not selected for publication.79 This

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was the beginning of the Qing government’s publication of the new style of official gazettes. These new official gazettes were publicly available, and were different from the liaison gazette and imperial gazette in the past, as those old-style official gazettes were only circulated internally. During the Hundred Days’ Reform in 1898, Emperor Guangxu approved Imperial Scribe Song Bolu’s suggestion to set up a Department of Official Gazette. It planned the reorganization of the Shanghai The Chinese Progress into the Official Current Affairs Post (Shiwu guanbao 時務官報 ), and Emperor Guangxu ordered Kang Youwei to manage the project. However, facing resistance from Wang Kangnian, the establishment of Official Current Affairs Post failed in the end. After the Coup of 1898, Empress Dowager Cixi ordered the abolishment of all official gazettes. Even publication of the Official Society for Studies Gazette and Official Society for Studies Translated Gazette ceased. In 1901, Empress Dowager Cixi was compelled by the situation to appease the public and the foreign powers, and announce the adoption of new policies. Thus, some regional Provincial Governors began to set up official gazettes to promote the new policies. In 1902, Yuan Shikai, the Governor-General of Zhili-cum-Minister of Beiyang, wanted to promote the new policies and resist the aggressive stance of private papers. He therefore established the two-day publication Beiyang Official News (Beiyang guanbao 北洋官報 ) in Tianjin. The newspaper was printed with letterpress printing. The content included imperial decrees, edicts, reports on provincial politics, studies, and army news. It also reported new knowledge of various subjects, the short-term effects of various industries, negotiations with foreign powers, as well as national and international news. There was an advisory prologue in each issue, a few pictures depicting current affairs or scenery, and also public and private advertisements. The Beiyang Official News was led by the president, and had six teams of editors, translators, illustrators, printers, writers, and accountants. The newspaper was delivered for free to the various departments, counties, and divisions in Zhili, as well as schools in various villages. The Beiyang Academic Journal (Beiyang xuebao 北洋學報 ) and Beiyang Political Ten-Day Post (Beiyang zhengxue xunbao 北洋政學旬報 ) were also published by the same newspaper office. In 1903, Ministers of Commercial Treaties such as Lü Haihuan and Wu Tinfang thought that the foreign commercial activities in southern China had grown busier by the day. Thus they suggested the establishment of a Nanyang Official News (Nanyang guanbao 南洋官報 ) similar to the Beiyang Official News . It would be managed by the Governor-General of Jiangsu-cum-Minister of Nanyang. The

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official gazette would be sold in coastal areas and regions along the Yangtze to the South Jiangsu. The Qing government commented on Wu Tingfang’s memorial on the matter that, if the Nanyang Official News could be made to run smoothly, the practice of official gazettes could be introduced to various provinces gradually. Thus, some provinces began to establish their own official gazettes with consideration to their economic powers and workload. Examples included Shanxi Official News (Shanxi guanbao 山西官報 ), Anhui Official News (Anhui guanbao 安徽官 報 ), Sichuan Official News (Sichuan Guanbao 四川官報 ), Henan Global Official News (Yusheng zhongwai guanbao 豫省中外官報 ), Hubei Official News (Hubei guanbao 湖北官報 ), Hankou Official News (Hankou guanbao 漢口官報 , originally a private newspaper), Jiangxi Daily Official News (Jiangxi riri guanbao 江 西 日日官報 , a private newspaper supervised by the government), Shandong Official News (Shandong guanbao 山東官報 , later transformed into a private newspaper), Shaanxi Official News (Shanxi guanbao 陝西官報 , later transformed into a private newspaper), and Gansu Official News (Gansu guanbao 甘肅官報 ). Among them, Hubei Official News was directly managed by Zhang Zhidong and was thus more interesting. When the Qing government announced its Preparation for Constitutionalism in 1906, many official educational, political, and industrial periodicals were established. In 1906, the Ministry of Commerce established the Official Commercial Gazette (Shangwu guanbao 商務官報 ) while the Imperial Ministry of Education established the Official Academic Gazette (Xuewu guanbao 學務官報 ). Both were 10-day periodicals. Most of the official gazettes mentioned above were regional and departmental gazettes. The Political Official News (Zhengzhi guanbao 政治官報 ), established in 1907 by the Central Political Investigation Department, was a central official gazette of the Qing government. When the cabinet of the New Official System of the Qing government was established in 1911, the gazette was renamed Ministry Official News (Neige guanbao 內閣官報 ) and became the official newspaper of the imperial cabinet. The newspaper mainly published promulgated laws, and all laws would be in effect on the day they were published. The newspaper was only distributed and was not sold separately. When the Qing Dynasty came to an end, the publication of all official gazettes came to an end.

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From The Great Qing Legal Code to the Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance There had been, historically, a tight control in publication and expression in all the dynasties in China, but there were no written laws related to publication and expression. The control of publication and expression was even more severe in the Qing Dynasty. Before the promulgation of the Great Qing Publication Ordinance in 1906, the “blasphemous speeches and publication” regulation in The Great Qing Legal Code was often quoted in newspaper-related cases, and used to

prosecute private publications and publishers. In August 1901, Empress Dowager Cixi had just returned to Beijing from her flight to Xi’an away from the Eight-Nation Alliance. She started to speak of systematic changes and announced the adoption of new policies in an attempt to salvage the country. To set up a law to regulate assemblies, expression and publication was one of the measures of the new policies. It was meant to ban revolutionary newspapers such as Jiangsu Post and to deceive the public. The Great Qing Publication Ordinance promulgated in July 1906 was the first law by the Qing government that was related to publications. The law was jointly drafted by the Ministry of Commerce, Imperial Ministry of Education, and Ministry of Police. It was divided into 6 chapters of outlines, printers, records of events, libel, incitement, and time limitation, with 41 sections in total. The law stipulated that printers and news records must be registered at the Administration of Printing. All unregistered printers, regardless of the types of books they printed, were illegal, and could be punished by a fine of up to 150 dollars, or imprisonment of up to five months, or both. Sellers of published materials had to register with a fee at the Ministry of Police. The name of the printer and the address of the printed house had to be printed on the publication, and if the printer or the seller broke the law, they would face a punishment of a fine of up to 100 dollars, or imprisonment up to three months, or both. Printers had to send two copies of their printed materials to the Ministry of Police. Failure to do so might result in a fine up to 50 dollars, or imprisonment up to a month, or both. Libel was classified into normal libel, slander, and falsehood. Slander was defined as “a form of deceiving, which would incite hatred and anger among readers. It was manifested in the violence against royalty and the government, in evoking public disobedience against the national regulations, or in inciting public panic or mutual hatred, resulting in a disruption of normal life and work. Slander offenders would face punishment of a fine up to 5,000 dollars, imprisonment of

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up to 10 years, or both. The law gave great powers to officials of various levels, as the outline of the Great Qing Publication Ordinance stated that “this ordinance is applicable in all provinces, and local officials could exercise their own judgments.” By allowing officials to “exercise their own judgments,” the officials were given the right to arrest suspects and ban printing houses at their discretion. The Great Qing Publication Ordinance was applicable to general printed materials. However, as there were increasing newspapers during that period with a few hundred types of revolutionary periodicals, the Qing government deemed that there was a need to strengthen the control over such newspaper publications. The Ministry of Police published nine Regulations for Newspapers in 1906 that were in effect together with the Great Qing Publication Ordinance . The first six regulations were: “No defamation of the imperial court; no rash discussion of politics; no disruption to public order; no destruction of customs; no publishing of official documents which the government offices deemed to be secret; no opinions or defense of the accused in ongoing cases.” In August 1907, the Ministry of Civil Affairs sent a memorial suggesting that “with the gradual opening up of society, the number of newspaper offices outside of Beijing was increasing…Beijing, as the capital, was of fundamental importance. Newspaper commentaries would have a great effect, and control over them should no longer be delayed.” Thus, 10 Provisional Regulations for Newspaper Offices were promulgated. It was basically identical to the Regulations for Newspapers promulgated by the Ministry of Police, with one additional regulation: All publications must be approved by the Ministry of Police before they could be published. The regulations were announced on September 5, and became laws officially. The Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance was drafted by the Ministry of Commerce based on the Japanese Newspaper Ordinance in January 1908. It was edited by the Ministry of Police and jointly submitted by the Ministry of Civil Affairs and Ministry of Justice for the approval of the Office of Constitutional Preparation. The draft was edited by six ministers — Yi Kuang, Zai Feng, Shi Xu, Zhang Zhidong, Lu Chuanlin, and Yuan Shikai — and promulgated on March 14, 1908. It had a total of 46 sections. The main content of the law included: Newspapers should be reported to related officials 20 days before they were first published, and a security deposit of 250 to 500 dollars should be handed in. Newspapers that were not reported according to regulations would face a fine of up to 100 dollars. Daily newspapers had to be sent for inspection before midnight on the day before publication, while other publications had to be sent

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for inspection before noon on the day before publication. Failure to comply would

result in a fine of up to 30 dollars. The 14th section stated that “contents that

defame the imperial court, cause confusion of the political system, disrupt public order, and destroy social norms cannot be published. Serious offenders will be

prosecuted. Overseas publications that are against the law will be banned from being imported, and be confiscated and destroyed by customs.

Other than newspaper ordinances promulgated by the central government,

local officials had also set up similar regulations. For example, on January 8, 1907, Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces Zhou Fu set up three newspaper ordinances on his own:

1. Libel of the royal family and royal relations is forbidden.

2. Rumors are forbidden. The name and address of the journalist responsible for each article must be recorded and kept for six months, or the main writer will be held responsible.

3. Disruption of public order is forbidden. Any violations will be punished. Yuan Shikai, the Governor-General of Zhili, also promulgated an order on

February 27, 1907 to ban “rebellious publications.” If they were republished, they would be fined a hundred times the original punishment.

It should be noted that both the Great Qing Publication Ordinance and the Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance came into effect after the Qing government announced its preparation for constitutionalism. They were obviously not established for protecting the freedom of expression and publication, but to strengthen the control over journalism. The various ordinances targeted the bourgeois revolutionary newspapers, but in the enforcement of the law, many reformist and other types of newspapers were also prosecuted. The newspaper ordinances became chains around the revolutionary newspapers and newspapermen. In the memorial to the throne by the Office of Constitutional Preparation on the review of the Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance , it was written that “the thieves of the rebellious party are now hiding in the Southeast Asian region, and are publishing newspapers of outrageous words.” Thus, the office suggested heavier punishment than the original draft of the ordinance, and serious offenders would be prosecuted with the criminal law.

The Qing government methods in prosecuting journalism The Qing imperial court had always held a tight control over the right of expression and the journalism industry, and held many Literary Inquisitions.

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Empress Dowager Cixi stepped up her prosecution of reformist newspapers after the Coup of 1898. She also issued an imperial decree in October 1899, stating that “false words that caused chaos in governance were the worst disaster for the public. Previous imperial decrees had announced the cessation of all official gazettes. It was recently known that many newspaper offices still stand in various places such as Tianjin, Shanghai, and Hankou. Such newspapers speak without grounding, spread rumors, and deceive the public without restraint. They should be banned. Provincial Governors should be serious in investigating and banning these newspapers. The main writers are scum despite being learned, and are without shame. Local officials should arrest and punish them heavily, so as to stop the further spreading of evil words and to right the thoughts of the public.”80 Under the despotic power of Cixi, most of the domestic reformist newspapers were prosecuted and banned. When the bourgeois democratic revolution movement reached its height, the Qing government turned its focus on revolutionary newspapers. Statistics based on incomplete materials showed that in the 13 years from 1898 to 1911, at least 53 periodicals were banned or temporarily banned, 2 persons were sentenced to death, 17 were imprisoned, and more than 100 were summoned, arrested, warned, or sent back to their hometowns. The Qing government methods of persecution could be summed up below:

Limiting publication and taking preventive measures The Great Qing Publication Ordinance and the Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance laid down strict regulations for the registration, approval, censorship, and punishment of periodicals. Zhang Zhidong spoke clearly on the objective of regulation of private newspapers in his Letter to the Jianghanguan Circuit Intendant to ban rebellious newspapers : “It is known that there are Chinese planning to open up newspaper offices in Hankou. When they become prosperous, they cannot help but collect news from Shanghai and foreign papers to deceive the public. Those who start up a newspaper office will inevitably break the law, and rather than arresting them later, it is better to prevent such crimes from happening. Ban the sale, reading, and delivery of newspapers printed within Chinese borders, and seal the involved houses. If the newspapers were printed in the foreign concessions and pretended to be foreign, ban the delivery of them. Arrest all who break the law.” Due to the precautions taken by the Qing government, many periodicals were banned after just one or two issues were published. For example, after Northern Daily in Tianjin announced that it had a

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mission to monitor the government and lead the citizens, the Qing government immediately sent officials to negotiate in the concession, and the newspaper was banned on the day it was established. The main writer was also arrested. Yue Post in Shanghai was also banned because its inaugural issue had words such as “calling for the salvation of the nation.” People of the Heaven in Guangzhou was also banned two days after it was first published since its inaugural address was signed with the name “Spirit of Rousseau 盧梭魂 .”

Numerous bans that make it easy for published periodicals to be liable In order to control revolutionary newspapers, the Qing government issues many provisional bans on top of the promulgated ordinances. For example, the Grand Council ordered all provinces to ban the import of New Freedom Press from Honolulu in October 1908 since it encouraged revolution. In July 1909, the Ministry of Civil Affairs ordered all provinces to forbid periodicals to report or comment on the negotiation of the Andong–Fengtian Railway in Northeast China. In August 1910, the Ministry of Colonial Affairs and Ministry of Civil Affairs forbid all newspapers in reporting “rumors” that Germany was demanding the railway and mine rights in Shandong. In April 1911, the Ministry of Civil Affairs issued three orders to ban newspapers from reporting and commenting on China-Russia negotiations and visits of Japanese Ambassadors. Other than the central government, some regional officials also established their own rules to impose limitations on newspapers of the region. For example, Yuan Shikai, as the Governor-General of Zhili, established a “fine of a hundred times” in order to prevent the import of overseas progressive newspapers from Tianjin. Zhou Fu, the Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, also set up three regulations, as well as banned the sale of all Hong Kong newspapers in Guangdong. Even counties like Panyu and Nanhai also issued regional bans that forbid newspapers from “slandering American employers,” revealing the faults of officials, and insulting the American president’s daughter who was touring Guangzhou. Offenders would be punished severely. In the end, there were so many bans that periodicals could hardly avoid breaking the law. Bowen News (Bowen bao 博聞報 ) from Guangzhou was accused of being disrespectful and banned just for describing Cixi as having “a big mouth and thick lips.” Hubei Daily News (Hubei ribao 湖北日報 ) in Wuhan was also banned for publishing a satirical comic of Governor-General of Hubei and Hunan Provinces Chen Kuilong. Many other periodicals were banned for “sacrilege against the emperor,” “defaming the imperial court,” and the “rash discussion of politics.”

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Opinions above the law and prosecuting the public for selfish ends Although the Qing government had promulgated many laws to restrict the

publication of periodicals, the government did not always follow the law. Most

things were decided by the will of those in power. Among the dozens of banned

newspapers, only a few, such as The Great River , The West Post , and The Central China Post , were trialed with legal proceedings. Most were banned because of improper accusations by officials in power. For example, Beijing Post exposed the fact that the Acting Provincial Governor of Heilongjiang — Duan Zhigui — obtained his position through bribery. The bribed officials of the royal family then pressured the Ministry of Civil Affairs to ban the newspaper. The East Asia Post (Yadong bao 亞東報 ) and Asia Daily (Yazhou ribao 亞洲日報 ) of Guangzhou were banned for holding different views with Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces Cen Chunxuan and opposing the nationalization of the CantonHankow Railway. Ching Yang Jih Pao (Jinyang ribao 晋陽日報 ) was banned for exposing Shanxi Provincial Governor Ding Baoquan’s connivance of the officers’ murder of commoners. There was also cruel prosecution of newspapermen who dared to expose the scandalous acts of the imperial court. Shen Jin, who was a famous journalist in the late Qing era, was to be executed without trial for reporting on the scandalous Sino-Russian Secret Treaty. It coincided, however, with Cixi’s birthday celebrations, and public execution was not appropriate for the auspicious event. Shen Jin was thus sentenced to death by flagellation. After more than 200 strokes, Shen Jin was heavily wounded but not dead. He was finally strangled to death. The founder of The Chungking Daily News , Bian Xiaowu, died with 23 knife wounds in prison for exposing the atrocities of Cixi and regional officials. Other than false charges, the Qing government also deemed people guilty by association. Once a newspaper was charged, not only the publisher but also the main writer would be imprisoned. Investors, sponsors, and writers were often deemed guilty as well. After Ching Yang Jih Pao was banned, the main writer Wang Yongbin and journalist Jiang Huchen were arrested, while more than 10 others were wanted through association. When the revolutionary newspapers New Freedom Press from Honolulu and Kwong Wah Daily from Yangon were banned from import, their shareholders’ properties in China were confiscated. After the ban of the Bangkok China-Siam Daily , shareholder Ma Xingshun was arrested and tortured when he returned to China to visit his relatives.

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Buyouts Han Post (Han bao 漢報 ) and Hankow Daily News (Hankou ribao 漢口日報 ), published in Hankou, were originally private papers. Both became official gazettes as Han Post was later bought by Zhang Zhidong, while Hankow Daily News was bought by Duan Fang. Universal Gazette established by Wang Kangnian in Shanghai was also bought by Circuit Intendant Cai Naihuang under the orders of the Ministry of Colonial Affairs. Other than the Universal Gazette , the Ministry of Colonial Affairs also bought Public Opinion Tribune (Yulun bao 輿論報 ), Current Affairs Post , Shanghai News , and Shun Pao .81

Cooperation with foreign governments There were two situations. If a domestic periodical reported unfavorable news of imperialism, foreign ambassadors would work in cohorts with the Qing government to ban or punish the publication. Another situation involved the cooperation between the Qing government and foreign governments to limit and prosecute periodicals established by the Chinese overseas. There were many examples of the first instance. In 1900, foreign consulates in China requested the Guangdong Provincial Governor to ban Bowen News (Bowen bao 博聞報 ), Guangdong and Guangxi Tribune , and Chinese Daily Paper (Zhongxi ribao 中西日報 ) for reporting the defeat of the Eight-Nation Alliance. In 1905, the United States Consulate met with the Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces and the Governor-General of Zhili requesting a ban of the Guangzhou Boycott Post and the Tianjin Ta Kung Pao for reporting on the boycott of American goods. Also in 1905, the Russian Consulate wrote a letter to the officials of Hubei and requested that they ban Han Post for publishing news that affected the reputation of the Sino-Russian Righteousness Victory Bank. In 1909, the British Consulate requested the Anhui Provincial Governor to permanently ban the Anhui Vernacular Post (Anhui baihuabao 安徽白話報 ) for defaming the British and evoking xenophobia. Also in 1909, the Japanese Consulate requested the Shanghai Circuit Intendant to ban The People’s Wail for exposing the Japanese invasion of Northeast China. In 1910, the French Consulate requested the Ministry of Colonial Affairs to punish severely the Beijing Patriotic Post (Aiguo bao 愛國報 ) for exposing that France had sent secret agents to Yunnan to collect data. Also in the same year, the German Consulate requested the Ministry of Colonial Affairs, Minister of Beiyang, Minister of Nanyang, and Shangdong Provincial Governor

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to alter and ban reports on Germany’s ambition in Qingdao, and the sending

of more German troops to China. Such requests were aggressive interventions of China’s internal affairs, yet the Qing government obeyed them without fail. In 1911, the Russian Consulate requested the ban of Northeast Frontier Bulletin

(Dongchui gongbao 東陲公報 ) in Harbin. The Jilin negotiator Guo Songxi once said

“It is better to anger the intellectuals than the foreigners.”82 This fully exposed the cowardice of the Qing officials.

There were many examples of the second situation too. Under the request of

the Qing government, the Japanese government banned revolutionary periodicals

published in Tokyo, such as Cry of the Cuckoo , The Sze-Chuen Magazine , Yuen Nan Journal , and The Minpao Magazine . The Japanese government also sent secret agents to spy on the staff of the publications. Under the request of the Chinese Consulate, the British Burma officials banned the revolutionary Kwong Wah Daily and Evolution Paper published in Yangon, while the Dutch East Indies officials banned the revolutionary Sibin Daily in Surabaya and exiled the chief editor. British Hong Kong also confiscated the Heavenly Punishment (Tiantao 天 討 ), an additional publication issued by The Minpao Magazine, accusing it of “inciting assassination.” The British Hong Kong government also promulgated the Ban on Newspapers Inciting Revolt in an Ally Country , stating that “any newspapers, books, documents, and picture books published in Hong Kong that can evoke chaos when smuggled into China can be banned by the Hong Kong government on the grounds of diplomacy. Offenders will face a fine of up to 500, or imprisonment of up to two years, or both. Hard labor may be a form of punishment at the discretion of the High Court.83 Other than prosecuting overseas periodicals, the Qing government also strictly controlled the import of revolutionary periodicals. The Qing government requested the Japanese government to ban revolutionary periodicals such as Jiangsu (Jiangsu 江蘇 ), Tides of Zhejiang (Zhejiang chao 浙江潮 ), and Students from Hubei (Hubei xueshengjie 湖 北 學 生 界 ), while it on the other hand forbid the mailing and selling of them to China. If Chinese students read them in school, they would be immediately punished or expelled. School managers who failed to prevent such occurrences would also be punished.84 The perverse acts of the Qing government listed above were naturally opposed and resisted by the Chinese public and the journalism industry. Despite the tight control and the prosecution of journalism, the Qing government failed to stop the wave of revolution and the government was finally overthrown.

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The struggle against censorship by the journalism industry Tighter control would only result in a stronger resistance. The journalism industry fought strongly against the Qing government’s censorship and prosecution.

Protesting through editorials Many newspapers published editorials in protest of the Qing government laws that suppressed freedom of speech. On March 19, 1907, China Daily published the editorial “Qing Court’s Ban of Publications” to condemn the government’s suppression of free speech. On June 11, The National Herald published “On the Newspaper Ordinance,” announcing that although the Qing government created such an obstacle for the journalism industry, the newspaper would continue to publish as long as it was not prosecuted. The second issue of Han Flag said that the Qing government’s takeover of newspapers was robbing the public’s right of expression and was worse than Qin Shi Huang’s ban of discussion. Newspapers in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hankou, and other places also published commentaries that opposed the 10 Provisional Regulations for Newspaper Offices written by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. In October 1910, seven newspapers in Beijing, including National Gazette and Empire Daily , petitioned to the Central Advisory Council requesting an amendment of the newspaper ordinances to loosen the control over expression.

Mutual Support and unity against oppression The National Herald in Shanghai had issued many editorials in protest against the Qing government when newspapers such as Tong Post (Tong bao 通報 , published in Fengtian), The Great River , Yangtze and Han River Daily , Justice Public News , Yuen Nan Journal , and Northeast Frontier Bulletin were banned. When The People’s Wail was banned, Eastern Times published an article that criticized the judgment of the court as an axe that destroyed free speech, and stated that The People’s Wail had not broken any newspaper ordinances. Restoration Tribune, in its article “Banning The Minpao Magazine ,” pointed out that the influence of The Minpao Magazine “is like a river that breaks out of a dam. It is unstoppable even if banned. The readers are more eager as the bans grow stronger.” After the ban of Northern Daily in Tianjin, many Beijing and Tianjin newspapers protested until the Governor-General of Zhili office had to agree to its republication. On June 5, famous personalities from the gentry, business, and journalism sectors went to the

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republication ceremony. Participants ridiculed the officials and took photographs in commemoration.

Constant succession and renewal After Yu Youren’s The People’s Wail was banned, he founded the Min Hu Pao and the Min Li Pao . Not long after the ban of Zhan Dabei’s and Wan Siyan’s Commercial Post , they established The Great River . After Kuang Qizhao’s Guang Post (Guang bao 廣報 ) in Guangzhou was banned, he established the China-Western Daily (Zhongxi ribao 中西日報 ) and Yuejiao News Press (Yuejiao jiwen 越嶠紀聞 ) in succession. When Crowd Post in Guangzhou established by Lu Esheng and others was banned, they established the Citizen Post , Twentieth Century Militarism Post , People of the Heaven , and Central Plain Post . Ye Chucang and others established the New China Post in Shantou. After it was banned, it was renamed China New Paper and publication resumed. Public Discussion Post (Gonglun shibao 公論實報 ) was banned on January 9, 1911 after multiple punishments. The newspaper published a notice stating: “We will continue to work hard and publication will resume under a new name.” The indomitable spirit of the revolutionary newspapermen rendered the Qing government’s ban of the revolutionary newspapers useless.

Scattering and expanding The Qing government strengthened their suppression of the revolutionary organizations and newspapers after the case of Jiangsu Tribune . Members of the Education Association of China then broke up the large organization into numerous small-scale organizations led by different people. China Vernacular News was established by one such small organization. The main writer of Jiangsu Tribune , Zhang Shizhao, established The China National Gazette in Shanghai just after 32 days of the ban of Jiangsu Tribune . After Cai Yuanpei returned to China from his exile in Berlin, he immediately established the Russian Watch (Eshi jingwen 俄事警聞 ), which was later renamed Cautionary Bell Tribune . The coverage of revolutionary journalism expanded despite suppression from the Qing government. The journalism field had various methods in the struggle with the Qing government:

Publishing in concessions and employing foreigners Many periodicals made use of the Qing government’s fear of foreigners in

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maximizing their opportunities of publication and free speech. The China

National Gazette of Shanghai was once registered at the British Consulate under the name of a British merchant. The Central China Post in Hankou, established by the Daily Renewal Society member Feng Temin, was established in Hong Kong. The Chungking Daily News , established by Bian Xiaowu, had the Japanese Takekawa Fujitaro as the president in name. Moreover, The National Herald was once disguised as a Japanese newspaper, and Min Hu Pao was disguised as a French newspaper. Even reformist papers such as Eastern Times and Journal on Current Affairs used similar methods to protect themselves. The Qing government dared not act rashly in the face of this tactic. For example, the Governor-General of Hubei only banned the Hankow Daily News after the government bought the paper, since it was disguised as a Western paper.

Registering with pseudonyms Bai Yuhuan, the publisher of Odes of the State Daily in Beijing, registered under the pseudonym Wu Youshi, while the publisher of the Guangzhou People of

the Heaven was listed as Huang Ping, but there was no such person. When the newspaper was caught up in legal proceedings, this method allowed for others to take the place of the accused, allowing the real newspaperman to go free.

Using mild and indirect words The People’s Wail and the Min Hu Pao did not directly call for a revolution or the expulsion of Manchus. Their declared missions were to “speak for the people,” “evoke nationalism, reflect public sufferings, protect national treasures, and base reports on facts.” The National Herald seldom used aggressive and shocking headlines, and avoided using sharp revolutionary words. The Empire Daily , established by revolutionaries in Beijing, even pretended to support constitutionalism, stating that its mission was “supporting the constitution, directing the discussion, expanding national rights, and expressing political views.” However, these periodicals all publicized revolutionary thoughts, introduced the revolutionary scene, and expressed their thoughts in a roundabout way. The National Herald explained the revolutionary ideology by publishing the statement of trialed revolutionaries word for word. It also published a large amount of wanted notices and telegraphs released by the Qing government that reported on revolutionary activities and the arrest of revolutionaries. These actions signified the reality of the revolutionary situation and created an impression that

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the revolution was everywhere. The Yangtze and Han River Daily translated materials of foreign newspapers to relay the revolutionary ideas and activities. It also published some constitutionalist articles selectively to express its stance indirectly. For example, it serialized Kang Youwei’s draft of “Joint Petition from Society for a Constitutional Empire and Two Hundred Overseas Chinese,” which requested Cixi to “leave politics and retire,” encouraged the “abolishment of the registry of Manchus and Han” and the use of the term “Chinese,” and suggested “the building of a new capital in Jiangnan for the benefit of economic activities.” These suggestions actually threatened the rule of the imperial court directly.

Publishing blank pages and disguised mailing After the police started to inspect copies of newspapers before they went to press, some newspapers deliberately published blank columns, and even left the entire page of telegraphed news blank. This misled many readers into thinking that all the news pieces were censored, and the public worried over how bad the news actually was. This forced the police to cease their censorship.85 Some overseas periodicals, in order to slip through the customs inspection, were mailed with fake covers. For example, The Minpao Magazine had its cover altered to “Psychology Lecture Notes” and “Ethics,” before it was packed as luggage and smuggled into China without inspection by missionaries or Manchu gentries. Due to the determined fight of the revolutionaries, the revolutionary publicity front was expanded and covered almost all major cities on the eve of the 1911 Revolution. Revolutionary periodicals were also published and circulated in some remote provincial capitals. The publications led to the wave of revolution and broke through the dam of the imperial ruler. Thus Sun Yat-sen said that the revolutionary publications were “stronger than three thousand Mausers.”

Characteristics of Journalism during the 1911 Revolution and the Improvement of Journalism Characteristics of journalism during the 1911 Revolution The China journalism industry developed rapidly during the 1911 Revolution. According to statistics with incomplete sources, in the six years from August 1905 to October 1911, more than 200 periodicals were established in China, forming a second peak in the growth of the national journalism business. When compared to the first peak formed during the Hundred Days’ Reform,

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journalism during the 1911 Revolution had the following characteristics:

First, bourgeois revolutionaries replaced bourgeois reformers as the main

actors behind the establishment of newspapers. For a long period of time after the

Hundred Days’ Reform and the Coup of 1898, both overseas and domestic media was basically controlled by reformists. Yet after the establishment of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in August 1905, the bourgeois revolutionaries, led by Sun Yat-sen, rose quickly and began to publicize the revolution strongly. Numerous

revolutionary periodicals were established both in China and overseas, exceeding

the reformist periodicals in number. The young, enthusiastic publicity team took the leading position in the media. Most of the revolutionary journalists

were youth in their twenties with the oldest in their thirties. They were mainly overseas students in Japan with good foundations of both Chinese and Western

knowledge, critical thinking, and good writing skills. Many participated in both revolutionary publicity and actual revolutionary activities. Many influential political commentators and journalists emerged, including Zhang Taiyan, Chen Tianhua, Song Jiaoren, Wang Jingwei, Hu Hanmin, Zheng Guangong, Feng

Ziyou, Yu Youren, Zhu Zhixin, Yang Dusheng, Zhang Shizhao, Liu Yazi, Qin Lishan, Ma Junwu, Zhan Dabei, He Haiming, and Chen Qimei. They gained rich

experience through their newspaper activities, and learned to make use of their various professional identities to carry out struggles legally. They bettered the

art of media publicity and polemics, and the old-styled reformists such as Liang Qichao, Xu Qin, Mai Menghua, Ou Jujia, and Luo Xiaogao paled in comparison.

Second, the newspaper industry of this period developed through the media

feud among different sectors, and the effect of periodicals in battles could be

clearly seen. The end of the imperial rule was impending during this period, and the imperialists, reformists, and revolutionaries entered a decisive struggle. In

its death throes, the Qing government was forced to announce its preparation

for constitutionalism, and to issue the edict that “the public and the officials would participate in political discussion.” Thus, from 1906 to 1911, nearly 60

official gazettes were established by the central and regional governments in an attempt to direct the public discussion. The bourgeois reformists, on the

other hand, tried to influence the discussion through the dozens of newspapers they established overseas. They wanted to be included in the constitutional

government when it was established. The bourgeois revolutionaries however,

established revolutionary papers while organizing armed uprisings. They wanted to overthrow the Qing government through both the sword and pen, so as to

end the imperial rule of China. As a result, they fully utilized the functions of

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periodicals in battles. Other than publicizing anti-Manchus and anti–Kang Youwei thoughts, many newspapers offices were also the liaison and commanding offices of revolution activities. The reformist newspaper activities were characterized by their integrated establishment of newspapers, schools, and associations. Thus similarly, the revolutionary newspaper office which was an integrated publicity, liaison, and command center could be said to be a characteristic of this establishment. Newspapers such as China Daily , Min Li Pao , The Great River , as well as overseas papers such as The Minpao Magazine and The Chinese Times were all headed by the leader of the regional revolutionary organization. Other than leading the revolutionary struggle with news reports and commentaries, newspapers also bear the responsibilities of organizing armed uprisings, with duties such as raising military funds, testing production of and storing arms, planning uprisings, and receiving uprising soldiers. Revolutionary newspapers had played up every major democratic political movement and armed uprising with well-coordinated reports. They created a large media force that helped drive the revolution. Third, the newspapers reached a larger area and a more diverse audience. During the Hundred Days’ Reform, the reformists’ newspaper activities were mainly focused in coastal areas and a few major cities in China. In contrast, during the 1911 Revolution, revolutionary newspaper activities first began overseas and gradually moved back into China. These then spread from central China to the Northeast, Northwest, and Southwest. Newspapers were established for the first time in provinces such as Yunnan, Guizhou, Shandong, Liaoning, Jilin, and Xinjiang. Lli Vernacular Post , established in Xinjiang Lli near the SinoRussian border, was of special significance. It was published in three languages — Han Chinese, Uyghur, and Mongolian — and was the earliest as well as the sole revolutionary newspaper published in ethnic minority languages during this period. The reformist newspapers during the Hundred Days’ Reform were focused on enlightening the officials. Thus their main target audience was made up of government officials, scholar-officials, land owners, the bourgeoisie, and intellectuals. Yet there was a gradual “downward” shift in the readers of revolutionary newspapers. Although the revolutionary newspapers mainly targeted the middle-class and the intellectuals, many periodicals enlarged their readership to include the new army, secret societies, craftsmen, petty merchants, and part of the public. Overseas Chinese newspapers also targeted agricultural workers and laborers. In order to meet the needs of these barely literate readers,

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the newspapers’ content used simpler language compared to the “Contemporary Style” of the Hundred Days’ Reform period. Vernacular newspapers also appeared in some places. Yet, the bourgeois parties failed to attract the majority of the Chinese public to join the revolution. This weakness was also reflected in the publicity of revolutionary newspapers, as they did not include the mass of workers and farmers in their readership. The newspapers were basically written in popularized classical Chinese, and were still far from the vernacular Chinese used after the May Fourth Movement. The language of some articles was even more classical and ancient than newspapers before the Hundred Days’ Reform. These weaknesses were a result of the idealism of the bourgeois revolutionaries. Fourth, the reformist and revolutionary newspapers had different management styles. Although reformist papers could be found in both China and overseas, they were under the centralized leadership of Kang Youwei and had the same political goal of supporting the royalist constitution. They share a universalized vocabulary — terms such as “revolution,” “public rights,” “freedom,” and “independence” were not used. They shared a common publicity pace, with a royalist emphasis before 1906 and a support for constitutionalism after 1906. Personnel transfers were arranged by Kang Youwei, and fundraising efforts were handed over to Kang Youwei for centralized management. Many of the newspapers were subsidized by the Chinese Empire Reform Association. Such centralized management was a strong characteristic of reformist newspapers. In contrast, revolutionary newspapers were not under a centralized leadership, and were mainly responsible for themselves. The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance headquarters did not had a department that managed publicity and thus lack unified control over newspapers. Most of the periodicals were established by the regional revolutionary organizations and individual revolutionaries. Moreover, the platform of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and the Three People’s Principles of Sun Yat-sen failed to unite the thoughts of the entire party. Many members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance did not agree to the equality of land rights and the nationalization of land. Thus in their

publicity stance, the revolutionary newspapers often differ among themselves except for common anti-Manchu and anti–Kang Youwei thoughts.86 There were also great differences among revolutionary newspapers and newspapermen, leading to mutual attacks and splits. Slanders and undermining among Chinese Revolutionary Alliance periodicals, Restoration Society periodicals, Gongjinshe periodicals, and Wenxueshe periodicals were even more common. Such mutual attacks caused irreparable damage to the revolutionary cause.

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Fifth, most newspapers developed and adopted the structure of a modern newspapers. Content wise, a modern newspaper had the four main parts of news, commentaries, supplements, and advertisements. Structurally speaking, the revolutionary newspapers had cast off the booklet and magazine styles. Most of the newspapers in this period had made the transition into a modern newspaper. The National Herald and The People’s Wail published three sheets with 12 pages, or four sheets with 16 pages daily. Gradually, people began to differentiate between newspapers and journals. .

The improvement of the profession of journalism during the 1911 Revolution Chinese periodicals had developed rapidly during the 1911 revolution. In order to meet the needs of the new situation, various newspapers carried out reforms and had exhibited improvements in three major areas:

Improvement in news reporting Due to backward communication tools and a lack of good reporters, early Chinese periodicals in modern times had a focus on political commentaries. News articles were of less importance and little information was conveyed. After the 1911 revolution, news reporting showed a great improvement with an improvement in communication and printing technologies, an increase in journalists, rapid socioeconomic development, as well as an ever-changing environment. News took on a larger ratio in the newspaper, and the number of news articles increased. A typical broadsheet would publish 20 to 30 pieces of news each day — sometimes reaching 50 news stories a day. Summaries of recent, major events both within and without the country became one of the major duties of periodicals. This was not only found in reformist and revolutionary newspapers, but also in commercial newspapers that had an emphasis on sales. With the increase in information came the obvious increase in the types of available news. There was political news, international news, social news, commercial news, and other news categories. The scope and coverage also widened. Political news had the heaviest focus among the various types of news. Using the case of Qiu Jin as an example, newspapers published detailed reports after the arrest and execution of Qiu Jin in 1907. The National Herald published related circulars, telegraphs, and notices released by the Zhejiang Province, and also reprinted related reports from foreign newspapers. The long-standing Shun

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Pao published more than 30 news stories on the case, with a total of 30,000 words. They included reports on the arrest and execution of Qiu Jin, editor’s review of the falsification of Qiu Jin’s statement by the Shaoxing officials and the expose of the falsification, Shaoxing officials’ announcement of Qiu Jin’s “crimes,” the aftermath of Qiu Jin’s death, photos of Qiu Jin in men’s clothes, and Qiu Jin’s epitaph authored by Xu Zihua and penned by Wu Zhiying. The reformist Eastern Times followed Qiu Jin’s case with continuous reports, and also published more than 10 commentaries, poems, and comics on the case such as “Mourning Qiu Jin’s Case,” “Records of the Late Ms. Qiu Jin,” and “Suggestions on the Incident of Qiu Jin’s Execution.” Although the newspapers had a different inclination and stance, they shared a common emphasis on political news. Newspapers of different factions had all reported in details the major political events and the armed uprisings around the 1911 Revolution. The revolutionary newspapers saw this as publicity for their cause, while other newspapers reported on the uprisings to cater to readers’ demands and to maintain their sales. Other than political news, the development of nationalistic capitalism also led to an increase in the number of economic and business news pieces. At the same time, some newspapers would publish social anecdotes and street news to attract more readers. Journalistic writing was greatly improved during this period as well. News items were conveyed in different styles — there were short summaries of a few lines, as well as long reports with commentaries; there were series of reports that followed a story, as well as comprehensive explanations and analysis of an entire event. News headlines no longer just listed the place of occurrence, and an individual headline was written for each story. Some articles even had subheadlines that hinted at the content and background of the story. Multi-level headlines also appeared, as top headlines and sub-headlines were included before and after the main headline. Other than generalizing terms, explanative, suggestive, exaggerative, and metaphoric terms were also used in headlines. For example, the top headline of an article in Min Li Pao on May 23, 1911 read “Ghosts and Monsters Were All Included” while the main headline was “Pass List of Imperial Examination.” On May 25, 1911, the headline of an article on Min Li Pao was “Alas! Another Few Hundred Miles Lost,” with four subheadlines “Government Willingly Sells the Country,” “Giving Away Territory,” “Opportunism,” and “Unrecognized by Citizens.” Other than news stories, innovative formats of news articles, such as circulars and special stories, began to emerge. These circulars were called jishi (records), tongxin (communication), or tongxun (newsletters), and periodicals were

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anxious to publish them. On the other hand, the “Record of Haircut Ceremony in

Zhangyuan” published by Min Li Pao on January 16, 1911 was a story of special

significance. The article described Shanghai people gathering in Zhangyuan to

publicly cut their queues to signify their break from the Qing court. The article recorded both dialogue and actions, included reports and comments, and was written with vivid words.

Due to the increase in the ratio of news articles in periodicals, the work of

journalists was more valued. Many periodicals built their own team of journalists

with both professional and amateur contributors to interview, collect news, and write. The constitutionalist Eastern Times claimed that it had special visiting

correspondents in Beijing, Tianjin, and Jinling; stationed journalists in various provinces; two special foreign journalists in Tokyo; a foreign correspondent

each in London, New York, San Francisco, Chicago, and St. Louis; as well as supporters from other places in America and Australia. The timeliness of news

was also emphasized, and speed was crucial. Liang Qichao, in his “Letter to Comrades” published by the Chinese Empire Reform Association on March

27, 1906, also stressed that “in the fierce competition among newspapers, only the newspaper with the fastest reporting and the most news can stand.” Revolutionary periodicals were especially focused on reporting revolutionary

activities. Many revolutionary periodicals had articles credited to “Correspondent

of the Newspaper,” or “Special Visiting Correspondent of the Newspaper.” They

also published news and circulars from foreign correspondents stationed in Britain, United States, and Japan. In order to better report on the activities of the revolutionary army, many revolutionary newspapers sent war correspondents

to the frontline. China Daily had sent such “special army correspondents in

Pingxiang Uprising, Huanggang Uprising, Anqing Xu Xilin, Qinlian Uprising,

Zhennan Pass Uprising, Guangzhou New Army Uprising, as well as Yellow Flower Mound Revolt. After the Wuchang Uprising, many Shanghai newspapers, such as The National Herald , had sent reporters to Wuhan to investigate the

incident and send daily reports. The long-standing Shun Pao with a tradition of

news reporting went even further to build its team of journalists and to collect

news. In January 1905, Shun Pao announced 12 reforms, with the second being the increase of news reports and the inclusion of more information. It stated

that “news reporting is valued for its volume. Our news will cover two sheets, and if that is not enough, expansions will be considered.” To meet this target,

Shun Pao increased the number of foreign and inland correspondents and added the columns “International News,” “War News,” “Political News,” “Economic

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News,” and “Regional News.” The newspaper also spent a lot of money on telegraphs to ensure timely news. Shun Pao resumed publication again after 1907, and published a large amount of telegraphs, translated telegraphs, breaking news, foreign news, regional news, local news, and business news. With the increase in news volume, famous journalists who could react fast and write well — such as Chen Qimei — appeared. The status of journalists also rose. Correspondents and reporters who were disrespected by scholars in the past began to gain social recognition. In order to report urgent news and to improve the timeliness of news, many newspapers would publish extra editions in addition to their normal print runs. The special editions would report on newly received important news. For example, China Daily issued a special edition “Great Victory for Revolution” on the Pingxiang Uprising. Kwong Wah Daily issued a special edition on the revolutionary army’s occupation of Baoding. During the Wuchang Uprising, Great Han Tribune issued six special editions in half a day, spreading news of the victory across Wuchang.

Improvement in news editing The earliest Chinese newspaper followed the booklet format of capital gazettes. Lianshi paper were commonly used with moveable type printing on a single side, and binding was often primitive. The earliest Chinese newspapers established by foreign missionaries were also printed similarly as booklets. Western style, single sheet newspapers only appeared after the 1850s when Western printing machines, white paper, and lithographic technology were introduced in Hong Kong and Shanghai. Examples included Universal Circulating Herald (Xunhuan ribao 循環日報 ) in Hong Kong, as well as Chinese and Foreign Gazette and The Chinese Shipping List & Advertiser (Shanghai xinbao 上海新報 ) in Shanghai. These papers still followed the writing style of classical Chinese and were aligned from right to left and top to bottom. Most Chinese newspapers however, were still printed as booklets. Early issues of Shun Pao served as an example. In 1898, in order to compete with Shun Pao , The Chinese Progress Daily was printed double-sided on white paper. Articles were arranged on different pages according to content, and columns were introduced on each page. Punctuations were also added, creating the “paper format” in modern newspapers. This was a new page for Chinese newspapers. In June 1904, Liang Qichao participated directly in Eastern Times and furthered the reform of the newspaper format. Each sheet was folded and printed on both sides to form four pages. Content

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was aligned from top to bottom in different columns. Headlines were drafted according to content, and news articles were companied by commentaries and political cartoons. Various fonts were used to make the page more vivid. After the 1911 Revolution, such a layout was widely used by many newspapers and became the common practice. Shun Pao followed and used the new format a year after Eastern Times was established. When Shi Liangcai took over the management of Shun Pao in 1912, he further reformed the paper. He used the news number five font size, and divided each page into six columns. Content was gradually increased from one printed sheet each day to seven and eight sheets per day. The improvised lianshi paper and glazed paper were replaced with machine manufactured newsprint. Around the time of the 1911 Revolution, the characteristics and advantages of newspapers were further developed as newspapers became separated from journals. First, breakthroughs were seen in page layouts, as the continuous column with long lines was broken into multiple columns with short lines. Moreover, comprehensive layout was used, where important and urgent news articles were placed in eye-catching positions. Big fonts, multiple lines, headlines running across columns, borders, frames, and accompanying commentaries and pictures were used. Such wordless layout language raised the artistic level of the newspapers and improved the newspaper as a publicity medium. It also raised the status of the editor in journalism, and made the distinction between newspapers and journals clearer. Another important change was the addition of various columns. Other than the frequently seen columns such as “Editorial,” “Commentary,” “Current Affairs Discussion,” “Telegraphs,” “Translated Telegraphs,” “Major News,” and “Correspondence,” many new columns were added during this period. Examples included columns that focused on news in a certain field (such as “Political News,” “Diplomacy News,” and “Academic News”); short opinions (such as “Speech Columns,” “Podium,” “New Advocates,” “Forum,” and “Social Voice”); discussions on the development of nationalistic capital (such as “Economy,” “Industry,” and “Business Studies”); as well as new scientific knowledge (such as “Translated Works,” and “Science”). These were long-running columns with fixed positions in newspapers. There were also many temporary columns that focused on a certain event or news of a certain field. For example, Shun Pao added a column “The History of China Restoration” in its news section after the Wuchang Uprising. It made timely and detailed reports of the activities of various political sectors as well as commented on major political events such as the North-South

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peace talks and the Northern expedition of the militia. Some newspapers also established columns such as “Questions and Answers,” “Mailbox,” and “Letters” to reflect the demands of readers and to answer their questions. This helped to strengthen the relationship between newspapers and readers. Supplements, which mainly published literary works, were also greatly valued during this period. The majority of newspapers included space for supplements. Examples included Advocacy Records of China Daily , Dark World of The China National Gazette , Free Talk of Shun Pao , and Humor from the Village of News Daily (later renamed as Happy Woods ). Some newspapers may not have had a separate section head for the supplement, but would spare a fixed space for the same purpose. Examples included page six of The National Herald , page five of Min Hu Pao , and page eight of Min Li Pao . Most of the newspapers set up a supplement to attract more readers and make the layout more vivid. When Shun Pao set up the supplement Free Talk on August 24, 1911, it admitted that it wanted to “cater to both the serious and the lively.” The article “Manifesto of Reforming the Newspaper” published on the same day stated that “we have always been known for being just and serious. Yet the people have gotten livelier. We cannot be lively by being too serious, and vice versa. By reforming our newspaper, we hope to achieve both.” Not long after, Shun Pao published the article “Talk,” stating that “the prevalence of newspapers has allowed the general public to know about the world and to gain knowledge. Yet interesting stories must also be included so that people do not tire…the Free Talk attached in our newspaper aims to entertain our readers when they are bored.”87 Columns such as “Recreational Articles,” “Strange Tales from Abroad,” “Fervent Elegies” and “Honest Words” were included in the supplement. New columns such as “New Opera,” “Editors’ Notes,” and “Tragic National History” were added after the Wuchang Uprising. The supplement published many literary works such as short commentaries on current affairs and poems, helping the long-standing newspaper to gain new readers. As for supplements of revolutionary newspapers, the included literary works advocated revolution in coordination with the news and commentaries. Such supplements were another important front in the publicity of democratic revolution. Advertisements also had an important place in various newspapers. Advertisements were the major source of wealth for long-standing, commercial newspapers like Shun Pao . Such newspapers paid a lot of attention to the design and layout of advertisements. As compared to earlier advertisements, newspaper advertisements during this period were better written and with better artistic

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design. Different fonts and illustrations were used to attract the readers’ attention and to make the publicity more effective. As the number of advertisements increased, they took up an increasingly large portion in newspapers.

Improvement in commentaries Conflicts within China became increasingly aggressive from 1900 up until the

the 1911 Revolution. People were most concerned and argued about the future of

China. Periodicals with various political stance voiced their advocacy and struggle with opposite sectors. Commentaries in periodicals continued to be valued, and

were further developed. Newspapers set up columns such as “Editorials,” “Social Discussions,” “Discussions,” “Current Affairs Commentaries,” “Commentaries on Behalf,” and “Submitted Commentaries” to publish commentaries in prominent

places. Commentaries usually took up one third of the entire newspaper, and the quality of commentaries would directly affect the reputation and influence of the newspaper.

The development of periodical commentaries led to the emergence of a

large amount of short commentaries on current affairs. Other than editorials

and commentaries, many newspapers set up specialized columns for short

commentaries on current affairs. Examples included the “Current Affairs” column in New Citizen Journal , Tides of Zhejiang , and Awakened Lion ; “Some Words

on Current Affairs” in Henan Journal and The National Herald ; “Spring and Autumn Annals of the Country” and “Public Words” in Min Hu Pao ; as well as

“Unspeakable Words,” “Painful Words,” “Strong Duties,” “Pearls and Sand,” and

“Shanghai Annals” in The Bell . These short commentaries pinpointed singular

political events, and caught the attention of the society. In addition, short literary

works also appeared. These short works were mainly published in newspaper supplements. Their content ranged from the historic to the present, from the east to the west , and they were the predecessors of anecdotal literature.

“Editors’ Notes” was also a common type of commentary in this period.

Around the time of the 1911 Revolution, editors’ notes, which were published

in companion to news reports, began to emerge in large numbers. These commentaries were often attached to the end of news pieces, and began with

words such as “notes,” “journalist’s notes,” or “editor ’s notes.” They then proceeded to comment on the news. Similar to editorials, short commentaries

on current affairs, and short literary works, they served to express the stance of

the newspaper. The editor’s notes included in the Shun Pao report on the arrest

and trial of Qiu Jin were one such example. This was also a new development in

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newspaper commentary. The commentaries in this period inherited and developed the “Contemporary Style” of the Hundred Days’ Reform. The articles were easy to follow and full of emotions. Commentaries used plain words and were more made more popular. Different types of commentaries were also developed. Many outstanding commentators appeared, including Zhang Taiyan, Chen Tianhua, Zheng Guangong, Yu Youren, Yang Dusheng, and Zhu Zhixin. The improvements in journalism during the 1911 Revolution helped made the industry more prosperous. They were deeply influential towards the development of Chinese journalism. The basic model of modern newspapers was formed during this period.

The appearance of journalistic photographs in periodicals Another major development in journalism during this period was the widespread appearance of journalistic photographs as a supplement to written reports. Photography technology was introduced from Europe to China in the 1840s. Chinese periodicals first began to use copperplate engraving photographs in the 1870s. In the 1880s, stone lithography became popular and illustrators began to draw lined pictures based on photographs to be published in pictorials. Narrative Post (Shu bao 述報 ), published in Guangzhou in 1884, was one of the earliest periodicals to print images with stone lithography. Other than publishing news illustrations, Narrative Post once printed a photograph of the Black Banner leader Liu Yongfu on leaflets attached to the newspaper. Images printed through copperplate engravings and stone lithography could be easily distorted. Some periodicals, in order to improve on the quality of printed images, tried to solve the problem by pasting the original photograph on the periodical and laminating it. However, this could only be used by periodicals with small print runs, and could not be widely used. Some newspaper offices would copy collected photographs and sell them separately to increase their social influence. Around 1900, technology of halftone photography was brought into China. Chinese newspapers thus began to print halftone journalistic photographs. As these images were realistic, they were a great innovation as a pictorial means of publicity. News photographs officially became a means in news reporting. The China Press in Shanghai was one of the earlier newspapers to use halftone photographs. The inaugural issue of the paper in 1901 published many photographs including the portraits of Zeng Guofan and Zuo Zongtang, as well

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as sceneries overseas and in the country. In August of the same year, A Review of the Times used half a page to publish the photograph “Chun of the Imperial Family Passing Through Shanghai Under Orders.” At that time, Chun Zaifeng, a male relation of the Emperor, was under orders to visit Germany and “apologize.” He sailed north from Tianjin, and landed on Shanghai on July 16. The photograph recorded the scene where local gentries welcomed Chun Zaifeng on a major road in Shanghai. This was the first known journalistic photograph published in Chinese newspapers. The first periodicals established by the Chinese to include photographs were the Records of the Russo-Japanese War (Ri E zhanji 日俄戰紀 ) and the Eastern Miscellany . Both were printed by the Commercial Press in 1904. Records of the Russo-Japanese War was a semi-monthly magazine that focused on the RussoJapanese War in Northeast China. A total of 30 issues were published following the outbreak of the war to peace talks in the aftermath. Every issue contained photographs of battles between the two countries. There were portraits of the monarchs and commanders of both countries, as well as photographs of the second attack on Lüshun by the Japanese torpedo boat fleet, the battle of Japanese artillery in Yalu River, and Russian battleships sunk by torpedoes. After the war, the magazine headquarters in Japan sent a team of 11 photographers to the warzone, taking 5,000 pictures in total. Thus most of the photographs in Records of the Russo-Japanese War and the Photograph Collection of the Russo-Japanese War (Ri E zhanzheng xiezhen zhaoxiangtu 日俄戰爭寫真照相圖 ), published in the same year, were taken by Japanese. They were biased towards Japan. The Eastern Miscellany also published self-made halftone photographs to introduce sceneries and architectures around the world. “A Brief History of Photography and Modern Methods” written by Du Jiutian was serialized in the magazine in volume 8 from issues 4 to 9. This was the first article in a Chinese established magazine to introduce photographic technologies At that time, most of the halftone makers in Shanghai were foreigners. The illustrator Zhao Yin from Civilization Press was determined to tryout the technology on his own. With the encouragement and support of his boss, he finally succeeded after numerous tries. Zhao Yin could be considered the first Chinese to learn the halftone technology.88 In February 1906, six foreigners including the French missionary Lacruche were lynched by the masses in Nanchang, Jiangxi, for murdering District Magistrate Jiang Shaotang. This was the shocking Nanchang Missionary Case. After the case, the French imperialists tried to cover the truth by spreading

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the rumor that Jiang Shaotang committed suicide. On March 29, Jinghua Daily published a “Photograph of Nanchang District Magistrate Jiang Shaotang Having Been Stabbed.” The editor’s note stated that “District Magistrate Jiang Shaotang was invited to drink and murdered by the Catholics. The missionaries who advised us to be good were the murderers. Not only did they commit such a crime, they also lied and claimed that it was a suicide. We had argued for the case and now publish a photograph of the injured District Magistrate. We now let the public decide how this possibly can be a suicide.” The photograph clearly exposed the lies of the imperialists, and showed the power of photojournalism. The Qing government held an autumn military parade in the same year. The Qing Office of Military Training prescribed that each newspaper could only send one journalist and one photographer to the event. The 11th issue of the Eastern Miscellany published the “Regulations for Attending the 1906 Autumn Drill Prescribed by the Office of Military Training.” The regulations recognized the rights of journalists to a certain extent. However, three years later during the funeral procession of Cixi, the Yin Shaogeng brothers who owned a photography gallery in Fuzhou, Tianjin were accused of being disrespectful for photographing the event. They were arrested and imprisoned for 10 years. The 18th issue of Current Affairs Pictorial attacked the Qing government for this incident in 1909, stating that “photographs of foreign monarchs could be found everywhere with no accusations, but the Qing government imprisoned someone for 10 years over a single photograph. The despotic nature of the country could be clearly seen.” In another note, Cixi loved photographs when she was alive, and her pictures were often taken by the imperial photographer Yu Xunling. However, journalists were never allowed in the palace to take photographs. Thus, photographs of this highest ruler in China were only published in newspapers after the end of the Qing Dynasty. Most of the illustrations published in early Chinese Pictorials were handdrawn. Halftone photographs only began to appear in pictorials in the early 20th century. The Hong Kong edition of Current Affairs Pictorial was the first to publish photographs in 1908. One to two photographs would be published each issue, with examples such as “The Military Band of the Guangdong Military Academy,” “Corps of the Chinese Army,” and “The Revolution of the Turkish Army.” Most of the photographs were related to current affairs or revolution, but there were also pictures of scenery, people, and objects. The integration of photographs and illustrations drove the development of photographic pictorials — a new type of pictorials.

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The periodicals established by the Chinese in Japan were the pioneers in publishing photographs among overseas Chinese publications. Liang Qichao established the New Citizen Journal in Yokohama in 1902 to encourage reform and oppose revolution. The newspaper had a “Pictures” column that published photographs of current affairs. Examples included the “Picture of the Canadian House of Commons in Session” (16th issue), and “Picture of the British Parliament” (17th issue). These pictures showed the stance of the newspaper which supported the constitutional monarchy. After 1902, publications established by overseas Chinese students in Japan, such as Students from Hubei , Tides of Zhejiang , and Jiangsu contained photographs. Although most of them were pictures of scenery and architecture, the photographs showed a political inclination. The “Mausoleum of Emperor Tianqi of Ming” in the second issue of Jiangsu , the “Mausoleum of Emperor Yu” and “Temple of Emperor Yu in Kuaiji” in the sixth issue of Tides of Zhejiang , as well as the “Grave of Yue Fei” in the tenth issue of Tides of Zhejiang all encouraged readers to recall ancient China and to restore such relics. 89 They were closely related to the revolution publicity. The first issue of Dongting Lake Wave and Han Flag also published the portraits of secret society leader Ma Fuyi, who died in an uprising, and China Revival Society member Yao Hongye, who committed suicide by throwing himself in the river over national matters. There were fewer journalistic photographs in comparison. “The Burning of the Chinese Market in Honolulu” in the eighth issue of New Citizen Journal , “The Autumn Military Drill in 1906” in the first issue of China New Post , and the “Persecution of Vietnam Citizens by French Imperialists” in the second issue of Yuen Nan Journal were some representative journalistic photographs. The official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, The Minpao Magazine , established in 1905 in Tokyo, had a special emphasis on publicity through journalistic photographs. Twenty of the twenty-six issues of the magazine had at least a page of photographs, and 50 journalistic photographs were published. The pictures selected by the magazine shared the following characteristics. First, they helped build the image of revolutionary leaders and praised the sacrificial spirits of revolutionaries. The magazine published the portraits of many revolutionaries, including Chen Xingtai, Sun Yat-sen, Zhang Binglin, Zou Rong, Shi Jianru, Wu Bi, Xu Xilin, Qiu Jin, Chen Boping, Ma Zonghan, Yang Zhuolin, and Liu Dao. Second, the photographs encouraged terrorism and assassination. Examples included the portrait of Wu Bi who tried to assassinate the five Qing officials studying constitutionalism, the portrait of

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Russian assassination association leader Gershun in prison, the portrait of Buíça who first shot King Carlos I of Portugal, the portrait of Costa who assassinated Portugal’s Prince Royal Luis Filipe, and the picture of the assassination of Ito Hirobumi by a Korean nationalist in Harbin. Third, journalistic photographs were used to refute constitutionalism and to promote the necessity of a democratic revolution. For example, the 23rd issue of the magazine published “Photograph of a Body Displayed in a Constituent Country.” The editor’s note explained that “the picture showed the murder and display of a body in Russia after a constitution was drawn. We hope that constitutionalists will learn from this.” Fourth, scenic photographs were also used for a political purpose through carefully written captions. For example, the 24th issue published a picture of the Gate of Nanjing City Wall. The editor’s caption read “A Former Capital, Now a Foxhole,” added political connotations to the scenic photograph. Fifth, photographs were also used to support other liberation movements across Asia. Examples included the portrait of Filipino General Aguinaldo and the portrait of Pawa, a Chinese general who helped in the Philippine–American War. The photographs selected by The Minpao Magazine were often about current affairs or had a strong idea. Regardless of the subject of the photographs, editors could bring out the bourgeois revolutionary stance. The sharp words coupled with the pictures were quite inciting. 1907 was an important year in the history of Chinese photojournalism. The large-scale Chinese photographic pictorial World (Shijie 世界 ) was published in Paris. The pictorial measured 9 by 12 inches and was printed on coated paper. It mainly targeted overseas Chinese in France, but was also sold in China through a Shanghai distributor. It had columns such as “Various Scenery Around the World,” “Science Around the World,” “Recent Occurrence Around the World,” “Memorable History Around the World,” and “A Brief History of Evolution of the World.” Both pictures and photographs were included, with explanations written in number three font. Each issue contained 300 to 400 pictures, and more than half of them were about world famous scenery, science and technology, culture, and current affairs. Materials were selected from the whole world, with occasional reports of happenings in China. For example, the pictorial published pictures of Shanghai people burning the British Vice-Consul’s motorcycle in the 1905 wave of anti-British and patriotic sentiment, pictures of the women Natural Foot Society, as well as pictures of the Huaibei famine. Although the photographs were published long after the actual events, they still reflected that the pictorial was concerned with China.

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World was a seasonal publication and only two issues were published. Yao Hui was the editor, while professor Nan Kui of the University of Paris helped to evaluate the photographs. Yao Hui was the daughter of the Education Commissioner Yao Juren, and was the first female chief editor of pictorials in Chinese history. Other than publishing the pictorial, the World Society (Shijie she 世界社 ) also published a photograph collection Sixty Famous Personalities in the Modern World (Jin shijie liushi mingren 近世界六十名人 ). The portrait of Karl Marx was included with a brief history, making the first printed portrait of Marx in China.90 When Wuchang Uprising broke out in 1911, the passionate public wanted to know more about the revolt, leading to a sharp increase in the number of photographs in periodicals. On October 19, Shun Pao was the first to publish a photograph of a cannon on Snake Mountain in Wuchang. From October 22 to November 19, Shun Pao published 31 photographs related to the uprising, with an average of one photograph each day. This broke the historical record of Shun Pao . Alarm , published by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Shanghai, had also outstanding pictorial publicity. It published more than 10 photographs in the four days between October 20 and 23, with examples such as “Huang Xing, Commissioner-in-chief of the Revolution Army,” “The Revolutionary Army Capturing Snake Mountain and Firing on the Government Office,” and “The Revolutionary Army Beginning Their Northern Expedition.” The National Herald also published an extra edition after the restoration of Shanghai with both words and pictures. Newspapers in Guangzhou, Wuhan, and other places also published photographs in their reports of activities on the frontline. All these helped to strengthen the influence of the revolution. Most of the time, the photographers of the journalistic photographs were not credited during that period. Only The National Herald credited Li Shaomu for some of its published photographs. Li Shaomu was the first photojournalist who could be traced in Chinese newspapers. The Gongjinshe member Li Baizhen went personally to the frontline of the Wuchang Uprising in order to document the event through photographs. He took many precious photographs from October 19 to November 24, especially of those in the battle of Hanyang Yulin Hill. Unfortunately, the negatives of the photographs were lost in the two World Wars. Photojournalism of Chinese periodicals was still in its budding stage around the time of the 1911 Revolution. Most of the photographs depicted sceneries, architectures, and portraits of personalities. There were comparatively fewer

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photographs of events, and they were less timely than journalistic photographs. Many newspapers had yet to master the halftone technology, and professional photojournalists had yet to appear. There was a severe lack of journalistic photographs. However, the appearance of photographs in newspapers redefined the periodicals. Their content became richer and more vivid, and this was a great improvement in Chinese journalism.

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Chapter

Journalism in the Early Republic Period of China

A HISTORY OF Journalism IN CHINA VOLUME 3

The bourgeois democratic revolution declined from its heyday to its eventual end from the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 to the eve of the May Fourth Movement in 1919. During this period, Sun Yat-sen led the bourgeois democrats to establish the Republic of China and set up the Provisional Government. The Republic replaced the imperial system. However, the government fell quickly to reactionary forces. Yuan Shikai, together with land owners and comprador bourgeoisie, seized control of the country and began the despotic rule of the Beiyang warlords. They trampled on democracy and the Republic. Yuan Shikai even revived the monarchy and Zhang Xun organized the Manchu Restoration. China became further fragmented, and this fragmentation led to the warlord era. The Chinese democratic revolution fell into a trough. Driven by the success of the 1911 Revolution, journalism flourished at unprecedented levels. This was, however, short-lived. After the Second Revolution of 1913, the warlord officials led by Yuan Shikai began to suppress and prosecute the press. There were various factions in the journalism industry during this period, but the two main factors were the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang (including the Chinese Revolutionary Party and Political Clique) and the Republican Party–Progressive Party (including the Research Clique). Periodicals of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang system continued to fight for a republic, and still had a, albeit declining, revolutionary spirit. Periodicals of the Republican Party–Progressive Party system were more politically opportunistic and pragmatic, causing them to become vassals of the warlords. The reputation of party periodicals declined and such newspapers were abandoned by the public. Some bourgeois intellectuals who were deeply influenced by traditional culture, together with scholar-tyrants, took advantage of periodicals. They sold lowbrow, sometimes tasteless articles, encouraged the worship of Confucianism, and spread superstition to obtain maximum profit. Only a few bourgeois democrats had established periodicals which were able to introduce new thoughts, ideologies, and scientific and cultural knowledge. They were the bright spots in this dark era of the journalism industry in this period. The strength of the land owners and comprador bourgeoisie, the unstable political environment, the development of industry and commerce, as well as the advancement of transportation and communication technologies had all contributed to the changes in the journalism industry. The most obvious change was the sharp decrease in the amount of commentaries in a newspaper. The ratio of news and correspondence increased, and famous journalists who were good

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at writing news articles appeared. Romance became the main content in tabloids

and newspaper supplements which showed the twisted development of the newspaper supplement.

The Establishment of the Republic of China and the Development of Journalism The free speech policy of the provisional government The Wuchang Uprising brought about a national chain reaction that toppled the already corrupt Qing empire. In little more than a month, more than 10 provinces were restored. On January 1, 1912 representatives from 17 provinces elected Sun

Yat-sen as the Provisional President of the Republic of China and took his oath of office in Nanjing. The first republic in Chinese history was thus established. On

February 12, Qing emperor Puyi was forced to abdicate which ended more than 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.

The long oppressed Chinese nationalistic bourgeoisie were greatly excited

at the rapid victory of the 1911 Revolution. Led by Sun Yat-sen, the bourgeois

revolutionaries sought to build the Nanjing Provisional Government into a

democratic, strong, and capitalistic republic. Following the examples of the Western capitalistic countries, the Provisional Government set up a series of laws and innovative policies. Complying with bourgeois democratic principles, free speech policies were drawn.

Hailed as the most important freedom among all the freedoms by Western

bourgeois thinkers, the freedom of publication and expression had been the goal and demand of Chinese reformists since the 1870s. The bourgeois revolutionaries had an even stronger stance in their fight for freedom, thinking that the victory

of revolution would signify the realization of free speech. Thus, after the success

of the Wuchang Uprising, the revolutionaries passionately put the freedom into practice in the areas they controlled.

First, all the governing bodies in the newly independent states included a

clause on the freedom of the press and expression in the legal framework they

promulgated. In Wuhan, the first constitutional document issued by the military government — Provisional Constitution of the Hubei Military Government

— clearly stated that “People are entitled to freedom of speech, authoring,

publishing, assembly, and association.” Other independent provinces also followed with similar legal frameworks. Examples included the Provisional

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Constitution of the Zhejiang Military Government and the Provisional Constitution of Jiangxi, which all had clauses to protect the freedom of speech and publication. After the establishment of the Nanjing provisional government, a series of laws were promulgated to remove the residual autocracy in society, as well as to encourage democracy, freedom, and science. Before Sun Yat-sen retired from his position as Provisional President, the provisional government promulgated the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China in order to lay the foundation for the Republic. The constitution stated that “People are entitled to the freedom of expression, authoring, publishing, assembly, and association.” These constitutions legally recognized the principles of free speech, and provided a legal basis for people to fight for their freedom. Moreover, leaders and governments in each independent province, especially in areas controlled by revolutionaries, had mostly realized and protected the freedom of expression and publishing. They encouraged the publication of periodicals. For example, the Shanghai Army Chief Military Commission, with Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Chen Qimei as the Commissioner-inchief, was very respectful towards local newspapers. He was polite towards newspaper offices and newspapermen. When approving materials, Chen Qimei had also repeatedly expressed that he welcomed newspapers’ advice for the military government. He stated that politicians could only learn about the effects of their policies through protecting free speech, and that in an era of nationalistic consciousness, having more newspapers would be better.1 He did not condemn untrue reports about the Chief Military Commission, and only sent letters to the newspapers requesting clarification. The Chief Military Commission also often invited newspapers to hold seminars to discuss the implementation of policies.2 The Jiangxi Military Government Commissioner-in-chief Li Liejun was also very respectful towards the journalism industry. He hired the main writer of the local revolutionary newspaper as his advisor, and supported the setting up of a Journalism Club. He also made regular contacts with the industry. Provisional President Sun Yat-sen continued to serve his citizens and abide by the principles of free speech. He subjected himself to monitoring from the media, accepted interviews, and participated in meetings with the press frequently. He also praised periodicals for their contribution in the democratic revolution, and encouraged newspapers to lead and monitor the discussion in the Republic. On March 17, 1912, Sun Yat-sen agreed to the suggestion of the Daily Press Association of Shanghai (Shanghai ribao gonghui 上海日報公會 ) to reduce

the postage for newspapers to encourage the development of the industry. Sun

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said, “Newspapers represent the media. They monitor society, and have a great function. The establishment of the Republic and the unification of the North and South relies on the help and sponsorship of the journalism industry.”3 After he retired from the position of Provisional President, he encouraged the newspaper industry to take up the media’s responsibility to monitor society. He said, “With the establishment of the Republic of China, it depends on the newspaper industry to point out the development direction for the government, and to encourage our people to strive for the goal as a whole. Thus, encouragement from the newspaper was necessary during the era of revolution, and even more so in the era of development. Your responsibilities are heavier than before.”4 The revocation of the Republic of China Provisional Newspaper Ordinance was perhaps the best exemplification of the respect of the free speech principle that Sun Yat-sen and the Nanjing Provisional Government had. Since the Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance and other publication regulations were null with the end of the Qing government, there were no longer rules to guide the publication of periodicals. On March 2, 1912, the Nanjing Provisional Government Minister of the Interior Ju Zheng promulgated a provisional newspaper ordinance drafted by advisor Lin Changmin of the Ministry of the Interior. The Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance was officially abolished, but the newspaper industry had to follow three rules: First, the publisher and editors of periodicals that were in print or were to be published had to register with the Ministry of the Interior or the local government. Unregistered periodicals could not be published. Second, periodicals that evoked chaos and attempted to destroy the republic system would be banned. The publisher and editor would also be punished accordingly. Third, if untrue reports defamed the reputation of an individual, the victim could demand the newspaper to rectify its mistakes. If the mistake was not rectified and the victim sued the newspaper, punishment would be considered.5 From the government perspective of management of the newspaper industry, the newspaper ordinance was necessary, especially the regulation against the destruction of the republic system. Yet, the newspaper ordinance was promulgated before the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China . Many of the other regulations had yet to be laid down. The legislative body had yet to decide if the Republic of China needed a separate newspaper ordinance. Under such circumstances, the promulgation of the law by a few officials from a ministry, without the authorization of the provisional senate, was a rash and transgressive

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act. In addition, the distinction between guilt and innocence was ambiguous in the

provisional newspaper ordinance, meaning that it could be easily misinterpreted

and abused. Thus, when the ordinance was telegraphed to the Shanghai Progressive Association of the Chinese Newspaper Industry, it was instantly

opposed by the journalism industry in general. On March 6, the Shanghai

Progressive Association of the Chinese Newspaper Industry (Zhongguo baojie jujinhui 中國報界俱進會 ), together with Shun Pao , News Daily , Eastern Times , Journal on Current Affairs , The National Herald , The Bell , The Republic Daily (Dagonghe ribao 大共和日報 ), and Enlightenment Patriotic Post (Qimin aiguo bao 啟民愛國報 ), telegraphed Sun Yat-sun and all major cities jointly to express their refusal of the ordinance. They noted that “with the united government and the parliament yet to be formed, the drafting of the newspaper ordinance by the Ministry of the Interior is a usurping of legislative power. Moreover, the ordinance states that evoking the destruction of the republic system will be prosecuted. The monitoring of the government’s misdeeds is not the destruction of the republic. The drafting of the newspaper ordinance before laws on murder and plunder is an inheritance of the despotic rule of the Qing government. The newspaper industry cannot agree to such control of expression.”6 The next day, various newspapers in Shanghai published the article “Revoke the Newspaper Ordinance of the Ministry of the Interior” written by Zhang Taiyan. It repeated their arguments stated in the telegraph, and refuted each clause of the ordinance one by one. Many used aggressive words to attack the Provisional Government for suppressing the media and repeating the mistakes of the old government. Sun Yat-sen clearly ordered the revocation of the Provisional Newspaper Ordinance of the Republic of China on March 9 after learning about the incident. He pointed out that “Freedom of speech is emphasized by the constitutions of various countries. Ancient sages teach us to right our wrongs, and I am no despotic ruler. Although the ministry had promulgated the newspaper ordinance with the intention to remedy loopholes, it had not considered priorities which lead to suspicions that the bad governance of the Qing is being repeated. This is unnecessary. Others said that all laws of the Republic are only effective if they are promulgated by the senate. Since the newspaper ordinance announced by the ministry was not passed by the senate, it naturally had no legal powers. We cannot say that the officials had the right to enforce the law just by adding the word ‘provision’ to the ordinance. Perhaps the three articles will be included in the publication ordinance, or perhaps they are not allowed by the constitution. We do not need a newspaper ordinance now that can cause rifts. Whether the

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Republic needs a newspaper ordinance, and how it should be drafted, will be left to the senate.”7 Sun Yat-sen expressed his determination to maintain free speech. Even though such an attitude was a concession, it was consistent with the advocacy of the Nanjing Provisional Government and Sun. Affected by his announcement, the Chief Military Commissions of Hunan and Sichuan revoked similar newspaper ordinances that they had promulgated. Other than revolutionaries, the constitutionalists, old officials, and even the Beijing government under Yuan Shikai’s control also expressed their support for free speech and the newspaper industry for a short period in the early Republic. For example, the Great Han Sichuan Military Government, controlled by constitutionalists and the last province to declare independence, stated that “police cannot interfere with newspaper offices” in the Agreement of Independence it promulgated. Every time the Department of Administrative Affairs of the Sichuan Chief Military Commission would set up a room specifically for female journalists. All telegraphs that could be published would be marked as such and sent to newspaper offices. Newspapermen at that time also commented that they could publish any content they wanted without fear of prosecution.8 The State Council of the Beiyang Government and Yuan Shikai also set up a press room. The Secretary General of the State Council would meet with journalists every day. In May 1912, the Beijing government Post Office decreased the postage and telegraph fees for the journalism industry. The policy for publication and expression of the Nanjing Provisional Government was the complete opposite of that of the imperial rule. The bourgeois government tried to replace the historic bans on expression that had been in place for over 2,000 years, with Western freedom of speech. This reflected the Chinese bourgeoisie wish to build a bourgeois democracy. The policy further promoted the ideas of democracy and drove the development of Chinese journalism. The progressive significance of this cannot be neglected. However, reactionaries and constitutionalists wanted to ruin the revolution, and they had powerful influence in the field of journalism. The complete abandonment of media regulation would provide convenience for antagonistic political powers.

A short-lived prosperity of the journalism industry After the victory of the Wuchang Uprising, Chinese journalism had a chance of rapid development with the heyday of democracy and freedom of publication. The number of newspapers had greatly increased by the second year of the Minguo calendar. Although the official gazettes of the Qing court and some

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newspapers of the Loyal Society went out of print, most of the newspapers established in the late Qing era continued to publish. Publication also resumed for some periodicals that were banned by the Qing government. Moreover, many new periodicals were established by various parties and individuals. According to statistics then, the number of newspapers increased to 500 in the first year of the Minguo calendar, and total sales reached 42 million copies. Both numbers were unprecedented in history. The development of newspapers was the most rapid in Beijing since it was a political center. During a speech at a newspaper event, Liang Qichao mentioned that there were more than 100 newspapers in print in the city. This accounted for one fifth of the country’s total newspapers. According to the 1912 report published by the Ministry of the Interior of the Beijing government, 89 new newspapers were registered in Beijing between February 12 (abdication of the Qing Emperor) and October 22. The number of newspapers also saw a sharp increase in the original newspaper centers of Shanghai, Tianjin, and Guangzhou. The culture in Southern provinces contributed to an even greater growth in the number of newspapers, until the eve of the Second Revolution of 1913. There were 19 newly founded periodicals in Wuhan, more than 20 in Chengdu and Nanchang, as well as 16 in Hangzhou. Even counties such as Jiading, Jinshan, Qingpu, Chongming, Lixian, Xinhui, Meixian, and Gaozhou had many new periodicals. In Jiading alone, 10 newspapers were founded between November 1911 and February 1913. These newspapers exhibited a huge diversity, and were founded by individuals, associations, parties, and governments. They included political periodicals, economic periodicals, educational periodicals, academic periodicals, literary periodicals, as well as periodicals for women, students, and children. Some were written in classical Chinese, some in vernacular Chinese, some in foreign languages, and some were pictorials. Under the trend of “reforming everything,” most of the periodicals in the early Republic supported the republic system and democracy. They often hailed themselves as representatives of the media and mouthpieces of the public. Odes of the State Daily stated on June 4, 1912 that newspapers were on equal grounds with the State Council and the president, and were monitoring organs similar to the senate. The Great Republic of China Magazine (DaZhonghua Minguo zazhi 大中華民國雜誌 ) also stated that “the media is the highest power in a republic,” and journalists “are uncrowned kings and the supreme judges out of court.” The media took up their responsibilities to “monitor the government and direct the citizens” with unchecked words. Newspapers could reach citizen government

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officials and even the president. The social statuses of newspapers and newspapermen rose greatly, and media associations were active. Organizations such as Progressive Association of the Chinese Newspaper Industry, Daily Press Association of Shanghai, Newspaper Union of Guangzhou (Guangzhou baojie gonghui 廣 州 報 界 公 會 ), Newspaper League of Hunan (Hunan baojie lianhehui 湖 南 報 界 聯 合 會 ), Beijing Newspaper Industry Allies (Beijing baojie tongzhihui 北 京 報 界 同 志 會 ), and Newspaper Alliance of Guizhou (Guizhou baojie tongmenghui 貴 州 報 界 同 盟 會 ), started to represent the industry in negotiations with the government over issues such as newspaper ordinances, journalistic postage and telegraphs fees, and rights of newspapermen. The Progressive Association of the Chinese Newspaper Industry held an extraordinary meeting in Shanghai in June 1912 to attract new members. Issues such as whether to join international press associations; to not recognize the newspaper ordinance; to establish paper manufacturing factories, journalism schools, news agencies, advertising agency, and journalists’ clubs were discussed in the meeting. The journalism industry was flourishing, and had changed greatly as compared to the late Qing era. One of the more obvious changes was the replacement of Qing official gazettes by official gazettes set up by various levels of the new government. This first occurred in restored provinces, and the earliest example was the Chinese Republic Public News established in Wuchang on October 16, 1911. The newspaper was established by the Hubei Military Government using the equipment of the Qing official gazette. It was the first official mouthpiece of a bourgeois government in Chinese history. After this, the military governments of some independent provinces also published their own official gazettes, with examples such as Sichuan Chief Military Commission Public News (Sichuan dudufu gongbao 四川都督府公報 ) by the Great Han Sichuan Military Government, Great Han Memorabilia by the Chongqing Sichuan Military Government, Zhejiang Military Government Public News (Zhejiang junzhengfu gongbao 浙江軍政府公報 ) by the Zhejiang Military Government, Guangxi Public News (Guangxi gongbao 廣西 公報 ) by the Guangxi Military Government, Shanxi People News by the Shanxi Military Government, Yunnan Political Public News (Yunnan zhengzhi gongbao 雲南政治公報 ) by the Yunnan Military Government, and the New People Daily (Xinmin ribao 新民日報 ) by the Jiangsu Changzhou Military Government Branch. After the Nanjing Provisional Government was established, it published the Provisional Government Public News (Linshi zhengfu gongbao 臨 時 政 府 公 報 ) on January 29, 1912. On the day after the abdication of the Qing emperor on

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February 12, 1912, the Yuan Shikai government published the Provisional Public News (Linshi gongbao 臨時公報 ), which was adapted from the original Ministry Official News (Neige guanbao 內閣官報 ). After the unification of the North and South governments, the newspaper was renamed Government Public News (Zhengfu gongbao 政府公報 ). In addition, the Senate, National Assembly, central departments, provinces, and even provincial departments under the Yuan Shikai government also published their own official gazettes, greatly surpassing the number of official gazettes during the late Qing era. These official gazettes mostly promulgated laws and announced political events. They were the mouthpieces of the government. As compared to gazettes of the late Qing era called guanbao (gazettes), most of these official gazettes were named gongbao (public news). Moreover, these gazettes not only published official documents, but also correspondences, commentaries, chronicles, and advertisements. They were also more widely circulated, which was an improvement from the Qing gazettes. The official newspapers of some revolutionary governments were especially different from their Qing counterparts. Examples such as Chinese Republic Public News and Provisional Public News were stylistically similar to private newspapers and had obvious democratic undertones. However, the newspapers of the Yuan Shikai and Beiyang Government were not that different from Qing gazettes both stylistically and content-wise. Another obvious change was the appearance of large amounts of economic and educational periodicals advocating “national salvation through production and education,” as well as women’s publications demanding female participation in politics. The liberation of productivity was a fundamental cause of the revolution. After the 1911 Revolution, the Chinese nationalistic bourgeoisie started off a wave of entrepreneurship. The central government set up the Ministry of Industry, while individual provinces established Industrial Departments. A great number of industrial organizations were founded. Daily and monthly periodicals that advocated industrial development also appeared. Examples included the monthly periodical Railway (Tiedao 鐵 道 ) by the Republic Railway Association in Shanghai, Industrial World (Gongye shijie 工業世界 ) by the Hubei Industrial Association, Vernacular News (Baihua bao 白話報 ) by the Zhilin National Goods Association in Tianjin, Commercial Industry Daily (Shangye ribao 商業日報 ) and Economy Magazine (Jingji zazhi 經 濟 雜 誌 ) in Beijing, Republican Economic Magazine (Minguo jingji zazhi 民 國 經 濟 雜 誌 ) in Wuchang, Industrial Magazine

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(Shiye zazhi 實業雜誌 ) in Changsha, Industrial Public Post (Shiye gongbao 實業 公報 ) in Chengdu, Railway Association Magazine (Tielu xiehui zazhi 鐵路協會雜 誌 ) in Nanjing, Magazine of the Shandong Branch of the Republic of China Industrial Association (Zhonghua Minguo shiye xiehui Lu zhibu zazhi 中華民國實業協會魯支 部雜誌 ) in Jinan, Guizhou Industrial Magazine (Guizhou shiye zazhi 貴州實業雜誌 ) in Guiyang, and Heaven Voice (Tiansheng bao 天聲報 ) by Nanyang Brothers Tobacco Company in Guangzhou. These periodicals advocated the reward of industries, to setting up of mines and factories, the use of national goods, the redemption of rights, enriching the country and the people, and the development of national business. Other than such professional periodicals, many comprehensive periodicals also advocated the development of industries. On April 12, 1912, Min Li Pao advocated that “industrial development is the best medicine for poverty in the newly established Republic.” Newspapers, as a form of capitalistic enterprise, also attracted the interest of investors. In September 1912, famous capitalists such as Zhang Jian, Ying Dehong, and Shi Liangcai bought the long-standing newspaper Shun Pao with 120,000 dollars. Shi Liangcai took over the newspaper the year after, with Chen Lengren as the main writer and Zhang Zhuping as the manager. With careful management, profits of the newspaper increased daily. Joint-stock companies then became a more popular way to own newspapers. After the successful revolution, the nationalistic bourgeoisie were also concerned with education. Sun Yat-sen and Cai Yuanpei also advocated education as the hundred-year foundation of building a democratic nation. The Nanjing Provisional Government carried out a series of policies that helped the rapid development of education, and many educational periodicals were also published as a result. At least 20 such periodicals were published in 1912 and 1913 before the Second Revolution of 1913. Examples included the China Education Sector (Zhonghua jiaoyu jie 中華教育 界 ) by the Shanghai Zhonghua Book Company, Popular Education Research (Tongsu jiaoyu yanjiu lu 通俗教育研究錄 ) by China Popular Education Association (Zhonghua tongsu jiaoyuhui 中 華 通 俗 教 育 會 ), Vernacular Manifesto of Social Education (Shehui jiaoyu baihua xuanjiangshu 社 會 教 育 白 話 宣 講 書 ) by the Progressive Association of National Education in Shanghai (Guomin jiaoyue shijinhui 國民 教育實進會 )in Shanghai, General Education Magazine (Huixue shizhi 會學什誌 ) by Xuhui Public School (Xuhui gongxue 徐會公學 ) in Shanghai, Apprenticeship Magazine (Xueyi shizhi 學藝什誌 ) by Alumni of Public School of China (Zhongguo gongxue tongxuehui 中 國 公 學 童 學 會 ) in Shanghai, University of Shanghai Weekly (Huda zhoukan 滬 大 周 刊 ) Student Council of Hujiang University, New Youth Magazine (Xin Shaonian 新少年 ) by the Shanghai Youth Teaching Association

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(Shanghai shaonian xuanjiangtuan 上 海 少 年 宣 講 團 ), Educational (Yizhi 益 智 ) by the Qinghua Society for Virtue Development in Beijing (Qinghua dade xue hui 青華達得學會 ), China Academic Journal (Zhongguo xuebao 中國學報 ) in Beijing, Studies in Politics (Yanzhi 言 治 ) by the Beiyang Professional School of Politics and Law (Beiyang zhengfa zhuanmen xuexiao 北洋政法專門學校 ) in Tianjin, China Weekly (Zhonghua zhoukan 中華周刊 ) by the Wuchang Private Chinese University (Wuchang Zhonghua daxue 武昌中華大學 ), Education Sector (Jiaoyujie 教育界 ) by the Alumni Association of the Jiangsu Second Normal School (Jiangsu dier shifan xuexiao xiaoyouhui 江蘇第二師範學校校友會 ), Education Weekly (Jiaoyu Zhoubao 教育周報 ) by the Zhejiang Education Society (Zhejiang jiaoyuhui 浙江教 育會 ), Anqing Popular Education Post (Anqing tongsu jiaoyubao 安慶通俗教育報 ), Education Magazine (Jiaoyu zazhi 教育雜誌 ) in Shenyang, and Shandong Education Post (Shandong jiaoyubao 山東教育報 ) in Jinan. These periodicals publicized and advocated education reform. They advocated the replacement of Confucianian teachings with the education of a bourgeois democracy. Some also publicized the ideas of the Cai Yuanpei, Minister of Education of the Provisional Government, which included the pursuit of virtues, economic benefits, millenarianism, aesthetic sense, and a world view. The periodicals had helped in the development of newstyled education in the Early Republic era. Gender equality was one of the major agenda items of the democratic revolution. The success of the revolution evoked women’s political passions and their desire for a new life. In the second year of the Minguo calendar, more than 10 women’s periodicals were established by bourgeois feminists and organizations. Examples included The Shenzhou Women’s Post (Shenzhou nübao 神州女報 ) and the Women Republic Daily (Nüzi gonghe ribao 女子共和日報 ) by the Shenzhou Women’s Republic Alliance in Shanghai (Shenzhou nüjie gonghe xiejishe 神州女界公和協濟社 ), Women’s Rights Daily (Nüquan ribao 女權日報 ) established in Changsha by Tang Qunying and Zhang Hanying, Women’s Circle Post (Nüjie bao 女界報 ) established by Wu Zenglan in Chengdu, Yangzhou Girls’ Public School Monthly (Yangzhou nüzi gongxue nüzi yuebao 揚州女子公學女子 月報 ) by Yangzhou Girls’ Public School, Women’s Studies Daily (Nüxue ribao 女 學日報 ) established by Shen Peizhen and others in Beijing, International Woman Suffrage Alliance Ten-Day Post (Wanguo nüzi canzhenghui xunbao 萬國女子參政 會旬報 ) established by Zhang Yazhao and others in Shanghai, Republican Women’s Post (Minguo nübao 民國女報 ) by Liu Shuanying and others in Shanghai, China Women’s Post (Zhonghua nübao 中華女報 ) by Tang Yunqiu in Shanghai, Women’s Rights Monthly (Nüquan yuebao 女權月報 ) by Wendian and others in Shanghai,

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Women’s National Studies Post (Nüzi guoxue bao 女子國學報 ) by Pan Lianbi and others in Tianjin, and Autonomous Student (Zizhi xuesheng 自治學生 ) by the Student Council of Changsha Autonomous Girls’ School (Changsha zizhi nü xiao 長 沙 自 治 女 校 ). These periodicals advocated the female education, female rights, gender equality, and female political participation. However, most of the women’s periodicals ceased publication after Yuan Shikai usurped power. The third major change was the emergence of news agencies. Chinese news agencies had their origins in the early twentieth century. They provided translations of news and news clippings. Zhongxing News Agency (Zhongxing tongxunshe 中興通訊社 ), established on January 17, 1904, in Guangzhou by Luo Xiating, was the first known news agency. It was followed by Far East News Agency (Yuandong tongxunshe 遠 東 通 訊 社 ) established in Belgium in 1908 by Qing consulate suite member Wang Mutao, as well as the Zhanmin News Agency (Zhanmin tongxunshe 展民通訊社 ) established in Guangzhou in February 1911 by Yang Shigong. Before the Wuchang Uprising, the bourgeois revolutionaries had also planned to establish news agencies outside of China. Between August and October 1909, Sun Yat-sen had studied the matter with overseas Chinese students in Europe. On November 3, 1909, Min Hu Pao published an editorial “The Establishment of a News Agency Could No Longer Be Delayed.” It advocated a news agency to coordinate with revolutionary periodicals and publicize the revolution. However, such plans were never realized for various reasons. After the success of the 1911 Revolution, the development of news agencies was once again on the agenda in the wave of newspaper publications. When the Progressive Association of the Chinese Newspaper Industry held an extraordinary meeting in Shanghai in June 1912, the creation of a national news agency was one of the main discussion topics. The proposal read: “News is valued for details, truth, and timeliness. How does our published news fare? We are afraid that our fellow colleagues are not satisfied with our work. We think that the newspaper industry has an urgent need for a news agency so that we can communicate with one another and obtain accurate news for a low price for our readers.”9 After discussion, it was decided that the Progressive Association of the Chinese Newspaper Industry would establish a news agency. Zhu Shaoping from The Pacific News (Taipingyang bao 太平洋報 ) of Shanghai was tasked with drafting the guidelines and the preparatory work. The task was never realized probably due to political changes and competition within the newspaper industry. The incident, however, proved the urgent need for a news agency in the Early Republic. As a result, many regional news agencies appeared in 1912 and 1913.

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Major ones included the Gongmin News Agency (Gongmintongxunshe 公民通訊 社 ) established in Guangzhou in 1912 by Yang Gongmin, the First Republic News Agency (Minguo diyi tongxunshe 民國第一通訊社 ) Shanghai in September 1912, the Shanghai News Agency (Shanghai tongxunshe 上海通訊社 ) established by Li Zhuomin in Shanghai in 1912, the Hubei News Agency (Hubei tongxunshe 湖北 通訊社 ) established by Ran Jianhong in Wuhan in 1912, the Hunan News Agency (Hunan tongxunshe 湖 南 通 訊 社 ) established by Li Baoyi and Zhang Pingzi in Changsha in 1913, and the Beijing News Agency (Beijing tongxunshe 北京通訊 社 ) established by Zhangzhen in Beijing in 1913. Usually, these news agencies only had one to two staff, and news sources were mainly from news cuts and translations. They had little news to report on their own. Pieces of news were carbon copied or mimeographed and distributed to various newspapers. They were of low quality and only a few dozen copies at most were delivered. Yet, the emergence of news agencies was a reflection of the robust journalism industry during the period. Other than the above changes, the most visible difference in the journalism field between late the Qing era and the Early Republic era was the rise of party periodicals.

The rise of party periodicals The parliament and the multi-party system are the major characteristics of democratic rule. Around the time of the establishment of the Republic, the advocacy of a system of democratic rule led to a wave of associations forming in China. More than 300 parties and political organizations appeared. Other than some short-lived parties, most of these tried to publicize themselves through newspapers. Thus, many political periodicals were created in a short period of time. In the first year of the Minguo calendar, there were many political parties and organizations. After reorganizations and mergers, four relatively bigger parties were formed before the first election of the parliament — the Kuomintang, Republican Party (Gonghe dang 共和黨 ), Democratic Party (Minzhu dang 民主黨 ), and Unification Party (Tongyi dang 統一黨 ). These four parties had their own mouthpieces. The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance was the bourgeois party that had led the 1911 Revolution. After the success of the revolution, it was no longer underground, and it became the largest political party after admitting a large number of new members. In August 1912, it merged with some small parties — including the United Republican Party (Tongyi gonghedang 統 一 共 和 黨 ), Citizen Progressive

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Association (Guomin gongjinhui 國民共進會 ), Republican Progressive Association

(Gonghe shijinhui 共和實進會 ), and the Citizen Public Party (Guomin gongdang

國民公黨 ) — to form the Kuomintang. It had the most number of newspapers under its control, and such newspapers could be found throughout the country in major

cities. Newspapers of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang system were especially active in cities where revolutionaries had greater power, including

Shanghai, Wuhan, Nanjing, Changsha, Guangzhou, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Yunan, Fujian, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Fujian, and Beijing.

In Shanghai, the major newspapers included the Min Li Pao , The Bell , and

The China Press established before the revolution, as well as The Pacific News , The China Republican , China People’s Post (Zhonghua minbao 中 華 民 報 ), and Republic News (Minguo xinwen 民國新聞 ) published after the revolution. Due to historical reasons, Min Li Pao was viewed as the main official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance during this period. Policies decided by the core leaders of the Alliance were often announced and publicized through the newspaper. Notices and telegraphs of the Shanghai Army Chief Military Commission led by Chen Qimei were also first published by the newspaper. After the establishment of the Provisional Government, the original manager and main editors of Min Li Pao were entrusted with important positions. For example, Yu Youren became the Minister of Transportation and Communications, Jing Yaoyue became the Minister of Education, Lü Zhiyi became the Minister of Justice, and Zhu Shaoping became the Presidential Office Secretary. Song Jiaoren became a core member of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and the de facto manager of the Kuomintang. These occurrences connected the Min Li Pao with the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang. During this period, Min Li Pao printed three and a half sheets (14 pages) each day. Other than editorials, it also published essays, translated commentaries, and discussion of current affairs. It had timely news and was very influential in society. Yu Youren was still listed as the president of the newspaper at first, but since February 1912, Zhang Shizhao had been the chief editor after his return from England. In May of the same year, Yu Youren was busy with political matters and thus Fan Hongxian, who just left his position as commander of the Anhui Army, took over the management of the newspaper. Zhang Shizhao remained as the chief editor. As Zhang was not a member of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, he stated that the Min Li Pao should provide stable advice for the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, and that the relationship between the party and the newspaper should be one of support instead of collusion. Thus, the Min Li

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Pao published some commentaries and articles that contradicted the ideas of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. On July 29, 1912, Zhang Shizhao published the shocking “On Disbanding and Recreating Parties” which advocated the disbanding of all political parties to recreate two major parties, so as to realize the two-party system of the West. The article was criticized by various members of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, and Zhang Shizhao later resigned from his position. The newspaper was then edited by Fan Hongxian, Xu Xie’er, Shao Lizi, and others until publication ceased. Li Huaishuang was the main writer of The Bell during this period. Other editors included Liu Yazi, Xu Bulei, and Zou Yayun. The newspaper was firmly against compromises with Yuan Shikai, and had published some aggressive commentaries. Liu Yazi published many commentaries under the pseudonym “Qing Si 青兕 ,” and attracted the public’s attention. The Pacific News was established on April 1, 1912 with three printed sheets each day. It was the first large-scale daily newspaper set up by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Shanghai after the establishment of the Republic of China. It used the equipment of a secret printing base of the Alliance in the Shanghai concession before the restoration, and was funded by the Shanghai Army Chief Military Commission. Yao Yuping was the president, Zhu Shaoping was the manager, and Ye Chucang was the chief editor. Editors included Liu Yazi, Su Manshu, Li Shutong, Yu Tiansui, Lin Yi’an, Hu Pu’an, Yao Yuanchu, and Hu Jichen. Most of them were members of the South Society. Liu Yazi and Li Shutong were the chief editors for the supplement as well. Many poems by members of the South Society were published in the supplement. Publication of the newspaper ceased after about half a year due to financial difficulties. The China Republican was established on April 6, 1912 in the Shanghai British Concession. Sun Yat-sen led the setting-up of this English newspaper himself as a means to publicize events in China overseas. Funding was provided by Zhang Jingjiang and Pang Qingcheng while Lee Teng-hwee and Ma Coo were the chief editors. Overseas Chinese and friendly foreigners were the main targeted readers. Together with The China Press , another English newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, the two newspapers publicized the building of a Chinese republic and encouraged the development of industries. It also exposed the conspiracies of reactionary forces that harmed the revolution. The China Republican had a certain international influence then. China People’s Post was established on July 20, 1912 by Deng Jiayan, with Liu Minwei as the main writer. The mission of the newspaper was to protect

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the republic system and prevent the revival of autocracy. It was steadfast in its criticism of Yuan Shikai, and was the most anti-Yuan paper in the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang system. Republic News was established on July 25, 1912 with three printed sheets each day. Lü Zhiyi was the chief editor while Shao Yuanchong was the main writer. The newspaper had an objective to protect the republic system and promote democracy. It advertised in various newspapers in Shanghai before it was first published, with the following words, “The Republic was just established and its foundation is unstable… without accurate news there will be no justified discussions. Without justified discussions, a republic cannot be built.” The newspaper, together with China People’s Post and the People’s Right Post (Minquan bao 民權報 ) established by the Freedom Party (Ziyou dang 自由黨 ), were known for their aggressive wordings. Since all three newspapers had the word min (people) in their names, they were called the “Three Radical People Newspapers.” Since Beijing became the capital of the Republic, the number of party periodicals in the city increased dramatically. Major newspapers of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang system included the Odes of the State Daily , National Light News , and Chinese Republic Post established before the revolution, as well as the East Asia New Paper (Yadong xinbao 亞 東 新 報 ), The Democrat (Minzhu bao 民主報 ), People’s Independence (Minli bao 民立報 ), and Central News (Zhongyang xinwen 中央新聞 ) established after the revolution. Odes of the State Daily was banned for encouraging revolution when Yuan Shikai was the Prime Minister of the Qing imperial cabinet. Publication resumed in February 1912 after the abdication of the Qing emperor. Near the end of 1912, it was reorganized as a joint-stock company. Jing Dingcheng was the manager, while listed writers and editors included Gu Fenzi, Jing Shenggong, Luo Yifu, Wu Hutou, Song Huangong, Liu Dingseng, Zhang Chaofu, Wang Zhuyin, Zhu Minshi, and Hua Lin. National Light News was published by Yan Yimo and Chen Luzhou in the late Qing era, but was banned after the assassination of Liang Bi by Pang Jiazhen. Publication was also resumed after the abdication of the Qing emperor. Chinese Republic Post was reorganized when it moved from Tianjin to Beijing, with Tang Yi succeeding the position as president. East Asia New Paper was established in late May in 1912 by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance core member Song Jiaoren. Song Jiaoren was the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry during that time, and he used the printing equipment of the former Qing Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce to found

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the newspaper. Chou Ao was the president while Yi Xiang was the chief editor. The newspaper office was located on Fenfangliuli Street near the Xuanwu Gate. Two sheets were printed and about 1,000 copies were sold each day. The objective of the newspaper was to monitor the government, direct citizens, solidify the republic system, and emphasize people’s livelihoods. Song Jiaoren wrote long editorials that promoted party politics under the pen name “Fisherman of the Peach Blossom Spring 桃 源 漁 父 .” They were greatly influential among society, and played a large part in driving the formation of the Kuomintang. East Asia New Paper was the most influential among the newspapers newly established by the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Beijing. Other influential newspapers included The Democrat managed by Chou Liang, People’s Independence managed by Zhang Jiluan and Cao Chengfu, as well as Central News managed by Zhang Shurong. The major newspapers in Tianjin included Public Opinion Post and Odes of the State Tribune (Guofeng bao 國風報 ). Public Opinion Post was established on December 20, 1911 and was the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Beijing and Tianjin. Editors included Li Shizeng, Zhao Tieqiao, Zhang Xuan, and Luo Shixun. The newspaper office was located in the Tianjin French concession. The paper had a strong anti-Yuan stance when Yuan Shikai usurped executive power. Odes of the State Tribune was the official newspaper of the Zhili branch of Kuomintang. It was banned after a year of publication. Livelihood Post (Minsheng bao 民生報 ) was the most influential newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance in Nanjing. The newspaper was established on July 1, 1912 with two printed sheets each day. It declared that it was an official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, and had the objectives of promoting the principle of Minsheng , elucidating the truth of the republic system, monitoring the government administration, and to realize the political platform of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. The major Chinese Revolutionary Alliance newspapers in Wuhan included Sentiments of the People Post , The Great River , Spring and Autumn Post (Chunqiu bao 春秋報 ), Zhendan People Post , and Republic Daily News (Minguo ribao 民國 日報 ). Sentiments of the People Post was established in December 1911 in Wuchang by Jiang Yowu. Cai Ji’ou and Bi Doushan were editors. The Great River resumed publication in Hankou in March 1912, with Ling Datong and He Haiming as editors. Spring and Autumn Post was established in March 1912 with its office located at Wuchang Sandao Street. Wu Yuzhen was the manager while Fan Xiren and Wang Zuancheng were editors. Zhendan People Post was established on

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April 15, 1912 with its office at Hankou Xinsheng Road. Three sheets were printed each day. Zhang Zhenwu funded the paper while Zhang Yue was the general manager. Wan Siyan was the chief editor while Fang Juehui was the deputy chief editor. The newspaper was closely related to Minshe ( 民 社 ) at first, and had published commentaries in support of Yuan Shikai. Later, conflict between Zhang Zhenwu and the head of Minshe Sun Wu caused the newspaper to turn to the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Republic Daily News was established on January 1, 1913 with its office in the former Hankou French concession. Managers included Pi Zongshi, Huang Jiuyan, Zeng Yi, Yang Duanliu, Zhou Gengsheng, and Zhao Guangbi. The major newspapers in Changsha were Changsha Daily News (Changsha ribao 長沙日報 ) and Citizen Daily (Guomin ribao 國民日報 ). Changsha Daily News was established on April 19, 1905 originally as an official gazette under Duan Fang. It was taken over by revolutionaries after the Wuchang Uprising, and became the official newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. It was managed by Yan Changzhi with Nen Zhuangchen, Li Jinxi, Song Rangnan, and Li Jinkang as editors. Later, Yan Changzhi was removed from his position for siding with the constitutionalists and refusing to publish documents of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Wen Fei became the new manager with Fu Xiongxiang as the main editor and Kong Zhaoshao, Gong Jiemi, Yi Tibing, and Tan Yifu as editors. Three sheets were printed each day and six pages were dedicated to news. Militarism Daily (Junguo ribao 軍國日報 , established in September 1911) and Hunan People Post (Hunan minbao 湖 南 民 報 , established in July 1912) were the predecessors of Citizen Daily . They were merged in early 1913 to form the Citizen Daily . Luo Jiefu was the general manager and Hu Echeng was the chief editor. It became the official newspaper of the Hunan Branch of the Kuomintang. The major newspapers in Guangzhou were Central Plain Post , Plebeian Daily , Livelihood Tribune (Minsheng bao 民生報 ), and China Daily . Central Plain Post and Plebeian Daily were both revolutionary newspapers established in the late Qing era. Central Plain Post was managed by Guo Weimie and Li Mengzhe, and continued to be published after the restoration of Guangzhou. Plebeian Daily was once stopped but publication resumed after the restoration. It was managed by Deng Jingya and three sheets were printed each day. Livelihood Tribune was newly established after the restoration and was managed by Chen Deyun and Chen Zhongwei. Since the China Daily in Hong Kong was the official newspaper of the Southern Branch of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, it was moved to Guangzhou after the restoration of the province. The military government

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provided huge subsidies for the newspaper and up to 10,000 copies of the paper were sold per day. It was the largest newspaper in Guangzhou during the period, and was managed by Lu Xin with Li Minzhan as the chief editor. Chinese Revolutionary Alliance newspapers could also be found in other provincial capitals and small cities. Examples included People’s Independence Post (Minli bao 民立報 ) in Kaifeng; Anhui Ship (Anhui chuan 安徽船 ) and Youth Corps Post (Qingnianjun bao 青年軍報 ) in Anqing; People of the Heaven , Sichuan Public Post (Sichuan gongbao 四 川 公 報 ), Chinese Citizen Post (Zhonghua guomin bao 中華國民報 ), Sichuan People Post (Sichuan minbao 四川民報 ), and Huanyi Post (Huanyi bao 寰一報 ) in Chengdu; Citizen Paper and New Zhonghua Tribune (Xin Zhonghua bao 新中華報 ) in Chongqing; Southern Skies New Post (Tiannan xinbao 天 南 新 報 ) in Kunming; Folk Customs Post (Minfeng bao 民 風 報 ) in Nanning; People’s Post (Minbao 民報 ) in Guilin; Fujian People Post (Fujian minbao 福建民報 ) and Crowd (Qunbao 群報 ) in Fuzhou; and Jade Post (Jue bao 玨報 ) in Jiading. The Republican Party supported Yuan Shikai, and some called them the “National Rights Party.” It was established in May 1912 through the merger of parties such as Minshe , Citizens’ Progress Association (Guomin xiejinhui 國民協進會 ), Republic Union (Minguo gonghui 民國公會 ), Unification Party, and Nationalist Party (Guomin dang 國民黨 , not Kuomintang despite sharing the same Chinese name). On the other hand, the Democratic Party was mostly formed by former constitutionalists, and was established in August 1912 through the merger of Citizens Association (Guomin xiehui 國民協會 ), Discussion Association for the Building of the Republic

(Gonghe jianshe taolunhui 共 和 建 設 討 論 會 ), Citizen’s New Politics Society (Guomin xin zhengshe 國 民 新 政 社 ), Association for Promotion of the Republic (Gonghe cujinhui 共和促進會 ), and Republican Unification Association (Gonghe tongyihui 共和統一會 ). Unification Party was established in March 1912 jointly by the Republic of China Union (Zhonghua minguo lianhehui 中華民國聯合會 ) and the Constitutional Preparation Guild. It was once merged into the Republican Party, but became independent again. It was managed by Zhang Taiyan, Cheng Dequan, Zhang Jian, Zhao Fengchang, and others. The party members were mostly constitutionalists, former bureaucrats, and people who left the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. The party contended with the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang system and wanted to gain political power through democratic means. The party supported Yuan Shikai and was in turn aided by Yuan. In May 1913, these few parties merged again to form the Progressive Party. Their newspapers could be found throughout China but were mainly concentrated in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Wuhan, Hunan, Sichuan, Guangdong,

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and Guangxi. Some were former constitutional newspapers that were already in print before the Wuchang Uprising, including Journal on Current Affairs in Shanghai and National Gazette in Beijing. However, the majority of them were new periodicals established after the Republic was formed. Examples included The Republic Daily (Dagonghe ribao 大共和日報 ), People’s Voice Daily (Minsheng ribao 民聲日報 ), and East Continent Post (Dong dalu bao 東大陸報 ) in Shanghai; People’s Post (Tianmin bao 天民報 ), New Era (Xin jiyuan 新紀元 ) , Beijing Times , Beijing-Tianjin Times (Jingjin shibao 京 津 時 報 ) in Beijing; The Justice in Tianjin; Chinese Republic Public News , Group Tribune (Qunbao 群 報 ), Citizens’ New Paper (Guomin xinbao 國民新報 ), and Republic People’s Post (Gonghe minbao 共 和民報 ) in Wuhan; Great Eastern Daily (Dadong ribao 大東日報 ) in Jinan; Hunan Public Post (Hunan gongbao 湖南公報 ) in Changsha; Republican Daily in Chengdu; Public Discussion Daily (Gonglun ribao 公 論 日 報 ), Every Day News (Riri xinwen 日 日 新 聞 ), and Sichuan Central Post (Sichuan zhengbao 四 川 正 報 ) in Chengdu; Honest Discussion Post (Zhenglun bao 正 論 報 ) and Benefit Post (Yibao 益 報 ) in Chongqing; Bounden Duty Post (Tianzhi bao 天職報 ) and Chinese Nation Post (Huaguo bao 華國報 ) in Guangzhou; Guide News (Zhinan bao 指南報 ) in Nanning; Conscience Post (Liangzhi bao 良知報 ) in Wuzhou; as well as Public Voice (Gongyan bao 公言報 ) in Guilin. Journal on Current Affairs was taken over by the Republican Party after the establishment of the Republic of China, and it later became a mouthpiece of the Progressive Party . The Republic Daily was established in January 4, 1912 with its office at 246 Laoqichang Road in Shanghai. Two sheets were printed each day. Zhang Taiyan was the president, Du Jiefeng was the manager, while Ma Xulun was the chief editor. It was the official newspaper of the Republic of China Union and Unification Party. The Republic of China Union was the first political party contending with the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance after the Wuchang Uprising. Leaders included Zhang Taiyan, Cheng Dequan, Zhang Jian, and Zhao Fengchang. Zhang Taiyan had long fallen out with the revolutionaries. After the Wuchang Uprising, Zhang became even closer with the constitutionalists and former bureaucrats, and opposed Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance. Zhang published 22 articles in The Republic Daily and was outspoken among the constitutionalists. He stated that constitutional democracy, constitutional monarchy, and monarchy were political systems of different caliber, but they did not describe the caliber of the policies. Autocracy could have good policies while the republic was not without faults. He openly criticized

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the monopoly of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance as well as the Provisional Government, and supported constitutionalists such as Yuan Shikai, Li Yuanhong, and Zhang Jian. People’s Voice Daily was established on February 20, 1912 with two printed sheets each day. Main writers included Ning Tiaoyuan and Wang Shoucen. The People’s Voice Daily was originally an official paper of Minshe backed by Li Yuanhong, but later became a mouthpiece for the Republican Party. National Gazette had Xu Foshu and Lan Gongwu as the chief editors, while the writers included Chu Xu, Lan Wai, Liang Qichao, and Huang Yuansheng. It was an important mouthpiece of the Democratic Party in Beijing. The Justice was established in December 1912 with its office at 17 Xu Street in the Tianjin Japanese concession. It started as a semimonthly publication but became a monthly publication in 1912. Each issue contained about 100,000 words. Liang Qichao was the chief editor while the writers included Wu Guanguo, Lan Gongwu, Tang Juedun, Huang Yuansheng, and Lin Changmin. It was a periodical of the Democratic Party. When the journal was first established, Liang Qichao claimed that it was not affiliated to any organizations and that he only expressed his independent ideas in the periodical. He was seemingly above parties, and criticized both the Yuan Shikai government and the Kuomintang, as well as expressed his support for the republic system. However Liang wrote in his letter to Yang Du that he “firmly believes that the republic system cannot work in China, and [I am] still in support of a constitutional monarchy.” He also expressed the need to cooperate with Yuan Shikai and to “change the way the people think through words.”10 Due to Liang’s reputation, the periodical sold 10,000 copies when it was first published, and sales later increased to 15,000 copies. It had a great influence in the media field. Group Tribune was established on February 18, 1912, with its office in Wuchang by Tan Hualin, Wang Shucheng, Ma Xiaotian, and Gong Shaoqin. Ma Xiaotian was the president. The Group Tribune was the official paper of the Association for Promotion of the Republic, and later became a mouthpiece for the Democratic Party. The Republic People’s Post was established on April 1, 1912, with its office in the British concession in Hankou. It was managed by the former deputy head of the Hubei Advisory Bureau, Zhang Guorong. The newspaper was a mouthpiece of the Democratic Party. Nation Strengthen Post (Qiangguo bao 強國報 ) was established on March 10, 1912, with its office at Du’an Lane, Baibu Street, Hankou. Main writers included Feng Zusun and Gao Chouguan. The newspaper was a mouthpiece of the

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Republican Party. Hunan Public Post was established in April 1912, with its office in Changsha East Street. It was a large-scale daily newspaper with Bei Yuanzheng as the president and Li Baolin as the manager. Yuan Zisu was the chief editor while other editors included Li Baoyi, Zeng Xingli, Chen Wuni, and Long Jiangong. The newspaper received subsidies from the Republican Party, and was later controlled by the Progressive Party. Public Discussion Daily was first published on February 25, 1912 in Chengdu. It was managed by Sun Shaojing, Liu Shipei, Wu Yu, Rao Bokang, Xie Wuliang, and Pan Lisan. The newspaper was a mouthpiece for the Unification Party. Other than the four main political parties, some smaller parties and organizations had official newspapers too. Examples included People’s Right Post in Shanghai and Freedom Daily (Ziyou ribao 自由日報 ) in Wuhan by Freedom Party; National Rights Post (Guoquan bao 國權報 ) in both Shanghai and Beijing by National Society (Guojia xuehui 國家學會 ); The People’s Tribune (Minbao 民報 ) in Shanghai and the People’s Will Daily (Minxin ribao 民心日報 ) in Fuzhou by the Citizens Association (Guomin xiehui 國民協會 ); The Republic Post (Gonghe bao 共和報 ) in Shanghai by the China Research Association of the Republic (Zhongguo gonghe yanjiuhui 中國共和研究會 ); Zhonghua Daily (Zhonghua ribao 中華日報 ) in Tianjin by Citizens’ Union (Guomin lianhehui 國民聯合會 ); Zhonghua Livelihood Post (Zhonghua minsheng bao 中華 民生報 ) in Shanghai and other places by the Zhonghua Commoners Party (Zhonghua pingmin dang 中華平民黨 ); Great Unity People’s Post (Datong minbao 大同民報 ) in Shanghai by the Great Unity Charity Society (Datong gongji zonghui 大同公濟總會 ); United People Daily (Qimin ribao 齊民日報 ) in Shanghai by East Society (Dongshe 東社 ); People’s Awareness (Juemin bao 覺民報 ) in Shanghai by Republic of China Labor Party (Zhonghua minguo gongdang 中華民國工黨 ); Social Daily (Shehui ribao 社會日報 ), Humanitarian Weekly (Rendao zhoubao 人道周報 ), Socialist Party Monthly (Shehuidang yuekan 社會黨月刊 ), and Social World (Shehui shijie 社會世界 ) in Shanghai by the China Socialist Party (Zhongguo shehuidang 中國社會黨 ); as well as Advancement Post (Chujin bao 促進報 ) in Ningbo by Social Welfare Advancement Association (Shehui gongyi cujinhui 社會公益促進會 ). These periodicals were often short-lived and had relatively smaller influence. Only a few of them such as People’s Right Post and Social Daily were more unique and influential. People’s Right Post was established on March 28, 1912, with Zhou Hao as the publisher, and Dai Jitao as the chief editor. The political stance of the newspaper was similar to that of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance newspapers. It also had an emphasis on political commentaries, with four to five editorials published each day. It was named as one of the “Three Radical People Newspapers”

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together with China People’s Post and the Republic News . Not long after it was

established, the main writer Dai Jitao was arrested by the International Settlement

police for “inciting assassination.” After his release, he wrote on the wall of the editorial room, “A newspaper which has never been banned is not a good paper; a writer who has never been imprisoned is not a good writer.”11

Social Daily was established on February 10, 1912 with one printed sheet each day. It claimed to promote socialism, but was inclined towards anarchism and used radical words. Overall, the number of periodicals increased greatly with the setting up of the Nanjing Provisional Government. Various changes occurred in the journalism industry. These changes were partly the result of increased journalistic freedom and increased political awareness of the people, but the changes were also caused by the complex and keen struggle among various political factors in the Early Republic period.

Journalism Under the Reign of Yuan Shikai and Beiyang Warlords Struggles and splits in the newspaper industry Although the 1911 Revolution overthrew the monarchy, the economic foundation and the militaristic bureaucracy built upon it were not changed. The feudal ownership of land continued to be the pillar of economy. Feudalism was deep-

rooted and affected every corner of society. As the representatives of landlords

and the comprador bourgeoisie, Yuan Shikai quickly took over the regime. On

February 15, 1912, the Nanjing Provisional National Assembly elected Yuan Shikai as the Provisional President. Yuan came into office on March 10, and began to rebuild an autocratic rule with the support of reactionary forces.

In the first 10 months of Yuan’s term as president, the residual effects of the

revolution were still present and revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen had certain territory and power. The cabinet, the National Assembly, and constitution were

still partially maintained. The landlords and comprador bourgeoisie wanted to

resume the half-colonial, half-autocracy order, while the capitalists wanted to obtain the greatest possible political power through party struggles in order to

develop capitalism peacefully. There were three main powers in the political stage of China — the bourgeois revolutionaries, the bourgeois constitutionalists, and

the landlords and comprador bourgeoisie. Fierce struggles ensued surrounding

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the division of power. This formed the democratic revolution camp led by Sun Yat-sen and the anti-revolutionary autocracy camp led by Yuan Shikai. The political struggle was accurately reflected in the media. Although there were many newspapers in the first two years of the Republic, most of them belonged to either one of the three aforementioned powers, and were gradually becoming two obvious camps. On July 25, 1912, The Pacific News reported on the situation where Shanghai newspapers were divided into two factions. After the establishment of the Kuomintang, the newspapers under the Kuomintang system in Beijing formed the Kuomintang News Group (Guomindang xinwentuan 國民黨新聞團 ). In response, the non-Kuomintang newspapers formed the Beijing Newspaper Industry Allies (Beijing baojie tongzhihui 北京報界同志會 ), forming

two clear camps. Although newspapers from the revolutionary camp may have had different stances and different degrees of radicalism, they supported the republic system sincerely on the whole. They were against autocracy, and struggled against the warlords’ and bureaucrats’, such as Yuan Shikai and Li Yuanhong, destruction of the democratic republic. For example, before the establishment of the Nanjing Provisional Government, Min Li Pao published many editorials that advocated the southern revolutionary regime and northern expedition, such as — “On the Absolute Importance of Building a Provisional Government,” “On the Absolute Importance of Northern Expedition,” and “No Peace Talks! No Peace Talks!” The article “Fight or Peace?” published on December 27, 1911 in the newspaper stated that “since the Wuchang Uprising, thousands of people were sacrificed for the restoration of southern China. The enemy is still present but the leaders are too humane in wanting to end the revolution through negotiations…We hope that our generals will not rely on the success of peace talks, but will reorganize their army and lead the Northern Expedition once the truce ended. These newspapers were steadfast in their support of the revolution and were against compromises. After the establishment of the Provisional Government, Min Li Pao once again published editorials such as “The Death of the Kuomin Leaders Under the Republic,” “Can Peace Negotiations still Be Believed?” and “Declaration of War” that opposed peace talks with Yuan Shikai and the Qing government. The newspaper called for citizens to protect the cabinet system of the republic and to overthrow the Qing emperor. After Yuan Shikai became the Provisional President, The newspaper advocated cabinet responsibility and was firmly against the presidential system to limit Yuan’s power. It also frequently criticized the administration and diplomacy of the Yuan government. The Shanghai China

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People’s Post also saw supporting the republic and preventing the revival of autocracy as its main mission. It criticized Yuan Shikai almost every day. The Bell also published quite a lot of radical commentaries in its opposition of the NorthSouth peace talks, the cut of the southern militia, and the abolishment of the Nanjing garrison, as well as attacking Yuan Shikai for his autocratic policies under the façade of a republic. The Beijing Odes of the State Daily was banned for three days for criticizing the Yuan government multiple times. The Wuhan Zhendan People Post also criticized Li Yuanhong for seizing power and destroying the results of the revolution. The serialized novel Hero Under the Bed (Chuangxia yingxiong zhuan 床下英雄傳 ) in the supplement also parodied Li Yuanhong. The bourgeois revolutionaries’ weakness of being soft became even more severe after the Wuchang Uprising. They dared not oppose imperialistic forces or uproot autocracy, and had even compromised under reactionary forces. They gave up the position of the president to Yuan Shikai for a cheap victory and planned to win a majority in the cabinet through peaceful means such as party politics. As for their publicity, revolutionary newspapers could no longer rely on nationalism as their main weapon of mobilization. They lost their influence without a new ideology to oppose imperialism. With the establishment of the republic and constitution, advocacy of democracy was limited to specific problems such as system and legislature. The livelihood issue was even put to one side and seldom mentioned. The weaknesses of lacking anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism publicity in revolutionary newspapers became even more obvious in this period. Most of the periodicals wanted to be “stable” and avoided being too radical or siding with any parties. After the abdication of the Qing emperor, the Min Li Pao declared that it was not an official mouthpiece of any party, but the mouthpiece of 400 million citizens. It claimed to abolish any bias and to work for the welfare of the country and the public. At the critical juncture where reactionaries were trying to usurp the fruits of revolution, such an attitude largely weakened the strength of revolutionary newspapers. The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang periodicals became more and more subtle in their publicity of political ideas and had less and less revolutionary content. They were concerned with the National Assembly election, the cabinet system, and the monitoring of the government. There was little coordination in their publicity, and fragmentation became more severe. Revolutionary newspapers such as Min Li Pao and The Bell sometimes even condemned the Provisional Government on issues such as the case of Hanyeping loans and the provisional newspaper ordinance, taking a similar stance as Shun Pao and Journal on Current Affairs .

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When the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance Nanjing headquarters accused some Shanghai newspapers of receiving bribes from Yuan Shikai, Min Li Pao and The Bell jointly telegraphed Sun Yat-sen with the bribed newspapers to express their strong protest. They also sided with The Republic Daily and took an opposite stance with the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance’s decisions on the issues of setting Nanjing as the capital and letting Yuan Shikai assume office in the South. Revolutionary newspapers also often had conflicting ideas and emphasized their different origins. For example, China People’s Post and People’s Strength Post (Minqiang bao 民強報 ) once joined forces and had a media feud with Min Li Pao . A single newspaper often did not follow a single stand on the same issue, and might contradict itself. On November 2, 1911, Min Li Pao first published an editorial “Arguments Against Peace Talks” that opposed the North-South peace talks. The version was then reprinted with another editorial “A Call to Arms Against a Call to Arms” that supported the peace talks. The two versions existed and were sold simultaneously. Due to the above reasons, a united revolutionary media was not formed and the public was not led towards that direction. The other media faction consisted of Republican Party, Democratic Party, and Unification Party newspapers that supported Yuan Shikai, which included former constitutional publications such as Eastern Times and newspapers under Yuan’s control such as Asiatic Daily News (Yaxiya ribao 亞細亞日報 ). There were also newspapers in support of constitutional monarchy such as Unbearable (Buren 不忍 ), as well as the long-standing Shun Pao which also sided towards this faction. Most of these newspapers claimed to support the republic system, strengthen national unification, ensure civil rights, and speak for the people. However, they shared hostility towards Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, and support for Yuan Shikai and his rise to power. Compared to the weakening publicity of Chinese Revolutionary Alliance periodicals, although newspapers of this faction had their differences, they gradually grew more aggressive in their antiSun stance under the support of the Yuan Shikai government. The long-standing newspapers were once in an embarrassing situation in the Early Republic period, and were forced to support the revolution. For example, the Shun Pao office was once destroyed by furious mobs for reporting the Qing Northern army’s victory in Hanyang. Shun Pao dared not publish vicious remarks of the revolutionary forces since then. Eastern Times also did not write any editorials that criticized the revolutionaries for a few weeks. Yet not long after, Zhang Taiyan published the article “The Rise and Fall of Revolutionaries” in The National Herald on December 2, 1911. This provided an example for newspapers like Shun Pao and

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Eastern Times . Zhang Taiyan then established The Republic Daily which openly opposed Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, while supporting Yuan Shikai and Li Yuanhong. It became the leader in attacking the Nanjing Provisional Government. Under the pretense of “free speech” and “government monitoring,” it forced Sun Yat-sen to give up his power and supported Yuan Shikai. It continued to support Yuan after he became the president, and opposed the provisional constitution, the provisional National Assembly, and the choice of Nanjing as capital. In late February 1912, Shun Pao , News Daily , Eastern Times , The National Herald , Journal on Current Affairs , Patriotic Post , The People’s Tribune , and People’s Voice Daily jointly demanded to establish the capital at Beijing so as to return order and peace to the country. Zhang Taiyan even published a proposal for the provisional National Assembly on The Republic Daily that mentioned five disadvantages for setting Nanjing as the capital. Liang Qichao, under the hint of Yuan Shikai, also established The Justice magazine to “transform what people think, leading the majority from passion to neutrality, and from neutrality to mildness,” so as to eliminate revolution.12 After its publication, The Justice advocated that it was better to have a government, and encouraged a strong, centralized government under Yuan Shikai in an article on April 14, 1913. It also attacked “mob rule” and hoped for Yuan Shikai to suppress mob rule with his military power. Liang Qichao even stated that as long as revolution could be eliminated, “autocratic power is acceptable” in his article “The Future Trend of Politics” published on August 1, 1913. Under Liang Qichao’s lead and Yuan Shikai’s support, publicity against the democratic republic became more arrogant. In February 1913, Kang Youwei established the Unbearable monthly journal, which promoted Confucianism as the national standard, the revival of the Qing empire, and the setting up of a constitutional monarchy. It condemned the revolution and democratic republic as the root of disaster in China, stating in its inaugural issue that the revolution limited livelihood, caused lost territory, destroyed moral order, degenerated morals, removed education, and caused the loss of national treasures. It openly opposed the republic system and encouraged autocracy. The two newspaper factions were made quite clear by July in 1912. On the eve of the first session of the National Assembly the polemics of the two newspaper factions reached a height with heated debates. Fundamental problems debated by both sides included: First, whether a centralized government or a form of decentralized governance was preferable. Second, whether a presidential system or a cabinet system was preferable. Third, whether civil servants should be responsible to the National Assembly or the president. Fourth, issues of foreign

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loans. In order to limit the powers of Yuan Shikai, the newspaper of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance–Kuomintang system were against the centralization of power, the presidential system, civil servants’ sole responsibility towards the president, and Yuan Shikai’s foreign loans from five foreign countries. Periodicals of the Republican Party faction took the opposing stances. As these debates were closely related to the future and fate of the country, they were struggles of basic principles between the two parties. However, the direct reason for the unending media feud between the two factions was that the fight for power in the government for their respective leaders. The media feud during this period was not only a political debate but also largely a fight for power. Many bureaucrats, politicians, and constitutionalists joined the party since the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance reorganized to form the Kuomintang. Former members of the Alliance also thought that the revolution had succeeded and sought for a position in the Republic government. They became more like bureaucrats and politicians. Although the political platform of the Kuomintang retained some policies of the bourgeois democracy, it could not compare with the platform of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance before the 1911 revolution. To a large extent, the Kuomintang had become a bureaucratic organization that was removed from the public. The Republican Party, Democratic Party, and the Unification Party were also hotbeds for bureaucratic politicians. Under such as situation, it was inevitable that most political newspapers became tools for politicians to secure their own benefits. The mutual attacks of newspapers of the two factions lacked serious political discussions, and were just blind accusations of the other party. The famous journalist Huang Yuansheng once commented on the situation, “Take the issue of foreign loans. Newspapers of Party A now supported the cause which it previously opposed, and vice versa for newspapers of Party B. Sometimes, a newspaper would even support Tang Shaoyi’s loans and yet oppose Xiong Xining’s loans, or vice versa. Taking another example, on the newspapers’ attitudes towards the government, Party A will support this person while Party B will oppose him before he joined the

Kuomintang. The situation reversed after he joined the Kuomintang. How can there be such a great difference, on the same issue, or on the same person? ...The reason was that the newspapers are fighting for the power of their own factions, and do not care about the national policies.”13 Due to their factional allegiances, newspapers not only held their only stance in commentaries, they often had different opinions regarding the same piece of news. It was said that “there will be two completely different records of the same event. Thus when reading

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newspapers, we only know which party it belongs to, but the society does not care about the truthfulness of the news.”14

In the midst of debates, the two camps also used ad hominem appeals

and accused each other of past wrongs and conspiracies. This caused many newspapers to engage solely in condemnation. Violence was also used, as

Republican Party newspapers would often threaten others with the police and army of the Yuan Shikai government. Similarly, the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance would often beat up people and destroy newspaper offices. For

example, on July 6, 1912 the Republican Party newspaper National Gazette called the Nanjing Provisional Government the “Nanjing False Government” in its commentary. Twenty employees from seven newspapers siding with Chinese Revolutionary Alliance — National Light News , Odes of the State Daily , The

Democrat , East Asia New Paper , Chinese Republic Post , Women’s Studies Daily , and Public Opinion Post — went to denounce the National Gazette under the leadership of Tian Tong and Chou Liang. They beat up the National Gazette manager Xu Fosu and main writer Lan Gongwu, as well as destroyed the printing house of the newspaper. At places where the media feud was severe, both camps guarded against attacks from the opposition. Every journalist of the Kuomintang Changsha Daily News and the Republican Party Hunan Public Post in Changsha even carried a gun for self-defense. There were also some lowbrow newspapers without a clear stance. These newspapers mainly ran for profit, and most content was only news clippings and articles of low tastes. These newspapers made up a certain portion of the more than 100 newspapers in Beijing during this period. An article “The Causes and Effects of the Beijing Newspaper Industry” published in Citizen Daily in September 1919 stated that “most of the managers and editors of Beijing newspapers are most concerned with business.” They “never learned what the Republic is,” and their newspapers “are not newspapers both stylistically and spiritually.” Although these were not party periodicals, they sided with the feudalistic, comprador bourgeoisie.

The Second Revolution and the Newspaper Disaster of 1913 The Beiyang warlords, represented by Yuan Shikai, were cruel military

organizations that rose to power through ironfisted methods. In other to gain national control after the 1911 Revolution, they were the fiercest suppressors of

the democratic republic even though they supported it on the surface. Due to their

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reactionary ideas and the objective to build a despotic rule, they were intolerant towards the media and made use of violence and money to destroy the industry. After the Wuchang Uprising when Yuan Shikai was the Prime Minister of the Qing cabinet, the Beiyang warlords had ferociously suppressed the publicity activities of the revolutionary newspapers in their territories. On January 13, 1912, Beiyang generals such as Feng Guozhang jointly petitioned to the cabinet, stating that the suppression of the revolution publicity of the Qing court was too weak. They requested stronger means to eliminate revolution publicity completely. The petition read, “the uprisings are fueled by the encouragement of newspapers… now many northern newspapers…support the republic, and confuse the people’s hearts. The southern newspapers are all deceiving and inciting chaos. All the uprisings and chaos in places such as Renqiu, Luancheng, Fengtian, and Kaifeng are caused by incitement of newspapers and rascals. Guozhang and others have met and discussed, agreeing that taking over newspapers, banning Shanghai periodicals, and eliminating traitors are actions to take. We thus write this petition, humbly requesting the Prime Minister to notify the Ministry of Posts and Communications to tighten their inspection of trains and ships in ports. The sale of all northern newspapers inciting chaos should be banned. All absurd telegraphs should be outlawed. As for newspapers in Beijing and Tianjin, any papers which violated the newspaper ordinance and incited chaos should be banned by the Ministry of Civil Affairs and the Governor-General of Zhili.” This petition showed the hatred of warlords towards revolutionary newspapers, and was a confession of how they persecuted the media using government machinery. Under the cruel suppression of the Beiyang warlords, the northern revolutionary newspapers that were still in print under the Qing rule were almost all banned. The revolutionaries were arrested or killed. The revolutionary Odes of the State Daily and National Light News in Beijing were banned in this period. On the other hand, the Yuan Shikai government banned all newspapers from the southern, restored districts in Beijing. He also sent people to buyout the southern newspapers. After Yuan Shikai took power, he secretly reverted to autocratic methods while swearing loyalty to the Republic on the surface. He followed Liang Qichao’s suggestion to “be the master of the media in the dark, but to be the slave of the media on the surface.”15 He fostered the newspapers of his own camp while “making peace” with the revolutionary newspapers “on the surface,” while “bribing them with money and glory in the dark.” 16 Often, his subordinates would also persecute the newspapers through the army or the police. For example, in June 1912, the Minister of the Interior Zhao Bingjun directed more

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than 200 police to surround and destroy the office of the Central News in Beijing. They abducted 11 employees including the manager and the main writer. In August of the same year, he directed the Tianjin concession officials through the French consulate in China to banish the Public Opinion Post from Tianjin. The warlord officials and constitutionalists in other places also acted in collusion and persecuted the revolutionaries and their newspapers with military forces. For example in Wuhan, Li Yuanhong prosecuted and banned six revolutionary papers in under half a year since August 1912. The Great River , Sentiments of the People Post , The People’s Voice , People’s Emperor Post (Dimin bao 帝民報 ), Group Tribune , People’s Cries Post (Minku bao 民哭報 ), and People’s Speech Post (Minyan bao 民言 報 ) were the banned newspapers. The main writer of The Great River Ling Datong was accused of promoting anarchism and was killed on the spot by Li Yuanhong. Ling’s head was hanged and displayed on the city gate. In Changsha, Hunan, the Great Han People’s Paper office was destroyed by generals for criticizing the army. Yueyang Daily (Yueyang ribao 岳陽日報 ) was banned and its main writer was arrested for expressing doubts over the regulation of the local Taxation Bureau to “tax 10% of total property regardless of wealth.” In Fuzhou, Fujian, People’s Will Daily and Crowd were banned for exposing the illegal acts of local officials and sympathizing with the militia. The publisher of People’s Will Daily was wanted while the chief editor of Crowd was flogged and imprisoned. Two journalists were also assassinated. The Resonance Daily (Yingsheng ribao 應聲日報 ) in Xiamen was banned just after a few months of publication. Just in 1912 in Sichuan, the Sichuan Public Post , Chinese Citizen Post , Sichuan Post , and Sichuan Awakening Post (Shuxing bao 蜀醒報 ) were either banned or destroyed by soldiers. Journalist Zhu Shan from the Sichuan Post was decapitated for an untrue accusation of “attempting to cannon the Chief Military Commission.” In territories controlled by the Kuomintang, some revolutionaries also easily banned newspapers after obtaining positions of power. In the first half of 1912, when Chen Jiongming was acting as the Commissioner-in-Chief of Guangdong, he banned the Guangzhou Public Voice (Gongyan bao 公言報 ) and Tuocheng Independence Post (Tuocheng duli bao 佗城獨立報 ). He killed the newspapermen Huang Shizhong and Chen Tingxiang. Huang Shizhong was formerly the editor of revolutionary newspapers such as China Daily before the 1911 Revolution, and thus had a certain influence in Guangzhou and Hong Kong. Huang earned Chen’s hatred when Huang opposed Chen of taking the opportunity to expand his own power while organizing the militia. Huang was thus killed by Chen. Wang Jinfa, a former comrade of Qiu Jin, became arrogant after taking the position of the

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Commissioner-in-Chief of Shaoxing Military Branch Government. He was thus criticized by the Yue Bell Daily (Yueduo ribao 越鐸日報 ). Wang Jinfa then allowed his soldiers to destroy the newspaper office, beating up 17 of the employees. One of them died from the heavy injuries. Imperialistic forces, which were against the 1911 Revolution, also participated in the persecution of revolutionary newspapers. The main writer of People’s Right Post in Shanghai was arrested by the concession police for writing an article which opposed taking loans from foreign powers. These had proved that in a half-colonial half-feudal China, where autocracy was still the dominant power, press freedom could not be successful. The bourgeois revolutionaries was naïve in thinking that “it does not matter if we are not in power, what matters is that the media is monitoring the government,” as seen on March 8, 1912 in Min Li Pao . When the revolutionaries lost their power, they tried to maintain the Republic through media monitoring and to share political power through the National Assembly. These dreams were destroyed under the autocratic rule of Yuan Shikai. Under the leadership of Song Jiaoren, Kuomintang, won an overwhelming majority in both the National Assembly and the Senate in late 1912 and early 1913. As his power was threatened, Yuan Shikai sent someone to assassinate Song Jiaoren on March 20, 1913. The entire country was shocked by the case. Revolutionaries in Kuomintang, led by Sun Yat-sen, finally recognized Yuan Shikai’s reactionary intents, and organized the Second Revolution of 1913. Newspapers of the Kuomintang system contributed a lot to exposing Yuan’s intentions to overthrow the Republic, and in inciting the Second Revolution. Although most newspapers were still concerned with party politics and the parliamentary system, they also reported heavily on the inside story of Yuan being the mastermind behind Song Jiaoren’s assassination. They condemned Yuan Shikai’s autocracy and tried to expose Yuan’s ambition to dictatorship through military force. There was also a debate on whether the problem should be solved through legal means or violent means. In the end, a consensus to organize a Second Revolution to overthrow Yuan Shikai by force was reached. On the day after Song Jiaoren’s death, Min Li Pao used a whole page to report on the case, publishing elegies for Song and strongly demanding justice. A brief biography of Song Jiaoren was also included, and Song’s advocacy of party politics and cabinet was explained. From March 29 onwards, Min Li Pao started to expose the Yuan government’s relationship to the assassination, and accused Yuan Shikai of being a thief who only knew autocracy. On April 26, Min Li Pao and other anti-Yuan

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newspapers in Shanghai published evidence from the case, which was followed by direct accusations that “Yuan Shikai and Zhao Bingjun were the real culprits of the assassination” in the article “Overview of the Assassination” on April 27 and 28. The newspaper also listed Yuan’s crimes of bribery, forming cliques, harming civilians, attempting to restore the monarchy with himself as king, taking a great amount of foreign loans, and conspiring to invade the south. The newspaper called for people to strike down Yuan Shikai. In June, Min Li Pao also published many articles to rebut the call to solve problems through legal means, and explained the justification of a Second Revolution. Beginning in July, the newspaper began to publish news of the anti-Yuan army, and advocated the overthrow of Yuan by force. It called the public to arms, telling them not to rely on the government or heroes, and should contribute in the revolt against the monarchy. The anti-Yuan publicity in China People’s Post was even stronger. Even before April 9 when the evidence of the assassination was published, China People’s Post released an editorial titled “The Thieving Government” that attacked the Yuan government for “killing people and is not different from thieves.” It accused Yuan Shikai as being “the public enemy of all citizens, and a thief who does not hold weapons.” The newspaper thought that “the success of the republic system hinged on whether the thief can be removed.” China People’s Post published another editorial on April 17 titled “Crusade Against the Thief,” which listed ten major crimes of Yuan Shikai. It called for the public to exert a punitive attack on Yuan and not let him destroy the Republic. When the Second Revolution broke out, China People’s Post published many special editions for 14 consecutive days, starting from August 1, to report on the progress of the anti-Yuan army and the declaration of independence of various provinces. Kuomintang newspapers in Beijing, which was Yuan Shikai’s territory, also tried their best to expose Yuan’s crimes despite threats and persecutions. They accused Yuan of destroying the Republic, giving up national power, removing dissidents, and killing Kuomintang members. On the day after Song Jiaoren’s death, Chinese Republic Post pointed out that “Song’s assassinator was not a desperado, but Song’s political enemy” in the article “Thoughts of Song Jiaoren’s Assassination.” After evidence of the case was published, Odes of the State Daily and National Light News published commentaries continuously, stating that the Yuan government “betrayed, assassinated, and sold out the country,” and had “killed.” Odes of the State Daily published the article “Advice to the Government and Compatriots in the Police and Army” on May 12, openly persuading civil servants, policemen, and soldiers to rebel against “a certain man” and be

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loyal to the Republic. The newspaper was surrounded by the army and police immediately on the day, with its people arrested and summoned to court. On the next day, the newspaper published four blank pages in protest. Only a notice detailing how the newspaper was disturbed and its employees arrested was printed in big fonts on the front page. In response to the news censorship of the Yuan government, newspapers of the Kuomintang system printed a large number of special editions and leaflets to fight for their cause. Kuomintang newspapers in other regions also condemned and exposed Yuan Shikai’s reactionary deeds. Changsha Daily News published a commentary written by Kong Zhaohuan and others. It listed 24 crimes of Yuan Shikai, and attacked Yuan for his media censorship in the supplement on July 6, pointing out that “How is there freedom as the newspapers are banned? How is there freedom as mail and telegraphs are checked?” Strong Wind Daily (Dafeng ribao 大風日報 ), the official newspaper of the Kuomintang in Shantou, published a commentary “Government as the Root of All Evil” on April 16 that listed all the crimes of the Yuan government. The Qilu People’s Post (Qilu minbao 齊魯民報 ) published a commentary “Advising Compatriots in the Northern Army” on May 8, calling for northern soldiers to revolt against Yuan Shikai, saying that “the government has betrayed the citizens, thus soldiers should not listen to its orders.” After the Second Revolution broke out, specialized newspapers that focused only on the revolt against Yuan Shikai were published in areas which had declared independence, such as Shanghai and Guangdong. For example, the Republic News in Shanghai published an anti-Yuan periodical Public Discussion (Gonglun 公論 ). There was also a Persecution of Yuan Post (Tao Yuan bao 討袁報 ) in Guangzhou with Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Xie Yingbo as the chief editor. The publicity of the Second Revolution by the newspapers of the Kuomintang system awakened the revolutionaries and helped the anti-Yuan camp to grow. They had also vocally supported the various military actions against Yuan. The assassination of Song Jiaoren resulted in the falling out of the revolutionary and reactionary forces. Most of the newspapers who were in support Yuan, other than a few which reversed their stance, became even more supportive of him. In May 1913, the Unification Party, Republican Party, and Democratic Party merged under the control of Yuan Shikai to form the Progressive Party. All the newspapers of the three parties became mouth pieces for the Progressive Party. These newspapers were like those directly controlled by Yuan Shikai, and they attacked the Kuomintang. They defended the Yuan government on the issues of Song’s assassination and foreign loans, and accused the Second

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Revolution as being a threat to the central government and the unification of the country. They called for the immediate suppression of the revolt. On July 18, 1913, newspapers in Beijing under Yuan’s control, led by Asiatic Daily News , jointly published the article “Announcement on Suppressing the Rebels.” They said that the violent rebellion of the Kuomintang was “without consideration of the country and public opinion,” and would “destroy the unification of the Republic.” Newspapers of the Progressive Party faction published in areas controlled by Kuomintang, such as Shanghai, Guangdong, Hunan, and Anhui, also strongly opposed the revolution. About a month before the Second Revolution, Chinese Nation Post in Guangzhou released news of the upcoming revolution in articles such as “Li Liejun’s Rebellion Against the Central Government,” “Huang Xing’s Rebellion,” and “The Shocking Moves of Li Liejun.” These papers would begin their reports with the words “according to rumors” to avoid any responsibility. Eastern Times in Shanghai first defended Yuan Shikai strongly after Song Jiaoren’s assassination, and then urged Yuan Shikai to fight a decisive battle with the South as soon as possible in order to avoid any complications. After the failure of the Jiangxi anti-Yuan army, Sun Yat-sen was not included on Yuan Shikai’s wanted list of rebels to be executed. Eastern Times thus pointed out in the article “Thoughts on the Order to Execute Rebels” on August 11, that “one should capture the leader in order to defeat the enemy. If Chen Qimei, Li Liejun, Chen Jiongming, and Bo Wenwei were eliminated without eliminating Sun Yat-sen, there will be thousands more of Chen Qimei, Li Liejun, Chen Jiongming, and Bo Wenwei. Fire will rise from the ashes again, and the disaster is unthinkable.” Although longstanding newspapers such as Shun Pao and News Daily criticized both the Yuan government and the Kuomintang, they were more biased towards Yuan. When the Second Revolution broke out, the News Daily attacked the Kuomintang and the revolution with various articles, and sent many telegraphs that opposed the military action. Newspapers of the Kuomintang system were steadfast in countering the reactionary publicity of the Progressive Party newspapers. For example, On July 20, 1913, Min Li Pao published the commentary “Against Yuan’s Newspapers” to expose the reality of newspapers in support of Yuan Shikai. It accused the newspaper of speaking untruths, saying that “although the crimes of the Yuan government were clear and undeniable, such newspapers continue to defend him with the excuse of not considering the big picture. When the Kuomintang tried to call for justice, these newspapers attacked the Kuomintang to the extreme.” Min Li Pao considered these newspapers of being accomplices of Yuan Shikai,

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having “encouraged Yuan and helped the wicked.” On August 14, Min Li Pao also exposed that the Progressive Party newspapers in Beijing and Shanghai received bribes and subsidies from the Yuan government. In areas controlled by the Kuomintang, some of these rightist newspapers against the revolution had their offices destroyed and banned. For example, the Guangdong government led by Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming had banned the Guangdong Voice Post (Yuesheng bao 粵聲報 ) and the Chinese Nation Post . On the day after Guangdong declared its independence, news censorship was implemented. Hunan Public Post in Changsha was also destroyed and banned by the Kuomintang. After the assassination of Song Jiaoren, Kuomintang newspapers in areas ruled by the Yuan government were severely suppressed and persecuted. In order to suppress the media, the Yuan government carried out strict pre-examination of news immediately on the day after the assassination. Thus newspapers and newspapermen were warned, reprimanded, summoned, fined, thrashed, banned, and arrested frequently, with tighter control day after day. Many newspapers of the Kuomintang system, including the Odes of the State Daily in Beijing, New Spring and Autumn Post (Xin chunqiu bao 新春秋報 ) and Public Opinion Post in Tianjin, and Zhendan People Post in Hankou were banned on the eve of the Second Revolution. The main writers and editors of Zhendan People Post — Ma Yema, Deng Kuangyan, He Tiehua, and others — were arrested. Ma and He was murdered, while Deng Yu died in prison. The Second Revolution was a desperate attempt to salvage the result of the 1911 Revolution. Since the revolutionaries had greatly compromised and given in since the Wuchang Uprising, most of their strength was lost. The Second Revolution failed quickly. Kuomintang lost all their territory and army, and was labeled as a rebel party. Leaders such as Sun Yat-sen and Huang Xing were wanted. Following the military victory, the Yuan government took the opportunity to raid the newspapers that were against him. Kuomintang newspapers were banned for being newspapers of the rebel party. In Guangzhou, the warlord Long Jiguang banned six newspapers in one go — China Daily , Plebeian Post (Pingmin bao 平民報 ), Central Plain Post , Livelihood Tribune , Persecution of Yuan Post , and Soul Awareness Post (Juehun bao 覺魂報 ). Although Min Li Pao , People’s Right Post , and People’s Strength Post were published in the Shanghai International Settlement and could not be banned, the Yuan government gave clear orders that the newspapers were forbidden. Thus these newspapers could not be sold outside the settlement, and print runs fell to a few hundred copies. They could no longer sustain themselves and were forced to cease publication. The publication

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of China People’s Post stopped because its chief editor Deng Jiayan was arrested and charged. The State Council also ordered the ban of the Fujian People Post , Crowd , and The Republic in Fuzhou, with their main writers arrested. Even some newspapers that supported Yuan were persecuted. When the warlord Long Jiguang occupied Guangzhou, he immediately sent someone to murder the publisher of Zhendan Daily — Kang Zhongluo. This was because Long Jiguang and Kang Zhongluo had smuggled arms and opium together in their early days. Long was afraid that Kang might expose his past, and thus had to silence Kang. In the next day, Zhendan Daily was banned with the Kuomintang newspapers. Not long after, some newspapers in Guangzhou that had always supported the central government, including Guangdong Voice Post , People’s Rule Post (Minzhi bao 民治報 ), and Public Discussion Tribune (Gonglun bao 公論報 ), were also banned. It was suspected that they had relations with the Kuomintang army and militia. Outstanding Post (Chaoran bao 超然報 ) in Beijing was originally sponsored by the warlord Jiang Chaozong. After the Second Revolution, it was accused of “defaming military men” by Zhao Bingjun for publishing the article “The Inside Story of Shuntianfu.” The newspaper was thus banned and punished. One editor of the conservative The Real Patriotic Post (Zhengzong aiguo bao 正宗愛國報 ) in Beijing wrote that “soldiers should serve the country and not for the self. If one wants to be self-serving, there are many ways to make a living. Why join the army?” The newspaper was therefore accused of “affecting army morale,”17 and the president Ding Baochen was arrested. Ding was then, without trial, executed by firing squad on August 19, 1913 outside of the Xuanwu Gate, shocking the entire journalism industry in Beijing. Under the persecution of the warlords and officials, there were only 139 newspapers in print by the end of 1913. This was a sharp decrease by 361 newspapers as compared to the 500 in the first year of the Republic. While there were originally more than 100 newspapers in Beijing, only about 20 were left. As reported by the Republic Daily in September 1919, half of the Kuomintang newspapermen escaped while the other half was killed. There were no longer any newspapers which had any bit of Kuomintang inclination left in Beijing. Some called this the Newspaper Disaster of 1913.

Yuan Shikai’s restoration of the monarchy and media control Yuan Shikai became more arrogant after suppressing the Second Revolution. First, he forced the National Assembly to elect him as the official President. Then, he dissolved the National Assembly and revoked the Provisional Constitution, so

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that he became the sole dictator over the internal affairs, diplomacy, military, and legislature in China. Finally, he even restored the monarchy.

Beginning as a minor official in the Huai Army and ending up as the

President, Yuan Shikai was well experienced in political struggles and knew better

than the Qing bureaucrats the importance of media control and manipulation. In

the process of destroying the Republic and restoring the monarchy, Yuan Shikai and his followers had maintained a façade of serving the media and submitting to public opinion. He had deliberately used various means to control the newspapers and the media.

Their first method was to allow reactionary forces to publicize Confucianism

and restoration, while condemning the democratic republic through periodicals. Since Yuan Shikai came to power, he presented himself as a protector of Chinese

traditional morals, encouraged the study of Confucianism, and used feudalistic

ideologies to serve his despotic rule. Under the encouragement of Yuan Shikai, royalists such as Kang Youwei, Lao Naixuan, Chen Zengzhi, Liang Dingfen, and Ye Dehui, together with former bureaucrats of the Qing Dynasty, brazenly promoted

Confucianism and restoration movements. They set up organizations such as The

Confucian Association, Confucian Society, and Zengzi Association in Shanghai, Beijing, Shangdong, and other parts of China. Moreover, periodicals such as The

Confucian Association Monthly (Kongjiaohui zazhi 孔教會雜誌 ), Unbearable , Confucian Society Magazine (Kongshe zazhi 孔社雜誌 ), National Affairs Magazine (Guoshi zazhi 國事雜誌 ), and Zengzi Association Journal (Zongsheng xuebao 宗 聖學報 ). By claiming that they were “preserving national essence” and “salvaging morals,” the periodicals attacked the democratic republic and the ideas of equality and freedom. The main reactionary arguments of the periodicals were listed below. First, they claimed that since the beginning of the Republic, “traditional teachings have diminished, laws are disregarded, disorder is common, and traditions are ever-changing…people are morally at their worst in the 5,000 year of Chinese history.”18 They attacked the value of equality, saying that “it results in father and son sharing the same rights, friends interacting solely for the benefits they bring, and people freely engaging in relationships with only means and not love.”19 Second, they embellished the traditional system and teachings, saying that “China was no longer bound by backward ideology since the Han Dynasty as everyone was equal…personal freedom, business freedom, freedom to personal property, freedom of assembly, speech, publication, and religion…these were long granted.”20 The periodicals advocated Confucianism as the main content of education as well as the state religion.

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Third, the periodicals blamed the chaos after the 1911 Revolution on the revolutionaries and the republic system. They strongly supported the despotic rule of Yuan Shikai and hoped that Yuan would restore the old order. Although these periodicals were ideologically in support of restoring the Qing monarchy, they were actually used by Yuan Shikai and became the main voice which opposed the democratic republic. Other than publicizing Confucianism, the second method of Yuan Shikai and his followers was to establish their own newspapers as mouthpieces. They made use of their official power to publish many official gazettes, and also used public funding to set up and buy private newspapers. These private newspapers in name were managed by specially appointed people, and directed and manipulated public opinion as media representatives. Yuan Shikai had planned to make use of Liang Qichao’s reputation before his return to China to establish a large-scale newspaper in Shanghai as a pillar of the media.21 Liang Shiyi and other henchmen of Yuan Shikai thus discussed the matter in secret with Liang Qichao. However, due to the quick success of the North-South peace talks, the plan was abandoned finally. After Yuan Shikai took over the Provisional Government, his henchmen were even more active in recruiting literati. Public funds were used to establish the National Rights Post , Diamond Post (Jingang bao 金鋼報 ), and Asiatic Daily News in Beijing, as well as Citizens’ New Paper (later renamed as Great Central News [Dazhong bao 大中報 ]) in Changsha. Later, when imperialist activities entered their heyday, the Beiyang government internal document No. 1001/3214 even recorded plans to publish Chinese and foreign language newspapers overseas. The Shanghai edition of the Asiatic Daily News was also established. Among these newspapers, the Beijing Asiatic Daily News , and the Shanghai The National Herald were more influential. The Asiatic Daily News used a total amount of 100,000 dollars and had royalist Xue Dake as the chief editor. Constitutionalists Ding Foyan, and literali such as Fan Zengxiang and Yi Shifu were editors and writers. Three sheets were printed daily. It was the most outspoken reactionary newspaper among periodicals owned by Yuan Shikai. It even professed being a private newspaper and joined the Beijing Newspaper Industry Allies — using the association to organize media in support of Yuan. When the Second Revolution broke out, the Asiatic Daily News coordinated with rightist newspapers in Beijing to publish the “Announcement on Suppressing the Rebels.” From November 15 to 18, 1914, the Asiatic Daily News published articles such as “The Gradual Dissolve of the Republic” and “Comments on Monarchy and Democracy” by the royalist Lao Naixuan that supported the restoration of the

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monarchy. After Yuan Shikai accepted the insulting Twenty-One Demands in May 1915, Asiatic Daily News released a special edition stating that “from now-on China and Japan will be friends and eternal peace will be achieved. This is happy news for the entire East Asia.” It shamelessly sang praises to Yuan’s selling out of the country. On August 10, 1915, Asiatic Daily News published the article “On Republic and Monarchy” written by Yuan Shikai’s American advisor Goodnow. It stated that China was a “country with low public intelligence, and the common man knows not of political affairs and [the people] are without political wisdom. No good can come out of a republic system…A monarchy is more suitable than a republic in China.” It was the first newspaper in China that openly called for a restoration of the monarchy. Since then, under the lead of members of the Chou’an Society such as Yang Du, the newspaper published many forged “suggestions” on the monarchy, such as Yang Du’s “National Salvation through Constitutional Monarchy.” The article explained through questions and answers why only a constitutional monarchy is suitable for China. The Beijing Newspaper Industry Allies also forced other Beijing newspapers to praise Yuan Shikai’s contributions, creating a collective voice that supported Yuan as the new emperor. In 1915, The National Herald was forcefully taken over through threats by Yuan Naikuan. The royalist National Assembly member Sun Zhong became the new chief editor and started to voice support for Yuan Shikai. Since The National Herald was an old brand, this action managed to deceive some readers. The third method of Yuan Shikai and his followers was to win over and bribe newspapers and newspapermen. Many newspapers received bribes from Yuan Shikai in the form of subsidies. They included the National Chinese Post (Guohua bao 國華報 ), Yellow Bell Daily (Huangzhong ribao 黃鐘日報 ), New Society Post (Xin shehui bao 新社會報 ), National Rights Post , Beijing-Tianjin Times , and Great Freedom Post in Beijing; The Republic Daily and Journal on Current Affairs in Shanghai; Ta Kung Pao (Dagongbao 大公報 ) in Changsha; Chinese Nation Post in Guangzhou; and some overseas Chinese newspaper. According to incomplete statistics, there were more than 125 newspapers that had directly or indirectly received government subsidies during the reign of Yuan Shikai. In order to bribe newspapers and newspapermen, Yuan Shikai made use of national funds. People sent to bribe newspapers in Shanghai could carry up to 300,000 dollars with them at one go. A Kuomintang newspaper in Beijing was offered 100,000 dollars to reverse its stance. Guangzhou newspapers were offered 300 Yuan Silver Dollars per month. Yuan Shikai and other warlords also tried to win over individual newspaper publishers, editors, and journalists. They might be given an extra

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salary, publicity budget, writer’s fee, or were served food and drinks for writing news and commentaries in praise of Yuan Shikai. Goodnow was heavily rewarded for writing his article in support of the monarchy, and was given an extra 100,000 dollars by Yuan when he returned to the United States. Many foreign journalists in Beijing were also rewarded for just sending one telegraph in praise of Yuan. In 1915, Liang Qichao wrote the article “Strange! On the So-Called Question of State System,” which opposed the restoration of the monarchy. When Yuan knew of the incident before the article was published, he tried to bribe Liang Qichao with 200,000 dollars, but was refused by Liang. Those newspapers and newspapermen bribed by Yuan Shikai followed the stance of the Chou’an Society and wrote similar articles that praised Yuan Shikai’s strategy while condemning Cai E and the National Protection Army. Examples included Wu Zesheng and his National Chinese Post in Beijing, as well as Wang Jianzhai and his Beijing-Tianjin Times . In December 1915, even though the restoration had not been officially passed by the National Assembly, many Beijing newspapers owned by Yuan already referred to him as “Emperor,” “His Majesty,” and “Lord of Ten Thousand Years.” When the restoration was announced by Yuan Shikai, these newspapers immediately used “The First Year of Yuan’s Reign” to count their dates and released newspapers in red in celebration. This was a dark page of history in Chinese journalism. In the wave of Yuan’s support, some of the Yuan followers even deceived themselves in order to please Yuan Shikai. For example, when the Shanghai Eastern Times and the Beijing Shuntian Times run by the Japanese published articles that opposed the monarchy, Yuan’s henchmen such as Liang Shiyi and Yuan Naikuan would bribe these newspapers to print a single copy that did not contain such articles, just for Yuan Shikai to read. Other than the methods mentioned above, the most basic form of media control exercised by Yuan was violent suppression and persecution of opposing media. On one hand, a series of laws that limited expression were promulgated so that such violent persecutions were legalized. After his usurping of power and especially after the assassination of Song Jiaoren, Yuan Shikai handed down many orders to limit press freedom. For example on March 11, 1913, the Beijing Police Department forwarded orders from the Beiyang Government Ministry of the Army and Ministry of the Interior. It was announced that all newspapers had to be pre-examined by the Ministry of the Army in the excuse of preventing the leakage of diplomatic and military secrets. All offenders would be punished by

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the military law. In order to suppress newspapers in reporting the truth of Song Jiaoren’s assassination, Yuan Shikai once again issued a presidential order on May 1, stating that all cases could not be reported before trial. On June 17, the Ministry of the Interior forbade all newspapers in the country from publishing “verbal abuse” and “confidential material,” or they would face punishment according to the newspaper ordinance. The Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance was even revived to suppress press freedom. After the outbreak of the Second Revolution, the Yuan government once again issued a series of general orders banning certain newspapers and the mailing of printed materials, implementing checks, and demanding the reregistration of all periodicals. On April 2, 1914, the Yuan government promulgated a Newspaper Ordinance that was “slightly stricter” than the Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance under the excuse of clearing the journalism industry of “scum.” There were 35 articles in the Newspaper Ordinance , and the document was adapted from the restrictive rules of countries such as Japan. It was clearly stated that “all newspapers had to be approved by the Police Department of the region; people under 25, people who have been imprisoned, soldiers, officials, and students cannot be the publishers, printers, or editors of newspapers; newspapers are forbidden from publishing content that confuses the state system, harms public order, destroys traditions,” and that “all newspapers must send samples to the Police Department before publication.” The articles were very strict and the document was described as the “worst newspaper ordinance in the word” by the English paper Peking Gazette on April 14, 1914. On December 5 of the same year, the Yuan government promulgated the Publication Ordinance which placed the same limitations on all printed materials with words or pictures. Moreover, regional officials even added more to these strict ordinances during law enforcement. For example, in regard to the article stating that all newspapers had to be sent to the Police Department before publication, this process developed into a pre-publishing inspection in many regions. The Hangzhou Police Department stipulated that all newspapers should send in samples of their next day’s publication by nine at night every day. The inspector will then stamp a sign of approval on each piece of news, and replacements must be sent immediately if any piece of news was censored. There was also a rule that each newspaper had to hand in a security deposit amounting to between 100 to 350 dollars. This was increased to 700 dollars in Fuzhou, and those newspapers which failed to pay were banned. In Chengdu, the age limit of 25 for publishers, printers, or editors of newspapers was also raised to 35 and above. On the other hand, violent persecution such as bans, arrests, and murders

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were also common. Between the time period after the Second Revolution and before Yuan Shikai ascended to the throne, secret agents were sent all over Beijing and discussion of political affairs were forbidden in the streets and public areas such as restaurants. People might be arrested or even executed for gaffes. There were many incidents of newspapers being fined and banned, as well as newspapermen being arrested or killed. After the 1913 Newspaper Disaster, a new batch of anti-Yuan newspapers were banned for being “newspapers of the rebels.” They included New Tianjin Post (Xin Tianjin bao 新天津報 ), Red County News (Chixian xinwen 赤縣新聞 ), Citizen’s Daily Tribune (Gongmin ri bao 公民 日報 ) in Tianjin; Republic Daily , People’s Trust Daily (Minxin ribao 民信日報 ), Zhonghua New Tribune (Zhonghua xinbao 中華新報 ), and Republican New Post (Gonghe xinbao 共和新報 ) in Shanghai; and Hunan Popular Education Post (Hunan tongsu jiaoyubao 湖 南 通 俗 教 育 報 ) in Hunan. Some newspapers which were supportive of Yuan Shikai in the past or were more conservative also offended the officials for being not active enough in supporting the monarchy. They were forced to stop publication or were banned from being mailed for “harming public order.” For example, the New Social Daily (Xin shehui ribao 新社會日報 ) was temporarily banned by the Ministry of the Interior for exposing a case of embezzlement at the Mountain Resort in its commentary. The Ministry of the Interior also banned the sale of The Journal on Current Affairs in the country for opposing the monarchy. The Chongqing Righteous Tradition Daily (Zhengsu ribao 正俗日報 ) offended the officials for publishing news of Commissioner-in-Chief Wu Jingyi being “very sick from liver disease.” The local Police Department accused the newspaper of “harming public order with rumors,” thus banning it and arresting the publisher. The TwentyOne Demands signed by Yuan Shikai and Japan resulted in a wave of counteragreements and boycotts of the Japanese patriotic movement in major cities around the country. Yuan Shikai issued strong orders that no newspapers should report on such news nor comment on the situation. Some patriotic newspapers such as Five Seven (Wuqi 五 七 ), Salvation Post (Jiuwang bao 救 亡 報 ), and Patriotic Tribune (Aiguo bao 愛國報 ) in Shanghai, as well as the Shimin Post (Shimin bao 時敏報 ) of Guangzhuo were ordered to cease publication as a result. Under such a fearful reign with tight control of expression, it was not unusual for newspaper editors and journalists to be summoned, reprimanded, arrested, tortured, and even executed. The main writer Wu Nai of Odes of the State Daily was arrested and killed for anti-Yuan publicity. The original editor Yu Cifang of the Hubei Great Han Tribune exposed the corruption of officials in the news, and was thus arrested by the Hubei government in March 1914. Five days later, he was

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sentenced to death for being anti-Yuan, and was executed by stabbing at the open area at the Hankou Houhu. From April 1912 to June 1916 when Yuan Shikai was in power, 71 newspapers were banned, 49 were summoned, 9 were destroyed by the army and police. In addition, 60 journalists were arrested and 24 were killed. From the 1913 Newspaper Disaster to June 1916, the total number of newspapers was maintained at around 130 to 150. This created a low point of a few years in the journalism industry. Under the despotic rule of Yuan Shikai, the persecution of newspapermen was even more serious than in the late Qing era. Since the feudal foundation of the society remained unchanged even after the 1911 Revolution, feudalism revived quickly under the leadership of Yuan Shikai and his followers. Such an ideology even led to the restoration of the monarchy by Yuan. Yuan Shikai restored the monarchy in December 1915 supposedly out of “respect for public opinion.” During this period, Yuan Shikai used all his publicity tools to encourage the monarchy and at the same time began another round of persecution of opposing newspapermen. All comments that were against the monarchy were banned. It was even stipulated that all newspapers had to date their publication with the new era name “Hong Xian” that marked Yuan Shikai’s ascension to the throne, and that newspapers had to be printed in red during the period. Around the New Year in 1916, the newspapers set up by Yuan were all printed in red. Journalists were listed as “Vassal Journalists.” On the other hand, anti-Yuan newspapers and newspapers that were against the monarchy tried their best to resist and they maintained the use of the Minguo or the Common Era. Newspapers established by the Chinese Revolutionary Party, radicals of the Kuomintang, and democracy supporters, were the most steadfast in their struggle against Yuan Shikai’s despotic rule. After the Second Revolution, some members of the former Chinese Revolutionary Alliance and the Kuomintang published periodicals both overseas and in concessions to continue their anti-Yuan publicity. These periodicals were mainly concentrated in Tokyo and in the Shanghai International Settlement. Citizen Magazine (Guomin zazhi 國民雜誌 ), The Tiger (Jiayin 甲寅 ), Zhonghua New Tribune , The Republic (Minguo 民國 ) and Republic Daily Tribune (Minguo ribao 民國日報 ), were the more representative newspapers. Citizen Magazine was a monthly publication established in Tokyo on April 15, 1913. It claimed to be the official newspaper of various Japanese branches of the Kuomintang. It was edited in Tokyo and published in Shanghai, and had encouraged the Second Revolution. Publication ceased soon after the failure of the Second Revolution.

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The Tiger was also a monthly publication. It was established on May 10, 1914 in Tokyo by Hu Hanmin. Zhang Shizhao was the main editor while Chen Duxiu and Gao Yihan participated in editorial work. It had columns such as “Current Affairs,” “Commentaries,” “Correspondence,” and “Literature.” Although the periodical had an anti-Yuan stance, its stance was not as strong as other overseas publications as Zhang Shizhao was neither a member of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance nor the Kuomintang. Publication was often not on time. It moved back and was published in China in May 1915, and publication ceased in October of the same year. Zhonghua New Tribune was established on October 10, 1915 in the French concession in Shanghai. It was established by former Kuomintang National Assembly members such as Gu Zhongxiu and Yang Yongtai to oppose Yuan Shikai’s restoration of the monarch. When Political Association was set up in November 1916, the Zhonghua New Tribune became the official paper of the Political Association. The newspaper was steadfast in its opposition of Yuan, and had detailed reports on the anti-Yuan military activities of the National Protection Army. Chen Baixu was the chief editor of the supplement, and he made it into a unique publication. The supplement serialized Liu Chengyu’s “Hong Xian Epic” and Wu Jingheng’s “Conversations at the Guest Room of a Temple.” The Shanghai edition of the Zhonghua New Tribune ceased publication in winter 1924. There was also a Beijing edition of the Zhonghua New Tribune established on September 1, 1916 with Zhang Yaozeng as the president, Kang Xinru as the manager, and Zhang Jiluan as the chief editor. Publication stopped in September 1918. The Republic magazine was established on May 10, 1914. It was not published regularly and was printed in thirty-twomo. The magazine was established by some Kuomintang members under the lead of Sun Yat-sen after the failure of the Second Revolution. After Sun Yat-sen organized the Chinese Revolutionary Party, The Republic became the official periodical of the party in July 1914. Hu Hanmin was the chief editor while Zhu Zhixin, Liu Zhongkai, Dai Jitao, Tian Tong, Shao Yuanchong, Zou Lu, Su Manshu, and others participated in editorial work. The magazine had mainly anti-Yuan content, and had published many articles criticizing Yuan Shikai’s dictatorship and treacherous actions to please foreign countries. Republic Daily Tribune was established on January 22, 1916 in Shanghai’s French concession under the leadership of Chinese Revolutionary Party Head of General Affairs Department, Chen Qimei. Shao Lizi and Ye Chucang managed the newspaper while Zhu Zhixin, Dai Jitao, Shen Xuanlu, and others contributed

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to the writing of articles. The newspaper mainly had an anti-Yuan Mission, and was the main mouthpiece of the Chinese Revolutionary Party in China. When the Chinese Revolutionary Party was renamed the Kuomintang of China, the Republic Daily Tribune became the party’s official newspaper. In addition, there were other overseas anti-Yuan periodicals including The Young China Morning Paper and The Republic of China (Minguo 民國 ) in San Francisco; People’s Spirit Post (Minqi bao 民氣報 ) in New York; New Republic Morning Post (Xinminguo chenbao 新民國晨報 ) in Victoria, Canada; Chinese Awakening Weekly (Xinghua zhoubao 醒華周報 ) in Toronto; Livelihood News (Minsheng bao 民生報 ) in Cuba; People’s Awakening in Peru; New Freedom Press and Out Loud Magazine in Honolulu; as well as Citizen Daily News (Guomin ribao 國民日報 ) in Singapore. Most of these were the official newspapers of overseas branches of the Chinese Revolutionary Party. Other than a few established before the 1911 Revolution, most were established after the failure of the Second Revolution. Other Kuomintang and Chinese Revolutionary Party newspapers published in China included Justice and Integrity (Zhengyi 正誼 ), People’s Rights Elements (Minquan su 民權素 ), People’s Trust Daily , Public Opinion News (Minyi bao 民意報 ), and Life Daily (Shenghuo ribao 生活日報 ) in Shanghai; Citizen’s Daily Tribune in Tianjin; as well as Phenomenon Post (Xianxiang bao 現象報 ) in Hong Kong. Most of these periodicals were protected by foreign offices in foreign concessions. They were mainly published in 1914 and 1915, and had short lifespans of less than a year. The Chinese Revolutionary Party, reorganized from the foundation of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, had few members and little power. It was also removed from the main population in China. Its newspapers could not be sold outside of concessions and thus had low print runs. They were thus not as influential as newspapers of the Progressive Party. Although they were steadfast in their anti-Yuan stance, they had little impact and failed to lead anti-Yuan publicity. When Yuan Shikai accepted the Twenty-One Demands and openly restored the monarchy, most periodicals in China tried to oppose him. In order to lead the discussion once again, the Progressive Party and other newspapers reversed their stance in support of Yuan and played an important role. In The Great China New Magazine (Dazhonghua 大中華 ) in which he was the main writer, Liang Qichao published articles such as “Strange! On the So-Called Question of State System” to oppose the monarchy. Since the monarchy was not popular and due to Liang’s reputation, the article was widely shared and incredibly influential. Liang Qichao became a famous leader in anti-Yuan thoughts. Even the conservative long-standing Shun Pao also reversed its stance and opposed Yuan Shikai. The

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few newspapers owned by Yuan which supported the monarchy, such as the

Asiatic Daily News , were boycotted. The Shanghai edition of Asiatic Daily News was established on September 10, 1915, but they received a threatening letter on the very day. The office was bombed the next day, and was bombed again on December 17. The main writer Liu Lifo almost died from the attacks. As opposing voices grew, the newspaper was forced to cease publication. Due to national opposition, military failures, and treacherous subordinates, Yuan Shikai had to announce the abolishment of the monarchy on March 22, 1916. He died under public condemnation on June 6. Although the anti-Yuan struggle ended in victory, the half-colonial and half-feudal foundation of China remained unchanged. With Yuan Shikai gone, many similar warlords appeared, and China remained in the rule of Beiyang warlords. Yuan Shikai’s persecution of the media, and his fascist control of press and speech freedom, were inherited by later reactionary rulers. The Chinese journalism industry was still in a state of calamity.

Journalism under the autocratic rule of warlords After the death of Yuan Shikai, the Beiyang warlords fragmented into various cliques such as the Anhui Clique, Zhili Clique, and Fengtian Clique. They controlled Beijing and most of the country. Southwestern warlords also developed during the National Protection War, and controlled six provinces in the South.

Although the northern and southern warlords were mutually hostile on the surface, they were the same in nature and were products of the half-colonial, half-feudal society. They were feudalistic and reactionary military organizations. They relied

on foreign imperialism and sold the country for their own benefits. Moreover,

they carried out a despotic rule and cruelly suppressed and exploited the people, frequently engaging in wars with one another. Thus, the republic was only restored

in name, and there was no democracy and freedom in Chinese society. The national bourgeoisie and journalism industry continued to be suppressed and persecuted as they struggled to develop in the difficult environment.

Not long after the victory against Yuan in the latter half of 1916, the

Beiyang warlords had to restore the Provisional Constitution and the National

Assembly due to public pressure. The republic rule destroyed by Yuan Shikai was restored on the surface. The various warlords also temporarily loosened

the control over publication and expression. On July 6 and 8 of 1916, the Beijing government Ministry of the Interior sent two notices to all provinces calling for public expression and discussion. All banned newspapers were released

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from their bans and were allowed to be freely sold again. More than 20 banned newspapers in Shanghai including Journal on Current Affairs , Republic Daily Tribune , Zhonghua New Tribune , People’s Trust Daily , Republican New Post , and Public Opinion News , resumed publication and sale through mail. Arrested newspapermen were also released. On July 16, the Beijing government President Li Yuanhong announced the abolishment of the Newspaper Ordinance . When the issue was discussed in the National Assembly, some were against the abolishment and suggested replacing the Newspaper Ordinance by the former Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance . Duan Qirui was against the idea, thinking that the former Qing ordinance was not suitable for the republic system. He argued that periodicals should be allowed to develop freely for the time being, and any possible regulations would be decided in the future. The press conferences of the State Council were also resumed to release news to journalists. Thus, various people established a series of new periodicals in the situation, and the journalism industry revived rapidly. By the end of 1916, there were 289 newspapers in China, which was an 85% increase as compared to in 1915. However, in reality, this was only a rebound after the extreme control by Yuan Shikai. As the warlords were still in power, the journalism industry could no longer develop freely as in the Early Republic period. The various cliques of the Beiyang warlords began to persecute speech and publication freedom in their territories once the residue voices from the National Protection War died down. The journalism industry that revived shortly after Yuan Shikai’s defeat once again ceased development and diminished. Both the northern and southern warlords behaved similarly in limiting the freedom of speech and publication. In the North, as the fights in the National Assembly and the struggle for power escalated, mail inspection was implemented once again on May 26, 1917 as the warlords wanted to limit opposing periodicals. After the failure of the Manchu Restoration, Duan Qirui once again came into power. His real nature was revealed as he ignored the Provisional Constitution and National Assembly, and imposed speech restrictions as tight as Yuan Shikai. On October 17, 1918, a detailed Newspaper Ordinance with 33 articles was once again promulgated. At the same time, Duan used violent means of control and often arrested newspapermen. On September 24, 1918, National Gazette , Morning Bell Post (Chenzhong bao 晨鐘報 ), Chinese New Tribune (Zhonghua xinbao 中華新報), Greater China Daily (Dazhonghua ribao 大中華日報 ), Asia Continent Daily (Yalu ribao 亞陸日報 ), Great Central Daily (Dazhong ribao 大中日報 ), and Global Affairs (Jingshi bao 經世報 ) in Beijing, as

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well as the Beijing Journalistic Traffic News Agency (xinwen jiaotong tongxunshe 新聞交通通訊社 ), were all banned for reporting on Duan taking huge loans from Japan. Managers and editors such as Kang Xinru and Zhang Jiluan were arrested. Although some of the newspapers were official mouthpieces of the Research Clique and were allies with the Duan government, they were banned too for any slight disobedience. Newspapermen were also frequently persecuted cruelly in territories controlled by the southwestern warlords. In June 1917, the Guangzhou Southern Yue Post opposed the officials for lifting the ban on gambling. As a result, the editor and publisher Li Huiquan was forcefully dragged out of the newspaper office and shot on the streets. On June 23, 1918, the president of the Guangzhou Democracy Daily , Chen Difu, was also arrested under the orders of Guangxi Clique warlord Mo Rongxin for criticizing the officials for controlling the budget and destroying the law. He was executed the next morning without a trial. In the two years between the end of 1916 and the May Fourth Movement in 1919, at least 29 newspapers were banned and 17 newspapermen were imprisoned and executed. Under the persecution of the northern and southern warlords, the total number of newspapers by the end of 1918 dropped 23% to 221, as compared to the end of 1916. Other than violent suppressions, warlords and officials also bribed newspapers through subsidies like Yuan Shikai. They wanted to establish their own mouthpieces through such methods. For example, Duan Qirui subsidized the Beijing Public Voice with 100,000 dollars. He also subsidized newspapers such as the Beijing Times , the Ta Kung Pao in Tianjin, and the Public Discussion News (Gonglun bao 公論報 ) in Hankou. On the other hand, Li Yuanhong subsidized the Citizen’s Public Post (Guomin gongbao 國民公報 ) in Hankou and the Chinese Nation Post in Guangzhou. Zhang Xun subsidized the Shanghai National Paper (Guo shi bao 國是報 ). Middle- and small-sized warlords also followed suit and subsidized many newspapers. The Zhejiang Commissioner-in-chief Zhu Rui, Sichuan Commissioner-in-chief Chen Yi, Guangdong Commissioner-inchief Mo Rongxin, and other commissioners-in-chief, all bribed newspapers to support them once they came into power. When the Hunan Commissioner-inchief Tan Yankai took his position, he gave out subsidies between 200 to 10,000 dollars through provincial governments to 33 newspapers and news agencies in Changsha, Beijing, Shanghai, Hankou, and other places. Under the corrupt rule of the warlords and officials, many workers in the journalism industry lacked self-respect. The corruption of the journalism industry

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became more severe than during Yuan Shikai’s rule. First, some of the newspapermen may sell themselves. Running newspapers became a means to profit for some bourgeoisie literati. Many newspapermen asked for subsidies and would support whomever who paid them. They were condemned by the public and were called “newspaper bandits.” Some other newspapers even worked with opium dens for profits. The newspaper office may be used as a secret location for the private sale of opium. From 1917 to 1918 among the 36 newspaper offices in Guangzhou, more than 20 sold opium. There were also those that used newspapers as excuses to get to know highranking officials, to gain official positions, or to become assistants to warlords and officials. Some also threatened and extorted others for money with the publicity power of their newspapers. Second, some newspapers were of poor quality. During this period, there were many “newspapers without office,” “roadside tabloids,” and “ghost newspapers.” Roadside tabloids were prepared in a rented hotel room the day before it was published. The content was messily prepared mainly through news clippings, and advertisements were irresponsibly sought. Printing fees were paid with newspaper allowances and the print run was decided by the printer. The writers would keep the advertisement fees. These newspapers were then sold on intersections by the roadside.22 Ghost newspapers, on the other hand, were non-existent newspapers. A room was rented and decorated with a sign of a newspaper office. A few copies of the “newspaper” were printed or edited from defect copies of real newspapers. One of the copies was displayed outside the newspaper office while the other was sent for police inspection. With the façade, the “newspaperman” could then ask for subsidies from warlords and officials. Some recorded ghost newspapers included the Southern News (Nanfang bao 南方報 ) and the Business Rights Post (Shangquan bao 商權報 ) in Guangzhou. There were also many newspapers in Beijing with permanent offices that were more formal than the roadside tabloids and the ghost newspapers. However, they were often very small-scale with only one or two rented rooms and about 400 dollars of startup capital. They did not have printing equipment or journalists, and had only one or two editors to arrange content from news clippings. Only a few hundred copies were printed by printing houses. Most of the managers of these newspapers were mostly motivated by subsidies from someone or some party. However, they arrogantly claimed to be members of the newspaper industry although they were little better than ghost newspapers. As the political environment was ever-changing and there was great risk in

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running newspapers, most newspapermen dared not invest too much capital and effort in newspapers. Therefore, with the exception of some long-standing newspapers and official newspapers of warlords, most newspapers during this period were small-scale and unprofessional. They had less than 10 employees and often relied on scissors, red ink, and glue in their editorial work. Scissors, red ink, and glue were even called the “elements of a newspaper” in Beijing. Most of the newspapers had print-runs of only 1,000 to 2,000 copies. Only a few long-standing newspapers could afford print-runs of over 10,000 copies. Editors often played a few roles simultaneously, and had to edit, copyedit, and publish despite having low pay. As print-runs were low, there was little funding. Almost all newspapers had to publish romances and scandals to attract more readers. Indecent tabloids such as Diamond (Jingang zuan 金鋼鑽 ), romance-focused periodicals such as Happiness (Kuaihuo 快活 ), Confucianism periodicals such as Global Affairs , and supernatural periodicals such as Mystic Magazine (Lingxue congzhi 靈學叢誌 ) were more widespread than before. The reputation of party periodicals had also deteriorated. After disappointing performances, party politics and party periodicals were now infamous. The two major parties — Kuomintang and Progressive Party — were on the edge of dissolution after the despotic rule of Yuan Shikai. Even after Yuan’s death, the public was tired of party politics and social discussion, including newspapers, was critical of parties in general. Members of the Progressive Party and moderates of the Kuomintang both called for the putting aside of party differences and mutual cooperation. Yet party differences were still very prevalent when the National Assembly was reopened. However, the two parties no longer used their party names, and “invisible parties” were organized in the forms of societies and clubs. The former Progressive Party organized the Association for Constitution Research (Xianfa yanjiu tongzhihui 憲法研究同志會 ) led by Liang Qichao, as well as the Constitution Case Research Society (Xianfa an yanjiuhui 憲法案研究會 ) led by Tang Hualong. These two organizations were later merged to form the Constitution Research Society (Xianfa yanjiuhui 憲法研究會 ), and this was called the Research Clique. The former Kuomintang members were more fragmented. They organized the Guest Room Faction (Kelu pai 客廬派 ), 1916 Club (Bingchen julebu 丙晨俱樂部 ), Taoyuan Clique (Taoyuan xi 韜園系 ), Constitutional Discussion Society (Xianfa shangquehui 憲法商榷會 ), Political Association (Zhengxue hui 政學會 ), Good Friends Society (Yiyou hui 益友會 ), and Friends of the People Society (Minyou she 民友社 ). They were called the Discussion Clique and Political Clique. When Duan Qirui resumed power after the failed Manchu Restoration, supporters of Duan also

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established the party Anfu Club (Anfu julebu 安褔俱樂部 ), which was also called the Anfu Clique. These parties were even worse than the original Progressive Party and Kuomintang as they neither had clear political platforms nor provincial branches. They were but political factions which tried to manipulate the political scene for personal gains. Not long after, they became tools in the struggle between the presidential office (led by Li Yuanhong) and the State Council (led by Duan Qirui). The political organizations mentioned above all controlled their own mouthpieces, secretly if not openly. Liang Qichao’s Association for Constitution Research owned some Beijing newspapers such as the National Gazette . Tang Hualong also established the Morning Bell Post in August 1916. The various organizations derived from the former Kuomintang controlled other Beijing newspapers such as Chinese New Tribune and East Land People’s Daily (Dongdalu minbao 東大陸民報 ). The Anfu Clique owned the Public Voice in Beijing, and the Ta Kung Pao in Tianjin. These party newspapers were at the frontline of political struggle, and thus were much more political in nature than other periodicals. Although they did play a part in promoting democratic rule and helped a little in the monitoring of warlords, these functions were very limited. The newspapers were mostly obsessed with the struggle for power, and argued continuously on issues such as the constitution, the powers of the president and the National Assembly, or whether to declare war on Germany. They were only tools and mouthpieces of warlords, officials, and politicians in the fight for power. The Public Voice was seen as the official newspaper of the government. Even the Research Clique Morning Bell Post was called a government newspaper due to its support of Duan Qirui. On the other hand, Zhang Shizhao, the manager of Tiger Daily (Jiayin rikan 甲寅日刊 ), supported Li Yuanhong. Republic Daily Tribune , in its article “The Causes and Effects of the Beijing Newspaper Industry” published in September 1919, criticized Zhang Shizhao for “associating with high-ranking officials every day, and leaving societal affairs unattended. He can no longer control himself and his arguments are getting stranger and stranger.” The Tiger Daily engaged in political opportunism, and had erratic stances. For example, Tiger Daily originally opposed breaking off ties with Germany. However, it changed and adopted a supportive stance after 10 days, resulting in criticism from readers. The Chinese New Tribune of the Political Clique was also directed by personal motives, and did not have a real political stance. Although these newspapers were controlled by various parties, officials, and politicians, they tried to hide the fact and label themselves as independent media, and were highly hypocritical. Since there was no basic democracy under the threat of the warlords, the

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development of the journalism industry was inevitably limited and suppressed. Yet despite persecutions, some bourgeois democrats and patriotic, honest journalists still held their ground and struggled with the control of speech and reactionary thoughts. They gained the support of the people, and exerted the functions that newspapers and media should have. In 1916, as Duan Qirui connived in Zhang Xun’s and other warlords’ intervention of the National Assembly and politics, the Republic Daily Tribune in Shanghai and the Chinese New Tribune in Beijing wrote editorials in criticism of the situation. On September 27, 1916, Chinese New Tribune published an editorial titled “Punish Zhang Xun” which pointed out that “Zhang Xun is wellprepared and will definitely attempt a coup…if the government wants to remain its integrity, it has to remove Zhang Xun from his office immediately. This is the only way to prevent the disaster.” When Zhang Xun led his army into Beijing in June 1917, many newspapers, including Chinese New Tribune , ceased publication temporarily as a means of protest. When Zhang Xun attempted the Manchu Restoration on July 1, Morning Bell Post moved its office to Tianjin temporarily on the very next day. More than 10 newspapers in Beijing refrained from publication to avoid “dishonest words.” These newspapers included Public Speech (Gongyan 公言 ), People’s Words (Minyan 民言 ), Real Republic (Zhen gonghe 真共和 ), New Zhendan (Xin Zhendan 新震旦 ), East Land People’s Daily , Liugeng Public Post (Liugeng gongbao 六更公報 ), Revealing Light (Qiming 啟明 ), Navy and Army (Hailujun 海陸軍 ), Dazhong ( 大中 ), Daxin ( 大信 ), and National Gazette . They only resumed publication after the failure of the Manchu Restoration. During the Manchu Restoration, newspapers outside of Beijing also started a wave of criticism and condemned Zhang Xun as a traitor. Newspapers in Shanghai were especially aggressive in their commentaries. On July 2, the Republic Daily Tribune published “Call to Arms to Expel the Traitor,” declaring Zhang Xun and Kang Youwei as traitors of the Republic. It stated that “anyone who speaks of compromises will be seen as a national traitor by the people.” On the same day, the Chinese New Tribune also claimed that “blood must be shed, and there is no turning back.” Other Shanghai newspapers such as Eastern Times , News Daily , and Republican Big News (Minguo da xinwen 民國大新聞 ) also had clear stances. Beginning from July 3, they jointly serialized the daily “Universal Anger,” using large spaces to publish correspondences in criticism of Zhang Xun. When the National Paper , subsidized by Zhang Xun and managed by Kang Youwei, stood firm in its stance of supporting the restoration, it immediately became a target of hatred and was called a mouthpiece of the traitor. Even the

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typesetters refused to work for the newspaper. National Paper was thus forced to stop publishing after three days. Even newspapers in Jiangxi — the hometown of restoration leaders Zhang Xun, Liu Yanchen, and Wan Shengshi — were united in their condemnation of the restoration. They declared Zhang Xun as the shame of Jiangxi. The Fujian Stretch Out Post (Shenbao 伸報 ) even called for the entire nation to “rise and kill the beast.”23 After Duan Qirui gained control over the Central Government in Beijing, he tried his best to expand the power of the Anhui Clique. He would sell national territorial rights for large amounts of foreign loans on one hand, and expand his army on the other. He wanted to unify China through military force. The journalism industry also exposed and criticized such treacherous and despotic actions by Duan Qirui. Since the Research Clique was abandoned by Duan Qirui, newspapers of the clique also participated in anti-Duan publicity. In April 1918, the Beijing Morning Bell Post and numerous Shanghai newspapers exposed news of secret negotiations and military agreement between China and Japan, calling people’s attention to the incident. The Greater China Daily published the entire Sino-Japanese military agreement on May 19. By May 20, various Beijing newspapers had republished the news. Later, student protests against the military agreement broke out in various cities such as Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Fuzhou. Such anti-restoration and anti-traitor publicity had a certain progressive effect during the period. During this period, since the imperialist Western countries were involved in World War I and could not pay attention to the East, Chinese national capitalism had the chance to develop. Thus, newspapers had an increased emphasis on economic news and became more commercialized. Income from advertisements accounted for a larger and larger portion of the total newspaper revenue. Newspapers competed with one another for customers with various methods. Some offered a huge discount for advertisements, some allowed advertisements on their news section, and some offered artistic designs for the advertisements. For example, the famous artist Li Shutong worked as an advertisement designer for The Pacific News . He helped clients design and beautify advertisements. This was unmatched by other newspapers. Some long-standing newspapers had increased advertisements and income. They gradually adopted modernized management and had great developments in their business size. The News Daily in Shanghai claimed to have a print-run of 33,045 copies per day in 1916, which was the highest in the country. In order to increase printing speed, the newspaper bought one three-level Potter rotary offset printing press and two four-level

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Gauss rotary offset printing presses. In 1918, Shun Pao used 700,000 taels of silver

to build a new office with five stories and more than a hundred rooms. It also

bought the newest American printing machines which could print 48,000 copies of a three-sheet newspaper per hour. At that time, the daily print-run of Shun Pao

was about 20,000 to 30,000 copies per day). Newspapers that focused on industrial and commercial news also appeared in some large and middle-sized cities.

Since the reputation of party newspapers was not good, some honest

newspapermen began to develop independent newspapers. The news and

translation agency, as well as the Beijing Post (Jing bao 京報) established by

the famous journalist Shao Piaoping, were examples of such. Beijing Post was established on October 5, 1918 with its office at Zhuchao Street at southern

Beijing. It later moved to Xiaoshatuyuan and Weiran Hutong. The inaugural address of the periodical read, “we will make the government listen to the real public opinion.” A commentary on the inaugural issue also stated that “since the establishment of the Republic, all warlords have harmed our country. Citizens

should unite and remove them.” Under the management of Shao Piaoping, the newspaper was very active with many news and correspondences. It was well-

informed and had solid content, allowing it to become an influential newspaper in the North quickly.

It was worth noting that after two failed restoration attempts and that

the fact that the republic system was only carried out in name, some young

democrats began to realize that the democratic revolution might have failed due to the Chinese culture and the educational level of the general citizens.

They realized that conservative soldiers and scholars had been promoting and

poisoning the public with backward morals and traditions. These democrats thought that a democratic rule should begin with the awakening of the public, and started to place their hopes of national salvation on raising the knowledge

of the public, especially the youth. Thus they established a series of periodicals that mainly focused on introducing Western thoughts, ideologies, and scientific

knowledge. The large-scale monthly publication La Jeunesse , was one of the most

representative periodicals. It was established in September 1915 in Shanghai by Chen Duxiu. The journal promoted democracy and science, and attacked

conservative culture. Its influence grew after 1916, and was the beginning of the New Culture Movement. Together with other youth periodicals that promoted

new thoughts, these publications brought light to the dull journalism industry under the chaotic rule of Beiyang warlords.

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The Development of and Changes in the Journalism Industry in the Early Republic Period The decline of political commentaries and the development of news reporting Since the Hundred Days’ Reform, a tradition had been formed where the main content of Chinese periodicals was political commentary. This tradition was generally maintained before the Second Revolution, and all newspapers paid great attention to their political commentaries. The general newspapers had columns such as “Editorial,” “Commentaries,” “Discussions,” and “Current Affairs Discussions.” Some daily newspapers even had commentaries nearly on every page, while others issued multiple editorials and commentaries each day. Many newspapers had a main writer who was responsible for writing commentaries. A batch of famous commentators appeared, including Shao Lizi, Zhang Shizhao, Ye Chucang, Jing Yaoyue, Fan Hongxian, Deng Jiayan, Xu Xie’er, Dai Tianchou, Lü Zhiyi, Li Huaishuang, Shao Yuanchong, Zhou Hao, Chen Bulei, Yi Zhonglin, Niu Pisheng, Jiang Jizi, Jiang Zhuchao, Tang Zhaolin, Zhang Peiyi, Wu Aizhi, Chen Feishi, Zhang Kegong, Wang Boqian, Li Zhesheng, Xie Wuliang, Zhang Jiluan, Kong Zhaoshou, Huang Xuyuan, and Lu Shouqun. Most of them were in the newspaper industry before the 1911 Revolution but only a few became famous after 1911. The People’s Right Post , China People’s Post , and Republic News published in Shanghai in the second year of the Republic of China were called the “Three Radical People Newspapers” for their aggressive anti-Yuan attitude. They were seen as on equal grounds with the “Three People Newspapers” in the late Qing era. In fact, as Min Li Pao of the “Three People Newspapers” shifted to a more

conservative tone during this period, the editorials of the “Three Radical People Newspapers” exceeded Min Li Pao in their revolutionary content. The “Three Radical People Newspapers” followed current affairs closely and were good at exposing the truths behind surface phenomena. They had in-depth analyses and an aggressive attitude. For example, after the truth behind Song Jiaoren’s assassination was revealed, the China People’s Post published eight editorials on April 27, 1913: “Punish Yuan Shikai,” “To Fellow Citizens,” “To Soldiers,” “To the National Assembly,” “To Political Parties,” “To the Media,” “To Judges,” and “To Foreign Allies.” This was the greatest number of editorials published in the same newspaper according to known Chinese journalism history. Although the eight

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editorials shared a common theme, they were written in different styles according to their target audience. “Punish Yuan Shikai” was a verbal condemnation of Yuan and was full of fury. “To Fellow Citizens” and “To Soldiers” were a call to arms and were thus both emotional and logical. “To the National Assembly,” “To Political Parties,” and “To the Media” were pieces that persuaded readers to support the efforts and thus they listed the pros and cons clearly. “To Judges” demanded that justice be served and the murderer punished, thus it was written with careful logic in a serious tone. Finally, “To Foreign Allies” called for international sympathy and was written in a sincere tone with an emphasis on justice. The targeted editorials differentiated between allies and enemies clearly. They were written in near vernacular Chinese with simple terms and brief words. These eight editorials could be seen as an overview of the editorials of the period, and they reflected the characteristics of typical commentaries in revolutionary newspapers. As for short commentaries on current affairs, the “Shanghai Annals” of Min Li Pao , “Tianjin Words” of Public Opinion Post , “Ringing of the Bell” in The Bell , as well as the current affairs commentaries of Odes of the State Daily stood out among others. They were targeted to their readers and could leave a lasting impression with their vivid words. The ratio of political commentaries in a newspaper began to drop after the Second Revolution. The tight control over the media by warlords such as Yuan Shikai and Duan Qirui was one reason for this. Most newspapers feared persecution and thus reduced, or even stopped, publishing commentaries. Second, as party newspapers defamed one another during this period, they lost the favor of the public and the reputation of political commentaries declined sharply. Third, the political commentaries in newspapers were generally of a low quality and were boring. Thus, some newspapers, like the Guangzhou Yuehua Post (Yuehua bao 越華報 ), only had an inaugural address in its first issue, and had no other commentaries thereafter. Some newspapers did not have editorials, and only had one or two perfunctory short commentaries. Others might still publish editorials, but they were mostly empty articles and were called “eyebrows articles” as they were there only for decorative purposes. The bourgeois newspapers which claimed to have the responsibility to monitor the government went silent when they were most needed. Of course, there were also some periodicals — especially newspapers established by the Chinese Revolutionary Party and aggressive democrats — which had not given up on political commentary. The monthly journal The Tiger , with Zhang Shizhao as the chief editor, was a typical example. The

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political commentaries of the journal were based on laws and the arguments were presented using Western logic. It had ample proofs and rigorous logic, and the articles were written in both classical Chinese and Westernized Chinese. It had a unique style which was called “The Tiger Style.” Zhang Shizhao was the representative writer of the style. Hu Shi once praised Zhang Shizhao’s editorials as having Zhang Binglin’s details but without the old-fashioned bits; and as having Liang Qichao’s logical flow yet without the rhetorical “piling up.” Zhang Shizhao was most similar to Yan Fu, but Zhang did not use allusions. Hu Shi’s comments had pointed out some characteristics of “The Tiger Style,” but he also overrated it. “The Tiger Style” was removed from reality and lacked passion. It neither had strong arguments nor vivid metaphors. Their articles often followed the same pattern of starting with definitions or Western laws and ending with logical reasoning. Such articles were difficult to write and read, but were popular among intellectuals for a while. This was related to the reign of the warlords. Under the corrupted rule of the warlords, many revolutionaries had diminished passion and wished to struggle with those in power through legal means. “The Tiger Style” was a reflection of such a diminished spirit. Such logicbased articles lacked the power and charm of the editorials of the “Three Radical People Newspaper.” In contrast to the decline of political commentaries, news reports were greatly developed and improved during this period. The political scene in China had remained highly unstable since the 1911 Revolution, while World War I broke out around the same time. Such happenings drew people’s attention to current affairs and increased the demand for news reports. In response to the readers’ demands, newspapers had an increased emphasis on news reporting. First, the ratio of political and military news in a newspaper increased. There were many more telegraphs on current affairs, and they occupied the most important spaces in the newspaper layout. When there were major political events, many newspapers such as Shun Pao and Eastern Times would often publish correspondences on entire pages. There could be as many as fifty telegraphs each day, and ten to twenty on less busy days. Important telegraphs were also printed in large, bold fonts that called for attention. Since there were numerous telegraphs, editors would often categorize them into groups such as “exclusive,” “foreign,” “public announcements,” etc. As exclusive telegraphs were often most timely, they were the most popular. Events that occurred in places such as Beijing, Tianjin, Wuhan, and Guangzhou, could be seen on Shanghai newspapers on the second

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or third day. For example, the Shanghai Republic Daily Tribune had an exclusive telegraph “Yuan Shikai Was Dead” on the day after the event. As telegraphs were widely used as a news genre, telegraph writing became more sophisticated and telegraphs were brief and accurate. For example, the Eastern Times had an exclusive telegraph on February 20, 1918 that read, “This morning [19th] at 10 o’clock, Feng [Guozhang], went to Tian Wenlie’s home personally to persuade him to join the cabinet. Tian declined. Wang [Shizhen] remained in position.” All news elements were present in the short line. In order to save on the telegraph costs, all exclusive telegraphs were direct with no build up, comments, or artistic styles. Newspapers with stronger political inclination mainly expressed their stances through the selection of news or in narration details. Newspapers competed with one another for the most and fastest exclusive telegraphs. Since telegraphs were expensive, some newspapers with less capital resorted to counterfeiting or stealing telegraphs. This became a common trend in the newspaper industry. Many “exclusive telegraphs” in newspapers, especially those listed as from Beijing, actually came from the editorial board. Hu Zheng, who had participated in journalism since the Early Republic period, recalled “At that time, telegraph centers existed in the head of the main writer. As people grouped to discuss, a size-two font telegraph appeared.”24 Some newspapers also counterfeited telegraphs between major political personalities in order to fill their pages. The Guangzhou Seventy-two Merchants Post mimicked Nao Hanxiang (Li Yuanhong’s secretary) and forged more than 10 telegraphs on national affairs from “Li Yuanhong.” The papers were eventually fined when the truth was discovered. On the other hand, bribing the telegraphers at the telegraph posts and intercepting signals were the most common ways to steal telegraphs. As many newspapers could not afford the large telegraph expenses, the Provisional Government agreed to the industry’s request to lower telegraph and postage fees for news. Telegraph licenses were given out to newspapers. Revoking this license became one of the ways which warlords used to persecute newspapers. During this period, the rich and powerful promoted themselves through telegraphs, resulting in frequent “telegraph feuds.” Most of these telegraphs were official articles with a bureaucratic tone. It was a common sight for them to fill the pages of newspapers. “Presidential Orders” were also printed in conspicuous spaces in newspapers and were like decrees in the late Qing period. With the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the rapid development of telegraphs, the ancient capital gazette lost its ground for survival and disappeared with Yuan Shikai’s failed restoration. Other forms of news were also valued. China’s industry and commerce

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developed quickly during World War I, and under such influence, many newspapers strengthened their reports on economic and commercial news. At the same time, in order to meet the needs of the bureaucrats, comprador bourgeoisie, and the backward citizens, many newspapers published erotic news or inside stories of a tasteless nature. Erotic news had long existed but it became more prevalent during this period. Tabloids, and even some broadsheets in Beijing, had “News of the Flower Industry” columns that reported on occurrences in the redlight districts in Beijing. Inside stories were also common, and Journal on Current Affairs was the first to publish them. The newspaper set up the column “Shady Shanghai Stories” in 1916 and published many inside stories of criminal activities without criticism. This attracted a lot of readers and prompted other newspapers to follow suit. News correspondences were also generally welcomed and viewed with great importance. Narrative, expository, and commentary correspondence on political affairs were hugely popular. Political events, news from the National Assembly, speeches of important politicians, as well as party struggles were all included in correspondences. Many correspondences were written in the first person and mixed narration and commentary. The vivid recounting of events was well received by readers. In order to improve on their news reports and correspondences, larger regional newspapers had an Interview Department. Newspapers had local journalists and foreign correspondents, and also competed to hire famous journalists to be stationed in Beijing. Large-scale Shanghai newspapers such as Shun Pao , News Daily , and Eastern Times were willing to spend large amounts of money to recruit Beijing correspondents such as Huang Yuansheng, Shao Piaoping, and Zhang Jiluan, to write about central politics. These correspondents stationed in Beijing were mostly former overseas students in Japan who had received modernized education. They had good foundations in both Chinese and English knowledge, and had good writing skills and adaptation ability. They demonstrated their talents in journalism soon after they were employed. Socializing with the rich and the powerful, they were active participants in the social life in Beijing, and had a deep understanding of the Beijing political field. They could often provide important exclusive news for their newspapers, and help in sales. With their influence, the social status of journalists was raised and the profession gained more public attention. During this period, Chinese newspapers also had a gradual increase in their interest in foreign news. The number of published foreign telegraphs rose. For

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example, on November 10, 1917, three days after the October Revolution broke out, the Beijing Morning Bell Post and Shanghai Republic Daily Tribune reported

on the news with a big headline. These foreign telegraphs were often translated

from foreign newspapers or were articles from a foreign news agency. In order to strengthen their reporting on international news, some large-scale newspapers

also sent correspondents to follow stories overseas. In 1918, Hu Zhengzhi visited

the Paris Peace Conference as a foreign correspondent of Tianjin Ta Kung Pao . He

was the only Chinese journalist at the conference. He travelled around Europe for two years after the conference, and wrote many pieces of foreign correspondence.

In order to meet the increased demand for news reports, news agencies also

developed rapidly during this period. After the exponential growth of news agencies in the first year of the Republic, another heyday occurred in 1916 after the

fall of Yuan Shikai. More than 10 news agencies including the Livelihood News

Agency (Minsheng tongxunshe 民生通訊社 ), Northern News Agency (Beifang tongxunshe 北方通訊社 ), News Editing Society (Xinwen bianyishe 新聞編譯社 ), Huaying Asia News Agency (Huaying Yaxiya tongxunshe 華英亞細亞通訊社 ), and the Journalistic Traffic News Agency in Beijing; the National News Agency (Guomin tongxunshe 國民通訊社 ) in Shanghai; Lingnan News Agency (Lingnan tongxunshe 嶺南通訊社 ) in Guangzhou; Wuhan News Agency (Wuhan tongxunshe 武漢通訊社 ) in Wuhan; as well as Central News Agency (Dazhong tongxunshe 大中通訊社 ) and Zhonghua News Agency (Zhonghua tongxunshe 中華通訊社 ) in Changsha, were set up in this period. Most of them had political backgrounds and were sustained by the subsidies of officials and political parties. Similar to the news agencies in the first two years of the Republic, most of them were small in scale. The News Editing Society established by Shao Piaoping in August 1916 was a comparatively independent agency. It was located on Zhuchao Street in northern Beijing. It sent out articles at around seven in the evening each day — by mail for distant regions, by bicycle if within the city. It had both news stories of its own and translated foreign telegraphs. “Every day, there were one or two articles that would be wellreceived.”25

The development of supplements and the spate of romance fiction Newspaper supplements had continued to develop in the Early Republic period

and during the reign of the Beiyang warlords. As a crucial means of attracting readers, the importance of supplements was indisputable. Most newspapers

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had supplements or columns of a similar nature by then. Examples included Free Talk of Shun Pao ; Humor from the Village , and Happy Woods of News Daily , Divertissement and Little Eastern Times of Eastern Times ; Academic Light of Journal on Current Affairs ; Literature of The Pacific News ; Republic Gossip , Republic Novel , and Awareness of Republic Daily News ; Leisure Records of Beijing Daily ; All Directions of Odes of the State Daily ; as well as Little Beijing Post of Beijing Post . Among them, the Free Talk of Shun Pao was established on August 24, 1911 and it stopped publication on November 1, 1935. It was revived on October 10, 1938 and publication finally stopped on April 24, 1949. It was the longest running newspaper supplement with a relatively large influence. The Happy Woods of News Daily was renamed from the Humor from the Village on August 16, 1914. It also had a certain influence and competed with the Free Talk . During the 1911 Revolution, the bourgeois revolutionary newspapers had publicized the democratic revolution through literature, thus altering the purely entertainment purpose of supplements. However, since the revolutionary spirit of many newspapermen diminished after the 1911 Revolution, together with the persecution of the publication industry by Yuan Shikai and Beiyang warlords, the revolutionary characteristics in supplements had been obviously weakened. Supplements were soon filled with romantic fiction. The Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies was a literary genre that appeared in the half-colonial, half-feudal society. It was mainly based in Shanghai, and the authors of the genre were usually well-educated intellectuals who were familiar with life in the West. Quite a few of them were members of the South Society. The South Society was originally a literary group that had publicized the democratic revolution. After the establishment of the Republic of China, its number of members jumped from 200 to 1,188. With members from different backgrounds, only the minority continued to fight for a revolution and express their anti-Yuan political views through essays, poems, and novels. Most members were disappointed by the despotic rule of the warlords, and began to live a hedonistic lifestyle, engaging in literature only for entertainment. They were enthusiastic in writing romance, and produced a large amount of emotional novels that could be passionate, bittersweet, tragic, fantastic, funny, thrilling, erotic, and melodramatic at times. These romance novels used extravagant and flowery words to describe the love between scholars and beauties, as if they were “a pair of butterflies or Mandarin ducks, and would never part.” 26 Although these novels were partially progressive in that they promoted free love, they

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were more catered to the low tastes of the commoners and had little value as literature. They became popular quickly as many supplement editors were

writers of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre, and the general public and intellectual youths welcomed them.

Although romantic novels could already be found in supplements during

the Qing Dynasty, it was generally agreed that the supplement of the People’s

Right Post was the origin of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre. People’s Right Post published three printed sheets each day, and the unnamed supplement took up an entire page. Jiang Zhuchao and Wu Shuangre were the chief editors. It had columns such as “Fantasy,” “Modern and Ancient Text,” “Burning Grass,” “Mirror,” “All Walks of Life,” “Humor,” “Liberty Bell,” “Ocean Tales,” and “Flowers.” Other than some essays and notes, it mostly contained serialized novels. Some were anti-Yuan satires, but most were romances such as Xu Zhenya's Soul of the Jade Pear (Yu li hun 玉梨魂 ), Wu Shuangre's Mirror of Sin and Injustice (Nieyuan jing 孽冤鏡 ) and The Tragedy of Lady Lan (Lanniang aishi 蘭娘哀史 ), as well as Li Dingyi's Grief of Heavenly Jade (Xiaoyu yuan 霄玉怨 ) and Beauteous Disaster (Hongfen jie 紅粉劫 ). These romantic novels were written in couplets and ornate classical Chinese, and were the first batch of representative works of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre. Xu Zhenya’s Soul of the Jade Pear was the classic of the genre. Other writers, including Liu Tieleng, Hu Yixu, Shen Dongna, Ni Haosen, Chen Wuwo, Shen Ganruo, Zhang Mingfei, Guang Yihua, and Yang Chenyin, often contributed similar works to the People’s Right Post supplement. When People’s Right Post was forced to cease publication since it could not be legally mailed, Jiang Zhuchao and Liu Tieleng established the monthly People’s Rights Elements on April 25, 1914. It had columns such as “Classics,” “Literature,” “Travel Journal,” “Poems,” “Novels,” “Discussions,” and “Operas” that published literary works. The “Novels” column took up a large space and serialized mainly romantic novels. Publication of the monthly periodical continued for 17 issues until April 1916. People’s Rights Elements was the literary base of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre during the period. After the end of People’s Right Post , the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre was also featured prominently in the following supplements:

Free Talk of Shun Pao The supplement had columns such as “Entertaining Articles,” “Sudden Thoughts,” “Smile at It,” “Foreign Tales,” “Outrageous,” “To Make You Laugh,” and

“Sorrowful Romance.” It published fiction, poems, and notes, and also serialized

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fiction such as Pearly Tears (Leizhu yuan 淚珠緣 ), Web of Love (Qingwang zhusi 情網蛛絲 ), Garden of Flowers (Man yuan hua 滿園花 ), Mirror Reflecting Good and Bad (Yanchi jing 妍媸鏡 ), and Sober among Drunks (Zhongzui duxing 眾醉 獨醒 ). These were all novels related to the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre. The first chief editor Wang Dungen (courtesy name Gengpei), was a South Society member from Jiangsu. He had established the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies journal Saturday (Libailiu 禮拜六 ) in 1914 and was an important contributor of the genre. Chen Diexian took over the position of chief editor of Free Talk in 1915. The position was then taken over by Zhou Shoujuan in 1920 and remained unchanged until 1932. Free Talk remained an important base of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre throughout the entire period.

Happy Woods of News Daily The supplement was renamed from Humor from the Village in 1914, with Zhang Danfu and Yan Duhe as the chief editors. Major writers included Li Hanqiu, Xiang Kairan, Cheng Zhanlu, Zhu Fengyin, Miao Zeijun, Lu Lüxi, Liu Shannong, Cao Xiujun, Xu Shoudie, Fan Yanqiao, Xu Zhiyan, and Wang Xishen. Serialized novels such as Romance of the Knight-Errant and the Phoenix (Xiafeng qiyuan 俠鳳奇緣 ), Person in the Mirror (Jingzhongren zhuan 鏡中人傳 ), Jade and the Golden Cup (Yukuai jinbei lu 玉塊金杯錄 ), and The Paired Swords (Yuanyangjian tanci 鴛鴦劍 彈詞 ) were also representative works of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre.

Divertissement, Little Eastern Times, and page four of Eastern Times The main writers included Bao Tianxiao, Bi Yihong, Zhou Shoujuan, and Fan Yanqiao. Bao Tianxiao, with courtesy name Langsun, was the chief editor. He was also a member of the South Society and a contributor to the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre. In addition, the supplements of Collective Strength (Qunqiang bao 群強報 ) in Beijing; Tianjin Morning Post (Tianjin Chenbao 天津晨報 ), Ji Post (Ji bao 既報 ), Noon Post (Wu bao 午報 ), and National Power (Guoqiang bao 國強報 ) in Tianjin; Min Li Pao , The National Herald , and Journal on Current Affairs in Shanghai; as well as National Chinese Post in Guangzhou, had also published works of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies genre. Some literary tabloids such as Crystal Post (Jing bao 晶報 ), New World Post (Xin shijie bao 新世界報 ), and Diamond also published many Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies novels. Since these novels attracted a large amount of readers in major cities like Shanghai, a wave of literary periodicals dedicated to the genre

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appeared. More than 60 were established in succession, with examples including Novel Times , Saturday , Amuse Magazine (Youxi zazhi 遊戲雜誌 ), New Novel Post (Xiaoshuo xinbao 小說新報 ), The Grand Magazine (Xiaoshuo daguan 小說大觀 ), Novel Magazine (Xiaoshuo congbao 小說叢報 ), Sea of Novel (Xiaoshuo hai 小說海 ), Eyebrow (Meiyu 眉語 ), Monthly Fiction , Pictorial Drama (Tuhua ju bao 圖畫劇報 ), New Drama Magazine (Xinju zazhi 新劇雜誌 ). Other than romantic novels, newspaper supplements and literary magazines of the period also published novels with themes such as society, crime, Wuxia , fantasy, detective fiction, humor, stories of life in the palace, military matters, family interest, prostitution, and history. These novels might include anecdotes and personal experience, but only a few were realistic and practical. Other than novels, reviews of artistic works and the accompanying notes were also published in the supplements. After the fall of Yuan Shikai and World War I, some aggressive democrats and patriots began to think about the global situation and the future of China. Many youth became more concerned with new ideology and knowledge, but there were few available books and magazines on such topics. Thus, a few newspaper supplements took up the job and introduced academic viewpoints, discussed intellectual problems, and taught cultural knowledge. The Republic Daily News cancelled their recreational supplements Republic Gossip and Republic Novel on June 16, 1916 and replaced them with an informative supplement Awareness . Journal on Current Affairs also established the supplement Academic Light that introduced academic culture on March 4, 1918. Although there were not many such supplements during this period, they gradually developed into influential supplements during the New Culture Movement and May Fourth Movement.

The improvement and development of photographic, pictorial, and comical journalism The number of journalistic photographs in newspapers reached a historic peak in the two months after the outbreak of the 1911 Revolution. The number of photographs then gradually fell back to a normal standard when the Republic of China was established. Shun Pao published a total of 18 photographs between January and March in 1912, averaging one photograph every five days. This rate was still higher than before the revolution. By that time, the value of photojournalism had been recognized by many, and all newspapers which could afford it used photographs to enrich their content. Some newspapers also posted advertisements calling for public contribution of photographs, while others

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attracted readers by promising to publish photographs every day. This new phenomenon proved that photojournalism had become a part of newspapers.

The Commercial Press was the first to collect photographs from the 1911

Revolution and to publish “Revolutionary Commemorative Postcards.” More

than 300 issues were published by April 1912. Content included portraits of famous newspapermen; the battle records of militias; the flag of the Republic of

China; photographs from the memorial, celebration, welcoming, and farewell events related to the revolution; as well as photographs depicting news events

such as the Beijing bombing, Sun Yat-sen paying respects to the Ming Mausoleum as president, Cai E leaving for northern China, Yuan Shikai’s presidential inauguration, and the coup of Tianjin and Beijing. With this foundation, The

Commercial Press further published 14 volumes of Photograph Collection of the Great Revolution (Da geming xiezhen ji 大革命寫真集 ) with 40 to 50 photographs in each volume. It was an important historic publication on the 1911 Revolution. On June 5, 1912, The True Record (Zhenxiang huabao 真相畫報 ) was established in Shanghai with Chinese Revolutionary Alliance member Gao Qifeng as the chief editor. Its mission was to uncover the truths of the Republic, thus the publication was comparatively timely. It was a ten-day journal printed in sixteenmo, and photographs, commentaries, and illustrations each occupied one third of the content. The photographs were further categorized into “current affairs,” “geography,” and “famous sights.” The True Record published quite a number of important journalistic photographs in the Early Republic period. For example, it followed the case of Song Jiaoren’s assassination closely, and condemned Yuan Shikai harshly with aggressive wordings. Some of the photographs published by the journal were contributions from the China Photography Team. China Photography Team was a team organized by Gao Jianfu under the orders of Sun Yat-sen after the establishment of the Republic. They were responsible for recording wars as well as the activities of the Provisional Government. Gao Jianfu and Gao Qifeng were brothers, thus the China Photography Team had a close relationship with The True Record , and the team was like the journalistic department of the journal. When Yuan Shikai came into power, the China Photography Team — the first official photography team in Chinese history — was disbanded. In spring 1913, publication of The True Record ceased after 17 issues and Gao Qifeng fled to Japan. Gao Qifeng was a pioneer in Chinese photojournalism, just as The True Record was the pioneer of Chinese photographic magazines. Sincere Post (Chen bao 誠報 ) was established in July 1916 during World War I.

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It was a semi-monthly journal that reported on the war in Europe. Two large sheets and four pages were printed each issue. It defied tradition in the sense that

it did not publish any written articles and only published one to six photographs

each issue. Extra-large photographs would span across two pages. The captions

were brief and simple, replying on the photograph to describe the war. Sincere Post was a Chinese newspaper established by an Englishman living in Shanghai. It was printed in London then delivered back to China for publication. As the journal targeted Chinese readers, more than 30 photographs on China-related issues of the war were selected. Examples included “Chinese Students Traveling the Battlegrounds in Western Europe,” “Chinese Working in the French Military,” and “Chinese Soldiers Entering the French Concession.” Publication ceased after the end of World War I with 66 published issues. It was the first photojournalistic journal published in the style of a newspaper. Although Chinese periodicals had quite a lot of reports on World War I, there were few published photographs on the event. In other to bring the truth of war to the public, the publication industry had collected and printed a few photographic collections on the war. They included: Photographs of the European War (Ouzhou zhan ying 歐洲戰影 ) was published in December 1914. It was edited by the Society of the European War, and published by the Zhonghua Book Company. It was printed in sixteenmo and contained 400 war photographs. The volume one of European War Photographic Collection (Ouzhou xiezhen hua 歐洲寫真畫 ) was first published in December 1915. The book was edited by Zhang Ying and published by The Commercial Press. The first volume had 48 pages, contained 123 portraits of Generals and war photographs. Photographs of the Lives of Prisoners of War in 1919 (Zhonghua Minguo banian fulu qiju xiezhen 中華民國八年俘虜起居寫真 ) was edited and published by the Prisoners of War Intelligence Agency in 1919. It was printed in eightmo in two volumes. After China participated in World War I, Allies soldiers were granted right of asylum in China, and brought prisoners of war with them. The book collected over 240 photographs depicting the daily lives of Germany, Austria, and Hungary prisoners of war in asylums in Beijing, Nanjing, Jilin, and Heilongjiang. These photograph collections had contributed in helping the Chinese people understand the outside world and the World War I. There were many Chinese overseas students, overseas Chinese, and Chinese participants of war involved in the World War I. Some of them took photographs of the war and submitted their works to overseas publications. Guo Chengzhi

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was one such famous active photographer. Guo was an overseas student in United States and a Master in Chemistry. When the war in Europe broke out, Guo immediately went to the frontline and took photographs that were “published by both Chinese and foreign periodicals. Foreigners recognized him as a famous photographer.”27 During this period, more themes began to be covered by photojournalism, and photograph collections that reflected social problems and personal activities were published. Examples included Photographs of the Red Cross in War Zones (Hongshizi hui zhandi xiezhen 紅十字會戰地寫真 ) which depicted the work of medical staff during the 1911 Revolution, Photographs of School Results (Xuexiao chengji xiezhen 學校成績寫真 ) which contrasted abandoned and newly-built schools, Photographs of Epidemic Prevention in Harbin by Fu Jiadian (Ha’erbin Fu Jiadian fangyi sheying 哈爾濱傅家甸防疫攝影 ) which recorded the preventive work of the plague in 1911 Harbin, as well as the Photographs from Mr. Sun Yat-sen’s Trip to Japan (Sun Wen xiansheng dongyou jinian xiezhen tie 孫文先生東遊紀念寫真 帖 ). Such collections were first seen in this period. Other than publishing journalistic photographs, newspapers which could afford it also placed a heavy emphasis on illustrations. Some newspapers even published pictorial supplements on a regular schedule. Satirical and humorous comics contributed greatly to the message of a periodical, and many excellent works were created. Moreover, some newspapers added decorative pictures in their columns and headlines. The Pacific News and People’s Right Post in Shanghai, as well as Public Opinion Post in Tianjin were perhaps the best newspapers in this aspect. This action also showed that artistic editors were already included on their editorial boards.28

The beginning of journalistic film footage The motion picture was developed when photographs of movement were integrated with slide shows. The first film was recorded in Leeds, United Kingdom in 1888. At first, films were only fragments of moving pictures and were silent before the 1920s. However, since film could capture life as it happened, it was used to record significant events. Journalistic documentaries thus became a new medium in the journalism industry. The first film in China was shown on August 11, 1896 in Shanghai as “Western shadow play.” This was the beginning of movie shows in China. From then on, French, American, British, Spanish, and Italian merchants rushed to bring movies to China, and the exhibitors made huge profits from such shows. After

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the invasion of the Eight-Nation Alliance, opium parlors in Beijing also began to show foreign movies in 1902. From then on, foreign movies began to enjoy a long monopoly in the movie market. The first documentary that featured Chinese people as the main subject was Li Hongzhang in New York , which was filmed by the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in 1896. The film documented some of Li Hongzhang’s activities in New York, including his visit to Grant’s Tomb, and his travels down Fourth Avenue and Broadway in a car. Although the film was made by a commercial company, it also reflected America’s friendly policy towards high ranking officials in China. Foreigners first came to China to film in 1898. The first documentary recorded the scenic sights in Hong Kong, Macau, Guangzhou, and Shanghai, and depicted images such as streets, buildings, piers, rivers, business delegations, and policemen. It was filmed by the Edison Studios. Foreign filming in China became more frequent not long after, as imperialistic invasion of China grew in strength. There were two waves of documentaries prompted by the Eight-Nation Alliance and the Russo-Japanese War, respectively. The first wave was brought about by the Eight-Nation Alliance’s attack on Beijing in 1900. At that time, the Japanese, French, American, and British directors that were following the army shot footage to produce multiple journalistic documentaries. Examples of these included Gengzi Incident by Tsunekichi Shibata of the Mitsukoshi Department Store, Le Congrès des Nations en Chine (China Versus the Allied Powers ) by Georges Méliès, 6th Cavalry Assaulting South Gate of Pekin by the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, as well as Attack on a China Mission by James Williamson. These films were recorded from the foreign perspectives. For example, the 6th Cavalry Assaulting South Gate of Pekin promoted the “bravery” of the 6th Cavalry of the American Army. Some of the scenes were also reenacted. In fact, Attack on a China Mission was a dramatized documentary filmed in the garden of the director. Such films distorted reality to justify the invasion. The Russo-Japanese War in 1904 brought another wave of foreign filmmakers to China. There were Japanese, American, and French directors filming documentaries on the war in China. Lu Xun saw one of these films when he was studying medicine in Sendai, Japan. He was shocked at the film’s depictions of innocent Chinese being killed while onlookers watched with passivity, as well as at the loud cheering of the Japanese audience of the film. He thus gave up medicine and vowed to awaken his fellow citizens.

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Other than the aforementioned films, some foreigners also filmed documentaries such as Train Arriving at Tianjin Station , Traveling on the Beijing Grand Canal , and Modern China in the early twentieth century. Among them, the Italian Enrico Lauro spent the longest time filming in China. After arriving in China in 1907, he focused on showing and filming movies, and he made documentaries such as Il primo tram di Shanghai (Shanghai’s First Tramway ) and Funerali imperiali Imperial (Funeral Procession in Peking ). He also filmed the Cutting Queues by Force after the 1911 Revolution. These documentaries filmed by foreigners were mostly brief, and focused on the darker side of China. Although they did not reflect the whole picture, they provided valuable historical data of the period. For example, Umeya Shokichi filmed the documentary Fragments of the 1911 Revolution that contained valuable footage of the event. Under the stimulation of foreign films and filming activities, a small number of Chinese also started to make movies in the early twentieth century. The first movie filmed by Chinese filmmakers was an opera documentary by Beijing’s Fengtai Photography company in 1905. It contained three sections of the Beijing Opera The Battle of Dingjunshan performed by the famous actor Tan Xinpei. On the other hand, The Battle of Wuhan (Wuhan zhanzheng 武漢戰爭 ) filmed in 1911 by the magician Zhu Liankui was the first Chinese newsreel. Zhu was performing in Wuhan when the Wuchang Uprising broke out. In order to record this historic event, Zhu cooperated with a foreign company and risked his life to film on the frontlines. He recorded a few important battles of the militia and witnessed their bravery. The film was then edited in Shanghai and first shown to the public on December 1, 1911 together with acrobatic shows, in Moudeli Cinema at Nanjing Road in Shanghai. It was wildly popular with audiences as it depicted the historic event of the Wuchang Uprising. War of Shanghai (Shanghai zhanzheng 上海戰爭 ) produced by the Asia Film Company in 1913, was another early and important Chinese newsreel. The film documented the Shanghai militia surrounding the Gaochangmiao Manufacturing plant as well as the military activities at Wu Song Fort during the Second Revolution. The newsreel was shown for three days at Xinxin Cinema together with the short movie The Difficult Couple (Nanfu nanqi 難夫難妻 ) On September 29 of the same year. There was a rave response and the newsreel was called an unprecedented film on life. Chinese newsreels were deeply connected with the bourgeoisie revolution and they were used as both ways to generate profits as well as tools to create political publicity. The Chinese movie industry became more formalized when The Commercial

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Press established a movie department. The photography department of The Commercial Press had engaged in filming as early as in 1917, and the photographer Ye Xiangrong produced some newsreels such as The Shanghai Parade of the American Red Cross (Meiguo Hongshizi hui Shanghai da youxing 美國紅十字會上海大遊行 ), Leaving Work at The Commercial Press (Shangwuyin shuguan fanggong 商務印書館放工 ), Complete View of The Commercial Press Printing House (Shangwu yinshuasuo quan jing 商務印刷所全景 ), and Burning Residue Opium in Shanghai (Shanghai fenhui cuntu 上海焚毀存土 ). The Commercial Press also sent Bao Qingjia to study the printing and film businesses in the United States. He set up the movie department when he returned in 1918, and the company began to plan their productions. The Commercial Press petitioned the Beiyang government in April 1919, requesting that movie making activities be tax-free. The petition stated the importance of the Chinese film industry, and expressed the opinion that foreign movies shown in China were “frivolous and bad for public thought,” and foreigners’ films of China often “focused on the bad parts of our society, so as to laugh at us.” Thus, Chinese people should make their own movies in various provinces, so as to “resist immoral foreign films and help educate the general public. Chinese movies should also be sold overseas to spread our culture, lessen foreigners’ contempt of our country, and promote patriotism among overseas Chinese.29 This petition reflected the idea that the bourgeois intellectuals recognized the political, national, publicity, and educational importance of movies. The films produced by The Commercial Press were divided into the five main categories of “Scenery,” “Current Affairs,” “Education,” “Modern Drama,” and “Historical Drama.” They were all educational to a certain extent and helped to raise the citizens’ cultural knowledge. Scenic films such as Shanghai Longhua ( 上 海 龍 華 ), Zhejiang Tides (Zhejiang chao 浙 江 潮 ), Beijing Attractions (Beijing minsheng 北京民勝 ), and Putuo Scenery (Putuo fengjing 普陀風景 ), introduced the natural landscape and culture of the country. The newsreels The Victory Parade of the European War (Ouzhan zhusheng youxing 歐戰祝勝遊行 ), The Six Oriental University Games (Dongfang liudaxue yundonghui 東方六大學運動會 ), and Warship Inauguration (Junjian xiashui 軍艦下水 ), as well as the educational films Overview of Female Sports (Nüzi tiyuguan 女子體育觀 ), Education of Children with Visual Impairments (Mangtong jiaoyu 盲童教育 ), and Meizhen Kindergarten (Meizhen youzhiyuan 美真幼稚園 ), all had news value. Their content was more serious and could educate the public and enrich the people’s general knowledge. The films provided a good start for the Chinese news documentary industry.

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Notes Chapter 6 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

12.

13.

14. 15. 16.

This was dated according to the June 24, 1905 entry in Song Jiaoren’s diaries. The actual date printed on the newspaper journal was June 1, 1905. The Yellow Emperor calendar took the year in which the legendary Chinese sovereign Yellow Emperor became king to be the first year of the calendar. It was used by revolutionary organizations which were opposed to the use of imperialistic Chinese era names. Year 1 in the Yellow Emperor calendar was the same as 2698 BC.—Ed. Song Jiaoren 宋教仁, diary, 27, 28, and 30 August 1905, in Song Jiaoren ji 宋教仁集 (Song Jiaoren Collection), ed. Chen Xulu, (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1981) 551–553. Vladimir Lenin, Liening quanji 列寧全集 (The Complete Collection of Lenin), Vol. 21, (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1990) 427. Liang Qichao 梁啟超 to Jiang Guanyun 蔣觀雲, letter, 1906, in Liang Qichao nianpu changbian 梁 啟超年譜長編 (A Chronicle of Liang Qichao), ed. Ding Wenjiang and Zhao Fengtian, (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1983) 365-366. Ibid. Liang Qichao 梁啟超 [Yinbing 飲冰, pseud.], “Kaiming zhuanzhilun” 開明專制論 (Enlightened Autocracy), New Citizen Journal , 75 (February 1906). Ibid. Liang Qichao 梁啟超 [Yinbing飲冰, pseud.], “Shehuigeming guowei jinrizhongguo suo biyao hu” 社會 革命果為今日中國所必要乎 (Is Social Revolution Really Needed in Today’s China?), New Citizen Journal , 86 (September 1906). Ibid. Liang Qichao 梁啟超 to Kang Youwei 康有為, letter, December 1906, in Liang Qichao nianpu changbian 梁啟超年譜長編 (A Chronicle of Liang Qichao), ed. Ding Wenjiang and Zhao Fengtian, (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1983) 373. Huang Yuzhi 黃與之, “Lunzhongguo xianzaizhi dangpai ji jianglaizhi zhengdang” 論中國現在之黨 派及將來之政黨 (On Today’s Chinese Factions and Future Political Parties), New Citizen Journal , 92 (March 1907). Gao Liangzuo 高良佐, “Kaiguoqian geming yu lixian zhi lunzhan” 開國前革命與立憲之論 戰 (Polemics between Revolution and Constitutional Reform before the Establishment of the State), Jianguoyuekan 建國月刊 (Journal of State Establishment) Vol. 8, 6: 3. Hen Hai 恨海 [pseud.] “Laihan” 來函 (Letters), The People’s Tribune , 5 (June 1906). Modern Chinese Historical Manuscript Editorial Board. Jindai zhongguo shigao 近代中國史稿 (Modern Chinese Historical Manuscript), Vol. 2, (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1976) 776. According to No. 2478 of Qing Dynasty Foreign Affairs Department Documents (Qing waiwubu dang 清外務部檔), a telegraph was sent to Abe Moritaro on September 4, 1907 demanding the Japanese government to ban seven periodicals and two pamphlets: The Minpao Magazine , Dongting Lake Wave (Dongtingbo 洞庭波), Heavenly Justice Tribune (Tianyibao 天義報), Restoration Tribune (Fubao 復 報), River (Dajiang 大江), Han Flag (Hanzhi 漢幟), Cry of the Cuckoo (Juensheng 鵑聲), Anarchism (Wuzhengfu zhuyi 無政府主義), New Anti-Qing Proposals (Xinmieqingzhongce 新滅清種策); Jiang Yihua 姜義華, Zhang Taiyan sixiang yanjiu 章太炎思想研究 (Research on Zhang Taiyan’s Thoughts), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1985) 271.

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Notes

17. There was no date printed on the original journal, the date was estimated according to the content of the issue. 18. “Juansheng zaixing fakanci” 鵑聲再興發刊詞 (Inaugural Address of the Republishing of Cry of the Cuckoo ), Cry of the Cuckoo , 1907. 19. Han Er 悍兒 [pseud.], “Han Er zhi yanshizhuyi” 悍兒之厭世主義 (Han Er’s Nihilism), Henan Journal , 7 (August 5, 1908). 20. Feng Ziyou 馮自由, Gemingyishi 革命逸史 (An Informal History of Revolution), (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983) 174. 21. Nangokuki (Southern Countries Chronicles) was a book written by Takekoshi Yosaburo and published in 1910. Tian Tong translated and published it in Sibin Daily . 22. China History Society, Xinhai geming 辛亥革命 (1911 Revolution), Vol. 8, (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1957) 349. 23. Xu Yongping 徐詠平, Geming baoren bieji 革命報人別記 (Records of Revolutionary Journalists), (New Tapei City: Cheng Chung Group) 27–28. 24. Ibid., 28. 25. Ibid., 248. 26. Sheng Gong was an important monk in Chinese Buddhism named Zhu Tao-sheng. It was rumored that Zhu Tao-sheng managed to convert a stone to Buddhism. Tianmin (lit. citizen of the sky), can either refer to a sage or a commoner. —Ed. 27. Feng Aiqun 馮愛群 , Huaqiao baoye shi 華僑報業史 (The History of Newspapers of Overseas Chinese), (Taipei: The Student Book Company) 98. 28. Feng Ziyou 馮自由, Gemingyishi 革命逸史 (An Informal History of Revolution), Vol. 4, (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983) 134. 29. Ibid., 4: 133. 30. The Boycott refers to the Chinese Boycott of 1905, where Chinese merchants boycotted American products in response to the mistreatment of Chinese immigrants in the United States. —Ed. 31. Ding Wenjiang and Zhao Fengtian ed. 丁文江，趙豐田編, Liang Qichao nianpu changbian 梁啟 超年譜長編 (A Chronicle of Liang Qichao), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1983) 359–360. 32. Feng Ziyou 馮自由, Huaqiao geming kaiguoshi 華僑革命開國史 (A History of Overseas Chinese’s Establishment of Country through Revolution), (Taipei: The Commercial Press, 1947), 72. 33. Guo Liang 郭梁, “Haiwai huaqiao dui Xinhaigeming de gongxian” 海外華僑對辛亥革命的貢獻 (Overseas Chinese’s contribution in 1911 revolution), Guangming Daily 光明日報, April 6, 1978. 34. A juren (recommended man) was someone who had passed the provincial-level part of the imperial examination and was eligible for the national-level examinations. —Ed. 35. Fu Dehua ed. 傅德華編, Yu Youren Xinhai geming wenji 于右任辛亥革命文集 (Collection of Yu Youren’s Works in the 1911 Revolution), (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 1986), 260. 36. Ibid., 259. 37. Gu Changlin 谷長嶺. “Shenzhou ribao ” 神州日報 (1907年7月–1911年6月) (The National Herald , July 1907–June 1911), in Xinhai geming shiqi qikan jieshao 辛亥革命時期期刊介紹 (Introduction of Revolutionary Publications during the 1911 Revolution), Vol.3, edited by Ding Shouhe, (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1983), 386. 38. Fu Dehua ed. 傅德華編, Yu Youren Xinhai geming wenji 于右任辛亥革命文集 (Collection of Yu Youren’s Works in the 1911 Revolution), (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 1986), 259. 39. Published in The National Herald on April 12, 1908.

216

Notes

40. Fu Dehua ed. 傅德華編, Yu Youren Xinhai geming wenji 于右任辛亥革命文集 (Collection of Yu Youren’s Works in the 1911 Revolution), (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 1986), 260; Taipei Yu Youren Memorial ed. Yu Youren xiansheng nianpu 于右任先生年譜 (The Timeline of Mr. Yu Youren), (Taipei: Shaanxi Association in Taipei, 1969), 20. 41. Feng Ziyou 馮自由, Gemingyishi 革命逸史 (An Informal History of Revolution), Vol. 3, (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983) 314. 42. Ibid., 315–317. 43. Fu Dehua ed. 傅德華編, Yu Youren Xinhai geming wenji 于右任辛亥革命文集 (Collection of Yu Youren’s Works in the 1911 Revolution), (Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 1986), 260. 44. “Shirenshi xiangbi er lai” 時人事相逼而來 (The Coming of Era, People, and Affairs). Min Hu Pao 民呼 報, August 3, 1909. 45. Feng Ziyou 馮自由, Gemingyishi 革命逸史 (An Informal History of Revolution), Vol. 5, (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1983) 98. 46. “Lun maiguozei” 論賣國賊 (On Traitors). Ke bao 可報 (Yes Post), April 14, 1911. 47. “Nianshiji junguo minbao bianyan” 《廿世紀軍國民報》弁言 (Preamble of Twentieth Century Militarism Post ), Nianshiji junguo minbao 廿世紀軍國民報 (Twentieth Century Militarism Post), November 13, 1907. 48. “Zhengwenshe xuanyanshu” 政聞社宣言書 (Manifesto of Political News Agency) Zhenglun 政論 (Political Discussion), October 1907. 49. Ding Wenjiang and Zhao Fengtian ed. 丁文江、趙豐田編, Liang Qichao nianpu changbian 梁啟超 年譜長編 (A Chronicle of Liang Qichao), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1983) 468. 50. Ibid., 483. 51. “Guofeng bao chuban guanggao” 《國風報》出版廣告 (Advertisement for the Publication of Odes of the State Post ), Shun Pao 申報, February 20, 1910. 52. Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Li baojie huanyinghui yanshuoci” 蒞報界歡迎會演說辭 (Speech to the Journalism Welcoming Party), The Justice 庸言, 1 (December 1912). 53. Li Mo 李默. “Xinhai geming shiqi Guangdong baokanlu” 辛亥革命時期廣東報刊錄 (Records of Guangdong Periodicals during the 1911 Revolution), Xinwen yanjiu zhiliao 新聞研究資料 (News Study Materials), 1. 54. Ding Wenjiang and Zhao Fengtian ed. 丁文江、趙豐田編, Liang Qichao nianpu changbian 梁啟超 年譜長編 (A Chronicle of Liang Qichao), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1983) 513. 55. Dai Zhili ed. 戴執禮編, Sichuan baolu yundong shiliao 四川保路運動史料 (Historic Materials of the Sichuan Railway Rights Protection Movement), (Beijing: Science Press, 1959) 187. 56. Post-Han regimes to the end of Qing used a Nine Ranks system (Jiupin 九品) in the gradation of government officials. The ranks were specified as follows: 1. upper-upper, 2. upper-middle, 3. upper-lower, 4. middle-upper, 5. middle-middle, 6. middle-lower, 7. lower-upper, 8. lower-middle, and 9. lower-lower. There were subgradations in each rank, and there were many lesser functionaries not included in the Nine Ranks. A fourth rank official (middle-upper) was a relatively high-ranking official. —Ed. 57. Fang hanqi 方漢奇 , Zhonguo jindai baokanshi 中國近代報刊史 (History of Modern Chinese Publications), (Taiyuan: Shanxi People Press, 1981) 288, 587. 58. Ibid., 589. 59. Ibid., 587. 60. Ibid., 591–92. 61. Xie Bin 謝彬, Minguo zhengdangshi 民國政黨史 (History of Political Parties in the Republic of China), (Shanghai: Academic Research Society Publication Section, 1927) 30.

217

Notes

62. Chen Xiaofen 陳孝芬 , “Xinhai Wuchang shouyi huiyi” 辛亥武昌首義回憶 (Memories of the Wuchang Uprising) in Xinhai shouyi huiyilu 辛亥首義回憶錄 (Memoirs of the First Wuchang Uprising), vol. 1, (Wuhan: Hubei People’s Press, 1957), 70. 63. Yu Shouhe ed. 于守和主編 , Xinhai geming shiqi qikan jieshao 辛亥革命時期奇刊介紹 (Introduction of Periodicals in 1911 Revolution), Vol. 3, (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1983) 673. 64. Naamyam (Nanyin 南音) is a type of narrative singing in Cantonese, usually performed by one singer accompanied by musical instruments. —Ed. 65. Cantonese Ou (Yue Ou 粵謳) were originally love songs sung by courtesans, but were later adopted by blind “sing-song girls,” and even revolutionaries. —Ed. 66. Banben (班本) refers to the script of Cantonese opera. —Ed. 67. Yu Shouhe ed. 于守和主編 , Xinhai geming shiqi qikan jieshao 辛亥革命時期奇刊介紹 (Introduction of Periodicals in 1911 Revolution), Vol. 4, (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1986) 147. 68. Cai Jiou 蔡寄鷗, Ezhou xueshi 鄂州血史 (Bloody History of Hubei), (Shanghai: Longmen United Press, 1958) 101, 104. 69. Ibid., 104. 70. Fang hanqi 方漢奇 , Zhonguo jindai baokanshi 中國近代報刊史 (History of Modern Chinese Publications), (Taiyuan: Shanxi People Press, 1981) 625. 71. “Jin xian bao chen” 謹獻報忱 (We Humbly Present this Newspaper’s Sincerity), Zhinan bao 指南報 (Guide News), June 6, 1896. 72. “Lun Youxi bao zhi benyi” 論《遊戲報》之本意 (On the Intention of of Leisure ), Youxi bao 遊戲報 (Leisure), August 25, 1897. 73. Pingkangli was a brothel and courtesan district in Chang’an during the Tang Dynasty. —Ed. 74. Zhou Guisheng 周桂笙, Xinan biji 新庵筆記 (Xinan Notes), Vol. 3, (Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient and Present Publishing, 1948) 34. 75. Wu Jianren 吳趼人, “Yueyue xiaoshuo xu” 《月月小說》序 (Prologue of The All-story Monthly ), The All-story Monthly 月月小說, January 1906. 76. “Gongshang xuebao fanli” 《工商學報》凡例 (Guide to Journal of Industry and Commerce ), Gongshang xuebao 工商學報 (Journal of Industry and Commerce), March 1903. 77. Chen Yishou 陳頤壽, “Huashang lianhe bao xumu” 《華商聯合報》序目 (Prologue of Chinese Federation Review ), Chinese Federation Review 華商聯合報, March 3, 1903. 78. Ge Gongzhen 戈公振, Zhongguo baoxueshi 中國報學史 (History of China’s Newspapers), (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1927), 20. 79. Ibid., 22. 80. Renmin University of China Department of Journalism ed., Zhongguo jindai baokanshi cankao ziliao 中 國近代報刊史參考資料 (Reference Materials on the History of Modern Publications in China), (Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 1982), 294. 81. Xu Zaiping 徐載平, Qingmo sihinian Shun Pao shiliao 清末四十年申報史料 (Shun Pao’s Historical Materials of the Last 40 Years of the Qing Dynasty), (Beijing: Xinhua Publishing House, 1988), 369. 82. Shun Pao 申報, March 17, 1911. 83. Li Mo 李默, “Xinhai geming shiqi Guangdong baokan lu” 辛亥革命時期廣東報刊錄 (Records of Guangdong Periodicals during the 1911 Revolution), Xinwen yanjiu ziliao 新聞研究資料 (News Study Materials), 143 (August 1979). 84. Ge Gongzhen 戈公振, Zhongguo baoxueshi 中國報學史 (History of China’s Newspapers), (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1927), 56.

218

Notes

85. Zou Lu 鄒魯, Zhongguo guomindang shigao 中國國民黨史稿 (Historic Manuscripts of China Kuomintang), (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Comapany, 1960), 511–512) 86. Ibid., 79. 87. Shun Pao 申報, October 9, 1911. 88. Zheng Yimei 鄭逸梅, Shubao jiuhua 書報舊話 (Old Words of Publications), (Shanghai: Xuelin Publishing House, 1983), 77. 89. Fang hanqi 方漢奇 , Zhonguo jindai baokanshi 中國近代報刊史 (History of Modern Chinese Publications), (Taiyuan: Shanxi People Press, 1981) 667, 668. 90. Zhang Jinglu ed. 張靜盧輯, Zhongguo jindai chuban shiliao erbian 中國近代出版史料 (The History of Modern Publishing in China), vol. 2, (Shanghai: Qunlian Publishing House, 1954), 316.

Chapter 7 1. Min Li Pao 民立報, December 11, 1911. 2. Shun Pao 申報, June 14, 1912. 3. Institute of Modern History Chinese Academy of Social Sciences ed., Sun Zhongshan quanji 孫中山全 集 (Complete Collection of Sun Yat-sen), Vol. 2, (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1982) 245. 4. Ibid., 495. 5. Zhang Jinglu ed. 張靜盧輯, Zhongguo jindai chuban shiliao 中國近代出版史料 (The History of Modern Publishing in China), Supplement, (Shanghai: Qunlian Publishing House, 1953), 325. 6. Ibid., 185. 7. Institute of Modern History Chinese Academy of Social Sciences ed., Sun Zhongshan quanji 孫中山全 集 (Complete Collection of Sun Yat-sen), Vol. 2, (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1982) 199. 8. Sun Shaojing 孫少荊, “Chengdu baojie huixianglu” 成都報界回想錄 (Memorials of the Chengdu Newspaper Industry) in Zhongguo jindai baokan fazhan gaikuang 中國近代報刊發展概況 (An Overview of the Development of Publications in Modern China), ed. Yang Guanghui et al. (Beijing: Xinhua Publishing House, 1986), 577. 9. Ge Gongzhen 戈公振, Zhongguo baoxueshi 中國報學史 (History of China’s Newspapers), (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1927), 68. 10. Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Liang Qichao zhi Yang Du mihan” 梁啟超致楊度密函 (Secret Letter from Liang Qichao to Yang Du), Lishi yu wenwu ziliao 歷史與文物資料 (Historic and Cultural Materials), Vol. 1. 11. Hu Daojing 胡道靜, “Shanghai de ribao” 上海的日報 (Daily Newspapers of Shanghai) in Zhongguo jindai baokan fazhan gaikuang 中國近代報刊發展概況 (An Overview of the Development of Publications in Modern China), (Beijing: Xinhua Publishing House, 1986), 352. 12. Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Zhi Luo Dun zhi shu deng” 致羅惇姪書等 (Letter to Nephew Luo Dun and others) in Liang Qichao xuanji 梁啟超選集 (Liang Qichao Collection), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1984) 605. 13. Huang Yuansheng 黃遠生 , “Yinian yilai zhengju zhi zhenxiang” 一年以來政局之真相 (The Truth Behind the Political Situation This Year) in Yuansheng yizhu 遠生遺著 (Posthumous Works of Yuansheng), Vol. 1, (Beijing: Commercial Press, 1920), 84. 14. Zhang Jiluan 張季鸞, “Zuidao Piaoping xiansheng” 追悼飄萍先生 (Mourning Mr. Piaoping) in Zhonguo jindai baokanshi 中國近代報刊史 (History of Modern Chinese Publications), (Taiyuan: Shanxi People Press, 1981) 703. 15. Ding Wenjiang and Zhao Fengtian ed. 丁文江、趙豐田編, Liang Qichao nianpu changbian 梁啟超 年譜長編 (A Chronicle of Liang Qichao), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1983) 617.

219

Notes

16. Xiong Shaohao 熊少豪, “Wushinian lai beifang baozhi zhi shilue” 五十年來北方報紙之事略 (A Brief History of Fifty Years of Northern Newspapers) in Zhongguo jindai baokan fazhan gaikuang 中國 近代報刊發展概況 (An Overview of the Development of Publications in Modern China), (Beijing: Xinhua Publishing House, 1986), 435. 17. Li Longmu 李龍牧, Zhongguo xinwen shiye shigao 中國新聞事業史稿 (Historical Materials of Journalism in China), (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1985) 84. 18. “Zhongguo xuehui baoti ci” 中國學會報題詞 (Words for the Newspaper by the China Society), The Confucian Association Monthly 孔教會雜誌, February 1913. 19. “Fu jiaoyubu shu” 復教育部書 (Suggestion to Restore The Ministry of Education), The Confucian Association Monthly 孔教會雜誌, June 1913 20. “Zhonghua jiuguolun” 中華救國論 (Arguments on the Salvation of China), Buren 不忍 (Unbearable), February 1913. 21. Fang hanqi 方漢奇, Zhonguo jindai baokanshi 中國近代報刊史 (The History of Modern Chinese Publications), (Taiyuan: Shanxi People Press, 1981) 716, 724. 22. Jing Xuezhu 景學鑄, “Baojie jiuwen” 報界舊聞 (Old Observations of the Newspaper Industry), Xinwenxue jikan 新聞學季刊 (Journalism Quarterly), 1(2), 1940. 23. Qiaosheng 翹生, “Fubi jishi” 復辟記實 (Real Records of the Restoration) in Xinhai geming shi 辛亥革 命史 (History of 1911 Revolution), edited by Zhang Kaiyuan and Lin Zengping, Vol. 2, (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1981), 535. 24. Fang hanqi 方漢奇 , Zhonguo jindai baokanshi 中國近代報刊史 (History of Modern Chinese Publications), (Taiyuan: Shanxi People Press, 1981) 731. 25. Tang Xiuhui 湯修慧 , “Yi dai baoren Shao Piaoping” 一代報人邵飄萍 (Shao Piaoping — A Newspaperman of the Generation) in Wenshi ziliao xuanbian 文史資料選編 (Selected Historic and Cultural Materials), edited by Beijing Municipal Committee, Vol. 2, (Beijing: Beijing Publishing House, 1980) 44. 26. Lu Xun 魯迅, “Shanghai weyi zhi yi pie” 上海文藝之一瞥 (A Glimpse of Shanghai Literature) in Lu Xun quanji 魯迅全集 (The Complete Collection of Lu Xun), Vol. 14, (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1957), 231. 27. Hu Shichuan and Ma Yunzeng, ed. 湖志川、馬運增主編, Zhoonguo sheying shi 中國攝影史 (A History of Chinese Photography), (Beijing: Zhongguo sheying chubanshe, 1987), 93–94. 28. Fang hanqi 方漢奇, Zhonguo jindai baokanshi 中國近代報刊史 (The History of Modern Chinese Publications), (Taiyuan: Shanxi People Press, 1981) 716, 732. 29. “Shangwuyin shuguan wei zizhi huadong yingpian qingzhun mianshui chengwen” 商務印書館為自 製畫動影片請準免稅程文 (Petition for Self-Produced Movies to be Tax-Free by The Commercial Press), Shangwuyin shuguan tongxunlu 商務印書館通訊錄 (The Commercial Press Newsletter), May 1919.

220

Index 1911 Revolution 29-30, 47-8, 50-1, 67, 78, 89, 124, 128-9, 132, 134-5, 144-5, 171-2, 174-5, 205, 208-9 advertisements 3, 8, 39, 41, 47, 52, 97, 100, 111, 128, 133-4, 152, 193, 197, 208 All-story Monthly 88, 102-3 American and Chinese Daily 29 A m er i can Mu tosc o p e an d Bi o g rap h Company 212 Andong-Fengtian Railway in Northeast China 117 Anfu Clique 195 anti-Yuan 159, 176-7, 186, 188-9, 205-6 armed uprisings 12-13, 35, 40, 48-9, 53, 55, 57, 59, 74, 82, 91, 125-6, 129 arrest 56, 77, 116, 123, 128-9, 134, 185 Asiatic Daily News 169, 178, 182-3, 190 assassination 13, 15, 17, 19, 28, 37, 46, 58, 66, 68, 95, 138, 159, 175-6, 179 ban 8, 11, 15-16, 44, 46, 48, 55, 57, 59, 66, 69-70, 77, 80, 92-3, 115-22 Bangkok 25-6 Beijing Newspaper Industry Allies 151, 167, 182-3 Beiyang Government 149, 182, 184, 214 Beiyang warlords 30, 144, 172-3, 190-1, 198, 204 bribery 118, 176 cabinet 77-8, 112, 166-8, 170, 173, 175, 202 Canton-Hankow Railway 34, 53, 55-6, 118 capital gazettes 110, 131 Changsha 37, 65, 73, 107, 152, 154, 157, 161, 163, 174, 182-3, 192, 204 Changsha uprising 80

Chen Qimei 44-5, 50, 93, 125, 131, 146, 157, 178, 188 Chengdu 74, 81, 85, 150, 153, 162-3, 165, 185 China Daily 8, 25, 27, 33-4, 41, 49, 52-3, 55, 93, 121, 126, 130-1, 133, 161, 174 China Revival Society 2, 80, 138 Chinese Empire Reform Association 11, 23, 25, 28, 31-5, 75-6, 84, 127, 130 Chinese Republic Public News 89, 94, 97, 151, 163 Chinese Revolutionary Alliance 2-8, 12-15, 18-30, 32-3, 35-7, 41, 45-9, 51-3, 57, 5963, 66-75, 93-4, 127, 156-63, 168-72 Chinese Revolutionary Alliance-Kuomintang 144, 157, 159, 162, 168 Chinese Revolutionary Party 144, 187-9, 200 Chongqing 74, 162-3 Cixi, Empress Dowager 36, 65, 111, 113, 115-18, 137 Commercial Press 38, 102, 106, 136, 20910, 214 Communist Party of China 84 constitutional monarchy 7, 9-11, 24-6, 29, 31-4, 38, 40, 44, 50, 52, 81-4, 86-8, 163-4, 169-70, 183 Constitutional Movement 2, 9, 75-6, 78-80, 86-8 correspondents 130-1, 203-4 foreign 130, 203-4 special army 130 court cases 33-4 current affairs 3, 32, 37, 69, 71, 85-6, 91, 99, 103, 111, 133-4, 137-9, 163, 199-201, 207-9 commentaries on 50, 65, 77, 105, 134, 200

221

Index

Current Affairs Pictorial 54-60, 94, 137 Daily Press Association of Shanghai 146, 151 Daily Renewal Society 8, 61, 63, 95, 123 Democratic Party 156, 162, 164, 169, 171, 177 Duan Qirui 80, 191-2, 194-7 Dutch East Indies 22, 26-7, 34, 120 Eastern Miscellany 85-6, 136-7 Eastern Times 76, 92, 99, 121, 123, 129-32, 148, 169-70, 178, 196, 202-3, 207 editorials 5, 39-40, 44, 51, 58, 64, 90-1, 93, 121, 134, 167, 169, 176, 196, 199-201 educational periodicals 105-7, 150, 152-3 Europe 37-8, 135, 155, 204, 210-11 European War 210, 214 Fan Hongxian 38, 41, 43, 45, 157-8, 199 Fang Hanqi Feng Ziyou 4, 19, 28-9, 33, 52, 125, First Guangzhou Uprising 8 foreign powers 18, 84, 108, 111, 175 French Concession Hankou 161 Shanghai 188 Gansu 2, 14, 37, 42 Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi 52, 94, 115, 117-19 Governor-General of Hubei and Hunan 90, 92, 117, 123 Governor-General of Huguang 63-4 Governor-General of Zhili 67, 111, 115, 117, 119, 121, 173 Great Han Tribune 89, 94-6, 131 Great Qing Legal Code 112-13 Great Qing Newspaper Ordinance 114-16, 147, 185

222

Great Qing Periodical Ordinance 13 Great Qing Publication Ordinance 113-16 Great River 61, 64, 89-92, 94, 96, 118, 121-2, 126, 160, 174 Guangxi Clique 90, 192 Hong Kong 25, 27, 33-4, 51-3, 55-6, 60-1, 87, 93, 106, 117, 120, 123, 131, 189, 212 Honolulu 27-8, 33, 54, 117 Hu Hanmin 3-5, 12, 21, 23, 52, 125, 188 Hu Shi'an 63, 95-7 Huanggang Uprising 40, 130 Japan 3, 13-14, 16-19, 36-7, 44-5, 47, 50-1, 54, 61-2, 68, 84, 106-8, 136, 138, 211-12 Jiangsu Tribune 3, 8, 39, 46, 48, 122 journalistic photographs 135-6, 138-41, 208-9 halftone 135 journalists 32, 39, 52, 68, 91, 95-6, 115, 118, 125, 128, 130-1, 137, 149-51, 186-7, 203 female 149 four quick 45 part-time 91 stationed 130 Kang Youwei 8-10, 23, 25, 31, 33-4, 75, 79, 127, 170, 181, 196 Kuomintang 27, 29, 90, 144, 156-7, 159-62, 164, 167-8, 171-2, 174-80, 183, 187-9, 194-5 Liang Qichao 9-11, 24, 76-8, 80, 86, 88, 125, 130-1, 138, 150, 164, 170, 189 literary periodicals 99-105, 150, 207 literary supplements 100, 105 Lu Xun 100, 212 Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies 205-7 media feud 8-12, 22, 29-30, 32-3, 35, 78,

125, 169, 171-2 Minpao Magazine 2-9, 11-14, 16, 19, 21, 30, 32, 35, 41, 52, 120-1, 124, 126, 138-9 Natural Foot Society 139 New Army 8, 42, 63, 66, 90-1, 126, 130 New Citizen Journal 9-11, 30-1, 35, 76, 80, 84-5, 134, 138, Newspaper Disaster 172, 180, 186-7 newsreel 213-14 North-South peace talks 89, 132, 168-9, 182 overseas Chinese 5, 11, 21-3, 25-30, 32-7, 59, 84, 95, 109, 124, 126, 138-9, 155, 158 overseas Chinese students 36, 84, 138, 155 professional periodicals 99, 105, 109-10, 153 Progressive Party 80, 162-3, 165, 177-9, 189, 194 Provisional Government 45, 47, 60, 94, 98, 144-6, 148, 154, 157, 167-8, 182, 202, 209 pseudonyms 5-6, 9, 59, 66, 84, 101, 123, 158 public order 3, 92, 114-15, 185-6 harming 186 Qing Emperor 65, 150, 159, 167-8 Republic of China 27-8, 38-9, 45, 47, 56-7, 60, 80, 89, 93, 96, 144-8, 150, 153, 162-3, 208-9 Republican Party 156, 162-5, 169, 171-2, 177 Restoration Society 2, 49-50, 76, 127 Revive China Society 2 San Francisco 27-8, 33, 84, 130, 189 Second Revolution 45, 51, 144, 150, 153, 172, 175-80, 182, 185, 187-9, 199-200,

213 Shanghai British Concession 158 Shanghai French Concession 43-4 Shanghai International Settlement 42-3, 71, 179, 187 Shao Piaoping 198, 203-4, Shun Pao 87, 99-100, 102, 104-5, 119, 1304, 140, 148, 153, 168-70, 178, 189, 197-8, 201 Singapore 11, 21, 23-6, 30-2, 54, 106, 189 Sino-Japanese War First 110 Second 39 Sisters Lake Uprisings 40 Song Jiaoren 2-5, 7, 12-13, 15, 18, 44-5, 125, 157, 159-60, 175-9, 184, 199, 209 South Society 16, 104-5, 158, 205, 207 Sun Yat-sen 4-9, 12-14, 18, 21-3, 27-9, 31-2, 36-7, 52, 60, 124-5, 144-9, 166-7, 169-70, 178-9, 188 telegraphs 39, 42, 66, 92-3, 110, 123-4, 128, 131-2, 148-9, 151, 157, 173, 177-8, 184, 201-2 Three People Newspapers 41, 47, 199 Three Radical People Newspapers 159, 165, 199 Tokyo 2-4, 8, 12-16, 23, 32, 36, 76, 80, 84, 86, 88, 108-9, 120, 130, 187-8 Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department 13, 17 translation 50, 102-3, 106, 108-9, 155-6, 198 Twentieth-century Shina 2-3 Unification Party 156, 162, 165, 169, 171, 177 uprisings 28, 53, 63, 66, 93-8, 126, 129, 138, 140, 173 failed 23, 53, 72 planning 126

223

Index

Vancouver 11, 27, 29, 33 warlords 90, 144, 167, 173, 180, 183, 190-6, 198, 200-2, 205 Wenxueshe 61, 63, 89, 91, 94, 96, 127 World War I 140, 197, 201, 203, 209-10 Wuchang Uprising 18, 22, 25, 66, 70, 73-4, 89, 94-5, 97-9, 130-3, 140, 145, 163, 1678, 213 First 49 Yangon 11, 23-5, 32, 118, 120 Yellow Emperor 3, 6 Yellow Flower Mound Revolt 22, 37, 46, 78, 89, 93-4, 130 Yu Youren 35-9, 41-7, 49, 51, 92-3, 122, 125, 135, 157 Yuan Shikai 30, 38-9, 45, 65-6, 89-90, 11415, 144, 151-2, 158-62, 164, 166-73, 1758, 180-7, 189-92, 209 Zhan Dabei 63, 89-92, 122, 125 Zhang Taiyan 3-6, 8, 12-13, 15, 125, 135, 148, 162-3, 169-70 Zhang Xun 144, 192, 196-7 Zhang Zhidong 62, 112, 114, 116, 119

224