A General Theory of Ancient Chinese 9811660417, 9789811660412

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Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library

Lihong Jiang  Mingshan Ren

A General Theory of Ancient Chinese

Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library

Taking advantage of the interdisciplinary strength of Zhejiang University, “Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library” seeks to build bridges between social science academics in China and abroad. Whether the subject matter is on the arts or sciences, the past or the present, the east or the west, pure or applied; it seeks to promote publications that represents the academic excellence, cultural quintessence and the research cutting edge of China’s higher education.

Lihong Jiang Mingshan Ren •

A General Theory of Ancient Chinese

123

Lihong Jiang Hangzhou University Hangzhou, China

Mingshan Ren Hangzhou University Hangzhou, China

Translated by Ye Zhu, Wenyan Gao

ISSN 2731-5304 ISSN 2731-5312 (electronic) Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library ISBN 978-981-16-6041-2 ISBN 978-981-16-6042-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9 Jointly published with Zhejiang University Press The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Zhejiang University Press. Translation from the Chinese language edition: 古汉语通论by Lihong Jiang, Mingshan Ren ©ZhejiangUniversity Press 2023. Published by Zhejiang University Press. All Rights Reserved. © Zhejiang University Press 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Contents

Chapter 1　Prologue 1.1  What is Ancient Chinese Language?…………………………………… 1 1.2  Ancient Chinese Language and Modern Chinese Language……… 3 1.3  Objectives and Requirements of Ancient Chinese Learning……… 5 1.4  Methods of Learning Ancient Chinese………………………………… 6 Chapter 2　A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries 2.1  Form, Pronunciation and Meaning of Chinese Characters………… 9 2.2  Formation of Chinese Characters……………………………………… 10 2.3  Original Form and Original Meaning; Exploration into the Original Meaning………………………………………………………… 19 2.4  The Original Meaning and Extended Meaning…………………… 21 2.5  Phonetic Loan Characters and Variant Forms……………………… 25 2.6  Calligraphic Varieties …………………………………………………… 26 2.7 Dictionaries ………………………………………………………………… 30 Chapter 3　“Cognate Words with Similar Pronunciation” ( 義存於聲 ) and “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation” ( 聲近義通 ) in Exegesis 3.1  “Cognate Words with Similar Pronunciation” and “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation”… ……… 49 3.2  Theory of “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation”; Fenbie Wen and Youwen Shuo………………………………………… 52 3.3  Lianmian Zi………………………………………………………………… 57 Chapter 4  Interpretation of Word Meaning 4.1  Problems in Interpreting Word Meaning…………………………… 65 4.2  Imaginary Numbers; Generic Names and Proper Names; Taboos and Euphemism; Figurative Meaning; Compound Words with Partial Meaning; Literary Allusive Words ………………………… 71

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Chapter 5  Sentences 5.1  How to Make a Sentence?……………………………………………… 85 5.2  Long Sentences and Short Sentences; Sentence Segmentation ………………………………………………………………………………… 87 5.3 Phrases ……………………………………………………………………… 91 Chapter 6　Judgment Sentences and Declarative Sentences 6.1  Judgment Sentences…………………………………………………… 107 6.2  Declarative Sentences………………………………………………… 111 Chapter 7　Flexible Use of Parts of Speech 7.1  Parts of Speech in Ancient Chinese………………………………… 125 7.2  General Situation of Flexible Use of Parts of Speech………… 127 7.3  Causative Structure and Conative Structure …………………… 132 Chapter 8　Modal Auxiliary Words and Affixes 8.1  Modal Auxiliary Words ……………………………………………… 142 8.2  Affixes……………………………………………………………………… 155 Chapter 9　Personal Pronouns and Demonstrative Pronouns 9.1  Personal Pronouns……………………………………………………… 159 9.2  Demonstrative Pronouns …………………………………………… 173 Chapter 10　Ellipsis and Word Order  10.1  Ellipsis ………………………………………………………………… 181   10.2  Word Order …………………………………………………………… 192 Chapter 11　Declarative, Exclamatory, Interrogative and Imperative Sentences   11.1  Declarative Sentences……………………………………………… 201   11.2  Exclamatory Sentences…………………………………………… 207   11.3  Interrogative Sentences…………………………………………… 213   11.4  Imperative Sentences……………………………………………… 227 Chapter 12　Quantity and Comparison   12.1  Definite and Approximate Quantification……………………… 235   12.2  Nominal Quantification, Verbal Quantification, and Classifiers   …………………………………………………………………………… 242  12.3  Comparison…………………………………………………………… 252 Chapter 13　Compound Sentences and Conjunctions   13.1  Examples of the Compound Sentences………………………… 258   13.2  The Usage of Some Conjunctions ……………………………… 262 Chapter 14　Sounds, Rhymes and Tones   14.1  Pronunciation Changes and Chinese Phonology…………… 275  14.2  Fanqie (Cutting Sounds) ………………………………………… 284  14.3  Tones…………………………………………………………………… 291

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Chapter 15　Rhyme Books and Dengyun   15.1  Consonant Categories and Rhyme Categories, Alphabets and   Rhyme Groups……………………………………………………… 301  15.2  Denghu ………………………………………………………………… 304   15.3  Rhyme Books and Dengyun Charts …………………………… 306 Chapter 16　Ancient Speech Sounds   16.1  Early-Ancient Sounds and Medieval-Ancient Sounds ……   16.2  Rhyme Divisions of the Ancient Sounds………………………   16.3  Consonant Categories of Ancient Sounds……………………   16.4  Ancient Tones…………………………………………………………

309 313 320 323

Chapter 17　Tonal and Rhythmic Patterns   17.1  Rhyming Patterns and Antithetic Arrangements …………… 331   17.2  The Rhyming Patterns in the Old Poetry ……………………… 334   17.3  The Formation of the Rhyming and Rhythmic Patterns, and the     Modern Style of Poetry …………………………………………… 339   17.4  The Metric and Rhyming Patterns in Ci Poetry (Lyrics)      …………………………………………………………………………… 343   17.5  The Tunes and Rhymes of Qu (Melody)……………………… 347 Chapter 18　Rhetorical Devices in Chinese Classic Literature   18.1  The Rhetorical Devices Related to Aesthetic Conceptions and     Materials ……………………………………………………………… 354   18.2  The Rhetorical Devices Related to Phrasal and Sentential     Arrangements………………………………………………………… 370   18.3  The Rhetorical Devices Related to Phonological Features     …………………………………………………………………………… 393 Chapter 19　General Knowledge of Classic Chinese Bibliography   19.1  Bibliography …………………………………………………………   19.2  “Seven Categories” and “Four Sections” ……………………   19.3  Annotations and Commentaries of Classics…………………   19.4  Series and Reference Books………………………………………   19.5  System of Compilation of Ancient Books ……………………

409 410 421 433 440

Chapter 20　Doubtful Expressions in Ancient Books   20.1  Expressions in Reverse Order ……………………………………  20.2  Ellipsis …………………………………………………………………  20.3  Repetition ……………………………………………………………   20.4  Variations in Text ……………………………………………………

451 455 457 459

Appendix

The Learning and Teaching of the Ancient Chinese Language…… 463 Preface to Shuowen Jiezi…………………………………………………… 467 Supplementary Notes to Preface to Shuowen Jiezi…………………… 471

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Discussion of “Mutual Explanation”……………………………………… Examples of “Interchangeable Characters” in Chinese……………… Discussion of the Meanings of “ 無慮 ” in “Common Usages” in General Exegeses of the Classics………………………………………… Explanation of the Character “ 門 ”……………………………………… Preface to Ci Tong (Excerpt)………………………………………………… Discussion of “ 必以情 ” in “Cao Gui on War”………………………… Distinguishing Chinese Word Classes Through the Four Tones…… Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs……………………………… Modern and Ancient Pronunciations of the Thirty-Six Phonetic Alphabets: A Comparative Chart…………………………………………… Chart of the Use of Four Tones in Guangyun…………………………… Peiwen Yunfu…………………………………………………………………… An Example of Dengyun Charts…………………………………………… Author’s Investigation of Ancient Pronunciation in the Mao Odes

473 481 497 500 504 511 514 522 547 550 554 556

……………………………………………………………………………………… 559 Table of the Correspondence Between the 22 Divisions of Ancient Rhymes and the 206 Divisions in Guangyun…………………………… 565 On the Ancient Pronunciation of Labiodentals as Labio-Stops or LabioNasals……………………………………………………………………………… 567 On the Unconvincing Theory of the Distinctions in Dental Sounds ……………………………………………………………………………………… 571 Introduction to the Rules of Annotations to the Chinese Classics ……………………………………………………………………………………… 575

Postscript ……………………………………………………………………… 581

Chapter 1

Prologue

1.1 What is Ancient Chinese Language? The ancient Chinese is the language from which modern Chinese language is derived. That is to say, ancient Chinese language evolved to what is now termed as modern Chinese. Since modern Chinese developed from ancient Chinese, both languages have been closely related to each other. However, during the long history of evolution, modern Chinese has also got its own distinct features. Along with this comes another fact that the periods of ancient Chinese and modern Chinese are not able to be separated clearly. The gestation period of modern Chinese can be dated back to the Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century, but it was formally established with the beginning of May Fourth Movement. Therefore, we can roughly say that early modern Chinese language started its journey from the Yuan and Ming Dynasties and ended around the May Fourth Movement. Until then, the classical Chinese was still the dominant and traditional written language form, so classical works during this period could also be included into ancient Chinese. What was the situation of Chinese language like before the May Fourth Movement? To answer this question, we need to know that language has been constantly developing and evolving over the course of history. To elaborate on language change is one of important tasks for language historians and we are not going too far in this book. What we would like to discuss includes the following two aspects: Firstly, from the late Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States Period to the Western Han Dynasty, written Chinese reached a very mature stage. It absorbed

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_1

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and integrated useful elements from various dialects, creating a common writing system with a large vocabulary and fixed grammatical rules, which is generally known as “classical Chinese” (Wen Yan). Until the Qing Dynasty, “classical Chinese writing” (or “ancient text” ) was principally written with this language system. Generally speaking, an “ancient text” specifically refers to the genre of prose.  In contrast, there is another genre called “parallel prose” , in which the antithetical form dominates. Although ancient text writers and parallel prose writers have often been wrestled with arguments, both of two genres only differ in processing  language. Therefore, they are nothing but two branches of classical Chinese. The classical style of writing has served the upper class for an extremely long time. With the social development, it carried on the tasks of recording, disseminating and accumulating cultural achievements of China. Great statesmen, thinkers and literati composed their literature masterpieces with this language system and left us abundant cultural treasures. Secondly, classical Chinese was developed and refined from spoken language.  But once established, it tended to break away from the spoken language to a great extent. This doesn’ t mean that classical Chinese is completely isolated from spoken Chinese. For example, in “Gongsun Chou” of Mencius( 《孟子 •公孫丑》)1, 2 “齊人有言曰：‘雖有智慧，不如乘勢，雖有鎡基 ，不如待時’ ” (People from the State of Qi once said, “It is wiser to avail oneself of a favorable situation than to rely only on one’ s mere wisdom; just as in agriculture it is more advisable to wait for the right season than to rely only on farm tools” ). “鎡基” , pronounced as /zī jī/, is a colloquial word used by the State of Qi. Sima Qian’ s Records of the Grand Historian(《史記》) was also written with a lot of colloquial words, for instance, in “Biography of Chen She(《陳涉世家》 )”“夥頤， 涉之爲王沈沈者 !3” (So many rooms! The king’ s palace is really magnificent!) In “Biography of the Prime  Minister Zhang” , Zhou Chang said,“臣口不能言，然臣期期知其不可 4。” (I’ m not good at speaking, but I truly think this is unadvisable.) The classical Chinese in later ages, such as History of the Jin Dynasty(《晉書》), History of Southern Dynasties(《南史》) and History of Northern Dynasties(《北史》), also inevitably used the colloquial language of the Six Dynasties; even Han Yu who claimed “I dare not to read any books other than those of the Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties and Eastern and Western Han Dynasties” could not be completely free from using colloquial language in his own writing5. However, classical Chinese mainly served 1

Chinese book names abbreviated hereinafter. 鎡基 , a farm tool like a big hoe for weeding and leveling ground. 3 Sima Zhen in his Index of Records of the Grand Historian quoted Fu Qian on “People from the State of Chu called ‘many’ ‘ 夥 ’(pronounced as /huǒ/) or ‘ 頤 ’ (pronounced as /yí/)”, which are modal particles. Chen She was the king and his palace was grand with many rooms and abundant treasures. People were so surprised at its magnificence that they exclaimed “夥頤”. Pei Yan in his A Collective Interpretation of Records of the Grand Historian quoted Ying Shao on “沈沈 (pronounced as /tán tán/) was used to describe the magnificence of the palace”. 4 期期 (/qī qī/), the sound of stuttering. 5 See Du Z. R., “A Preliminary Study of Relationship Between Han Yu’s Written Language and the Then Colloquial Language”, Studies in Language and Linguistics, 4. 2

1.2  Ancient Chinese Language and Modern Chinese Language

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the ruling class, and the feudal scholar-bureaucrat always rejected the “vulgar” folk language. Thus, the ancient folk language could not be fully reflected in classical writing, and ancient scholars never showed solicitude for it as well. Therefore, sometimes we may feel that reading ancient folk works is much more difficult and obscure than classical Chinese, as is the case with transformation texts  (bian wen) in the Tang and Five Dynasties, colloquial stories in the Song Dynasty, and traditional operas in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties. Ancient colloquial language, that is, vernacular language, widely used among civilians, has gradually developed into modern Chinese. However, without enough attention and process of collection, collation and research, it has become a “gap” which urges to be filled in.  Ancient Chinese language is an umbrella term for ancient classical Chinese and vernacular language, so to research on ancient vernacular language is of great necessity as well. However, in studying ancient Chinese, the classical style of writing still plays a more important role than the vernacular language, since it has much more strict norms, and to understand it will also help to research on the vernacular language. In ancient times, the classical style of writing was widely used in political and philosophical works, historical documents, poetry, verse, and even traditional operas and novels. Therefore, to study ancient Chinese, we should focus on the classical style of writing with due consideration to the vernacular language.

1.2 Ancient Chinese Language and Modern Chinese Language Modern Chinese shares the same origins with the ancient Chinese, along with a state of constant evolution. Therefore, both ancient and modern Chinese languages share much in common, but their differences are also significant. Changes in phonetics strike our eyes most. Now consider the example of “天 明” . It is pronounced as /tiān míng/, but in ancient times, it was/t‘ien miaŋ/. They are not completely unrelated since both of them have the same initial consonants /t/ and /m/. Such characters as “文、問、無” were all pronounced with the same initial consonant /w/(u) today, but before medieval ancient times, all three began with an /m/, and after that, they were pronounced as /v/. This m→v→u process is quite complicated. Furthermore, some other variations are even unbelievable. For example, the ancient pronunciation of “愉” (/yú/) was /tōu/ (偷 ) and “蛇” (/yí/) in “委蛇” was pronounced as /tuó/ (陀 ). However, after thorough examination on their variations, we could find that the evolving clues are traceable and such  phonetic changes were not disorganizedly or casually developed from one speech sound to another, but with a certain rule to evolve in groups. Rules and evolutions of these variations need to be explored in the fields of phonology and history of  Chinese language. Vocabulary is words employed by language and it is a mark of human understanding of the objective world. With deepening and broadening of human understanding, vocabulary has greatly improved and become more complex,

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which, roughly speaking, contains following several points. Fristly, basic words are always surviving relatively long, and word roots have become the most stable elements, such as天 (heaven), 地 (earth), 人 (man), 山 (mountain), 水 (water), 魚 (fish), 鳥 (bird), 方 (square), 圓 (round), 長 (long), 短 (short), 上 (up), 下 (down), 前 (front), 後 (back), 東 (East), 南 (South), 西 (West), 北 (North), 生 (life), 死 (death), 心 (heart), 肝 (liver), 脾 (spleen), 胃 (stomach). No matter how evolving these words are, they still keep their primitive forms. Secondly, in ancient Chinese language, monosyllabic words are in a permanent state of domination, but most of words in modern Chinese are disyllabic words, or compound words. For example, “people” in ancient times was called “民” , while in modern times, it is “人民” ; “property” in ancient times was called “產” while in modern times it is “財產”; “rain” in ancient times was called “雨”, now it is “下 雨” ; “loyalty” in ancient times was called “忠” , as in the example of “爲人謀而 不忠乎 ?” [Whether, in transacting bussiness for others, I may have been faithful (From “On Studies” in The Analects of Confucius)], while in modern times, it is “忠實” . Such difference in word formation indicates that Chinese vocabulary is  becoming more and more precise with the development of society. Thirdly, many ancient Chinese words have multiple meanings, but in modern Chinese, word meanings tend to be more fixed for the purpose of expressing much  more precise ideas. For example, the ancient word “產” includes the modern meaning of “出產” (production) and “財產” (property), but in modern times, they are two compound words. Of course, this is a simple case and “產” has more meanings than above mentioned two in ancient times, but we can catch a glimpse from it. Fourthly, some words have different meanings in ancient and modern times, and  some words only existed in ancient times, or have been replaced by other words in modern times. The former point can be illustrated by an example of “處分” : in ancient times, it was “處理” (to deal with) or “佈置” (to arrange), while in modern times, it is “懲罰” (to punish). The example illustrating the latter point is “乘” : in ancient times, “乘”  is  a  quantifier,  referring  to  the  number  of  vehicles, while in  modern times, “輛” is used instead of “乘” . Of course, there is needless to say that a large number of words did not exist in ancient times, but have been invented in modern days. Fifthly, some words describing the same category of things were invented one by one in ancient times, but later generations took an analytical method and added a modified word in front of the category term, to form a word group. For  example, in ancient times, the ox was “牡” and the cow was “牝” . In later ages, people chose “牛” as the word root, adding attributives to form new words “公牛” (ox) and “母牛” (cow). In this way, many ancient words about names and things were omitted from modern vocabulary, which is one of achievements of people’ s progress in classification and generalization. Chinese words are constantly changing both in meaning and in word formation, but the basic part of words—the root— is always stable with little variation. Grammar is a synthesis of rules on word variation and ways combining words

1.3  Objectives and Requirements of Ancient Chinese Learning

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to from sentences. It is the most stable part of language. Basic grammatical rules and sentence structures are roughly the same in ancient and modern times. What we should pay attention to is the flexible use of parts of speech, omission of some  elements in a sentence and the difference in word orders. For example, In “The  Legend of Xie Xiao’ e”《謝小娥傳》 ( ) by Li Gongzuo, “爾後小娥便爲男子服， 傭保於江湖間” (Later, Xiao’ e wore men’ s clothes and served as a servant in different places),“傭保” (servant) is a noun, but here it is used as a verb “作傭保” (to be a servant). In the same article, “傭保雜處，不知女人” , which means “(小 娥 ) (與 )傭保雜處，(而 ) (人 )不知 (其 )(爲 )女人” . [(Xiao’ e) lived (with) other servants, (but) (they) didn’ t know (she) (was) a woman]. In this sentence, “小 娥” (Xiao’ e), “而” (but), “人” (they) are omitted in the same way as in modern Chinese, but the omission of “與” (with), “其” (she), “為” (is) is exclusive to ancient Chinese language. The shift of word order will be discussed in later chapters. As mentioned above, modern Chinese and ancient Chinese are not completely different languages. Modern Chinese inherited and evolved from ancient Chinese.  Just because of that, even though ancient Chinese and modern Chinese have more or less different in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, we can still understand  ancient Chinese by the way of deducing from modern Chinese.

1.3 Objectives and Requirements of Ancient Chinese Learning We study ancient Chinese language, not to speak or behave in a way like an ancient person, but to serve for developing a strong socialist culture in China. To achieve that, we have to draw on and absorb the cultural heritage from our motherland. Ancient Chinese language has long been taken as a device of recording, disseminating and accumulating the cultural achievements of China, so one of objectives of ancient Chinese language learning is to critically absorb the ancient cultural heritage by reading and understanding ancient texts, especially to help classical literature learning. The specific aim is to read and understand simple classical Chinese, and get a general idea of wording, sentence formation and rhetorical devices in classical literary works. This is the main objective and requirement of the curriculum of ancient Chinese. As an integral part of linguistic science, the course of ancient Chinese requires more than classical Chinese reading. Some people have already been able to read simple classical Chinese, but they only have a one-sided view about it and don’ t know why. Ancient language learning requires a good command of basic knowledge of ancient Chinese in a scientific way, that is, we can not only  understand ancient texts, but also know some basic rules of ancient Chinese, in order to lay a solid foundation for studying the history of Chinese language, which is even more necessary for language major students. Ancient Chinese learning can be helpful to understand more clearly how

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modern Chinese took shape and what happened during the long history of Chinese language. Our national language policy was formulated under the specific situation  following the laws of language development. Therefore, another objective of ancient Chinese learning is to help people understand modern Chinese to a certain degree, to clarify and implement the national language policy. This objective should be achieved by the history of Chinese language, but it also ought to be briefly covered in this curriculum.

1.4 Methods of Learning Ancient Chinese We used not to have much opportunity to get access to ancient literature, so to learn classical Chinese well experienced a lot of difficulties more than to learn modern Chinese learning. Since ancient Chinese and modern Chinese are not two separated languages, to learn ancient Chinese on the basis of modern Chinese is a quite efficient way. As for how to study ancient Chinese well, we would like to  offer you following three tips.  Firstly, we have to clearly define learning objectives and abandon cumbersome  and uncritical learning methods. Our aim is to understand ancient texts or literary works, and to know basic rules of ancient Chinese, so we don’ t seek extravagant praise or pursue shocking achievements. Then we must strongly oppose any tedious or mysterious way of learning. For example, to understand an ancient text or an ancient book, we have to read related annotations. However, a further question is that we need to choose from a bulk of reference materials. For example, The Analects of Confucius and Mencius are what ancient people used to read (we should still read these two books in modern times), about which there are many annotations and commentaries of different times, such as, Collective Commentaries on The Analects of Confucius and Collective Commentaries on the Mencius by Zhu Xi, Explanatory Notes of The Analects of Confucius by Liu Baonan and Explanatory Notes of Mencius by Jiao Xun of the Qing Dynasty. Of course, those annotations from Liu and Jiao are definitely worthwhile reading, but  they give you a sense of triviality, and not as concise as Zhu’ s. For example, in the first entry, Liu used more than one hundred words to annotate “曰” (pronounced as /yuē/). How can we spend so much time playing his word game? When we study ancient Chinese, we should learn from our ancestors. However, instead of following them blindly, we need to learn how to choose and embrace the diversity in a critical way. No matter what we study, we have to ask whether or not they are useful, or meet our learning objectives. Secondly, when we study ancient Chinese, we should keep in mind how to combine theory with practice. Equal attention should be paid to both reading materials and language rules. We had better not only observe language features and analyze reading materials according to the rules, but also investigate the internal rules of reading materials, and then utilize these materials for testing and revising

1.4  Methods of Learning Ancient Chinese

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rules as well. As for these two points, to be familar with the reading materials is the core issue. We could not get any brilliant idea by merely talking about the theory without knowing word meaning, sentence segmentation or the link with the remaining part of the context. Therefore, theories are completely useless without materials. In contrast, it is also impossible to achieve any learning objective just by way of reading word for word, weaving together separated words, and guessing meanings of one single sentence without considering others. With manipulation and analysis of reading materials based on phonetic, semantic and grammatical rules summarized by ancient scholars, we will arrive at an understanding of the whole article, getting twice the result with half the effort. Thirdly, sometimes no fixed rules and internal relations can be found as a clue in some intellectual reading materials, such as allusions and idioms. All we could do is read articles again and again so as to keep them firmly in mind. Some  rules might be found in systematic and the whole set of reading materials, which, however, were probably compiled with the method of enumeration, so they need to be recited as well, just as “Pinyin System” in modern Chinese and “thirty-six phonetic alphabets” of ancient Chinese which we are going to learn are arranged in the same way. To study classical Chinese, we should employ some time-saving methods instead of dealing with petty, complicated and overloaded details. We should also strive to combine language rules and reading materials together persistently and progressively, without being afraid of trouble and laboriousness.

Chapter 2

A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

2.1 Form, Pronunciation and Meaning of Chinese Characters A writing system, as a tool of recording, is attached to language with visual symbols as the medium. The sound (音 ) in pronunciation is different from the ordinary “sound” and it is always associated with meaning, i.e., the semanteme. Therefore, in a broad sense of writing systems, a written character should consist of three essential elements: pronunciation, form and meaning. Even if some people argued that some of Chinese characters are meaningless, such as “蜘、蛛、徘、徊” in “蜘蛛” (spider) and “徘徊” (wandering), characters like them are very few. In addition, “蜘 +蛛” and “徘 +徊” also possess specific meanings.  The meaning of a Chinese character is not only closely related to its pronunciation, but also to its form. From the perspective of language, words and phrases are a combination of pronunciation and meaning, and written characters are no more than visual symbols. For example, “人” (pronounced as /rén/) signifies such an animal species that does labor work with hands, performs  reasoning and makes judgments with intelligence and is endowed with the ability of utilizing language. In a case like this, it seems safe to say that what could determine a written character is nothing else but its pronunciation. Some scholars in exegesis1 used to assert “The meaning of a written character is determined by its pronunciation” , which makes sense. Let’ s quote another example from ancient Chinese: “只” or “只 1

Exegesis: a critical explanation or interpretation of a text or a portion of a text.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_2

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

有” means “only” and is written as “唯” or “惟” (pronounced as /wéi/). The reason that these two Chinese characters mean “only” is just due to their pronunciation /wéi/. Therefore, to study Chinese characters, the pronunciation plays a very important role. But from another perspective, Chinese characters have long been described as “picto-semantic characters” and until now, their meanings have been more or less restricted by their forms. To quote above-mentioned “唯” or “惟” once more: these two characters are interpreted as “只” or “只有” by means of phonetic loan (for more detailed information, see the later chapter), but both of them also have their original meaning. “唯” means “consent and agreement” . In The Analects of Confucius, Confucius said to one of his disciples, Zeng Shen, “参乎！吾道一 以贯之。” (Shen! My doctrine is that of an all-pervading unity.) Zengzi (zi is the honorific title) answered, “唯” (That’ s right!). “惟” , however, means “to think” . From “A letter to Sun Huizong” in “Biography of Yang Yun” , “Historical Records of the Han Dynasty” , Yang Yun wrote “然竊恨足下不深惟其始終 2，而猥 3隨 俗之毁譽也” (In private, I blame you for not thinking deeply about the essence of things, but rashly follow the secular perspective to criticize them). From these two historic stories, we could know that to distinguish two words depends on their forms. “唯” means “consent” according to its radical “口” (mouth) while “唯” takes its meaning of “thinking” because of its radical “忄” (heart). Therefore, it can not be denied that the form of Chinese characters could promote the understanding of character meaning to a certain degree. However, we should also realize that a Chinese character, since its invention, has not been able to use the form to solve all problems of ideograms. In later ages, the possibility of using forms to express meaning is becoming increasingly limited. Today, to understand the meaning of a Chinese character, we should explore both its form and its pronunciation.

2.2 Formation of Chinese Characters Scholars in the Han Dynasty established a set of criteria to analyze how Chinese characters were formed, that is,“six scripts” ,which refers to “pictographs, selfexplanatory characters, associative compounds, phono-semantic characters, mutually explanatory characters and phonetic loan characters.” This set of criteria is generally applicable except for what defy the character stucture to a great extent (無以下筆 )4.  The  first  four  categories  were  to  invent  Chinese  characters  directly. Herein, we would like to introduce them one by one. Phonetic loan is also one way inventing Chinese characters, about which we will also discuss. As for mutually explanatory characters5, there have always been different opinions and no  2

深惟其始終 , to deeply think about the essence of things. 猥 , to do something rashly or casually. 4 Those characters that defy the structural analysis. 5 In his Preface to Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen defined mutually explanatory characters as “have the same character component and can be mutually explained. For example, the characters of ‘考’and ‘老’ 3

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unanimous conclusion have been drawn, so here, we will leave this question open.

2.2.1  Pictographs and Self-Explanatory Characters (1) Most of specific things can be denoted by drawings 6, a combination of drawing lines and pronunciation formed the “pictograph” . For example,  denote “sun, moon, water, bird, fish,  、  (fish, grass,  wood, bamboo, cloud and gas” . Among them, “ ” is the same as “艸” (double “ ” ). Seal characters, as an example, could still be found to show primitive forms of things they denote, but in some characters there are no clues at all. We have to trace the origin of their forms from oracle script or bronze script. 火 (fire)  , flame.  Oracle script: Bronze script: , flame or sparkle. Seal script of was derived from the bronze script. 豕 (pig) Oracle script: . 犬 (dog) Oracle script: , different from “豕” in its thin figure and long tail.  馬 (horse) in Shuowen Jiezi was derived from it. Oracle script: . An ancient character Seal script: . From one side of this character, the top two strokes resemble two feet (The other two are invisible); resembles a tail of a horse. People in later ages didn’ t have a chance to see the original form and they mistook it as four feet and one tail. 鹿 (deer) Oracle script: , . 虎 (tiger) Oracle script: , , . is a pair in this case”. In his article “On Mutually Explanatory and Phonetic Loan Characters” in Comprehensive Inquiries on Sinology, Zhang Binglin proposed that mutually explanatory characters appeared when the pronunciations of a single character changed in language use, splitting into two characters of identical meaning. With the same meaning, the two characters can define or explain  mutually, whereas the different pronunciations can be still related, such as sharing the same consonant or rhyme, or other phonological connections. Therefore the characters belong to the same phonological character. In the cases of “考” and “老”, meaning “old” in ancient Chinese, they are rhymed characters belonging to the division of 幽 in Xia Xin’s “Tables of Twenty-Two Ancient Rhymes” in The Book of Songs. Within the same phonological category, these two characters are mutually explanatory ones. In summary, Zhang’s understanding of mutual explanation is mostly concerned with the connection between characters. Though enjoying a significant influence, Zhang’s  proposal is merely relayed here for reference in this book. 6 畫 refers to line drawing.

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

魚 (fish) , Oracle script: 龜 (tortoise) Oracle script: ,

. ,

.

Some objects were difficult to depict, so ancient people had to describe the  environment which they were in. For example, “果” (fruit), written as in seal script, and in bone script, described fruits growing on the wood (木 ); “石” (stone), written as in seal script, described a stone under “厂” and it was later written as “厈” and “岸” , which mean a “cliff ” ; “眉” (eyebrow), written as in oracle script and in bronze script, depicted the shape of eyebrows on the forehead, and in seal script it is , but some people mistakenly took for the wrinkle on the forehead. Some of these pictographs have already developed to real Chinese characters, such as but some of them still represent symbols, such as . We can not take for “田” of “田地” (field).  In conclusion, all pictographs describe images of objects. (2) Sometimes, abstract concepts which are intangible can be depicted by drawings, so are some specific objects without concrete images. Simple symbolic  graphs or drawings could express these abstract and generalized meanings or actions. For example: (一 , 二 , 三 , 四 ), “one, two, three, four” . These strokes represent the increasing number, but none of them denote any specific objects.  , , (上 ,下 ), “up and down” . The horizontal stroke or curve represents the standard line, while the short stroke or straight stroke represents the position, indicating above or below the standard line. The last three symbols all are seal script, and the last one is a combination of “上” and “下” . (集 ), “gathering together” . In Shuowen Jiezi, “三合也” means “three in one” . (綴 ), “clustering” . (糾 , 絞 ), “to be entangled with ropes” .

All above examples use symbols to express ideas, but sometimes, drawing a specific object can also express ideas. For example: (鬥 ) It depicts “two people fighting” and is written as  or in seal script. (尪 ) It means “to be lame” by drawing one person with a crooked leg. (垂 ) It depicts “flower blooming and leaves so luxuriant as to hang down” .  (旦 ) It means “in the morning” , showing an image of “the Sun rising from the Earth” . (甘 ) Its original meaning is “含” (in the mouth, pronounced as /hán/). is “口” (mouth), indicating “something in the mouth” .

Above characters, despite indicating ideas by drawing specific pictures, are not  graphic characters because they do not describe specific objects. Some specific objects are intangible and can not be described by drawings, but 

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they can be expressed by drawing some other related things. For example: (末 , 本 , 朱 ) “末” is the top of a tree; “本” is the root of a tree ; “朱” is the ancient form of “株” , which is the trunk of a tree. These three characters are symbolized with a stroke to indicate three different parts of a tree.  (刃 ) It is “blade” , the sharpest part of a knife, which is indicated by one dot. (亦 ) It is now written as “掖” “腋” or “腋窩” (armpit). The armpit is difficult to draw,  so a person with two dots pointing to the position of the armpit denotes this character.

These characters all describe specific objects, but they also belong to the selfexplanatory character as they denote meanings by symbol.

2.2.2  Associative Compounds Most of Chinese characters denoting concrete things were invented by using pictographic characters and some abstract concepts could be expressed by selfexplanatory characters, but that doesn’ t mean these two methods could invent all things and concepts. We have to find some other way to express more things and  concepts, that is, to combine pictographic and self-explanatory characters together. To combine some pictographic and self-explanatory characters and associate their meanings to create a new one is called “associative compounds” . For example: (休 ) It is composed of two pictographs and , to express “a person resting on the wood” . (秉) It is composed of two pictographs and . (手 ) is a hand and holding a bunch of cereal crops (禾) in the hand is called “秉” . A famous poet of the Tang Dynasty, Bai Juyi, wrote in “The Poetry of Watching Cutting Wheat ” , “復有貧婦人， 抱子在其旁。左手秉遺穗，右臂懸敝筐” (I saw another poor woman standing beside the wheat cutter with a child in her arms, with the left wheat picked up holding in her right hand and a basket hanging in her left arm). In this poem, “秉” takes its original meaning “to hold a bunch of cereal crops” . But in some other poems, such as “Zhen Wei” , Odes of Zheng, The Book of Songs, “士與女 , 方秉蕑兮” (Ladies and gentlemen are holding flowers of valerian) and in Du Fu’s poem “Qiang Village” “夜闌更秉燭”(At deep night, I hold burning candles). These two examples extended “to hold a bunch of cereal crops” to “hold other things” . (兼 ) “秉” is “to hold a bunch of cereal crops in one hand” and “兼” means “to hold two bunches of cereal crops in one hand” . (蒦 ) It is later written as “獲” . on the top is written as “萑” in regular script, denoting a kind of bird. Its original meaning is “to catch a bird” . (盥 ) It is composed of three pictographic elements , and . means “water in a utensil” . was later written as “掬” , meaning “to pick up” , that is, “to hold water up” . “盥” describes the image of washing hands in a utensil. (猒 ) It was later written as “饜” , consisting of and . is also composed of

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and

. is a self-explanatory character, denoting that the mouth is full of delicious food. is dog meat, representing delicious food. 猒 is an associative compound character indicating “to feel replete after a large meal” . (棄 ) It is composed of three elements, one pictographic character , one and one ideographic character . (pronounced as self-explanatory character /tū/) is an upside down (子 , with hair on the top), denoting a new born infant; (pronounced as /gǒng/) represents (pronounced as /pān/), is a long handled dustpan; “to hold a dustpan with two hands” . Abandoning a new born infant is “棄” . Probably there was a custom of abandoning infants in ancient times. Hou Ji, the ancestor deity of the Zhou Dynasty, once was abandoned and he was named “棄” . Some people argued that “棄” was specially made for Hou Ji. However, it can not be true because this character existed in oracle script, written as . (寒 ) It is composed of and double , all of which are pictographs. (pronounced as /mián/), resembles the image of a house; is a pictographic character describing ice ripples. The ground was covered with ice and people stayed inside the house, but they still felt cold and hid into the grass. Then the character “ ” was invented.

and in the associative compounds and pictographic character are different from  of the self-explanatory character. In , elements of can be separated. It seems to be the same as that of associative compounds which can be divided into several simpler characters. However, we need to know that although can be separated, the remaining parts are not able to exist alone. “ ” is not “田” (field) and “ ” is not “一” (one). They need to attach to so as to express some meanings, but each component of an associative compound character, after separated, would be regarded as an independent character. As for   (two  men  fighting), once separated, no matter in seal script  or oracle script, none of parts would play any role in expressing meaning. This is a good example illustrating the difference between self-explanatory characters and associative compounds. All in all, associative compound characters refer to what can be separated into two or more simple characters, but pictographic and selfexplanatory characters are indivisible. These examples show that pictographic characters describe concrete images and self-explanatory characters refer to abstract concepts and the “thing” without a fixed form. Associative compounds entered a stage of expressing the meaning  by combining several components together. However, self-explanatory characters do not represent any concrete thing (except for a few), from which we can say it is also an associative compound character. Meanwhile, some self-explanatory characters represent meanings by images of concrete things, from which we know that they have not completely been separated from the pictographic stage; therefore, the self-explanatory character is at a stage between describing the image and expressing the meaning.

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2.2.3  Phono-Semantic Characters In addition to pictographic characters used in picture writing, self-explanatory characters and associative compounds were invented to show meanings of words. It is always difficult and frustrating with many restrictions. For this reason, people developed a much more convenient method to invent characters, that is, to combine an existing character with the phonetic element that they intended to express. For example, to express “梅” in “梅樹” (mume tree, pronounced as (/méi/), “每” , an existing character of the same pronunciation as “/mei/” was chosen and then a category character “木” was added to the root “每” . When seeing “梅” , people would know that this is one species of trees, and its pronunciation is the same as “每” (/měi/). In this way, the form and pronunciation are closely related, and it has become much more convenient to invent characters. To combine with pronunciation can break through many restrictions in the invention of Chinese characters, so phono-semantic characters are considered to be the highest stage of evolution. The phono-semantic characters are generally created with one semantic element and one phonetic element. For example, “木” of “梅” is a semantic element and “每” is a phonetic element. Some characters are composed of two semantic elements and one phonetic element. For example, “薻” is a kind of aquatic plant and the character consists of two semantic elements, “艸” and “水” and one phonetic element “巢” . There is no definite position of semantic and phonetic elements. Jia Gongyan of the Tang Dynasty made a thorough analysis and categorized them into six different positions which were tedious with little meaning, so we are not going to elaborate on them. But one thing we should know is that the different position of semantic and phonetic elements might form  the same character or create a different one. For example, “飄” and “飃” are one character, but “帕” and “帛” are two different characters. Why? Because characters  were created by people of different ages and regions, the difference is inevitable.  This is also considered to be one of limitations for phono-semantic characters. Some phono-semantic characters abbreviate a few strokes so as to make a simpler one. For example: (耆 ) “old” , following “老” as the pictographic element and “旨” (pronounced as /zhǐ/) as the phonetic element (Philologists, during the analysis of phono-semantic characters, set a rule of “follow X” and “pronounced as Y” . “X” is the semantic element and “旨” and “Y” is the phonetic element). However, “老” in seal script is written as as . How long would a character be if both elements were combined together? So the lower part of was abbreviated. This method of creating Chinese characters was termed as “follow老 abbreviating the lower part, and pronounced as 旨 /zhǐ/” . (瑩 ) “fine color of jade” , following “玉” as the pictographic element and pronounced as /yíng/(瑩 ). With too many strokes, a part of the phonetic element “熒” was abbreviated, so it turned to “follow玉 and pronounced as /yíng/(熒 ), abbreviating a few strokes of the phonetic element” .

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The phono-semantic “耆” abbreviating a few strokes of its pictographic element is called “pictographic element abbreviated character” , while “瑩” abbreviating a few strokes of its phonetic element is called “phonetic element abbreviated character” . Although some characters consist of two semantic elements and one phonetic element, or a few strokes were even abbreviated, most phono-semantic characters include one semantic element and one phonetic element. From pictographic characters to phono-semantic characters, the formation of Chinese characters has already been illustrated in full detail. Phono-semantic characters and ideographic characters were invented in the same way by combining two or more pictographic characters or self-explanatory characters together. From this, we know that pictographic characters and self-explanatory characters are the same in structure and they can not be separated into two or more simple elements. Philologists called this indivisible form “single-element character” or “文” (pronounced as /wén/). Ideographic characters and phono-semantic characters composed of several single elements are called “multiple-element character” or “字” (pronounced as /zì/). “文” and “字” are strictly distinguished terms in philology.

2.2.4  Phonetic Loan Characters In his Preface to Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen indicated that “The loan means a spoken word for which there is no character, a homophonous character being used to represent it. 令 (pronounced as /lìng/) and 長 (pronounced as /cháng/) are examples of this.” (假借者，本無其字，依聲托事，令、長是也。) “To express the meaning with a homophonous character” (依聲托事 ) means when there is a word in the spoken language which originally had no written form of its own, it may be expressed by borrowing an existing character with the same pronunciation. This existing character was borrowed just due to its same or similar pronunciation rather than express the same meaning. Therefore, “with a homophonous character” (依聲 ) means the existing character has the same pronunciation as what you intend to express. “To express the meaning” (托事 ) is to express the new meaning with an existing character. For example: 而 (pronounced as /ér/) It’ s a pictographic character describing the image of whiskers. A conjunction in Chinese had the same pronunciation, but no existing character could express it, so this homophonous “而” was borrowed to express this conjunction. 北 (pronounced as /běi/) Its original meaning is “two people walking away from each other in opposite directions” , i.e. walking away from each other. However, no character could express “north” , so, “北” with the same pronunciation was borrowed to express it. 來 (pronounced as /lái/)

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It is a pictographic character and its original meaning is “a wheat plant with or without an ear” . “來牟” in “貽我來牟” [Thou didst confer on us the wheat and the barley. (From “Si Wen” , Sacrificial Odes of Zhou, The Book of Songs)] means a wheat plant. Because no existing character could express “to come” “來” (a wheat plant) with the same pronunciation was borrowed to express it. 亦 (pronounced as /yì/) Its original meaning is “armpit” ; Here, “亦” was borrowed to express “too” , an adverb. 八 (pronounced as /bā/) It’ s a self-explanatory character and its original meaning is “to separate” .In Shuowen Jiezi,  resembles “walking towards different directions” . It was borrowed to express a  numeral, eight. 其 (pronounced as /qí/) Its original meaning is “A baboo pan is placed on the shelf” , and was borrowed to express a pronoun.

The character “A” was borrowed to express the meaning of “B” , not because “A” possessed the meaning of “B” , but only because they were homophonous. This is called “phonetic loan character” , or “loan character without adopting the meaning” . Please consider once more the above example of “令、長是也” . In Shuowen Jiezi, the original meaning of “令” was “to command” , that is “to give the order” . In “縣令” (county magistrate), “令” denotes “a person who gives the order” . The basic meaning of “長” 7 was “long in time or elder” , and it was later developed into the meaning of “officer” . This could explain “長” in “縣長” (the head of a county). “縣令” and “號令” (commanding), “縣長” (the head of a county) and “長 上，年長，長久” (long in time or old age) were closely connected in meaning. With these two examples in Shuowen Jiezi, some scholars defined such kind of loan characters as “extension” , or “meaningful loan” . There are many examples illustrating the use of extension, such as: 猒 (pronounced as /yàn/) As mentioned earlier, it means “to feel replete after a big meal” . If you eat too much, and can’ t eat any more, then you will feel sick, so it was extended to express “to be sick” (currently written as “厭” ). 函 (pronounced as /hán/) In Shuowen Jiezi, it was interpreted as “tongue” , but this is incorrect. In bronze script, it is written as , resembling a device of shooting arrows, but it also has the meaning of “to hide” . It was extended to “函” in “矢人豈不仁於函人” (Is the man who makes arrows less benevolent than the man who makes armor?) in Mencius. “矢 人” denotes “workers who make arrows” “函人” denotes “workers who make armor” and “函” denotes “armor” . Ancient people sealed their letters with wood, so it was also 7

The original meaning of 長 is varied. Zhu Junsheng believed that it first referred to men’s long  hair, while others argued for the meaning of growth, the latter of which is more convincing. The other meaning of “long in time” or “old age” should have derived from the meaning of “growth”.

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extended to express “letter” . 星 (pronounced as /xīng/) In “Ding Zhi Fang Zhong” , Odes of Yong, The Book of Songs, “星言夙駕” (By starlight, in the morning, to yoke his carriage). Hanshi (a type of literature indicates) that “星 denotes ‘a sunny day’ ” . It was extended to express the sunny day, because when the rain stops, the stars come out.

As “to express the meaning with a homophonous character” defines, loan characters should be limited to “phonetic loan characters” which are simply homophonous. However, to extend the meaning is not difficult. Almost all characters have their semantic extensions, even extended for several times. If “semantic extension” is also regarded as “loan character” , the scope of loaning is much more extensive and unlimited. Thus, a “loan character” has to be limited only to a “phonetic loan character” . Phonetic loan characters express a new meaning with an existing homophonous character, but in later days even those which could have been expressed by existing characters are also borrowed from other characters. For example, in “帶月荷鋤歸” (to hold a hoe and return under the moon) and “雖有荷鋤倦” (though tired after hard work with a hoe), “荷” originally referred to a kind of plant, but in above two lines, it was used as a verb and meant “負荷” (to take on the burden). “荷” (to take the burden) could find its original form “何” . In Shuowen Jiezi, “何，儋也” (“何” means “儋” . “儋” could be written as “擔” ). One more example is “雲氣” (cloud). The original form of “氣” is . It is a pictographic character and written as “气” in regular script. But later, “气” was abandoned and “氣” (a phono-semantic character following the pictographic element “米” and the phonetic element “气” ) in “饋客之芻米” 8(to treat guests with delicious food such as pork, mutton and rice) was used. The reason is that “何” was borrowed to express “何物” (a farm implement), and “气” was borrowed to express “求乞” (to beg). (The character pattern changed and one of strokes was abbreviated.) Therefore, “荷” and “氣” were also borrowed to express “儋何” and “雲氣” . Among the most common rules, there is another one “to omit the pictographic element and keep the phonetic element” (省形存聲 ), that is, to omit the pictographic element and use the phonetic element to represent this phono-semantic character. For example, in “Zhen Wei” , Odes of Zheng, The Book of Songs, “士曰既且” (A gentleman replies, “I have been.” ), Lu Deming of the Tang Dynasty in Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics(《經典釋文》) remarked “且音徂，往也。” (且 , pronounced as /cú/, means “go to… .” ) That is to say, “且” comes from “徂” omitting the pictographic element “彳” . In “Necessity of Training” of Huainanzi, “趹蹏足以 破盧陷匈” (The horse ran up and kicked hard to break the enemy’ s skull and tread into his chest). In this sentence, “盧” is “顱” (skull), omitting the pictographic element and keeping the phonetic element. A further question is whether phono-semantic characters such as “徂” and 8

芻 refers to pork and mutton.

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“顱” were invented first, or phonetic loan characters such as “且” and “盧” were invented first? This is a very difficult question to answer. But most possibly, phonetic loan characters first appeared and then phono-semantic characters followed. Let’ s consider some more examples. : its original meaning is “夔” and it means “the monster like a human to live in the mountain” . It was borrowed to express “ghost” , but later, a new character was invented to express the same meaning; “烏” : a bird, it was borrowed to express exclamation, but later a new phono-semantic character “嗚” was created to express the same meaning. Obviously “鬼” and “烏” could not be regarded as omitting the pictographic element and keeping the phonetic element of “ ” and “嗚” . From the perspective of spoken and written language, pronunciation has played a much more significant  role. Ancient scholars only emphasized on semantic meanings, taking the semantic element as the basis. However, it is nothing but to fix the form and denote the difference of meanings. Phonetic element is much more fundamental to express  the meaning. From this, we found that phono-semantic characters are closely related to phonetic loan characters. We even dare to say that sometimes phonetic loan characters contribute to the invention of phono-semantic characters. It is difficult to express semantic meanings simply by the form, as what the pictogram does. The final stage of the written language is to express the meaning  by pronunciation, for which phono-semantic and phonetic loan characters strive. In ancient literature, phonetic loan characters were used widely. For example, in the first sentence of Chapter One, The Analects of Confucius, “子曰 :‘學而時習 之，不亦説乎 ?’ ” (The Master said, “Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application?” ),  there  are  five  phonetic  loan  characters,“而 ,之 , 不 ,亦 ,説” . Therefore, we should pay special attention to phonetic loan characters.

2.3 Original Form and Original Meaning; Exploration into the Original Meaning As mentioned earlier, Chinese characters have both the original meaning and the loaned meaning. Here are some examples. “惟” : its original meaning is “thinking” and its loaned meaning is “only”. “來”: its original meaning is “a wheat plant” (來牟 ) and its loaned meaning is “to come” (來 ). Accordingly, we know that the original meaning was endowed when the character was invented and the loaned meaning was derived when it was borrowed to express some other meanings. The Chinese character showing the original meaning is called “the original form to express a meaning” , and if showing the loaned meaning, it is called “the loaned form to express a meaning”. For example, “惟” is the original form to express “thinking” (思 惟 ) and it is also a loaned form which is used to express “only” (惟一 ). The loaned meaning has often played a dominant role and the original meaning might disappear gradually. When reading ancient texts, we need to understand the original form and the original meaning. Therefore, for philologists, one of most

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important tasks is to explore the original form and meaning. For example, in “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ,“垂涕而去” (to leave with tears), and “兰与春，宗昆弟 也”(Shen Lan and Shen Chun, distant brothers). “垂涕” means “垂泪”(shed tears), and “泪” (tear) is the original meaning of “涕” . It is not “nasal discharge” which was called “泗” by ancient people. “宗昆弟” means “distant brothers” and “昆” is the elder brother. But, one could ask why “昆” means “elder brother” ? The reason is that “昆” was originally a phonetic loan character from “ ” (pronounced as ” (In the Zhou Dynasty, people called /gun/). In Shuowen Jiezi, “周人謂兄爲 the elder brother “ ” ). In “Qi Yue” , Odes of Bin, The Book of Songs, “八月剝 棗” (to knock down dates in August) was annotated in Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs（ 《毛詩詁訓傳》 ）with “剥，擊也” (“剥” means “to knock down” ). Then what’ s the relation between “剥” and “擊” ? “剥” is a phonetic loan character of “撲” (to hit). In Du Fu’ s poem “One More Ode to Official Wu” , “堂前撲棗任西鄰， 無食無儿一婦人” (Before my cottage, I never stopped my neighbor from knocking down jujubes; For the west neighbor is a woman with no child and no food to eat). “撲” is the original form and “剥” is the loaned form, so “剥” can be interpreted as “擊” (to hit). From these examples, we could draw a conclusion that to explore the original form and meaning will help the understanding of ancient writings. The question that keeps bothering us is how we could figure out the original  form and meaning of a Chinese character. Roughly speaking, we could achieve that by observing character forms as well as referring to some ancient literature. As for above examples, by referring to Shuowen Jiezi, we found that the original form of “昆” is “ ” . Now let’ s quote some more examples. 止　It is the original form of “趾” (toe) and means “to stop” in modern times. “止” is written as in oracle script, depicting the image of a paw, pointing to any direction. In “陟” (to climb), “降” (to land), “步” (to walk) and “走” (to run) are there one or several , which further proves that “止” is the original form of “趾” . In “Ceremonies About Management of Families” , The Book of Rites,“父母 舅姑……衽，長者奉席，請何趾” (“衽” refers to “sleeping mats” . When their parents and parents-in-law are going to sleep, the elder son or his wife will carry a sleeping mat and ask them what direction their feet is towards). Lu Deming’ s Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics was based on The Book of Rites which was annotated with “请何止” , which also proves that “趾” and “止” are the same character. 天　In modern times, “天” refers to “heaven and earth” (天地 ). In Shuowen Jiezi, “顛 (頭頂 )也” , refers to “top of the head” . While in “The Kui Hexagram” of The Book of Changes，“其人天且劓” (The driver was defaced like suffering the penalty of a tattooed forehead and cutted nose). “天” refers to a “tattooed forehead” . In “The Western Classic” , The Classic of Mountains and Seas（《山海 經》）,“形天，與帝争神，帝斷其首，葬之常羊之山。乃以乳爲目，以臍爲 口，操干戚以舞” (Xingtian fought against Tian Emperor and was defeated. He was beheaded and buried in Changyang Mountain. But with his breasts as eyes and his navel as the mouth, Xingtian continued to fight with his axe and shield).  In both examples, neither of “天” refers to“heaven” . In bronze script, In “天” is a self-explanatory character and written as , the dot on the top indicating the head

2.3

Original Form and Original Meaning; Exploration into the Original Meaning

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of a person.“天且劓” “劓” means “to cut the nose” and “天” means “剠額” (to carve the forehead with a knife). Both are torturing penalties in ancient times. The meaning of “天” as a torturing penalty derived from where it was carved. In The Classic of Mountains and Seas, “形天” is “刑天” , meaning “decapitation” . This example proves that the original meaning of “天” is “head” or “top” . In Tao Qian9’ s “Reading The Classic of Mountains and Seas” ,“形夭無千歲，猛志固常 在” (Xing Tian waved his shield and axe, and his resolute fighting spirit always  existed). Most ancient scholars took it as a mistake of “形天舞干戚” , which seems very reasonable. It has been corrected in A Collection of Mr. Jing Jie (《靖 節先生集》)compiled by Tao Shu of the Qing Dynasty and A Collection of Tao Yuanming (《陶淵明集》)compiled by Wang Yao of premodern times. It is true that to explore the original form and meaning is of great help to understand ancient Chinese, but it is impossible and unnecessary for a beginner to do that, since not all original forms and meanings can be identified. However,  we should make efforts to learn classical Chinese, the medium through which traditional Chinese civilization has been transmitted.

2.4 The Original Meaning and Extended Meaning The original meaning is the basic, opposite to the loaned meaning and the extended meaning. The basic meaning was obtained when the character had been invented at the very beginning, and then people might associate it with and sometimes extend it to the second or the third meaning. This is called “semantic extension” and the second and third meanings from extensions are called “extended meaning” . While elaborating on the loaned meaning in the previous section, we have explained the semantic extension. Now let’ s give some more examples. 上　Its original meaning is “upper” or “upward” and was extended to express high social status, such as “上賓” (first-class guest) and “上大夫” (senior official).  In the feudal society, an emperor held the highest tank, so “上” specifically refers  to emperors. In Chen Hong’ s “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” (《長恨歌 傳》), “上心忽忽不樂” (The Emperor felt unhappy),“上甚悦” (The Emperor was happy) and “與上行同輦，止同室” (The Imperial Concubine Yang took the same carriage and stayed in the same room with the Emperor). In these examples, “上” refers to Emperor Xuan Zong of the Tang Dynasty. It could also be extended to express the high value. For example, “上駟” means a good horse, “上将” means an outstanding general and “高足” is also called “上足” which refers to “a gifted student” . From a location word of “upwards” , it was also extended to express different times, such as “上古、上世” (ancient times). It could be extended to express “from the bottom to the top” as well, such as “上楼” (to go upstairs), but the intonation changed. It could also be extended “to get the run upon others” , such as “君子不欲多上人” (A man of virtue does not want to get the run upon others) 9

Tao Qian, also known as Tao Yuanming.——Editor’s note.

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from “The 5th Year of Duke Huan” in Commentary of Zuo(《左傳》). 徒　Its original meaning is “to walk” . Taking a carriage ride or a boat is called “乘” , and traveling without taking a carriage ride or a boat is “徒” . In The Analects of Confucius, “顔淵死，顔路請子之車以爲椁 10” (When Yan Yuan died, his father Yan Lu, begged Confucius to sell his carriage and get an outer coffin for his son). 子曰 :“……吾不徒行以爲之椁……” (The Master said, “I could not sell my carriage to buy an outer coffin for him.” ) In Bai Juyi’ s poem  “The Old Man with a Broken Arm at Xinfeng” , “大軍徒涉水如湯” (When the great army waded across the river on foot, just like walking into hot water). These examples illustrated the original meaning of “徒” , that is, without taking a carriage ride or boat. “徒” also got the meaning of “to be alone” , so it could be extended to express “單獨” (alone), “只” (only), “不過” (merely) and “空” (empty), etc. For example, in Mao’ s Annotation on “Yuan You Tao” (Peach Tree in My Yard), Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs,“徒歌曰謡” (The ballad without musical accompaniment is “謡” ). In “Biography of Childe Wei” , Records of the Grand Historian, “平原君之游，徒豪舉耳，不求士也” (Lord Pingyuan in the company of hangers-on were intended to show his heroic spirit and generosity, not to seek scholars). “徒豪舉耳” in the vernacular language was “nothing else but a heroic act” . In “Biography of Sima Xiangru” of Records of the Grand Historian, “家居 徒四壁立” (The house was very poor and empty, with only four walls standing there). In “The Legend of Xie Xiao’ e” ,“豈徒然哉！” means “no empty words” . Moreover, in the feudal society, noble people were permitted to take carriages, and those who did not have a carriage but served their masters were called “徒” , such as “徒隸” and “徒役”(to do labor service). Apprentices who learned from the tutor served him first, so they were also called “徒” . For example, in “Misleading Students” of Lü’s Commentaries of History, “師不能令於徒” (A tutor could not give orders to students). In the ancient era, some soldiers took chariots and some fought on foot. Those infantrymen were also called “徒” . The number of “徒役” (doing forced labor) and “徒兵” (infantry) was more than one, so “徒” got the meaning of “輩” (a group of) and “伙” (a gang of). For example, in “Biographies of Mencius and Xunzi” , Records of the Grand Historian, “淳于髡 , 慎到 , 環淵 , 接子 , 田駢 , 鄒奭之徒”（a group of scholars such as Chunyu Kun, Shen Dao, Huan Yuan, Jiezi, Tian Pian, Zou Shi） 乘　In oracle script, it is written as and in bronze script, it is , describing “a person to climb up a tree” , so its original meaning is “to climb” . By extending, any climbing can be simply expressed by “乘” . In “Qi Yue” , Odes of Bin, The Book of Songs, “亟其乘屋，其始播百穀” (climb the roof betimes; There are hundreds of seed yet to sow). Boarding a carriage and riding a horse are also called “乘” . “One carriage” means “一乘” . A horse means “乘” as well. In Bai Xingjian’ s “A Story of Li Wa” ,“乃鬻駿乘” means “to sell fine horses” . And  another example is “某騎而前去，當令返乘，便與郎偕來” (I’ ll ride there first,  then drive the horse back and you’ ll come with my husband). “返乘” means “to drive the horse back” . In ancient times, one carriage was drawn by four horses, 10

顔路 (Yan Lu) is the father of 顔淵 (Yan Yuan). 椁 , the outer coffin.

2.4

The Original Meaning and Extended Meaning

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so “乘” was extended to mean “four” . In “Explaining Hills” of Explanation of Terms “乘” is also “乘丘” , composed of five “丘” (hill), four smaller in the front and one bigger at the rear, resembling four horses to draw a cart. In “Li Lou II” of Mencius,“發乘矢而後返” (He took his arrows, discharged four of them and returned), “乘矢” means “four arrows” . In Yang Xiong’ s Dialect “二飛鳥曰 雙，四雁曰乘” , two flying birds are called “雙” (double) and four wide geese “乘” (four). From getting on the carriage, riding the horse and taking the boat, “乘” could also be extended to mean “乘時” (to take actions at the right time), “乘勢” (to take advantage of the situation), “乘機” (to take advantage of the opportunity), “乘隙” (to take advantage of a loophole) and “因利乘便” (to be at one’ s convenience). 澤　Its original meaning is “a lake with grass in water” and could be extended to express “rain” . In Yang Xiong’ s “Ode to East of the River” (《河東賦》), in “雲 飛飛而來迎兮 , 澤滲灕而下降” (Clouds rise up to meet and down comes the rain drizzling),“泽” means “rain” . “雨泽” is also used to describe a state of moisture, so “泽” has the meaning of “to be smooth and greasy” , such as “光澤” (luster) and “滑澤” (smooth and lustrous). The rain can water plants, so it was extended to express “virtues and benefits” as well. In “A Song in Slow Time” (an ancient yuefu song),“陽春布德澤，萬物生光輝” (Bright spring diffuses virtue, adding fresh luster to all living things). In “The legend of Everlasting Remorse” “姐妹封 國夫人 , 富埒王宫 , 車馬邸第 , 與大長公主侔矣。而恩澤勢力則又過之” (All her sisters received ranks and were entitled Lady of the Dukedom and their wealth could be compared with the Emperor. Their horses, carriages and houses were the same as eldest princess of the Emperor, but with much more bounties and power.) From “smooth and greasy” “泽” was also extended to express “cosmetic ointment” . In Cao Zhi’ s “Ode to the Goddess of the Luo River” , “芳澤無加， 鉛華弗御 11” (The lady was so beautiful that she didn’ t need to use makeup.) In addition, sweat is something moist and greasy, so an undershirt is called “泽” . In “WuYi” , Odes of Qin, The Book of Songs, “與子同袍” (I’ ll take my own cloak for you to share) and “與子同澤” (I’ ll take my own undershirt for you to share). “泽” refers to an “undershirt” , but it is very rare and not as commonly used as “雨澤” (rain), “芳澤” (scented hair oil used by women), and “恩澤” (grace), etc. In Shuowen Jiezi, “泽” means “luster”, which should not be taken as its original meaning. Scholars on semantics believe that there are three ways to create new meanings: to expand, to narrow and to shift, as shown in above examples. Expanding has been used more commonly than the method of narrowing. Sometimes we can even expand a word for several times. For example, “雛” (pronounced as /chú/) had an original meaning of “chick” , so it was expanded to “a young bird” , and then it was also expanded to express a “child” . In Du Fu’ s “The Trip to Pengya” (《彭衙 行》)“衆雛爛漫睡，唤起霑盤餐” (The children fell into a deep sleep and were woken up to have dinner) and Lu Xun’ s “挈婦將雛鬢有絲” (Temples grey I take refuge with my wife and child). As for narrowing, scholars could only find a few  examples in Chinese characters. The above character “上” , denoting “people 11

御 , to use.

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

with high social status” , is one of examples of shifting. But “上” also refers to an “emperor” , which belongs to the narrowing scope. Some similar examples are quoted as follows. 宫　In ancient times, “宫” refers “houses of ordinary people” . In “Confucian Scholar Practice of Rites” , The Book of Rites, “儒有一畝之宫” (The house of Confucians covers an area of one mu). “宫” did not differ between the upper class  and the lower class. However, since the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been used exclusively to denote palaces of emperors. 朕 In ancient times, it was used by common people to call themselves. In “Li Sao” ,“朕皇考曰伯庸” (My late father’ s name was “Boyong” ). “朕” was used by Qu Yuan to call himself. But since the Qin Dynasty, it has been used exclusively by emperors to refer to themselves. 子 In ancient times, both men and women were called “子” . To distinguish them, “男” and “女” were placed before “子” , such as “男子子” (men) and “女 子子” (women). In “Stratagems of Zhao” , Stratagems of the Warring States, “鬼侯有子而好，入之於紂 12” (The Marquis Gui has a beautiful daughter and he presented her to King Zhou” . In Chen Hong’ s “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” ,“宫中雖有良家子千數” (There are thousands of daughters from good families in the palace). Here, “子” refers to daughters13. Later, “子” and “女” become two opposite words, and “子” exclusively refers to men. 糞　Its original meaning is “to clean” . In seal script, it is written as , that is, to hold a dustpan in the hand and discard rubbish. Later it was narrowed down to express “faeces” . 臭　Its original meaning is “smell” . In “Xi Ci I ” , The Book of Changes,“其 臭如蘭” (It smells like orchids). In modern times, people also use “臭味相投” (Friends are attracted to each other by common tastes) and it was also narrowed down to express “stink” . From the literal meaning of an extension, it should include both expanding and shifting, but narrowing down can not be given another name and it also belongs to the shift of meanings (associative shifting). Thus, we may call it an “extension” as well. To know how to extend meanings, to understand original meanings of characters or words (Sometimes, we don’ t have to know original meanings. For example, if we know “上” denotes a high social position, we can understands why emperors are called “上” ) and to explore how they adapt and change in different  contexts, will make it much easier for us to understand ancient literature.

12

好 , beautiful. 入 is the same as “納”, to offer or present.  In Du Fu’s poem “Grief over Chentao Lake”(《悲陳陶》), the lines of 孟冬十郡良家子，血作陳 陶澤中水 (The boys of good families in the ten prefectures fought in the early winter, their blood flew like the water in Lake Chentao) describes the brave soldiers, hence referring to men here. 

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2.5

Phonetic Loan Characters and Variant Forms

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2.5 Phonetic Loan Characters and Variant Forms Both loaned meaning and extended meaning present shared characteristics, that is, two or more meanings are expressed by one character. The extended meaning is more or less related to the original meaning in a direct or an indirect way, so some clues can be traced between them, but the loaned meaning could not find rules to  follow except for “with a homophonous character” . Loan characters are used under the following two conditions: (1) A Chinese character “A” is loaned to express “B” . For example, “而” denotes a “beard” and “八” denotes “to depart” , and they are loaned to express a conjunction and a numeral respectively. Both the loaned and original meanings have the same character form. (2) Phonetic loan characters and original characters have different  forms. For example, in “不亦説乎” (Is it not pleasant?),“说” is the phonetic loan character of “悦” , that is to say, “悦” is the original form of “说” .“於戲” (Alas!) are phonetic loan characters of “呜呼” and “呜呼” is the original form. In the example of “八月剥棗” (to knock down dates in August), “剥” is the phonetic loan character of “撲” and “撲” is the original form. In “邑邑不懽” (a melancholy cast), “邑” is the phonetic loan character of “悒” (melancholy), and “悒” is the original form. In “子之燕居” (When Confucius lived at home leisurely), “燕” is the phonetic loan character of “宴” (leisurely) and “宴” is the original form.“扶 服” are phonetic loan characters of “匍匐” (to creep) and “匍匐” is the original form. The second condition, in wordbooks and dictionaries, is explained as “通”(to be interchangeable). For example, “燕” is interchangeable with “宴” ,“邑” is interchangeable with “悒” and “説” is interchangeable with “悦” . The former characters are phonetic loan characters to be explained and those after “通” are the original forms. Two characters with different original meanings are now “interchangeable” , suggesting that these two characters have the same meaning in some context. This is how the phonetic loan character and the original character are related. In addition, if two characters have the same meaning and pronunciation, both of them are original forms. This is called “variant forms” of a character. For example, “歡 (欢)” was also written as “懽” , “欣” as “忻” “歎” as “嘆 (叹)” “歌” as “謌” “靧” as “頮” “跡” as “迹” and “蹟 ,譟” as “噪” “婦 (妇)” as “媍” . This kind of variant form is called “或體字” (pronounced as /huò t zì/) in Shuowen Jiezi. For example, is a variant form of “ ” , and “婿” is a variant form of 壻 . Their forms are different, but their pronunciation and meaning are exactly the same. This case, in  wordbooks and dictionaries, is explained as “同” (to be the same). For example, “懽” is the same as “歡” ,“壻” as “婿” . “通” can not change the order, and “同” means the two characters are completely the same. Therefore, “悦” and “說” are not interchangeable, nor “悒” and “邑”，but “懽” and “歡” are interchangeable, so are “壻” and “婿” . In wordbooks and dictionaries, “同” is used both in explaining a single Chinese character and compound words composed of two or more characters, but it is not allowed to equate “同” in words with that in characters. For example, “the

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

pilaster projecting from a wall” is called “埤倪” or “俾倪” . Therefore, in the wordbooks and dictionaries, “俾倪” is interchangeable with “埤倪” , but “俾” is not interchangeable with “埤” , “倪” or “倪” . They are two different things. 

2.6 Calligraphic Varieties Calligraphic varieties have the same meaning, but their forms have experienced changes with times, that is, an ancient Chinese character “A” turned to the form of “B” . Duan Yucai once remarked that “Those who read Confucius classics and biographies(經傳 )14 definitely need to know calligraphic varieties. There is no fixed line between ancient and modern times. If the Zhou Dynasty was the ancient  times, the Han Dynasty was the modern one. If the Han Dynasty was ancient, the Song Dynasty was modern. Calligraphic varieties were just used in different  times.” For example, the above mentioned example of “天” refers to “head” and “top” and it is the same as “顛” and “頂” , so “天” was invented much earlier than the latter two characters. They are calligraphic varieties. Three different methods could be taken to construct calligraphic varieties.

2.6.1  To Invent New Characters by Adding Pictographic Element and/or Phonetic Element on Ancient Characters Of the calligraphic varieties constructed in this way, we often call an “ancient character” “protoform” (初文), which refers to the earliest characters. In fact, ancient characters are not necessarily the earliest characters, but most of them are, while a “modern character” is called a “later from of a phono-semantic character” , which can also be abbreviated to a “younger character” . There are three types of a later from of phono-semantic characters. (1) protoform + phonetic element (自 ) It’ s a pictographic character, the earliest form of “鼻” . “畀” , the phonetic element, was added to form the character . Thus, “自” is the protoform and “鼻” is the later form character. (晶 ) It is the protoform of “星” . “生” , the phonetic element, was added to form a younger 14

經 refers to the Confucius classics, such as The Book of Songs, The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Spring and Autumn Annals, and The Book of Changes. 傳 refers to the books explaining the meaning of the classics. 經傳 is used here to refer to the ancient books in general.

2.6

Calligraphic Varieties

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phono-semantic character , abbreviated as . (网 ) It’ s a pictographic character, the protoform of “網” . , the phonetic element, was (罔 ). In ancient books,“罔” added to form a younger phono-semantic character and “罟” were used together. For example, in “Xi Ci II” , The Book of Changes, “結繩而 爲罔罟， 以佃以漁”(People use strings to lait nets for hunting and fishing), “罔罟” is “網罟”.

(2) protoform + pictographic element (包 ) It’ s the protoform of “胞” , depicting the image of a fetus in a placenta. was later added to form “胞” . The added “月” represented what the placenta was made of and became the pictographic element when the protoform developed into the phonetic element. (主 ) It’ s a pictographic character, depicting the image of illuminating light. Later, “火” , the pictographic element, was added to form a later form of a Chinese phono-semantic character “炷” . (求 ) It’ s a pictographic character and the protoform of “裘” . “裘” is composed of a protoform plus a pictographic element “衣” . In seal script, it is written as with the pictographic element “衣” wrapped around “求” . (來 ) It’ s a pictographic character, depicting the image of a wheat plant. “禾” , a pictographic element, was added to form a later form of a Chinese phono-semantic character “䅘”. (疇 ) It’ s the protoform of “疇” , depicting the image of a ditch. In Tao Qian’ s “Going Home(《歸去來辭》)” , “將有事於西疇” (There will be work to do at the western farm). “田” was added to form a later form of a Chinese phono-semantic character . And it is written as “疇” in official script. 

Above examples of two groups, from the perspective of added elements, are called “protoform+phonetic element” and “protoform + pictographic element” . From the perspective of protoforms, “protoform + phonetic element” can be called “protoform as a pictographic element” , and “protoform + pictographic element” can be called “protoform as a phonetic element” . (3) Some more complicated examples a. Protoform + phonetic element+ pictographic element, for example: The second character was created by “protoform + phonetic element” as mentioned earlier and the pictographic element of was added to build a later form “網” . b. Protoform + semantic element + phonetic elment, for example: In “No Sheep” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs, “麾之以肱” (with

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

waves of arms). The protoform of “肱” is , depicting the image of a bent arm. A pictographic element was added to form and then one more pictographic element was added to form .

Above two examples indicate that a later form was created whenever an element was added and this later from character had the same meaning as the protoform. These characters are known as “added characters” . Some more complicated examples are as follows.

The first character of each group is a protoform.  , a pictographic character, depicts the image of a straw container15. , a self-explanatory character, is the protoform of “攀” (to climb). As for the second character , its semantic element is “貝” and its phonetic element is meaning “expensive” ; , in Shuowen Jiezi, was interpreted as “鷙不行也” (Birds of prey can not fly).  In Tao Qian’ s “Back to Country Life(《歸園田居》)” “久在樊籠裏，復得返自 然” (When I escape from bitter strife with men, I live a free and easy life again), “樊” means a bird cage. These two characters and don’ t have any semantic relationship with and , so they are two new Chinese characters. The third character of each group is a phono-semantic character, taking the second character as its phonetic element and possessing the same meaning as the first one. That is to  say, the first character is a protoform and the third character is its later form, so the  first and the third characters are calligraphic varieties.

2.6.2  Variation of Character Forms The protoform and later form character are not at all alike in their form, but to trace back to their origin, they could be taken as the same character. For example: It is a self-explanatory character and the protoform of “顛” .“顛” , a phono-semantic compound character, is the later form of “天” . It’ s a pictographic character, depicting the image of a backbone. In ancient books, it was used as a family name, so another later form “膂”(pronounced as /lǚ/) was invented. This phono-semantic character follows “肉” as the semantic element and “旅” (/lǚ/) as the phonetic element.

15

is the original form of 蕢 , as in 功虧一蕢 (fail to succeed for lack of a final effort), which refers to a kind of straw container.

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Calligraphic Varieties

29

It is pronounced as /pō/, describing the image of “to walk in difficulty with two feet” .  It was later changed to “跋” of “獵跋” (to be misbehaved). These two characters were also written as “狼狽” or “落魄” , meaning “in a difficult situation” . In Shuowen Jiezi, it was interpreted as “水小流也” (a tiny stream). It is the protoform of “涓” . is a self-explanatory character and “涓” is a phono-semantic compound character. It’ s a self-explanatory character of “臼” meaning “to hold something with both hands” and also the protoform of a phono-semantic character “掬” .

2.6.3  The Phonetic Loan Character Used for a Modern Character During the long history, the original meaning of an ancient character turned more and more subtle and even was replaced by a phonetic loan character. And then the phonetic loan character and the protoform would become calligraphic variants. When the modern character was widely accepted, the ancient character would not be used again. Some of them were discarded and some were only preserved in ancient books or dictionaries and some were even taken as the semantic elements, such as in . For example: It means “cloud and haze”.

(氣 ) was loaned to express “气” (gas), as mentioned earlier.

It means “to take on the burden” borrowed from “荷” (lotus).

,

It means “to assemble” . “集” with the original meaning of “birds perching on . In “Intonation of My Heart and Mind” in Nine the wood” was loaned to express Elegies, The Verse of Chu, “有鳥自南兮，來集漢北” (A bird from the southern clime perches on the tree in the Han River’ northern reach). In this example,“集” means “to perch” . could only be found in a few wordbooks. It’ s a self-explanatory character and the protoform of “端” . In Shuowen Jiezi, it was interpreted as “at the beginning” (物初生之題也 ).“题” means “the head”. The stroke in the middle denotes “the earth” , above which grows the fledgling plant and below which is  the root. The original meaning of “端” is “upright” and now it was loaned to express “耑” . It is a self-explanatory character and the protoform of “垂” as mentioned above. was loaned to express “to hang down” . The semantic element of is “土” (earth), the phonetic element is , and its original meaning is “陲” , referring to “the border frontier” in modern times. It means “frightened”. “怕” was loaned to express it. The original meaning of “怕” is “憺怕” , also written as “澹泊” , which means “peaceful and tranquil, not to seek fame

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

and wealth” . In Volume Three of The Lotus Sutra 《法華經》 ( ), “其心常憺怕，未曾有 散亂” (Your mind is tranquil and is not disturbed).

In some annotations on ancient books, such as Yan Shigu’ s Annotations on ( ) and Li Shan’ s Annotations on Historical Records of the Han Dynasty 《漢書註》 ( ), “甲，古乙字” is quite often seen, which means “In Literary Selection 《文選註》 ancient times, A was the original form of B” . Xue Chuanjun of the Qing Dynasty ( compiled A Textual Explanation of Ancient Characters in Wenxuan 《文選古字通 疏證》) which could be for your reference. Some of calligraphic varieties can be regarded as variant forms of Chinese characters, such as and “疇” “臼” and “掬” , because their meanings are exactly the same. However, “天” and “顛” “自” and “鼻” “气” and “氣” are not variant forms, because they have different meanings. For example, “天” means “heaven and earth” “颠” means “to overthrow” “自” means “one’ s own” and “氣” means “food for guests” . Above examples show that the relation between form and meaning is very complicated. Some characters come in various forms despite the same meaning while some have multiple meanings albeit with the same form. Among them, these characters may be semantically extended from other characters loaned from elsewhere to convey new meanings or coined in various forms using different means. If we understand how to create Chinese characters as well as how to use them, i.e. semantic extensions and phonetic loans, it will be easy for us to learn the form and meaning of Chinese characters.

2.7 Dictionaries 2.7.1  Arrangements of Dictionaries and Their Objectives Dictionaries have a declared aim of defining words or more complicated units such as idioms and allusions. Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, wordbooks and dictionaries have come out, but not all wordbooks are dictionaries. For example, in ( ), Zhao Gao’s Ai Li Primer 《愛 ( the Qin Dynasty, Li Si’s Cang Jie Primer 《倉頡篇》 ( ) were all for children to study 曆篇》) and Hu Wujing’ s Bo Xue Primer 《博學篇》 Chinese characters. In these books, characters are structured to form sentences for the purpose of reading aloud, so they are wordbooks. In the Han Dynasty, Erya (Literary Expositor) quoted by Confucianists for learning classics, is mainly aimed at interpreting word meaning, using modern words to interpret ancient words, or using common language to interpret dialects. This is the primary objective of a dictionary. Some dictionaries focused on interpreting Chinese characters, such as ( ), Yu Pian 《玉篇》 ( ) and Kangxi Dictionary 《康熙字典》 ( ). Shuowen Jiezi 《說文解字》 Although the objects of interpreting are characters, but character meanings can not be separated from word meaning. Therefore, these wordbooks could also be

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classified into dictionaries. From this, we know that the objective of a dictionary is  to interpret meanings of some units—words and phrases. The compilation of dictionaries or classification of words and expressions in a dictionary can use the following three methods: (1) Words were compiled according to categories, i.e., “semantically organized dictionaries” , such as ( ), and Guangya《廣雅》 ( ) by Zhang Erya, “Little Erya” in Kong Congzi《孔從子》 Ji. (2) Words were compiled according to forms, i.e., “graphically organized dictionaries” , such as Shuowen Jiezi, Yu Pian and Kangxi Dictionary. (3) Words were compiled according to pronunciation, i.e., “phonetically organized , dictionaries” , such as Guangyun (Expanded Rhymes《廣韻》 ) by Chen Pengnian , and Jiyun (Collected Rhymes《集韻》 ) by Ding Du. In ancient times, dictionaries which were compiled according to pronunciation were also called “rhyming” books, whose main objective was to determine pronunciation. Some of rhyming ( ) , did books, such as Zhou Deqing’ s Rhyming in Central China《中原音韻》 not even interpret meaning, so it could not be classified into the category of dictionaries. In contrast, Shuowen Jiezi and Erya interpreted meaning, but they were not or not completely marked with phonetic symbols. Therefore, the primary purpose of a dictionary is to interpret meaning.

2.7.2  From Kangxi Dictionary to Ci Hai Among those dictionaries from the premodern to modern times, Kangxi Dictionary and Ci Hai have been regarded as representative works. Some other dictionaries such as Chinese Dictionary (Zhonghua Da Zidian) and Ci Yuan, are nothing but the intermediate products of them. Kangxi Dictionary and Ci Hai both have similarities and differences. As for the difference, firstly, Ci Hai is a more comprehensive dictionary including some “encyclopedia” terms which were not included in Kangxi Dictionary, such as on politics, economy, history, literature and natural science. Kangxi Dictionary only included common words which had been interpreted previously in classics and other dictionaries. It is equivalent to the “lexicon” section of Ci Hai. Secondly, most characters and words in Ci Hai are of practical in use, while Kangxi Dictionary is mainly aimed at preserving ancient and widely used words, so many of unusual Chinese characters in Kangxi Dictionary could not be found in Ci Hai. Their similarities lie in the arrangement of these two books. Examples are as follows. Firstly, Kangxi Dictionary adopted the arrangement of Mei , Yingzuo’ s Zi Hui (Character Glossary《字匯》 ), in which all included characters were classified under 241 radicals. Radicals, characters and words were arranged based on the number of strokes, which was of great convenience for indexing. This radical-indexing system has later been widely accepted for a long time and adopted by Chinese Dictionary, Ci Yuan and Ci Hai, etc. Secondly, both dictionaries discarded the character-pattern analysis prevailing in Shuowen Jiezi, while retaining

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the interpretations phonetic notations and meaning. “Fanqie16” or occasional “straight pronunciation17” was used for phonetic notations and different meanings  were annotated under different speech sounds. For those polysemous characters or words, all important meanings might be included to promote reading, such as original meaning, extended meaning, and loaned meaning. This is quite different from Shuowen Jiezi and Yu Pian which only listed one or two meanings. From this, it can be seen that despite being marked with phonetic notations, characters and words were still categorized according to their meanings, and as many as different meanings were included, which further proved that the primary purpose of a dictionary is to interpret meanings. But there exist some differences as well. In Kangxi Dictionary, phonetic notations cited the source, such as Yu Pian and Guangyun (Expanded Rhymes), but in Ci Hai, it was omitted and each pronunciation was clearly marked with the rhyme among 106 “Peiwen Yunfu18” , but not in Kangxi Dictionary. Thirdly, both dictionaries, after semantic interpretation, were proved and supplemented by quoting examples from old books. This kind of arrangement had been adopted by Shuowen Jiezi and Yu Pian, but a much more extensive collection of examples could only be found in Kangxi Dictionary and later inherited by Ci Hai, which can not be ignored as progress in dictionaries. These two dictionaries are relatively complete in the arrangement, but there are also some errors and flaws. The greatest flaw is that quoted materials were not  cross-checked thoroughly and some of them were copied or transcribed from even more ancient books. What they referenced might not from the original texts, and book titles were even wrong, or unable to prove. Therefore, Wang Niansun and his son compiled a book Zidian Kaozheng (Textual Criticism of the Dictionary 《字典考證》) to correct mistakes in Kangxi Dictionary after its publication. Ruan Yuan called for some Confucianists to collect a lot of materials on interpretation of characters from over 100 ancient or annotated books, and then compiled to 116-volume Jingji Zhuangu (Compilation and Interpretation of Classic Works) based on “peiwen rhymes” , competing with Kangxi Dictionary. However, this book was simply compiled by collecting interpretations from ancient books and did not illustrate their usages. Then, for the beginners, it was not as convenient as Kangxi Dictionary. However, those materials they collected were reliable and authentic and could facilitate the research on character meanings, which was far superior to Kangxi Dictionary. As for Ci Hai, since the foundation of People’ s Republic of China, it was of great necessity to be revised, not because of its errors 16

Fanqie (反切): a traditional method of indicating the pronunciation of a Chinese character by using two other Chinese characters, the first having the same consonant as the given character and the  second having the same vowel (with or without final nasals) and tone. 17 straight pronunciation (直音): a traditional method of indicating the pronunciation of a Chinese character by citing another character with the same pronunciation. 18 Peiwen Yunfu 《 ( 佩文韻府》): a large dictionary of two-, three-, and four-character idioms, containing roughly 560,000 items under 10,257 entries arranged by 106 rhymes. It was compiled under the patronage of the Kangxi Emperor, whose imperial library was named Peiwen (“esteem/admire writing/phrases/literature”).

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in materials but because of its outdated viewpoints and different target readers. It took 22 years to revise Ci Hai under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, which was published in October, 1979, serving readers of different fields and in future, we are sure that it will continue to be supplemented and revised, so as to gradually reach perfection.

2.7.3  Two Great Dictionaries in Ancient China—Erya and Shuowen Jiezi (1) Erya The history of dictionary compilation in China could be dated back to the Han Dynasty, an era of establishing the study of Confucian classics and many of Confucianists were engaged in the compilation and interpretation of classical works and ancient books. Under such a situation Erya was compiled.“爾” is “邇” , meaning “to draw near or approach” and “雅” refers to common words or language used in ancient times, so “爾雅” means to interpret dialects and use common words to interpret the meaning of terms appearing in the ancient and classical texts, with the purpose of approaching to the language that everyone understands. The author of Erya remains unknown. It is traditionally attributed to the Duke of Zhou and supplemented by later scholars, while some other people thought that it was written by Confucius’ disciples, but either of them could not be proved. Among books of the Pre-Qin Period, only in “Xiao Bian” of Senior Dai’s Book of Rites(《大戴禮記》) of Dai De, the word “爾雅” was mentioned in “是 故循弦以觀於樂，足以辨風矣；爾雅以觀於古，足以辨言矣 19” (So touching the strings to examine the music is enough to distinguish folk songs; interpreting ancient characters with modern ones is enough to distinguish words). It was not a book title, but a verb-object phrase, in parallel with “循弦” , meaning “依於雅 來觀古” . “Erya” might first appear as a book title in the Han Dynasty. Many of  interpretations in this book were similar to annotations in Confucian classics of the Han Dynasty, especially Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs(《毛詩詁 訓傳》), which further proves that Erya could not have been compiled earlier than the Warring States Period, and something must have been supplemented during the Han Dynasty. That is to say, the complete version of Erya came out in the Han Dynasty. Erya consists of 19 chapters: Explaining Old Words, Explaining Elegant and 19

循弦 means to play the string instruments. 風 means the folk songs. The version of 85 articles selected and compiled by Dai De is known as Senior Dai’s Book of Rites, which was unfortunately lost in the course of history. The version of 49 articles selected and compiled by Dai Sheng, his nephew, is called Junior Dai’s Book of Rites(《 小戴禮記》), which is the origin of the current The Book of Rites.

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Archaic Sayings, Explaining Instructions, Explaining Relatives, Explaining Architecture, Explaining Utensils, Explaining Music, Explaining Heaven, Explaining Earth, Explaining Hills, Explaining Mountains, Explaining Waters, Explaining Herbage, Explaining Trees, Explaining Insects, Explaining Aquatic Creatures, Explaining Birds, Explaining Beasts, and Explaining Domestic Animals. From these titles, we would realize that Erya has been divided into different chapters according to categories of words, so it is a semantically organized dictionary. Among 19 chapters, the first three are of great importance,  in which “Explaining Olds Words” is similar to “Explaining Elegant and Archaic Sayings” . Both two chapters interpret ancient words and dialects with modern Chinese or common words. For example, In “Explaining Olds Words” : “如” “適” “之” “嫁” “徂” “逝”，all mean “往” (to go or leave). Xing Bing of the Song Dynasty annotated this group of synonyms with following words “如 : in The Spring and Autumn Annals, that dukes and grand masters went to pay respect to the king was ‘如’ ; 之 : in The Analects of Confucius, ‘之一邦 ’ (to another kingdom); in Dialect, ‘逝’ was used in the Qin and Jin Dynasties, ‘徂’ was used in the State of Qi and ‘適’ was used in the States of Song and Lu; ‘往’ was a commonly used word.”

In Dialect, “往” was interpreted as a commonly used word, but “如” “適” “之” “嫁” “徂” and “逝” , all referring to “往” , were more often seen in ancient classics and sometimes they were regarded as dialects, about which both “Explaining Old Words” and “Explaining Elegant and Archaic Sayings” discussed. “Explaining Old Words” usually provided one definition for a group of words.  For example, in this chapter 11 words were together in the first item with one  definition and 39 words were grouped in the third item with one definition. The  first item is below. 初 , 哉 , 首 , 基 , 肇 , 祖 , 元 , 胎 , 俶 , 落 , 權輿 all mean “始” (to start).

Examples of progressive interpretations: 遘 , 逢 mean “to meet” (遇 ); 遘 , 逢 , 遇 mean “to meet unexpectedly” (遻 ) ; 遘 , 逢 , 遇 , 遻 mean “to see” (見 ).

However,“Explaining Elegant and Archaic Sayings” , no more than two words would be interpreted together. “Explaining Instructions” is different from  “Explaining Old Words” and “Explaining Elegant and Archaic Sayings” , and it mainly interpreted words about emotion and appearance or words in The Book of Songs. Most of them used repeated characters (in ancient times, they were called “tautology” ) or sentences. For example, “委委佗佗” , means “to be easy and elegant in manner” .

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“Learning from each other just like ivory finely cut and filed” (如切如磋 ) refers to the attitude of learning; “Repeated thinking like a gem, chiseled and ground” (如琢如 磨 ) refers to the spirit of self-cultivation; “how grave he is and dignified, cheerful and  broadminded” (瑟兮僴兮 ) refers to his inner prudence and modest; “how commanding and distinguished” (赫兮烜兮 ) refers to powerful, impressive and dignified manner; “such an elegant and accomplished gentleman, never can be forgotten” (有斐君子，終 不可諼兮 ).

“委委佗佗” was quoted from “Junzi Xielao” (Hoping to Live with Her Lord Till Death), Odes of Yong, The Book of Songs while “如切如磋” and some others were quoted from “Qi Yu” , Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs. These two examples indicated  that “Explaining Instructions” interpreted words in a much more flexible  way than previous two chapters. The second example was not interpreted word by word, but from the context of the whole paragraph. This could roughly explain the difference of the three chapters. Chapters after “Explaining Relatives” mainly interpret objects or things and we do not need to discuss them one by one in detail. Let’ s supplement with a few more points the arrangement of Erya. Firstly, in addition to progressive interpretations, Erya also list words with different meanings. For example: In “Explaining Old Words” ,“臺 , 朕 , 賚 , 畀 , 卜 , 陽” , all mean “to give” (予 ).

The six characters above are interpreted by one meaning “to give” . However, among them, “賚” “畀” and “卜” mean “to give” in The Book of Songs; both “臺” (from The Book of Songs) and “朕” (from “Li Sao” ) mean “I” . “陽” is the same as “姎” which was interpreted as “I” quoted from “女人自稱我也” (Women called themselves “姎” ) in Shuowen Jiezi and “卬” in “人涉卬否” (Others waded across the river together with him, but I didn’ t) in “Pao You Kuye” , The Book of Songs. They are all phonetic loan characters. Secondly, as in “Explaining Old Words” , many words are interpreted with one meaning, so they are synonymous. However, synonyms are not identical in meaning in all its aspects. For example, in the first entry of “Explaining Old  Words” , 初 , 哉 , 首 , 基 , 肇 , 祖 , 元 , 胎 , all mean “to start” . Among them,“首” and “元” signify “human head” , indicating “originating and initiating” ; “胎” signifies “the beginning of life” ; “祖” signifies “the beginning of human race” ;  “初” and “基” in Shuowen Jiezi, mean “to begin making clothes and building the wall” ; “肇” (as “肁” in Shuowen Jiezi) means “to give a good name” (户始開 )20. Therefore, not all seven characters signify the same thing. Without Erya, people even would not find any shared characteristics among them. This shows that what  Erya interpreted was more often not their original meaning but extended meaning. Thirdly, we still quote the first from “Explaining Old Words” as an example.“哉” is a modal particle and in Shuowen Jiezi it was interpreted as “言 20

The line of “肇錫予以嘉名” in “Li Sao” means to give a good name as a start.

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

之間也” (in a sentence), then how could it get an original meaning? The reason is that “哉” is a phono-semantic compound character with “口” as the semantic element and “ ” as the phonetic element. “ (災 )” is another phono-semantic compound character with “戈” as the semantic element and “才” as the phonetic element. Therefore,“哉” and “才” are homophonous, that is to say, “哉” is the phonetic loan character of “才”. “才” meant “Grass and trees start to grow”, so “哉” also got its original meaning.21 This further demonstrates that many words in Erya did not show their original meaning but loaned meaning. Erya was very similar to many other important literatures on classic interpretation by Confucianists of the Han Dynasty and it was also an important reference book for them. Moreover, Erya is not limited to interpret Confucian classics. For example, in “Explaining Heaven ” “暴雨謂之涷” (The rainstorm is named “涷” ) is to interpret “使涷雨兮灑塵” (The rainstorm cleans the dust) in “Song to Fate the Great”, Nine Songs, The Verse of Chu;“扶摇謂之猋” (Ascending from the bottom up is called “猋”) is from “The Carefree Excursion”, Zhuangzi “摶 扶摇而上者九萬里” (It ascends upon a whirlwind to the height of ninety thousand lis). A large number of ancient meanings and dialect words were recorded in Zhuangzi. It is the most essential and also the earliest dictionary for reading ancient books and researching on Chinese semantics. Guo Pu of the Jin Dynasty in his “Preface to Erya” wrote, “誠九流之津涉，六藝之鈐鍵 22” (The nine schools of thoughts are involved and it is the key to learning the six arts), which is a reasonable and appropriate compliment. In the Han Dynasty, Guo Sheren23, Li Xun, Fan Guang, and Sun Yan, etc. annotated Erya but these annotations were all lost in the course of history. Guo Pu, a linguist and litterateur of the Jin Dynasty compiled Erya Commentary( 《爾雅註》 ) based on earlier annotations and it has been passing down to now. Xing Bing of the Song Dynasty compiled Erya Subcommentary based on Guo’s commentary, which was later collected in Annotations and Interpretations of the Thirtten Classics. In the Qing Dynasty, researches on characters and words were in great progress and many scholars were not satisfied with Xing Bing’ s sketchy commentary and supplemented more annotations, such as Shao Jinhan’ s Erya Zhengyi(《爾 雅正義》) and Hao Yixing’ s Erya Yishu(《爾雅義疏》). Each of them has strong points. Shao’ s commentary is brief and concise while Hao’ s commentary is well documented. Both are essential reference books for researching Erya. Similar to the arrangement of Erya, Wei Zhangyi’ s Guangya is also an important reference book on semantics. In the Qing Dynasty, Wang Niansun and his son Wang Yinzhi co-authored Detailed Explanation of Guangya, which was much more precise than Erya Shuyi. Since there is no difference in the arrangement between Guangya and Erya, we do not need to expound it in detail. 21

In “Qi Yue”, Odes of Bin, The Book of Songs, “春日載陽” (By and by the warmth of spring days grows).“載” is interchangeable with “哉” and it is the phonetic loan character of “才”. 22 鈐鍵 means the key to a lock. 23 郭舍人 , a native of Qianwei County(now Zunyi, Guizhou province), in the reign of the Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.——Editor’s note

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(2) Shuowen Jiezi Shuowen Jiezi authored by a famous scholar of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Xu Shen (his courtesy name, Shuzhong), is one of the most important graphically organized dictionaries, compiled based on the graphic structure of characters. Shuowen Jiezi was the first graphically organized dictionary; then Yu Pian and Kangxi Dictionary followed its arrangement. But the reason that Shuowen Jiezi is acknowledged to be the most important graphically organized dictionary is not only because it is the earliest one, but because it aims at analyzing graphic structures in a much more scientific way and has gained considerable achievements. Shuowen Jiezi categorized the collected 9,353 characters into different radicals, and then analyzed the graphic structure of each one, while Yu Pian and Kangxi Dictionary failed. Its radicals were based on original forms of Chinese characters instead of modern forms. For example, “一” is a character, but the stroke of “一” in “旦” is not. It represents the horizon. “旦” refers to “the sun rising above the horizon” . Therefore, “旦” and “一” could not be categorized into the same radical. In this way could we understand the original meaning of Chinese characters? However, Kangxi Dictionary emphasized more on the character forms. For example, “王” was classified into the radical “玉” . It does not make any sense. This example could also prove why Shuowen Jiezi is better than any other graphically organized wordbook. Chinese characters have a history of more than 3,300 years and experienced a long period of evolution. The earliest character form is the oracle bone script in the Shang Dynasty, followed by the bronze script of Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou, later the seal script in the Qin Dynasty and the clerk script in the late Qin and Han Dynasties, and then regular script with slightly changed clerk script. Since the Six Dynasties, there have been many simple and common Chinese characters. It is not easy to compile a wordbook as the reference for researching the evolution of Chinese characters, because it is difficult for readers to know ancient forms of  Chinese language. Moreover, great changes have taken place since the clerk script has been developed, from which we have lost the trace of the protoform of Chinese characters. Therefore, the most appropriate Chinese character forms used for analysis are written in small seal script, from which we can explore the origin of characters back to the Yin and Zhou Dynasties and estimate the variation of forms in later generations as well. Shuowen Jiezi was written in small seal script, which further proves that it is far superior to any other graphically organized wordbook. Shuowen Jiezi was compiled in such an era: firstly, since the Spring and Autumn  Period and the Warring States, great efforts have been made to interpret character  meanings by analyzing their forms, such as the two examples in Commentary of Zuo in “The 12th Year of Duke Xuan” , the King Zhuang of Chu, “夫文，止戈 爲武” (“止” and “戈” form “武” ); in “The 1st Year of Duke Zhao” , Yi He stated, “于文，皿蟲爲蠱” (“皿” and “蟲” form “蠱” ). In “Five Vermin” of Hanfeizi, “In ancient times, Cang Jie created Chinese characters. Circling inside is私 (厶 ) and the opposite one is 公 .” In the Han Dynasty, this formation of characters became more and more popular, and was later developed into “Rules of Inventing

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Chinese Characters” (seen in Preface to Shuowen Jiezi), i.e., “Six Script Theory” , which was the foundation for Xu Shen’ s compilation of Shuowen Jiezi. Secondly, Shuowen Jiezi based on the “Six Script Theory” analyzes Chinese characters, but as time went by, character forms changed dramatically. If people of the Han Dynasty made an analysis of characters based on clerk script, more often they would distort the original meanings and would not comply with rules of Six Script Theory as well. This is just why Xu Shen compiled Shuowen Jiezi in small seal script. Therefore, one of primary purposes of this dictionary is “to correct mistakes” . Then what is Shuowen Jiezi all about and how was it compiled? As Preface to Shuowen Jiezi stated, this dictionary “analyzed small seal script, with ancient characters and large seal script as the reference” (敘篆文，合以 古、籀 ). Xu Shen classified Chinese calligraphy from ancient times to the Han  Dynasty into four stages: the clerk script which was popular in the Han Dynasty, the small seal script which had been used since the first emperor of Qin, the large seal script which was used during the King Xuan of Zhou and more ancient characters. Xu Shen explored Chinese characters written in seal script, because it was used much closer to ancient characters and the large seal script and was also standardized nationwide in form, so it was quite appropriate to be used for analyzing ancient Chinese and correcting errors of common language. Those who interpreted Shuowen Jiezi named the small seal script as “regular seal script” and other Chinese forms as “variant forms” . There are three kinds of variant forms: ancient characters, great seal characters and huo ti. “Huo ti” means another form, i.e., the alternative form of the small seal script. For example: The small seal character was marked with , an ancient character of “示” (古 文示 ). was marked with , a great seal character with 基 as the The small seal character semantic element (籀文，從基 ). was marked with , a variant form of with 方 as the The small seal character semantic element ( ，或從方 ).

Under some small seal script were there no ancient characters, large seal script or variant forms for two reasons. One is that Xu Shen might not be able to find  many ancient characters and large seal script, since many of small seal script do not have ancient characters and large seal script. Secondly, the small seal script was evolved from ancient characters and large seal script. Some character forms changed while some still preserved their original form. For example, was the same in ancient characters, large seal script and small seal script. Although ancient characters such as could also be found, they are definitely not the most primitive forms. So, Xu Shen did not make annotations under those without different forms. Both explanations sound reasonable, but the first one is much more  preferable since characters always evolved from less to more. In addition, more than one ancient character, large seal script or variant form might be annotated under small seal script, because many of them could also have their own different forms. 

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Among the highlights of Shuowen Jiezi, “categorizing characters according to radicals” stands out clearly. Characters can be categorized according to meaning, pronunciation or forms. The last one was adopted by Shuowen Jiezi. Some character forms are simple and some are complex. Simple forms are put together to invent complex ones, such as + , , , to form “松” “柏” “桃” “梅” and + , , , to form “江” “河” “淮” “海” . These simple roots to which new characters are attached are called “radicals” . In Shuowen Jiezi, 540 radicals are taken as the basis for inventing more new characters and analyzing Chinese characters as well. During the Five Dynasties, a scholar, Li Han, named “radicals” in Shuowen Jiezi as “Chinese Etymology” . It is absolutely incorrect since some radicals are not the simplest character forms, but it could prove how important radicals are for Shuowen Jiezi as well as the significance in researching Chinese characters.  These 540 radicals are graphically organized (as seen in Preface to Shuowen Jiezi), that is, those with similar forms are grouped together. For example, (豆 ) (豊 ) (豐 ) (䖒 ) (虍 ) (虎 ) (虤 ) are listed together, the same as (皿 ) (厶 ) (去 ) (血 ). The first group of seven radicals are based on  and and the second group of four radicals take as the link. But some characters are grouped together according to their meanings. For example, is followed by , which is not possible to attribute to their form. (皿 ) is located after (豆 ) because both of them are food containers. But a few radicals are too far-fetched to be linked together by form or meaning. Anyway, arranging Chinese characters according to radicals is of great convenience for the purpose of indexing and memorizing. The most specific and important thing is how to interpret these characters listed  under each radical. All characters under one radical are subordinated to it, that is to say, the radical is a main component for each character. For example, is a radical, under which are characters such as (禎 ) (祥 ) (福 ) (礼 ) (祝 ). They were all invented based on the radical “示” . Therefore, at the end of each radical is there a note “All characters listed under X (radical) are subordinated to it” [凡某 (指部首 )之屬皆從某 ]. There is also a roughly fixed order under each radical, but this is quite specialized knowledge, and we will not explain it in detail. At the end of each radical is there a line of “the number of characters and the number of variant forms” (文若干，重若干 ) to calculate the number of characters and variant forms. From this total number (都數 , in ancient Chinese), it would be easily found if some characters were missed in transcribed versions. Under each seal character in the book is an annotation, which is called “the interpretation from scholars” (説解 ) of Shuowen Jiezi, which was generally based on rules as follows. 1. Semantic interpretation The radical (八 ) is annotated with “别” , meaning “to divide” . Each seal character starts with such an annotation, i.e., the original meaning. This is what Shuowen Jiezi differs from other wordbooks which more often interpret loaned meaning, e.g. Erya. Different methods were employed to interpret Chinese characters.  (1) For single-morpheme words with two syllables, the first character of this 

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disyllabic word is annotated with “the disyllabic word+semantic interpretation” and the second character simply repeated this disyllabic word. For example, is annotated with “玫瑰，火齊珠也。一曰，石之美者” (Rose, a pearl, or a beautiful jade). The following one is annotated with “玫瑰也” . Because under the first character, this character has been interpreted and it is unnecessary to repeat what has already been interpreted. (2) Many characters have similar pronunciation as what they interpret, such as alliteration, rhyming or the same consonant and vowel. This is called “phonetic interpretation” . For example, under the seal character is “顛” and both “天” (pronounced as /tiān/) and “顛” (pronounced as /diān/) have the same consonant and vowel in ancient times; under (逆 ) is annotated with “迎”，both “逆” and “迎” are alliterative; to quote the example (别 ) again, both “八” (pronounced as /bā/) and “别” (pronounced as /bié/) are also alliterative; under is annotated with “怒也，武也” . In ancient times, “馬” (pronounced as /mǎ/), “怒” (pronounced as /nù/) and “武” (pronounced as /wǔ/) are all rhymed. These characters could not have been invented by Xu Shen, since they had existed long before. This is a valuable resource for people to do researches on ancient Chinese phonetics. (3) To interpret a character with another one or a synonym. For example, “division” (别 ); (芓 ) means “sea anemone” (兔葵 ); (蓨 ) “seedlings” (苗 ); (噍 ) “it” (牠 ). (4) To interpret the specific name with the general name. For example,  ( ) is “a kind of grass which could be made or tied in a bundle” (草也，可以束 ); (蔞 ) is “a kind of grass which could be used to cook fish” [草也，可以亨 (烹 )魚 ]. (5) To  interpret  with a  definition.  For  example,  (口 ) means “with which people speak and eat” (人所以言食也 ); (呼 ) “expiration” (外息也 ); (吸 ) “inspiration” (内息也 ); (喟 ) “sighing” (大息也 ). (6) To interpret with features and functions. For example, (馬 ), horse, raging and attacking (怒也，武也 ). “Raging and attacking” are features of horses, representing something with fury and mighty. (户 ) is “to protect” (護 ). The function of “户” is to protect. In addition, (天 ), the sky, is interpreted as “顛” , a location word, because the sky is always on the upper side over human heads. This is a quite unusual example, same as that of features and functions. In Shuowen Jiezi, semantic interpretation is about original meaning, but some alternative meanings might also be included. As in the above example “玫瑰，火 齊珠也。一曰，石之美者” , “石之美者” is an alternative meaning. Under “一曰” in Shuowen Jiezi are alternative meanings. 2. Graphic analysis Character forms are analyzed according to “rules of inventing characters” , and there are four categories in Shuowen Jiezi as follows. The first one is “pictographic characters” , i.e., depicting the image of objects. For  example, (鼻 ) depicts the image of a nose; depicts the image of an ox, the top three strokes resembling horns and a head, and the lower part resembling the shoulder. A pictographic character is usually a simple drawing that represents something. The second one is “self-explanatory characters” , describing abstract senses.

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For example, “上” in seal script is , and the long horizontal stroke “—” divides the upper and lower parts and the vertical stroke “∣” indicates the object over this line. Self-explanatory characters are rarely seen in Shuowen Jiezi, with only one example “ ，高也。此古文上，指事也” ( , a self-explanatory character, signifies “tall or high” ). Most of abstract senses are described by “self-explanatory  characters” which are interpreted as “pictographic characters” . For example, ( ), a pictographic character, signifies “to get entangled” and melons get entangled. (牟 )，a pictographic character, signifies “moo-moo” , that is, the ox bellows. Its semantic element is “牛”，mimicking the bellowing from a cow’ s mouth. refers to the bellow coming out of a cow’ s mouth, which is also abstract. signifies “three in one” and its semantic element is , depicting the image of a triangle. All these examples are self-explanatory characters but interpreted as a pictographic character. From this, we could speculate that “指事也” (a selfexplanatory character) annotated under might not be the original interpretation in Shuowen Jiezi. The third category is “associative compound characters” . These characters are composed of two or more minimal units (從某某 or 從某從某 ), each constituting a meaningful part to express a new meaning. For example, (咠 ) signifies “to be whispering” , consisting of “口” and “耳” ; (吏 ) signifies “the government official” , consisting of “一” and “史” . The fourth category is “phono-semantic compound characters” , composed of two components, one semantic element (從某 ) and one phonetic element (某 聲 ). For example, (珠 ): its semantic element is “玉” and phonetic element is “朱” ; (莩 ): its semantic element is “艸” and phonetic element is “孚” . There are two other slightly different methods. One is “to abbreviate some strokes of the phonetic element” (省聲 ). For example, signifies “the chimney smoke soaring” and its semantic element is “鬲” (a utensil for cooking) and phonetic element is “蟲” which abbreviated some strokes. However, no strokes were abbreviated in large seal script . The other method is “a combination of meaning and pronunciation” (亦聲 ). For example, is composed of two semantic elements “木” and “册” and one phonetic element “册” ( , 從木從册， 册亦聲 ). In ancient times, “册” referred to ancient books in which characters were written on bamboo or wood strips and tied together with strings. 栅 (fence), similar to books, is also made of wood. Characters with a combination of meaning and pronunciation are both ideographic and phono-semantic compound characters. 3.To quote other Confucian classics, books and famous scholars’ commentaries In Preface to Shuowen Jiezi, the author stated “When it comes to something that readers are not easy to understand, some metaphors and similes can be taken for a comparison to describe” (厥誼不昭，爰明以諭 ). “諭” means “to draw an analogy” . If explaining meanings and analyzing forms were not enough to interpret a Chinese character, materials from other Confucian classics, books and famous scholars’ commentaries would be quoted for supplements and extensions. Shuowen Jiezi quoted The Book of Changes, The Book of Songs, The Book of Documents, The Rites of Zhou, The Book of Rites, Commentary of Zuo, The Analects of Confucius and The Classic of Filial Piety; from some collections

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such as Discourses of the States, Mozi and Taiyi Sutra; and also from ancient and modern famous scholars’ commentaries, mainly in the Han Dynasty, such as Sima Xiangru, Yang Xiong, Dong Zhongshu, Tan Chang, Du Lin, Wang Yu, Privy Counselor Jia (Jia Kui is Xu Shen’ s tutor, so his real name is omitted and only his official title is used to show respect) and some others. Quoting Confucian  classics, collections and famous scholars’ commentaries could be categorized with following three examples. First, (牣 )means “to be filled with” . Its semantic element is “牛” and phonetic element is “刃” . In The Book of Songs, “於牣魚躍” (Alas! A great deal of fish in the pond are jumping!) Second,  (𤊾 ) means “The candle is not bright” . Its semantic element is “火” and the phonetic element is “苜” . In The Book of Zhou, “布重𤊾席” (The mat was made of dandelion) was quoted from “Gu Ming” of The Book of Documents, written as “敷重蔑席” in the current version. “𤊾席” or “蔑席” are mats made of dandelions, pronounced as / miè/. It does not have the original form, so both “𤊾” and “蔑” are homophonous loan characters. The third, “ ” means “grass and trees growing on the earth” . Its semantic element is “艸” and phonetic element is “麗” . In The Book of Changes, “Cereals, grass and trees all grow in the earth.” Both “艸” and “麗” are semantic elements and “麗” is the phonetic element. “麗” means “two deers walking together” and also refers to “affiliation and attachment” , so it is the semantic element of “䕻 ”, depicting the image of “grass and trees growing on the earth”. Xu Shen quoted The Book of Changes to further confirm the phonetic element “䕻 ” is “麗 ”. 4.“讀若” (pronounced as….), for phonetic notation or indication of phonetic loan characters But in Shuowen Jiezi, not all seal characters have been marked with “讀若” . Some characters were annotated with “讀若某” (pronounced as X), “讀若某某之 某” (pronounced as X in XX), “讀若某同” (pronounced the same as X), “讀與某 同” (pronounced the same with X). For example, “珣” means an ornament of jade, pronounced as /xuān/ ( 讀若 “宣” ); “惢” was pronounced as /suǒ/ (讀若“旅瑣 瑣”) in The Book of Changes; was pronounced as /jiū/ ( 讀若 “三合繩糾”); “㺨” was pronounced as /sī/ ( 讀與私同 ); “𢻱” was pronounced as /shī/( 讀與施同 ). “讀若” is for phonetic notation, but many examples are phonetic loan characters, such as “𢻱 ,敷也。讀與施同” , that is, “𢻱” means “to apply” ( 敷 ) which was pronounced as /shī/. That is to say, “施” could be loaned to express “𢻱” that is the original form of “施” . Its semantic element is “㫃” , the same radical with “旌” and “旗” , and its original meaning is “旖旎” (Banners and pennons are flaunting  in the wind) and was loaned as “𢻱” in the classics of Confucius. Therefore, “讀 若” (pronounced as /dú ruò/) in Shuowen Jiezi could not be simply regarded as phonetic notation. 5.闕義 , meaning “No comment on what is unknown” In Preface to Shuowen Jiezi, “其于所不知，蓋闕如也” (A gentleman does not comment on what he doesn’ t know). For example, “ ，溥也，從二，闕，方聲” ( 溥 , semantic element “二” , unknown to the meaning, the phonetic element “方” .) Duan Yucai stated “Xu knew nothing about the meaning of , so he did not make any comment” (許不知 形之義，故闕 ). In the Qing Dynasty, Yan Kejun, a scholar of Shuowen Jiezi, held a different view. He asserted that “闕” in Shuowen

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Jiezi might not come from Xu Shen’ s original text, which most possibly was annotated by whoever proofread. This does make sense. However, it is difficult to distinguish which part is Xu’ s original text and which part is supplemented by scholars of later ages. Above examples roughly illustrated the arrangement of Shuowen Jiezi. Generally speaking, what Shuowen Jiezi contributed to the field of philology for  the most part is as follows. Firstly, some examples in this book could be used to analyze character forms, despite that some of them might be incorrect. It pointed the way for us to distinguish between the original meaning and loaned meanings of a Chinese character. Secondly, the research of Chinese etymology could be promoted. For example, “八” depicts an image “to divide and separate” , so “分” “半” “畔” “判” “ ” (the protoform of “頒” ) were all derived from “八” . Not only character forms present inherent relationship, but phonetics and semantics also share common characteristics. Thirdly, Shuowen Jiezi collected semantic interpretations from various sources, which is of great value to the research on the original meaning, extended meaning and loaned meaning. Fourthly, analyses of phonetic notation, similar pronunciation and phonosemantic compound characters provided abundant resources for the research on ancient phonetics. Fifthly, many ancient Chinese characters have been preserved in this book and some of them even could not be found in any other books. Because in the Han Dynasty, Confucian masters following different tutors used different versions of classics as their teaching materials, Xu Shen quoted such abundant previous masterworks. For example, in Shuowen Jiezi, there is no “確” , but “塙” that means “to be unbreakable” ( 堅不可拔也 ). However, it is “確” in “確乎其不可 拔” (strong, resolute and unshakable) in “Wen Yan” , Hexagrams of Qian, The Book of Changes. Another example is “勼” (to get together), which is the same as “鳩” (falcon, a bird’ s name). “勼” is the protoform of “鳩” in “方鳩僝功” of “Biography of Yao” , The Book of Documents. Such quotations are of great value for the research on ancient Chinese characters and old books. Shuowen Jiezi was aimed at “correcting mistakes” , but in the Han Dynasty when clerk script was widely used, Xu Shen had very limited knowledge of seal script and he also inevitably got influenced more or less by the social situation.  Therefore, what he interpreted in the book was not exactly accurate. For example, the original meaning of is “human head” , but in bronze script of the Yin and Zhou Dynasties, it was written as . In Shuowen Jiezi, it was interpreted as “ 至 高無上，從一大” (supremacy, composed of “一” and “大 . The seal script of “射” is ,in bronze script it is , and the oracle script is , depicting a picture of attaching the arrow to the bow. However, in Shuowen Jiezi, it was interpreted as “弓 弩發於身而終於遠也。從矢，從身” (Arrows are shot by archers and penetrated through the target in the distance, so it is composed of “矢” and “身” ). These conclusions were somewhat far-fetched and would need to be revised by later

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philologists. But anyway, such flaws can not obscure achievements of this book. Shuowen Jiezi is one of great classical works in philology but understanding it is not easy. Reading Shuowen Jiezi is just like reading a dictionary. Taking the radical 艸 as an example, “ 芧，草也，從草予聲，可以爲繩” ( 芧 , a kind of grass used for making ropes, its semantic element “草” and phonetic element “予”). What’ s the point of these three short sentences? Many scholars since ancient times have spent a lot of time researching on Shuowen Jiezi and left many great masterpieces. While reading Shuowen Jiezi, we would have to refer to those annotations. Books on annotations and detailed explanations of Shuowen Jiezi are numerous;the most famous books are Duan Yucai’ s Annotations on Shuowen Jiezi, Wang Yun’ s Sentence Segmentation in Shuowen Jiezi, and Zhu Junsheng’ s Explaining Meanings and Speech Sounds of Shuowen Jiezi. Duan Yucai is the most successful scholar who has ever systematically studied Shuowen Jiezi and he put forward “General Rules”. For example, under the radical (夫 ), it was annotated with “ (規 )，規巨，有法度也” (規 refers to the established practice of rules and regulations). Duan stated, “to interpret ‘规’ and ‘矩’ ‘规巨’ was annotated on ‘巨’ under the radical ‘工’ . This is an example to take General Rules. Under the radical “囟”, was annotated with ‘ , 24, 人 也’ ‘ ’ denotes the navel. Therefore, under the radical ‘肉’， was annotated with ‘ ’. This example follows the general rule as well.” One more example is the radical “豐” , “豐，行禮之器也，從豆象形” (豐 , a pictographic character, meaning “sacrificial utensils” , with the semantic element “豆” ). Duan remarked that “The upper part of this Chinese character describes its shape…according to the General Rule of Shuowen Jiezi, the semantic element is ‘從……’ If the upper part was depicted as , it would not have been regarded as a pictographic character.” We should pay attention to this general rule while reading Duan’ s book. Of course, some mistakes could also be noticed. Wang Yun criticized him and commented, “Duan’ s quotations are very abundant and precise and his “General Rules” is unknown to ancient scholars, but his comments are arbitrary, or even fragmented. This is the flaw in his book.” [See Preface to Exemplifying Shuowen Jiezi 《說 ( 文解字例序》)]. Although some shortcomings, Duan’ s book is still a very enlightening great work. However, Duan quoted examples from various sources and some of them were not easily understood. For example, in the annotation to the radical “水” , he quoted almost all about ancient rivers in Waterways, and also cited relevant parts from “Geographical Records” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty. This is very difficult to read for beginners. Sentence Segmentation in Shuowen Jiezi authored by Wang Yun (the courtesy name, Luyou) is simple and easy for reading and his contribution stands out in “identifying sentence boundaries between words”. The ancient writing is simple and concise, but reading it is also confusing. For example, (祼 ), a ritual, denoting “to pour the wine on the ground for worshiping ancestors” ( ,灌祭也 ). It was possibly written as “灌” in some ancient Chinese books. In “Jiao Te Sheng” , The Book of Rites, “灌以鬯臭” (to pour the fragrant wine on the ground to worship 24

is the same as 臍.

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Gods). Therefore, “祼” is the original form and “灌” is the phonetic loan character. In Shuowen Jiezi, “灌祭也” should be segmented as “灌 //祭也” . Wang’ s sentence segmentation has been of great use for readers to better understand Shuowen Jiezi. Zhu Junsheng’ s Explaining Meanings and Speech Sounds of Shuowen Jiezi is divided into three sections: (1) to analyze character forms, (2) to interpret meanings, especially on the mutual explanatory characters and phonetic loan characters. Zhu’ s mutual explanation is extended meanings; for example, the basic meaning of “令” (to command) could be extended to a county magistrate (縣令 ); the basic meaning of “长” (long in time and far in distance) could be extended to a senior official (官長 ). Phonetic loan characters refer to those without written forms of their own and expressed by borrowing an existing character with the same pronunciation. For example, the original meaning of “朋” is “phoenix” (鳳 ) and it was borrowed to express “clique” (朋黨 ); the original meaning of “來” is “a wheat plant” (麥 ) and it was borrowed, meaning “to come and go” (來去 ).(3) to annotate with pronunication, by recording rhymes and phonetic annotations from ancient books on each character, for the purpose of exploring the ancient pronunciation of characters. Zhu’ s book was divided into 18 sections according to his ancient rhyming system, whose subtitles completely or partially derived from hexagrams of The Book of Changes, such as “孚” of “中孚” and “小” of “小畜” , as follows: 豐升臨謙頤孚小需豫 隨解履泰乾屯坤鼎壯

Zhu’ s book was aimed at clarifying the relationship between pronunciation and meaning. From the perspective of ancient rhyming, this book investigated the semantic extension and loaning. The author especially emphasized reading classics. By sorting out from a great deal of literature materials, readers could stride over the obstacles and finally understands classical writings (Seen Preface to Explaining Meanings and Speech Sounds of Shuowen Jiezi). This book quoted a large number of examples and can be regarded as one of valuable reference books. Other books which could be referred to include Shuowen Jiezi Yizheng by Gui Fu, quoting from ancient books to interpret Shuowen Jiezi and Shuowen Jiezi Liushu Shuzheng by Ma Xulun of premodern times, interpreting Shuowen Jiezi according to the “Six Script Theory” . Researching Shuowen Jiezi, we should firstly learn how to analyze character forms and then divide the characters into simplest and indivisible morphemes according to the rules of inventing characters and finally, associate the meanings  of each part. For example, , , ,The semantic element of is and it means “to separate” and describes the image of departing. is a phono-semantic compound character whose semantic element is “刀” and the phonetic element is “半” . However, “半” is also a semantic element since it has specific meaning.  was invented after , so it was“ +刀”，not

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2 A Brief Introduction to Form and Meaning of Chinese Characters & Dictionaries

in the opposite way. is the primitive form of and as what philologists stated, it is . and should be regarded as variant forms. Under analysis the “protoform” of and synthesis, we could find the internal relationship of these characters and therefore,  to explore and analyze characters will not be boring.

Secondly, we need to expand the scope beyond a few characters or radicals to the related radicals. For example, the radical “夫” was annotated with “規，規巨 (矩 ), 法度也” and the radical “巨” was annotated with “巨，規矩也” . Readers could understand the meaning of “巨” after they read the annotation under the radical “夫” . Another example is the radical “艸” , denoting “to be grassy” [(蔇 , 多皃 (貌 )]. The radical “禾” denotes “seedlings are planted densely” (穊 ,稠也 ). Readers will easily find they are synonymous and have the same pronunciation according to the same phonetic element “既” . In Duan’ s and Wang’ s books we could know more about the general rules in Shuowen Jiezi. Thirdly, Duan, Wang and Zhu all followed the arrangement of Shuowen Jiezi, compared with other wordbooks such as Erya, Dialect, Explanation of Terms, Guangya, Yu Pian, Guangyun and Jiyun. We should always remember that most of interpretations in Shuowen Jiezi are about the original meanings; however,other books were more often interpreted with extended meanings. Otherwise, we might make mistakes while reading classical texts. Fourthly, to research Shuowen Jiezi, we should combine ancient books with old texts. The small seal script used in the Qin Dynasty is very different from the  original form of Chinese characters, so problems will be inevitable if we interpret words only from small seal script, and we need to read more ancient written forms and old texts, as previously mentioned examples of and . To prove this, we could also give more examples. Surely, to refer to ancient books and old texts is not a requirement for beginners, but we must understand that this is the right way to do research on Chinese characters. In the time of Emperors Qianlong and Jiaqing of the Qing Dynasty, the bronze script was used to interpret Shuowen Jiezi, and after the Emperor Guangxu, the oracle script was used, both of which created a new way in philology and got great achievements. Finally, we would like to introduce different versions of Shuowen Jiezi and its indexing system. Currently two versions are widely used: one is Xi Zhuan authored by Xu Kai (the courtesy name, Chujin) of the Southern Tang Dynasty. Its full title is A Serial Interpretation of Shuowen Jiezi(《說文解字系傳釋例》). Each seal character was indicated with Zhu Ao’ s fanqie in addition to Xu Kai’ s annotation. The other one is the proofread book of Xu Xuan (the courtesy name, Dingchen) of the Song Dynasty with Tang Sunmian’ s fanqie. Xu Kai is Xu Xian’ s younger brother, so A Serial Interpretation of Shuowen Jiezi was also named “Elder Xu’ s Version” , and Xu Xuan’ s was called “Younger Xu’ s Version” . Younger Xu’ s version was not revised as much as elder Xu’s, so the former one was praised highly by many scholars. But even Younger Xu’ version appeared long after Xu Shen’ s Shuowen Jiezi, so it was also impossible to clarify his ideas completely and precisely. How could we use search for seal script in Shuowen Jiezi? Most importantly, being familiar with it, which is, however, extremely difficult especially for non- 

2.7

Dictionaries

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experts. The scientific indexing system for Chinese characters is based on Indexing to Shuowen Jiezi(《說文通檢》) by Li Yongchun of the Qing Dynasty. But it will be more convenient to use the index of the elder Xu’ s version compiled by Chen Changzhi who annotated one seal character in each line. Li’ s book is applicable for using the index of the general version of Shuowen Jiezi and annotations. In his Explaining Meanings and Speech Sounds of Shuowen Jiezi., Zhu Junsheng rearranged characters in Shuowen Jiezi, so Li’ s book was of no use. We could use the indexing system based on Zhu’ s Indexing by Radicals(《分部檢韻》). As for the detailed information of Indexing to Shuowen Jiezi and Indexing by Radicals, it’ s not difficult to understand, so we will not explain it in more detail. Based on the study of Erya and Shuowen Jiezi, to do deep and thorough research on ancient written is one thing, to understand ancient books by using the two books is quite another. Erya and Shuowen Jiezi are undeniable helpful to read classical texts of the Pre-Qin Period and Han Dynasty. For example, in “Li Sao” , “吾令蹇修以爲理” (I asked Jian Xiu to be the matchmaker). Who is “蹇 修” (pronounced as /jiǎn xiū/)? Zhang Binglin quoted from Erya and explained it as “蹇修 , a match maker and musician, a messenger, as in ‘Biography of Sima Xiangru’, ‘以琴心挑之’ (to express love with stringed instruments). In ‘Explaining Music’ ,‘The bell is called ‘修’ and the chime stone is called 寋 25 (pronounced as 蹇 /jiǎn/), which is the meaning of 蹇修 .” This explanation sounds reasonable and seems to be well established. Many ancient scholars quoted the two books to interpret ancient Chinese. There are a lot of examples, and we just name but a few.

2.7.4  Dictionaries for Specific Purposes Dictionaries for specific purposes interpret terms or specific items in some special field, such as philosophy and idiom dictionaries. Function words play a very important role in Chinese language. Ancient Chinese people have already known how to use function words. In Shuowen Jiezi, “者，别事詞也” (“者” is a demonstrative pronoun) and “乃 ,曳 ,詞之難 也” (“乃” is used when it’ s difficult to make a response). All of them are function  words. Function words are quite different in ancient and modern times. “焉” is one of typical examples. It is generally used at the end of a sentence indicating a positive statement. However, in Mozi, it was used at the beginning, indicating “then” (“乃” or “然後” ); for instance, “必知亂之所自起 ,焉能治之” [The wise man must know the cause of its problems before he can put them in order.(From “Universal Love” I)]. If we do not know how to use function words, we will not be able to interpret it clearly and precisely. Since the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, there have been more and more monographs on function words, such as Lu Yiwei’ s Auxiliary Words(《語助》), Yuan Renlin’ s Function Words(《虛字說》), Liu Qi’ s 25

寋 and 蹇 are of the same pronunciation.

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A Brief Analysis of Auxiliary Words 《助字辨略》 ( ), Wang Yinzhi’ s Explaining Function Words of Confucius Classics and Commentaries(《經傳釋詞》), Yang Shuda’ s Interpretation of Words(《詞詮》), and Pei Xuehai’ s A Collection of Explanation on Function Words in Ancient Books(《古書虛字集釋》), for your reference. Among them, Wang Yinzhi’ s monograph is especially precise and well established. In addition, alliterative characters play an important role in ancient Chinese. In the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Mouwei collected annotations on alliterative characters and compiled Parallel Elegance (Pian Ya) 《骈雅》 ( )following the arrangement of Erya. Later Zhu Qifeng compiled Explaining Words and Fu Dingyi compiled A Dictionary of Disyllable Morpheme Characters( 《聯綿字典》), both of which explained alliterative characters. We will discuss it in later chapters. In China, dictionaries on Buddhism were the earliest to interpret words and phrases of some certain fields. In the Tang Dynasty, two monks, Xuan Ying and  Hui Lin, compiled The Sound and Meaning of the Tripitaka(《一切經音義》) and contributed a lot to reading those translated Buddhism scriptures. Fa Ying, a monk in the Song Dynasty, compiled A Collective Interpretation of Translated Buddhism Names, in which he categorized Buddhism words and phrases into different groups  and made a brief analysis and explanation. In premodern times, Zhang Xiang’ s A Collective Interpretation of Words in Poetry, Songs and Dramas(《詩詞曲語辭 匯釋》) explained function words in Tang poems, Song verses and Yuan dramas; Zhu Juyi’ s Exemplification of Colloquialism and Dialects in Yuan Dramas(《元 劇俗語方言釋例》); Jiang Lihong’ s A Comprehensive Glossary of the Special Terms Found in the Genre of Dunhuang Bianwen(《敦煌變文字義通釋》). All of these monographs are of great value to researches on languages in various fields. As for researching dramas in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, translations from  Nüzhen and Mongolia can not be ignored, such as History of the Jin Dynasty, “Interpreting Chinese Language” in the appendix of History of the Yuan Dynasty, and Translating Chinese Language by Huo Yuanjie, a Mongolian in the Ming Dynasty, all of which are “translation lexicon”26. Some other monographs interpreting dialects, colloquial language and common terms include The Record of Eternal Words( 《恆言錄》) by Qian Daxin of the Qing Dynasty and Collection of Popular Words( 《通俗篇》) by Zhai Hao. Some interpret people’ s titles such as On Titles( 《稱謂錄》) by Liang Zhangju of the Qing Dynasty. These reference books are of great value for reading classical literary works. 26

“On the Mongolian dialect in Yuan Verse” in Dai Wangshu’s Collected Essays on Novels and Plays(《小說戲曲論集》) includes an account and a sample of Guan Hanqin’s play, interpreted according to Translating of Chinese and Foreign Languages(《 華夷譯語》). The original Mongolian text and Dai’s translated text are given below. For details please see Dai’s essay (p.89). Mongolian Text: 米罕整斤吞，抹鄰不會騎，弩門並速門，弓箭怎的射 ? 撒因答剌孫，見 了搶着吃，喝的沙塔八，跌倒就是睡。若説我姓名，家將不能記，一對忽剌孩，都是狗養的。 Dai’s translated text: 肉整斤吞，馬不會騎，弓箭也不會射。好酒見了就搶着吃，喝的醉 了，跌倒就睡。若説我姓名，家將也不能記，我們是一對賊，都是狗養的。(They consume meat in pounds, yet are incapable of riding or archery. They fought for good wine, and, when got drunk, fell asleep immediately. I would not reveal my names, as we are but a pair of petty thieves, the despicable sons of bitches).

Chapter 3

“Cognate Words with Similar Pronunciation” ( 義存於聲 ) and “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation” ( 聲近義通 ) in Exegesis

3.1

“Cognate Words with Similar Pronunciation” and “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation”

Wang Yinzhi, in his General Exegeses of the Classics, quoted the words of his father Wang Niansun “Meanings of alliterative and rhymed characters are generally based on pronunciation rather than forms.” In his Detailed Explanation of Guangya(《廣雅疏證》), Wang Niansun repeatedly mentioned “synonymous words with similar pronunciation” (聲近義同 ). Besides, both “聲近義通” and “音近義通” are alternatives of “聲近義同” . However, “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” (聲近義通 ) is much more appropriate. Take the Chinese characters with alliteration and rhyme, also called lianmian zi (binding words), as an example. In ancient China, these kinds of characters refer to simple morpheme disyllabic words. Most of these characters are alliterative or rhymed, but some are neither alliterative nor rhymed. For example, “參 差” (pronounced as /cēn cī/, irregular) is alliterative and “徘徊” (pronounced as / pái huái /, to walk back and forth) is rhymed. However,“狼狽” , neither alliterative nor rhymed, was also included in Wang’ s book. Lianmian zi is composed of a simple morpheme, so we can not separate this disyllabic word into two morphemes. For example,“徘徊” is also written as “裴回” and “俳回” , meaning “to walk back and forth” . In “A Treatise on the Southern Xiongnu” , Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty, “顧景 (影 )裴回” means “to look at one’ s

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_3

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“Cognate Words with Similar Pronunciation” ( 義存於聲 ) ...

shadow and walk back and forth”. In “Biography of Zhang Heng”“馬倚輈而俳回” means “The horse is walking back and forth against the carriage” . “裴” is a family name and “俳” refers to “a man telling a joke in a comedy” . “徘” and “徊” should not be separated, so as “裴回” which could not be separated into “a family name” (裴 ) or “whoever comes back” (回 ). “徘徊” “俳回” “裴回” are three lianmian zi with the same syllables, all meaning “to walk back and forth” . The reason why they all have the same meaning is that they have the same pronunciation. However, if we explore meanings simply from characters themselves, it will seem to be “Mr. Pei or someone else comes back” . This is just what “quotation mentioned above” implies. Another example is “狼狽” . Duan Chengshi of the Tang Dynasty, in “On Feather” , Plants and Animals, Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang(《西陽雜 俎》) explained “Some people hold the view that 狼 (pronounced as /láng/) and 狽 (pronounced as /bèi/) are two different auspicious mythical animals. 狽 is a kind of animal with two short front legs and was carried by two wolves (狼 ). Without wolves, 狈 could not walk, so those who are in cahoots with each other are called ‘狼狽’ ” . This interpretation was even adopted by Zhu Qifeng in Ci Tong. However, Zhu also cited something as follows which could not be explained with above examples. 〔狼貝〕In “Biography of Ren Guang” , Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty, “世祖自薊還 , 狼貝不知所向” means “The Emperor Guangwu came back from the county of Ji, fell into a difficult situation and did not know what to do.” 〔狼䟺〕In Chapter 15 of Sound and Meaning of the Tripitaka, quoting from Sheng Lei 《聲列》 ( , A rhyming dictionary),“狼䟺” means “to wander from one place to another” (顛 跋也 ). 〔狼跋〕In “Biography of Fa Zheng” , Records of the Three Kingdoms, “當斯之時， 進退狼跋” means “to be in a dilemma at that time” .

Even if “貝” is a character which abbreviated the semantic element of “狽” , then how could we explain “䟺” ? In fact, “狼狽” is the same as “剌撥” and “獵 跋” in Shuowen Jiezi, where it was interpreted as “癶，足剌癶也。……讀若 撥” (“癶” means “to walk on foot” , and pronounced as /bō/). Another example is “䟺” , meaning “to tread on” (步行獵跋也 ). “剌癶” “獵跋” “狼貝” and “狼狽” are all cognate words with similar pronunciation and express the same meaning (According to ancient pronunciations,“剌癶” are rhymed characters). As “variant forms” quoted by Duan Chengshi, it was nothing but “求諸其文則惑” (To understand a Chinese character from its form will be perplexing). The above examples explained the term of “cognate words with similar pronunciation” . In modern days, “裴” is pronounced as /péi/ and “徘” and “俳” are pronounced as /pái/. But in ancient times, both of them seldomly have difference. Despite that, they were still disyllabic words with similar pronunciation. “徘徊” “俳回” and “裴回” have the same or similar pronunciation, and their meanings are the same. This is called “synonymous words with similar pronunciation” . “剌癶” “獵跋” and “狼狽” are such examples. In addition, in “Biographies of Assassins” , Records of the Grand Historian, “傍偟” in “傍偟不

3.1

“Cognate Words with Similar Pronunciation” ...

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能去” (to be hesitated about which way to go) and “盤桓” in “悵盤桓而不能去” (to linger and not to leave) in “Ode to the Goddess of the Luo River” by Cao Zhi, also have similar pronunciation and the same meaning as “徘徊” . In “Biographies of Li Sheng and Lu Jia” , Records of the Grand Historian, “落魄” in “家貧落魄， 無以爲衣食業” (He is poor and depressed, with no job to make a living) and “落 泊” in “再被笞辱，因而落泊不調” (He was punished by flogging once again and was depressed not to be appointed) from “Biography of Lu Sidao” , History of Northern Dynasties, are also of similar pronunciation and the same meaning as “狼 狽” . These phenomena are very common in ancient literature. “Synonymous words with similar pronunciation” not only, refer to lianmian zi but also to single characters. In “Explaining Old Words” of Guangya, “侚” means “to be at great speed” (侚，疾也 ) and in Wang Niansun’ s Detailed Explanation of Guangya, “In Shuowen Jiezi, ‘侚’ means to be at a great speed 《説文》 ( ：侚，疾 也 ); in “Annals of Five Emperors” , Records of the Grand Historian, ‘幼而徇齊’ means a quick and strong understanding of things at an early age; in Interpretation of Records of the Grand Historian1, ‘侚’ means to be fast and ‘齊’ means to be at great speed; ‘言聖德幼而疾速也’ means that the emperor was quick-witted when he was very young…. In ‘Weaken Common People’ , The Book of Duke Shang, ‘齊疾而均速’ means to be at a fast speed, in which ‘均’ and ‘侚’ are synonymous characters with similar pronunciation.” As examples quoted by Wang, “侚” “徇” and “均” all mean “to be at great speed” and they are synonymous characters with similar pronunciation. Among many such examples, we will now discuss in detail the following group of words. 憑 ,弸 ,蕡 ,墳 ,憤 The first two and the last three characters have different rhymes of /eng/ and /en/. All of them are labial. Among them, the first two characters are bilabial and the last three are labiodental, but labiodental didn’ t exist in ancient China. Therefore, all of them are considered bilabial and disyllabic characters, and mean “to be satisfied” “to be accumulated” “to be substantial and  abundant” or “to be full and large” . Now, consider the following examples. In “Li Sao”, “憑不厭乎求索” (People are not satisfied, striving for fame and wealth).  Wang Yi made the following annotation “憑 means to be satisfied and 滿 in the State of Chu was called 憑 .” In “Gentleman” , Model Words by Master Yang, authored by Yang Xiong, “以其弸中而 彪外 2也” (He’s full of knowledge and literary talents are shown outside). “弸” means “full”. In “Tao Yao”, Odes of Zhou and the South, The Book of Songs, “有蕡 3其實” (Its fruit will be abundant). “蕡” means “to be abundant” . In “Tiao Zhi Hua” “牂羊 4墳首” (The ewes have large heads). In Zhu Xi’ s Annotation on The Book of Songs(《詩經集傳》), “墳 (large), 羊瘠則首大也 (The head 1

集解 refers to Interpretation of Records of the Grand Historian(《 史記集解》) by Pei Yin in the Song Dynasty. 2 彪外 , the literary talents are shown outside. 3 蕡 means full and abundant. 4 牂羊 means ewes.

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“Cognate Words with Similar Pronunciation” ( 義存於聲 ) ...

of a ewe will seem very large if it is thin)” . In “Chu Zhen” of Huainanzi, “繁憤未有萌蘖” , Gao You annotated it with “憤 means to be accumulated.”

All the above examples show that these five characters are “synonymous words  with similar pronunciation” . While discussing the relation of meaning, pronunciation and character form in the previous chapter, we have mentioned that written words record language by combining it with pronunciation. Pronunciation is the basis for both language form and meaning because meanings pronunciation at first. The character form, despite extreme importance, could not restrict the semantic interpretation. This is what “cognate words with similar pronunciation” implies. After knowing the implication, we will not interpret “狼狽” (to be in a difficult situation) as two different animals and “落魄” (to be depressed) as “失魂落魄” (to be driven to distraction). Under the principle of “cognate words with similar pronunciation” , the same meaning can be expressed by a Chinese character with different forms,  and many characters with seemingly different meanings could found that they are  from the same one for their similar pronunciation. Therefore,“cognate words with similar pronunciation” and “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” are two aspects of one single phenomenon. This is the preliminary explanation, which is of great importance to help us understand the meanings of Chinese characters.

3.2 Theory of “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation”; Fenbie Wen5 and Youwen Shuo6 The connotation of “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” is much richer than that of “synonymous words with similar pronunciation. “同” means “completely the same” , and “通” , has two other meanings including “to be interchangeable” or “to be similar” . Therefore “義通” (interchangeable word) covers the meaning of “義同” (synonymous word).

3.2.1  Theory of “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation” “Interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” was first proposed from the perspective of recognizing and understanding word meanings. By analyzing collected reading materials, we found that many mono-syllabic characters (single5 6

分别文，the semantic component carrying a different meaning. 右文说，the phonetic component carrying a different meaning.

3.2

Theory of “Interchangeable Words with Similar Pronunciation”; ...

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morpheme) or double-syllabic words with similar pronunciation could fall into the same group, that is, “Chinese characters with similar pronunciation are interchangeable” . It is one of phenomena in Chinese. The reason why Chinese characters with similar pronunciation are interchangeable should be explained from an opposite view, that is, these characters, originally one word or derived from one word, were recorded with writing over the long history and became “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” . The reason for “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” is that except variant forms, one word was recorded with two or three forms, leading to the co-existence of phonetic loan characters and original characters, or even two or more phonetic loan characters, all of which express the same meaning. For example, in Wang Niansun’ s Detailed Explanation of Guangya, “侚” means “to be at a fast speed” . Shuowen Jiezi says that “to be at a fast speed” is the original meaning of “徇” . “徇” in Shuowen Jiezi was written as“ ” meaning “to make an inspection tour” (行巡示也 ). Its semantic element is “彳” and phonetic element is “匀” . In Methods of Sima( 《司馬法》), “斬以 ” means “to cut off one’ s head and  display to the public” . “均” , according to Shuowen Jiezi, means “average” , while “徇” “均” and “侚” are “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” , and they are actually co-existence of the original character and phonetic loan characters with the same meaning. Among three of them, “均” and “侚” are coexistent phonetic loan characters. Another example was quoted from “Li Sao” ,“民 好惡其不同兮，惟此黨人其獨異，户服艾以盈要 (腰 )兮，謂幽蘭其不可佩” (The people’ s good and evil are different, but the party is the only one.The household  dress Al Ying Ying to ask for it, it means that the orchid cannot be admired). In this case, “户” (pronounced as /hù/) does not mean “household” , but has the same meaning as previously mentioned “扈” (pronounced as /hù/) in “扈江蘺與 辟芷兮，紉秋蘭以爲佩” (The Hu River leaves and the peg Zhixi, the stitching autumn orchid thinks to admire). “户服” is a “coordinative compound word” . Wang Yi annotated on “扈” with “扈 means ‘to drape over one’ s shoulders’ , and ‘被’ was called by the State of Chu as ‘扈’” . In Volume 83 of Classified Anthology of Literary Works 《藝文類聚》 ( ) by Ouyang Xun of the Tang Dynasty and Rhapsodies on the Classification of Things by Wu Shu of the Song Dynasty, “户” was taken as “扈” , from which we know that “户” and “扈” are of different forms  but their meanings are the same. “户” means “to drape over one’ s shoulders” and “户服” means “to drape over one’ s shoulders for ornament” , both of which mean “to wear” . “户” describes the outermost part of a house, and what people wear are also outer garment, so “户” could be extended to express “to drape over one’ s shoulder”.“扈” is the specific name of family You Hu (有扈氏 ) in the Xia Dynasty who fought against Qi, the son of King Yu. In “Li Sao” , it was interpreted as “披” , a phonetic loan character of “户” 7. This is also one of examples for “synonymous words with similar pronunciation” . The extended meaning is not far from its original meaning even after division or 7

Jiang Liangfu holds that both 户 and 扈 are loan characters of 幠 . Please see Annotations to Qu Yuan’s Odes(《屈原賦校註》) (p.9).

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transformation. Despite different forms and meanings between original characters  and extended characters, their pronunciations are very similar. This is also one of the reasons for “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” . According to the previous examples of “憑 , 弸 , 墳 , 蕡 , 憤” , this group of words means “to be accumulated or to be satisfied or full” in terms of their root, but they are not  exactly the same. “弸” means “to fit an arrow to a bowstring” “墳” means “to be filled with soil” “蕡” means “fruit hanging heavy on the trees” “憑” and “憤” are “to be full of anger”.“憑” is also written as “馮”. In The Verse of Chu, “康回馮怒， 墬 (地 )何以東南傾 ?” (Kanghui, God of Water, was very angry. Why did the earth incline to south east?) “馮怒” is “憤怒” (to be angry). Such difference renders distinct “features” to meanings and forms of Chinese characters, but they are basically the same. For example, in Li Sao,“薋菉葹以盈室兮” (The house is full of such plants as 薋 /cí/, 菉 / lù/ and 葹 /shī/). In Wang Yi’ s annotation, he named “薋” (the root of Dahurian angelica), “菉” (hispid arthraxon) and “葹” (xanthium sibiricum) as three malignant grasses. But if that is true, no verb could be found in this sentence, so his analysis is incorrect. “薋” was interchangeable with“䆅” , meaning “to be accumulated” , seen in “Explaining Old Words” of Guangya. In Shuowen Jiezi, “薋” denotes “grassy” and “䆅 ” denotes “many seedlings” , with the semantic element “禾” and phonetic element “資” (pronounced as /zī/). In The Book of Songs, “䆅之秩秩兮” (䆅 , grassy, to be accumulated). Zhu Junsheng stated, “禾多曰䆅” (Many seedlings are called 䆅 ). “薋” (grassy) and 䆅 (many seedlings) originally meant “many” and “to be accumulated” , but due to the difference between grass (草 ) and seedling (禾 ), they evolved into two characters with different but similar meaning. This is one more example of “interchangeable  words with similar pronunciation ” . Word meanings can be converted from one to another, but both meanings have some internal relations. Such relation also belongs to “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” . The examples are as follows: The original meaning of “斯” is “to split the wood” . In “Mu Men” , Odes of Chen, The Book of Songs, “斯” in “斧以斯之” (Jujube trees should be cut with an axe) is the original meaning. In later days, the meaning was converted and “the man who split the wood” was also called “斯” , for instance, in “Hexagram of Traveling” , The Book of Changes, “斯其所取灾” (It will cause the disaster of being robbed). Wang Bi annotated it with “斯賤之役” (This is for servitude). In “The 2nd Year of Duke Ai” , Commentary of Zuo, “人臣隸圉免” (The slaves were set free) and Du Yu annotated it with “去厮役” (Removal of servitude). Lu Deming in his Jingdian Shiwen (Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics) took it as “斯役” . The book annotated it with “斯 was also written as 厮 , and both have the same meaning.” Then “斯賤之役” and “斯役” were later written as “厮役” denoting those people engaging in menial work. Although both meanings and characters are different, their meanings are interchangeable as well. “庖”(pronounced  as/páo/)  signifies  the  kitchen,  but  why  is  the  kitchen  called  “庖” ? This is because “庖” was derived from “炮” . In Shuowen Jiezi, “炮 means to grill the meat with fur.” Cooking is “炮”, and the place for cooking is called “庖”. They seemed to be two different characters, but actually this is a kind of semantic 

3.2

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transformation for similar pronunciation. “慰勞” (to appreciate one’ s services and present gifts) was called “勞” (pronounced as /lào/), such as “勞問” (to express sympathy and solicitude for someone) and “勞軍” (to take greetings and gifts to army units). This is the semantic transformation without different character forms. Similarly, in “The 26th Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Zuo, “犒” in “公使展喜犒師” means “to reward the army with food and drink” . “犒” was derived from “槁” 8(to be laborious and withered) to express sympathy for people’ s hard work. Because foods were wine and meat, the semantic element of this character changed to “牛” or “酉” . In “A Monument Praising Changtian” of the Han Dynasty, it was written as “ ” . Yang Xiong in “Cultivating Morality” of Fa Yan stated “刲羊刺 豕，罷賓犒師” (to Kill the sheep and the pig to treat the guests and army). “罷” is a phonetic loan character of “疲” meaning “tiredness” .“罷賓” is in parallel with “犒師” in meaning and both of them denote “to treat some people” . In The Rites of Zhou, a government official was called “稾人” , who was in charge of the preparation of “meals” . “稾” is the variant form of “槁” . This is also one of the examples for semantic conversion of one character into two forms, which is, of course, included in “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” .

3.2.1  Fenbie Wen and Youwen Shuo It is found that many Chinese characters have the same basic meaning. However, in certain fields, they are differentiated after being given different radicals. Such  Chinese characters of variant forms with the same basic meaning are called “Fenbie Wen” in philology, that is, the semantic component carrying a different meaning.  For example: 蔇 ,穊 In Shuowen Jiezi, “蔇” means “lots of grasses” and “穊” means “seedlings are planted densely” . 稠 ,厤 “稠” is “lots of ” and “厤” is “lots of hair” .

“濟” means “to cross the river” . After one crossing the river, this action finished.  Therefore, it is extended to the meaning “to stop” . “濟” can also mean “The wind stops” or “The rain stops” . In “Discussion of the Equality of Things” , Zhuangzi:“厲風 9濟，則衆竅爲虚” (When the strong wind stops, then all the apertures become vacant). In “Treatise on Sacrifices” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, Ru Chun10 annotated it with “三輔 11謂日出清濟爲宴” . “宴” 8

An annotation by Fu Qian is quoted in Correct Explanations of Zuo’s Commentaries(《左傳正義》) as “以師枯槁，故饋之飲食”(rewarding the army with food and drink). 9 厲風 , strong wind. 10 如淳 refers to a person’s name. 11 三輔 refers to the regions of Jingzhao to the capital, Pingyi to the left and Fufeng to the right in

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denotes “a sunny day” and “日出清濟” means “The sun comes out, the sky is clear and the rain stops” . In “Shi Ying” of Discourses Weighed in the Balance, “雨濟而 陰曀 12者，謂之甘雨”. “雨濟” means “The rain stops”. Later, a new character “霽” was invented to express “The rain stops” whose semantic element is “雨” differing  from “風濟” (The wind stops). Then it became a new character form (fenbie wen). In Shuowen Jiezi, “零落” had two different character forms,“蘦落” and “霝 ” . The first one means “The grass and trees wither and fall” and the second means  “The rain falls down” . From the above examples, we can draw a conclusion that although some characters have different forms and meanings, their original meanings and phonetic elements are the same. Accordingly, ancient scholars created a new form “you wen” (the phonetic element carrying meanings)13. Shen Kuo of Song Dynasty stated in Volume 14 of his Dream Pool Essays( 《夢 溪筆談》): Wang Shengmei 14 (courtesy name, Zishao) studied philology and explored the meaning of characters, then he put forward a theory of “you wen” . Ancient Chinese calligraphy was classified according to the semantic element on the left. A Chinese character is usually composed of two elements, the left part denoting the category and the right part denoting its meaning. Taking the category of “树木” (tree) as an example, the left parts are all with a “木”. To illustrate “you wen”, with an example of “戔” (small), a small amount of water is 淺 (shallow), a small amount of gold is 錢 (money), and a small amount of unfinished food is 殘 (leftover), and a small fishshell (ancient currency)  is 賤 (cheap), all of which take “戔” on the right to denote their meanings. (王聖美治字 學，演其義以爲右文。古之字書，皆從左文。凡字，其類在左，其義在右。如木類， 其左皆從木。所謂右文者，如：戔，小也；水之小者曰淺，金之小者曰錢，歺之小 者曰殘 15，貝之小者曰賤，皆以戔爲義也。)

That is to say, if the phonetic elements on the right of phono-semantic compound characters are the same, their meanings show no difference. For example,“淺 , 錢 , 殘 , 賤” all have the basic meaning of “a small amount” . Wang Shengmei was the earliest one to figure out that characters with the same phonetic  element might have the same meaning, which provided some enlightenment in exploring the relationship between pronunciation and meaning. However, some ancient scholars criticized his point that the phonetic elements are not necessarily on the right of phono-semantic compound characters. But anyway, this is not important. What is important is that, as he said, phono-semantic compound the Han Dynasty. 12 曀 was mistakenly written as “一” in some contemporary versions, and later corrected following Sun Renhe’s suggestion. 13 Though the term of “fenbie wen” appeared later than “you wen”, the phenomenon had long existed in the development of Chinese characters. 14 王聖美 (Wang Shengmei), his courtesy name is Zishao ( 子韶 ). 15 In Shuowen Jiezi, “歺” is defined as “the cracked bones”. The character of “殘” means remnant.

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characters turn to those with phonetic elements carrying some meanings. If so, it will be the same farfetched as the story that Su Dongpo (a famous poet of Song Dynasty) joked with Wang Anshi (a politician and philosopher) “坡 (hillside) is the skin of earth (土之皮 ) and 滑 (slippery) is the bone of water (水之骨 )” 16. Explanations of “you wen” have already been shown in Shuowen Jiezi, and the following examples are characters under the radical “句” . 句 (crooked) Its semantic element 口 , phonetic element 丩 . 拘 (stop) Its semantic element 手 , 句 , phonetic element also 句 . 笱 (a bamboo trap for fishing at the opening of a weir)  Its semantic element 竹 , 句，phonetic element also 句 . 鉤 (curved hook) Its semantic element金 , 句 , phonetic element also 句 .

It should be noted that Xu Shen did not categorize “拘” “笱” and “鉤” under radicals “手” “竹” and “金” as usual, but took phonetic elements as their radicals, indicating that Xu had found their interchangeable meanings according to the same phonetic elements. Xu was more tactical in dealing with such a case than Wang Shengmei, because Xu did not include other Chinese characters with the phonetic element of “句” but without the meaning of “曲” (curved) under this radical, for instance,“玽” (beautiful stones like jade),“敂” (to knock or hit)” and “昫” (warm), etc. All of these examples prove that “句” “拘” “笱” “鉤” were categorized into the same radical based on their same phonetic element and by semantic expansion, they turned to “interchangeable words with similar pronunciation” . Fenbie wen is the same. Those characters with different phonetic elements and without semantic  extension are not likely to be interchangeable in spite of the fact that they have the same pronunciation. This is different from what Wang stated “凡字，其類在左， 其義在右” (All Chinese characters have two elements, the left element denoting its category and the right element denoting its meaning). This is why Wang’ s theory is not completely right, though it does bring some enlightenment to new scholars in the field. 

3.3

Lianmian Zi

“Cognate words with similar pronunciation” is not limited to single characters or lianmian zi. To understand lianmian zi, we can not simply analyze character forms, but explore them in a much more common way, that is, pronunciation. Therefore, Wang Niansun discussed “cognate words with similar pronunciation” from the start of “alliterative and rhymed characters” . In this chapter, it is necessary to pay 16

On Characters by Wang Anshi, now long lost, contains quite a lot of far-fetched explanations.

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special attention to binomes.

3.3.1 Introduction to Lianmian Zi Lianmian zi has two syllables denoting the overall meaning with one morpheme which can not be divided into smaller units. In short, lianmian zi is singlemorpheme disyllabic words, such as “匍匐” (pronounced as /pú fú/, to crawl), “逍 遥” (pronounced as /xiāo yáo/, to be free and unfettered), “玲瓏” (pronounced as /líng lóng/, exquisite), 倉庚 (pronounced as /cāng gēng/, a bird name) and 葡萄 (pronounced as /pú táo/, grape)” . “匍匐” can not be divided into smaller morphemes “匍” and “匐” “逍遥” also can not be divided to two morphemes “逍” and “遥” . “遥” has the specific meaning of “far-reaching” , but it has nothing to do  with “逍遥” . Much lianmian zi is composed of alliterated or rhymed Chinese characters, such as alliterated words “匍匐” and “玲瓏” or rhymed words “逍遥” and “倉 庚” . Therefore, misunderstandings are often caused for many people believe all alliterated or rhymed words are lianmian zi. However, that is not true. Some lianmian zi are neither alliterated nor rhymed, such as “葡萄” . Whether a word is lianmian zi or not, is determined by the possibility of being subdivided into smaller morphemes. For example, in The Book of Songs, “高岡” (pronounced as /gāo gāng/) in “陟彼高岡” (I was ascending that lofty ridge) means “lofty ridge” ;“黄裳” (pronounced as /huáng cháng /) in “緑衣黄裳” (Green is the upper robe, with a yellow lower garment) means “yellow lower garment” . In The Book of Rites, “大道” (pronounced as /dà dào/) in “大道之行也，天下爲公” (A public spirit will rule all under the sky when the great way prevails) means “great way” and “國家” (pronounced as /guó jiā/) in “天下、國家可均也” (The country, vassal states and fiefs can be governed)means “vassal states and fiefs” . All these words  are either alliterated or rhymed, but each of them is composed of two characters with independent meanings, so they are not binomes. In ancient days, “國” and “家” are two different characters.“國” refers to the states ruled by dukes and princes and “家” is the fief governed by scholar-bureaucrats. Therefore, in “King Hui of Liang  I ” , Mencius, the king said “何以利吾國 ?” (How can it benefit my state?) and scholar-bureaucrats said “何以利吾家 ?” (How can it benefit my fief?) Compound  alliterated or rhymed words are also lianmian zi, such as “光芒” (pronounced as /guāng máng/, rays of light)” and “照耀” (pronounced as /zhào yào/, shining). Despite the fact that they are words instead of phrases, they can still be divided into two smaller units, namely two morphemes. Roughly speaking, there are three different structures of lianmian zi. (1) Some lianmian zi used to be disyllabic single-morpheme words, including the following: (a) alliterated or rhymed, (b) alliterated and rhymed, such as,“伊 威”(pronounced as /yī wēi/, pillbug) in The Book of Songs, and “顑頷”(pronounced as /kǎn hàn/, pale and a bit haggard with hunger) in The Verse of Chu; (c) neither

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alliterated nor rhymed, such as “離黄” (pronounced as / lí huáng /, a bird name) and “鸚鵡” (pronounced as /yīng wǔ/, parrot), in addition to “葡萄” (grape) mentioned earlier, (2) A monosyllabic word can be read slowly to form two syllables, or add an initial vocalized character. The former examples are “孔” (pronounced as /kǒng/) which is read slowly to become “窟窿” (pronounced as /kū long/); “陴” (/pí/) to “僻倪” (/pì ní/) or “俾倪” (/bǐ ní/), “蜩” (/tiáo/) to “蝭蟧” (/dì liáo/) or “知 了” (/zhī liǎo/). In “The 12th Year of Duke Xuan” , Commentary of Zuo, “守陴 者皆哭” (Soldiers guarding the city wall all cried). Du Yu annotated it with “陴 , 城上僻倪” (a low wall). In Shuowen Jiezi, “陴，城上女墻俾倪也” “女墻” is a short wall. “僻倪” and “俾倪” were invented when “陴” was read slowly. In “The Carefree Excursion” of Zhuangzi, “蟪蛄不知春秋” (The summer cicadas knows nothing of the spring and fall). Sima Biao annotated it with “蟪蛄，寒蟬 也，一名蝭蟧” (蟪蛄 is a cicada in cold weather and it was also called 蝭蟧 ). In “Xiao Bian” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs, “鳴蜩嘒嘒” (The cicadas go hwuy-hwuy). “蜩” was interpreted to be “cicada” in Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs. “蜩” could be read slowly as “蝭蟧” (pronounced as /dì liáo/), which was currently known as “知了” (/zhī liǎo/). The latter can be exemplified by “越” (pronounced as /yuè/). It was added with an initial vocalized character “於” (pronounced as /wū/) and turned to “於越” . “吴” (wú) was added with an initial vocalized character “勾” (pronounced as /gōu/) and turned to “勾吴”. During the Period of Spring and Autumn, the State of Yue was called “於越” and State of Wu was called “勾吴” . For example, in “The 14th Year of Duke Ding” , Commentary of Zuo, “於越敗吴於檇李” (The State of Yue defeated the State of Wu in Zuili). In “Biography of Wu Taibo” , Records of the Grand Historian, “太 伯之奔荆蠻，自號勾吴” (Taibo settled in the State of Chu, and founded the State of Wu). Both 於 and 越 are vowels and the initial consonant of “勾” is /g/ and the initial consonant of “吴” in ancient times is /ng/, both of which had the same place of articulation. Therefore, 於 and 勾 are added with initial vocalized characters. That is to say, a character with similar pronunciation is added before the original one as an opening. For example, the Shanghainese pronounce “没”(/méi/, not have or be without) as “嘸没” /ḿ méi/, and “妈” (/mā/, mum) as “嘸媽” /ḿ mā/. (3) Variations from ancient language to a modern language or in different dialects contribute to different forms of lianmian zi. Consider the following examples: “綢繆” (pronounced as /chóu móu/) turned to “纏綿” (pronounced as /chán mián/). In “Chou Mou” , Odes of Tang, The Book of Songs, “綢繆束薪” means “Round and round the firewood is bound” . In Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs, “綢繆” was interpreted as “to bind firmly and strongly” . In the early Han Dynasty, when Mao compiled Mao Heng’s Commentary on The Book of Songs(《毛詩詁訓傳》), “綢繆” was pronounced as /chán mián/. In poems of the Six Dynasties, “纏綿” was used in a wide scope. For example, in the poem “Midnight” , “荷絲斷纏綿” (The fibers of lotus root still hold together) and in “Dou Qu Ge” , “誰交 (教 )彊 (强 )纏綿 ?” (Why were you so unwilling to be together?) In both examples, general bondage turned to emotional entanglement.“綢” (pronounced as /chóu/),a disyllabic character, turned to

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“纏” (chán/) and “繆” (/móu/) turned to “綿” (/mián/). Thus, one lianmian zi seemed to develop into two forms. “商量” (pronounced as /shāng liáng/, to discuss) turned to “商略”(/ shāng lüè/). In Stele of Cao Quan(《曹全碑》) of the Han Dynasty, “故老商量” (I discussed with senior people of great experience). “商量” is a rhymed lianmian zi, and it turned to “商略” during the period between Wei and Jin Dynasties. For example, in “Biography of Ruan Ji” , History of the Jin Dynasty, “籍嘗於蘇門山遇孫登， 與商略終古” (I once met Sun Deng in Mount Sumen and discussed with him about necromancy in ancient times). “量” (pronounced as /liáng/) changed to “略” (/lüè/). “商略” is still a lianmian zi, but it is not rhymed. “鸝黄” (pronounced as /lí huáng/, oriole, a bird’ s name) might be “鶬鶊” (/cāng gēng/) and then turned to “商庚” (/shāng gēng/). In Volume Eight of Dialects, “鸝 黄 , 自關而東謂之鶬鶊 , 自關而西謂之鸝黄” (Oriole is called鶬鶊 in the East and 鸝黄 in the West). Guo Pu annotated it with “又名商庚” (It is also called / shāng gēng/). “鸝黄” and “鶬鶊” are from different dialects, while “商庚” was converted from a rhymed word “鶬鶊” . Lianmian zi are basically inseparable, but sometimes they could be separated for rhetorical purposes. For example: 猶豫 In Laozi, “豫兮若冬涉川，猶兮若畏四鄰” (Caution and hesitation are like wading across a river in winter; fear and worry are like watching out for siege). 阿儺 In The Book of Songs,“隰有萇楚，猗儺其華” (In the low, damp grounds is the carambola tree; soft and delicate are its flowers, with the glossiness of its tender beauty).  In “Xi Sang” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, “隰桑有阿，其葉有儺” (In the low, wet grounds, the mulberry trees are beautiful, and their leaves are luxuriant). “阿儺” is “婀 娜” (beautiful and luxuriant). 玄黄 In “Juan Er” , Odes of Zhou and the South, The Book of Songs, “我馬玄黄” (My horse turned of a dark yellow) ; in “He Cao Bu Huang”, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, “何 草不黄” (What grass doesn’ t wither?) and “何草不玄” (What grass doesn’ t rot?). 慷慨 In “A Short-Song Ballad” by Cao Cao, “慨當以慷，憂思難忘” (Ambition and aspiration sustain me, but a secret thread of grief worries me).

Some lianmian zi can be used in reverse as well. For example,“恍惚” (absentminded) is also written as “惚恍”. In Laozi, “是謂無狀之狀， 無物之象， 是謂惚恍” (This is a form without shape and an image without an object, and it is called 惚恍 ). “慷慨” is also written as “慨慷”. In Zuo Si’s “Miscellaneous Poems”( 《雜詩》 ), “壯 齒不恒居，歲暮常慨慷 17” (The young age can not last forever and old people are 17

慷慨 in ancient Chinese means the lack of a peaceful state of mind. Two lines in “Nineteen Anonymous Poems”(《古詩十九首》) is “一彈再三嘆，慷慨有餘哀” (She sighed and sighed again, with a troubled mind and lasting sorrow).

3.3 Lianmian Zi

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not often in a a peaceful state of mind). But these examples are not very common.

3.3.2  Key and Function of Understanding Lianmian Zi To grasp the meaning of lianmian zi, we need to take seriously “cognate words with similar pronunciation” . For example, “鶬鶊” (pronounced as /cāng qiāng/) was written as “鶬鶊” in Dialects, “倉庚” (/cāng gēng/) in The Book of Songs and “商庚” (/shāng gēng/) in Annotations on Dialects 《方言註》 ( ) by Guo Pu. We should pay attention to the similarity and difference of pronunciation so as to  analyze these complicated words in a simple way and not be confused by their different character forms. Although the pronunciation of lianmian zi changes, the trace can still be found. To master lianmian zi is of great help in writing creatively, understanding literature masterpieces and researching into the etymology. In ancient writings, many binomes are either alliterated or rhymed, forming a much more harmonious rhythm in literature works. Many such examples can be found in The Book of Songs. For example, in “Juan Er” , Odes of Zhou and the South, “陟彼崔嵬，我 馬虺隤” (I was ascending that rock-covered height, but my horse was too tired to breast it) and “陟彼高岡，我馬玄黄” (I was ascending that lofty ridge, but my horse turned of a dark yellow). Three alliterated and rhymed words “崔嵬” (/cuī wéi/), “虺隤” (/huī tuí/) and “玄黄” (/xuán huáng/), and one alliterated phrase “高 岡” (/gāo gāng/), formed a sonorous and powerful tune. In later ages, some great poets like Du Fu and Li Bai, also used such lianmian zi very often in their poems. Therefore, to appreciate great literature pieces, we need to understand lianmian zi. Secondly, some literature writings often put together a variety of forms of one binome to express coherent and fluent ideas. For example, in Song Yu’ s The  Ode to the Wind, “至其將衰也，被麗披離，衝孔動楗” (When it calmed down gradually, the wind was weak and scattered around. It could only blow into the small hole and shake the bolt) was used to describe the wind calming down. “被 麗” (pronounced as /bèi lì/, scattering) is also “披離” (/pī lí/)，whose ancient pronunciation /pia lia/, mimicking the sound of wind blowing into the hole and shaking the bolt. In “Discussing Military Strategy and Tactics” of Xunzi, when talking about “仁者之兵” (an army of justice), “圜 (圓 )居而方止 18，則若盤石然， 觸之者角摧，案角鹿埵隴鍾東籠而退耳” (Do stay in a round formation or stand in a square formation, just like a rock. Those who violate it will break their heads and retreat). Those characters after “案” were quite ridiculous and confusing. “角” is probably duplicated by mistake with the previous one and should be deleted. “鹿埵隴鍾東籠” is simply a variant form of a binome “龍鍾” . The ancient pronunciation of “鍾” (/zhōng/) is “东” (/dōng/); “鹿埵” (/lù duǒ/) and “隴鍾” (/lǒng dōng/) are alliterated and “東籠” (/dōng lóng/)is the reverse of “隴鍾” . 18

圓 (circles) and 方 (squares) are all military formations. 居 and 止 mean being stationed.

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The reason is that “隴鍾” is too simple and with a few more words, the scene of retreating could be more vividly described19. But if we know little about lianmian zi, it will be difficult for us to understand these sentences.  To understand how lianmian zi is converted from the perspective of etymology, we need to understand more about the origins of many lianmian zi in ancient and modern times and make explanations much closer to the actual language context as well. “猶豫” , “猶與” “夷猶” “躊躇” “踟躕” and “首鼠” , all these words mean one thing, indicating “to be in a dilemma” , as seen in Liu Dabai’ s Preface to Ci Tong (Appendix 7) and we do not need to cite more examples. Now let’ s name but a few other examples. 童 蒙 , 鈍 聞 , 懞 懂 In “Meng” , The Book of Changes, “匪我求童蒙，童蒙 求我” (It is not I who ask for advice from naive and ignorant persons, but it is they who are ready to listen to my advice).“童蒙” (pronounced as /tóng méng /) denotes “naive and ignorant persons” . In “Necessity of Training” of Huainanzi, it turned to “鈍聞” (pronounced as /dùn mén/). The ancient pronunciation “聞” is the same as “門” (/mén/).“童蒙” and “鈍聞” are alliterated words. In “Necessity of “ 南榮疇〕南見老聃，受教一言，精神曉泠，鈍聞條達” (Nanrong Training” 〔 Chou went to see Lao Dan, and was educated; he turned much more enlightened, reasonable and sensible). “泠” in modern times, means “to be enlightened” ; and “鈍聞條達” means “to be reasonable and sensible” . “童蒙” is reversed to “懞 懂” (/ méng dǒng/) with the same meaning, but later its pronunciation changed to “酩酊” or “茗仃” (/mǐng dǐng/) in “Biography of Shan Jian” , History of the Jin Dynasty, and hereafter, it was pronounced as “酕醄”(/máo táo/), all of which mean “to be drunk”. In Tang and Song poems, the state of drowsiness was also called “瞢 騰” (/méng téng/). All these words indicate “to be confused and not clear-minded” , whose connections could be noticed from their pronunciation. 嘍 囉 , 玲 瓏 , 伶 俐 , 離 婁 The original meaning of “嘍囉” (/lóu luō/) is “to be intelligent and capable” . In Trivial Tales from North of Meng, Sun Guangxian of the Song Dynasty quoted Zheng Qing’ s poem from the Tang Dynasty “側坡 蛆昆侖 20，蟻子競來拖，一朝白雨下，無鈍無嘍囉。” “嘍囉” means “to be quick-witted” and it is opposite to “slow-witted” (鈍 ). This is one more proof. “嘍囉” was also written as “樓羅” . In “Biography of Zhang Sijun” , History of Song Dynasty, “思鈞起行伍，征討稍有功，質狀小而精悍，太宗嘗稱其 樓羅，自是人目爲小樓羅焉” (Zhang Sijun was born in a military official’ s family, and obtained great battle achievements. He was not tall but well set up and Emperor Taizong called him “樓羅” . Therefore, “樓羅” denotes “short but strong 19

Wen Tingshi used to comment on this situation in the 15th volume of his work, and claimed that he had written an essay as a detailed explanation, which however is never seen. 20 蛆 is a bird name, meaning Kunlun with maggots. In the 49th volume of Abhiniṣkramaṇasūtra(《 佛本行集經》), “於其池中，復有諸鳥，所謂鴻、鵠、鳧、雁、昆侖、鴛鴦等 鳥，游戲池中，光嚴彼池” (In the water there are many birds, including swan geese, swans, wild ducks, wild geese, Kunlun birds, and mandarin ducks, which are swimming in the sparkling pools).

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and vigorous men” ). This is another example of “嘍囉” . “嘍囉” is pronounced close to “伶俐” (/líng lì/)” and 玲瓏 (/líng lóng/)” derived from ancient “離婁” (/lí lóu/) and “麗廔” (/lì lóu/). In Shuowen Jiezi, 囧 means “exquisite and bright windows” , showing wide vision and bright scenery(囧，窗牖麗廔闓 21明也 ). It was a pictographic character and was pronounced as /guǎng/ in ancient times, describing “the carved lattice window” . “麗廔” means “open and exquisite” . In “The Ode to Palace Jingfu(《景福殿賦》)” , Yan He stated “丹綺離婁” (red patterned exquisite), so “離婁” means “exquisite” . “離婁” and “玲瓏” refer to something open and bright while “玲瓏” “伶俐” and “嘍囉” all refer to smart persons. They were extended from the same word. 焦 僥 , 周 饒 , 朱 儒 , 鷦 鷯 All these lianmian zi mean “to be short and small” describing persons or things and they are rhymed words. The alliterated characters of “焦” (consonant: z)” and “周” (consonant: zh) can be converted to “朱” (consonant: zh)22. In a similar way, the rhymed characters “僥” (/yáo/) and “饒” (/ráo/) might be converted to “鷯” (/liáo/). This is also one example of etymological conversion. In “On Enriching the State” of Xunzi, “是猶烏獲 23之與 焦僥搏也” (This is like fighting between a strong man and a dwarf). In “Southern  Overseas” of The Classic of Mountains and Seas, “周饒國在其東，其爲人短小 冠帶” (The country of Zhou Rao is located in the east of Kunlun Mountain, and people in that country are very short but all of them wear hats and fasten belts). In “Biography of Dongfang Shuo” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, “朱儒 飽欲死” (A dwarf triumphs). All these words describe “short-statured persons” . “朱 儒” , while describing something, means “pillars on the beam” , seen in Huainanzi. “周 饒” and “焦僥” turned into “鷦鷯” (/jiāo liáo/, wren, a bird’ s name). In Zhang Heng’ s “Preface to Returning to the Farmland” , “鷦鷯，小鳥也” (a very small bird). From the above examples, we can draw a conclusion that exploring the meaning based on pronunciation is a clue to understanding lianmian zi. In this way, we do not need to recite word by word, but enjoy the pleasure of learning by exploring the origin of these words. Lianmian zi is one of features of ancient Chinese, so the collection and compilation of this kind of word are extremely important. Zhu Mouwei of the Ming Dynasty was the earliest one to compile Pianya (Parallel Words) by collecting lianmian zi from ancient books. He followed the arrangement of Erya and divided his book into 13 chapters, including “Explaining Old Words” and “Explaining Instructions” , but without the chapter “Explaining Elegant and Archaic Sayings” . Other subheadings are a little different from Erya. This was the first book to draw people’ s attention to binomes. But it is not yet perfect. Firstly, the author did not indicate where these examples were quoted. Wei Maolin of the Qing Dynasty marked the sources of quotations in his Pianya Xunzhuan. 21

闓 has the same meaning as 開 . The consonant of 焦 is z. 23 烏獲 is the name of a giant wrestler in ancient times. 22

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Secondly, the author did not make a thorough analysis based on the phonetic rules. For example, in “Explaining Old Words” “仿佛 , , 亄費 , 僾俙 , 髣髴 , 依 俙 , all mean ‘seemingly certain, but at the same time uncertain’” . Except “亄 費” (/yì fèi/)24, there are obviously two types of lianmian zi: one is “髣髴” and the other is “依俙” , but Zhu positioned “髣髴” between “僾俙” and “依俙” , which didn’ t make any sense. In pre-modern times, two great books on lianmian zi were compiled: one is Fu Dingyi’ s Dictionary of Lianmian Zi and the other is Zhu Qifeng’ s Ci Tong. The former followed the arrangement of Dictionary of Kangxi to categorize characters under 241 radicals and the latter one classified words into  106 rhymes of pei wen. Both of them have illustrated many examples and managed to associate various forms of a binome. With quotation from abundant materials, they are surely useful reference books for indexing lianmian Zi. However, flaws  or mistakes are always unavoidable. In particular two obvious flaws can be found  in Dictionary of Lianmian zi. One is that the scope of the dictionary in defining  lianmian zi is too wide even including “五福” (five blessings) and “五穀” (five grains). and the other is that “轉” (to be converted) was used in a rather casual way. For example, the entry of “不可” says “轉而 ‘不軌’ ” (to be converted to “against the law or discipline” ). Both “可” and “軌” are alliterated characters but without any connection. However, Fu used “轉” so casually that it could not be taken as a serious scientific judgment. In comparison, Zhu’ s book is much more  rigorous. Despite all flaws, these documents are of valuable reference for their abundant quotations from a large variety of classical masterpieces.

24

亄費 is pronounced as /yì bèi/. Two lines in “The Ode to Capital Wu” by Zuo Si, “簡其華質，則 亄費錦饋”. According to Li Shan’s annotations, “亄費，錦文貌” (the pleasant appearance). In Lü Yanji’s annotations, “亄費，猶依俙也” (the same as vaguely or dimly). The two explanations are therefore different. 

Chapter 4 

Interpretation of Word Meaning

4.1 Problems in Interpreting Word Meaning As mentioned earlier, to interpret words, we should get some basic knowledge of extensions, phonetic loans and “cognate words with similar pronunciation” . However, in practical use, we should also have an explicit idea that a word meaning has a considerable degree of adaptability and flexibility. We should not only interpret words  precisely, but also try to avoid interpreting them in a rigid and inflexible way. The following is some problems about which we will discuss in brief.

4.1.1  Exploring the Meaning from the Context Talking should be in a logical and coherent way. Similarly, a word or a sentence in a passage will be inevitably restricted by the context. To interpret word meanings, we need to examine their features beyond general meanings and explore the specific one under a certain context. For example, in Su Shi’ s “The Second Visit  to the Red Cliff ” , “余乃攝衣而上，履巉巖，披蒙茸，踞虎豹，登虬龍，攀 棲鶻之危巢，俯馮夷之幽宫” (Holding up my garment, I went ashore, stepped on the steep rocks, made way through the entwining thickets. I seated myself upon the tiger-shaped rocks, or climbed upon the dragon-like trees; got up to the lofty nest of the perching falcon. or looked down into the deep palace of Feng Yi, the Chinese god of the Yellow River). “宫” denotes “the residence” .“馮夷之幽宫” is where the Chinese god of the Yellow River dwelled and “俯馮夷之幽宫” simply

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_4

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means “to look down into the deep palace of Feng Yi”. To define “宫” as a “palace” is quite stereotyped.“虎豹” and “虬龍” also refer to mountain rocks, as grotesque as the shapes of tiger, leopard and dragon, readers should never mistaken them for real animals. “巉巖” (pronounced as /chán yán/) and “蒙茸” (/méng róng/) are two rhymed binding words, denoting “lofty, steep and dense” . Both of them are adjectives, but used as nouns to describe specific objects here: lofty and steep  rocks as well as dense grass and trees. These interpretations should be determined from the context and neighboring sentences. For example, in front of “巉巖” was added “履” and in front of “蒙茸” was added “披” . Then “山石” and “草樹” should be followed to interpret meanings of those words. Meanwhile, explanations of these two and other several words must not be used elsewhere, such as “草樹蒙 茸” (entwining thickets and trees), “豺狼虎豹” (wolves, tigers and leopards) and “宫殿帷幕” (heavy curtains in a palace). Some words are polysemous with multiple meanings. The first meaning is applicable in one context and the second is applicable in another. For example, “猖 獗” means “in a state of ferociousness” in “大肆猖獗” (unrestrained ferociousness and brutality). However, in “Biography of Zhuge Liang” , Records of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei said, “孤不度德量力，欲信 (申 )大義於天下。而智術短淺， 遂用 1猖獗 , 至於今日”(I did not estimate my virtue and evaluate my strength, and I wanted to bring justice to the world, but failed because of my poor intelligence and shortsightedness, which led to today’ s difficult situation). In this sentence, “猖獗” means “failed” . To quote the following paragraph from the volume 22 of Gaiyu Congkao 《陔餘叢考》 ( ) authored by Zhao Yi as proof: 今人見恣横不可制者，輒曰“猖獗”，史傳亦多用之。然更有别義 :漢昭烈謂諸葛 武侯曰 :“孤智術短淺，遂用猖獗。” 王彪之謂殷浩曰 :“無故匆匆，先自猖獗。” 劉 善明謂蕭道成曰 :“不可遠去根本，自詒猖獗。” 邱遲枟與陳伯之書枠 :“〔君〕不能 内審諸己，外受流言，沉迷猖獗，以至於此。” 金將張柔爲蒙古所敗，質 2其二親， 柔嘆曰 :“吾受國厚恩，不意猖獗如此。” 凡此皆有傾覆之意，與常解不同。 In modern times, people call those people who are too lunatic to be controlled “猖獗” . This word was widely used in the past as well. But it has some other meanings. The Emperor of Zhao Lie said to Marquis Zhuge, “My poor intelligence and shortsightedness led to today’ s difficult situation.” Wang Biao persuaded Yin Hao, “If you did anything in such a hurry without any reason, you would be finally defeated by yourself.” Liu Shanming talked to Xiao Daocheng, “Don’ t go too far, and get overthrown.” Qiu Chi wrote in “A Letter to Uncle Chen” : “Because… was not considerate in my heart, and was instigated by rumors outside, I was disoriented for a while and acted irrationally, which led to today’ s difficult situation.” General Zhang Rou of the Jin Dynasty was defeated by Mongolian, and two his relatives were detained. Leaving a sigh, he said, “I was indebted into the kindness of the Emperor, and was in such an unexpected failure.” These sentences mean to be in a difficult situation to be  defeated, or even “to be overthrown” , which differ from the common understanding.  1 2

用 has the same meaning as 以 . 質 means to mortgage or to pledge.

4.1

Problems in Interpreting Word Meaning

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As what Liu Zongyuan described in “The Snake-Catcher” : “悍吏之來吾鄉，叫囂乎東西，隳突 3乎南北，嘩然而駭者，雖鷄犬不得寧焉。 吾恂恂而起，視其缶，而吾蛇尚存，則弛然而卧。” When those bullying tax-collectors came to our area, they bellowed and cursed from east to west and rampage from north to south, making such a fearful noise that the very fowls and dogs had no peace. Being afraid, I tiptoed from my bed to look into my pitcher, but breathed freely again at the sight of my snakes and lied down once more.

“恂恂” has two different definitions: one is “to be in an aura of confidence” 4 (Chinese Textbook of Senior Middle School III , Beijing: The People’ s Education Publishing House, 1953) and the other is “to be cautious” . Actually, neither of them was appropriately translated. In this essay,“恂恂” means “to be afraid” . Xuanying, a monk of the Tang Dynasty, quoted from Volume Seven of Erya in his Sound and Meaning of the Tripitaka and remarked “恂恂” which means ‘to be shivering’ (戰栗也 )” . This annotation could not be found in Erya, but from the old annotation in“Explaining Instruction” of Erya,“瑟兮僴兮 (inner prudence and modest)，恂栗也 (to be shivering)”，in which the device of tautology was used to interpret the meaning of a single character “恂” . Some other examples can also be found. In “Discussion of the Equality of Things” , Zhuangzi,“民…… 木處則惴栗恂懼，猨 (猿 )猴然乎哉 ?” (If people tried to live in the trees, they would tremble in fear. But what about monkeys?) In The Annotation on Classics, “恂，恐貌” (“恂” means “to feel afraid” ). In Xu Wugui, “吴王浮於江，登乎狙 5 之山，衆狙見之，恂然棄而走，逃於深蓁” (The king of Wu took a boat trip to the Monkey Mountain. As soon as the monkeys saw him they all fled in panic  and hid in thorns). Cheng Xuanying made an annotation with “恂，怖懼 (to feel afraid)” . All above exemplified that “恂恂” means “to feel afraid” . According to the context of Liu’ s “The Snake-Catcher” , Jiang, who took snake hunting as his business, was exempted from taxes and was not harassed by tax-collectors because he undertook the task of catching snakes. His problem was whether there was a snake or not, so when he saw that the snake he had caught did not run away, he “弛 然而卧”(mind at ease and lie on his back). But before he looked into his pitcher (視 其缶 ), because his neighbors were harassed, and he could not help worrying about his snakes. Therefore, he was afraid and tiptoed from the bed. “恂” (to feel afraid) is contrasted with “弛然” (to be at ease in mind). If he was in full confidence without any worry, why did he feel relaxed now? “To be cautious” is very close to the author’s original intention, but this definition is still unacceptable after detailed  analysis. In Ci Hai, “恂恂” has three meanings: (a) to be modesty and prudent; (b)

3

隳 is pronounced as /huī/. Cited from Chinese Textbook of Senior Middle School III, Beijing: The People’s Education Publishing House, 1953 5 狙 means apes. 4

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to feel worried; (c) the same as “循循” meaning “to be honest and reliable” (信心 )6. In “The Snake-Catcher” , “恂恂” is interpreted as “to feel worried” .

4.1.2  Similarity and Difference of Word Meaning Similar or parallel meanings can be regarded as the same for the convenience of talking. However, to clarify the definitions more clearly and precisely, we should  draw a distinction between two meanings. For example, in “文字” (pronounced as /wén zì/, written words), “文” and “字” usually refer to the same thing. In “The Doctrine of the Mean” , The Book of Rites, “文” of “書同文” (unification of  written characters) and “字” of “都將萬字平戎策” [I took out a plan with tens of thousands of words for conquering the State of Jin. (From Partridge in the Sky by Xin Qiji)] have no difference in meaning. Both characters are interchangeable.  However, for philologists, “文” and “字” are distinguished between meanings of single characters and combined words. To quote an example of “衣裳” , now it refers to clothing that people wear, without further subdivision of “衣” and “裳” as ancient people did. In “A Tryst Before Dawn”, Odes of Qi, The Book of Songs, “東 方未明，顛倒衣裳” (Before the east was bright, I was putting on my upper robe and lower garment upside down). In Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs, “上曰衣，下曰裳” (The upper robe is called “衣” and the lower garment is called “裳” ). In “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff” , “適有孤鶴……玄裳縞衣” (There was one crane coming… black tail and white body) is also an example indicating the difference of two characters. One more example is “ 羽 毛 (feather)” . In Du Fu’ s Thoughts on a Historical Site(《咏怀古迹》), “萬古雲霄一羽毛” […was only as a phoenix (one feather) against a flaming sky]. “羽毛” in this line refers to a phoenix in the sky, a metaphor for Zhuge Liang. However, in Senior Dai’s Book of Rites, “有羽之蟲三百六十，而鳳凰爲之長；有毛之蟲三百六十，而麒 麟爲之長” (There are 360 species with feather, of which the phoenix is the most noble and there are 360 species with hair, of which Kylin is the greatest). “羽” is “bird feather” and “毛” is “animal hair” . Above examples demonstrated that parallel characters that stress the difference are called “對文則别” (to compare the difference of two parallel characters) by exegetists. However, synonymous words are  called“ 散文則通” (interchangeable words without comparing the difference). What  we should pay more attention to is the “difference” of two parallel characters.

6

恂 is explained in Shuowen Jiezi as 信心 , which, unlike the modern interpretation of “confidence”,  means “honesty” in ancient Chinese.

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Problems in Interpreting Word Meaning

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4.1.3  Word Meaning in Different Ages Chinese words have gradually developed for a long period of time. New words emerged and old ones vanished. In addition, old meanings might also be replaced by new meanings. To interpret modern language with ancient meaning is incompatible, the same as the ancient language with modern meaning. We need to understand that a great deal of word meanings in Chinese possess contemporary characteristics. Only explaining ancient meaning in ancient Chinese and modern meaning in modern language can the interpretation be accurate and appropriate. 稍 In modern Chinese, it means “a little bit” , while in Shuowen Jiezi, “稍” was annotated with “出物有漸也”, meaning “gradually” , which have been proved true by some ancient poems. In Du Fu’ s “Boating with Governor Wang to Huang Pavilion on the Last Day of the Month”《陪王使君晦日泛江就黄家亭子》 ( ) “山 豁何时断 ,江平不肯流。稍知花改岸 ,始验鸟随舟” (The mountain gapes wide, when was it cut?The river is too smooth to flow; I gradually note that flowers  change on the riverbank, then examine the birds that fly following the boat.). These four lines depict a picture of boating on the placid river. The core meaning of this poem lies in “The river is too smooth to flow” , within the context of “not  knowing and not feeling” . Since the boat moved forward smoothly, the poet and Governor Wang arrived at the gap before realizing it had moved. Therefore the poet questioned with “(山豁 )何時 (斷 )?” (The mountain gapes wide, when was it cut?) They didn’ t realize the river bank had moved backwards and birds had flown following the boat without stopping for a while until they found the flowers  changed to different species, shapes and colors. The poet depicted a vivid picture  of the boat moving forward smoothly and the key point is “稍” (gradually), but it cannot be interpreted with modern meaning as “a little bit” . 僅 It was interpreted as “only” in both ancient and modern times, but people in the Tang Dynasty held a different view. In Han Yu’ s “Epilogue to Biography  of Minister Zhang”《张中丞传后叙》 ( ), “初守睢陽時，士卒僅萬人，城中居人 户亦且數萬，巡因一見問姓名，其後無不識者” (While Zhang Xun defended Suiyang, there were approximately ten thousand soldiers and nearly tens of thousands of families living in the city. When Xun came across some people he did not know, he asked their names and could call out their name the next time). In Bai Juyi’ s “A Poem to Lantian for the First Time”《初出蓝田路作》 ( ), “潯陽僅四千， 行始七十里。人煩馬蹄跙 7，勞苦 已如此” (Xunyang is four thousand lis away, but after traveling only seventy lis, we were tired and horses were driven sick in such a tough journey). “Ten thousand soldiers” and “four thousand lis” are not a small quantity. Han Yu was aimed at exaggerating Zhang Xun’ s good memory, while Bai’ s poem laid stress on how hard and dreary the long journey was. “僅” in both poems means “almost” or “approximately” , to express the idea of “many” rather than “few” .

7

跙 is pronounced as /zǔ/ and means defective horse hooves.

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斷腸 ,腸斷 In Li bai’ s poem Archaic(《古风》), “天津 8三月時，千門桃與李。 朝爲斷腸花，暮逐東流水” (In March, on the Tianjin bridge in Luoyang, peach and mume blossom in thousands of houses. In the morning, the pistils are graceful and at dusk, they wither and fall into the flowing water). In his Selected Poems of the Tang Dynasty(《唐诗选》), Ma Maoyuan annotated it with “ ‘斷腸花’ is an idiom quoted from Liu Xiyi’ s “Trip of a Childe”《公子行》 ( ), ‘可憐桃李斷腸花’ , which means that ‘Gorgeous spring, flowers fascinating, people enjoy so much as  to forget to go home and felt heart-broken’ ” . It is ridiculous that people enjoying peach and mume flowers felt heart-broken. Actually, “斷腸” should be interpreted as “lovely” . More examples can be found in Tang poems. Du Fu’ s “A Song of Lang River”《阆水歌》 ( ) praised the mountain and river of Jialing, “閬中勝事可 腸斷，閬州城南天下稀” (The beautiful scenery of Langzhong is so lovely! And the scenery in south of the city of Langzhou is really rare in the world!) How could the beautiful scenery make people heart-broken? In Wei Zhuang’ s “Composing a Poem Drunk on Cold Food Festival in Fuzhou”《鄜州遇寒食城外醉吟》 ( ), “雕 陰寒食足游人，金鳳羅衣濕麝薰。腸斷入城芳草路，淡紅香白一群群” . Similarly, tourists would not feel heart-broken when they saw pink and white flowers. “腸斷” in both poems means “lovely” . In Du Mu’ s poem “Venting My Feelings”《遣怀》 ( ),“楚腰腸斷掌中輕” (For a slim Southern girl, she is so lovely as to dance on the palm). In ancient times, people of higher classes adored ladies with the type of morbid beauty-appreciation, so “腸斷” here also means “lovely” ; however, it was mistakenly interpreted as “slim” by some scholars who had little knowledge about the origin of this word in the Tang Dynasty. 開心，寫意 In “A Song to a Generous Nobleman of Fufeng”《扶风豪士歌》 ( ), Li Bai wrote “原嘗春陵六國時，開心寫意君所知。堂前各有三千客，明日報 恩知是誰 ?” (During the period of Six Kingdoms, four lords of the Warring States stated their feelings frankly and directly. There were more than three thousand guests for each of them, but they did not know who would pay a debt of gratitude in future). In Selected Poems of the Tang Dynasty, “開心寫意” is interpreted with the modern dialect of Wu as “joyful and comfortable” . But this interpretation is inappropriate since it was not used in ancient times. They are two “verb+object” phrases in this poem, showing that “Lords of Pingyuan, Mengchang, Chunshen and Xinling in the period of Warring States, welcomed those capable men, but they felt sorry that not too many of them paid gratitude, so they were not joyful” . In “Biography of Ma Yuan” , Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty,“開 心寫誠，無所隱伏” (to show faith directly and frankly, nothing to be hidden). In “Stratagems of State of Zhao II” , Stratagems of the Warring States, “忠可 以寫意” (Faith can be expressed directly and frankly). “寫” in ancient Chinese means“writing” and “寫意” and “寫誠” are synonymous words, meaning “to write out what was hidden in the heart” . This is a much more correct and precise interpretation. Focusing either on similarities and differences of word meanings, or features of  different ages, we should always remember to make the interpretation based on the  8

天津 is the name of a bridge in the city of Luoyang.

4.2

Imaginary Numbers; Generic Names and Proper Names; ...

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main idea of the passage and according to the context “here and now” . To draw a conclusion, we should never forget to associate words with the context in which they were used while interpreting word meanings.

4.2

Imaginary Numbers; Generic Names and Proper Names; Taboos and Euphemism; Figurative Meaning; Compound Words with Partial Meaning; Literary Allusive Words

4.2.1  Imaginary Numbers Numeral words can be classified into real numbers and imaginary numbers. A real number refers to the number of specific objects, such as “the four history books” and “the thirteen classics” . However, for a special case, we sometimes keep the large number and omit the small one. For example, “詩三百篇” (three hundred poems) actually includes three hundred and five pieces. The numeral with  the omission of the small number is called “成数” and it also belongs to the real number. The imaginary number is nothing but a way of general or exaggerated saying, without any real quantitative meaning. Many numbers in ancient texts couldn’ t be understood only from their literal meaning. Wang Zhong of the Qing Dynasty stated in his “Interpreting Numbers of Three and Nine”《释三九》 ( ) that “When one describes a number, if one or two could not do, three could be generalized to mean a large number9; if three could not do, nine could. All these are imaginary numbers. This conclusion can be applied to the numbers of ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand.” He indicated that “three, nine, ten, hundred, thousand and ten thousand” could all be used as imaginary numbers. He also quoted some examples to illustrate his point as follows. In “Wei Zi” , The Analects of Confucius, “直道而事人，焉往而不三黜 ?” (Serving masters in an upright way, where shall I go to, and not experience such three repeated dismissals?) Sima Qian wrote in “A Letter to Ren An” , “假令僕伏法受誅，如九牛亡 一毛，與螻蟻何異 ?” (If I broke the law and was killed, it would be like a hair off nine  bulls, what is the difference to compare with an ant?)

He claimed that “三黜” (three repeated dismissals) was not limited to the number of “three” and “九牛” (nine bulls) was also not exact “nine” ; in fact, the former means “repeated several times” and the latter means nothing but “a large amount” . Similarly, “一毛” (a single hair) is simply “a small amount ” , but not 9

約 means to generalize.

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limited to “one” . One more example, In “Li Sao” , “亦余心之所善兮，雖九死其猶未悔” (For an idea that I hold so dear to my heart, I would not regret dying nine times).

To die “nine times” is impossible, so it is clear that “nine” is an exaggerated imaginary number. Some more examples. In “The 13th Year of Duke Zhuang” , Commentary of Zuo, “三折肱，知爲良醫” (If you break your arm three times, you’ ll find a cure). In The Verse of Chu, “九折臂而成醫兮” (If you break your arm nine times, you will become a doctor).

The above two examples illustrated that “three” and “nine” were used in a casual way and we do not need to determine which number is more accurate. Know imaginary numbers is very useful for the understanding of ancient language. Now consider following several numbers quoted from The Ballad of Mulan (an ancient yuefu song). 軍書十二卷，卷卷有爺名。 The army register is in twelve scrolls and every scroll has her father’ s name. 將軍百戰死，壯士十年歸。 Generals died in a hundred battles, and strong warriors returned home after ten years. 策勛十二轉，賞賜百千强。 Merits are recorded in twelve ranks and the Emperor grants a hundred thousand more. 同行十二年，不知木蘭是女郎。 Fighting together for twelve years and they didn’ t know Mulan was a girl.

“百” (hundred) in “百战死” (to die in a hundred battles) is apparently an imaginary number and “十 ” (ten) is the same. Accordingly, “十二 ” (twelve) is also an imaginary number, because there is a clear contradiction between “ten years” and “twelve years” if they represent real numbers in one passage. As for the different use of “ten years” and “twelve years” , it is nothing but restricted by  “five characters to a line” , which exactly shows the magical effect of imaginary  numbers. In addition to “twelve” and what Wang enumerated, “five” “seven” “thirtysix” “seventy-two” and “three thousand” are all imaginary numbers. In “Befriending the Learned” of Mozi, “今有五錐，此其銛，銛者必先挫；有五刀， 此其錯，錯者必先靡 10” (Now there are five awls, one of which is the sharpest, so this  10

銛 and 錯 both mean sharpness; 靡 means damage.

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one must be broken first; there are five knives, one of which is the sharpest, so this one  must be damaged first). In “Gaozi II” of Mencius, “五就湯，五就桀者，伊尹也” (That was Yi Yin—he went to Tang for five times and went to Jie for five times). In “The 16th Year of Duke Cheng” , Commentary of Zuo, “潘尫之黨 11，與養由基 蹲甲 12 而射之，徹七札焉 13” (Pan Dang, the son of Pan Wang, and Yang Youji, shot towards the armor sets which were put together. They could shoot through the seven layers of armor sets). In “Necessity of Training” , Huainanzi, “楩、柟、豫章 14之生也，七年而後知” (Trees such as sycamore, phoebe and camphora officinarum will grow high in seven years). In “Meeting” (an ancient yuefu song), “ 鴛鴦七十 二，羅列自成行 ” (Seventy-two mandarin ducks were aligned in lines). In Li Shangyin’ s poem “Dai Ying” , “誰與王昌報消息，盡輸三十六鴛鴦 ?” (Who sent the message of thirty-six mandarin ducks to Wang Chang? ) In “Biography of Confucius” , Records of the Grand Historian, “孔子以《詩》、 《書》、 《禮 》、《樂》教弟子，蓋三千焉，身通六藝者，七十有二人 ” (Confucius taught about three thousand students The Book of Songs, The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, and those who mastered the six arts were only seventy-two).

Zhaoming Wenxuan (Literary Selections) included two poems entitled “Lamentations” (Seven Sorrows) by Cao Zhi and Wang Can. Some scholarsinterpreting Literary Selections, asserted that sorrows were caused by pain, righteousness, affection, hearsay, seeing, sighing or nose stung (from Lu Xiang).  Some scholars claimed that “Everyone has seven emotions and the sorrow is the greatest pain” (from He Zhuo). The first comment seemed to be fabricated and the second one was somewhat far-fetched. In fact, “seven sorrows” refers to all kinds of sorrows and Cao Zhi’ s “sorrow” is about an abandoned woman (whether there was any other implication is another question). Wang Can’ s “sorrow” is about being forced to leave home by wars. In Li Shan’ s annotation on Zhaoming Wenxuan, Bao Zhao’ s “A Journey of Bitterness and Torridity”《苦热行》 ( ) and Liu Shuo’ s “Trekking Heaving, Trekking Through”《拟行行重行行》 ( ) both quoted some lines from Cao Zhi’ s “Seven Sorrows”《七哀》 ( ), which are not included in the existing “The Moon is Shining over the Hall Aglow” . It’ s thus clear that Cao Zhi wrote “Seven Sorrows” more than once with broad themes, and “seven” was merely an imaginary number. Scholars tend to use exaggeration, so numbers in poems are not necessarily real ones. To quote Li Bai’ s “Songs at Qiupu”《秋浦》 ( ), “白髮三千丈” (The hoary hair is ten miles long) is apparently an imaginary number. In “A Dreaming Tour of Tianmu Mountain”《梦游天姥吟留别》 ( ), “天台四万八千丈” (Thousands of meters as Tiantai Mountain high). In “Ode to Sword Dance of Mistress Gongsun’ s 11

潘尫之黨 means a son of 潘尫 named 黨 . 蹲甲 means to put the armors in a stack. 13 徹七札 means to pierce through “seven” layers of armors. 14 楩 , 柟 , 豫章 are all names of big trees. 12

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Apprentice”《公孙大娘弟子舞剑器行》 ( ) authored by Du Fu, “先帝侍女八千人” (The late Emperor had eight thousand palace maids). All of these numbers are not real and poets skillfully used exaggeration to write them. Similarly, location words are the same. In “A Pair of Peacocks Southeast Fly”《孔雀东南飞》 ( ) (an ancient yuefu song), “右手持刀尺，左手執綾羅” (with sewing tools in the right hand and silk and satin in the left hand, she began to make her trousseau). In “The Ballad of Mulan” , “東市買駿馬，西市買鞍韉，南 市買轡頭，北市買長鞭” (In the East Market she bought a spirited horse; in the West Market she bought a saddle; in the South Market she bought a bridle; in the North Market she bought a long whip). All these location words are embedded for rhyming and paralleling, rather than real things. Therefore, we had better learn to analyze the ancient literature in a much more flexible way.

4.2.2  Generic Names and Proper Names A “generic name” is used to name an entire category or class of products and a “proper name” is a noun or noun phrase that designates a particular person, place or an object. There is a clear distinction between a generic name and a proper name, so we don’ t need to discuss it in detail. However, in Pragmatics, generic and proper names can often convert from one to the other, to which we should pay much attention. A generic name could be converted to a proper name. For example, Records of the Grand Historian originally referred to the history recorded by historiographers. Du Yu stated in his Preface to Explaining Classics During the Period of Spring and Autumn(《春秋经传集解序》), “The Spring and Autumn Annals is about the history of the State of Lu. … Mencius said, ‘Historical records of Chu were called《檮杌》(pronounced as /táo wù/), those of Jin were called《乘》 (/shèng/) and those of Lu were called《春秋》(/chūn qiū/), all of which were the same thing.’ ” It’ s clear that “Records of the Grand Historian” is the generic name of《檮杌》 《 乘》and《春 秋》. “The historical records” compiled by Sima Qian of the Western Han Dynasty was entitled “One hundred and thirty pieces from the Court Historian” in “The Records of Art and Literature” ) of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty. Later, it was named Records of the Grand Historian, and the generic name became a proper name. In the calendar of Yin and Zhou Dynasties, one month was divided into four periods: Chu Ji 初吉 (from 1st day to the 7th or 8th day); Ji Sheng Ba 既生霸 (from the 8th or the 9th day to the 14th or the 15th day); Ji Wang 既望 (from the 15th or the 16th day to the 22nd or 23rd day) and Ji Si Ba 既死霸 (from the 23rd or 24th day to the last day of the month)15. However, in Su Shi’ s “The First Visit to the Red Cliff” , “七月既望” specifically referred to  15

Please see the essay “On 生 霸 and 死 霸” in the Guantang Jilin Collection of Essays by Wang Guowei.

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Imaginary Numbers; Generic Names and Proper Names; ...

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“the 16th day of a month” . In the Yin and Zhou Dynasties, “既望” was a generic name, but later it was converted to a proper name. Another example is “花” (flower). It is a generic name, but in Ouyang Xiu’ s Peonies of Luoyang(《洛阳牡 丹记》), Luoyang people called a peony “花” ; “葉” was also a generic name, but in Lu You’s “Feelings When Passing Countryside Homes”( 《过野人家有感》), “滿 箔蠶饑待葉歸” (The silkworms covering the bamboo board are hungry, waiting to be fed with mulberry leaves). The poet made a self-annotation with “People in Wu called mulberry leaves 葉” . Therefore both “flowers” and “leaves” were converted  from generic names to proper names. Some proper names can also be converted to generic names. For example, in Bai Juyi’ s “Everlasting Remorse” , “峨嵋山下少人行，旌旗無光日色薄” (Below the E’ mei Mountain wayfarers were few; In fading sunlight royal standards lost their hue.—Translated by Xu Yuanchong). In the volumes of two and three in Brush Talks from Dream Brook 《梦溪笔谈》 ( ), “峨嵋，在嘉州，與幸蜀路毫 無交涉” (The E’ mei Mountain was located in Jia Zhou and it was irrelevant to the road that the Emperor Xuanzong passed through to Sichuan. An excuse might be given that Bai Juyi did not choose words very carefully and the location he mentioned was not completely precise, but now let’ s quote another poem authored by Yuan Zhen, a friend of Bai Juyi, who went to Dongchuan as an official in charge of the discipline of public functionaries, “身騎驄馬峨眉下，面帶霜威卓 氏前 , 虚度東川好時節，酒樓元被蜀兒眠” . The Mountain E’ mei was located in Xichuan and Yuan had never been there, but he mentioned E’ mei in his poem, so E’ mei was not a proper name, but was used to designate any mountain in Sichuan. Another example comes from “Teng Wen Geng II” , Mencius, “子謂薛 居州善士也，使之居於王所。〔若〕在於王所者，長幼尊卑皆薛居州也，王 誰與爲不善 ? 在王所者，長幼尊卑皆非薛居州也 , 王誰與爲善 ? 一薛居州， 獨如宋王何 ?” (You said that Xue Juzhou was a kind-hearted man. Please ask him to stay beside the king. The people around the king, young or old, senior or inferior, are good people like Xue Juzhou. Who will the king do bad things with? If people around the king, young or old, senior or inferior, are not good people like Xue Juzhou, who will the king do good things with? What can Xue Juzhou do to the king of Song?) In this paragraph, there are two “Xue Juzhou” , one at the beginning and the other one at the end, referring to a kind-hearted man whose surname was Xue, and it is a proper name, while the middle two designated any person like Xue Juzhou and it became a generic name. Therefore, if some people are so outstanding as to be a model of a homogeneous group, their names could often be converted to generic names designating a certain kind of people. For example, “師曠” (pronounced as /shī kuàng/) and “鍾 期” (/zhōng qī/) are generic names for closely confidants; “無鹽” (/wú yán/) and “嫫母” (/mó mǔ/) are generic names designating ugly women and “莽” (/mǎng/), “卓” (/zhuó/) (王莽 and 董 卓 ) are names for treacherous officials; “黄忠” “花木蘭” and “穆桂英” are also such examples. All above show that in spite of the possibility of conversion between generic names and proper names, those proper names being converted from generic names or converting into generic names are always very special. The reason that Records

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of the Grand Historian was exclusive to Sima Qian is because the greatness of his masterpiece. “既望” specifically referred to the 16th day, because it was the first  day of this period.

4.2.3  Taboos and Euphemism In social communications, in view of the acceptability of language, people sometimes choose an agreeable or inoffensive expression instead of one that may  offend someone or hint at something unpleasant with simple and straightforward  words. This is called a “taboo” or “euphemism” . For example, the original form of “筷” (pronounced as /kuài/, chopsticks) is “箸” or “筯” , homophonous with “住” (/zhù/, to stop). However, boatmen in the South regard “住” as a taboo and instead they used “快兒” (/kuài ér/) denoting “a safe sailing” . Later, it was used more widely with “𥫗” placed on the top. “死” is also a character that people hate to say, so there are many substitutes for it. The death of an emperor is called “崩” (collapse), “山陵崩” (collapse of a mountain) and “大行” (a great journey), “棄群臣” (to abandon officials), 宫車晏駕 16, “千 秋萬歲後” (a thousand or ten thousand years later, used when the emperor was still alive). Deaths of dukes and high officials were called “薨” and deaths of parents were called “棄養” 17; deaths of dignified people were called “卒” “逝世” and “去世 ” and famous scholars’ deaths were called “歸道山” 18 and “捐館舍” (to abandon the house they live), and so on. In the feudal society, the ruling class invented a set of terms concealing their own evil ideas. For example, some senior officials called their domestic fornication “帷薄不修” 19 (Curtains are not drawn to separate men from women) and to be greedy for money and accept brides was called “簠簋不飭” 20(Food containers are not prepared for offering sacrifices to the  gods); to be fatuous and incompetent was “下官不職” (The subordinate officials  are incompetent). In addition, in Yuan dramas, the place where men and women privately met was called “碧桃花下” (under the peach blossom) since “private meeting of men and women” was also a taboo. It is very common in Chinese language to avoid using harsh and impolite words 16

“宫車晏駕” means “The emperor didn’t come out and something might happen”. 晏 means being late, and 駕 means to drive a carriage. 17 It means there is no need for support from their children. 18 In “Biography of Dou Zhang” in Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty,“是時學者稱東觀 爲老氏臧 ( 藏 ) 室，道家蓬萊山”, which means, according to Li Xian’s annotations, “Laozi used to be responsible for the libraries and in charge of all the documents and books around the country. It was also recorded in Records of the Grand Historian, saying that Dongguan contained a great number of classics. Penglai is the name of a celestial mountain in the seas where the immortals reside and the mystery classics are kept.” 19 薄 is the same as 簾 . 20 簠簋 is the rice container. 飭 means to prepare and get ready.

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or phrases but to take a euphemism way instead. “Gongsun Chou II” of Mencius recorded that the King of Qi sent someone to tell Mencius that he wanted to come and see Mencius, but the king himself could not come because he was ill, might not expose himself to the wind and he hoped that Mencius could pay a visit to him. Mencius was not very glad and replied, “不幸而有疾，不能造朝” (Unfortunately I was ill and I couldn’ t go to the imperial court). The next day, the King of Qi sent a doctor, but Mencius went somewhere else. One of his students felt embarrassed and said, “昔者有王命，有采薪之憂，不能造朝 ；今病小愈，趨造於朝。我 不識能至否乎 ?” (Yesterday, we got the order from the King, but my Master suffered a minor illness and couldn’ t go to the court. Today, he turned better and  went to the imperial court immediately, but I don’ t know whether or not he can have arrive there by this time). In this sentence, “采薪之憂” (He can’ t chop wood because of illness) was used to express “to be ill” . It was more euphemistic used by common people than to say “I’ m ill” . Another example is from “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, Ren Lizheng told Li Ling,“漢已 大赦，中國安樂 ；主上富于春秋，霍子孟、上官少叔用事” (The Han Dynasty has announced general amnesty. The Emperor is in his prime and he is assisted by Huo Zimeng and Shangguan Shaoshu). “ 富于春秋” (in the prime of one’s life) was a euphemism of “年幼” (young). Another example is “to go to the lavatory” (更衣 ), because it is very rude to say that directly, so ancient people put it in a more euphemistic way. In “Four Taboos” , Discourses Weighed in the Balance, “夫 更衣之室，可謂臭矣；鮑魚之肉，可謂腐矣” (The toilet is smelly and the meat of abalone is rotten” . “更衣” is a euphemism for “to go to the lavatory” . It is difficult to distinguish between taboos and euphemisms. Generally speaking, a taboo is an action that is hated but a euphemism is to use indirect words or expressions as a way of softening the impact of what is being said. However, there is no need to strictly make a distinction between them.

4.2.4  Figurative Metaphors A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or a phrase, literally denoting one  kind of object or idea, is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them. For example, in “一切反動派都是紙老虎” (All reactionaries are paper tigers), “paper tigers” metaphorizes all reactionaries, showing that they are ferocious in appearance but weak inside. The figurative meaning, as a rhetorical  device, is different from the general meaning and it cannot exist without a specific  context. Moreover, figurative metaphors are usually created by writers in a free  and casual way. Apart from some idioms, most of metaphorical meanings are usually not included in dictionaries. “眉似春山，眼如秋水” (Her eyebrows had the aspect of hills in spring, and her eyes—reflections of an autumn stream) and “水是眼波横，山是眉峰聚” (The water is like a beauty’ s charming glance and the mountain is like her frowning

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eyebrows), quoted from “Seeing off Bao Haoran to East Zhejiang” to the tune of the divination(《卜算子· 送鲍浩然之浙东》) by Wang Guan, are metaphors. However, in “春山” (hill in spring) and “秋水” (water in autumn), “山” and “水” refer to hills and water. In The Romance of West Chamber(《西厢记》), “望穿了 盈盈秋水，蹙 21損了淡淡春山” (The beauty would be facing across the water in autumn and frowning the hill in spring. Both “秋水” and “春山” have their figurative metaphors—clear eyes and beautiful eyebrows. It can be seen from this example that the figurative metaphors are much more abundant in meaning  than what are metaphorized. “望穿眼睛” (to gaze through eyes) and “蹙損眉 尖” (to frown eyebrows) would be pale beside the figurative metaphors. In Fan Zhongyan’ s “The Yueyang Tower”《岳阳楼记》 ( ), “浮光耀 金，静 影沈璧” (Its brightness glistening with golden light on the lake and the reflection of the moon  is like a piece of jade in the depth of the water) describes the shadow of the moon reflected on the smooth surface of Dongting Lake. “璧” (jade), a substitute for the full moon, is figurative. In Li He’ s “Jiangnan Nong”《江南弄》 ( ) “江上團團帖寒 玉 (The moon like a round cold jade was reflected by the river” , “寒玉 (jade)” was a figurative metaphor forthe moon shadow over the river. Because it is a round flat  piece of brilliant jade, “璧” is compared to the full moon. Another example is Su Shi’ s poem “At Wanghu Tower Again”《宿望湖楼再和吕察推诗》 ( ), “但恨無友生， 詩病莫訶詰。君來試吟咏，定作鶴頭側 22。改罷心愈疑，滿紙蛟蛇黑” “蛟蛇” (a flood dragon and a snake) refers to writing in cursive script. In the poem “To  Sun  Shen Lao”《赠孙莘老》 ( ), “今日駱駝橋下泊，恣看修網 23出銀刀” “銀刀” (a silver knife) refers to fish. “蛟蛇” and “銀刀” are extended to express figurative metaphors. The figurative metaphors mentioned above, as a rhetoric device, are used skillfully and those figurative meanings are clear and accurate. To understand these figurative meanings, we need to connect them with the context. “寒玉” refers to the shadow of a full moon within the context of “江上團團” and “銀刀” refers to fish within “修網出” . Without the context, figurative meanings are useless.  “蛟蛇” was interpreted as “to write in cursive script” for three reasons: the first one is  that it is cursive like a dragon circling around, the second is from the context of “滿 紙” (the whole paper), and the third is “改罢” (after being revised). Since it was a draft and revised again and again, apparently it was not written in regular script. Therefore, understanding figurative metaphors and the context should be closely related.

4.2.5  Compound Words with Partial Meaning The term of “compound words with partial meaning” (偏義複詞 ) was first proposed by Li Jinxi. Yu Guanying in his essay “Compound words with partial meaning in poems of the Han and Wei Dynasties” of On Poetry of Han, Wei and 21

蹙 is the same as 皺 (to wrinkle). To tilt the head as a gesture of dissatisfaction. 23 修網 means a long net. 22

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Six Dynasties( 《汉魏六朝诗论丛》) stated: Some compound words in mandarin Chinese are composed of two parallel morphemes24 and one morpheme might be emphasized in meaning. These compound words are termed “compound words with partial meaning” . For example, “費了那麽多 精神 , 到後來還要落褒貶 , 真不值得！” (It’ s not worthwhile that I’ ve put in so much effort, but only got criticism) and “我的丈夫受了重傷，萬一有個好歹，叫我怎麽過” (My husband has been seriously injured. If something bad happened, what can I do?) In these examples, “褒貶” (praise and criticism) emphasizes “貶” (criticism) and “好 歹” (good and bad) on “歹” (bad). Both “褒貶” and “好歹” are compound words with partial meaning. Such compound words are not uncommon in ancient Chinese. …More examples can be found in poetry due to the restricted number of characters to a line.

Now let’ s quote some examples about “compound words with partial meaning” that Li and Yu termed them as. 得失 (gain and loss) In “Biographies of Assassins” , Records of the Grand Historian, “多人不能無生得失” (Many people are lured to weighing gains and losses). “得失” means “losses” . 緩急 (greater or lesser urgency) In “Biographies of Bianque and the Duke Cang” , Records of the Grand Historian, “緩急無可使者” (Under such great urgency, none of people could help). One more example is in “Biography of Youxia” “緩急，人之所時有也” (People often have something in greater urgency). “緩急” means “greater urgency” . 同異 ,異同 (similarity and difference) In “Biography of Sun Hao” , Records of Wu, Records of the Three Kingdoms, it was annotated with “蕩 25同異如反掌” (To defeat the enemy is compared to turn one’ s hand). In “Biography of Wang Bin” , History of the Jin Dynasty, “ 江州當人强盛時，能立異同” (Wang Bin dared to express different  views even when Wang Dun was in power). “同異” or “異同” means “difference” . These examples were quoted from Gu Yanwu’s Records of Daily Knowledge( 《日知录》 ). 老幼 (old and young) In “King Wen as Son and Heir” , The Book of Rites, “養老 幼於東序” (Nourish the elderly and the young in the eastern school). “老幼” means “the elderly people” . 車馬 (carriage and horse) In “Yu Zao” , The Book of Rites, “大夫不得造車馬” (High officials are not allowed to make new carriages). “車馬” means “carriages” (This example was quoted from Yu Yue’ s Examples of Doubtful Points in Ancient Books(《古 书疑义举例》)). 作息 (to work and rest) In “A Pair of Peacocks Southeast Fly” , “晝夜勤作息” (I work hard day and night). “作息” means “to work” . 存亡 (to live and die) In Ruan Ji’ s “A Poem on Aspiration”《咏怀诗》 ( ), “存亡有 長短，慷慨將焉知” (Life is short, so what could great efforts do?). “存亡” means “to live” (This example came from Yu’ s book). 鼎俎 (Ding and sacrificial utensil or vessel) In “Liu Fan” , Hanfeizi, “授之以 24 25

The character 詞 actually means 詞素 (morphemes) in the context. 蕩 means to wipe out and annihilate.

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鼎俎，則罷健效矣 26” (If you ask them to hold up a ding, it will be easy to see who is weak or strong). “鼎俎” means “ding” (an ancient cooking vessel with two loop handles and three or four legs). 衣冠 (garment and hat) In “Biography of the Childe Wei” , Records of the Grand Historian, “侯嬴攝敝衣冠直上” (Hou Ying lifted up his garment and went straight up to the carriage). “衣冠” refers to “the garment” .

Li and Yu defined the above examples as “compound words with partial meaning” . In Wang Li’ s lecture on modern Chinese,he mentioned the “combining words” ( 併合語 )27 derived from phrases28 and said that “Combining words come from a combination of single characters. Two Chinese characters formed one word group (仂語 ), but in later days, one of two characters took the dominant position and the other one gradually lost its meaning and finally only a meaningless character form remained. For example, in modern mandarin Chinese, ‘兄弟’ (elder brother and younger brother) only refers to ‘弟’ , while in some dialects, ‘妻子’ (wife and children) only refers to ‘妻’ .” (See Chapter Two of Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar). This is roughly the same as what Li and Yu stated. However, we believe that, in modern Chinese, words like “褒貶” “好 歹” “兄弟” “妻子” should also be considered as “compound words with partial meaning” or “combining words” , since they have already become a “compound word” rather than two singular Chinese characters. However, ancient scholars held different opinions. Yu Yue said, “In ancient language, scholars often omitted  any unnecessary words, but sometimes, their words were far more complex. For omitting, they might put one thing into another29 and for complexity, they might choose to explain something in great detail.” He stated that “老幼” refers to the elderly with the association of the young rather than “to take care of both the elderly and the young” and “車馬” refers to carriages with the association of horses, rather than “to make carriages and horses” . Gu Yanwu believed that “to talk about A, with the association of B, that is because ancient people worded in a leisure and unoppressive way.30 ” According to them, such Chinese characters as “幼” and “馬” do not possess specific meanings but are simply attached to “老” and “車” , and they are redundant and unnecessary, not the same as compound words of “老幼 ” and “車馬” . In one of Yu’ s paper, he concluded that “More often,to use compound words with partial meaning was used for adding words to a sentence” and it’ s clear that “幼” and “馬” are used provisionally rather than combining solid compound words with “老” and “車” . Thus, “compound words with partial meaning” is still questionable, but since it has been used for a long time, we had better follow the old routine. No wonder, more examples will be found since we have already known that 26

罷 is the same as 疲 (tired). 效 means be apparent and visible. 單詞 (words), in Wang’s understanding, is actually what others deem as “compounds”. 28 Or 仂語 in Wang’s term. 29 舉此以見彼 means to include one thing in another. 30 The characters of 甲 (A) and 乙 (B) in this citation were originally 憎 (hatred) and 愛 (love). 27

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ancient people spoke or wrote in such a way. “鼎俎” in Hanfeizi is such an example. Gu Guangqi believed “俎” (an ancient sacrificial utensil or vessel) was an unnecessary redundant Chinese character31, but he forgot that “俎” was associated with “鼎” . Some scholars once interpreted “攝敝衣冠” as “to tidy his garment and hat” since “攝” couldn’ t describe “冠” . However, it means “to lift up his garment” so as to describe Hou Ying’ s arrogant attitude—he lifted up his garment and stepped onto the carriage. It was incorrect if we interpreted it as “to tidy his garment and hat”. Dai Junfu of the Tang Dynasty stated in the entry of “Mao Andao” (a taoist in Mount Lu) of A Collection of Strange Stories(《广异集》), “二 子因弛慢縱誕，攝衣登阶” (Two men looked sluggish and weird; they lifted up their garments and setoff for the step). Their manners and attitudes are the same as  those of Hou Ying.

4.2.6  Literary Allusive Words An allusion allows people to use ancient books or events as rhetorical materials. It has dramatic and vivid connotations and is often used in speeches and writing to achieve a literary effect, to express new meanings or to use a few words to summarize the rich meaning. In Bai Juyi’ s “Everlasting Remorse” , “漢皇重色 思傾國” (The beauty-loving monarch longed year after year to find a beautiful lady without peer). “傾國” is an allusion quoted from “Biographies of Consort Kin” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, in which Li Yannian attempted to present his younger sister to the Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty and he sang, “北方有佳人，絶世而獨立。一顧傾人城，再顧傾人國。寧不知傾城與傾 國，佳人難 再得 !” (There is a lady in the northern Kingdom, whose beauty is unparalleled in the world. Her refined nature is superior to that of common people.  She disdains to be associated with other women and is independent without any confidant. If she looks at the soldiers who guard the city, she can make the city  wall fall; if she looks at the emperor or king again, the country will suffer the disaster of destruction. But even if the city and the country are destroyed, don’ t lose the opportunity to get the beautiful woman. After all, a beautiful woman is rare and can’t be obtained again!) It exaggerated the beauty so much that emperors or kings would not care about their cities or their own countries which might even be overthrown. Therefore, “傾國” is substituted for “a lady of remarkable beauty” , which, however, includes much more extensive meanings. Bai Juyi used this allusion in his poem; for one reason, it can express much more abundant meanings and for another, it meets requirements of rhyme of four-line poems with seven characters per line, that is, of two characters, one is the level tone and the other one is the entering tone. The character with the entering tone rhymes with the following “得” “識” “側” and “色” . Another example is quoted from Huang 31

衍文 , a term in collation science, refers to unnecessary and redundant characters.

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Tingjian’ s poem “Inscription on Scroll of an Ox by Dai Song”《题李亮功戴嵩牛 ( 图》), “觳觫告主人，實已盡筋力” (I trembled with fear and told my master that I’ ve been completely exhausted). “觳觫” (trembling with fear) is an allusion from “King Hui of Liang I” in Mencius, “有牽牛而過堂下者，王曰 :‘牛何之 ?’ 對 曰 :‘將以釁鐘。’ 王曰 :‘舍之，吾不忍其觳觫若 32無罪而就死地。’ ” (The king saw a man leading an ox across the hall. He asked, “Where is the ox going?” The man replied, “We are going to sacrifice with its blood on the clock.” The king said,  “Let it go! I can’ t bear to see it, trembling with fear, and will die without sin.” ) In this case, “觳觫” was used to substitute for the ox. For one reason, it created a new literal meaning and for the other, it means “trembling with fear” . Therefore, the two characters carry a much richer meaning than “老牛” (an old ox). In Lu You’ s “A Poem Composed in a Boat”《舟中作》 ( ),“斷岸飲觳觫，清波跳噞喁” , the first  line talks about an ox and the second line describes a fish. In this poem, “觳觫” is simply used for the rhyming purpose. Allusions can be divided into a common allusion and a rare allusion. To better understand allusions, we need to read more ancient books. It is not easy for beginners, and they should start with common allusions. For example, 傾國傾城 (great beauty) 巫山洛水 (goddesses of Mount Wu and River Luo) 陽關 (a broad road) 渭城 (the city of Wei) 灞橋 (Ba Bridge) 折柳 (breaking willow branches) 南浦 (water’ s edge on the south) 沈腰潘鬢 (Shen Yue’ s slender waist and Pan Yue’ s grey hair) 桃源 (the peach blossom garden) 武陵 (County of Wu Ling) 田竇 (general name of Tian Fen and Dou Ying of the Han Dynasty) 漢皇重色 (the Emperor of the Han Dynasty loving beauties) 衛霍 (Wei Qing and Huo Qubing of the Han Dynasty) 武皇開邊 (Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty launching a war to expand territory) 儀秦 (Zhang Yi and Su Qin of the Warrior States) 蘇張 (Su Qin and Zhang Yi of the Warrior States)

There are numerous examples. Zheng Zhen (the courtesy name, Ziyin), a poet in Zunyi of the Qing Dynasty, wrote a poem “Getting up at Night”《夜起》 ( ), “蘇 張恍惚在人世，但看藻荇 33 仍縱横” (Su and Zhang seemed to be alive because aquatic grass crossed each other). In this poem, “蘇張” is “Su Shi and Zhang Huaimin” . Su Shi recorded his visit to Chengtian Temple together with Zhang Huaimin in his poem “Dongpo Chi Lin”《东坡志林》 ( ), “庭下如積水空明，水 中藻荇交横，蓋竹柏影也” (The bright moonlight in the courtyard is as clear as 32 33

觳觫若 is the same as 觳觫然 , a look of terror and fear. 藻荇 means aquatic grass.

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water. All kinds of algae crisscross and they are not algae, but the shadow of green bamboo and pine under the moon). Zheng’ s allusion was quoted from this poem. It is not a common allusion to be included in an ordinary dictionary. Allusions are used in both overt and covert ways. Generally speaking, an overt allusion, as shown in the above examples, can’ t be understood without knowing where it was quoted from. A covert method superficially does not use any allusion  and readers who have no idea about allusions can understand, but a good master of allusions will interpret it more thoroughly and deeply. For example, in Du Fu’ s poem “Dayu Temple”《禹庙》 ( ), “禹廟空山裏，秋風落日斜。荒庭垂橘柚，古 壁畫龍蛇” (Dayu Temple in the empty valley, the autumn wind bleak and cold and the setting sun shining on the hall. In the deserted courtyard hanging on the trees are oranges and pomelos, and the walls of the ancient houses still have portraits of dragons and snakes). This poem perhaps at first sight describes the scenery of  an ancient temple, but in fact, it not only describes the bleak and desolate scenery, but also exclusively refers to Dayu Temple with two allusions about Dayu, so this poem is not appropriate to depict some other temples. In “Yu Gong” , The Book of Documents, “ 淮海惟揚州……厥包 34 橘柚 ” (Yang Zhou was located between Huaihai and East Sea… People packaged oranges and pomelos so as to pay tributes to the Emperor). In “Duke Teng Wen II” , Mencius, “當堯之時，水逆行，泛濫於中國 ；蛇龍居之， 民無所定，下者爲巢，上爲營窟……使禹治之。禹掘地而注之海，驅蛇龍 而放之 菹 35” (In the reign of Yao, the overrunning flood flew across the Central Plain. The earth  became the residence of snakes and dragons, and people had no place to live. Those in the lowlands nest on trees, while those in the highlands dig holes to live in… Dayu was assigned to control the flood. Yu dredged new river channels as outlets and guiding the  torrential flood to flow forward into the sea and then he drove snakes and dragons to a  large pool with grass).

Another example is Liu Changqing’ s “A Visit to Jia Yi’ s House in Changsha” 《 ( 长沙过贾谊宅》), “秋草獨尋人去後，寒林空見日斜時” (I’ m tracing someone’ s footprints in the autumn grass, but can only see the slanting sunset through the bleak woods). On the surface of it, Jia Yi recorded his visit to historical remains, but “人去” and “日斜” were actually quoted from his own essays. In “Jia Yi’ s Fu Niao Fu (The Owl)” of Zhaoming Wenxuan,“單閼 36之歲兮，四月孟 夏，庚子日斜兮，鵩集予舍；止於坐隅兮，貌甚閑暇，異物來萃兮，私怪其故。 發書 37占之兮，讖 38言其度。曰 :‘野鳥入室兮，主人將去。’ ” In the year of Dingchou, April is the season of Mengxia. One day, when the sun was 34

厥 means “its”, and 包 refers to the tributes. 菹 , a large pool with grass. 36 單閼 , the year of Dingchou. 四月 and 庚子 in the text below refer to the date and month of the record. 37 發書 , to open the fortune book. 38 讖 to foretell the fortune. 35

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setting to the west, an owl stopped in my house. It rested in a corner, and looked very calm. There was a monster perching here, and I doubted the reason why it came. So I opened the fortune book. It remarked, ‘If a wild bird enters the house, the master will die soon.’ ”

“人去” is quoted from “主人將去” (The master will die soon)，“日斜” from “庚子日斜” (when the sun was setting to the west). Just because of that, this poem recorded a visit to Jia Yi’ s house instead of any other ancient residence. Understanding allusions is very important for reading classical writings. Some dictionaries on allusions have been compiled to facilitate readers’ understanding. Ci Yuan and Ci Hai are usually for readers with generalized needs. On a large scale, some other reference books can also be used with materials taken from various sources and arranged according to subjects. Notes of Primary Learning) 《初学记》 ( ) authored by Xu Jian of the Tang Dynasty, Book Records of the Northern Hall(《北堂书钞》) by Yu Shinan and Classified Anthology of Literary Works(《艺文类聚》)by Ouyang Xun and The Six Tablets of the Masters Bai and Kong(《白孔六帖》) compiled by Bai Juyi and continued by Kong Zhuan of the Song Dynasty and Taiping Imperial Encyclopaedia(《太平御览》) compiled by Song Lifang, etc., are all such reference books. In addition, many incomplete and scattered ancient books have also been preserved for the purpose of revision and compilation39, such as official compilation of Essence of Confucian Classics and History(《子史精华》)and Reference Book of Yuan Jian(《渊鉴类函》) in the Qing Dynasty. Some reference books have special topics, such as Treasure Canon of Jade Candles(《玉烛宝典》) by Du Taiqing of the Sui Dynasty and Vast Records of the Annual Seasons 《岁时广记》 ( )by Chen Qinyuan of the Song Dynasty. Both of them are reference books about climate and natural phenomena in seasons. Record of All Fragrant (Flowers) 《广群芳谱》) is specialized in grains, flowers and grass,  trees and medical herbs, etc. Encyclopedia of the Category(《事类赋》) by Wu Shu of the Song Dynasty was compiled with the style of prose-poem, which was easy for reading and paved a new way for the compilation of reference books. The Children’s Knowledge Treasury(《幼学琼林》), arranged in the same way, compiled specifically for village school students. In the late Song Dynasty, Yin Shifu compiled a rhyming dictionary Yunfu Qunyu(《韵府群玉》) including ancient stories arranged according to different rhymes. In the Qing Dynasty, Peiwen Yunfu (Peiwen Rhyming)(《佩文韵府》) was compiled. Compiling reference books based on rhymes was the most convenient method at that time, but now it is no longer applicable. The radical-system method has been used instead since Ci Yuan and Ci Hai came into the picture. Many of reference books or dictionaries quoted from a vast number of sources and materials, or even second-hand information, so mistakes could not be avoided. Therefore, it is necessary to check the original books, especially for scientific research.

39

輯佚 refers to the search for and collection of scattered ancient books.

Chapter 5

Sentences

5.1 How to Make a Sentence? A sentence is a basic unit of language. The smallest free unit—word—can express meaning and exchange ideas only by forming a complete sentence according to certain grammatical rules. Therefore, even during the interpretation of word meaning, we should also take into account the relationship between one word and the neighboring words in the context as well. Content words are the backbone of a sentence with clear notions. In the sentence of “妾，洞庭龍君小女也” (I’ m the little daughter of Dragon King of Dongting) and “吾， 義夫也”(I am a man of righteousness) from “A Legend of Liu Yi”, “妾”(In ancient times, it is a deprecatory self-reference for women), “女” (daughter), “吾” (I) and “夫” (man), are all content words and express the most important ideas. In spite of the fact that they are the backbone of a sentence, content words can not fully express thoughts and feelings by themselves. The function word “也” in above two examples is indispensable. Without it, we will always feel something missing. Both “也” are the modal auxiliary word for “傳信” (to send messages), to affirm the certainty of relating “妾” (I) to “洞庭龍君小女” (the little daughter of Dragon King of Dongting) and “吾” (I) to “義夫” (a man of righteousness). The affirmative tone of statements and illustrations is used to convince listeners what  they heard was true. Without “也”, this affirmative tone can not be fully expressed.  Therefore, in his “Autobiographic Notes of Distinguishing Auxiliary Words(《助 字辨略字序》)” , Liu Qi claimed that “Both content words and function words are used in writing. Content words are the backbone and function words express the deep thought.” Therefore, it is not accidental that ancient people attached much more

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_5

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importance to utilizing function words. Function words play two roles, indicating moods and showing relationships. As “也” asserts the affirmative tone, “乎” and “歟” strengthen interrogative tones, and “哉” denotes the exclamatory tone. They are all modal auxiliary words. Prepositions are the most important element in showing relationships. “於” , for instance, indicates the relationship between action or behavior and time or place, illustrates how the performer affects the recipient and shows a relationship of comparison as well. Please consider following examples, 見有婦人，牧羊於道畔。 I saw a woman shepherding sheep by the road. 既而將訴於舅姑。 Then I told my father-in law and mother-in law. 賤妾不幸，今日見辱問於長者。 I’ m an unfortunate woman and today, thank you for your concern. 視其妻，深覺類於龍女，而艷逸豐厚，則又過之。(以上各句，都见《柳毅传》) Looking closely at his wife, he deeply feels that she looks very like the daughter of Dragon King, but is more charming and voluptuous. (all quoted from “A Legend of Liu Yi” )

The first “於” signifies the location; the second and the third “於” demonstrate the relationship between the performer and the recipient; the fourth “於” shows the likeness between Liu Yi’ s wife and the daughter of Dragon King (類於龍女 ). In Bai Juyi’ s poem “Yangliu Zhi” (Song of Willow Branches),“一樹春風萬萬枝， 嫩於金色軟如絲” (A tree with a million branches sways in breeze of spring; More tender, softer than golden silk string by string),“於” was used for a comparison. The difference lies in that in Bai’s poem,“於” expressed either “more than” or “less than” . In addition to above two purposes, function words could also regulate the falling or rising tone as well as long or short intonation. In “East Mountain” , Odes of Bin, The Book of Songs,“我東曰歸，我心西悲” (When we were in the east, it was said that we would return; our hearts were in the west and felt sad). “曰” did not have specific meaning except for the purpose to add one syllable, but its  function can not be ignored from the perspective of language arts. Both content words and function words are used to make sentences, but two rules should be followed, (a) the morphological change, (b) the certain order in which words are combined according to their structural functions. Morphological changes are rare in Chinese, but we can still name but a few examples, such as some adjectives of reduplicated characters or those followed by “然” without any specific function. “慆慆不歸” (Long were we there without returning) in “East Mountain” , Odes of Bin, The Book of Songs, “予唯音嘵嘵” in “Chi Xiao” (The Owl), “道士啞然笑” “道士寂然，若無聞也” “二子怛然失色” quoted Han Yu’ s “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” (a joint-sentence poem of stone ding, i.e., pottery tea-cooking pot) are all such examples. Word order is especially important in Chinese syntax, with clear differences between ancient and modern Chinese. We  will discuss it in the later chapters. In conclusion, to make a sentence, we should combine content words and

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function words together according to some grammatical rules and arrange them in a certain order, so as to express complete thoughts and feelings. In addition, we should also notice that sentences, as an organic part of a whole paragraph, would undergo some changes in structure according to the context. For example, in “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” , “坐客未倦，了悟其文” (I didn’ t spend much time figuring out its meaning). Who figured out the meaning? If you only read this  single sentence, you might mistakenly believe that it was “the guest” (坐客 ) who figured it out. However, if you connect it to the previous sentence,“余遂請齊公書 於紙，乃憑檻書空，凝思默慮” deep in meditation (So I asked the monk Qi Wu to write down the riddle. Then I leaned against the railing and stroked the words with my fingers in the air, deep in meditation). It’ s clear that it was “I” (余 ), the author Li Gongzuo, who understood the meaning. That is to say, the subject of “了 悟” (to figure out) is “余” (I), which, however, was omitted. It is impossible for anyone to say that he or she understands these eight Chinese characters without connection to the context.

5.2 Long Sentences and Short Sentences; Sentence Segmentation A sentence is a relatively independent unit to express a complete thought by combining a group of words or phrases together. To express simple thoughts, the sentence structure is also simple. But to express complicated thoughts, the sentence has to be complex. Therefore, sentences are varied in length. In “A Story of Song Dingbo Catching Ghosts” from Lie Yi Zhuan (Accounts of Strange Things), “汝復誰 ?” (Who are you?) is a very short and simple sentence. However, in “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” , “娥因泣，具寫記申蘭申春，復父夫之仇〔與〕 , 志願相畢，經營終始艱苦之狀” (Xiao’ e began to cry, remembered the names of Shen Lan and Shen Chun, and were determined to avenge her father and husband and finally she fulfilled her dream…all hardships she had suffered), which is a long  and complex sentence. To understand the meaning of a sentence, the first thing is  to determine that the sentence structure expresses a complete thought. For this, it is necessary to make an analysis of the internal structure of sentences. Some sentences are long and complex, for two reasons. One reason is that they are compound sentences with at least two independent clauses. The second reason is that although they are simple sentences, some of components might be modified  by complex phrases, such as endocentric phrases, compound phrases, verb-object phrases, subject-verb phrases and prepositional structures. To quote once more from “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” , two clauses “娥因泣” (Xiao’ e began to cry) and“〔娥〕具寫記申蘭申春……” (Xiao’ e remembered the names of Shen Lan and Shen Chun….), formed a compound sentence with parallel structure, which is much more complicated than “汝復誰” (Who are you?). However, the complexity of this sentence is mainly due to the complicated internal organization of the second clause. If we take the second clause as a simple sentence without regards

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to “娥因泣” , the analysis of sentence structure will be as follows:〔娥〕ǁ具｜寫 記申蘭申春……之狀 The basic structure of this sentence is a verb-object phrase omitting the subject, but its object is a complex phrase modified by  “状” as the center. Its modifier is “艰苦” (hardship), which, however, is also modified by another word. That is, 寫記申蘭申春，復父夫之仇，志願相畢，經營終始 (Xiao’ e) remembered the names of Shen Lan and Shen Chun, and was determined to avenge her father and husband and finally she fulfilled her dream… all hardships she  had suffered.

“寫記申蘭申春 , 復父夫之仇，志願相畢” and “經營終始” are appositive. The former denotes the hardship she suffered and “寫記……相畢” is a compound structure, of which “寫記申蘭申春” (to remembered the names of Shen Lan and Shen Chun) 和“復父夫之仇” (to avenge her father and husband) are both verb+ object phrases;“志願相畢” (to fulfill her dream) is the abbreviation of “She  avenged her father and husband and fulfilled her dream” . It is an endocentric “ 與〕志願” and “相” are adverbials of “畢” 1.“經營終始” is phrase, in which 〔 a verb-complement phrase. All above relations and structures form “a simple sentence” . With the subdivision or omission of some words or phrases (such as “具” “復父夫之仇” “之狀” ), this sentence would not express a complete idea. In other words, this simple sentence must not be subdivided into several simpler sentences. One more example of a complex sentence in “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” is “後數日，告我歸牛頭山，扁舟泛淮，雲游南國，不復再遇” (After a few days, Xiao’ e told me that she would go back to Mount Bullhead and she was going to travel to the south by taking a boat on River Huai. Then we would not be able to meet again). To analyze this sentence in the same way, we found it quite complicated to explore the internal structure of a long sentence. However, to combine these complex structures together will create a simple sentence as well. Ancient Chinese people defined “the end after a complete sentence” as “句” (pronounced as /jù/), the pause in a sentence— clause and subject-predicate phrase—as “讀 ” (/dòu/) and the shorter pause in the flow of speech sound within  compound elements or between a subject and a predicate as “頓” (/dùn/). While reading an article, if 句 , 讀 and 頓 are correctly marked, readers will understand most of the text (思過半矣 ), for which we should strive. Now consider following sentences quoted from “Horseshoe” of Zhuangzi and “Ode to City Wu” by Bao Zhao, clearly marked by “句 , 讀 and 頓” . In “Horseshoe” of Zhuangzi, 馬頓，蹄可以踐霜雪讀，毛可以禦風寒讀，齕草頓， 飲水讀，翹足而陸 2讀，此馬之真性也句。 The hooves of a horse can be used to trample frost and snow, and its fur can fend off  the wind chill. It eats grass when hungry, drinks water when thirsty, and jumps with its 1 2

The sentence means the dream is not realized until the avenge is made. 陸 is the same as “踛”, which means to hop or to jump.

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hooves when excited. This is the nature of a horse. In Bao Zhao’ s “Ode to City Wu” , 澤葵依井讀，荒葛罥塗 (途 )句。壇羅虺頓、蜮讀， 階鬭麏頓、鼯句。木魅頓、山鬼頓、野鼠頓、城狐頓、風號頓、雨嘯讀，昏見頓、晨趨句。 飢鷹厲吻讀，寒鴟嚇雛句。伏 頓、藏虎讀，乳血頓、飧膚句。 The moss grew around the well, and the grass spread across the road. The poisonous snakes and three-foot turtles were crawling in the house, the wild deer and flying squirrels were fighting each other in front of the steps. Sprites in wood and stone, ghosts  in the mountains, wild mice and urban foxes were howling in the wind and rain, and haunting at dawn and dusk. Hungry eagles were sharpening their sharp beaks, cold kites were frightening the little birds. The lurking beasts and tigers fed on blood and flesh.

When reading the first “馬” (horse) is the subject of the whole sentence and a pause of “頓” is needed, so we would not link “馬” with “蹄” together. To analyze “壇羅虺蜮”(poisonous snakes and water bugs all on the hall) and “階鬭麏鼯”(forest musk deer and flying squirrels in front of the stairs), we know that “壇” and “階” act as subjects, “虺蜮” and “麏鼯” are objects; otherwise, “壇 and “階” might act as adverbials as well as “虺蜮” and “麏鼯” as post-positive attributes. Without considering their relations, both of them could become independent sentences. Now that they have the same structures, we could put them together to express the same meaning—the desolate area, so this compound sentence is composed of two clauses, that is to say, breaking off with two 讀 and one 句 . However, “木魅山鬼” (ghosts and monsters in wooded mountains) and “野鼠城狐” (wild mice and foxes in the city walls) are reduplicated as one subject, so four 頓 should be given instead of two 讀 , or one 句 .“伏 藏虎” (wild animals in the ambush and tigers hidden) is also a subject with two 頓 , which is the same as previous “虺蜮” . We should also notice that ancient scholars often break off even after one character and readers might make mistakes if they connect this single character to neighboring words. For example: 人生十年曰幼，學。二十曰弱，冠。三十曰壯，有室。四十曰强，而仕。五十曰艾， 服官政。六十曰耆，指使。七十曰老，而傳。八十、九十曰耄，七年曰悼，悼與耄， 雖有罪，不加刑焉。百年曰期，頤。（《禮記· 曲禮》） When one is ten years old, we call him a boy; he goes to school. When he is twenty, we call him a youth; he is capped. When he is thirty, we say, “He is at his maturity,” and he has a wife. When he is forty, we say, “He is in his vigour,” and he is employed in office. When he is fifty, we say, “He is getting grey,” and he can discharge all the duties  of an officer. When he is sixty, we say, “He is getting old,” and he gives directions and  instructions. When he is seventy, we say, “He is old,” and he delegates his duties to others. At eighty or ninety, we say of him “He is very old.” When he is seven, we say that he is an object of pitying love. Such a child and one who is very old, though they may be chargeable with crime, are not subjected to punishment. At a hundred, he is called a centenarian, and has to be fed. (from “Qu Li” , The Book of Rites)

This paragraph describes the terms of all stages of life as well as living or doing things in each stage. To be specific, the first ten years of life is called “幼” and

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people should go to school during this period of time, and so on. “而仕” (to be employed in office) and “服官政” (to discharge all the duties of an officer) should  not be read together with neighboring words, “八十、九十曰耄” and “七年曰悼” break off with 讀 ; It can be seen that, “幼” “弱” “壯” “强” “艾” “耆” “耄” and “期” should all be linked to other words around with a “讀” , while “學” “冠” “有 室” “而仕” “服官政” “指使” and “頤” should be read alone. “百歲曰期，頤” means that “At a hundred, he is called a centenarian, and has to be fed.” Zheng Xuan annotated it with “期 which means requiring, and 頤 means to be fed. The old people do not know how and what to eat and dress, a dutiful son should do his best to take care of parents.” Therefore, to link “期” and “頤” together as the object of “曰” is a mistake3. One more example: (晉公子重耳 )及曹。曹共公聞其駢脅，欲觀其裸。浴，薄 4而觀之。(《左传· 僖 公二十三年》) Chong’ er, the prince of the Jin State, arrived at the state of Cao. Duke Gong of Cao heard about that Chong’ er’ s ribs were joined together, so he wanted to see his naked body. When Chong’ er was taking a bath, Duke Gong of Cao hid behind curtains and took a peek. (From “The 23rd Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Zuo)

In this paragraph, “欲觀其裸” is translated to “Duke Gong of Cao wanted to see Chong’ er’ s naked body” .“浴” is that (Chong’ er) took a bath and Duke Gong of Cao peeked at him. If you read “浴” together with the previous sentence, you will fail to properly understand Duke Cao’ s intention. What he wanted to see is Chong’ er’ s naked body (his ribs), not to see him bathing naked. In addition, if “浴” was read with the previous sentence,“薄而觀之” (Duke Cao hid behind curtains and took a peek) was what Duke Cao intended to do, but not what he had done. Therefore, whether the Chinese character is read together with the previous or the following sentence is of great importance for understanding. Examples of one single character ended with a “讀” are not quite few and we should connect it to the context so as to understand the sentence structure. The following are some more examples: 子曰 :“隱者也。” 使子路反見之。至，則行矣。(《論語· 微子》) The Master said: “He is a recluse,” and sent Zilu back to see him again, but when he got to the place, the old man was gone. (From “Wei Zi” , The Analects of Confucius) 〔李陵〕將八百騎，尝深入匈奴二千余里，過居延視地形，不見虜，還。(《漢書·李 陵傳》) Li Ling led 800 cavalrymen to break into more than 2,000 li of Xiongnu territory. He 3

A line in The Book of Rites, “ 旄 ( 通“ 耄”) 期 稱 道 不 亂”, means to grasp the way without confusion at the age of eighty or one hundred, showing that “期” is not connected with “頤”. In later times, the age of twenty is called “弱冠”, thirty as “壯室”, forty as “强仕”, and one hundred as 期頤 . These terms all derived from “Qu Li”. They are merely literal interpretations without much concern for the original pronunciations. 4 薄 refers to curtains and drapes. 薄而觀之 means to hide behind the curtains and take a peek.

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inspected the terrain in the Juyan area and did not find enemies, so he returned. (From  “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 喜思益苦，務欲壓道士。每營度欲出口吻，聲鳴益悲，操筆欲書，將下復止； 竟亦不能奇也。畢，即傳道士。(韓愈《石鼎聯句詩序》) Xi profoundly cogitated and set his heart on overwhelming the taoist. Whenever a line of verse came into his mind, he felt even sadder and whenever taking the writing brush, he had to stop since he could not come up with a good line. Then, he called the taoist. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu)

5.3 Phrases One of the reasons why a sentence is long is that it contains phrases. The following two sentences are different in length, but they have the same basic structure. 自此富貴商介，日接于門。 From then on, wealthy businessmen and nobles incessantly came to her because they admire her fame. 自此 (“From then on” , a prepositional phrase, adverbial of the predicate “接” )富 商貴介 (“wealthy businessmen and nobles” , the subject), 日 (“every day” , incessantly adverbial of “接” )接 (continue, the predicate)於門 (“at the gate of her house” , a prepositional phrase, the complement of “接” ). (From “A Story of Rui Yun” , A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 段之兄弟，謝之生侄 (姪 )，與童僕輩數十 (subject)，悉 (adverbial)沉 (predicate) 於江 (complement)。 Duan’ s brothers, Xie’ s nephews and dozens of servants were all drowned in the river. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” )

The second sentence is much longer because its subject is a complex compound phrase consisting of two endocentric phrases and one appositive phrase “童僕 輩” and “數十” . To clarify the position of phrases in a sentence will help readers improve their understanding of its structure. We will briefly describe and analyze  some important phrases as follows.

5.3.1  The Endocentric Phrase of “其 ” Converted from SubjectPredicate Structure as an Attributive Generally speaking, in an endocentric phrase, a modifier is added before the head,  with (or without) “之” joining them. The subject-predicate structure is composed of elements both being stated and stating, such as “父死” (Her father’s death)

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and “娥女人” (Xiao’ e, a woman). A subject-predicate phrase can be taken as a sentence, a clause, or even a part of a sentence. If “之” is embedded into the subject-predicate structure, it will turn to an endocentric phrase, but more often the structure cannot become an independent sentence. For example, 初，父之死也，小娥夢父謂曰 :“殺我者，車中猴 5，門東草 6。” Soon after her father’s death, Xiao’e dreamed of her father. He said, “It was ‘monkey in the carriage’(車中猴 ) and ‘grass of East door’（門東草）who killed me.” (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 已二歲餘，〔申蘭〕竟不知娥之〔爲〕女人也。 In two years, (Shen Lan) did not know Xiao’ e was a woman. (As above) 4

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“父死” and “娥女人” are independent sentences under certain context, but with “之” embedded, they are not independent sentences any more. In above examples, “父之死也”(After her father’s death) is the adverbial of “夢”(dream) and “娥之女人” (Xiao’ e, a woman) is the object of “知” (know). They became a part of the sentence. The following is one more example. 子之哭也，壹似重有憂者。 That you cry seems there is something very sad. (from “Tan Gong II” , The Book of Rites)

“子之哭也” is the subject of this sentence. In these three endocentric phrases, “娥之女人” is easy to understand; “子之哭 也” has a causal relationship with the following “重有憂” as “憂” is the cause and “哭” is the effect. In the first example, “父之死也” is an adverbial of time. Such kind of endocentric phrases are used very commonly in ancient texts. Consider following examples: 大道之行也，天下爲公。 A public spirit will rule all under the heaven when the great way prevails. (From “Li Yun” , The Book of Rites) 晉公子重耳之及於難也，晉人伐諸 (之於 )蒲城。 Chong’ er, the prince of the Jin State, was in trouble because of the prince Shen Sheng’ s incident. Duke Xian of Jin sent troops to Pu Cheng. (From “The 23rd Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Zuo) 秦之圍邯鄲，趙使平原君求救合從於楚。(《史記· 平原君虞卿列傳》) When the state of Qin besieged Han Dan, King Zhao sent Lord Pingyuan to the state of Chu asking for help. (From “Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Xin” , Records of the Grand Historian)

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“ 車 中 猴” is to delete one of strokes from the top and bottom of “ 車” and composes a Chinese character “申”, representing the animal zodiac of monkey (猴). 6 “門東草” is the character of “蘭” with “門” (door) under the radical of “草” (grass) and “東” inside “門”.

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Special attention should be paid to above endocentric phrases. This type of endocentric phrases has a variant form, that is, to convert “之 -structure” into “其 -structure” . “其” is a third-person pronoun and its most common function is to show the subordinate relationship. 孟子 (孟明 )！吾見師之出而不見其入也。( 《左傳· 僖公三十三年》) Meng Ming! I saw the army out of the city, but I could not see the army coming back! (From “The 33rd Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Zuo)

In this sentence, “其入” , equivalent to “師之入” , is in parallel with “師之出” . This variant phrase has the same function with the original one. One more example: 是知其不可而爲之者與 ?( 《论语· 宪问》) Is it the man who knows it is no use, but keeps on doing it? (From “Xian Wen” , The Analects of Confucius) The phrase of “其” is an object. ” 子謂子産 :“有君子之道四焉 :其行己也恭，其事上也敬，其養民也惠，其使民也義。 《论语· ( 公治长》) The Master said of Zichan, “He has the four virtues of a cultured man: humble in his conduct, respectful in serving his superiors, beneficial to the people and just in employing his inferiors.” (From “Gongye Chang” , The Analects of Confucius) The phrase of “其” is a subject. 4

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方其破荆州，下江陵，順流而東也，旌旗蔽空，舳艫千里，釃酒臨江，横槊賦詩， 固一世之雄也。(《苏轼· 前赤壁赋》) After he conquered Jingzhou and Jiangling and took the troops to go down eastwards along the Yangtze River, the warships stretched for thousands of miles and the flag almost covered the sky. He poured wine into the river and hum verses with a spear in the hand. He was really a hero of the world. (From “The First Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) The phrase of “其” is an adverbial of time. 4

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In above examples, the phrase of “其” taking the place of “……之” constructed an endocentric phrase together with the following “head” . This is one form of “其 - structure” . The other form is a subject-predicate structure with one predicate attached to a noun. For example: 親舊知其如此，或置酒而招之。(陶潜《五柳先生传》) His relatives and friends knew he was in such a condition and sometimes they invited him to drink in their banquets. (From “The Story of Five-Willow Gentleman” b y Tao Qian) 劉往見衡湘間人，説云 :“年九十餘矣。解捕逐鬼物，拘囚蛟螭虎豹。” 不知其實 能否也。 Liu heard of the taoist from people along Mount Heng and River Xiang, “He was over ninety years old and knew how to arrest ghosts and catch dragons, tigers, leopards, and other wild animals.” I did not know whether he could really do that. (From “The Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 4

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“知其如此” was translated to “knew he was in such a condition” and “不知其實 能否也” was translated to “did not know whether he could really do that” . In such structures, “其” is a subject. However, we should notice that the subject-predicate structure of “其” can not form an independent sentence, but can only be used as one of components in a sentence as shown in above two examples. In other words, it can not be used as the subject of the whole sentence. The third-person pronoun of “其” is used most widely, meaning “his” “her” or “its” and modifying a noun such as “其母蔡媪” (her madame matron Cai) from “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories. However, this is not what we are talking about in this chapter.

5.3.2  Prepositional Structure A prepositional structure is composed of one prepositional phrase as well as its object. It is often attached to a verb or adjective predicate, to express some action or feature associated with a person or a thing other than the subject and the object. Therefore, the prepositional phrase is one of important components in a complex sentence. In classical Chinese, the most important prepositional phrases are those beginning with “以” “於” “爲” and “與” , which we call “以 - structure” and “於 -structure” , etc. Now let’ s illustrate them with some examples. (1) 以 - structure “以” is equivalent to “用、拿” or “按照” in vernacular language to express “with” “by” or “according to” and its objects include “tools” “methods” or “some reasons” . For example: 〔秀才〕以一指按女額，曰 :“可惜，可惜！” (Xiucai) pressed Ruiyun’ s forehead with a finger and said, “What a pity! What a pity!” (From “A Story of Rui Yun” , A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 故以小術晦其光而保其璞。 He covered up her charming appearance with a little magic to protect her innocence. (As above) 即令以盥器貯水，戟指而書之。 He asked (He Sheng) to hold the water with a basin and drew on her face with his fingers. (As above) 4

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These three “以 -structure” are all followed with some tools for doing something. In an abstract sense, it could be interpreted as “with” “by” or “according to” . 久之，能以足音辨人。(歸有光《項脊軒志》) As time went by, I learned to recognize people by footsteps. (From “Records of 4

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Pavilion Xiangji” by Gui Youguang) 以吾心之思足下，知足下懸懸於吾也。(韓愈《與孟東野書》) By (With) the extent to which I miss you in my heart, I can know how you miss me. (From “A Letter to Meng Dongye” by Han Yu) 斧斤以時入山林。( 《孟子· 梁惠王上》) Cut down trees according to seasons in the forest. (From “King Hui of Liang I ”, Mencius) 餘船以次俱進。( 《資治通鑒· 赤壁之戰》) The other ships sailed according to the sequence. (From “The Battle of Red Cliffs” ,  Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance) 4

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“以” in  the  first  two  examples  can  be  interpreted  as  “by”  and  in  the  second  example it can also be interpreted as “with” . The latter two examples are interpreted as“according to” . In “斧斤以時入山林” , “入山林” was to chop wood. The action of chopping wood should be performed according to the season, so as not to hinder the growth of trees. One other abstract meaning is “because” . For example, 卿盛時猶能知我，我豈以衰故忘卿哉！ When you were in your prime, you took me as a confidant; how can I forget you because you are in trouble? (From “A Story of Rui Yun” , A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 天下惟真才人爲能多情，不以妍媸易念也。 Only the real talent in the world can understand the true feelings and will not change their minds because of others’ ugly looking. (As above) 竹工破之，刳去其節，用代陶瓦，比屋皆然，以其價廉而工省也。(王禹偁《黃 岡竹樓記》) Bamboo workers split the stems and slice off the knots, and the bamboo is used in place of earthen tiles. All the buildings here are roofed with these bamboo tiles because they are cheap and labor-saving. (From “The Bamboo Pavilion at Huanggang” by Wang Yucheng)

In above examples, “以 -structure” indicates “with” and “by” attached either before or after predicates, such as “殺人以梃與刃，有以異乎 ?” (What’ s the difference between killing with/by a stick and a knife?) from “King Hui of Liang I”  of Mencius and “御人以口給” (to debate with eloquence) from “Gongye Chang” of The Analects of Confucius. In addition, the object of “以” can also be positioned in front of it. For example: 思欲罄家以博一歡。 I want to spend one night with her by selling all my property. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” , A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 媪頻唤瑞雲以促之。 The old lady urged him to leave by repeatedly calling Ruiyun. (As above) 4

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These two sentences could change to “思欲以罄家博一歡” and “媪頻以唤瑞 雲促之” . One more example,

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如小娥，足以〔之〕儆天下逆道亂常之心，足以〔之〕觀天下貞夫孝婦之節。 Like Xiao’ e, (she) is enough to warn against the evil ideas of betraying morality and violating ethics in the world, and to show the chastity of husband and wife. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” )

“之” after “以” denoting “Xiao’ e” was omitted. This is also a example of prepositioning the object of “以” . Besides examples from above, there is another function of introducing what is to be sent or presented, an extension of “some tools” . 賜〔命婦〕以湯沐。 (She was) bestowed taking a bath in the hot spring. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong) 《诗经· 卫风· 木瓜》) 投我以木桃，報之以瓊瑶。( You throws a peach to me, and I give you a beautiful jade for friendship. (From “Mu Gua” , Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs) 先以書遺操，詐云欲降。( 《资治通鉴· 赤壁之战》) He wrote a letter to Cao Cao and pretended to surrender. (From “The Battle of Red Cliffs” , Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance) 4

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Above examples show that “以 -structure” could be positioned either before or after the predicate. We can change those sentences to “以木桃投我者，我以瓊瑶 報之” and “先遺操以書，詐云欲降” . It doesn’ t make much difference.  “以” also introduces the time or date before the predicate. 娶清河張氏女 …… 以其月二十五日，從葬偃師之土婁。(韩愈《唐故河南府王屋 县尉毕君墓志铭》) (He) married a woman of Family Zhang from Qinghe… On the 25th of that month, he was buried in Tulou, Yanshi. (From “Epitaph of Bi, Late County Official of Wangwu, Henan Perfecture, Tang Dynasty” , by Han Yu) 4

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(2) 於 -structure “於” is used to introduce the place and time for the predicate, as well as some aspect, some reason and target or object, etc. The introduction of places can be divided into three subcategories: location, origin and destination. 於是携酒與魚，復游於赤壁之下。(蘇軾《後赤壁賦》) Taking wine and fish together with my guests, we boated under the Red Cliff for the  second time. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) “於” introduces a place for traveling. 4

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今之衆人，其下聖人 7也亦遠矣，而耻學於師。(韓愈《師說》) People today, who are far inferior to sages, regard learning from the teacher as a disgrace. (From “On Teachers” by Han Yu) “於” introduces the origin, that is, from teachers we learned. 段之兄弟，謝之生侄，與童僕輩數十，悉沉於江。 Duan’ s brothers, Xie’ s nephews and dozens of servants, were all drowned in the river. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” )“於” introduces the destination where they died. 4

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“於 -structure” indicates the time. For example: 於斂之二十日，其妻與其子，以君之喪，旋 8葬於汝州。(韓愈《崔評事墓志銘》) On the 20th day after he was encoffined, his wife and sons buried him in Ruzhou.  (From “An Epitaph of Administrative Judge Cui” by Han Yu) 4

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To extend from “location” comes the concept of “some aspect” . For example: 樂令善於清言，而不長於手筆。( 《世說新語· 文學》) Le Guang is good at “pure conversation” (a popular type of conversations about Taoist philosophies in the Jin Dynasty), but not good at “literary work” . (From“Wen Xue” , A New Account of Tales of the World) 玄宗在位日久，倦於旰食宵衣。 The Emperor Xuanzong of Tang had been in power for many years and he was tired of handling busy state affairs. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” ) 樂天，深於诗，多於情者也。 Letian (Bai Juyi) possessed a profound knowledge of poetry, full of tenderness of affection. (As above) 4

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Some phrases are extended from “origin” to indicate “reason” . For example: 然後知生於憂患，而死於安樂也。 Only by then will we learn that a nation or even an individual will only survive because of sorrow and calamity and perish because of comfort and joy. (From “Gao Zi II” , Mencius) 聖人之所以爲聖，愚人之所以爲愚，其皆出於此乎 ? The reason what makes a wise man and what makes a foolish man probably stems from this. (From “On Teachers” by Han Yu) 4

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“生於憂患，而死於安樂” refers to “surviving because of sorrow and calamity and perishing because of comfort and joy” , but not in the situation of sorrow and calaming or comfort and joy. As in “On Teachers” , a wise man becomes a sage because of that (whether to obey teachers or not), and foolish becomes a fool also 7 8

下聖人 means to be inferior to sages. 旋 , to return.

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because of that. These examples obviously indicate that the meaning of “reason” was extended from “origin” . An extension of “destination” , that is, from one place to another, could lead to the meaning of “target or object” which plays the same function as “對” and “對於” (for) in modern Chinese. For example: 且矯魏王令奪晉鄙軍以救趙，於趙則有功矣，於魏則未爲忠臣也。(《史記· 魏 公子列傳》) Moreover, you delivered a false command from King of Wei and seized the military power of Jin Bi to save the State of Zhao. It is a great merit for Zhao, but not for the state of Wei. (From “Biography of the Childe Wei” , Records of the Grand Historian) ( ) 其於所不知，蓋闕如也 ? 《說文解字序》 For what he did not know, a cultured man would not give any comment. (From Preface to Shuowen Jiezi) 愛其子，擇師而教之；於其身也，則耻師焉，惑矣。 It is absurd that a person would choose a teacher for his son out of his love for him, and yet, for himself, refuse to learn from the teacher, thinking it a disgrace to do so. (From “On Teachers” by Han Yu) 4

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“於 -structure” after the adjective predicate indicates the result of comparison, which is extended from “對於” . 苛政猛於虎也。 A tyrannical rule is more ferocious than a tiger. (From “Tan Gong II” , The Book of Rites) 是故弟子不必不如師，師不必賢於弟子。 A student is not necessarily inferior to his teacher, nor does a teacher necessarily be more virtuous and talented than his student. (From “On Teachers” ) 4

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“於 -structure” :to indicate a reason, this character follows a predicate as usual; to introduce a location, it usually comes after or sometimes before a predicate; to modify an object, it usually goes before a predicate, and following a predicate, however, can also be spotted. (3) 爲 -structure The preposition “爲” is pronounced as the falling tone “/wèi/” to express the following three different meanings. (i) “Because” or “because of” 堂前撲棗任西鄰，無食無儿一婦人。不爲困窮寧有此 ?只緣恐懼轉須親。(杜甫《又 呈吴郎诗》) Before my cottage, I never stopped my neighbor from knocking down jujubes, For the west neighbor is a woman with no child and no food to eat. Who would do so if one was not forced because of extreme poverty? It is because of her fear that she should be 4

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dealt with more carefully. (From “Another Poem to Mr. Wu” , by Du Fu)

(ii) “For” ,indicating that the action is the object of the predicate “爲” . 4

爲我謝太上皇，謹獻是物，尋舊好也。 Please thank the Emperor Emeritus for me. He offered these things to remind me of  our old love. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” ) 天漢二年，貳師將三萬騎 9出酒泉，擊左賢王於天山。召陵，欲使爲貳師將輜重。 In the second year of Tian Han, Li Guangli led 30,000 cavalrymen from Jiuquan to attack Left Royal Highness of Xiongnu in Tianshan Mountain. Emperor Wu summoned Li Ling to deliver the material logistics for Li Guangli’ s army. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 4

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(iii) “By” , eliciting the performer in a passive sentence. 父與夫俱爲盜所殺。 Both her father and husband were killed by robbers. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 小娥亦傷胸折足，漂流水中，爲他船所獲，經宿而活。 Xiao’ e’ s chest was also hurt and her feet were broken. She floated in water and was  rescued by other boats. It took a night for her to wake up. (As above) 4

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(4) 與 -structure The preposition “與” has two meanings:“with” and “for” . 媪斥去妝飾，使與婢輩伍。 The old woman took away Ruiyun’ s jewelries and ornaments and told her to work with the servant-girls. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” ) 衡山道士軒轅彌明……舊與劉師服進士衡湘中相識。 Xuanyuan Miming, a taoist of Mount Heng…he was well acquainted with Jin Shi (a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations) Liu Shifu while traveling in Mount Heng and River Xiang. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” ) 匡衡……邑人大姓文不識家富多書，衡乃與其傭作而不求償。(《西京雜記》) Kuang Heng…in his hometown there was a rich man who was illiterate but equipped with a lot of books. Kuang Heng went to his house for working without pay. (From Notes in Xi Jing) 4

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In the first two examples,“與” means “with” , indicating a relationship between the object and subject of “與” . In the third example, “與” means “for” , indicating what the subject does to the object of “與”, which plays a very similar role as “爲” 9

“貳師” refers to General Li Guangli. “將” means to lead an army, which is the same as the character in the following line of “將輜重”, both in the falling tone.

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(for) in “爲我謝太上皇” (Please thank the Emperor Emeritus for me). The number of prepositions is quite large, for instance, 從” and “自” to elicit the place and “由” to elicit the reason10. Some of them were not mentioned in this chapter. Meanwhile, some prepositions or objects of prepositions can be omitted11. However, most of examples we have illustrated in this section did not omit anything. When we study, we should draw inferences about other cases from one instance, so as to fully understand the usage and variant forms of prepositional structure.

5.3.3  “ 者 ” and “ 所 ” (1) 者 Lü Shuxiang sorted “者” into two categories: for demonstrative function and for making a pause. The demonstrative function is similar to “的 -structure” in modern Chinese, and the function of making a pause is to soften the voice. “者” can be attached after verbs, adjectives, and verb-objective phrases, etc., constructing a nominal structure to indicate a person or a thing. This is the demonstrative function of “者” . For example: 4

騎而驅涉者二人，徒而驅牧者二人，坐而指使者一人，……奉壺矢者一人。(韩 愈《画记》) On horses wading across the river are two; on foot driving horses to graze are two; sitting there instructing others is one, … and holding a pot and arrows for playing games is one. (From “Notes on a Painting” by Han Yu) 於馬之中，又有上者、下者、行者、牽者 12、涉者、陸者 13、翹者、顧者、鳴者、寢者、 訛者 14、立者、人立者、齕者 15、飲者、溲者 16、陟者、降者、癢磨樹者、嘘者、嗅者、 喜相戲者、怒相踶 17齧者、秣者 18、騎者、驟者、走者、載服物者、載狐兔者。(同上 ) 10

As in the lines “步自雪堂，將歸於臨皋” (to set out from Xuetang and be ready to return to Lingao Pavilion) in “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ”; and the lines “由此一念，又不得居此，復墮下 界，且結後緣” (The idea starts from here and cannot dwell. So she descend to the world to initiate the attachment) in “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse”. 11 As in the lines of “舊與劉師服進士［於］衡湘中相識” (I used to have an acquaintance with Liu Shifu in Mount Heng and River Xiang) and “此皆不足與［子］語” (It is not worth telling you) in “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju”; and the line of “爲［謝小娥］具其事上旌表” (report her story to the local authority for conferring honors) in “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e”. 12 牽者 , the one being led. 13 陸者 , the one walking on the ground. 14 訛 , to roll. 15 齕 , to bite. 16 溲 , to urinate. 17 踶 is the same as 蹄, to kick. 18 秣 , to graze. 4

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These painted horses performed different actions: standing on the top of the mountain  or at the foot of the mountain, walking, being led, wading across the river, on the land, with the cocked head, looking back, neighing, sleeping, rolling, standing, standing up like human beings, eating grass, drinking water, urinating, climbing, going down the mountain, rubbing the itch on trees, snoring, smelling, playing, kicking and biting each other in anger, foraging, being ridden, galloping, running, being laden with packs, carrying foxes and rabbits. (As above) 孰謂少者殁而長者存，彊 (强 )者夭而病者全乎 ?(韓愈《祭十二郎文》) Who knows that why the younger one dies whereas the elder one lives on, and why the healthy one succumbs early whereas the fragile one survives? (From “An Elegiac Address to the Twelfth Nephew” by Han Yu) 蒼蒼者或化而爲白矣。 The gray hair is going to turn white. (As above) 《孟子· 滕文公下》) 在王所者，長幼尊卑皆非薛居州也。( People in the palace, young or old, superior or inferior, were not as honest and kindhearted as Xue Juzhou. (From “Duke of Teng Wen II” , Mencius) 貝，居陸贆 19，在水者蜬。(《爾雅· 釋魚》) Shellfish, on the land, were called 贆 and in the sea, 蜬. (From “Explaining Fishes”, Erya) 節行瑰奇，有足稱者。(白行簡《李娃傳》) Her moral integrity is noble and striking, which is worth praising. (From “A Story of Li Wa” by Bai Xingjian) 4

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In the first and second examples, “者” is attached after the verb and the verbobject phrase. The first example refers to the person and the second refers to the horse. In the third and fourth examples, “者” is attached after adjectives. The former refers to the person and the latter refers to hair. In the fifth and sixth  examples, “者” is attached after prepositions. The former refers to the person and the latter refers to shellfish. In general, the thing usually needs to be mentioned  earlier, such as the second example of “馬” (horse) and the sixth example of “貝” (shellfish), which, however, is not always necessary, such as in the seventh  example “足稱者” . “者” is attached after the combination of an auxiliary verb and a notional verb and “足稱” (adjective) can be translated to “what is worth praising” . Such “者 -structure” signifying a something is very abstract. The above “者 -structure” is similar to “的 -structure” . However, “的” can be attached after the pronoun or the noun, indicating that the thing signified by “的” belongs to the pronoun or the noun, such as “我的” “國家的” . However, “者” is not used in this way and we can not say “我者” or “國者” . Secondly, “者” can be combined with numerals, such as “二者，不可得兼，舍魚而取熊掌者也” [I can not possess them both, and thus I have to take the bear’ s paw while giving up fish anyway.(From “Gaozi I ” , Mencius)] while in vernacular language, we can only say “兩樣東西” (two things) instead of “兩的” (two’ s). Therefore, for the demonstrative purpose, “者” and “的” are different in language use.  “者” is also used to make a pause in a sentence, i.e., showing a slight indication 4

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and making a temporary cessation. Showing a slight indication is normally accompanied with making a temporary cessation, both of which have causal relationship. With regards to this, the demonstrative function is very weak, that is, it is not necessarily used to signify a person or a thing. “者” with a slight indication is most commonly used in biographies or annotations. 屈原者，名平，楚之同姓也。( 《史記· 屈原列傳》) Qu Yuan’ s name is Ping, and he has the same surname with the royal family of Chu. (From “Biography of Qu Yuan” , Records of the Grand Historian) “者” is used in biography. 離騷者，猶離憂也。 “Li Sao” means departing from trouble. “者” is used in annotation. (As above)

These two “者” are used for showing a slight indication or referring to the person or the thing, but without “者” a sentence can also be formed in a logical way. In contrast, “者” used for demonstrative function can not be left out. In addition to being used in sentences of biography or annotation for showing a slight indication, “者” can also demonstrate hypotheses or what can be inferred from a sentence. For example: 若入 20，前爲壽；壽畢，請以劍舞，因擊沛公於坐，殺之。不者，若屬 21皆且爲所虜。 《史記· ( 項羽本紀》) You walk in and propose a toast to Pei Gong. After that, please let me perform a sword dance. I will take the opportunity to kill him. Otherwise, all of you will be taken captives by him. (From “Biography of Xiang Yu” , Records of the Grand Historian) 合從者爲楚，非爲趙也。 The alliance was for the state of Chu, not for the state of Zhao. (From “Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Xin” , Records of the Grand Historian) 然侍衛之臣，不懈於内，忠志之士，忘身於外者，蓋追先帝之殊遇，欲報之於 陛下也。(諸葛亮《出師表》) However, the officials keep vigilant at court while the loyal soldiers with high aims  selflessly fight on the battle field, because they bear in mind the late Emperor’ s special  grace, wishing to repay it to Your Majesty. (From “Memorial to the Throne on His Expedition” by Zhuge Liang) 4

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In the first example, “不者” means “如不殺” (otherwise, i.e. if we do not kill him), indicating a hypothesis “要是……的話” ; In the second and third examples, “者” is used to indicate the reason, which means “之所以……” . Both of them function as showing a slight indication. The third “者” could also convey this idea, but it is not a must. “不者” in the first example may well change to “不然” (otherwise), while “者” in other two examples can be deleted. Therefore, it is not 20 21

若 , you (singular form). 若屬 , all of you (plural form).

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for the demonstrative function. What should be noted is that “者” as a sign of showing a slight indication and making a temporary cessation, can also be attached after a clause, as in examples of “Biography of Xiang Yu” and “Memorial to the Throne on His Expedition” . “者” might be attached to some time nouns, such as “今者” “昔者” “往者” and “曩者” , to emphasize the time, with a sense of showing a slight indication but without the function of temporary cessation. In Su Shi’ s poem “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” , “今者薄暮，舉網得魚” (At dusk, I cast a net and caught a fish)  is such a case. (2) 所 “所” is mainly used as a structural auxiliary word. In very early ancient books,“所” was interpreted as “如” , a conjunction to express a hypothesis. In this case,“所” was often used for swearing to do something. 所不與舅氏同心者，有如白水！ 《左傳· ( 僖公二十四年》) If I do not keep the promise to follow my uncle, the Yellow River would testify for me (that I will end up in tragedy)! (From “The 24th Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Zuo) 范蠡請從會稽之誅，王曰 :“所不掩子之惡揚子之美者 , 使其身無終没於越 國！”《國語· ( 越語》) Fan Li asked for punishment of the mistake in Prefecture Kuaiji. The king of Yue said, “If there is anyone who does not forgive your mistakes or praise your virtues, I will sentence him to death in the state of Yue.” (From “Discourse of Yue” , Discourses on Governance of the States) 4

Both “所” should be interpreted as “if ” . “有如白水” means to take the Yellow River to testify, which is equivalent to “heaven and earth to testify for me ” . “所” , as a structural auxiliary word, mainly functions as converting a declarative sentence to an endocentric phrase. Then, to omit the head of this endocentric phrase, with or without “者” , the remaining part has the same expression effect as  that without omitting the head. For example, “仲子居室，仲子食粟” (Zhongzi lived in the house and he ate grain) is a declarative sentence, but in Mencius, it was stated as the following: 仲子所居之室，伯夷之所築與 (歟 )，抑亦盜跖之所築與 ? Was the house Zhongzi lived in built by an honest man like Boyi? Or was it built by a robber like Zhi? 〔仲子〕所食之粟，伯夷之所樹與，抑亦盜跖之所樹與 ? Was the grain that Zhongzi ate planted by Boyi or by Robber Zhi?

Firstly, with “所” attached before verbs “居” (to live) and “食” (to eat), the declarative sentence was converted to an endocentric phrase, and the object in the

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original declarative sentence turned to be the head of the phrase (The presence or absence of “之” between the head and its attributive is not a problem). For example, in “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, “臣 所將屯邊者” (People I led to cultivate and guard the border), there is no “之” between “將” and “屯邊者” . Secondly, “伯夷之所築與，抑亦盜跖之所築與 ?” (Was it built by Boyi? Or was it built by Robber Zhi?) and “伯夷之所樹與，抑亦盜跖之所樹與 ?” (Was it planted by Boyi? Or was it planted by Robber Zhi?), “所築” and “所樹” are the abbreviations of “所築之室” (the house he built) and “所樹之粟” (the grain he planted). However, after abbreviation, the meanings remain unchanged except that “所築” and “所樹” integrate and replace the heads rather than as attributives. In Liu Zongyuan’ s fable biography “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” , “視駝所種樹，或遷徙，無不活” (Some trees planted by the hunchback were transplanted from somewhere else, but all of them survived). “所種樹” is the abbreviation of “所種樹之物” , in which “樹” has the same meaning as that of “伯 夷之所樹” and it forms a compound verb with “種” (to plant)，so “種樹” is not a structure of verb-object phrase22. “所築” “所樹” and “所種” can also be followed by “者” and then convert to “所築者” “所樹者” and “所種樹者” , which is equivalent to “的 -structure” , such as “所築的” and “所種的” , but without “者” it expresses the same meaning. From above we found that both the endocentric phrases structured by “所” and the structure of abbreviating the head (which can also be called “所 -structure” ) are nominal. What is more important is that since this head is the object of the original declarative sentence, it represents the person or the thing affected, even if  the head is abbreviated. Such as “所居之室” (the house he lived)—“所居” (where to be lived),“所食之粟” (the grain he ate) —“所食” (what to be eaten)，“所築之 室” (the house he built) —“所築” (what to be built)，“所樹之粟” (the grain he planted)—“所樹” (what to be planted)，“所愛之人” (the person he loved)— “所 愛” (whom to be loved)，“所欲之事” and “所不欲之事” (the thing he imposed or did not impose on others) —“所欲” and “所不欲” (what to be or not be imposed on). In these two different kinds of structures, “the house” “the grain” “the person  and the thing” are “to be built” “to be planted” “to be loved” and “to be imposed on or not” , all of which are passive voice.Therefore, this structure is used to interpret the passive sentence “夫與父俱爲盜所殺” (Her husband and father were killed by robbers). This passive sentence is a judging sentence, in which “爲” is the judgment verb and “所殺” refers to “所殺之人” (the person who was killed)23. Although we are not sure whether or not this statement is true, we have to admit that the passive voice is related to “所 -structure” . “所” is more often placed before verbs, and sometimes, it is attached before nouns and adjectives which, however, possess the nature of verbs.

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所友 (whomever to be regarded as a friend) “友” refers to “以爲友” (to regard him as a friend). 所天 (whomever to be regarded as the heaven)“天” refers to “以爲天” (to regard him as the heaven), signifying what we look up to. In the feudal society with hierarchy classes, women called their husbands “heaven” , so as children to parents, ministers to emperors. 所安 (what to be considered safe) “安” refers to “以爲安” (to consider it safe). 所厚 , 所薄 (what to be treated generously or ungenerously)“厚” refers to “厚 待” (to treat someone kindly and generously) and “薄” refers to “薄待” (to treat someone ungenerously). 所重 , 所輕 (what to be taken seriously or looked down on) “重” refers to “重視” (to take something seriously) and “輕” refers to “輕視” (to look down on something). 所長 , 所短 (what to be skillful in or to be short of) “長” refers to “擅長” (to be skillful in…) and “短” refers to “欠缺” (to be short of….)

All these “所 -structure” are nominal phrases. “所” might also be placed before a preposition to signify different meanings.  For example,“所與〔游〕” refers to “whom he travelled together with” ; “所自 〔出〕” and “所從〔來〕” indicate the origin; “所爲〔長嘆息，出萬死不顧一生之 ” indicates the reason and the purpose; “所以” also refers to “by way of ” and 計〕 “because of ” . Now let’ s move on to a brief description of the usage of “所以” . “所以” in ancient texts could be interpreted as “by or with” in the vernacular language. For example, in Zhao Qi’ s Mengzi Zhushu (Annotations on Mencius),“五穀，所以養人也” should be translated to “the grains, by which people are nourished.” In the original sentence “養人” could also be followed by “者” showing that “所以……” is a nominal phrase. In this example, “所以” is used to express “by…(people are nourished)”. To be extended from “by….”, it got the meaning of “reason” . 親賢人，遠小人，此先漢所以興隆也；親小人，遠賢人，此後漢所以傾頽也。 The emperors of the Western Han chose their courtiers wisely, which is the reason that the country flourished. The emperors of the Eastern Han chose poorly, which is the  reason that the country was doomed to collapse. (From “Memorial to the Throne on His Expedition” by Zhuge Liang)

“所以興隆” (the reason the country flourished) and “所以傾頽” (the reason the country was doomed to collapse) are nominal phrases. We can also say “此先漢 所以興隆之故也” (This is the reason that the Western Han flourished) and “此後漢 所以傾頽之故也” (This is the reason that the Eastern Han was doomed to collapse). Therefore, “所以興隆” and “所以傾頽” are nothing special but omitting heads. “五穀，所以養人也” and “此 (親賢人，遠小人 )先漢所以興隆也” are both judgment sentences. “五穀” and “此” are subjects, while “所以養人” “所以興 隆” and “所以傾頽” are nominal phrases functioning as predicates (or predicative words). In these examples,“所以” is very different from a conjunction to express  causation in modern Chinese by joining together two clauses. In classical Chinese,

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“所以” is a part of the nominal phrase (in spite of the fact that it may also express causation), and can not join clauses together. Another important function of “所” is that it can be used before a predicate of a passive sentence, so as to emphasize the passivity of a subject, which will be illustrated in the next chapter.

Chapter 6

Judgment Sentences and Declarative Sentences

6.1 Judgment Sentences In modern Chinese, most of judgment sentences use the judgement verb “是” (beverb). Only in special cases, “是” is omitted. However, in ancient Chinese, most of sentences do not use judgement verbs. Consider the following sentences quoted from biographies. 陳勝者，陽城人也。( 《史記· 陳涉世家》) Chen Sheng was a native of Yang Cheng. (From “Biography of Chen She” , Records of the Grand Historian) 留侯張良者，其先韓人也。( 《史記· 留侯世家》) Zhang Liang was the Marquis Liu, and his ancestors were from the State of Han. (From “Biography of Marquis Liu” , Records of the Grand Historian)

There is no judgment verb “是” between the subject “陳勝”(Chen Sheng) and the predicate “陽城人”(a native of Yang Cheng) as well as between the subject “其先”(his ancestors) (“留侯張良” , Zhang Liang, the Marquis Liu, the anaphora of “其” ) and the predicate “韓人” (people of the State of Han). Such examples are numerous in treatises, hereditary houses and biographies of “Twenty-Four Histories” , including the following structures: (a) A noun or a noun phrase is a subject, followed by a predicate, to form a judgment sentence; (b)“者” is attached after a subject as a sign to show a slight indication and make a temporary cessation; (c)“也” is added after the predicate to indicate affirmation and explanation; (d)“者” is added to the first clause and “也” to the second; all of them are basically one subject and one

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_6

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predicate. The same is true of some judgment sentences in non-biographical works. 窈窕淑女，君子好逑。( 《诗· 周南· 关雎》) The modest, retiring, virtuous, young lady, for a man of virtue is a good mate. (From “Guan Ju” , “Odes of Zhou and the South” , The Book of Songs) 《左传· 閔公元年》) 宴安鴆 1毒，〔宴安〕不可懷也。( Comfortable life is like poisonous wine, and one cannot be unwilling to part with. (From “The 1st Year of Duke Min” , Commentary of Zuo)

In the first sentence, a lady is a good mate of a man of virtue. With no judgement verb, the subject “淑女” and the predicate “好逑” form a judgment sentence. In the second sentence, the first clause is a judgment sentence, which means “Comfortable life is like poisonous wine” (宴安鴆毒 ), in which “宴安” is the subject and “鴆毒” is the predicate. These two nouns form a judgment sentence without using the judgment verb “是” . However, we should pay special attention to the following examples: 知之爲知之，不知爲不知，是知也。( 《論語· 為政》) When you know a thing, to recognize that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to recognize that you don’ t know it; this is wisdom. (From “Wei Zheng” , The Analects of Confucius) 唯江上之清風，與山間之明月，耳得之而爲聲，目遇之而成色，取之無禁，用 之不竭，是造物者之無盡藏也。 Only the refreshing breeze on the river and the bright moon over the hills, which generate in our ears a pleasant sound and in our eyes a dreamy scenery, are inexhaustible and can be freely enjoyed. These are immeasurable treasures granted to us by our Creator as a grace. (From “The First Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) 4

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For the convenience of discussion, we abridged the second sentence as follows: 江上之清風，與山間之明月，是造物者之無盡藏 2也。 The refreshing breeze on the river and the bright moon over the hills, they are immeasurable treasures granted to us by our Creator as a grace. 4

In these two examples,“是知也” (This is wisdom) and “是造物者之無盡藏 也” (These are immeasurable treasures granted to us by our Creator as a grace) are two judgment sentences in ancient Chinese language. “是”, a demonstrative pronoun, is the subject, and “知” and “無盡藏” are predicates. In the first example,“是” refers to the attitude seeking truth from facts as “When you know a thing, to recognize that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to recognize that you don’ t know it.” In the second example,“是” refers to the refreshing breeze and the bright moon. To be translated into vernacular language, it should be “This is wisdom!” and 1 2

鴆 refers to the poisonous wine made by steeping the feathers of Zhen bird in it. 無盡藏 , immeasurable treasures.

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“These are immeasurable measures granted to us by our Creator as a grace!” For the first example and the second abbreviated sentence,“是” is the anaphora of “知 之爲知之，不知爲不知” and “江上之清風 , 與山間之明月” respectively, but it is still a pronoun. However, without a thorough and careful analysis, we might make a mistake and interpret it as follows: 知之爲知之，不知爲不知，就是知了。 When you know a thing, to recognize that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to recognize that you don’ t know it; that is to know. 江上的清風和山間的明月是造物者取之無盡的寶藏。 The refreshing breeze on the river and the bright moon over the hills are immeasurable treasures our Creator can take. 4

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“是” is used as a demonstrative pronoun in both examples, but it could also be regarded as a judgment verb. The structure of judgment sentences with “是” as a judgment verb is derived from above examples. According to Hong Cheng’ s On the Linking Verb in Chinese Characters Before Southern and Northern Dynasties, the judgment sentence with “是” as a judgement verb was originated from the early Han Dynasty and was used in the Eastern Han Dynasty and Southern and Northern Dynasties. 此必是豫讓也。( 《史記· 刺客列傳》) He must be Yu Rang. (From “Biographies of Assassins” , Records of the Grand Historian) 《史記· 儒林列傳》) 此是家人言耳。( These are words of the lower class. (From “Biographies of Confucians” , Records of the Grand Historian) 《論衡· 死偽》) 余是所嫁婦人之父也。( I am the father of the woman you married off. (From “Si Wei” , Discourses Weighed in the Balance) (The original text was seen in “The 15th Year of Duke Xuan” , Commentary of Zuo, “余，而所嫁婦人之父也” “而” is a pronoun to signify “yours” .) 《三國志· 張飛列傳》) 身是張益德也，可來共決死敵。( I am Zhang Yide. Come here and wage a life-and-death battle! (From “Biography of Zhang Fei” , Records of the Three Kingdoms) 問今是何世 ? (陶淵明《桃花源記》) Who is on the throne currently? (From “Peach Blossom Spring” by Tao Yuanming) 4

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Although Hong illustrated with many examples, we could still assert that, most of judgment sentences in ancient Chinese did not add the unnecessary judgment verb “是” as seen in “陳勝者，陽城人也” . Most of judgment sentences in ancient texts did not use “是” as a judgment verb, but “爲” has long been used to join two things together. 夫執輿者爲誰 ? Who is he that holds the reins in the carriage there? (From “Wei Zi” , The The 4

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Analects of Confucius) 爾爲爾，我爲我，雖袒裼裸裎 3於我側，爾焉能浼 4我哉 ? 《墨子· ( 公孙丑上》) You are yourself, and I am myself. Although you stand stark naked by my side, how can you defile me? (From “Gongsun Chou I ” , Mencius) 有人於此，舍其文軒 5，鄰有敝轝 6而欲竊之；舍其錦綉，鄰有短褐而欲竊之；舍 其粱肉，鄰有糠糟而欲竊之。此爲何若人 ?( 《墨子· 公輸》) Now there is a man. He abandons his own luxurious carriage, but to steal his neighbor’ s broken one; he abandons his gorgeous clothes, but to steal his neighbor’ s coarse clothes; he abandons his delicious food, but to steal his neighbor’ s crude food. What kind of person is he? (From “Gongshu” , Mozi)

In above examples, “爲” , equivalent to “是” in modern Chinese, had long been used as a judgment verb in ancient times. It was converted from “做 , 当” (function as or act like) which had, however, already lost their original meanings. Some “爲” still keep the meaning of “做” and “当” . Let’ s just list a few. 王子狐爲質 7於鄭，鄭公子忽爲質於周。( 《左傳· 隱公》) The prince, Hu, from the State of Zhou acted as a hostage in the State of Zheng, and the childe, Hu, from the State of Zheng acted as a hostage in Zhou. (From “Duke Yin” , Commentary of Zuo) 是當爲河伯婦。(褚少孫補《史記· 滑稽列傳》) (Seeing a beautiful woman, the wizard said) she should act as the wife of the God of the Yellow River. [From Chu Shaosun’s supplementary on “Guji Liezhuan” (Biographies of People with Eloquence), Records of the Grand Historian] 4

“爲” is a notional verb to signify “to act as” (做 , 當 ) and is a judgment verb with the meaning of “be-verb” (是 ). There is another type of judgment sentences, such as “厥木惟喬 8” [The trees were high. (From “Yu Gong” , The Book of Documents)], “若作和羹，爾惟鹽 梅 9” [If you cook delicious food, salt and mumes should be added for flavor. From  “Yue Ming II ” , The Book of Documents)], “彼有遺秉，此有滯穗 10，伊寡婦之 利” [There shall be handfuls left on the ground, and here ears untouched, for the benefit of the widow. (From “Da Tian” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs)] and “蓼蓼者莪，匪 11莪伊蒿” (Long and large grows sweet grass; it is not wild weed of no worth. (From Lu’ E, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of 3

袒裼裸裎 , to be stark naked, which is very impolite. 浼 , to defile.  5 文軒 , a luxurious carriage. 6 轝 is the same as “輿”. 7 質 , pledge or mortgage. 8 喬 , the arbor trees. 9 鹽梅 , a kind of condiment. 10 遺秉 and 滯穗 refer to the ears of wheat left untouched in the field.  11 匪 is the same as 非，meaning not. 4

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Songs). Some people hold the view that “惟” and “伊” are judgment verbs12, but we would rather believe that both are auxiliary words without expressing any meaning. In “Explaining Old Words” of Erya, on “伊 , 維 , 侯也” 13, Xing Bing annotated it with “They are all function words” . “伊” and “維” can be used at the beginning of a sentence as a function word, such as “惟彼陶唐，帥彼天常，有此冀方” (Taotang is such a sovereign who may follow the right way of heaven and possess the place of the central plains.) (From “The 6th Year of Duke Ai” , Commentary of Zuo) and “伊 寡婦之利” . They can also be used in the middle of a sentence, such as “厥木惟喬” and “匪莪伊蒿”. Anyway, they are auxiliary words with no meaning of “be” (是 ) or “not be ” (不是 ), so they are not judgment verbs.

6.2 Declarative Sentences A declarative sentence uses a verb as a predicate. We will discuss the following four structures. Of them, the serial verb structure and the concurrent structure are the same as those in modern Chinese, so we will only briefly discuss them. 

6.2.1  The Serial Verb Structure and the Concurrent Structure The serial verb structure in a simple sentence has a complex predicate composed of two or more verbs or verb phrases. However, these verbs or verb phrases are neither compound structure nor the structure of modifying or being modified. For

example:

竇嬰 ǁ 引卮酒進上 14。( 《史記· 魏其武安侯列傳》) Dou Ying ǁ filled a bowl of wine, approached and toasted to the Emperor. (From  “Biographies of Marquis Wei Ji and Marquis Wu An” , Records of the Grand Historian) 君 ǁ 當免冠解印綬歸 15。 You ǁ should take off the hat, untie the tape and then go home. (As above) 沛公 ǁ 旦日從百騎來見項王。(《史記· 項羽本紀》) Pei Gong ǁ the next morning, led more than 100 cavalrymen and paid a visit to Xiang  Yu. (From “Biography of Xiang Yu” , Records of the Grand Historian) 方士 ǁ 抽簪扣扉。 The taoist ǁ took off his hairpin and knocked on the door. (From  “The Legend of  12

For example, in his work Annotation on Grammatical Words(《詞詮》), Yang Shuda regarded these cases as incomplete intransitive verbs. 13 惟 is the same as 維 . 14 引卮酒進上 , to fill a bowl of wine, approach and toast to the Emperor Jin of the Han Dynasty. 卮 , a drinking vessel. 15 It means to take off the hat, untie the tape (to give up the official position) and then go home. 

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Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong)

In the first and fourth examples, two verbs are shown in a predicate; while in  the second and third examples, three verbs are found in each predicate. These serial verbs or verb phrases conform to what have been mentioned above, so they are all serial verb constructions. The concurrent structure is also one of the complex predicate forms, which is characterized by “extensive predicate” . In this structure of “predicate + object + clause” , the object becomes the subject of the following clause which, in turn, acts as its predicate. This word or phrase, which is not only the object, but also the subject of the following clause, for the convenience of analysis, is termed as “the concurrent word” . The sentence structure with a complex predicate including concurrent words is called “the concurrent structure” . For example: 予 ǁ 助苗長矣。 7 The  man  of  Song  ǁ  helped  the  seedlings  grow  by  pulling  them  upward.  (From  “Gongsun Chou I ” of Mencius) 《史記· 酈生陸賈傳》) 陸贾 ǁ 卒拜尉他爲南越王。( 7 7 Lu Jia ǁ finally completed his mission to entitle Weita the king of Nanyue. (From  “Biographies of Li Sheng and Lu Jia” , Records of the Grand Historian) 余 ǁ 遂請齊公書於紙。 7 7 I  ǁ  asked  the  monk  Qi Wu  to  write  it  on  the  paper.  (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 〔玉妃〕 ǁ 指碧衣取金釵鈿盒，各折其半，授使者。 7 7 (The Imperial Concubine Yu) asked the maid in green to take the jewellery box and gave the half of jewellery to the messenger. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong)

In above examples, all concurrent words are underlined with △ . They are not only objects of predicate verbs “助” “拜” “請” “指” , but also subjects of the following clauses, thus forming a concurrent structure. The concurrent structure contains more than one concurrent word, and it is often combined with serial verbs to form a more complex predicate. For example: 〔 〕 ǁ 令寺童疾召小娥前至。 7 7 7 7 (...) asked the little monk in the temple to quickly call Xiao’ e. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 〔武帝〕 ǁ 因詔强弩將軍路博德將兵半道迎陵軍。 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 (Emperor Wu) ordered Lu Bode, General of Crossbow, to lead soldiers to meet Li Ling’ s troops on the way. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 〔大將軍霍光、左將軍上官桀〕  ǁ 遣陵故人隴西任立政等三人，俱至匈奴召陵。 7 7 7 7 7 7 (Huo Guang, Senior General and Shangguan Jie, General of Left) ǁ sent Li Ling’ s  three old friends, Ren Lizheng, etc., from Long xi, to Xiongnu to recall Li Ling back to the Han Dynasty. (As above)

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The first sentence is a concurrent structure with two concurrent words. The following two sentences are basically the same, but the clauses after “路博德” and “任立政等三人” are extended to a serial verb structure, as indicated by the underlined marks.

6.2.2  Passive Structure In a passive sentence, the action of a verb is performed on the subject. In modern Chinese, the passive structure is very simple with only two types: complete passive structure and simplified passive structure. In complete passive sentence,  the preposition “被” (or “給” “讓” “叫” ) is used to elicit a performer, such as “小二黑終於被他们打了一頓” (Xiao Erhei was finally beaten by them. —Zhao  Shuli), but in a simple passive sentence, the performer is not mentioned at all and the preposition “被” is also not used (Sometimes it is used, but not necessary), such as “國貨也提倡得長久了” (Domestic products have been advocated for a long time. —Lu Xun). To express the idea of the person or the thing being acted upon, “被” is added before the verb followed by “的” to form a “的 -structure” , such as “打完之後，便心平氣和起來，似乎打的是自己 , 被打的是别一個自己” (After the fight, he became calm and even-tempered, as if he were fighting others,  and it was another self who was being beaten.—Lu Xun). More passive sentences can be found in ancient Chinese than in modern Chinese. 4

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(1) Active voice and passive voice show no difference in structure. 又荆州之民附操者，偪 (逼 )兵勢耳。 The people in Jingzhou were only forced by violence to surrender to Cao Cao. (From “Battle of the Red Cliff” , Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance) 足蒸暑土氣，背炙炎天光。(白居易《觀刈麥》) Heat from the earth burned the reapers’ feet; the sun scorched their backs. (From “Watching the Reapers” by Bai Juyi) 《春秋》伐者爲客，伐者爲主。 In The Spring and Autumn Annals, the attacking country is the guest side, and the attacked country is the host side. (From “The 28th Year of Duke Zhuang” , Commentary of Gongyang) He Xiu annotated it with “伐人者爲客” (The attacking country is the guest side) and 伐 is pronounced with a level tone; “見伐者爲主” (The attacked country is the host side) and伐 is pronounced with a falling tone. This was used by the State of Qi. 今大國之攻小國也，攻者農夫不得耕，婦人不得織，以守爲事；攻人者亦農夫 不得耕，婦人不得織，以攻爲事。 Now big countries attacks a small countries. For a defending country, the peasants can’ t plant and the women can’ t spin and weave, since defense is their priority; for an attacking country, the farmers can’ t plant and the women can’ t spin and weave either, 4

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since attacking is their business. (From“Geng Zhu” , Mozi)

In these examples, “偪” means “to be forced” “蒸” and “炙” mean “to be burned and scorched” ; “伐者” in “伐者爲主” and “攻者” both mean “to be attacked” . [c.f.“被打的” ( to be beaten)—from Lu Xun]. In the first two examples,  the passive structure of “noun+verb+noun” is the same as the active structure of “subject+predicate+object” . However, they can be distinguished from meaning, mainly from the relation between the performer and the recipient. For example, “足” (foot) can not carry out the action of “蒸” (to burn), but it is possible to be burned; “偪” can not act on “military force” , but “to be forced by it” . Thus, the difference between the active and passive voices can be distinguished. In the latter two examples, “伐者” and “攻者” show no difference and perhaps the ancient people distinguished them by changing tones, such as what He Xiu stated about the level tone and the rising tone. However, in the example of Mozi, “攻人 者” (the attacking, the performer) is used, differring from “攻者” (the attacked, the recipient), so “攻者” is not necessarily pronounced in a different way. Therefore,  to distinguish between the active one and the passive one, we need to associate it with the context. (2) Subject (the recipient) + transitive verb 龍逢斬，比干剖。 Longfeng was beheaded and Bi Gan was cut out the heart. (From “Qu Qie” , Zhuangzi) 風至苕折，卵破子死。 But when the wind comes, the reeds are broken, the eggs are smashed and the baby birds die. (From “Encouraging Learning” , Xunzi) 農事傷，則饑之本也；女紅 (工 )害，則寒之源也。 The agricultural production is damaged leading to food shortage and starvation, and the needlework is affected resulting in severe coldness. (From “Biography of Emperor  Jing” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 會〔李〕延年家收。 It happened that Li Yannian’ s whole family was arrested. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 春擒於内，蘭死於外。 Shen Chun was caught in the house and Shen Lan was killed outside. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 4

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The above “S+VT” structure is the same as a simplified passive structure in modern Chinese, but the difference is that in modern Chinese, a modal auxiliary  “了” needs to be attached after the verb to complete the passive voice, but in ancient Chinese there is no need. As the second example of Xunzi, there are four subject-predicate clauses with “noun-verb” structure, in which “至” and “死” are intransitive verbs, so “風至” and “子死” are active voice; “折” and “破” are

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transitive verbs, so “苕折” and “卵破” are passive voice. While in “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” , “擒” is a transitive verb, while “死” is an intransitive verb, so the first clause is passive voice and the second one is active. With this structure,  the active and passive clauses are in parallel, creating a coordinated compound sentence, without breaking their syntactic symmetry. Many examples can be found in modern Chinese, such as “一切别的東西都試過了，都失敗了” (Everything else has been tried, but all have failed.— Mao Zedong). (3) “見” or “被” is added before a transitive verb. 〔屈平〕信而見疑，忠而被謗。 (Qu Ping’ s) honest to the monarch is suspected, and loyalty is slandered by treacherous officials. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” , Records of the Grand Historian) 臣聞武帝使中郎將蘇武使匈奴，見留二十年。 I heard that the Emperor Wu sent the general Su Wu as an envoy to Xiongnu. He was detained for 20 years and refused to surrender to the enemy. (From “Biography of the Fifth Son of Emperor Wu” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 吾長見笑於大方之家。 I would to be mocked by those of great enlightenment forever. (From “Autumn Floods” , Zhuangzi) 國一日被攻，雖欲事秦，不可得也。 Once the State of Qi is conquered, it will be too late to submit to the State of Qin. (From “Stratagems of Qi” , Stratagems of the Warring States) 萬乘之國，被圍於趙。 A large country with thousands of chariots was besieged by the State of Zhao. (As above) 4

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In “伐者爲主” (The attacked country is the host side) from Commentary of Gongyang, He Xiu annotated it with “見伐者” (to be attacked) to interpret “伐 者” .“見” in “見疑” (to be suspected), “見留” (to be detained), “見笑” (to be mocked) and “被” in “被謗” (to be slandered), “被攻” (to be attacked) are the same as “被” in modern Chinese. However, in modern Chinese, “被” is often followed by a performer, while in the early classical Chinese, no performer followed “被” and “見”. To identify the performer, we have to use “於……”(by…), as seen in the third and the fifth examples. In addition, “見” is also used in active sentences. For example, in modern Chinese, “你有何見教” (Could you give me a piece of advice?) is such a case. However, there are few such examples compared with the large number in passive sentences. (4) The subject (recipient) is followed by a transitive verb and “於 +performer” as a complement. 懷王……内惑於鄭袖，外欺於張儀。 4

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King Huai of Chu… was bewitched by Zheng Xiu in the inner court and cheated by Zhang Yi in the outer court. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” , Records of the Grand Historian) 兵破於陳涉，地奪於劉氏。 The army was defeated by Chen She and the land was seized by Liu. (From “Biography of Jia Shan” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

Placing “於……”after the verb is one way to identify the performer in a passive sentence of classical Chinese. In fact, “於 -structure” is also used to indicate where the action comes from. This structure can express the passivity more clearly with “見” and “被” attached before the verb, as in the third and fifth examples of (3)  (5) The prepositional phrase “爲……” is placed between the subject (recipient) and transitive verb, to elicit the performer (sometimes the performer is omitted). This prepositional phrase becomes the adverbial of this transitive verb. 身死人手，爲天下笑。(賈誼《過秦論》) The King of Qin was killed, and was mocked by everyman. (From “Faults of the Qin Dynasty” by Jia Yi) 〕禽 (擒 )。 貴爲天子，富有四海，而身爲〔 As an emperor, he possessed everything, but he was finally captured. (As above) 4

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Placing “爲……” before the verb is another way to identify the performer in passive sentences of classical Chinese. (6) It is basically the same as (5), but the auxiliary word “所” is attached before a transitive verb to emphasize the passivity of a subject. 吾悔不聽蒯通之計，乃爲兒女子所詐。 I regret that I did not adopt Kuai Tong’ s stratagem and then was cheated by women and children. (From “Biography of Han Xin” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 衛太子爲江充所敗。 The Crown Prince Wei (committed suicide because he) was defeated by Jiang Chong. (From “Biography of Huo Guang” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 夫與父俱爲盜所殺。 Her husband and father were both killed by robbers. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 4

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These examples are similar to “見笑於大方之家” (to be mocked by those of great enlightenment) and “被圍於趙” (to be besieged by the State of Zhao) and are perfectly expressed the passive structure. In addition, since the Six Dynasties, the structure of “亮子被蘇峻害” (The son of Yu Liang was killed by Su Jun) from “Fang Zheng” in A New Account of Tales of the World, has been used and become a complete passive structure of modern Chinese.

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To conclude from above examples, except the first model, the others are constructed with “subject (recipient) + transitive verb (no object followed in a passive sentence)” . Based on it, three new structures have come into the picture. (1) “被” and “見” are attached before a transitive verb. (2) The prepositional phrase “於……” is used as the complement of a transitive verb, eliciting the performer. (3) The prepositional phrase “爲……” is used as the adverbial of a transitive verb, eliciting the performer; or “所” is placed before a transitive verb. To quote once more the first model, “足蒸暑土氣 , 背炙炎天光” can also be taken as the abbreviation of “足蒸於暑土之氣，背炙於炎天之光” . This is the same structure as the fourth model “subject (recipient) + transitive verb” . Some ancient verbs are not easy to distinguish between transitive and intransitive. For example, “留” is an intransitive verb in “合則留，不合則去” (If you have the same temper or the same opinion, you could stay, otherwise you could leave), while it is a transitive verb and means “to seat” in Du Fu’ s poem “留 客夏簟青琅玕” (The summer bamboo mats on which I seat my guests are of green jade. The verb “敗” expresses two different meanings: to be defeated and to defeat,  according to different pronunciations in the Six Dynasties16. Thus the structure of “subject (recipient) + verb” is not enough to clearly indicate passivity. For example, “蘇武使匈奴 , 留” , whether he stayed (留 ) or he was forced to stay (被 留 ) when he was an envoy to Xiongnu? Then we should add “見” “被” “於……” and “爲……” to the basic structure of “subject + transitive verb” . “所” is also used widely. As in the example of “衛太子爲江充所敗” , without “所” , it will be misunderstood as “衛太子爲江充的緣故而失敗” (The Crown Prince Wei was defeated because of Jiang Chong). So we know that a new sentence structure often arises from the basic need for expression.

6.2.3  Optative Verb Structure Optative verbs include “可 ,能 ,得 ,足 ,當 ,須 ,宜 ,願 ,欲 ,肯 ,敢” and they are different from notional verbs which can be used independently as predicates. Optative verbs can only be used as predicates when answering questions and are often placed before another verb, indicating or expressing possibility, necessity or desires. In syntactic analysis, this class of verbs are constructed to compound predicates with the following verbs, instead of being an independent component, and it is termed as “an optative verb structure” . It should be noted that a few optative verbs can also be used as notional verbs. For example, “得” is an optative verb in “乃得免死” (from “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ), while “得” in “顧安所 得酒乎” (from “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff” ) is a notional verb. In fact, it 16

敗 in “敗人” (to defeat others) is pronounced as /bài/, while in “自敗”(to be defeated) it is pronounced with a voiced consonant.

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is due to the same character form, but from the perspective of grammar, they are two different words, neither being converted from another category nor being used  in a flexible way. Optative verbs have distinct features, and with a few examples  below, we could know how to use it. (1) To express “possibility” 若能如君，可謂得人矣。 If her husband could be like you, she was married to the right person. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” , A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 賀急問曰 :“君能點之，亦能滌之否 ?” 和笑曰 :“烏得不能 ！但須其人一誠求耳。” He Sheng asked him urgently: “Now that you can stain her face, can you wash it  off?” The  monk  said  with  a  smile:  “Of  course!  But  the  person  must  ask  a  favor  sincerely.” (As above) 身雖陷败，然其所摧，亦足暴於天下。 (Li Ling) was defeated in the war, but his attack on Xiong-nu was enough to make him a well-known general. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 殺汝父是申蘭，殺汝夫是申春，足可明矣。 It’ s Shen Lan who killed your father and Shen Chun who killed your husband. It’ s clear enough. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ). (In this example, two optative verbs, “足” and “可” , are placed before the verb.) 4

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(2) to express “necessity” 當使精騎射之，必破矣。 We should send a troop of elite cavalrymen to attack the Han army and they would definitely be defeated. (From “Biography of Li Ling”, Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 衣食當須紀 17，力耕不吾欺。 Clothes and food are earned and a life of effort always pays back. (From  “Moving Houses” by Tao Qian) 烏得不能！但須其人一誠求耳。 Of course! But the person should ask me for a favor sincerely. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” ) 必聚徒合義兵誅無道秦，不宜倨見長者。 If you summon people to form a rebel army to overthrow the unruly Qin Dynasty, you should not serve wise people in a haughty manner. (From “Biographies of Li Sheng and Lu Jia” , Records of the Grand Historian) 4

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(3) to expressing “desire” 不願得地，願得張儀而甘心焉。 4

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Declarative Sentences

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I am unwilling the land. I just want Zhang Yi. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” , Records of the Grand Historian) 時秦昭王與楚婚，欲與懷王會，懷王欲行。 At that time, King Zhao of Qin intermarried with the State of Chu and hoped to meet with King Huai who planned to go. (As above) 其行廉，故死而不容自疏 18。 He was always honest and upright, so he was not willing to lower the moral standards even before he died. (As above) 欲爲聖明除弊事，肯將衰朽惜殘年 ?(韓愈《左遷至藍關示姪孫湘》) To undo the misdeeds I would have given aide; Dare I have spared myself with powers in decay? (From “For My Nephew” by Han Yu) 敢問夫子惡乎長 ? May I ask what you are good at? (From “Gongsun Chou I ” , Mencius) 幸惟自安，毋自苦耳。 Hope to take care of yourself and save from sufferings. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong) 4

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What we need to discuss in particular is the optative verb “請” . Compare the following groups: Group 1: 及莊公即位，〔莊姜〕爲之 (共叔段 )請制。公曰 :“制，巖邑 19也，虢叔死焉；佗 邑唯命。” 請京。使居之。 When Duke Zhuang ascended the throne, (Wu Jiang) asked for the fief of Zhi for Gongshu Duan. Duke Zhuang said: “Zhi is a place of a stronghold. Uncle Guo died there. If it is for other fiefs, I can do as you tell me.” Then Wu Jiang asked to be granted  Jing, and Duke Zhuang agreed. (From “Duke Yin” , Commentary of Zuo) 顔淵死，顔路請子之車以爲之椁。 When Yan Yuan died, his father, Yan Lu, begged Confucius to sell his carriage and get an outer coffin for his son. (From “Xian Jin” , The Analects of Confucius) 4

Group 2: 4

請少卿來歸故鄉。 (We) asked you, Shaoqing, to return to your hometown. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 余遂請齊公書於紙。 I asked Qi Wu to write it on the paper. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 4

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Group 3: 善哉 ！吾請無攻宋矣。 4

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自疏 , to lower the moral standards for oneself. 巖邑 , a stronghold with a strategic location.

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Judgment Sentences and Declarative Sentences

Good. I consent not to attack the State of Song. (From “Gongshu” , Mozi) 以一儀而當漢中地，臣請往如楚。 In exchange for the land Hanzhong with Zhang Yi, please allow me to go to the State of Chu. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” , Records of the Grand Historian) 不敢有他問也，願聞一言而已。先生稱 :“吾不解人間書。” 敢問解何書 ?請聞此 而已。 We dare not to have other questions and would like to get one answer. You said,“I do not understand common books.” May we ask what book you understand? We sincerely hope to get one answer. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 事急矣，請奉命求救於孫將軍。 It’s urgent. Please allow me to accept your order and ask General Sun for help. (From “Battle of the Red Cliff” , Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance) 請從君歸，便贈一佳人。 Please allow me to go back with you and I will present you a beauty. (From “A Legend of Rui Yun” , A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 4

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Group 4: 故曰 :“仁者無敵。” 王請勿疑。 Your majesty, please do not doubt this saying, that is, “The benevolent is invincible.” (From “King Hui of Liang I ” , Mencius) 王請無好小勇。夫撫劍疾視，曰 :“彼惡敢當我哉！” 此匹夫之勇，敵一人者也。 王請大之。 Your majesty, please don’ t appreciate the brute courage. Grasping the sword and staring at me, he said, “How dare he resist me?! ” It is only a brute courage. He can only defeat one person. Your majesty, please make your brute courage tremendous. (From “King Hui of Liang II ” , Mencius) 4

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Of above four groups, “請” in the first group is followed by a noun indicating  a place or an object. It means “to ask for something in particular” . Here, “請” is a notional verb. In the second group, “請” plays the same role as in modern Chinese “我請你帶個信” (Please take a message for me), that is,“請” , an imperative verb, is followed by a concurrent structure indicating a person, which, however, was uncommon in the Pre-Qin Period and may have been widely used since the Tang Dynasty20. In the third group,“請” is followed by a direct verb. In the first  and second examples of this group, the first-person nouns are placed before the  verbs such as “吾” and “臣” and in other examples can also be added such as “吾” and “臣” , so this group is different from the previous two groups. No object can  be inserted after “請” which is in combination with the following verb to form a compound predicate. The function of “請” is the same as “願” (to desire). Please consider two examples, “願聞一言” (I sincerely hope to get an answer from you) and “請聞此” (Hope to get it) in Han’ s essay. Some people argued that in “臣 20

Two lines in a piece of Dunhuang Bianwen “Story of an Ugly Woman” is “今日因何端正相，請 君與我説來由” (Today why you shows a dignified appearance, please tell me the reasons). 

6.2

Declarative Sentences

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請往如楚” and “請奉命求救於孫將軍” , “請” means “Please allow me to do something” . However, this abbreviation can not be used in “吾請無攻宋矣” , because King of Chu wanted to attack the State of Song himself and it is not other people who do not permit him to attack the State of Song, so “請” is nothing but “to desire” or “to consent” . The usage of “請” is quite common in ancient Chinese and we can not rigidly interpret it as “to request” . Three “請” in Group 4 are quite similar as those in Group 3, that is, they are all placed before the verb. However, difference is also in that subjects in this group are the second-person rather than  the first-person. So to speak, in meaning, they are the same as “請王勿疑” , “請 王無好小勇” (Your majesty, please don’ t appreciate the brute courage) and “請 王大之” (Your majesty, please expand it to the courage of reason and justice), but in structure, they can not reverse their order in an arbitrary way. Even in modern Chinese, “您請坐” and “請您坐” are different in pitch. In these examples, “請” is simply a euphemism for “王勿疑” and “王無好小勇” , which does not mean “to command” but “to desire” . Considering its weak request, “請” in this group is the same as group 3 and it is an optative verb but not a notional imperative verb. 6.2.4 “見” and “相” (1) the usage of “見” “見” is an auxiliary verb. It is usually placed before the transitive verb, indicating that the subject is the recipient, thus to form a passive sentence, as was shown above. But “見” can also be placed before the transitive verb showing an active voice, and the subject is still the performer. Whether the subject is active or passive depends on the context. We have already talked about “你有何見教”(What advice could you give me?) quoted from modern colloquial Chinese. Now to quote some examples from ancient Chinese as follows: 若使君不見聽許，登亦未敢聽 21君也。 If you don’ t agree to my request, it will be difficult for me to accept your opinion.  (From “Biography of the First Lord”, Chronicle of Shu, Records of the Three Kingdoms) 家叔以余貧苦，遂見用於小邑。 Because my uncle thought I lived in poverty, he appointed me to a small county. (From “Preface to Going Home” by Tao Yuanming) 然而聖主不加誅，宰臣不見斥，非其 22幸歟 ? (韓愈《進學解》) However, is it not lucky that the sage monarch did not punish him, nor the prime minister expelled him? (From “On Advancing Studies” by Han Yu) 歡若見憐時，棺木爲儂開。 If you feel sorry for me at this time, open the coffin. [From “Hua Shan Ji” (an ancient  yuefu song)] 江山如此不歸山，江神見怪驚吾頑。(蘇軾《遊金山寺》) The mountains and rivers are illusory, but why don’ t you go back to your home now? 4

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聽 means 聽從 (to comply with), which has the same meaning as 聽許 . 其 is referring to Han Yu himself.

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Judgment Sentences and Declarative Sentences

Is it the River God who blames me for being stubborn in love with the secular world? (From “A Visit to Jin Shan Temple” by Su Shi)

“ 使君〕聽許登” (to agree to my request), In above examples, “見聽許” is 〔 “見用” is “用我” (to appoint me), “見斥” is “斥我” (to expel me), “見憐” is “憐 我” (to feel sorry for me), “見怪” is “怪我” (to blame me). “見” is used in the passive structure, followed by the preposition “於” after the verb to elicit the performer. It is also used in the active structure in which the performer has already taken the lead as the subject and it is no longer possible to use “於” after the verb to elicit the performer. “見笑” (to be laughed at) can be extended to “見笑於大方 之家” (to be a laughing stock to those of great enlightenment), but “家叔以余貧 苦〔家叔〕遂見用於小邑” , cannot be changed to “遂見用於家叔” (“於小邑” is a complement indicating the place, instead of eliciting the performer). This is the difference between two structures. In addition, when “見” and transitive verbs are used in active voice, most of objects are in the first person, usually absent from sentences, as shown in above examples. Then, it is concluded that “見” in an active sentence has the referential effect.  (2) the usage of “相” “相”, an adverb, indicates the relation, including partial reference and co-reference, to signify “influence from one on another” or “mutual influence” . “Co-reference”  is widely used and “partial reference” is rarely seen. “相” can be functioned as coreference in following examples. 人之相知，貴相知心。(李陵《答蘇軾書》) Mutual understanding underpins true friendship. (From “Reply to Su Wu” by Li Ling) 故道不同，不相爲謀。(楊惲《報孫會宗書》) Those who have different beliefs do not work together. (From “A Letter to Sun Huizong” by Yang Yun) 元和七年十二月四日，衡山道士軒轅彌明自衡下來，舊與劉師服進士衡湘中相識。 On Dec. 4th of the 7th year of Yuanhe, Xuanyuan Miming, a taoist from Mount Heng came, and he got to know Liu Shi-fu, a Jinshi (a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations), while traveling in Mount Heng and River Xiang. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 秋七月，牽牛織女相見之夕…… On the evening of the 7th day of 7th lunar month, the cowherd and the girl weaver meet each other…. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong) 4

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The co-reference refers to that two or more persons or things participate in some activity which affects both parties. For example, “相知” means “mutual understanding” and “相爲謀” means that “You discuss with me and I discuss with you” . However, some of persons and things of the same category do not have influence on each other. Their activities are in parallel instead of one on the other.  This can also be regarded as the co-reference of “相” . For example:

6.2

Declarative Sentences

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酒酣以往，高漸離擊筑，荆軻和而歌於市中，相樂也 ；已而相泣，旁若無人者。 As everyone was indulging in drinking, Gao Jianli played Zhu, a musical instrument, and Jing Ke sang in the marketplace. They enjoyed together, but soon after they cried together, as if there were no one nearby. (From “Biographies of Assassins” , Records of the Grand Historian) 話及此事，相與感嘆。 When talking about this, they sighed together. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse”) 4

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Here, “相樂” “相泣” and “相與感嘆” mean “to enjoy together” “to cry together” and “to sigh together” , without interactive influence. However, as shown  in previous examples, there are always two or opposite parties participating in the activities, so we might as well categorize them into the same group. Examples of the partial reference “相” are as follows. 人君無愚智賢不肖，莫不欲求忠以自爲 23，舉賢以自佐，然亡國破家相隨屬，而 聖君治國 24累世而不見。 Stupid or intelligent, none of the monarchs does not want to have loyal officials to help him or select talented men to assist him. However, one after another, states were destroyed and the countries collapsed and sage monarchs have not been seen in generations. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” , Records of the Grand Historian) 先是元獻皇后武淑妃皆有寵，相次謝世。 The Empress Yuanxian and Concubine Wu Shu were both favored by the Emperor, but they passed away one after another. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” ) 初不相記，今即悟也。 I did not remember it at first, but now I realized. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” ) 實不相欺，昔曾一覲其芳儀…… To be honest, I have seen her beautiful face…. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” , A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 4

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Here, “相隨屬” refers to “A follows B” “B follows C” and “C follows D” , but not vice versa. “相次” is also the same, because life and death could not change the order. “不相記” means that Xiao’ e did not remember that thing and “不相欺” means that the monk did not cheat He Sheng. Above activities are all one-sided and could only be understood based on the context. For example,“雜然相許” (To this they all agreed) in “The Foolish Old Man Who Removed the Mountains” in “Tang Wen” , Liezi, seems to be an example somewhere in between. “Many people approved that” appeared to be the same as “相樂” (to enjoy together); “相泣” (to cry together) and “相與感嘆” (to sigh together); however, in fact, it refers to many other people who agreed with the foolish old man, so it is still a partial reference. “相” , either in co-reference or partial reference, is the same as “見” in the active voice, with no objects following verbs, Thus, it is a referential adverb.

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爲 , to help. 治國 , a country of political stability and free from corruption.

Chapter 7

Flexible Use of Parts of Speech

7.1 Parts of Speech in Ancient Chinese To distinguish parts of speech is the basis for syntactic and grammatical analysis of ancient Chinese. Except in some special cases, parts of speech in ancient Chinese are roughly similar to those of modern Chinese. In this chapter, we proposed the method for classification as follows.

7.1.1 Nouns Additional: location nouns, time nouns.

7.1.2 Verbs Additional: Judgment verbs: 是 , 爲 . Optative verbs: 能 , 當 , 欲 , 願 , 敢 , 肯 , etc. Auxiliary verbs: 見 (such as “見笑” ) Directional verbs: In “Xiang Dang” , The Analects of Confucius, “進” (to forward) of “趨進 , 翼如也”

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_7

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(He hastened forward, with his arms like the wings of a bird); in “Jia Jue” , A New Account of Tales of the World(《世说新语》), “出” (to get out) of “紹遑迫自擲出” (In a panic, Yuan Shao jumped out). Directional verbs were quite uncommon in early-ancient times.

7.1.3 Adjectives Additional: numerals and measurement words.

7.1.4 Pronouns 7.1.5 Adverbs Degree: 最 , 較 , 甚 , 彌 , 愈 , 益 ; Scope: 皆 , 咸 , 俱 , 亦 , 只 , 止 , 僅 ; Time: 始 , 終 , 將 , 已 , 久 , 暫 , 立 ; Negative: 不 , 未 , 無 , 非 ; Mood: 豈 , 詎 , 得無 , 尚 , 其 .

7.1.6 Prepositions 於 (于 ), 與 , 爲 , 以 , 用 .

7.1.7 Conjunctions 與 , 及 , 而 , 以 (such as “碩大蚤實以蕃” ), 則 , 若……則 , 故 , 與其……不若 (孰若 ).

7.1.8 Interjections 嗚呼 , 噫 , 嘻 , 唉 , 唯 .

7.2  General Situation of Flexible Use of Parts of Speech

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7.1.9  Auxiliary Verbs Auxiliary verbs are attached to other words, phrases or sentences to indicate some grammatical meaning. No auxiliary words of tense are seen in classical Chinese, but modal auxiliary words and structural auxiliary words can be found. Modal auxiliary words: 也 , 矣 , 乎 , 哉 , 歟 ; Structural auxiliary words: 所 , 者 , 之 . There are also some other auxiliary words such as “然” “而” “焉” “如” “爾” , positioned after adjectives. Together with these adjectives, they act as adverbials or predicates, such as “勃然大怒” (to burst into anger), “莞爾而笑” (to give a soft smile), “薆焉憂之” (to hide one’ s worry), 愛而 (“薆如” )不見” (The beautiful figure disappeared), “勃如戰色” (to tremble with fear on the face) and “其言藹 如” (His words are kindly). Some people take these words as structural auxiliary words, but actually they are suffixes for adjectives. In addition, some words are exclusive to ancient Chinese, such as “有” in “有 蕡其 實” (Abundant will be its fruit) and “曰” in “我東曰歸” (When we were in the east, we should return) from The Book of Songs. “所” in “君子所其無逸 1” (A man of virtue should not hanker after an easy and comfortable life) from The Book of Documents, has neither lexical nor grammatical meaning. According to the grammatical rules of Classical Chinese, they were termed as “modal auxiliary words” .

7.2 General Situation of Flexible Use of Parts of Speech In modern Chinese, most of words are categorized into one part of speech, and there would be no change, but it is not so in ancient Chinese where one part of speech often converts to the second or even the third part. For example, “衣” is a noun, but in “解衣衣我 (doff one’ s own garment to clothe somebody else)” quote from “Biography of Marquis Huaiyin” , Records of the Grand Historian, the second “衣” means to dress somebody, so it is a verb. This is called a flexible use  of parts of speech. It does not imply that there are no parts of speech in ancient Chinese, but shows that words can be converted from a basic part of speech to another. We do not consider that “衣” in “衣我” and “解衣” are the same, but “衣” is converted from a noun to a verb, because “衣” has the most significant feature  of a noun. Nouns can be combined with quantifiers, but verbs can not. From this,  we know that words can be categorized according to their basic features. In some structures, a word abandons some of its original features and obtains some other features, so this word turns to another part of speech. Flexible use of parts of speech only exists in content words. The following is some examples.

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君子所其無逸 , A gentleman should not seek after an easy and comfortable life.

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7.2.1  A Noun is Used as a Verb 〔孟嘗君〕衣冠而見之。 Duke Mengchang dressed up to meet him. (From “Stratagems of Qi” , Stratagems of the Warring States) 晉靈公不君。 King Ling of Jin did not have the power to be a king. (From “The 2nd Year of Duke Xuan” , Commentary of Zuo) 見耶 2背面啼 , 垢膩脚不襪。(杜甫《北征》) Seeing his dad, he turned his face away weeping,filthy and greasy, and he did not  wear socks on his feet. (From “Journeying North” by Du Fu) 鴻與琅琊王質夫家於是邑。 Chen Hong and Wang Zhifu of Langya were fellow-villagers. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong) 舉圖所過山川地形 , 使麾下陳步樂還以聞。 He drew a map of mountains and rivers he passed through and sent one of his men, Chen Bule, back to report to the court. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 陵字立政曰 : “少公！歸易耳 , 恐再辱 , 奈何 ?” Li Ling called Li Zheng’ s courtesy name and said, “Shao Gong! It is easy for me to go back, but I’ am afraid I will be humiliated again. Alas! I cannot help it.” (As above) 面山而居。 To dwell facing the mountain. (From “Tang Wen” , Liezi) 甚者爪其膚以驗其生枯，摇其本以觀其疏密。 Even worse, they pinched the bark to see if it was dead or alive, and shook the root to see if it had planted well. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 布囊其口 3。(柳宗元《童区寄传》) To put a cloth over his mouth. (From “A Story of Qu Ji” by Liu Zongyuan) 4

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In the above examples, “衣” “冠” “君” and “襪” are all predicates, but they do not have relations with the subject, indicating that these sentences are not judgment sentences but declarative sentences, and predicates of declarative sentences have been converted from nouns to verbs. “圖” “字” “面” “爪” and “囊” are placed before nouns “山川地形”(mountain and river), “立政” (Li Zheng), “山” (mountain) “膚” (skin) and “口” (mouth), to construct a dominating-dominated relation, that is, a verb-object combination.“字” is converted to a verb “叫……的 字” (to call…courtesy name) and “爪” is converted to a verb “掐” (to pinch). Some modifying words can also give us a clue that nouns have been converted into verbs, such as “不君” (to act not like a king or an emperor) and “不襪” (not to wear socks), because a noun cannot be modified by an adverb. “君” in “不君” 2 3

耶 is the same as “爺”. 布囊其口 , to gag with a cloth.

7.2  General Situation of Flexible Use of Parts of Speech

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does not simply refer to the king or the emperor, but “to act not like a king or an emperor” . However, although the modifying words can help us understand the conversion of parts of speech, the key still lies in that these nouns act as predicates, dominating another noun or pronoun. For example, in “Yan Yuan” , The Analects of Confucius, “齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰 : ‘君君，臣臣，父父，子子。’ 公 曰 : ‘善哉！信如君不君，臣不臣，父不父，子不子，雖有粟，吾得而食諸 ?’” (Duke Jing of Qi asked Confucius about politics. Confucius replied, “Dukes with behavior of duke, serfs with behavior of serf, fathers with behavior of father, sons with behavior of son.” The duke claimed, “Great! Truly, if dukes without behavior of duke, serfs without behavior of serf, fathers without behavior of father, sons without behavior of son, though there are piles of grain, could I get and eat it?” ) “君” “臣” “父” and “子” in “不君” “不臣” “不父” “不子” are modified by “不”, so it is clear that they are verbs. However, Confucius said “君君 , 臣臣 , 父父 , 子 子” , which means “Dukes should have the behavior of duke, serfs should have the behavior of serf....” , the second character in each sentence is a verb that serves as a predicate, even though they are not modified by “不” . Location words can also be converted to verbs. For example: 我亦欲東耳 , 安能鬱鬱久居此乎 ? I also want to go to the East. How can I live here in low spirits for a long time? (From “Biography of Marquis Huaiyin” , Records of the Grand Historian) 適有孤鶴 , 横江東來 , 翅如車輪 , 玄裳縞衣 , 戛然長鳴 , 掠予舟而西也。 There happened to be a crane flying across the river from the East. Its wings were as  big as wheels, white feathers and black tails. It stretched its voice and flew westward  over our boat. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff” by Su Shi) 4

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7.2.2  An Verb or an Adjective is Used as a Noun Examples of verbs as nouns: 庸 4敬在兄 , 斯須 5之敬在鄉人。 For a long time, you should show respect to your elder brother, but when you go to a banquet for a short while, you should respect the villagers. (From “Gaozi I ” , Mencius) 先天下之憂而憂 , 後天下之樂而樂。 No doubt they are concerned before anyone else shows concern and enjoy themselves only after everyone else finds enjoyment. (From “Yueyang Tower” by Fan Zhongyan) 殫其地之出 , 竭其廬之入。 All their grains were collected and all their income was drained. (From “The SnakeCatcher” by Liu Zongyuan) 4

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庸 , for a long time. 斯須 , for a short while.

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君子之於禽獸也 , 見其生不忍見其死 , 聞其聲不忍食其肉。 When a man of virtue sees birds and beasts alive, he cannot bear to see them die. When they cry, he cannot bear to eat their meat. (From “King Hui of Liang I ”, Mencius) 上官大夫與之同列 , 争寵。 The official Shangguan was equal to Qu Yuan’ s position and wanted to win the favor  of the King of Chu. (From “Biography of Qu Yuan” , Records of the Grand Historian) 且陵提步卒不滿五千 , 深輮戎馬之地 , 抑數萬之師 , 虜救死扶傷不暇。 Li Ling led not more than 5,000 infantry to the hinterland of Xiongnu. He defeated tens of thousands of enemy troops who even didn’ t have time to take away the dead and save the wounded. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 送往迎來 , 折衝御侮 ; 射飛逐走 ; 祛疑解惑 ; 追奔逐北 ; 伐叛討逆。 Bid farewell to those departing and greet the arrival of newcomers; defeat the enemy and resist foreign invasion; shoot birds and chase animals; dispel other people’ s doubts and solve their concern; pursue the defeated enemy; fight against treason. 魚 , 我所欲也 , 熊掌 , 亦我所欲也 , 二者不可得兼 , 捨魚而取熊掌者也。生 , 亦我 所欲也 , 義 , 亦我所欲也 , 二者不可得兼 , 捨生而取義者也。 A fish is what I want, and a bear’ s paw is what I want. I can’ t get both of them. Give  up the fish and take the bear’ s paw. Life is what I want, and righteousness is also what I  want. You cannot get both of them. Give my life to uphold righteousness. (From “Gaozi I ” , Mencius) 4

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Examples of adjectives as nouns: 灼灼百朵紅。(白居易《买花》诗 ) Brilliant are a hundred red followers. (From “Buying flowers” by Bai Juyi) 汝心之固 , 固不可徹。 Your mind is so obstinate that it can’ t be enlightened. (From “Tang Wen” , Liezi) 人又誰能以身之察察 , 受物之汶汶者乎 ? Who is willing to make his innocence polluted by dirty things? (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” , Records of the Grand Historian) 其知 (智 )可及也 , 其愚不可及也。 Others may equal his wisdom, but they cannot equal his stupidity. (From “Gongye Chang” , The Analects of Confucius) 有僧齊物者 , 重賢好學。 There was a monk called Qi Wu. He admired sages and had a desire to learn. (From“The Legend of Xie Xiao’ e ” by Li Gongzuo) 知善不録 , 非《春秋》之義也。 It is not the original meaning of The Spring and Autumn Annals to know good deeds but not to record them. (As above) 履巉巖 , 披蒙茸。 Climb the steep cliff and separate the tangled grass. (From “The Second Visit to the  Red Cliff ” by Su shi) 選賢舉能 ; 乘堅策肥 ; 被堅執鋭 ; 去蕪存精 ; 衣粗食惡 ; 登高望遠。 Select the good and the capable; take the sturdy chariot and ride a good horse; wear 4

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strong armor sets and carry sharp weapons; remove the waste and save the essence; put on coarse clothes and eat worst food; ascend a height and enjoy a distant view. 然而小固不可以敵大 , 寡固不可以敵衆 , 弱固不可以敵彊 (强 )。 However, a small country cannot be an enemy of a big country, a country with a small population cannot be an enemy of a country with a large population, and a weak country cannot be an enemy of a strong country. (From “King Hui of Liang I” , Mencius) 屈平疾王聽之不聰也 , 讒諂之蔽明也 , 邪曲之害公也 , 方正之不容也 , 故憂愁幽 思而作《離騷》。 Qu Yuan felt dispirited that King Huai of Chu couldn’ t hear the right opinions. The king was blinded by slander and flattery and righteous people were harmed by villains,  while upright gentlemen were not accepted in the court. He was in such a sorrow that he composed “Li Sao” . (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” , Records of the Grand Historian) 4

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Verbs and adjectives can be converted to nouns roughly under the following several conditions. Firstly, before them are placed attributives, such as “庸敬 (respect one for a long time)” and “百朵紅 (a hundred red flowers)” , and even more striking is a structural auxiliary word “之” or the third-person pronoun “其” placed before them, indicating a possessive relation, such as “其生” (his life) and “其死” (his death), “其知” (his intelligence) and “其愚” (his stupidity). These verbs or adjectives modified or restricted by attributives can be converted to nouns  and function as objects. Secondly, some of them are placed after the transitive verbs, functioning as their objects and some can converted to nouns as objects of prepositions. For example, “妍媸” (beautiful and ugly) in “天下惟真才人爲 能多情，不以妍媸易念也” [Only the real talents in the world can understand the true feelings and will not change their minds because of ugly looking.(From “A Story of Rui Yun” )] is an adjective placed after the preposition “以” and it is converted to a noun. Thirdly, some are placed on the position of subjects. In the example from Mencius, “生，亦我所欲也” (Life is also what I want), “生 is a subject juxtaposed together with “魚” and “熊掌” and all of them are nouns. In “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” “邪曲” (evil) and “方正” (upright) convert from adjectives to nouns, acting as the subjects in a subject-predicate structure.

7.2.3  A Noun is Used as an Adverbial with Features of Adjectives. 滿堂兮美人 , 忽獨與予兮目成。 Among many beautiful women who welcome God, I only convey my love to you with eyes. (From “The Minor God of Life-Ruling” , Nine Songs, The Verse of Chu) 陵搜得 , 皆劍斬之。 Li Ling found and killed them with sword. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 各鳥獸散 , 猶有得脱歸報天子者。 Being defeated and scattering in disorder like birds and beasts, some soldiers got the 4

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chance to run back and reported to the Emperor. (As above) 見其老 , 頗貌敬之。 When seeing the old man, he treated him in a respectful way. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 土崩瓦解 ; 霧合雲集 ; 雲合景 (影 )從 ; 鷹視狼顧。 Being collapsed like soil and disintegrated like tiles; rapidly gathering like clouds and Fog, ollowed by shadows; being sharp-eyed like an eagle and malicious like a wolf. 4

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“目成” is “to convey love with eyes” “劍斬” means “to kill with sword” “貌 敬” means “to treat in a respectful way” and “鳥獸散” means “to scatter like birds and beasts in disorder” . The above idiomatic four-character words at the first sight  seemed to be subject-verb structure, but they are all verb-centered endocentric compounds, such as “像土一樣崩塌，像瓦一樣分解……” (to be collapsed like soil, to be disintegrated like tiles....) Such structures are different from the plain narrative style because all nouns have figurative meanings or can be used to  modify another word.

7.3 Causative Structure and Conative Structure Causative and conative structures convert intransitive verbs, nouns and adjectives into transitive verbs. However, to express “causing” or “denoting” with such structures is different from previously mentioned nouns acting as verbs. The declarative sentences to express “causing” or “denoting” are called causative sentences or conative sentences. A causative sentence indicates the action or change of the object caused by the action of the subject and a conative sentence indicates the action of the subject merely to confirm or denote what or how the object is. The causative structure is to express causation, while the conative structure is to express denotation. Before we discuss the causative or conative structure, we’ d have to mention another form of causative and conative sentences as shown in the following examples. 帝……命夸娥氏二子負二山 , 一厝 6朔東 , 一厝雍南。 The Jade Emperor… ordered two sons of Kua’ e to shoulder two mountains, one in Shuodong and the other in Yongnan. (From “Tang Wen” , Liezi) 夫差使人立於庭。 King Fuchai made people stand in the palace. (From “The 14th Year of Duke Ding” , Commentary of Zuo) 魏絳……以趙武爲賢。 Weijiang… regarded Zhao Wu as a capable and virtuous man. (From “The 6th Year of Duke Xiang” , Commentary of Zuo)

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相如既歸 , 趙王以〔相如〕爲賢大夫 , 使不辱於諸侯。 As soon as Xiangru came back, King of Zhao appointed him to a virtuous high official, without being bullied or humiliated by other vassal states. (From “Biographies  of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” , Records of the Grand Historian)

In the first and second examples, “帝” (the Jade Emperor) and “夫差” (King Fuchai) performed actions “命” (to order) and “使” (to make) to cause their objects (a pivot in the structure) to do something —— “負二山，一厝朔東，一 厝雍南” (to shoulder two mountains, one in Shuodong and the other in Yongnan) and “立” (to stand). This is one form of causative structure. By the way, it should be noted that in the first sentence, “負” (to shoulder) is a transitive verb, and “立” is an intransitive verb. The last two examples show that the subjects “魏絳” (Wei Jiang) and “趙王” (King of Zhao) performed psychological activities “以” which means “appointing….” with the purpose of confirming their objects (a pivot in the   structure), that is to say, Zhao Wu is a virtuous man and Xiangru is a virtuous high official. This is the conative structure. By the way, “賢” (virtuous) is an adjective in the third example, and “賢大夫” (a virtuous high official) in the last example is  a noun-centered phrase, functioning the same as a noun. The above examples show that the pivotal structure of imperative verbs (such as “使” “令” “俾” “命” and “詔” ) could be used to form a causative sentence, and the pivotal structure of verbs for confirming and denoting could form a conative  sentence7. This is only one mode of causative and conative sentences, as well as the causative and conative structures are another different mode. In the following  passage, we will describe them in detail.

7.3.1  Causative Usage In a causative sentence, intransitive verbs, adjectives or nouns following pivotal words are repositioned before them to replace the original imperative verbs. Then these intransitive verbs, adjectives and nouns can be converted into transitive verbs to dominate the pivotal structure and express the same causative meaning as that of causative sentences with pivotal words. This is the causative structure of such intransitive verbs, adjectives or nouns, and those sentences constructed by this way are called causative sentences. Of course, original pivotal words are no longer concurrent once repositioned but convert to the objects of transitive verbs. These structures are very uncommon in modern Chinese except for newly 7

Another example is the sentence “天子以 [ 廣 ] 爲老，弗許。良久，乃許之，以 [ 廣 ] 爲前將軍” [The emperor thought (Li Guang) was old and did not approve. After a long time, he finally appointed  (him) as the general of the forward army] (From “Biography of General Li” in Records of the Grand Historian). Of the two cases of “以 [ 廣 ] 爲” construction, the former is a conative sentence, while the latter is a causative sentence, meaning “to nominate Li Guang to a general of forward army”. Therefore, the distinction between causative and conative sentences lies in their different meanings.

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emerging words (or reemerging words), such as “嚴格制度” (to make the system strict), “純潔組織” (to make the organization pure) and “端正態度” (to make the attitude right). (1) Causative usage of intransitive verbs 〔冉求〕非吾徒也 , 小子鳴鼓而攻之 , 可也。 (Ran Qiu) is no disciple of mine. My little children, make the drum beat and assail him. (From “Xian Jin” , The Analects of Confucius) 所謂生死而肉骨也。 You are the one who can make the dead alive and bones grow flesh. (From “The 22nd  Year of Duke Xiang” , Commentary of Zuo) 夜半 , 擊鼓起士。 In the mid-night, they beat the drum to make soldiers woke up. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 時夜殆半 , 休侍衛於東西厢。 It was midnight and the guards were ordered to rest in the east and west wing-rooms. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong) 餘音裊裊 , 不絶如縷 , 舞幽壑之潛蛟 , 泣孤舟之嫠婦。 The residual sound was lingering, as if it were an infinite thin thread. It made the flood dragon hidden under the deep-water dance and the widow on a lonely boat weep.   (From “The First Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) 4

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In these sentences, “鳴鼓” means “to make the drum beat” , “生死” means “to make the dead alive” and “起士” means “to make soldiers woke up” . By placing “鳴” “生” “起” after “鼓” “死” “士” , and adding “使” before them, these sentences turned to the causative structure with pivotal words. In this way, the intransitive verb “立” (to stand) in the previous causative sentence “夫差使人立 於庭” (King Fuchai made him stand in the palace) was repositioned and replaced the imperative verb to “夫差立人於庭” . This is the causative structure of “立” . Transitive verbs are generally not appropriate to be used as causative verbs. For example, in “帝……使夸娥氏二子負二山” “負” is a transitive verb. To substitute “使” for it, this sentence turns to “帝……負夸娥氏二子二山” which might be confused with the common verb-object structure because it seems that the Jade Emperor shouldered two mountains on his own back. Therefore, it is not easy to change the causative sentences with transitive verbs placed after the pivotal words to the causative structure, but it’ s by no means zero. Now consider the following example. 〔若〕秦以城求璧而趙不許 , 曲在趙 ; 趙予璧而秦不予趙城 , 曲在秦。均之二策 8, 寧許 , 以負秦曲。

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均之二策 , to weigh the two schemes. “之” is a demonstrative pronounce with the same meaning of 此 (this).

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If the State of Qin asked to exchange the city for the Jade but the State of Zhao did not permit, Zhao was in the wrong. If Zhao gave the Jade but Qin did not give the city to Zhao, Qin was in the wrong. To weigh the two schemes, we would rather agree to Qin and make Qin bear the responsibility for the loss. (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” , Records of the Grand Historian)

“寧許 , 以負秦曲” is “寧許，以使秦負曲” which means “They would rather agree to the State of Qin, and Qin might not give the city to the State of Zhao. In this way, Qin would bear the responsibility for the loss” . “負秦曲” does not mean “to bear Qin’ s fault” . “負” in “使秦負曲” is a transitive verb, which Sima Qian formed a causative structure, so as to make the sentence more succinct. However, its meaning is very obscure. In “Biography of Qiong Bu” , Records of the Grand Historian, “夫楚兵雖强 , 天下負之不義之名 , 以其背盟約而殺義帝也” (The army of Chu is strong, but they bore the name of injustice, since they broke the treaty and killed the Emperor) is the same. To explain the grammatical structure, we interpret “鳴鼓” as “to make the drum beat” “起士” as “to make the soldiers woke up” . However, in the real context, they are not always the same. When we translate some classical Chinese into vernacular language, it is appropriate to translate some forms of causative structures into “打起鼓來” “把鼓打響了” and “發動士兵〔出戰〕” . Interpretation and translation are not the same thing and they cannot always replace each other. (2) Causative usage of adjectives As verbs in causative sentences, the causative usage of adjectives is to position adjectives in front of pivotal words to replace imperative verbs. This adjective turns to be a transitive verb and the original pivotal word becomes its object and expresses the same meaning of “to cause” . This is the causative usage of adjectives. For example: 吾與汝畢力平險。 I’ ll try my best to level the steep mountain together with you. (From “Tang Wen” , Liezi) 故吾不害其長而已，非有能碩茂之也，不抑耗其實而已，非有能蚤而蕃 9之也。 I do not hinder its growth, not because I have a way to make it grow tall and flourish;  I do not restrain or reduce its fruit, not because I have the ability to make it bear more or fruit earlier. (From “A Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 春風又緑江南岸。(王安石《泊船瓜洲》诗 ) The vernal wind has made the south shore green again. (From “Moored at Gua Zhou” by Wang Anshi) 甚惜其以絶世之姿而流落不偶，故以小術晦其光而保其璞。 It’ s a pity that she was fine-looking but caught in such a difficult situation, so I made 4

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her beauty hidden with a little magic to protect her innocence. (From “A Story of Rui Yun”, A Collection of Bizarre Stories)

“平險” is “to level the steep mountain” ; “碩 茂 之，蚤 而 蕃 之” is “to make it grow tall and flourish, to make it bear more or fruit earlier” ; “緑” and “晦” are used in the same way. (3) Causative usage of nouns The causative usage of nouns is to place the noun A before the noun (or pronoun) B and convert A into a transitive verb dominating B, which makes B act as A or produce the same meaning of A. This form can also “return” to the pivotal structure, that is, the pattern “AB” can be converted into “to make BA” , but in this structure, A has already been converted from a noun to a verb. For example, in the above example “生死而肉骨” from Commentary of Zuo, “肉” is the causative use of a noun, and “肉骨” means “to make the dead bone produce flesh” . To convert  “肉骨” into a pivotal form, that is “to make bones produce flesh” (使骨肉 ), and “肉” is a verb which means “to produce flesh” rather than a noun “flesh” . More  examples are as follows: 人其人，火其書，廬其居……其亦庶乎其可也。(韩愈《原道》) We must make monks and taoists secular people, burn Buddhist scriptures and Taoist books, and make Buddhist temples and Taoist temples civilian houses… That’ s about it. (From “The Origins of Dao” by Han Yu) 明年，金兵去，蔡人以其尸歸。朝廷録其忠，贈朝奉郎，官其二子。 The next year, Jin soldiers left, and the people in Cai Zhou sent Li Juan’ s remains back to the imperial court. The provincial inspector recorded Li Juan’ s loyalty and the Emperor posthumously awarded him the official of Chao Feng Lang and made his two  sons officials. (From “Biography of Li Juan” , Historical Records of the Song Dynasty)

In terms of the grammatical structure of Han Yu’ s essay, “人其人” and “廬其 居” mean “使其人爲人” (to make monks and taoists secular people) and “使其 居 爲廬 ” (to make Buddhist temples and Taoist temples civilian houses). It seems a bit funny, but in fact, difference only exists in two “人” as well as between “廬” and “居” . We translated them into “to make monks and taoists secular people…to make Buddhist temples and Taoist temples civilian houses” . This is a problem of word meaning, rather than the grammatical structure. “官” in “官其二子” is easy to understand and it means “使之爲官” (to make them officials). It should be noted that the causative use of nouns is different from that of general nouns acting as verbs. “衣冠” in “衣冠而見之” is a verb without objects, while “肉” and “官” in “肉骨” and “官其二子” take “骨” and “子” as their objects. Although an object “口 (mouth)” positions after “囊” in “布囊其口” , “囊” signifies the action directly performed on “口” , which does not have the meaning of “to cause” , and accordingly, it cannot change to “使其口囊” . The intransitive verbs or adjectives are converted into transitive verbs in

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a causative structure. This verb indicates that it is caused by another action. For example, “平” in “吾與汝畢力平險” means “使險平” (to level the steep mountain). “平” is what “使” makes. “使” includes another action, such as digging or shoveling. Therefore, this sentence can be converted to “吾與汝畢力削平山 險” (I will work hard with you to level the steep mountain). In other words, “平” is equivalent to verb-complement structure— “削平” (to level it)10. In modern Chinese, a verb-complement structure is very suitable to form the structure of “把” , such as “把山險削平” (to make the steep mountain level), “ 把基礎打好” (to make a good foundation laid) and “把敵人趕走” (to make the enemy driven away). In classical Chinese, “把 -structure” is rarely seen, and those similar ones can be expressed by causative structures. For example, 應笑英雄無好手 , 一篙春水走曹瞞 11。(姜夔《滿江紅》詞 ) People should laugh at those so-called “heroes” in the world, because few of them have real skills. They made Cao Cao scared away with a little spring water. (From a poem to the tune of “Manjianghong” (The River All Red) by Jiang Kui)

“把 -structure” probably did not exist until Tang Dynasty and it was not used very often in classical Chinese literature.

7.3.2  Conative Usage The conative structure is used in a pivotal sentence with conative verbs. By repositioning those adjectives and nouns after the concurrent words back to the front and replacing the conative verbs, the adjectives or nouns can be converted into the transitive verbs. And then, the pivotal word becomes its object, to express the same meaning as the conative sentence with pivotal words. The conative structure cannot be found in modern Chinese. (1) The conative usage of adjectives 陵對 : “無所事騎 , 臣願以少擊衆 , 步兵五千人 , 涉單于庭 !” 上壯而許之。 Li Ling said, “We do not need cavalrymen. I am willing to attack Chanyu (the 4

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Though we regard “平” as the same as “削平”, they are by no means equivalent. Alternative expressions include “鏟平” (to level it with a spade), “耙平” (to level it with a rake) . 11 An annotation to “Biography of Sun Quan” in History of Wu in Records of the Three Kingdoms includes a quotation from The Chronicles of Wu(《吳曆》), “權爲牋與曹公，説 :‘春水方生，公 宜速去。’ 曹公語諸將曰 : ‘孫權不欺孤。’乃徹軍還” (Sun Quan told Cao Cao, the spring flood  is coming and you should leave quickly. Cao told his generals that “Sun Quan would not lie to me” and withdrew his army afar.) A note: Cao Cao’s troops are mostly northerners with little experience in battling on the river, so Sun Quan made such a comment.

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chief of Xiongnu) with five thousand infantry against heavier odds.” The Emperor Wu  regarded him as a brave man and agreed. (From “Biography of Li Ling” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 單于自將數萬騎 , 擊漢數千人 , 不能滅 , 後無以復使邊臣 , 令漢益輕匈奴。 Chanyu himself led tens of thousands of cavalry to attack thousands of soldiers of the Han Dynasty, but he could not defeat them. Later, he could never deploy the generals, which enabled the Han Dynasty to regard Xiongnu as being despised. (As above) 余悲之 , 且曰 : “若毒之乎 ?” I pitied him and said, “Do you regard this as a painful job?” (From “The SnakeCatcher” by Liu Zongyuan) 刺史顔證奇之。 The prefectural governor, Yan Zheng, regarded him as being different. (From “A Story of the Young Ou Ji” by Liu Zongyuan) 天祥泫然出涕曰 : “國亡不能救 , 爲人臣者死有餘罪 , 況敢逃其死而二其心乎 ?” 《宋史· 文天祥传》) 弘範義之 , 遣使護送天祥至京師。( With tears in his eyes, Wen Tianxiang said, “As a minister of the country, when the country is in danger, I am unable to do anything. I am guilty and even death is not a sufficient punishment. How can I dare to escape the death and be disloyal to my country?” Zhang Hongfan regarded him as being faithful and righteous and sent someone to escort him to the capital. (From “Biography of Wen Tianxiang” , Historical Records of the Song Dynasty) 4

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To quote the above example of the conative sentence with pivotal words “魏 絳……以趙武爲賢” (Wei Jiang,…regarded Zhao Wu as being faithful and righteous) again, this sentence can convert to a conative sentence — “魏絳賢趙 武” . In the above examples, “壯” “輕” “毒” “奇” and “義” are all used in the same way as “賢” and they express the same meaning as well. “毒” means “苦” (painful). “若毒之乎 ?” means “Do you regarded this as a painful job?” (2) The conative usage of nouns 其謂之秦何 ? 夷狄之也 12。 How did people call the State of Qin? Qin was regarded as a barbarian in the north. (From “The 33rd Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Gongyang) 孟嘗君客我。 Duke Mengchang treated me as a first-class guest. (From “Stratagems of Qi” , Stratagems of the Warring States) 公子乃自驕而功之，竊爲公子不取也。 The young master regarded it as a credit, in a proud and arrogant manner. But his subordinate secretly thought it was wrong to do so. (From “Biography of Childe Wei” , Records of the Grand Historian) 4

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12 The State of Qin invaded the State of Jin at that time, so Qin was regarded as a barbarian in the north in The Spring and Autumn Annals.

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外黄富人女甚美，傭奴其夫。 In Waihuang County, there was a beautiful woman, the daughter of a wealthy family, but she thought that her husband was stupid and mediocre. (From “Biographies of Zhang Er and Chen Yu” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 不師秦七，不師黄九，倚新聲玉田差近。(朱彝尊《解佩令· 自题词集》) He regarded neither Qin Guan nor Huang Tingjian as his masters but composed lyrics according to the new tone, which was similar to Zhang Yan’ s (his courtesy name, Yutian). (From A Poetry Collection—to the tune of Jie Peirce Ling by Zhu Yizun) 4

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“夷狄之” means “to be regarded as a barbarian” “功之” means “to regard it as a credit” , “傭奴其夫” means “to think that her husband is stupid and mediocre” “師秦七” means “to take Qin Guan as his master” , all of which are conative structures. Compared with “馮諼客孟嘗君” (Feng Xuan was regarded as a guest by Duke Mengchang) of the same text, “客我” also means “to treat me as a firstclass guest” . “客” is a conative use of “客我” , and in “客孟嘗君” , a noun “客” (guest) converts to a verb “to be a guest” , while the following “孟嘗君” is a complement. If “於” is added between, it is clear to see “孟嘗君” is a complement. Some words show the conversion of parts of speech by different intonations.  For example, in “解衣衣我” , the first “衣” is pronounced with a flat tone, because  it is a noun, whereas the second has been converted into a verb and pronounced with a falling tone. Some words do not change their parts of speech, but if used in a different way, they have different intonations as well. For example, “觀” in “觀 海” and “觀獵” are pronounced with a flat tone, but in “足以觀天下貞夫孝婦之 節” [Xiao’ e is enough to make the world understand the chastity of husband and wife.(From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’ e” by Li Gongzuo)], “觀天下” means “使 天下觀” . In this phrase, “觀” is for the causative use, so it should be pronounced with a falling tone. We will discuss it in the later chapter.

Chapter 8

Modal Auxiliary Words and Affixes

Except nouns, verbs, adjectives and their adjuncts, many other words in ancient Chinese are very abstract. Ancient scholars, in research and discussion about these words, often categorized them into one group and called them “auxiliary words” “modal auxiliary words” or “function words” . “助字” (auxiliary character) and “詞” (auxiliary words) in Liu Qi’ s Zhuzi Bianlüe (Distinguishing Auxiliary Words) and Wang Yinzhi’s Jingzhuan Shici (Annotation on Classical Words) of the Qing Dynasty refer to these words. In addition, some functional morphemes, an integral part of compound words, such as “然” following adverbs and adjectives, were not differentiated by ancient scholars. Thus, they were also categorized into  “auxiliary words” or “function words” . Some words and affixes have both lexical and grammatical meanings, such as pronouns and adverbs, while some only have grammatical meaning, such as prepositions, conjunctions and auxiliary words. However, in ancient Chinese, many other words have neither lexical meaning nor grammatical meaning (or very little grammatical meaning), but to limit the number of words in a line and regulate the fast or slow speech rate. Now we call those words with lexical and grammatical meanings “pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions or auxiliary words” , etc., and those without lexical and grammatical meanings “modal auxiliary words” . We will talk about them in detail in this chapter. As for affixes,  they should be separated from “words” , to make a more precise distinction.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_8

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8.1 Modal Auxiliary Words As mentioned earlier, modal auxiliary words have neither lexical meaning nor grammatical meaning. That is to say, such words do not convey any idea, so ancient scholars called them “不爲義” (not to express meaning). To be imposed on some meaning, these modal auxiliary words often make awkward sentences. Therefore, it is important to identify modal auxiliary words, especially in preQin literature. However, it is not an easy task, because one word can be an modal auxiliary word in one context, and turn to a different function word in another context, depending on their semantic and grammatical roles. For example, “其” in “但須其人一誠求耳” (But that person must ask me for a favor sincerely) is a demonstrative pronoun and in “意者其仙歟” (He was probably an immortal), it is a modal adverb, indicating “probably” (both quoted from “A Story of Rui Yun” ), but in “碩人其頎” [Large was she and tall.From (Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs)], “其” is a modal auxiliary word. Some function words are difficult to determine whether or not possessing grammatical meaning. Therefore, a few function words in following examples probably should have been included in modal auxiliary words, but most of them follow the rule. Ancient scholars divided auxiliary words into three categories based on their positions in sentences: beginning, middle, and ending, from Liu Xie’s “Paragraphs and Sentences” , Classic Book of Literary Criticism. Then Liu said,“Words such as 夫 ,惟 ,蓋 ,故 are placed at the beginning of sentences, 之 ,而 ,於 ,以 are placed in the middle and 乎 ,哉 ,矣 ,也 are placed at the end of sentences.” Function words which might be positioned anywhere in a sentence could be classified as above,  but this classification is questionable, since one function word can be positioned at  the beginning, in the middle or at the end in different sentences. For example,“也” is usually placed at the end, but in “今也則亡 , 未聞好學者也” [By ill-luck his life was short. Now he is gone, I hear of no one who is fond of learning. (From “Yong Ye” , The Analects of Confucius)], the first “也” is, however, in the middle. Modal auxiliary words without lexical and grammatical meaning are no exception. At most, it can be said that some modal auxiliary words are more frequently used at the beginning, while some are more often used in the middle or at the end of sentences. Anyway, we cannot find a better way to categorize these auxiliary words, except where it is located in a sentence. 夫 , 若夫　夫兵，猶火也；弗戢，將自焚也。 Starting a war is like setting a fire. If you do not stop it in time, you will burn yourself. (From “The 4th Year of Duke Yin” , Commentary of Zuo) 夫希代之事，非遇出世之才潤色之，則與時消没，不聞於世。 If what catering to the secular world is not polished by great talents, it will be forgotten with time. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong) 若夫坐如尸，立如齊 1。 4

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齊 is the same as “齋”. “如齊” means to be as solemn and silent as in a fast.

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Sitting as solemnly as a corpse offering at a sacrifice, standing as respectfully as in a  fast. (From “Qu Li I ” , The Book of Rites) 若夫明妃去時，仰天嘆息。 Before she left, Imperial Concubine Ming (Wang Zhaojun) looked up to the heaven and heaved a sigh. (From Essay on Regretting by Jiang Yan) 若夫一枝之上，巢父得安巢之所；一壺之中，壺公有容身之地。 On a branch, the father of the nest has a place to live; in a pot, the Duke of Hukou has a place to live. (From “Ode to a Small Garden” by Yu Xin) 4

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“夫” is interpreted as “that person” or “that” and it is a demonstrative pronoun. It might also be used as an exclamatory auxiliary word, placed at the end of a sentence. “若夫” is generally used as a conjunction, meaning “as for” , such as “此其大略也；若夫潤澤之，則在君與子矣” [This is only a rough idea. As for polishing, it depends on your King and yourself. (From “Duke Teng Wen I ” , Mencius)]. But in “Qu Li” and “Essay on Regretting” “若夫” is placed at the beginning, and it is not a conjunction but just an initial particle. Zheng Xuan annotated “若夫” in “Qu Li” with “言若欲爲丈夫也” (It seems like the husband). To be frank, it is very awkward trying to interpret a word which does not have any specific meaning. Liu Chang, a scholar of Song Dynasty, claimed “In ‘Master  Zeng Taking Care of His Parents’ , Senior Dai’s Book of Rites, ‘孝子惟巧變， 故父母安之。若夫坐如尸，立如齊，弗訊不言 2，言必齊色 3，此成人之善者 也，未得爲人子之道也’ (Filial children are good at changing with their parents’ worries and happiness, so their parents feel happy. As for sitting as solemnly as a corpse offering at a sacrifice, standing as respectfully as during fasting; without  asking and speaking, one must look solemn when speaking; this is the advantage of adults, and it can not be used as a way for sons to serve their parents). This essay4 might quote from the above, and ‘若夫’ was deleted. Zheng Xuan knew nothing about it, and he insisted these two sentences talked about the husband. It is incorrect.” Although Liu’ s remark seems reasonable, no conclusive evidence could prove that the essay in “Qu Li” was quoted from abridged Senior Dai’s Book of Rites and it would be much straighter and clearer to take “若夫” as an initial particle. “若夫” in “Ode to a Small Garden” was placed at the beginning, which further proves that it is an initial particle. Some disyllabic function words can be found in prose-poems, such as “若夫” “爾乃” “若” and “乃” , etc. They are all initial particles, often placed at the beginning, without definite meanings.  惟 , 唯 , 維　唯十有三祀，王訪於箕子。 In the 13th year of King Wen of Zhou Dynasty, King Wu paid a visit to Jizi. (From “Hong Fan” , The Book of Documents) 且夫天下游士，離親戚，棄墳墓，去故舊，從陛下者，蓋日夜望咫尺之地，今 4

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訊 , to ask a question 齊色 refers to a solemn and serious look. 齊 is pronounced the same as 齋 (zhai). 4 This passage is “Qu Li”. 3

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乃立六國後，唯無復立者。( 《漢書·張良傳》，顔師古注 :“既立六國後 5，土地皆盡， 無以封功勞之人，故云‘無復立者’。唯，發語之辭。” Moreover, the counselors and lobbyists left their relatives, their ancestral graves, their old friends to follow you with the hope of being able to get a small piece of land. Now if you assign land to the descendants of the six countries, then who will fight for you?  (From “Biography of Zhang Liang” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) Yan Shigu annotated it with “If he assigns the land to the descendant of six countries, he could not give anything to those who have achieved notable merits. Then, ‘Who will fight for  him?’ 唯 is nothing but an initial particle.” 維三代尚 6矣。 Only about three generations. (From “Autobiographic Notes” , Records of the Grand Historian) 汝惟不矜 7，天下莫與汝争能 ；汝惟不伐 8，天下莫與汝争功。 If you are not boastful, no one in the world will compete with you for capability; if you are not arrogant, no one in the world will compete with you for credit. (From “Stratagem of Da Yu” , The Book of Documents) 海岱惟青州 …… 海物惟錯 9。 Qing Zhou was located between Bohai and Mount Tai…There are a lot of sea food. (From “Yu Gong” , The Book of Documents)

“惟” and “唯” are adverbs indicating the scope and mean “only”. They are used either at the beginning or in the middle in above example sentences. In the bronze script, this modal auxiliary word was often written as “隹”, such as, on “Inscription on Great Yu Ding” “隹 (唯 )九月，王才 (在 )宗周 10” (In September, the King entitled Yu in Zong Zhou). In Laozi, “夫隹兵者不祥之器” (Weapons are ominous things). “夫隹” is “夫唯”，a combination of two initial particles. But in later ages,“隹” was mistakenly written as “佳” . However, Lu De-ming in his Jing Dian Shi Wen (The Annotation on Classics) stated “佳 means ‘good’ . Lord He Shang11 annotated it with ‘it means to decorate’” . That does not make sense. 蓋　孔子射於矍相之圃，蓋觀者如堵墻。 Confucius practiced archery in Jue Xiang, and a crowd of onlookers stood in the field watching, like a wall. (From “The Meaning of the Ceremony of Archery” , The Book of Rites) 蓋文字者，經埶 (藝 )之本，王政之始，前人所以垂後，後人所以識古。 The written language is the foundation of classics and historic documents, and it is 4

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後 , the descendants. 尚 is the same as 上 , in the remote past. 7 矜 , to be boastful. 8 伐 , to be arrogant. 9 錯 , mixed and various. 10 宗周 refers to the city of Haojing, the capital of King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty, which is now located to the southwest of Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. 11 河上 refers to the annotations to Laozi by Duke He Shang. 6

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the basis for the kingcraft. The former generation used it to record their own experience and passed it on to later generations, who relied on it to understand the ancient history. (From Preface to Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen) 蓋聞明主圖危以制變，忠臣慮難以立權。是以有非常之人，然後有非常之事； 有非常之事，然後立非常之功。 I have heard that the sage monarch would suppress the turmoil by strategic planning while in danger, and loyal officials would seek countermeasures to establish their own  position while in disaster. Therefore, there are remarkable people first, then extraordinary  things, and then outstanding achievements. (From “A Declaration of War for Yuan Shao to Cao Cao” by Chen Lin) 4

“蓋” is often used to express “to be doubtful” or “to ease the tone” . In Distinguishing Function Words, “Every time when Sima Qian had doubts, he often used 蓋 . For example in Essay on the Feng and Shan Sacrifices, ‘上所有幸王夫 人。夫人卒，少翁以方 12，蓋夜致王夫人及竈鬼之貌云’ (Imperial concubine Wang, the Emperor’ s favorite, died, and Shao Weng used magic arts to attract her soul and the kitchen ghost at night)” . In “Biography of Empress’ Family” , ‘衛皇后，字子夫，生微矣 13，蓋其家號曰衛氏’ (Empress Wei, whose courtesy name is Zifu, was born in a humble family of Wei). “盖” might come from a false comment of an alchemist14 and Wei was not her real family name, but we did not need to go into it deeply. … Also in The Analects of Confucius,‘丘也聞有 國有家者，不患寡而患不均，不患貧而患不安。蓋均無貧，和無寡，安無 傾’ (I have heard that rulers of states and chiefs of families are not troubled with fears of poverty, but are troubled with fears of a want of contented repose among people in their several places. For when the people keep their several places, there will be no poverty; when harmony prevails, there will be no scarcity of people; and when there is such a contented repose, there will be no rebellious upsetting). Some scholars believed that ‘蓋’ was used to be a link with the preceding part, but they did not know that only until the modern imperial examination, 蓋 was taken as a transition in a sentence. Here, ‘蓋’ did not express ‘to be doubtful’ , but Confucius’ statement was quite euphemistic. He used ‘蓋’ to moderate his tone, showing a sense of modesty.” Several “蓋” quoted by Liu were all modal adverbs, but in previous three examples such as that of “The Meaning of the Ceremony of Archery” , it did not have any specific meaning, so it was only an initial particle.  Yang Shuda in Ci Quan took “蓋” quoted from “The Meaning of the Ceremony of Archery” to be a conjunction, eliciting the following part, which is not quite appropriate. Because if “蓋” is a conjunction leading to the following, “夫” will be used in the same way. 故　故爲蔽 :欲爲蔽，惡爲蔽；始爲蔽，終爲蔽；遠爲蔽，近爲蔽；博爲蔽，淺爲蔽； 古爲蔽，今爲蔽；凡萬物異者莫不相爲蔽。 4

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方 , the magic arts. 生微矣 , to be of a humble origin. 14 矯誣 , fake or false. 13

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What is deception? Hobbies can cause deception, so can hatred; only seeing the beginning can cause deception, only seeing the end will also cause deception; only seeing the distance will cause deception, only seeing the near will also cause deception; the extensive knowledge will cause deception, and the shallow knowledge will also cause deception; only knowing the ancient times will cause deception, only knowing now will also cause deception. Most things have different opposites; nothing will not  cause mutual deception. (From “Removing Deceptions” , Xunzi)

“故” is generally used as a causal conjunction, but sometimes it is also an initial particle, such as in “Removing Deceptions” . Yang Jing of the Tang Dynasty annotated “故爲蔽” with “to exemplify the origin of deceptions”15. Hao Yixing of the Qing Dynasty annotated it with “故 is an initial particle, to summarize the following deceptions.” Hao‘s annotation is correct. In The Book of Rites are there many lines with “故” as a beginning, seen in Yu Yue’ s Examples of Disputed Problems from Classics (Volume IV). 粤 , 聿 , 曰 , 曰若 , 粤若 , 云 , 爰　粤以戊辰之年，建亥之月，大盜移國，金陵瓦解。 On October of the second year of Liang Taiqing, the bandits usurped the country and Jinling was occupied. (From “Ode to Mourning South China” by Yu Xin) 爰及美女，聿來胥宇 16。 There, he and the lady Jiang came, and together looked out for a site on which to settle. (From “Mian” , Greater Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 蟋蟀在堂，歲聿其暮。 The cricket is in the hall, and the year is ending. (From “Cricket” , Odes of Tang, The Book of Songs) 嗟我婦子，曰爲改歲，入此室處。 Ah! Our wives and children, changing to the year requires this; enter here and dwell. (From “Qi Yue” , Odes of Bin, The Book of Songs) ……其慈子耆利 17，不同禽獸者，亡 18幾耳。然并心而赴時 19，猶曰蹷 20六國，兼 21 天下。 ...(People of Qin) only knew to love their sons and be greedy for money, which was no different from animals. However, by making concerted efforts and seizing the  opportunity, they conquered six kingdoms and set a unified country. (From “Biography  of Jia Yi” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 曰若稽古帝堯，曰放勛。 The name of Emperor Yao was Fangxun. (From “Canon of Yao” , The Book of Documents) 4

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數 , to list the examples 胥宇 , to investigate the residence 17 慈子 , to spoil the son. 耆 is the same as “嗜”. 18 亡 is the same as “無”. 19 并心 , to pool the efforts together. 赴時 , to seize the opportunity. 20 蹷 is also written as 蹶 , to defeat. 21 兼 , to devour the neighbors and unify the land. 16

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粤若來二月，既死霸 22粤五日甲子，咸劉 23商王紂。 On Feb. 22nd, (King Wu) killed King Zhou of Shang Dynasty. (From “Records of Almanac II” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 爰采唐矣，沫之鄉矣。云誰之思，美孟姜兮。 I’ m going to gather the dodder, in the field of Mei. But of whom are my thoughts?  Of that beauty, the eldest of the Jiang. (From “Sang Zhong” , Odes of Yong, The Book of Songs) 凛凛歲云暮，螻蛄夕鳴悲。 At the end of the cold year, the mole cricket calls all night, and the sad voice never stops. (From Nineteen Ancient Poems) 劇孟以任俠顯諸侯。吴楚反時，條侯 24爲太尉，乘傳車，將至河南，得劇孟，喜曰 : “吴楚舉大事而不求孟，吾知其無能爲已矣，天下騷動，宰相得之，若得一敵國云。” Ju Meng was very famous for his chivalry and justice at that time. When the state of Wu and the State of Chu rebelled, Zhou Yafu, the Marquis of the state, was about to arrive in Henan (It is Luoyang in modern times) on a stagecoach. When he saw Ju Meng, Zhou Yafu rhapsodized, “Wu and Chu orchestrated a rebellion, but they did not ask Ju Meng to participate in. I believe that they would be doomed to fail.When the world is in turmoil, if the prime minister could be supported by Ju Meng, he would defeat the rivalry state.” (From “Biography of Xia” , Records of the Grand Historian) 盤庚既遷……綏爰有衆 25。 Pan Geng moved the capital to Yindu… people live in a harmonious and stable life. (From “Pan Geng II ” , The Book of Documents) 4

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“粤” “聿” “曰” “云” and “爰” are all disyllabic characters, and “粤” “聿” and “曰” are regarded as three different phonetic loaned forms of one word. “云” “爰” and “粤” “聿” “曰” have different vowels, but all of them can be used at the beginning or in the middle26. However, “云” can also be used at the end, which is not possible for other four characters. 伊 , 繄 , 夷　伊上古之初肇。 At the beginning of ancient times (From Essay on the Feng and Shan Sacrifices by Sima Xiangru) 蓼蓼者莪，匪莪伊蒿。 Long and large grows the Lu’ E;—It’ s not the Lu’ E but Yihao. (From “Lu’ E” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 君王之於越也，繄起死人而肉白骨也。 The king’ s kindness to the State of Yue could really revive the dead and make white bones grow muscles. (From “Discourse of Wu” , Discourses of the States) 4

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既死霸 , the twenty-second day in a month. 咸劉 , to kill 24 條侯 refers to Zhou Yafu, son of Zhou Bo, a famous general in the reigns of Emperor Wen and Jin in the Han Dynasty. 25 綏 , to pacify. 有衆 , the people. 26 There is no example of 粤 used in the middle of the sentence. 23

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此一王四伯 , 豈繄多龐 , 皆亡王之後。 Was the success of Dayu and Duke of Siyue attributed to the favor of heaven? They were all descended from the king of subjugation. (From “Discourse of Zhou” , Discourses of the States) 其志嘐嘐然 27, 曰 :“古之人 !古之人 !” 夷考其行而不掩 28者也。 He is arrogant and boastful, saying, “The ancients! The ancients!” But his actions, which we fairly compare with his words, did not correspond. (From “Jin Xin” , Mencius) 4

言　言告師氏 , 言告言歸。 I have told the matron, who will announce that I am going to see my parents. (From “Ge Tan” , Odes of Zhou and the South, The Book of Songs) 駕言出游 , 以寫我憂。 Let me drive forth and travel there, to dissipate my sorrow. (From “Quan Shui”, Odes of Bei, The Book of Songs) 4

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Mao Heng and Zheng Xuan interpreted “言” in The Book of Songs as “I” based on Erya. But Hu Shi in his Explaining Words in The Book of Songs illustrated with many different interpretations, such as, to interpret  “言” as “而” . Mao’ s and Zheng’ s do not make any sense and Hu produces too many different  interpretations. None of them could be well established. 薄 , 薄言　薄伐獫狁 , 至於太原。 We smote the Xian Yun (a nationality in the north of ancient China. After the Warring States period, it was called Xiongnu), as far as Tai Yuan (in today’ s Guyuan County, Gansu Province). (From “Liu Yue” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 采采芣苢 , 薄言采之。 We gather and gather the plantains; we may gather them. (From “Fu Yi” , Odes of Zhou and the South, The Book of Songs) 載不見復關 , 泣涕漣漣 ; 既見復關 , 載笑載言。 When I saw (you) not (coming from) Fu Guan; my tears flowed in streams. When  I did see (you coming from) Fu Guan, I laughed and I spoke. (From “Meng” , Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs) 乃生男子 , 載寢之牀 , 載衣之裳 , 載弄之璋。 Sons shall be born to him: they will be put to sleep on couches; they will be clothed in robes; they will have scepters to play with. (From “Si Gan” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 乃瞻衡宇 , 載欣載奔。 Then when I catch sight of my old roofs, in joy will my steps quicken. (From “Going Home” by Tao Yuanming) 4

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逝 , 噬　誰能執熱 , 逝不以濯。 Who can hold anything hot? Must he not dip it (first) in water. (From “Sang Rou” ,  27 28

嘐嘐然 is explained by Zhu Xi as being arrogant and boastful. 不掩 means the words and deeds do not correspond.

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Greater Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 逝將去女 (汝 )，適彼樂郊。 We will leave you, and go to the land of happiness. (From “Shuo Shu” , Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs) 彼君子兮，噬肯適我。 That princely man there! He might be willing to come to me. (From “You Duo Zhi Du” , Odes of Tang, The Book of Songs) 4

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“噬” in “Odes of Tang” was written as “逝” in Han’ s poem and they are phonetic loan characters. 余 , 舍　王使宰孔賜齊侯胙 29……齊侯將下拜。孔曰 :“且有後命，天子使孔曰 :

以伯舅 30耋老，加勞，賜一級，無下拜 31。” 對曰 :“天威不違顔咫尺 32，小白 33余敢 34 貪天子之命，無下拜 ?……” The King Xiang of Zhou sent Zaikong to offer sacrifice meat to Duke Huan of Qi…. He was going to kneel down. Zaikong said, “There are imperial orders to follow. When the King sent me here, he said, ‘Because my uncle is old and has achieved great merit, I’ ll give him special privilege, so he doesn’ t have to kneel down!’” Duke Huan of Qi replied, “Your majesty is only a short distance from my face. How dare I accept the King’ s order and don’ t kneel down! …” (From “The 9th Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Zuo) 孟子曰 :“許子必種粟而後食乎 〔 ? 陳相〕曰 :“然。”“許子必織布然後衣乎 ?”曰 :“否。 許子衣褐。” “許子冠乎 ?” 曰 :“冠。” 曰 :“奚冠 35?” 曰 :“冠素。” 曰 :“自織之與 ?” 曰 :“否。 以粟易之。” 曰 :“許子奚爲不自織 ?36” 曰 :“害於耕。” 曰 :“許子以釜甑爨以鐵耕乎 ?” 曰 :“然。” “自爲之與 ?” 曰 :“否。以粟易之。” “以粟易械器者，不爲厲陶冶 37；陶冶 亦以其械器易粟者，豈爲厲農夫哉！且許子何不爲陶冶，舍皆取諸其宫中而用之 ? 何爲紛紛然與百工交 ? 何許子之不憚煩 38！” Mencius asked, “Must Xuzi plant his own food to eat?” “Yes.” Chen said. And then Mencius asked, “Does Xuzi have to weave his own clothes before dressing?” He answered that,“No, Xuzi wears coarse linen woven clothes.” Mencius asked,” Does Xuzi wear a hat?” “Yes.” he said. Mencius asked, “What kind of hat does he wear?” He answered, “Xuzi wears a hat made of raw silk.” Mencius asked, “Does he weave it 29

胙 , the meat for sacrifice.  伯舅 , the term used by the kings of the Zhou Dynasty to address the local lords of different surnames. 31 下 拜 , to walk down the steps and keel down. The phrase “ 賜 一 級” above means to grant the privilege of not having to walk down the steps. 32 咫 , a metric unit equal to eight cuns. 33 小白 , the given name of Duke Huan of Qi. 34 敢 , would not dare. 35 奚冠 , What kind of hat does he wear? 36 奚爲 , Why, for what reason. 37 厲 , to make someone busy and tired. 陶 , the potters. 冶 , the blacksmith who makes farming tools. 38 不憚煩 , to be afraid of making troubles. 30

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himself?” He answered, “No, in exchange with grains.” he said. Mencius asked, “Why didn’ t Xuzi weave by himself?” He answered, “It will hinder farm work.” Mencius asked again, “Did Xuzi cook rice with pots and steamers, and plough with iron farm tools?” “Yes.” he said. Mencius asked,” Did he make it himself?” “No, it’ s in exchange with grains.” he said. Mencius said, “It is not an infringement on the potters and smelters that farmers exchange grain for utensils (Which are needed for life and production); is it an infringement on the interests of farmers that potters and smelters also exchange their utensils for grain? Besides, why didn’ t Xuzi make and mould iron by himself, stop exchanging, and take everything from his own house? Why was he busy exchanging with craftsmen? Why is Xuzi not afraid of trouble?” (From “Duke Teng Weng II ” , Mencius)

Zhang Binglin in his “Explaining Elegant and Archaic Sayings” , New Dialect, remarked that “余” and “舍” should be interpreted as some person or some thing (any one), but Wang Li disagreed with Zhang’ s view and proposed that some sentences, such as “何物皆取諸宫中而用之” , did not follow the ancient grammar. In addition, he also stated that “什麽都……” comes from modern grammar, thus, to interpret “舍” (pronounced as /shě/) as “什麽” (/shén me/,what) is very odd. As for why /m/ in the middle disappeared39, according to Wang’ s criticism, zhang’ s statement can not be held true. “余 ” in this sentence is to ease the tone (詞之舒也 ) 40from Shuowen Jiezi. “舍” and “余” were, according to ancient pronunciation, both categorized into the radical “魚” , and also belonged to modal auxiliary words, so there is no need to make a further explanation. 壹 , 一　子之哭也，壹似重有憂者。 That you cry seems there is something very sad. (From “Tan Gong II ” , The Book of Rites) 今楚王之善寡人一甚矣。 Now King of Chu treats me kindly. (From “Ba Xing” , Guanzi) 老古振衣而起曰 :“一不意人君如此也。” Shaking the dust off his clothes, the old man stood up and said, “I can’ t believe that  our king is so stupid.” (From “Trifles” , The New Preface) 拔劍割肉，壹何壯也 ！ How bold it is to pull out the sword and cut his own flesh. (From “Biography of Dongfang Shuo” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 吏呼一何怒 ！婦啼一何苦 ！ How angry is the officer’ s shout! How bitter is the woman’ s cry! (From “The Pressgang at Stone Moat Village” by Du Fu) 羌、慶　羌聲色兮娱人，觀者憺而忘歸。 The spectacular scenery makes people intoxicated and onlookers are fascinated and do not want to return home. (From “The God of the Sun” , Nine Songs, The Verse of Chu) 杳冥冥兮羌晝晦，東風飄兮神靈雨。 4

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Please see Collected Papers on the History of Chinese by Wang Li (p. 281). A modern version is “語之舒也”. The line here is cited from Kuangmiu Zhengsu 《 ( 匡謬正俗》) by Yan Shigu in the Tang Dynasty.

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The sky was dark with the black clouds. The East Wind blows slowly, and it drizzles. (From “The Goddess of the Mountain” , Nine Songs, The Verse of Chu) “清晨登隴首”，羌無故實 41。 There is no allusion for “清晨登隴首” (To climb up Mount Longshou in the early morning). (From Preface to On Poetry by Zhong Rong) 恐罔蜽 42之責影兮，慶未得其云已。 Penumbra even questioned Umbra, which reflected his failure in understanding the  truth. (From “Autobiographic Notes” , Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 直嶢嶢以造 43天兮，厥高慶而不可虖 (乎 )彌度。 The lofty palace almost touches the sky, towering into the clouds. (From “Ode to Ganquan Palace” by Yang Xiong)

“慶” and “羌” have the same ancient pronunciation. Yan Shigu annotated on Historical Records of the Han Dynasty with, “慶” is used at the beginning, and it is the same as “羌” . Some premodern scholars interpreted “羌” in The Verse of Chu as “why” and “how” , and some interpreted it as “乃” (so or hence). Its interpretation must be decided by the context and there is no consensus on the meaning, but it is still used as a modal auxiliary word in modern days. 不、丕　果臝 44之實，亦施 45於宇。伊威 46在室，蠨蛸 47在户。町畽 48鹿場 49，熠燿 宵行 50皕瑏瑠。不可畏也，伊可懷也。 The fruit of the heavenly gourd, would be hanging about our eaves; the sowbug would be in our chambers; the spider’s webs would be in our doors; our paddocks would be deer-fields; the fitful light of the glow-worms would be all about. These thoughts made us apprehensive but how I long to see it. (From “East Mountain” , Odes of Bin, The Book of Songs) 有周不顯。 Illustrious was the House of Zhou. (From “King Wen” , “Greater Odes of the Kingdom” , The Book of Songs) 幼壯孝悌，耆耋好禮，不從流俗，修身以俟死者，不在此位也。 When you are young, you show filial piety to your parents and love your brothers;  when you are old, you still follow etiquette; if you keep youself unspotted from the 4

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故實 , allusions. The line “清晨登隴首” is quoted from a poem, but the entire poem and the poet‘s name is long lost. 42 罔蜽 , the penumbra outside the umbra. The episode is cited from “Discussion of the Equality of Things” in Zhuangzi. 43 造 , to reach. 44 果臝 , a gourd-like plant. 45 施 , pronounced as yì, to creep and sprawl. 46 伊威 , sowbugs. 47 蠨蛸 , spiders. 48 町畽 , the level ground being trodden by beast. 49 鹿場 , the trails treaded by deer. 50 熠燿宵行 , the twinkling wildfire.

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world and can cultivate until the end of life, please stay here. (From “The Meaning of the Ceremony of Archery” , The Book of Rites) 二三子不尚助不穀 51。 Please assist me to investigate whether the officials are conscientious. (From “Da Kuang” , Records of the Zhou Dynasty) 丕顯文武。 King Wen and King Wu of Zhou Dynasty were both illustrious. (From “Marquis Wen of Jin” , The Book of Zhou) 4

In these cases, “East Mountain” described the experiences and feelings of soldiers at war who imagined how desolate their houses were. These thoughts made them apprehensive but they still longed to see their home.“The Meaning of the Ceremony of Archery” was a story about Confucius who were practicing ceremony of archery in Jue Xiang. His students, Gongwang Qiu and Xu Dian talked to the onlookers that whoever had the spiritual ethos could be allowed to attend this ceremony. “尚” in “Da Kuang” is a modal adverb and means “to desire” and “to request” . The meaning of this sentence is that King Wen of Zhou desired and requested people to help him. None of “不” in these sentences possessed specific meaning.“有周不顯” means that “The house of Zhou was very illustrious” . Mao stated that “不顯 means 顯 .” “丕顯文武” is used in the same way.“文武” refers to King Wen and King Wu of Zhou Dynasty. “丕” and “不” are alliterated loan characters. 有　有周不顯。 Illustrious was the House of Zhou. (From “Wen Wang You Sheng” , Greater Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 有車鄰鄰，有馬白顛。 Many carriages, giring forth with clip-clop; many horses with white foreheads. (From “Che Lin” , “Odes of Qin” , The Book of Songs) 桃之夭夭，有蕡其實。 The peach tree is young and elegant; abundant will be its fruit. (From “Tao Yao” , “Odes of Zhou and the South” , The Book of Songs) 依 52彼平林，有集維鷮 53。 Dense is that forest in the plain, and there sit the long-tailed pheasants. (From “Che Xia” 54, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 4

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The auxiliary word “有” is used most widely in The Book of Songs. It is often placed before a word, and what follows could be a noun, such as “周” “車” “馬” , or an adjective, such as “蕡” , or a verb, such as “集” , all of which are important 51

不穀 , the self-abasing term used by lords. 穀 means competence or capability. 不穀 is a humble expression about oneself. 52 依 , dense and exuberant. 53 集 , to rest. 鷮 , a kind of pheasant. 54 舝 is the same as “轄”, the metal buttons on the two ends of the carriage axle.

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content words. In ancient times, some people placed “有” between two numerals. For example, in The Analects of Confucius,“吾十有五而志於學” (I began to aspire to study at the age of fifteen). “有” is not an auxiliary word, but a phonetic loan character of “又” . Above examples of modal auxiliary words are more often used at the beginning of a sentence. 其　碩人其頎 55。 Large was she and tall. (From “Shuo Ren” , Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs) 女嬃之嬋媛兮，申申其詈予。 My handmaid fair, with countenance demure, entreated me allegiance to abjure. (From “Li Sao” , The Verse of Chu) 路漫漫其修遠兮，吾將上下而求索。 The way ahead is long and has no ending; yet high and low I bail search with my will unbending. (As above) 阽 56余身而危死兮，覽余初其猶未悔。 Although I was in danger of death, I did not regret my ambition. (As above) 4

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In above examples, “其” is of no use other than to limit the number of characters in each line. 之　氓之蚩蚩，抱布貿絲。 A simple-looking lad you were, carrying cloth to exchange it for silk. (From “Meng” , Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs) 巧笑之瑳 57，佩玉之儺 58。 How shine the white teeth through the artful smiles! How the girdle gems more to the measured steps! (From “Zhu Gan” , Odes of Wei, The Book of Songs) 高余冠之岌岌兮，長余佩之陸離。 My headdress then high-pinnacled I raised, lengthened my pendents, where bright jewels blazed. (From “Li Sao” , The Verse of Chu) 4

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“之” in above examples, does not convert a subject-verb structure to an endocentric phrase and it is just used to lengthen a syllable. In Ancient Chinese, “之” might also be embedded in the middle of a person’ s name, such as “介之推” in Commentary of Zuo, “庾公之斯” in Mencius and “公罔之裘” in The Book of Rites. In these examples, “之” can also be classified into modal auxiliary words. It  could be used at the end as well, but no examples were given here. “其” and “之” in above examples are all positioned in the middle of a sentence. 只 , 止　母也天只，不諒人只。 55

頎 , long or tall. 阽 , to approach danger. 57 瑳 , to smile and show the teeth. 58 儺 , to take measured steps. 56

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O mother, O heaven, why will you not understand me? (From “Bai Zhou” , Odes of Yong, The Book of Songs) 樂只君子，福履綏之 59。 To be rejoiced in is our princely man; May he repose in his happiness and dignity! (From “Jiu Mu” , Odes of Zhou and the South, The Book of Songs) 亦既見止，亦既覯 60止，我心則説。 Let me have seen him, let me have met him; and my heart will then be at peace. (From “Cao Chong” , Odes of Zhou and the South, The Book of Songs) 思　南有喬木，不可休思；漢有游女，不可求思 61。漢之廣矣，不可泳思；江之永矣， 不可方思 62。 In the south rise the trees without branches, affording no shelter; by the River Han are  girls rambling about, but it is vain to solicit them; the River Han is too broad to be dived across and too long to be navigated with a raft. (From “Han Guang” , Odes of Zhou and the South, The Book of Songs) 自西自東，自南自北，無思不服。 From the west to the east, from the south to the north, there was not a thought but did him homage. (From “Wen Wang You Sheng” , Greater Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 且 (pronounced as /jū/)　不見子都，乃見狂 63且。 I do not see Zi Du, but I see this mad fellow. (From “Shan You Fu Su” , Odes of Zheng, The Book of Songs) 子惠思我，褰裳涉溱；子不我思，豈無他人。狂童之狂也且。 If you, Sir, think kindly of me, I will hold up my lower garments and cross the River Zhen. If you do not think of me, is there no other person (to do so)? You, foolish, foolish fellow! (From “Qian Chang” , The Book of Songs) 居 , 諸　日居月諸，照臨下土。 O sun, O moon, which enlighten this lower earth! (From “Ri Yue” , Odes of Bei, The Book of Songs) “居” and “諸” are two modal auxiliary words. Later, scholars borrowed “居諸” to signify the sun and the moon, i.e., the time. For example, in Han Yu’ s poem “Fu Reading in South of the City” ,“豈不旦夕念 , 爲爾惜居諸” (I’ ve been thinking about you from morning till night and only hope you can cherish time). The allusion of “居諸” was used in this poem. 兮　帝高陽之苗裔兮，朕皇考曰伯庸。 I am a descendant of the ancient Emperor Gaoyang. My father’ s name is Boyong. (From “Li Sao” , The Verse of Chu) 平原忽 64兮路超遠。 It’ s a long way to go, windy and dusty in the wilderness. (From “For Those Fallen 4

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福履 is the same as 福禄 (fortune and happiness). 綏 , peace. 覯 , to meet. 61 思 is mistakenly written as “息” in some modern versions. 62 方 , to navigate with a raft. 63 狂 , a wild and reckless person. 64 忽 , far and remote. 60

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for the Country” , Nine Songs, The Verse of Chu) 些 (pronounced as /suò/)　魂兮歸來，東方不可以托些。長人千仞，惟魂是索些。 十日代出，流金鑠石些。彼皆習之，魂往必釋些 65。歸來兮，不可以托些。 Come back, soul! The East can’ t be a hermit. The long people there are thousands of feet tall, just waiting to search your soul.Ten suns in turn, the metal and stone melted and deformed. They are all used to it, and your soul will vanish and disappear. Come back, there can’ t be a sojourn. (From “Requiem” , The Verse of Chu)

Most of above mentioned modal auxiliary words are positioned at the end of a sentence.

8.2 Affixes In ancient Chinese, “有” is a prefix and it can be placed before nouns, verbs and  adjectives. Without any morphological function, it is not a real prefix. “之” seems to be an affix placed in the middle such as in “介之推” , but similar with “有” , it does not have any morphological function, so it is not an affix as well. Therefore,  in ancient Chinese, only suffixes are worth discussing. In this chapter, we would  not talk about suffixes such as “兒” “子” and “地” which came into existence only after medieval times. We would like to exemplify those suffixes widely used in classical Chinese.

8.2.1  Suffixes of Adjectives and Adverbs 然　瓦沼晨朝水自清，小蟲無數不知名。忽然分散無蹤影，唯有魚兒作隊行。 Water in the basin pond is so clear in the morning, there countless unknown insects are swimming.They suddenly scattered and vanished without a trace to follow, only the fish swam over in a line. (From “A Basin Pond” by Han Yu) 予亦悄然而悲，肅然而恐，凛乎其不可留也。 With a sort of oppressive sadness and a nameless terror, I feel that this place is frightening and can not stay long. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) 焉　其妻又吾姨也，少喪父母，適人而所天 66又殞，孤女藐焉 67始孩。 His wife was my sister-in-law. Her parents passed away when she was young. Her husband died just after she got married and her daughter was very young and could only smile to people. (From “Preface to a Prose-Poem on a Widow” by Pan Yue) 4

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釋 , to scatter and vanish. 所天 means the women in old times had to rely on their husbands. 67 藐焉 , a young and small look. 孩 , the infant starts to develop awareness and smile to people. 66

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陳王 68初喪應劉 69，端憂多暇，緑苔生閣，芳塵凝榭，悄焉疚懷 70，不怡中夜。 King Chen, stayed at home moaning over the death of his friends Ying Yang and Liu Zhen. Under the pavilions of his house was covered with green moss, and between the terraces and pavilions, there was a lot of dust. He was in deep melancholy during midnight. (From “Ode to the Moon” by Xie Zhuang) 若　丘也嘗使於楚矣，適見 子 71食於其死母者，少焉眴若 72，皆棄之而走。 When I was on a mission to the State of Chu, I saw a litter of piglets sucking their dead mother. After a while, with the fearful look, all left the body and went off. (From “De  Chong Fu” , Zhuangzi) 齊國雖褊小，吾何愛一牛 ?即不忍其觳觫若無罪而就死地，故以羊易之也。 Although the land of Qi is small, how can I be stingy with an ox? It is because I can’ t bear to see its fear and tremble. It does not have any sin but has to go to the place of death, so I exchange sheep for it. (From “King Hui of Liang I ” , Mencius) 4

“觳觫若” is “觳觫然” and it means “to be fearful” . People used to segment “即不忍其觳觫” in Mencius to one sentence and “若” is usually linked with the following sentence, while Yang Shuda in “The Tweny-Fifth Example” , Sentence Segmentation in Ancient Books, explained that “觳觫若” should not be read without a pause. 如　孔子於鄉黨，恂恂如 73也，似不能言者。 Confucius, in his village, looked simple and sincere, as if he were not able to speak. (From “Xiang Dang” , The Analects of Confucius) 仁而愛人，喜施，意豁如 74也。 He is kind, loving and generous. (From “Biography of Emperor Gaozu of Han” , Records of the Grand Historian) 爾　子之 75武城，聞弦歌之聲。夫子莞爾 76而笑曰 :“割鷄焉用牛刀 ?” The Master having arrived at Wu Cheng, heard there the sound of stringed instruments and singing. Well pleased and smiling, he said, “Why use a knife to kill a chicken?” (From “Yang Huo” , The Analects of Confucius) 鼓瑟希 77，鏗爾，舍 (捨 )瑟而作。 With gradual dying down of the sound as he was playing on his lute, it was yet twanging and he laid the instrument aside. (From “Xian Jin”, The Analects of Confucius) 68

陳王 refers to Cao Zhi. 應劉 refers to Ying Yang and Liu Zhen, both of whom were literati in the period of Three Kingdoms. 70 疚懷 , a sad mood. 71 㹠子，a piglet. 72 眴若 , the fearful look. 73 恂恂如 , the sincere and honest look. 74 豁如 , being open and generous. 75 之 , to arrive at. 76 莞爾 , the smiling look. 77 希 , the gradual dying down of the sound. 69

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而　静女其姝，俟我於城隅。愛而不見，搔首踟躕。 How lovely is the retiring girl! She was to await me at a corner of the wall. Not seeing her, I scratch my head and am in perplexity. (From “Jing Nü” , Odes of Bei, The Book of Songs) 鋌而走險，急何能擇 ? If you rush into danger, how can you choose? (From “The 17th Year of Duke Wen” , Commentary of Zuo) 宋忠、賈誼忽而 78自失，芒乎無色，悵然噤口不能言。 Song Zhong and Jia Yi suddenly lost themselves, absent-minded and speechless. (From “Biography of Divines” , Records of the Grand Historian) 4

“愛” in “愛而” is a phonetic loan character of “薆”，so “愛而” is the same as “薆然” and it means “to be hidden” , that is, “the lovely retiring girl hid herself” instead of “the man dating with her loved her” . “鋌而” is “鋌然” and it means “to rush into” . These two “而” were often misinterpreted by later scholars as a conjunction,and they even changed “鋌” to “挺” . It is incorrect. In the example of Records of the Grand Historian, “忽而” corresponds to “芒乎” and “悵然” , and it is obvious that “而” plays the same role as “乎” and “然” . 乎　浩浩乎如馮虚御風而不知其所止，飄飄乎如遺世獨立，羽化而登仙。 It was as if we were harnessing the wind, riding through the ethereal vacant space, not knowing when to come to a halt, while the divine joy was as if we were forsaking the world and becoming winged deities, ascending to the land of immortals. (From “The First Visit to the Red Cliff” by Su Shi) 凛乎其不可留也。 It’ s daunting to stay here for a long time. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ”  by Su Shi) 4

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“芒乎 is also such a suffix, quoted from “Biography of Divines” of Records of the Grand Historian. 其　絺兮兮，凄其以風。 Linen, fine or coarse, is cold when worn in the wind. (From “Lyu E” , Odes of Bei,  The Book of Songs) 宛其死兮，他人入室。 You will drop off in death, and another person will possess them. (From “Shan You  Shu” , Odes of Tang, The Book of Songs) 言念君子，温其如玉。 When I think of my husband, looking bland and soft as a piece of jade. (From “Xiao Rong” , Odes of Qin, The Book of Songs) 日月忽其不淹兮，春與秋其代。 Without delay the sun and the moon sped fast; in swift succession, spring and autumn passed. (From “Li Sao” , The Verse of Chu) 4

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忽而 , the look of being lost and empty-minded.

8  Modal Auxiliary Words and Affixes

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In the example from “Li Sao” , the first “其” is a suffix and the second “其” is an adverb of time which has the same meaning as “將” and “且” . In above examples, such suffixes as “然” “如” “爾” “若” and “而” all have the same pronunciation in ancient times. “然” and “焉” are rhymed words, which can replace each other. Among them, “然” is more frequently used and the remaining four as well as “其” and “乎” can all be substituted by “然” .

8.2.2  Suffixes of Pronouns 其 , 居 , 己　夜如何其 ?夜未央。 How goes the night? It is not yet midnight. (From “Ting Liao” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs) 起解羅衣，聊問夜何其。 Getting up and taking off her robe, she asked what time it was. (From “Nan Gezi” by  Li Qingzhao) 何居乎 ?形固可使如槁木乎，而心固可使如死灰乎 ? It is true that the form can make it like a dry tree. Can spirit and thought make it like dying embers? (From “Discussion of the Equality of Things” , Zhuangzi) 彼己之子，不稱其服。 These creatures, are not equal to their dress. (From “Hou Ren” , Odes of Cao, The Book of Songs, quoted by “The 23th Year of Duke Xi” , Commentary of Zuo) 4

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“如何其” “何其” “何居” all mean “how” and “彼其” means “that one” . “其” and “居” used to be pronounced as /jī/. “其” “居” and “己” have similar pronunciation with interchangeable meanings. 許　奈何許，天下人何限 ?慊慊只爲汝。 What shall I do? In the world are there so many people, but my emptiness and loneliness are all because of you. [From “Hua Shan Ji” (an ancient yuefu song)] 行路如許難，誰能不華發 ? Traveling is so hard, whose hair can not change grey? (From “A Poem of Pan Long Yi ” by Fan Chengda) 維摩居士，説爾許多來由，我於當日都既祇對。 Vimalakirti gave a lot of reasons, but I could not refute a piece of counter argument. (From “Lecturing on Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra” ) 4

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“許” also serves as a suffix of adjectives, such as “可憐許” “可惜許” “多許” and “少許” . Li Yifu of the Tang Dynasty in his poem “Ode to a Crow” wrote “上 林多許樹，不借一枝棲” (In the royal garden are there so many trees, but a crow is nowhere to perch). Some scholars of later ages did not know much about word-formation of ancient Chinese, so they changed “多許” (many/much) to “如許”(so/such) or “多少” (number/amount). This is wrong.

Chapter 9

Personal Pronouns and Demonstrative Pronouns

Pronouns serve the functions of substitution and demonstration. For example, “吾” (I) and “爾” (you) can be used to replace persons, while “彼” (that) and “此” (this) to replace both persons and objects (In the sentence “此壮士也” (this is a hero) in “Biography of Lord Huaiyin” in Records of the Grand Historian, the pronoun “此” stands for those who used to insult Han Xin); “彼” and “此” can also be used to demonstrate and distinguish one person or one object from the other [as in the expressions of “彼美淑姬” (that pretty and kind girl), “此人” (this man), “彼 事” (that event), “此事” (this event)]. In terms of the function of substitution, the pronouns in modern Chinese can be used to take the place of nouns, adjectives, verbs and even linguistic units longer than words, and the same is true in ancient Chinese. As in modern Chinese, pronouns in ancient Chinese consist of three categories: personal, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns. Personal and demonstrative pronouns have definite references, while interrogative pronouns have indefinite references, yet corresponding to the person or object mentioned in the response sentences. This chapter discusses the use of personal and demonstrative pronouns. Interrogative pronounces are discussed in later chapters.

9.1 Personal Pronouns Personal pronouns can be divided into first-person (addressing oneself) pronouns,  second-person (addressing each other) pronouns, and third-person (addressing

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_9

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others) pronouns. Besides, there are also reflexive pronouns (addressing self) and  referral pronouns (addressing others).

9.1.1  First-Person Pronouns First-person pronouns refer to the speaker or to a group including the speaker. In archaic Chinese, such pronouns as “台” (yí)，“卬” and “朕” . “台” can be seen in The Book of Documents, “卬” in The Book of Songs, and “朕” in The Book of Documents, The Verse of Chu, and other books by ancient scholars and philosophers. These three pronouns could be temporally dismissed for their limited scope of usage. The common first-person pronouns are “余” “予” “吾” “我” , as in the following examples. 余既滋蘭之九畹兮，又樹蕙之百畝。 Nine fields of orchids at one time I grew, for melilot a hundred acres too.” (From “Li Sao” in The Verse of Chu) 衆女嫉余之蛾眉兮，謡諑謂余以善淫。 They envied me my mothlike eyebrows fine, and so my name his damsels did malign.  (As above) 子曰 :“予欲無言。” The Master said, “I would prefer not speaking.” (From “Yang Huo” in The Analects of Confucius) 聞佳人兮召予，將騰駕兮偕逝。 For you bid me to come today; together we’ re to ride away. (From “To the Lady of River Xiang” , Nine Songs in The Verse of Chu) 渺渺兮予懷，望美人兮天一方。 But my heart is far away, longing for my dear one under a different sky. (From “The  First Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) ……故不我若也，吾又何能爲哉！ … They are not as good as me, then what can I do about it? (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 我知種樹而已，理非吾業也。 All I know is how to plant trees. Governing is not my profession. (As above) 明日東家知祭竈，隻鷄斗酒定膰 1吾。(蘇軾《縱筆三首》詩 ) As tomorrow is the day for Kitchen-god worshipping, my host will definitely offer  me a great feast with chicken, wine and bacon. (From “The Three Poems” by Su Shi)

There exist some distinctions in the ancient usage of “予” and “余” , and “我” and “吾” . For example, “余” in The Verse of Chu (works by Qu Yuan and Song Yu) can serve as the subjects, objects and attributives, whereas “予” cannot be 1

膰 , the meat for sacrifice. It is interpreted as the meal offered to the Kitchen-god here. 

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used as an attributive. As for “我” and “吾” , when a sentence has both a subject and an object, “吾” is the subject, and “我” is the object, as shown in the first example from “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” . When a sentence has both an attributive and a subject/object, “吾” serves as the attributive, while “我” serves as the subject or object, as shown in the second example from “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” above. However, such distinctions are not strictly followed in relatively late works of ancient Chinese. For example, in “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu, the sentence “吾不解世俗書，子爲我書” (As I don’ t know how to write about the worldly issues, you can write it for me) does conform to the aforementioned pattern, whereas the sentence “吾就子所能而 作耳，非吾所學於師而能者也。吾所能者，子皆不足以聞也，獨文乎哉！吾 語亦不當聞也，吾閉口矣” (I was just writing to accommodate your tastes, not what I have learned from my master and what I am good at. For what I am really good at, you are not even qualified to know. Not only my writing! My words are  not for you to listen to, so I now stop talking) seems to violate the pattern. The first and last “吾” in the example both serve as subjects, while the same character in the middle of the sentence serve as attributives. No obvious distinctions are made in-between here. In modern times, these subtle differences can be dismissed.  Moreover, in the Three Kingdoms Period and the Six Dynasties, the character “身” was also used as first-person pronoun, as in the following examples: 身是張益德也。 I am Zhang Yide. (From “The Biography of Zhang Fei” , The History of Shu Kingdom, Records of the Three Kingdoms) 有詣王夷甫咨疑 2者，值王昨已語多，小極 3，不復相酬答。乃謂客曰 :“身今小惡， 裴逸民亦近在此，君可往問。” Someone visited Wang Yifu for consultancy. Wang was not feeling well due to too much talking on the previous day, so he wanted to aviod receving the guest. He then told the visitor, ‘I am under the weather today. Pei Yimin is nearby and you can go to ask him.’ (From “On Literature” in A New Account of Tales of the World)

First-person pronouns include several modest appellations, such as “臣” “僕” “走” “奴” “愚” and “蒙” . The character “臣” in ancient Chinese was not limited to the usage as a self-addressing term by officials at court in front of an  emperor. In “The Biography of General Li” in Records of the Grand Historian, the remark, “臣部爲前將軍，今大將軍乃徙令臣出東道。且臣結髮而與匈奴戰， 今乃一得當單于，臣願居前，先死單于。” (As a high-level general, I took the order from the senior general to take the east route. I have been fighting the Huns  since boyhood, and only now have I got a chance to fight their chief. I wish to take the lead and fight the Huns chief to death) was made by Li Guang addressing  General Wei Qing.The pronoun “奴” could be used to refer to both genders. For example, in a poem to the tune of Pusaman by Emperor Zhao Zong of the Tang 2 3

咨疑 , to consult on some questions and doubts. 小極 , minor illness. it is the same in meaning as “小惡” in the following line.

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Dynasty, there is a line “安得有英雄，迎奴歸故宫 4” (How much I wish for a hero to escort me back to the old palace?) Later this word became a self-addressing term for the female, as the sentence “此奴終身發軔之始” (It’ s my first time in my life) in “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories by Pu Songlin. The usages of the other four pronouns are illustrated in the following examples. 僕少負不羈之才，長無鄉曲之譽 Despite being an extraordinarily talented boy, I now receive commendation in my community in adulthood. (From “A Letter to Ren An” , by Sima Qian) 走雖不敏，庶斯達矣。 I am not a clever person, and this is almost all I can express. (From “Ode of the Eastern Capital Luoyang” by Zhang Heng) 愚以爲宫中之事，事無大小，悉以咨 5之，然後施行，必能裨補闕漏，有所廣益。 I think they must be consulted on all Palace matters, both of consequence and of insignificance, before any decision is made so that mistakes can be avoided, oversight  spotted and efficiency ensured (From “Memorial to the Throne on His Expedition” by Zhuge Liang) 其中有一二牽合太甚者，如玉之有瑕，絲之有纇 6，人所共睹，蒙亦未敢阿附焉 For a few far-fetched cases, they are like flaws to a precious jade, or knots of a silk  thread. I refrained from giving my biased comments. (From “Preface to the Annotation of Shuowen Dawen” by Xue Chuanjun)

In the above examples, “僕” and “走” indicate different identities. “僕” is referring to oneself as a servant. “走” is referring to oneself as a servant running errands. In “A Letter to Ren An” , Sima Qian addressed himself as “太史公牛馬 走” (the one humble running errands for Tai Shi Gong). Here “太史公” refers to his father Sima Tan, and Sima Qian regarded himself as a humble servant at the command of his father, which is different from the meaning of “走” in the work by Zhang Heng. However, Sima Qian is addressing “太史公” as a third party, while “走” in “Ode of the Eastern Capital Luoyang” is purely a modest appellation addressing the interlocutor.

9.1.2  Second-Person Pronouns Second person pronouns refer to the interlocutor or a group including the interlocutor. The second-person pronouns in ancient Chinese include “汝” “女” “爾” “而 , “若” “乃” “迺” . In the ancient Chinese pronunciation, all these characters contain the /n/ sound, so they all serve as second-person pronouns 4

Some deemed “奴” as improper for an emperor, and changed the line into “迎歸大内中”, which is in fact a mistake. 5 咨 , to consult and discuss. 6 纇 , knots of a silk thread.

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(most of which are phonetically loan characters with different meanings). Among  them, “乃 (迺 )” are often used as attributives of possessive relationship, never as objects, and very rarely as subjects. The character “而” can serve both as a subject and an attributive, but not as an object. “汝” “女” “爾” and “若” can be subjects, attributives and objects. The examples are as follows. 女聞人籟而未聞地籟，女聞地籟而未聞天籟夫 Perhaps you only know the music of man, and not that of Earth. Or even if you have heard the music of Earth, perhaps you have not heard the music of Heaven.” (From “Discussion of the Equality of Things” in Zhuangzi) 殺汝父是申蘭，殺汝夫是申春。 The murderer of your father is called Shen Lan, and the murderer of your husband is called Shen Chun. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’e” by Li Gongzuo) 語笑向誰道，腹中陰憶汝。 With no one to talk to or smile at, I am secretly thinking about you.” [From “Zi Ye (an ancient yuefu song)” ] 咄！少卿良苦，霍子孟、上官少叔謝女。 Say, you’ ve done a hard work. Huo Zimeng and Shangguan Shaoshu give you their regards. (From “Biography of Li Ling” in History Records of the Han Dynasty) 賜，爾來何遲也！ Ci, how come you are so late! (From “Tan Gong I ” in The Book of Rites) 由 (猶 )射於百步之外也，其至，爾力也；其中，非爾力也。 As in the case of shooting at a mark a hundred paces distant, that you reach it is owing to your strength, but that you hit the mark is not owing to your strength. (From “Wan Zhang II ” in Mencius) 官命促爾耕，勖爾植，督爾獲，蚤繰而緒，蚤織而縷，字而幼孩，遂而鷄豚。 The officials hasten you to plow and farm, encourage you to plant and cultivate, supervise you to reap and harvest, and urge you to boil cocoons and make silk, to raise your children, and to feed your chicken and pigs. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 嚙缺問於王倪，四問而四不知；嚙缺因躍而大喜，行以告蒲衣子。蒲衣子曰 :“而 乃今知之乎 ?” Nie Que was questioning Wang Ni. Four times he asked a question, and four times Wang Ni said he didn’ t know. Nie Que proceeded to hop around in great glee and went to tell Master Puyi. Master Puyi said, “Did you just now find that out?” (From “The Normal Course for Rulers and Kings” in Zhuangzi) 若勝我，我不若勝……我勝若，若不吾勝…… If you have beaten me instead of my beating you, … If I have beaten you instead of your beating me, … (From “Discussion of the Equality of Things” in Zhuangzi) 吾翁即若翁，必欲烹而翁，則幸分我一桮 (杯 )羹。 My father is your father. If you must kill your father and make a stew, please give me a bowl to share. (From “Biography of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 今欲發之，乃能從我乎 ? Now I am intending to launch a battle. Will you follow me? (From “Biography of Zhai Yi” in History Records of the Han Dynasty)

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王曰 :“舅氏！余嘉乃勛。” The King said, “Uncle! I am commending your achievements.” (From “The 12th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo) 必欲亨 (烹 )迺翁，幸分我一杯羹。 If you must kill your father and make a stew, please give me a bowl to share. (From “Biography of Xiang Ji” in History Records of the Han Dynasty)

Apart from such honorifics as “子” “君” “公” , and “卿” , ancient Chinese also addressed each other by their style names to show respect. Characters like “汝” “女” “爾” “而” and “乃” are general-purpose address terms, which are not often used to address the seniors and superiors. In particular, “爾” and “汝” often carry a contemptuous tone, used as straightforward address terms between very intimate peers. “Jin Xin II ” in Mencius contains such a sentence, “人能充 7無穿 踰 8之心，而義不可勝用也；人能充無受爾汝之實 9，無所往而不爲義也” (If everyone had no intention to steal, righteousness would be infinite. If one could be  unaffected by being addressed in “Er” and “Ru” , one would behave oneself well  wherever one travels.) In other words, a man of self-esteem cannot stand being addressed contemptuously by the worthless words of “爾” and “汝” . In “The 32nd Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo, Duke Mu of Qin scolded Jian Shu, “爾 何知！中壽，爾墓之木拱矣” (What do you know? If you had died middle-aged, the trees by your grave site must have been quite thick now.) which is in a very impolite tone. In Du Fu’ s “A Drunk Poem Dedicated to Zheng Qian” , the lines of “忘形到爾汝，痛飲真吾師” (We forgot the etiquettes and addressed each other by “爾” and “汝” , taking the passion for bottles as our real master) are another example in case. Du Fu and Zheng Qian were too close to be constrained by social etiquettes, so they addressed each other by “爾” or “汝” , which were considered rude address terms in normal occassions. The case of using style names as a respectful address forms is shown in the following excerpt from “Biography of Li Ling” in History Records of the Han Dynasty. 立政曰 :“咄！少卿良苦。霍子孟、上官少叔謝女。” 陵曰 :“霍與上官無恙乎 ?” 立政曰 :“請少卿來歸故鄉，毋憂富貴。” 陵字立政曰 :“少公！歸易耳，恐再辱，奈何 ?” Ren Lizheng said, “Alas! Thank you Shaoqing for your hard work! Huo Zimeng and Shangguan Shaoshu sent you their regards.” Li Ling replied, “Are Huo and Shangguan both well?” Lizheng said, “Please return to your hometown, and don’ t worry about the fame and fortune.” Li Ling addressed Lizheng by his name and said, “Shaogong, it is easy to return. But, in case there is further humiliation, what shall I do?”

In the above excerpt, “少卿” (Shaoqing) is the style name of Li Ling, while “少 公” (Shaogong) is the style name of Ren Lizheng. It is a courtesy between close 7

充 , to expand and extend. 穿踰 , to dig holes and climb over the walls, which are all behaviors of theft. 9 實 , the sincere feelings. 8

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friends to address each other by their style names. The words of “公” “卿” “子” and “君” are polite and respectful forms. In “Biography of Chao Cuo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, A father addressed his son by “公” , which seems quite bizarre today, probably due to the high official position held by the  son. The word “卿” can also be used as term of endearment between couples. Please read the following examples. 於是舍人相與諫曰 :“臣所以去親戚而事君者，徒慕君之高義也。今君與廉頗同 列，廉君宣惡言，而君畏匿之，恐懼殊甚。……臣等不肖，請辭去。” 藺相如固止 之，曰 :“公之視廉將軍孰與秦王 ?” The hangers-on of Lin Xiangru protested to him, ‘We left our family to serve you out of the admiration of your great moral character. Now you hold the same official position as Lian Po’ s. When Lian spoke ill of you, you avoided meeting him fearfully. This is unbearable… Please excuse us for our incompetence and allow us to resign.’ Lin Xiangru firmly refused to let them leave and said, “Who do you think is more competent, Lian Po or Duke Qin?” (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” in Records of the Grand Historian) 錯父聞之，從潁川來，謂錯曰 :“公爲政用事，侵削諸侯，疏人骨肉，口讓多怨， 公何如也 ?” Upon hearing this, Chao Cuo’ s father traveled from Yin Chuan and spoke to him, “You hold the official position, yet you damaged the Lord’ s interests, separated others’  family members, and incurred a lot of criticisms and hatred. Why did you do that?” (From “Biography of Chao Cuo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 子非三閭大夫歟 ? 何故而至於此 ? Aren’ t you the minister of ? His Excellency What has laid you so low? (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian) 王長史與劉真長别後相見，王謂劉曰 :“卿更長進。” Wang Meng and Liu Zhenchang met each other after a long separation. Wang said to Liu, “You are making more progress.” (From “Diction” in A New Account of Tales of the World) 卿盛時猶能知我，我豈以衰故忘卿哉！ You treated me as a close friend in your good time, how can I forget you now when you are in your bad time? (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories)

9.1.3  Third-Person Pronouns Third-person pronouns refer to the third party other than the speaker and listener. A third-person pronoun can refer to either a person or an object; while the first- and  second-person pronouns are for people, or for objects in personification. This is the distinction between third-person pronouns and first-/second-person pronouns. Third-person pronouns in ancient Chinese include “之” “其” “厥” “彼” “夫” .

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Characters like “渠” “伊” and “他” are mostly used in colloquial discourses. “渠” is more of the classic style, and can serve as the subject, attributive and object of the sentence. The examples are as follows. 回頭指大男，渠是弓弩手。 Looking back at the oldest son, saying that he used to be an archer. (From the poem “Commending Minister Yan While Drinking with a Farmer” by Du Fu) 蚊子叮鐵牛，無渠下咀處。 The mosquitos are attacking an iron bull, with nowhere for it to bite. (From “Hanshan Poems” ) 憐渠直道當時語，不著 10心源傍古人 I appreciate it that he uses the contemporary diction, with no deliberate effort to borrow or quote the classics. (From the poem “In Gratitude for Xiao Fu’s Present” by Yuan Zhen)

Among the ancient Chinese characters of “之” “其” “厥” “彼” and “夫” “其” and “厥” have similar meaning, and “彼” and “夫” mean similarly, yet with different usages. Generally speaking, the usages of these pronouns are not all the  same as that of “他” , which is the third-person pronoun in modern Chinese. As a pronoun, “之” can only be used as the object, as illustrated in the following examples. 夫婦共德之，同出展謝，而客已渺，遍覓之不可得。 The couple was very grateful to him, and stepped out of the room to express their gratitude. But the guest was already gone, and there was nowhere to find him. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” ) 有弗學，學之弗能，弗措 11也。 One should either never start learning or never stop learning until one is well-learned. (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites)

Usually “其” does not serve as a subject or an object. Its usage is limited to the following two occasions. As a possessive attributive, for example: 誦其詩，讀其書，不知其人，可乎 ? 是以論其世也。 You recite his poems and read his books, yet not knowing about his personal character. Is that proper? That’ s why we need to study the age and times of theirs. (From “Wan Zhang II ” in Mencius) 初，蘭、春有黨數十，暗記其名，悉擒就戮。 Shen Lan and Shen Chun used to have a gang of dozens. Xie Xiao’ e kept their names in mind secretly, and finally captured and executed all of them. (From “The Legend of

10 11

著 is used as “把”, to take or to use. 措 , to give up and abandon.

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Xie Xiao’e” by Li Gongzuo)

In a subject-predicate phrase which is a component of a complete sentence, as the subject of this phrase rather than the entire sentence, for example, 操蛇之神聞之，懼其不已 12也，告之於帝。 The God of Mountains learned about this and worried that he wouldn’ t stop the work, so he reported to the Emperor of Jade. (From “The Questions of Tang” in Liezi) 秦王恐其破璧，乃辭謝固請，召有司案圖，指從此以往十五都予趙。 Prince of Qin feared he might smash the jade, immediately apologized and firmly requested him not to do so. He also summoned servants to bring the map, and designated fifteen towns from one place, announcing them as a gift to the Zhao State. (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” in Records of the Grand Historian) 劉往見衡湘間人説云 :“〔彌明〕年九十餘矣，解捕逐鬼物，拘囚蛟螭虎豹。” 不 知其實能否也。見其老，頗貌敬之，不知其有文也。 I once traveled to Mount Heng in Hunan, and the locals told me, “The priest was in his nineties, and was capable of capturing ghosts and monsters, as well as wild beasts such as dragons, tigers and leopards.” I don’ t know if he was indeed as capable as that. Meeting the priest in person, Liu appeared respectful to the old man, yet ignorant about the fact that he was literate. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 甚惜其以絶世之姿而流落不偶，故以小術晦其光而保其璞。 It is a pity that she has such a glamorous look, yet is stranded in such a destitute place. So I played a little charm to conceal her glamor to protect her innocence. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories)

The character “厥” means “他 (它 )的” (his or its) in modern Chinese. Its usage is the same as the first usage of “其” , but it cannot serve as the subject of a subjectpredicate phrase, so it has less usages than “其” . The examples are as follows. 殲厥渠魁 13。 To strike its chief criminals. (From “Yin Zheng” in The Book of Documents) 厥誼不昭，爰明以諭。 For its vagueness and ambiguities, it is to illustrate them clearly. (From Shuowen Jiezi Preface to Explanation of Script and Elucidation of Characters by Xu Shen)

The ancient pronunciations of “彼” and “夫” contain the same /b/ sound, so “夫” can be used to replace “彼” . An example in “Discourses of Qi” in Discourses of the States is “夫爲其君勤也” (He serves his lord). The same sentence appeared in “Xiao Kuang” in Guanzi, with “夫” replaced by “彼” , meaning “He is serving his master.” However, “彼” is more widely in use, and can serve as an object, whereas “夫” cannot. The word “彼” is initially a demonstrative pronoun, only later 12 13

不已 , not to stop. 已 , to stop. 渠魁 , the chief of a gang.

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borrowed to be a third-person pronoun. It can be a subject or object. The examples are as follows. 彼，丈夫也；我，丈夫也；吾何畏彼哉 ? They were men. I am a man. Why should I stand in awe of them? (From “Teng Wen Gong I ” in Mencius) 彼可取而代也。 I will replace him. (From “Biography of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 市者良久計曰 :與其殺是僮，孰若賣之 ? 與其賣而分，孰若吾得專焉 ? 幸而殺彼， 甚善。 The bandit responsible for the negotiation calculated for a long time, thinking, “Instead of killing the boy, it is better to sell him for money. Instead of sharing the money between the two of us, it is better for me to take it all. How fortunate that the boy killed him, which is very good.” (From “The Story of Ou Ji” by Liu Zongyuan)

Although “彼” can be either a subject or an object, its demonstrative and distinctive functions are much more significant than its substitutive function, as  shown in the following example: 及燕 (宴 )，置酒，太子侍，四人從太子，年皆八十有餘，須眉皓白，衣冠甚偉。 上 14怪之，問曰 :“彼何爲者 ?” When the banquet started and the wine was served, the prince stood by the king, followed by four men in their eighties, with white beards and eyebrows and in elegant dresses. The emperor asked curiously, “What are they doing here?” (From “The Household of Zhang Liang” in Records of the Grand Historian)

A more precise translation of the last sentence “彼何爲者 ?” (what are they doing here) should be “what are those men doing here” , wherein “those” is a pronoun with a strong demonstrative and distinctive feature. Another example from the same text is as follows. ” 〔上〕召戚夫人，指示四人者曰 :“我欲易之 15，彼四人者輔之，羽翼已成，難動矣。 (The king) summoned Madam Qi and told her, pointing at the four men, “I wanted to replace the prince with someone else, but those four men are in his assistance. He is fully fledged and hard to replace now.”

The demonstrative function is clearly demonstrated here, indicating that “他们” (they) is not as precise as “那些人” (those men) in the above translation. Secondly, as a third-person pronoun, “彼” (he) is a natural counterpart of “我” (me). In the previous example from Mencius, there are contrastive pairs of “彼” (he), “我” (me) and “吾” (me), “彼” (he), indicating that “彼” (he or that) has a distinctive feature 14 15

上 , it refers to Liu Bang the Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty. 易之 , it means to replace the son of Empress Lü with Prince Zhao by Madam Qi.

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similar to the contrastive pairs of “彼” (that) and “是” (this) as well as “彼” (that) and “此” (this). 彼出於是，是亦因彼。 “That” comes out of “this,” and “this” depends on “that” . (From “Discussion of the Equality of Things” in Zhuangzi) 由是觀之，在彼不在此。 As we can see from this story, (the key) lies in that rather than in this. (From “Biographies of Cruel Officials” in Records of the Grand Historian)

The words of “彼、此” and “彼、是” are all demonstrative pronouns, while “彼” in “彼、我” are personal pronouns borrowed from the demonstrative category. The difference is apparent. As for the sentence in Mencius “吾何畏彼哉” (Why should I stand in awe of them), if it is changed into “吾何畏之哉” , even though they are both third-person pronouns used as an object, the character “之” is less fitting than  “彼” , as “彼” and “吾” constitute a pair. To take another example, in the sentence “幸而殺彼” (How fortunate that the boy killed him), “彼” is used instead of “之” . One explanation is that a previous sentence “賣之” (sell him) already contained a “之” , so the repetition could be avoided. Yet it can also be argued that, in the mind of the calculating bandit (“市者” , the one responsible for the trading), “彼” is refers to his partner, which is distinct from himself. Besides, the character also forms a contrastive pair with the character “吾” in a previous sentence “孰若吾得專焉” (it is better for me to take it all). As “彼” was initially a demonstrative pronoun, specifically a distal demonstrative,  it usually carries an implication that the person it stands for are estranged by the speaker. In ancient classics, “彼” was often used to express contempt or dislike. For example, in Mencius, both the sentences “吾何畏彼哉 ?” (Why should I stand in awe of them) and “彼惡敢當我哉！” (How dare he confront me) expressed an impolite attitude towards the people referred to as “彼” . More examples are as follows. 如枉道而從彼何也！ If I were to bend my principles and follow those lords, of what kind would my conduct be? (From “Teng Wen Gong II ” in Mencius) 彼王不能用君之言任 16臣，安能用君之言殺臣乎 ? That king wouldn’ t follow your advice to appoint me a post, how is it possible to follow your advice to kill me now? (From “Biography of Lord Shang” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In the first example, Mencius was persuaded to abandon his own principles (“道” , the Way) and to follow the ideas of the lords, but Mencius refused. The word “彼” refers to the lords, carrying an obvious contemptuous tone. It means, in 16

任 , to assign a post.

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modern Chinese, “How can I consort with the lot of them!” In the second example, Minister Cuo recommended Shang Yang to the prince of Wei, saying “if you don’ t want to choose him, kill him lest he should serve other states.” The prince didn’ t offer Shang Yang a post. Cuo then told Shang Yang to run for life17. The above utterances are Shang Yang’s response to him, which clearly indicated his contempt to the prince for his lack of wisdom. This example fully illustrates the distinctive feature of “彼” as a third-person pronoun. While “之” and “其” cannot serve as subjects in sentences, “彼” gradually qualifies as a third-person pronoun. In the following example, the usage of “彼” is very similar to that of “他” as a subject in modern Chinese. 盧志於衆坐，問陸士衡 18:“陸遜、陸抗，是君何物 ?” 答曰 :“如卿於盧毓、盧 珽 19。” 士龍失色。既出户，謂兄曰 :“何至如此 ? 彼容 20不相知也。” Lu Zhi spoke to Lu Shiheng in a crowd, ‘Who are Lu Xun and Lu Kang to you?’ Lu Shiheng replied, ‘In the same way as Lu Yu and Lu Ting to you.’ Upon hearing this, Lu Shilong was very shocked. Shilong told his elder brother Shiheng, “Why did you say like that? Perhaps he really doesn’ t know.” (From “Integrity” in A New Account of Tales of the World)

Nevertheless, “彼” cannot completely replace “他” (he), “她” (she), “它” (it). A sentence in “Wan Zhang II ” in Mencius is “昔者有饋生魚於鄭子産，子産使校 人畜之池” (A man once gave Zichan a few live fish. Zichan requested those who  were in charge of the pools to keep the fish). The second “子産” (Zichan) in the sentence cannot be replaced by “彼” . As mentioned above, none of the characters of “彼” “其” and “之” in ancient Chinese is completely equivalent to “他 , 她 , 它” in modern Chinese, the difference being not only in word usage but also in grammatical structure. Ancient  Chinese sentences are mostly constructed by means of nouns with duplicate reference or ellipsis, which will be elaborated on in the next chapter. Besides “余” and “予” , personal pronouns such as “我” “爾” and “彼” make no distinction between singular and plural forms. An example in point is “彼衆 我寡” , which means “they are more, and we are less” , while in the sentence “彼 容不相知也” (Perhaps he really knows nothing about it), the word “彼” refers to singular form “他” (he). In the sentence “爾何知” (What do you know) (“The 32nd Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo), “爾” means “你” (you) in the singular form, while in “如或知爾，則何以哉” (If others knew you, what would you do?) (“Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius), the character “爾” refers to four students of Confucius – Zilu, Ran You, Gongxi Hua and Zeng Xi. In later 17

To advise the King to kill Shang Yang if he wouldn’t assign him a post, this is for the public interest. To suggest Shang Yang run for life, this is out of his personal feeling. 18 士衡 is the style name of Lu Ji, an important litterateur in the Jin Dynasty. 士龍 is the style name of his brother, Lu Yun. 19 盧珽 ( Lu Ting) is the father of 盧志 (Lu Zhi). 20 容 , perhaps.

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works there appeared “儕” “属” “曹” “辈” and “等” , placed at the end of the phrase to indicate plurality, such as “我儕”“我属”“我曹”“我辈”“我等”“爾曹”“爾 辈” “若属” “汝等” “彼辈” and “彼等” . In particular, the word “儕” can only be used for the first person, “属” for both the first and second person, and “辈” for all the first, second and third-person. What’ s more, “属” and “曹” can also be used in combination with demonstrative pronouns “是” and “此”, such as “是属” “是曹” “此 属” and “此曹” . The word “等” can be attached to a noun to indicate plurality. Among the personal pronouns, characters like “我” and “吾” are forms to address oneself, characters like “汝” and “爾” are forms to address the interlocutor, while characters like “之” and “其” are forms to address others. But these conventions can sometimes be violated in ancient Chinese. As examples of the flexible usage, “之” and “其” can be used for addressing-me function, while “我” occasionally used to address others. 臣乃市井鼓刀屠者，而公子親數存之。 I am just a humble butcher, but Your Highness called at my house several times to greet me. (From “Biography of Prince Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 西門豹曰 :“至爲河伯娶婦時，願三老、巫祝、父老送女河上，幸來告語之，吾 亦往送女。” Ximen Bao said, “On the day for the River God to take a new wife, I hope the local elders, priests and chiefs all go to the riverside to bid farewell to the bride. Please come to inform me of it, because I will also go there to see her off.” (From “Biographies of  People with Eloquence” in Records of the Grand Historian with supplement by Chu Shaosun) 蔣氏大戚，汪然出涕曰 : “君將哀而生之乎 ?” Jiang was in great sorrow and said in tears, “Are you patronizing me? Do you want me to live?” (From “The Snake-Catcher” by Liu Zongyuan) 嗚呼！予之及於死者不知其幾矣！……真州逐之城門外，幾徬徨死。 Alas, I have lost count of the number of my narrow escapes from death!… I was once evicted out of the city gate in Zhen Zhou, and almost died in wandering. (From “A Postscript to the Poem Collection ‘South Pointing’ ” by Wen Tianxiang) 然而聖主不加誅，宰臣不見斥，非其幸歟 ? Yet the wise Emperor didn’ t punish me, and the ministers and higher officials didn’ t  banish me, isn’ t it a privilege for me? (From “On Advancing Studies” by Han Yu) 自余爲僇人 21……日與其徒上高山，入深林，窮回溪。 Since I was incriminated and humiliated, … every day I traveled with my fellows up on the high mountains, in the deep woods, and to the end of the winding streams. (From “A Visit to the Western Hill” by Liu Zongyuan) 獨惜執事忮機一動……必至盡殺天下士，以酬其宿所不快。 My only concern is that you are harboring a hateful resentment, … you may swipe off all the well-known intellectuals, as the revenge for your hatred in the past. (From “A  Letter to Ruan Yu on My Day of Going to Nanjing” by Hou Fangyu) 諸公要人急欲令出我門下，交口薦譽之。 21

僇人 , an incriminated and punished person.

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All the ministers and nobles claimed him as their own student, and commended him in one voice. (From “Epitaph for Liu Zongyuan” by Han Yu)

In the above examples from Records of the Grand Historian to the article by Liu Zongyuan, “之” and “其” were used for first-person reference, while “其” in “A Letter to Ruan Yu” was of second-person reference. The character “我” in “Epitaph for Liu Zongyuan” was a third-person reference, which can be replaced by “其” . In fact, “我” in this case is very close to the reflexive reference, with a meaning of  “自己” (oneself). The same usage of “我” is seen in the sentence “縣民繇 (由 )是 知君爲愛我” (The residents in the town learned from this that the magistrate love them indeed.) in “Epitaph for Di Su” by Ouyang Xiu. The personal pronoun of “己” is a reflexive, meaning oneself. It is different from  first-person, second-person and third-person pronouns, because “己” can be used flexibly as either self-reference or other-reference. The examples are as follows.  前書謂吾與人商論，不能下氣，若好勝者然。雖誠有之，抑非好己勝也，好己 之道勝也。 In the previous letter, I said I could not humbly admit defeat in debates, always seeking to prevail over others. Even if that is the case, it is not because I want myself to win, but because I want my principles to win. (From “Another Letter to Zhang Ji” by Han Yu) 君子敬其在己者，不慕其在天者。 A man of noble character values his own effort rather than on fate. (From “On Heaven” by Xunzi)

In the first example, the two characters of “己” followed “吾” in the context, which were used for self-reference. In the second example, “己” followed “君子” (a man of noble character), hence for other-reference. The character “自” has the same dictionary meaning as “己” , yet with different  grammatical functions. As a pronoun, “己” can serve as a subject, an attributive and an object. On the other hand, “自” is an adverbial with referential functions, which can only be used in front of a verb as its adverbial modifier. The examples  are as follows. 廬陵文天祥自序其詩，名曰《指南録》 : 。 Wen Tianxiang from Luling wrote by himself the postscript for his poem collection South Pointing. (From “A Postscript to the Poem Collection ‘South Pointing’ ” by Wen Tianxiang) 〔豫讓〕遂伏劍自殺。 (Yu Rang) cut his throat with a sword by himself. (From “Biographies of Assassins” in Records of the Grand Historian)

The former “自” refers to the performer of the action, the latter “自” refers to the recipient the subject of the sentence. The pronouns referring to others are called referral pronouns. In ancient

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Chinese, the referral pronoun is “人” , as illustrated in the following examples. 仲可懷也，人之多言，亦可畏也。 Zhongzi, I do miss you, yet I am also afraid of people’ s gossip. (From “Jiang Zhongzi, Odes of Zheng” in The Book of Songs) 焉知賢才而舉之 ?” “舉爾所知，爾所不知，人其舍諸 22?” “How can you find the talents and select them?” The master replied, “Select those  who you know of. As for those talents whom you don’ t know, they won’ t be neglected by others either.” (From “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius) 4

4

9.2 Demonstrative Pronouns When used alone, demonstrative pronouns can serve as substitutions. When used as attributives, they mainly serve demonstrative and distinctive functions. Demonstrative pronouns can be divided into proximal forms and distal forms.

9.2.1  Proximal Demonstrative Pronouns Proximal demonstrative pronouns in ancient Chinese include “是” (/shi/),“此” (/ci/),“兹” (/zi/),“斯” (/si/), which are equivalent to “这” (/zhe/)in modern Chinese. The usages of these pronouns vary in different historical ages, without much difference in function, which is illustrated in the following examples.  由是觀之，在彼不在此。 As we can see from this story, (the key) lies in that rather than in this. (From “Biographies of Cruel Officials” in Records of the Grand Historian) 惟兹佩之可貴兮，委厥美而歷兹 23。 This jasper pendent rare I was beguiled. To leave, and to this depth then sank defiled.  (From “Li Sao” in The Verse of Chu) 斯人也，而有斯疾也。 How is it that this good man contracts this serious disease. (From ” Yong Ye” in The Analects of Confucius)

Sometimes the character “鲜” can be a phonetic loan for “斯” . In “鮮民之生， 不如死之久矣” (This man who lives a lonely life had better choose early death) 22

舍諸 is equivalent to “舍之乎”. 兹佩 refers to the “jasper pendent” mentioned above, which is actually used to refer to Qu Yuan himself. 委厥美 means the precious jade was not appreciated. 歷兹 means the jasper pendant was treated in this way. 23

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from “The Wormwood” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs, the phrase “鲜民” equals to “斯民” (this man). The pronoun of “这” used in modern Chinese appeared as early as in the spoken language in the Tang and Song Dynasties, but mostly written as “遮” or “者” as in the following examples. 這有相夫人顔貌平正，又復能歌，一日殿中起舞，正歌之次，歡喜國王見者夫 人面上耳邊一道氣色…… This Madam You Xiang has a fair look and a charming voice. One day when she was dancing in the court, the king was singing in accompany. King Huanxi noticed a streak of color shown on the face and ears of this madam…. (From “A Story of King Huanxi” in Literature in Dunhuang Bianwen) 這回去也，千萬遍陽關，也則難留。 You had to leave this time. Cycles of the sorrow of the parting can’ t hold you back. (From a poem to the tune of A Memory of Flute-Playing by Li Qingzhao) 憑寄離恨重重，者雙燕何曾，會 24人言語。 Who can help me express the sorrow of partings? This pair of swallows cannot understand a man’ s suffering. (From a poem to the tune of “Yanshan Pavilion” by the  Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty) 者裏著得個眼，賓主互换，便能深入虎穴。(雪竇明覺禪師《拈古集》) Make a hole in this place, switch the positions, then you can get in deeper. (From Collection of Ancient Classics by Master Mingjue in Xuedou) 遮瞎漢，只麽 25亂喝作麽！ This blind bastard, yelling wildly like this! (From Volume 13 in Buddhist Teachings During the Jingde Reign of the Song Dynasty)

Such proximal demonstrative pronouns in modern Chinese as “这么” “这样” and “这么样”, when translated into ancient Chinese, should be “如是” “如此” “如 斯” “若是” “若此” and “若斯” , and so on. Whether these can be regarded as demonstratives still remains controversial. In terms of grammatical functions, “如” and “若” are both verbs, and “是” “此” and “斯” are the objects of the verbs. Therefore, they should be regarded as verb-object phrases. For example, 以德若彼，用力如此 26，蓋一統若斯之難也！ With rule of virtue like that, and with force like this, can they achieve the unification  like this. It is really difficult! (From “Monthly Records of the Qin-Chu Period” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In the above sentence, “若彼” means “像那样” (like that). The phrases “如 24

會 , to understand. 只麽 is the same as “這麽” (like this). 26 以德若彼 means it took scores of years or even centuries to go through the old dynasty and to start a new one. 用力如此 means the State of Qin finally annexed the land starting from King Xiang  to the First Emperor of Qin. 25

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此” and “若斯” were used in contrast to “若彼” , which is definitely not a word. Therefore, “如此” and “若斯” are phrases. However, considering the correspondence in translation, they can be temporarily taken as demonstratives. The word of “然” is also equivalent to “这么” “这样” and “这么样” , and can be regarded as a proximal demonstrative, yet it cannot serve as an attributive. Besides, “此” can serve as an adverbial modifier with the same meaning as “这样”. The examples are as follows. 河内凶 27，則移其民於河東，移其粟於河内；河東凶亦然。 When a famine strikes the north of Yellow River, residents are moved to the east of the river, and food is transported to the north of the river. When a famine strikes the east, the same strategy applies. (From “King Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius) 無然泄泄。 Do not make sluggish chattering like this. (From “Ban” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs) 以鶉首而賜秦，天胡爲而此醉 28? How can the god become so drunk that he handed the territory to Qin? (From “Lament for the South” by Yu Xin)

“無然泄泄” means “don’ t be sluggish” “天胡爲而此醉” means “why the heaven is so drunk” . In the first example, “然” serves as a predicate. The “然” in the second example and “此” in the third example are both adverbials modifiers. 

9.2.2  Distal Demonstrative Pronouns Distal demonstrative pronouns in ancient Chinese include “彼” “夫” “彼其 (jì)” “夫己” “其” “爾” . In ancient Chinese, “彼” and “夫” shared the same pronunciation, while “彼其” and “夫己” were also pronounced similarly. They are actually two different written forms of the same character, and are all equivalent to  “那” (that) in modern Chinese. The examples are as follows. 在彼不在此。 (The key) lies in that rather than in this. (From “Biographies of Cruel Officials” in Records of the Grand Historian) 彼時妙莊嚴王後宫八萬四千人，皆悉堪受持是《法華經》。 At that time, there were eighty-four thousand people in the palace of the King Śubhavyūha. They all received and upheld The Lotus Sutra. (From The Past Deeds Of the King Śubha-vyūha in The Wonderful Dharma Lotus Flower Sutra) 27

凶 , a year of famine. As the legend goes, the god favored King Mu of Qin and granted him a banquet. While drunk, the god gave a constellation map to Qin as an award. The story is also included in “Song of the Western Capital Chang’an” by Zhang Heng. 鶉首 is the name of a constellation.

28

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不以夫一害此一。 Do not let the knowledge of that aspect interfere the knowing of this aspect. (From “On Confusion” in Xunzi) 彼其之子，不稱其服。 That man is not worthy of the dresses. (From “Petty Officials” in Odes of Cao in The Book of Songs) 彼其道遠而險……彼其道幽遠而無人。 ‘That way to it is distant and difficult… That way to it is solitary and distant, and  there are no people on it. (From “The Tree on the Mountain” in Zhuangzi) 齊公子元不順懿公之爲政也，終不曰公 29，曰“夫己氏”。 Prince Yuan in Qi State refused to obey the ruling of Duke Yi (Yi Gong). Instead of using the address of ‘gong’ , he referred to him as “that man” . (From “The 14th Year of Duke Wen” in Commentary of Zuo) 藏之名山，傳之其人。 Hiding the works in great mountains, and passing it to that man who is interested. (From “Preface by the Author” in Records of the Grand Historian) 嘗聞有隱君子，彌明豈其人邪 ? I used to hear of a hermit. Is Mi Ming also that man? (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 其人率與僕等。 That man is more or less like me. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 許掾嘗詣簡文，爾夜風恬月朗。 Xu Xuandu once went to visit Jian Wen Gong. The breeze was light and the moon was bright on that evening. (From “Compliments” in A New Account of Tales of the World) 爾後小娥便爲男子服，傭保於江湖間。 After that, Xiao’ e dressed herself like a man, found a small job on the boat in the rivers and lakes. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’ e” )

In the above sentence “不以夫一害此一” means “Do not let the knowledge of that aspect interfere the knowing of this aspect” . Translated in modern Chinese, “夫一” and “此一” mean, respectively, “那个一” (that one) and “这个一” (this one). The phrase “彼其之子” (that man) also appeared in “The 12th Year of Duke Xi ” in Commentary of Zuo as “彼己之子” . As for the phrase “夫己氏” , in his work of Supplement to Du Yu’s Annotated Edition of Commentary of Zuo, Gu Yanwu also commented that “猶言彼其之子耳” (it is the same as that man). So it seems apparent that “彼其” “彼己” and “夫己” are indeed different forms of the same  word. When used as distal demonstrative pronouns, “彼其” “彼己” and “夫己” usually imply a sense of disgust, contempt or dislike. The example from “Odes of Cao” is to satirize the men who are beautifully dressed but corrupt in morality or incompetent, pointing out that his competence and character is no match for his 29

終不曰公 , never to address him “gong” (Duke).

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dress. The word “彼其” in this sentence carries an obvious tone of contempt. A more straightforward example is Prince Yuan addressing Duke Yi of Qi as “夫己 氏” (that man) to express his dissatisfaction. The two phrases of “彼其道” from Zhuangzi also convey a distaste for “that way” . Among these demonstratives, “彼” and “夫” are in contrastive meaning of “此” and “是” , with a very strong sense of distal reference. The word “其” is used in phrases like “其人” “其事” and “其他” . The word “爾” is mostly used to indicate time, such as “爾时” (that time) and “爾夜” (that evening). In these cases, the distal reference is not as explicit as that of “彼” , especially in “其人” and “其事” . For example, “傳之其人” means “passing it to that man” “其人” has no antecedent (the word that is referred to) in the context, so the sense of distal reference is weaker here. The demonstrative pronouns of “彼” “夫” “彼其” “夫己” and “其” can only be translated into “那” (that) or “那个” (that one), but not “他的” (his), “她的” (her) and “它的” (its). In modern Chinese, the distinction between proximal and distal demonstratives is quite clear, but for some demonstratives in ancient Chinese, it is not always easy to tell apart the proximal and distal references, such as the following cases with “爾” “若” and “乃” . 結廬在人境，而無車馬喧。問君何能爾，心遠地自偏。 In people’ s haunt I built my cot; of wheel’ s and hoof’ s noise I hear not. How can you feel so peaceful like this? Secluded heart makes secluded place. (From “Poems on Drinking” by Tao Qian) 至今猶爾。 It is still like this until now. (From Record of the Buddhist Kingdoms by Fa Xian) 以若所爲，求若所欲，猶緣木而求魚也。 If you want to seek what you desire by this way of doing, it is like seeking a fish on a  tree. (From “King Hui of Liang I” in Mencius) 不能於若計者，不可使用國。 If he cannot understand this principle, he cannot be entrusted to govern the state. (From “Ba Guan” in Guanzi) 子無乃稱。 You shouldn’ t talk in this way. (From “The Sign of Virtue Complete” in Zhuangzi)

In the previous example from A New Account of Tales of the World, the word “爾” in “爾夜” (that evening) is a distal reference. In the first and second examples  above, “何能爾” means “How can you make it?” , and “至今猶爾” means “It is still like this until know” . Both cases of “爾” are the same as “然” , which is a proximal reference. The third example is trickier. It can be understood either as “doing like this to seek for this desire” , or as “doing like that…” Yang Shuda interpreted “若” as a proximal reference of “如此” (like this) (see Annotation of Chinese Words). However, Gao Mingkai regarded it as a distal reference (see On Chinese Grammar). The dilemma also exists for the character “乃” in the fifth example, which can be translated either as “You shouldn’ t talk in this way” ,

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or as “you shouldn’ t talk in that way” . As for the character “若” in the fourth example, obviously it is the same as “此” in meaning, hence a proximal reference. From phonological and etymological perspectives, “爾” “若” and “乃” were predecessors of “那” (that), so they can be regarded as distal references. Yet from the perspective of lexical relations, they are all second-person pronouns, therefore can be regarded as proximal references. All in all, such a complicated issue defies  a simplistic and decisive conclusion based on partial evidences. There is no need to make a clear-cut distinction in some rather ambiguous and complex situations. Another demonstrative “之” is used mostly to refer to people, and occasionally to objects. 之子于歸 30，宜其室家。 This girl is getting married, who is most suitable for the household. (From “Peach blossoms” , Odes of Zhou and the South in The Book of Songs) 之二蟲又何知 ? These two little creatures, what should they know? (From “The Carefree Excursion” in Zhuangzi)

In these two examples, “之” can be interpreted as “此” , but it is still difficult to  determine whether they are proximal or distal demonstratives. In a sense, it seems to be more proper to interpret these two examples as “that girl” and “those two little creatures” respectively. Apart from the two categories of proximal and distal references, demonstrative pronouns can also be used to refer to others, meaning “others” or “something/ someone else” . This type of demonstrative pronouns include “他” and “異” , as illustrated in the following examples. 王顧左右而言他。 The Duke looked around and started to talk about something else. (From “King Hui of Liang II” in Mencius) 他人有心，予忖度之。 What others have in their minds, I can figure it out. (From “Clever talks” in “Minor  Odes of the Kingdom” in The Book of Songs) 吾以子爲異之問，曾由與求之問 31。 I thought you were asking others. It turns out that you asked Zhong You and Ran Qiu. (From “Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius)

Among these pronouns, some refer to people, while some refer to objects. In some cases they can serve the function of substitution, as in “顧左右而言 他” (started to talk about something else), and “他非所求” (not other things that 30

于歸 , “于” is used in the middle of a sentence, “歸” means to get married. Because of this line in the Book of Songs, “于歸” is later used to refer to marriage for women. 31 The entire sentence means, I thought you were asking others. It turns out that you asked Zhong You and Ran Qiu.

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I want); in other cases they only play the function of distinction and serve as attributives, as in “他人” (other people), “他日” (the other day) and “異時” (the other time) 32. It should be noted that these other-referring pronouns have a relatively wide and flexible range of references. For example, “他日” can refer to a day in the past, as in “他日我如此，必嘗異味” (in other days of the past, I would have tasted the meat) (“The 4th Year of Duke Xuan” in Commentary of Zuo). It can also refer to a day in the future, as in “汝他日當用之。” (It will be of use for you someday) (“Records of Pavilion Xiangji” by Gui Youguang). Similarly, the referential scope of “異時” should also be determined in the specific contexts. 

32 It should be noted that 異 in the phrases of 異鄉 (a foreign land) and 異國 (a foreign country) serves as an adjective rather than a demonstrative pronoun.

Chapter 10

Ellipsis and Word Order

10.1 Ellipsis Ellipsis is a common phenomenon in both ancient and modern Chinese. As ellipsis is more frequently used in ancient Chinese, a detailed discussion is still warranted. It should be noted, in our discussion of ellipsis, that certain components of a sentence are omitted on the condition of understanding. In other words, omission is optional. Some sentences, such as those weather-related comments, do not have subjects, so they are not cases of ellipsis, and therefore are not included in our present discussion. The main features of ellipsis in ancient Chinese will be elaborated on as follows.

10.1.1  Subject Ellipsis The subjects are sometimes omitted in conversations, as in the following examples. 食之，比門下之客。 Feed him, treating him as a guest. (From “Stratagems of Qi” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 廣令諸騎曰 :“前！” 前未到匈奴陳 (陣 )二里所 (許 )止，令曰 :“皆下馬解鞍！” Li Guang issued a command, “Forward!” The cavalry advanced. When they arrived at a place around two lis from the Huns’ frontline, he stopped and commanded, “Dismount and

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_10

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unfasten the saddles!” (From “Biography of General Li” in Records of the Grand Historian) 從之利害，兩言而決耳。今日出而言從，日中不決，何也 ? The ideas of vertical alliance can be easily explained in just a few words. Today you started to talk about it at dawn, yet failed to make a decision until midday. Why is that? (From “Biography of Lord Pingyuan” in Records of the Grand Historian) 事急矣，請奉命求救於孫將軍。 It is urgent. Please take your order to seek help from General Sun. (From “The Battle of Red Cliffs ” in History as Mirror in Aid of Governance)

In the above examples of “食之” (feed him), “前” (forward), and “皆下馬解鞍” (dismount and unfasten the saddles), the second-person pronouns “汝” or “汝辈” are omitted. As the subject is also the interlocutor, who can perfectly understand the utterance, so the subject can be omitted. In “今日出而言從” (today you started to talk about it at dawn), the omitted subject following “今” should be “君與楚王” (you and Prince Chu). The utterance was made by Mao Sui to Lord Pingyuan, who was negotiating with Prince Chu about vertical alliance. As Prince Qin was present in the conversation, it is also easy for understanding. In the example of “請奉命求 救於孫將軍” (Please take your order to seek help from General Sun), the subject could either be first-person address form “亮” (Liang) or a humble pronoun “臣” (chen), as this is what Zhuge Liang said to Liu Bei. The phrase “奉命” (take your order) means to take order from Liu Bei, and the one following the order is the speaker himself. Some elliptical meanings can be general, with the omitted subject referring to anyone. In the following examples, the word “人” (man) can serve as the subject of the sentences. 故〔　〕不登高山，不知天之高也；不臨深谿，不知地之厚也。 If [　] do not climb a high mountain, you will not comprehend the highness of the heavens; if you do not look down into a deep valley, you will not know the depth of the earth. (From “On Learning” by Xunzi) 〔　〕少壯不努力，〔　〕老大徒傷悲。 If [　] does not exert himself in youth, [　] will regret it in old age. (From “A Song in Slow Time” )

Some cases of ellipsis involve an antecedent or a succedent component, as in the following examples. 先生飲一斗而醉，〔　〕惡 1能飲一石哉 ? The Master gets drunk with a bucket of wine, how can [　] drink ten buckets? (From “Biographies of People with Eloquence” in Records of the Grand Historian) 夫子步， 〔　〕亦步；夫子趨， 〔　〕亦趨……夫子奔軼絶塵，而回瞠若乎後 2矣。

1 2

惡 , pronounced as wù, means how. 後 , to stay behind.

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When you walk, [　] also walk. When you gallop, [　] also gallop. … When you race along and spurn the dust, Hui can only stare and stay behind you. (From “Tian Zifang” in Zhuangzi) 是歲十月之望，〔　〕步自雪堂，將歸於臨皋；二客從予，過黄泥之坂。霜露既 降，木葉盡脱；人影在地，仰見明月。〔　〕顧而樂之，行歌相答。 On the fifteenth day of the tenth month of that year, [　] set out from Xuetang to return to Lingao. Two guests followed me walk by Huang Ni Ban. The frost descended, and the leaves fell off. On the ground were our shadows, and up in the sky was the bright  moon. [　] looked around and felt very joyous, walking along and reciting poems to entertain each other (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi)

In the first example above, the subject, following the antecedent of “先生” (the Master), is omitted. The omitted subject in the second example should be “回” , which is mentioned in the subsequent context (If the word “回” was changed to the first-person pronoun “予” , the two blanks could also be filled in with “予” ). In the third example, the subject “予” , referring to the succedent context, is omitted in “步自雪堂，將歸於臨皋” (set out from Xuetang to return to Lingao); while the subject in the sentence “顧而樂之，行歌相答” (looked around and felt very joyous, walking along and reciting poems to entertain each other) is omitted because it refers to an antecedent “予与客” (me and my guests). The above examples are not so different modern Chinese sentences. The following examples, however, are noteworthy. 郤子至，請伐齊，晉侯弗許； 〔郤子〕請以其私屬〔伐齊〕，〔晉侯〕又弗許。 Que Ke returned to Jin and requested to attack Qi, but Prince Jin refused. [Que Ke] then offered to send his own army to [attack Qi], [Prince Jin] refused again. (From “The  17th Year of Duke Xuan” in Commentary of Zuo) 〔邴夏〕射其右，〔右〕斃於車中。 邴夏……射其左，〔左〕越 3於車下； Bing Xia … shot the man to his left. [The left man] fell off the chariot; [Bing Xia]  shot the man to his right, [the right man] was killed in the chariot. (From “The 2nd Year of Duke Cheng” in Commentary of Zuo) 道士寂然，若無聞也。〔二子〕累問，〔道士〕不應。 The Taoist priest remained silent, as if he heard nothing. [The two men] asked several times, [the priest] still wouldn’ t answer. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu)

In each of the above examples, two different subjects are omitted. In modern  Chinese, at least one of the two omitted subjects can be replaced by a third-person pronoun “他” (he), such as in “Prince Qin refused. He then offered to send his own army….” and “The two men asked a few times, he still wouldn’ t answer” . In ancient Chinese, however, there is no proper third-person pronoun that can be used in these sentences. The alternatives are either duplicate nouns (as those in 3

越 , to fall.

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parentheses), or ellipsis. There is no such constraint for the first-person or secondperson subjects. The above example from Zhuangzi can be rewritten as “夫子步， 予亦步；夫子趨，予亦趨” (when the Master walks, I also walk, when the Master gallops, I also gallop), without ellipsis. As discussed in the last chapter, none of the third-person pronouns in ancient Chinese is equivalent to “他” “她” and “它” in modern Chinese, which results in different syntactic structures in modern and  ancient Chinese versions, including this case of ellipsis. Besides these three situations, subject ellipsis also occurs in certain contexts. In a diary which is written for one’s own, the first-person pronouns are often omitted,  as in the following excerpt from “A Trip to Shu”（《入蜀記》）by Lu You. 乾道五年十二月六日，〔余〕得報差通判夔州。〔　〕方久病，未堪遠役，謀以 夏初離鄉里。六年閏五月十八日，〔　〕晚行，夜至法雲寺。兄弟餞别，五鼓始決 去。十九日黎明， 〔　〕至柯橋館，見送客。〔　〕巳時至錢清，食亭中，涼爽如秋。 〔　〕與諸子及送客步過浮橋。…… On December 6th in that year, [I] received the letter of appointment to Kuizhou. [　] have been ill for a long time, and couldn’ t stand a strenuous journey, so I planned to set off at the beginning of summer. On May 18th in the next year, [　] traveled in the evening, and arrived at Fayun Temple at night. My brothers gave me a farewell dinner, and finally left in the early morning. On the dawn of May 19th, [　] reached Keqiao Station and met the friends who came to see me off. [　] arrived at Qianqing before midday, and had a meal in a pavilion. It was as cool as in a day in autumn. [　] walked across the floating bridge with my sons and my friend. …

The first-person subjects in ancient poems are often omitted too. As case in point, in “Returning from the Geese Lake” on the tune of “Patridge Sky” by Xin Qiji, the subjects in the second half of the poems, which is first-person, are  all omitted. In Du Fu’ s poem “On Hearing the News of Reclaiming the Lost Territories”（《聞官軍收河南河北》）, except for the first line, all the first-person subjects of “我” were omitted. The two poems are quoted as follows. 枕簟溪堂冷欲秋，斷雲依水晚來收。紅蓮相倚渾如醉，白鳥無言定自愁。 書咄咄，且休休，一丘一壑也風流。不知筋力衰多少，但覺新來懶上樓。 Lying on the bamboo mat, resting in a waterside pavilion; the air is cool as if the autumn is coming soon. The red lotus flowers are leaning on each other like tipsy girls,  the white birds staying alone in silence and sorrow. Instead of venting your anger by writing, find a place of leisure to relax. In a valley or a ravine, be free and at ease. Too  much exertion of energy, too weak and lazy to step on the stairs. (by Xin Qiji) 劍外忽傳收薊北，初聞涕淚滿衣裳。却看妻子愁何在，漫卷詩書喜欲狂。白日 放歌須縱酒，青春作伴好還鄉。即從巴峽穿巫峽，便下襄陽向洛陽。 The news came when the territory in the north of Hebe was recaptured; when the news reached my ears, my gown was wet with tears. Staring at my wife’ s face, of grief I found no trace; Rolling up my verse books, my joy like madness looks. The day is still young, yet I’ d sing and drink my fill. With verdure spring’ s aglow, it’ s time we  homeward go. We shall sail all the way through Three Gorges in a day. Going down to

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Xiangyang, we’ ll come up to Luoyang. (by Du Fu)

10.1.2  Verbal Predicate Ellipsis Verbal predicate ellipsis is not common in ancient Chinese, yet by no means rare exceptions. The predicate is omitted only when it has already appeared in the context, as shown in the following examples. 山木如市 4，弗加於山 5；魚、鹽、蜃、蛤〔　〕，弗加於海。 The woods reach the market, the price is the same as it is in the mountains; the fish,  salt, clams and shells [　], the price is the same as that by the sea. (From “The 3rd Year of Duke Zhao” in Commentary of Zuo) 楊子之鄰人亡羊，既率其黨〔　〕，又請楊子之竪子追之。 A neighbor of Yang Zi lost his sheep. He asked his men [　], and asked Yang Zi’ s son to chase it.” (From “Shuo Fu” in Liezi) 忽問 :“杭有名妓瑞雲，今如何矣 ?” 賀以“適人” 對。又問 :“〔　〕何人 ?” Suddenly he asked, “The famous girl Rui Yun in Hangzhou, how is she now?” He replied, “Married to someone” . He pressed, “[　] whom?” (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories)

In the first two examples, the elliptical components are the verbal predicates and the objects “如市” (reach the market) and “追之” (chase it). In the third example, what is omitted is the verbal predicate “適” (to marry).

10.1.3  Object Ellipsis Object ellipsis mostly follows an antecedent in the context, for example, 〔褚公〕名字已顯而位微，人多未〔　〕識。 [Zhu Gong] has a great fame but a low position, so many people can’t recognize [　]. (From “Generosity” in A New Account of Tales of the World) 爲之，則難者亦易矣；不〔　〕爲，則易者亦難矣。 Do it, then the difficult things will become easy; don’ t do [　], then the easy things will become difficult. (From “On Study” by Peng Duanshu) 和喜曰 :“天下惟真才人爲能多情，不以妍媸易念也。請從君歸，便贈〔　〕一佳人。” He said in joy, “Only a real gentleman can understand real love, and won’ t change his heart because of the changed outlook. Please take me to your home, I will give [　] a pretty girl.” (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 4 5

如市 , to reach the market. 弗加於山 , the price is the same as it is in the mountains.

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In the first two examples, the ellipsis can be replaced with the character of “之”, while “君” can be used in the third example, as they were both mentioned in the preceding context. The third example can also be interpreted as a conversational ellipsis. Yet considering the interpretation of the sentence in modern Chinese, it seems proper to regard it as ellipsis with an antecedent. Although rarely, there are still cases of object ellipsis with a succedent in ancient Chinese books, as in the following example. 6 7 我祖底遂陳 〔　〕於上 ；我 8用沉酗 9於酒，用亂敗厥德於下。 My ancestors formulated and demonstrated [　] in the prior generation; I overindulged myself in wine and corrupted morality in the following generation. (From “Wei Zi” in The Book of Documents)

The object “德” (morality) of the predicate “底遂陳” (formulated and demonstrated) is omitted, as the same object appears in the subsequent clause.

10.1.4  Pivot Word Ellipsis Unlike in modern Chinese, in which pivot words cannot be omitted, ancient Chinese sees pivot word ellipsis as a very common phenomenon, as in the following examples. 寡人有弟，不能和協，而使〔　〕糊其口於四方。 I have a younger brother, who doesn’ t get along with me. I made [　] wander around and struggle for a living. (From “The 11th Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Zuo) 武帝以〔陵〕爲有廣之風，使〔　〕將八百騎，深入匈奴二千里，過居延，視地形。 Emperor Wu thinks [Li Ling] has the same demeanor as Li Guang’ s, and made [　] command eight hundred cavalrymen. They penetrated two thousand lis behind the enemy line, passed Juyan to investigate the terrain. (From “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 餘人各復延〔漁人〕至其家。 Many of the other villagers then took turns to invite [the fisherman] to go to their  homes. (From “Peach Blossom Spring” by Tao Yuanming) ” 吏來而呼曰 :“官命〔　〕促爾耕，勖爾植，督爾獲。 The officials ordered [　] to hasten you to plow and farm, encourage you to plant and cultivate, supervise you to reap and harvest. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 6

底遂 is the same in meaning as “達成” (to achieve or complete). 陳 , to demonstrate. 上 , the prior generations. 下 in the following line means the following generations. 8 我 , Wei Zi, here it refers to King Zhou. 9 酗 , to go wild in drunk. 7

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In modern Chinese, these sentences can be translated as “I made him wander around and struggle for a living’ and “the officials ordered me to hasten you to plow and farm …” , the pronouns of “他” (him) and “我” (me) cannot be omitted.

10.1.5  Prepositional Object Ellipsis Prepositional objects are rarely omitted in modern Chinese. However, in ancient Chinese, objects of certain prepositions can be omitted. For example, 公輸盤爲楚造雲梯之械，將以〔雲梯、之〕攻宋。 Gongshu Pan is manufacturing for Chu an apparatus called “The Sky Ladder” , and with [the ladder, it] to attack Song. (From “Gongshu” in Mozi) 然吾居鄉，見長人者好煩其令，而卒以〔煩令、此〕病〔人、之〕。 But I live in the village, and see those officials enjoy ordering people about, and eventually with [the orders, this] harm [people, them]. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 即解貂覆生，爲〔生、之〕掩户。 Then took off the fur coat, covered the young man, and closed the door for [the young  man, him]. (From “Anecdotes of Zuo Guangdou” by Fang Bao) 汝客善，可與〔　〕語矣。 Your guest seems good, I can have a conversation with [　]. (From “Biography of Lord Shang” in Records of the Grand Historian) 《詩》…… 申公獨以詩經爲訓詁 10以〔　〕教〔人〕……蘭陵王臧既從〔申公〕受 11 Shen Gong only used The Book of Songs as reference, and with [　] teach [people]. Wang Zang from Lanling followed [Shen Gong] learn The Book of Songs. … (From “Records of Scholars” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

10.1.6  Ellipsis of Prepositions “ 於 ” and “ 以 ”, and so on 客聞之，請買其方〔以〕百金。 A stranger heard of it, and offered to buy this recipe [with] a hundred ounces of silver.  (From “The Carefree Excursion” in Zhuangzi) 爲治齋宫〔於〕河上。 Build a house for living and fasting [by] the river. (From “Biographies of People with Eloquence” in Records of the Grand Historian with supplement by Chu Shaosun) 復力戰〔於〕山谷間，尚四五十里，得平地，不能破，迺還。

10 11

訓詁 , explanations. 受 , to learn.

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Go and fight [in] the valleys, there are around forty or fifty lis to reach the plain. If we still can’ t beat him, we will retreat. (From “Biographies of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 及代趙綰亦嘗受《詩》〔於〕申公。 Zhao Wan also learned The Book of Songs [from] Shen Gong. (From “Records of Scholars” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 陳涉起〔自〕匹夫。 Chen She rose [from] the ordinary men. (From “Biographies of Scholars” in Records of the Grand Historian)

As a matter of fact, many of the aforementioned examples of nouns used as adverbial modifiers, such as “目成” (conveying feelings with eyes), “皆劍斬之” (killed them all with a sword) and “布囊其口” (gagged the mouth with cloth), can also be interpreted as elliptical sentences, that is, the preposition “以” (with) before the nouns was omitted, as in “以目成” “以劍斬” and “以布囊” .

10.1.7  Ellipsis of the Character “曰 ” In recording both monologues and dialogues in ancient Chinese literature, examples of the elliptical “曰” abound. As “曰” serves as the predicate verb in the entire sentence, such a special usage deserves some discussion. While modern Chinese writings adopt quotation marks to distinguish the quoted remarks, ancient Chinese requires a more careful reading to find the omitted “曰” and to identify the speaker of the remarks. The “曰” ellipsis in conversations are exemplified as follows. ”〔子曰〕:“居 12，吾語女……” 子曰 :“由也，女 (汝 )聞六言六蔽矣乎 ?” 對曰 :“未也。 The Master said, “Zilu, have you learned the six virtues and six evils?” The reply was “No.” [The Master said,] “Be seated, I will tell you …” (From ” Yang Huo” in The Analects of Confucius) 孟子曰 :“許子必種粟而後食乎 ?”〔陳相〕曰 :“然。”〔孟子曰〕:“許子必織布而後 衣乎 ?”〔陳相〕曰 :“否，許子衣褐。”〔孟子曰〕:“許子冠乎 ?”〔陳相〕曰 :“冠。” …… Mencius said, “I suppose that Xu Xin must first sow the grains, then eats the produce.  Is it not so?” [Chen Xiang] said, “It is so.” [Mencius said] “I suppose that Xu Xin must first weave cloth, then wears the dress. Is not so?” [Chen Xiang] said, “No, Xu Xin wears haircloth.” [Mencius said,] “Does Xu Xin wear a hat?” [Chen Xiang] said, “He wears a hat” … (From “Teng Wen Gong I ” in Mencius) The “曰” ellipsis in monologues is exemplified as follows. 秦伯素服郊次 13，鄉 (向 )師而哭，曰 :“孤違蹇叔，以辱二三子 14，孤之罪也。” 不 12

居 , to get seated. 郊次 , to go to the city outskirt. 14 辱二三子 , to humiliate a few people, that is, to be arrested and kept in custody by State of Jin. 13

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替 15孟明； 〔曰〕:“孤之過也，大夫何罪；且吾不以一眚 16掩大德。 Lord Qin wore white clothes and went to the city outskirt, tearfully greeting the army, and said, “I didn’ t take Jian Shu’ s advice, and brought humiliation to some of you. It is my fault.’’ Meng Ming was not removed from the post. [said,] “It is my fault. What fault do you three have? And I will not disregard your great virtue due to a minor mistake.” (From “The 33rd Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo)

The previous two examples are plain to see. The last example is contextualized in such a scene: Lord Qin did not follow Qian Shu’ s advice, and appointed three generals, including Meng Ming, to lead the army to attack Zheng. They didn’ t succeed, and on their way back home, Meng Ming and several others were detained midway by Jin. After Qin paid the ransom, Meng Ming and others were sent back. Lord Qin went to the outskirt to meet them, and the scene was described in the above example. The text combined the recordings of both events and remarks. “不 替孟明” (Meng Ming was not removed from the post) is an event, while “孤之過 也，大夫何罪；且吾不以一眚掩大德” (It is my fault. What fault do you three have? And I will not disregard your great virtue due to a minor mistake) is a remark. The juxtaposition indicates the event (Meng Ming was not removed from the post) and the reasons given for the event happened at the same time. Without either punctuations or the character “曰” , the text can be difficult to understand.

10.1.8  Attributive Ellipsis See the following examples. 陵到浚稽山，與單于相直 (值 )，〔單于〕騎可三萬圍陵軍。 Ling arrived at Junji Mountain, and confronted the chief of the Huns. [The chief’ s] thirty-thousand cavalrymen enclosed Ling’ s army. (From “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 媪斥去〔瑞雲〕妝飾，使與婢輩伍。 The hostess took [Rui Yun’ s] cosmetics and ornaments, and make her work with the handmaids. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories)

So far we have discussed ellipsis of different sentence components. There are  two important conditions for ellipsis: either it occurs in conversations, or there is an antecedent or succedent in the context. Take the sentence “官命〔　〕促 爾耕……” (the officials ordered [　] to hasten you to plow and farm….) as an example, the pivot word “我” (me) is omitted in a conversation. The most common type of ellipsis is those with an antecedent or succedent in context. Depending 15 16

替 , to remove from the post. 眚 (shěng)，a minor mistake or a slight fault.

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on the contextual clues, subjects, predicates, objects, prepositional objects and attributives can all be omitted. Relatively speaking, ellipsis with an antecedent is more important. Ellipsis of sentence components belongs to the category of grammatical ellipsis. In ancient Chinese literature, there are cases of ellipsis of not only a few components in a sentence, but an entire clause, or even bigger units. This is probably due to the imperfect discourse organization in hasty speech, or failure of completing the expression under certain physical circumstances. In order to faithfully record the authentic speech, no supplements are added into the written texts. Such ellipsis, however, can vividly convey the tones and attitudes of the speakers, therefore is also rhetorical in nature, as shown in the following example: 上 17既聞廉頗、李牧爲人，良説 (悦 )，而搏髀 18曰 :“嗟乎！吾獨不得廉頗、李牧 爲吾將； 〔吾若得廉頗、李牧爲吾將，〕吾豈憂匈奴哉！ The emperor heard about the honorable characters of Lian Po and Li Mu, and felt very pleased. Slapping on his thighs, he said, ‘Alas! Why can’ t I have Lian Po and Li Mu as my generals; [If I had them as my generals,] how would I ever need to worry about the Huns! (From “Biographies of Zhang Shizhi and Feng Tang” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In the above excerpt, Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty felt very excited about Lian Po and Li Mu’ s mastery in commanding, so much so that his utterances became incoherent. If the clause in parentheses had been added for clarity, the excited emotion could not have been be effectively conveyed. Here is another example: 吾君老矣，子少 19，國家多難。伯氏不出而圖吾君 20， 〔　〕；伯氏苟 21出而圖吾君， 申生受賜而死。 Our king is of old age and few sons, and the state is in distress. If my master won’ t step out and assist the king, [　]; If my master would step out and assist the king, Shen Sheng will die in gratitude. (From “Tan Gong I ” in The Book of Rites)

These remarks were made by Prince of Jin, Shen Sheng, to his master “伯氏” , which refers to Hu Tu, when he had to commit suicide due to the scandalous talk of the concubine of his father, Li Ji. What he meant is, the king was old and had few sons, while the state was in distress and in need of help. Therefore, before his death, Shen Sheng entrusted the task of assisting the King to Hu Tu. The following two hypothetical complex sentences mean: “if you wouldn’ t step out and assist the king, something would happen; if you would assist the king, I will feel grateful 17

上 , it refers to the Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty here. 搏髀 , to slap on one’s thighs. 19 子 refers to Xi Qi, the son of Duke Xian by Lady Li Ji of the State of Jin, a half-brother of Shen Sheng. 20 圖 , to make plans. 圖吾君 , to assist Duke Xian. 21 苟 has the same meaning as “誠” in ancient Chinese, meaning “if”. 18

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and die in relief” . The main clause in the first hypothetical complex sentence is  omitted. The reason for the omission, perhaps, is the mixed feelings of Shen Sheng at that moment. The omitted clause could be either “our state will be in peril” or “I will die without a peaceful mind” . As Shen Sheng could not bear to say such words, he would have had left them unsaid. A case of ellipsis as such is quite suitable for the description of his reluctance to die and his deep concern for his father and the state. For another example: 將軍威振匈奴，天命不遂， 〔　〕，後求道徑還歸。如浞野侯爲虜所得，後亡還， 天子客遇之 22；況於將軍乎！ My general overawed the Huns. If the odds are not in our favor, [　], then find a byway to return. Zhao Ponu once was captured. After he escaped and returned home, the king was still lenient to him. Not to mention my general! (From ” Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

In his work Annotations to History of the Han Dynasty, Wang Xianqian interpreted the sentence “後求道徑還歸 23” (then find a byway to return) as “persuaded Ling to surrender to the Huns, and then seek a byway to return to Han.” Immediately following the sentence “天命不遂” (if the odds are not in our favor) should be utterances like “if there is no other way out” or “you’ d better surrender for now” . Improper as these remarks might sound, they were neither comfortable to hear nor respectable to say, and had to be expressed rather vaguely. The writer then transcribed these remarks word-by-word into the text we are now reading. In the above examples, what are omitted is rather vague and inexplicit, yet with quite an expressive force. It is therefore regarded as rhetorical ellipsis. Finally, we should briefly discuss the phenomenon “hastened speech” , which refers to a speech made in a hurry, with one or two words omitted. Most commonly, “如” actually means “不如” , and “敢” means “不敢” . 若愛 24重傷，則〔不〕如勿傷；愛其二毛 25，則〔不〕如服焉。 If you take pity on the wounded enemies, it’ s better [not] to hurt them; if you take pity on the old and frail, it’ s better [not] to conquer them. (From “The 32nd Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo) 小白余〔不〕敢貪天子之命，無下拜。 I dare [not] to follow the king’ s order not to step down and bow. (From “The 9th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo)

The first example means, when fighting the enemies, take no pity on the

22

客遇 is sometimes written as 容遇 in another version. Wang Niansun argued for the writing of “客 遇”, which means lenient and tolerant treatment. 23 道徑 in this line should be a compound word, rather than being separated into“道”as a noun and“徑” as an adverb, as proposed by Wang. Its meaning is “a secluded pathway”. 24 愛 , to take pity. 25 二毛 means the hair in a mixed color of black and gray.

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wounded, and show no sympathy for the old and frail. If you take pity, you should rather not to hurt them or conquer them in the first place. The two words of “如” here actually means “不如” . For another example: 鄙夫……其未得之也，患〔不〕得之；既得之，患失之。 The shallow-minded… when he hasn’ t acquired the position, he worries about [not] having it; when he has acquired it, he worries about losing it. (From “Yang Huo” in The Analects of Confucius)

In his work Annotation to The Analects of Confucius, He Yan explained this sentence with a note, “患得之，患不能得之。楚俗言” (‘to worry about having’ means ‘to worry about not having’ in the vernacular of Chu). On Being Sons in Xunzi has a similar example,“孔子曰 :‘……小人者，其未得也，則憂不 得，既已得之，又恐失之’” (The Master said, ‘… the petty person, when he hasn’ t obtained it, worries about not having it; when he has obtained it, he then worries about losing it.’ ” ) The meaning of this sentence is the same as that in The Analects of Confucius, indicating this is indeed a case of hastened speech, and “得” in fact means “不得” . A further example is given below. 母弟稱弟，母兄稱兄。 The younger brother of mother is my younger brother, the elder brother of mother is my elder brother. (From “The 7th Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Gongyang)

In He Xiu’ s notes, “母弟，同母弟；母兄，同母兄” (the younger brother of mother, equals my younger brother of the same mother; the elder brother of mother, means my elder brother of the same mother). In other words, it refers to the brothers of the same mother, rather than the mother’ s brothers (uncles), as it is also a case of hastened speech. Although hastened speech is different from ellipsis  of sentence components, the two still have certain similarities, with which the readers of ancient Chinese literatures should acquaint.

10.2 Word Order Word order refers to the arrangement of different components in a sentence. Ancient Chinese and modern Chinese have basically the same word order. For example, the subject precedes the predicate; the object follows the predicate (also known as “wei ci” in Wang Li’ s early works on Chinese grammar) or the preposition; the attributive precedes its central word. However, there still remain certain differences or changes, which deserves some explanation here.

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10.2.1  The Predicate Preceding the Subject In ancient Chinese, the predicate in an exclamatory sentence is often located before the subject. Although there are some cases with the predicate following the subject in ancient Chinese, the preceding predicate is much more common, as in the following examples. 子玉無禮哉！ Zi Yu is impertinent! (From “The 28th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo) 使君一何愚！ Sir, how foolish you are! (From “The Mulberries” , an ancient yuefu song) 賢哉，回也！ How virtuous Hui is! (From “Yong Ye” in The Analects of Confucius) 野哉，由也！ How confused You is! (From “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius) 快哉，此風！ How bracing the wind is! (From “Song of the Wind” by Song Yu) 甚矣，汝之不惠 (慧 ) ！ So much that you’ re not clever! (From “The Questions of Tang” in Liezi) 宜乎，百姓之謂我愛 26也！ So proper that my people think I am stingy! (From “King Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius)

In the above examples, the underlined components all serve as the predicates of the sentences. In the first two examples, the predicates are both located behind the  subjects. The phrase “一何” (how) in the second example modifies the word “愚” (foolish), which is similar to “多么” (how) in modern Chinese. In the remaining five examples, all the predicates precede the subjects. In particular, the subjects of  the third and fourth examples are nouns, that of the fifth example is an endocentric  phrase, and those of the last two examples are subject-predicate endocentric phrases. In most cases, an exclamatory sentence contains a central word, such as “無禮” (impertinent), “愚” (foolish), and “賢” (virtuous), which serve as the focus of the exclamation. In modern Chinese, if the focus requires to be highlighted, occasionally, the predicate can also be put at the front. A more common practice is to use such words as “多么” “何等” “好” or “好不” to modify the central word or central phrase. Similarly in ancient Chinese, “何” “何其” and “一何” can also be used to highlight the exclamatory focus, yet in most cases predicateraising is used instead. When the sentence involves neither predicate-raising nor focus modifier, as in the case of “子玉無禮哉” (Zi Yu is impertinent!) above, the exclamatory force is obviously weaker than the sentences such as “野哉，由也！” (How confused is You!). Besides, some pronouns can serve as predicates to indicate interrogative or speculative meanings. In order to highlight the person or object in question with 26

愛 , being stingy.

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an emphatic tone, the predicate can also be put at the front of the subjects. The examples are as follows. 何哉，爾所謂達者 ? What is it, you are talking about the lucid mind? (From “Yan Yuan” in The Analects of Confucius) 子邪 (耶 )，言伐莒者 ? You, who says I will attack Ju? (From “Zhong Yan” in The Annals of Lü Buwei)

These two sentences, respectively, means “What do you mean by the lucid mind?” and “Is that you who says I will attack Ju?” Both “何” (what) and “子” (you) are predicates raised ahead of the subjects.

10.2.2  Position of the Object (1) If a pronoun serves as the object in an interrogative or a negative sentence, the object is usually located prior to the verb or the preposition. For example, 内省不疚 27，夫何憂何懼 ? With no guilt in introspection, what to worry and what to fear? (From “Yan Yuan” in The Analects of Confucius) 吹參差 28兮誰思 ? Playing the bamboo flute, whom to miss? (From “Xiang Jun” in “Nine Songs” in The Verse of Chu) 許子奚爲不自織 ? What for does not Xu weave by himself? (From “Teng Wen Gong I ” in Mencius) 美人贈我錦綉段，何以報之青玉案。 The beauty sent brocade as a gift, for which I sent her a jade plate in return. (From “Four Sad Poems” by Zhang Heng) ” 如或知爾，則何以哉 ? 居則曰 :“不吾知也。 You always say, “No one understands me.” If someone does understand you, then what will you do? (From “Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius) 吾問狂屈，狂屈中欲告我而不我告。 I asked Kuang Qu. Kuang Qu meant to tell me, but he did not tell me. (From “Rambling in the North” in Zhuangzi) 以無忌從之游，尚恐其不我欲也。 If a person like me tries to socialize with them, I’ m afraid they wouldn’ t accept me. (From “Biography of Prince Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 他植者則不然……雖曰愛之，其實害之；雖曰憂之，其實讎之；故不我若也。 Other  foresters  are  different,  …  Although  they  say  they  love  the  trees,  actually  27 28

疚，feeling guilty and regretful. 參差 , the instrument of bamboo flute. 

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they hurt them; Although they say they care for the trees, actually they hate them. That’ s why they are not as good as me. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan)

In the four interrogative sentences, “何憂何懼” means “what to worry and what to fear” ; “誰思” means “whom to miss” rather than “who misses” ; “奚爲” means “for what, why” , and “何以” means “with what” . Among these four sentences, the first two involve the objects located in front of the verbs, and the latter two involve  the objects located prior to the preposition. Other examples above are all negative sentences, with the objects located prior to the verbs. It is interesting to note the contrast between “不我知” (not understand me) and “知爾” (understand you), and between “告我” (tell me) and “不我告” (not tell me). While “知爾” and “告 我” are both positive statements, with “爾” and “我” following the verbs; “不我 知” and “不我告” are negative statements, with the pronoun “我” located in front of the verb. There are some cases of objects located after the verb, but it is by no means a common phenomenon. (2) The object is placed in front of the verb or the preposition, with the pronoun of “是” or “之” inserted in-between. Sometimes an adverb of “惟” or “唯” is also used in front the object. For example, 吾以子爲異之問，曾由與求之問。 I thought about others that you are asking, you are actually asking about You and Qiu. (From “Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius) 虢多涼 29德，其何土之能得 ? Guo lacks virtues. What land can it get? (From “The 32nd Year of Duke Zhuang” in Commentary of Zuo) 惟刑之恤 30哉！ The execution of punishment should be prudent! (From “In Honor of Shun” in The Book of Documents) 非夫人 31之爲慟而誰爲 ? If not for that man, who else do I feel grief-stricken? (From “Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius) 率師以來，唯敵是求。 I lead my army here, only the enemy do I seek to confront. (From “The 12th Year of Duke Xuan” in Commentary of Zuo) 唯吾子戎車 32是利。 Only concerned for your chariots’ interest. (From “The 2nd Year of Duke Cheng” in Commentary of Zuo) 公曰 :“何謂六物 ?” 對曰 :“歲、時、日、月、星、辰是謂也。 29

涼 , being weak or thin. 恤 , being prudent. 31 夫人 , that man. 32 戎車 , battle chariots. 30

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The Duke asked, “What are the six things?” The reply was, “year, hour, sun, moon, star and time are these.” (From “The 7th Year of Duke Zhao” in Commentary of Zuo)

“非夫人之爲慟而誰爲 ?” means “If I am not feeling grief-stricken for that man, who else will it be?” It is an example of placing the object in front of the preposition. The other examples all involve placing the objects ahead of the verbs. “歲、時、日、月、星、辰是謂也” (Year, hour, sun, moon, star and time are these) means “[the six things] are year, hour, sun, moon, star and time.” The purpose of object fronting is usually to emphasize that object. In addition to object-fronting, the character “唯” in front of the object can give it an extra emphatic effect. Similar expressions like “唯你是問” (only for you to take the responsibility) can still be found in modern Chinese, with a very earnest and pressing tone. The word “之” between the preposed object and the verb or adjective is usually regarded as a structural particle required in object-fronting. Considering the similar structure of the sentences “惟刑之恤” (the execution of punishment should be prudent) and “唯敵是求” (only the enemy do I seek), we think the word “之” and “是” serves the same function. Originally they are both demonstrative pronouns, meaning “这种人” (this man), “这事情” (this thing) and “这东西” (this object). In this sense, “惟刑之恤” (the execution of punishment should be prudent) carries an implication that “only this thing of the execution of punishment should be prudent” , while “非夫人之爲慟……” (not for that man, who else do I feel sorry for) implies “I don’ t feel sorry for such people as Yan Yuan….” Even if we regard “之” as a particle in such a construction, such a function must have evolved from its being a demonstrative pronoun. (3) Position of attributives One common feature in modern and ancient Chinese is that the attributives are usually located in front of the central words. But there is a special construction in ancient Chinese, in which the attributive is moved behind the central word, with a character “者” attached. Sometimes “之” is also used to connect the central word and its postpose attributive. 請益 33其車騎壯士可爲足下輔翼者。 Please allow me to send some more horsemen and warriors that can serve as your assistants. (From “Biographies of Assassins” in Records of the Grand Historian) 親昆弟在真定者，已遣人存問 34。 Your own brother who lives in Zhending, I have sent someone to convey my regards to him. (From “Records of South Yue” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 馬之千里者，一食或盡粟一石。

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益 , to increase. 存問 , to send regards to someone.

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For a horse which can run a thousand lis, it sometimes eats as much as ten buckets for a meal. (From “On Various Topics” by Han Yu) 其石之突怒偃蹇 35，負土而出，争爲奇狀者，殆不可數。 The stones that are protruding, towering, ground-breaking, posing in peculiar forms, are too many to count. (From “A Hill to the West of Gumu Pond” by Liu Zongyuan)

These sentences could be rewritten as “horsemen and warriors who can serve as your assistants” “[your] own brother living in Zhending” “thousand-lirunning horse” , and “the protruding, towering, ground-breaking, and posingin-special-form stones” . Such a construction consists of a postpose attributive and an attached “者” , indicating that the central words form a cluster, while the construction specifically refers to an individual or a group of person/object. This is  a special construction with marked specificity in reference, which can emphasize  the characteristics of the object. Compare “千里馬” (thousand-li-running horse) and “馬之千里者” (a horse which can run a thousand lis): although the attributive “千里” (a thousand lis) remains the same, the preceding attributive is less emphatic than the postpose one. To achieve the foregrounding effect, predicates  and objects are preposed, while attributives are postposed. In both cases, the conventional word order is violated for the sake of certain expressive force. Moreover, if the attributive is rather lengthy, the central words will only be located until the end of the sentence, which is also defective in expression. The postpose attributive in ancient Chinese may be probably designed to serve as a remedy for such a problem, as clearly illustrated in the example by Liu Zongyuan. (4) Adverbial modifiers and complements In modern Chinese grammar, if a sentence component precedes a verb or an adjective, and its function is to modify or to constrain that verb or adjective, it is called an adverbial modifier. If a component follows a verb or an adjective, and  its function is to complement the expressiveness of the verb or adjunct, it is called complement. Some grammarians, however, make no distinction between these two, and prefer a collective term “adjunct” . The specific positions of these two types of adjuncts are not entirely the same in ancient and modern Chinese. In some circumstances, a prepositional structure serves as an adjunct, indicating the location or aspect. In modern Chinese, such an adjunct is usually located in front of the verb or adjective it modifies (except for the prepositional structure about tendency), whereas in ancient Chinese, such an adjunct is often located behind. For example, 師次於郎 36。 The army was stationed at Lang. (From “The 8th Year of Duke Zhuang” in The

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偃蹇 , the look of arrogance. 郎 , the name of a place.

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Spring and Autumn Annals) 秦發兵擊之，大破楚師於丹淅。 Qin sent troops to attack it, and defeated Chu’ s army in Danxi. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian) 蘇子與客泛舟游於赤壁之下。 Su and his guests took a boat trip under the Red Cliff. (From “The First Visit to the  Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) 有憑虚公子者……學於舊史氏。 A master of so-and-so … learned from the master of ancient history. (From “Song of the Western Capital Chang’ an” by Zhang Heng) 儒家者流，蓋出於司徒之官。 The Confucian school might have derived from the office of Si Tu. (From “Records  of Literatures” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 是歲十月之望，步自雪堂，將歸於臨皋。 On the fifteenth day of the tenth month of that year, I set out from Xuetang and am ready to return to Lingao Pavilion. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by  Su Shi) 〔屈原〕明於治亂，嫻於辭令。 [Qu Yuan] is quite knowledgeable about governance and crisis, and quite good at the language of diplomacy. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian) 樂令善於清言，而不長於手筆。 Yue Ling is good at conversation, but not good at writing. (From “Literature” in A New Account of Tales of the World)

Only the first sentence, “the army was stationed at Lang” , is the same in both  ancient and modern Chinese. The last two examples, however, can only follow the ancient Chinese word order. The last sentence can be re-written as “in the aspect of conversation, he is very good; yet in the aspect of writing, he is not very competent” . The other examples can only be interpreted as “go under the Red Cliff for a tour” “go to the masters of ancient history to learn” “develop from the office of Si Tu” , and “from Xuetang to start off, and return to Lingao” . These  prepositional structures in modern Chinese, serving as adverbial modifiers, are all placed prior to the verbs or the adjectives that they modify. In contrast, in the corresponding sentences in ancient Chinese, except those with “自” and “从” , all the prepositional structures are postpose ones37. In the works in the Pre-Qin Period, it is very rare to place a prepositional structure which serves as an adjunct 37

Examples of prepositional structures with “自” in front of the verbs: “自南宫遷入西内” (From the South Palace, moved to the west of the Palace), and “適有道士自蜀來” (A Taoist priest coming from Shu) (both are from “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong). The character “從” can be used in the front, as in “新人從門入，古人從閤去” (the new bride from the front gate entered, and the old wife from the side door left) in Collecting Chinese Angelica on the Hill. The character “從” may also remains postpose, as in “天馬徠 (來)，從西極” (the heavenly horse comes, from the far west) in “Song of the Grand Sacrifice in the Han Dynasty”.

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of location prior to its central words. Such a construction gradually became more frequent after the period of Six Dynasties, as in the sentences of “庚戌歲九月中於 西田獲早稻” (In the ninth month of the Year of Gengxu, in the western cropland, I reaped the early rice) and “於王撫軍座送客” (at Wang Hong’ s banquet, seeing off the friends) by Tao Qian. But these were mostly used in colloquial expressions,  and were only rare exceptions in the written text of ancient Chinese. In some other circumstances, in ancient Chinese, a prepositional structure with “以” to indicate tools and means can be placed either in front of or behind the verb. Similar adjuncts in modern Chinese, usually expressed as “拿……” “用……” or “按照……” , can only be placed in front of the verb. As “以” construction has been discussed in the chapter of “Sentences” , it is not necessary for us to go for the details here. So far, we have discussed the similarities and differences in word order between  ancient and modern Chinese. It should be noted that both the fronting of predicate and object and the postposing of attributive behind its central words contribute to the highlighting or foregrounding effects, hence more or less rhetorical in nature.  At the same time, such expressions still follow certain constructive rules, which are basically grammatical issues. Literary works also abound with examples of temporary rearrangements of the word order for expressive purposes, which are purely rhetorical and will be discussed later.

Chapter 11

Declarative, Exclamatory, Interrogative and Imperative Sentences

According to the purpose or mood of expression, sentences can be divided into four types: declarative (or statement), exclamatory, interrogative and imperative. A declarative sentence makes a statement, describes a feature or property, and narrates an action or a change, without significant emotional expressions. An exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotions, and is mostly used to describe characteristics and actions. An interrogative sentence asks a question. An imperative sentence usually gives a request, command, persuasion or prohibition, which is always related to actions and behaviors. Generally speaking, the realization of the four moods requires, first of all, specific modal particles. Secondly, it may also require modal adverbs. The third alternative is syntactic variation, or the use of interrogative pronouns and causative verbs.

11.1 Declarative Sentences Declarative sentences neither make exclamations, nor raise questions, nor give commands. Instead, the declarative mood is relatively objective and neutral, which requires less expressive means. In most cases, declarative sentences contain only a few modal adverbs, and sometimes even the modal particles are not necessary. Please see the following examples. 高祖，沛豐邑中陽里人。

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_11

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Emperor Gaozu was from Zhongyang Village in Fengyi Prefecture, Pei County. (From “Biography of Emperor Gaozu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 元豐七年六月丁丑，余自齊安舟行，適臨汝。 On the ninth day of the sixth month in the seventh year of Yuanfeng, I left Qi’ an for Linru on a boat trip. (From “A Trip to Shizhong Mountain” by Su Shi) 三五之夜，明月半墻，桂影斑駁，風移影動，珊珊可愛。 On the night of the fifteenth day of the month, the bright moonlight fell on the wall.  The fragmentary shadows of fragrans trees were fluttering in the breeze, which were very enjoyable. (From “Records of Pavilion Xiangji” by Gui Youguang)

There is no need to discuss the case of declarative sentences without modal particles. What deserves some explanation here is the usage of a few declarative modal particles, such as “也” “矣” “耳” “爾” “而” “已” and “焉” . The word “也” is used for explanatory and affirmative purposes. A judgment is  also mostly ended with “也” . For example, 魏公子無忌者，魏昭王少子，而魏安釐 1王異母弟也。 Prince Wei, who is named Wuji, is the young son of King Zhao of Wei, and the younger brother of King Anxi of Wei of different mothers. (From “Biography of Prince  Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 夷門者，城之東門也。 The Gate of Yi is the east gate of the city. (As above)

In the above sentences,“也” is used to explain what the subject is and what it is like. A further example is as follows. 井蛙不可以語於海者，拘於虚 2也；夏蟲不可以語於冰者，篤 3於時也；曲士 4不 可以語於道者，束於教 5也。 You cannot speak of ocean to a frog in the well, which is limited by its abode. You cannot speak of ice to a summer insect, which is limited by its short life. You cannot speak of Tao to a village schoolmaster, as he is poorly knowledgeable and narrowminded. (From “Autumn Floods” in Zhuangzi)

There are three cases “也” used at the end of the clauses, which help to explain the reason for the narrow-mindedness of a frog in the well, a summer insect and a pedagogue. In the above three examples, the word “者” serves as a reminder, and “也” expresses the explanatory mood. However, the word “者” can be omitted in the first two examples, while in the last sentence, its presence, though not obligatory, seems to be preferable (in comparison with the example from “King 1

釐 is pronounced as /xī/ 虚 , the original script of “墟”, meaning residence. 3 篤 , to be rigidly confined.  4 曲士 , a shallow-minded person. 5 教 , the outdated teachings. 2

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Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius below). If “也” is deleted and “者” remains in the above examples, the coherence and fluency will be impaired, especially for the last example, which may sound incomplete. Therefore, the particle of “也” does serve certain explanatory, affirmative or even emphatic functions. While some declarative sentences have no modal particles, it does not mean they are optional and dispensable. What’ s more, in a judgement sentence like the first two, the modal particle “也” can be omitted. But for an explanatory sentence like the third one, the character is necessary to convey the explanatory mood. The word “也” can also be used for emphasis and affirmation, or for the effective promotion of others’ understanding of the meaning conveyed in the sentence. Such a usage is often seen in some argumentative sentences as follows. 故王之不王，非挾太山以超北海之類也；王之不王，是折枝之類也 6。 Therefore, the king is not exercising the royal sway, is not such a case as that of taking the Tai mountain under his arm, and leaping over the north sea with it. The King is not exercising the royal sway is a case like that of give a foot massage for the elders. (From “King Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius) 趙王田獵耳，非爲寇也。 King of Zhao is going hunting, not invading. (From “Biography of Prince Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 今者項莊拔劍舞，其意常在沛公也。 Now Xiang Zhuang performs a swordplay, and his real target is Liu Bang. (From “Biography of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian)

The first two examples here both contain a pair of contrastive sentences to highlight what it is and what it is not, with very explicit and affirmatory intention.  The example, though containing only the positive explanation, still implies the other side of the story: Xiang Zhuang performs the swordplay for NO other purposes, hence Liu Bang is indeed in a dire situation. The word of “也” here indicates a deep impression and a strong conviction, therefore it also contributes to the persuasive or promotive effect.  The word “矣” , as a declarative modal particle, “is a dynamic particle, indicating a past or future event which has been through some changes” [Function Words in Ancient Chinese(《文言虛字》) by Lü Shuxiang]. In other words, “矣” implies certain changes of the event, which originally was not so but turns out different later, or is not so now but will become different in the future. It is largely  equivalent to “了” in modern Chinese. The examples are as follows.

6

不王 , not exercising the royal sway, means he could not become a virtuous monarch with the popular support. 太山 is the same as 泰山 . 超 , to leap over. As Mencius was talking to Duke Xuan of Qi, he was using the local objects for metaphors. 折枝 , to give a foot massage for the elders. While it is easy to give a foot massage for the elders, to tell others that one is incapable of doing this, in reality, means he is reluctant to do so. 是折枝之類也 , it is the same as giving a foot massage for the elders.

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其子趨而往視之，苗則槁矣。 His son went to see the crops in a hurry, only to find the seedlings already withered.  (From “Gong Sun Chou I ” in Mencius) 庭有枇杷樹，吾妻死之年所手植也，今已亭亭如蓋矣。 There is a loquat tree in the yard, which was planted by my wife in the year of her decease. Now it is standing straight and its branches are thick, like an umbrella. (From “Records of Pavilion Xiangji” by Gui Youguang) 今智伯帥二國之君伐趙，趙將亡矣； 〔趙亡〕，則二君 7爲之次矣。 Zhi Bo is now leading two kings to attack Zhao, and Zhao will perish. [If Zhao perishes], the two kings will follow suit. (From “Stratagems of Zhao” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 吾語亦不當聞也，吾閉口矣。 My words are not for you to listen to, so I now stop talking. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu)

The character “矣” in the first two sentences indicates a change that has already  happened, while “矣” in the last two sentences indicates a change that will happen in future. Both “也” and “矣” are used in the second and fourth sentences, with “也” indicating something affirmative or originally so., The meaning in modern  Chinese could be “it is my wife, on the year of her decease, who planted the tree” , and “my words are not supposed to be heard by you either”. After all, the word “的” in modern Chinese always has the affirmative meaning of “it is just so” , therefore,  Lü Shuxiang proposed that the word “也” is a static particle, indicating something that is always so.” Contrasting “也” as a static particle with “矣” as a dynamic particle, the distinction in-between can be clearly illustrated. Another character of “已” has a similar usage as “矣” . As “矣” belongs to the phonological category of “矢” , and to the sound of “已”，these two words are probably two different written forms of the same particle. The examples are  as follows. 既然已，勿動勿慮，去不復顧。 After that is done, don’ t move it or worry about it, just leave it without looking back. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 夫韓亡之後，兵出之日，非魏無攻已。 After Han perished, when Qin wants to wage a war, it will have no other target than Wei. (From “The Biography of Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian)

The first sentence means “after this has been done (i.e., to earth up for the roots  to stretch, and to press tight with the earth for seedling), then…” to indicate the change that has already happened. The second sentence, “when the troops of Qin is dispatched, they will definitely come to attack Wei” , explains a change that is  bound to happen in future. 7

二君 , the kings of the states of Han and Zhao respectively.

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The declarative particles of “耳” “爾” and “而已” have limiting and diminutive indications, meaning “nothing more than this” “that’ s all” and “nothing else” . “耳” and “爾” are almost interchangeable, but “爾” contains a touch of subtlety. In contrast, “而已” renders a more explicit tone. The examples are as follows. 小人之學也 8，入乎耳，出乎口 9，口耳之間，則四寸耳，曷足以美七尺之軀哉！ When a shallow-minded person learns, what he hears gets into his ears and gets out from his mouth. There is no more than four cuns from the ears to the mouth. How can learning this way burnish the image of a person of the height of seven chis? (From “On Learning” in Xunzi) 白起，小竪子耳，率數萬之衆，興師以與楚戰，一戰而舉鄢郢 10，再戰而燒夷陵， 三戰而辱王之先人。此百世之怨，而趙之所羞，而王弗知惡焉。 Bai Qi is merely a youngster. He led troops in dozens of thousands to fight Chu. In the first battle, he took their capital of Yangying. In the second battle, he burned down the mausoleum of Yiling. In the third battle, he insulted your own ancestors. This is a hundred-year-long hatred. That is a humiliation even to Zhao. But the king is not aware of it. (From “Biographies of Zhao Sheng and Yu Qing” in Records of the Grand Historian) 不崇朝 11而遍雨乎天下者，唯泰山爾。 The only one that can bring rainfall to the whole world before midday is Mount Tai. (From “The 31st Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Gongyang) 多見士大夫……得一階半級，便自爲足，全忘修學。及有吉兇大事，議論得失， 蒙然張口，如坐雲霧；公私宴集，談古賦詩，塞默 12低頭，欠伸 13而已。 The scholar-bureaucrats, … once acquired a post and title, feeling quite self-content, they forget to keep learning. In case of good things and misfortunes, where benefits and  losses are discussed, their minds become muddled and their tongues held. In public or private banquets, where classics and literature are appreciated and shared, they become silent and sleepy, drooping and yawning. (From “On Learning” in Family Instructions for the Yan)

The character “爾” may also appear after “焉” to indicate a restrictive meaning. For an example, in “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan, the sentence “橐駝非能使木壽且孳也，能順木之性以致其天焉爾” (I cannot make a tree live longer and grow faster. I just follow the nature of the tree, and let it be) can be interpreted as “to follow the nature of the tree and let it grow, and that’ s all” . Here “焉” is a modal particle with an affirmative meaning. 8

也 in this sentence is a modal particle indicating a pause, which is different from the ones used at  the end of declarative statements. 9 入乎耳，出乎口 , it means the shallow-minded person merely talks about what he has heard from others without actual understanding. 10 舉 , to conquer. 鄢郢 is the capital of the State of Chu. 11 崇朝 is the same as 終朝 . This sentence discusses the clouds and rainfall in Mount Tai. 12 塞默 , being silent and speechless. 13 欠伸 , to yawn.

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“焉” is an affirmative modal particle, but its nature and function can be difficult to fully explain here. What can be said is that its usage is different from  “也” , which is another affirmative modal particle. While “焉” seems more on the affirmative side,“也” is more on the explanatory side, as shown in the following examples. 自是之後，李氏名敗，而隴西之士居門下 14者，皆用爲 15耻焉。 Since then, the fame of Li started to decline. The hangers-on in Longxi Region all regarded it as a shame. (From “Biography of General Li” in Records of the Grand Historian) 及至秦之季世，焚《詩》、《書》，坑術士，六藝從此缺焉。 By the end of the Qin Dynasty, The Book of Songs and The Book of Documents had been burned, the Confucianism scholars had been buried alive, and the six classics of Confucianism had become incomplete since then. (From “Biographies of Scholars” in Records of the Grand Historian) 魯連逃隱於海上，曰 :“吾與 16富貴而詘 (屈 )於人，寧貧賤而輕世肆志焉。” Lu Lian found a hideout in the sea, and said, “I would rather stay poor but free, than to submit myself to others for fame and fortune.” (From “Biographies of Lu Zhonglian and Zou Yang” in Records of the Grand Historian)

Sometimes “焉” is used with an affirmative and slightly emphatic tone, which  is similar to “呢” in modern Chinese, yet they are not interchangeable in all circumstances. In the above examples, “焉” cannot be translated into “呢” . In the following examples, though, “焉” can be translated into “呢” . 國人望君，如望慈父母焉。 People in the country expect you in the same way as they expect their kind parents. (From “The 17th Year of Duke Ai” in Commentary of Zuo) 〔游俠〕既已存亡生死矣，而不矜其能，羞伐其德 17，蓋亦有足多 18者焉。 [The swordsmen] survived death, yet they never boasted their skills and abilities, and refused to claim credit for their service. Therefore, they did have honorable merits after all. (From “Biographies of Swordsmen” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In terms of parts of speech, “焉” can be either a demonstrative pronoun or a modal particle. The examples above demonstrate its usage as a modal article, while the example below illustrates its usage as a demonstrative pronoun, meaning “於 是” (at this). It is not always easy to distinguish between pronouns and particles, but the examples used in this chapter are relatively easier to tell them apart. 14

門下 , the guests of Li Ling. 用爲 is the same as 以之爲 (to regard it as). 16 與 is the same as 與其 here. 17 存亡生死 , to make the living dead and the dying live. This is a causative structure. 矜 and 伐 both contain the meaning of arrogance and boastfulness. 18 足多 , be worth of praise and honors. 15

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制，巖邑也，虢叔死焉。 Zhi is a city of strategic advantage. The prince of Guo died at this place. (From “The 1st Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Zuo) 羽父請殺桓公 19，將以求太宰 20。〔隱〕公曰 :“爲其少故也 21，吾將授之矣。”使營菟 ” 裘 22:“吾將老焉。 Yu Fu proposed to kill Duke Huan of Qi, so as to make himself a minister. Duke [Yin] said, “He was too young, but now I am going to pass the crown to him.” He then made a palace of retirement for himself in Tuqiu, and said, “I will grow old at this place.” (From “The 11th Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Zuo) 昔者吾舅 23死於虎，吾夫又死焉，今吾子又死焉。 Previously, my father-in-law was killed by a tiger. Then my husband too. Now even my son too. (From “Tan Gong II ” in The Book of Rites)

In the above examples, “老焉” means “老於是 (菟裘 )” [to grow old at this (Tuqiu)], and “死焉” means “死於是 (虎 )” [to be killed by this (tiger)]. Three parallel sentences were used in the text of “Tan Gong II ” , indicating that the usage here is clearly different from that of a modal particle. 

11.2 Exclamatory Sentences The sentences that express compliment, dislike, joy, sadness and depression are called exclamatory sentences, which always have certain affective or sentimental  elements. For example, in utterances like “How adorable my country is!” and “How wonderful this melody is!” the complimentary elements in the sentence are “adorable” and “wonderful” . For the sake of clarity, such elements are called the exclamatory focus. The construction of an exclamatory sentence is closely related to its focus. Generally speaking, there are several ways to make an exclamatory sentence: the change of the word order; the modification and foregrounding of the  exclamatory focus; the use of interjections and exclamatory modal particles; and the repetition of the sentence. The change of word order usually involves putting the predicate in front of the subject. As mentioned above, exclamatory sentences mostly describe the characteristics or functions of objects and events, which are realized as the predicate. On the other hand, the characteristics and functions in description also 19

桓公 Duke Huan, the younger brother of Duke Yin of Lu. 求太宰 , hope to be appointed as minister. 21 爲其少故也 is a statement made by Duke Yin, which means, “As Duke Huan is young, I haven’t passed the crown to him, but I will do so in future”. The implication is to refuse to kill Duke Huan. 22 菟裘 is the name of a place in the State of Lu, where Duke Yin built a palace for his retirement. The word 菟裘 was then used to refer to retirement. 23 舅 , the father of one’s husband. 20

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constitute the exclamatory focus, so raising the focus to the front of the sentence can foreground the speakers’ feelings and attitudes. Typical examples are already given in the previous chapter. To modify the exclamatory focus, the words in modern Chinese are “多” “多 么” “好” , and “好不” , while those in ancient Chinese are “何” “何其” “一何 (壹 何 )” and “诚” , as shown in the following examples. 信 24到，奉所惠貺 25，發函 26伸紙，是何文采之鉅麗，而慰喻之綢繆乎！ The messenger has arrived and I am grateful to your bestowment. When I opened the envelope and read the letter, how beautiful the wording is, and how comforting the message is! (From “A Letter in Reply to Cao Zhi” by Wu Zhi) 嗷嗷空城雀，身計何戚促 27！本與鷦鷯群，不隨鳳凰族。提携四黄口 28，厥乳未 嘗足。食君糠秕餘，嘗 (常 )恐烏鳶逐。 The hungry and lonely sparrows on the empty tower, how piteous their lives can be! Belonging to the low ranks of wrens, they never fly high with the phoenix. Bred and  fed four nestlings, they are always hungry and thirsty. Eating the chaff and leftovers,  they are always afraid of those snatching crows. (From “Lonely Sparrows on the Empty Tower” by Li Bai) 始陛下與臣等起豐沛，定天下，何其壯也！今天下已定，又何憊也！ When Your Majesty raised the standard in Fengpei, and led us to conquer the land, what a great feat it was! Now the country is at peace, yet how tired and frail Your Majesty is! (From “Biographies of Four Generals” in Records of the Grand Historian) 上有弦歌曲，音響一何悲！ Here comes a melody accompanied by a string instrument. What a sorrowful song! (From “Nineteen Anonymous Poems” ) 吏呼一何怒！婦啼一何苦！ How brutally the official is yelling! How miserably the lady is crying! (From “Pressganging at Stone Moat Village” by Du Fu) 王撫髀驩 (歡 )曰 :“誠壯士！誠壯士！” The king slapped on the thigh and said in joy, “A hero indeed! A hero indeed!”（From “Story of a Hero of Qin” by Song Lian)

In the above example of “是何文采之鉅麗，而慰喻之綢繆乎” (how beautiful the wording is, and how comforting the message is), the first clause is a compliment to Cao Zhi’ s literary grace, and the second clause conveys the gratitude for his comfort and sympathy. The writer’ s deep appreciation is best expressed with the “何” . In contrast, a similar sentence of “發函伸紙，文采鉅麗， 慰喻綢繆” (I opened the envelop and read the letter. Your worlding is beautiful, and your message is comforting) is merely a fact statement, seemingly a comment 24

信 , the messenger. 貺 , the bestowment. 26 函 , the envelope. 27 戚 is the same as 蹙 , 蹙促 , in a difficult or embarrassing situation.  28 黄口 , nestlings. 25

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on a composition without personal feelings, and the exclamatory effect is lost. By  the same token, “何” cannot be deleted from the second sentence “生計何戚促” (how piteous its life can be), as well as the other examples. As for the last example, if rewritten as “壯士！壯士！” (hero, hero) it is still an exclamatory sentence realized by means of repetition. However, the character of “诚” helps to reinforce the exclamatory effect. Besides, some adverbs of degree can also contribute to the exclamatory expressiveness by highlighting the characteristics and degrees. But it is mainly an expression of degrees, rather than a major means of exclamatory expression. The use of modal particles is another important means of exclamatory expression. Such particles include “哉” “與 (歟 )” “乎” “夫” “矣” , the function of which is to emphasize the exclamatory focus. The examples are as follows. 馮公之論將率 (帥 )也，有味哉，有味哉！ Feng’ s comments on the generals are so interesting, so interesting! (From “Biographies of Zhang Shizhi and Feng Tang” in Records of the Grand Historian) 荒 29哉隋家帝，制此 30今頽朽。 So corrupted is the Emperor of Sui, this palace he constructed has now collapsed. (From “The Nine-Storied Palace” by Du Fu) 猗與 31那 32與！ So beautiful, so splendid! (From “Nuo” , Shang Songs, in The Book of Songs) 曾子曰 :“可以託六尺之孤，可以寄百里之命 33，臨大節而不可奪也，君子人與！ 君子人也。” Zengzi once said, “If you can entrust a child king to him, if you can entrust a country to him, if he neither wavers nor yields at the critical moment, is he a man of noble character? He is a man of noble character.” (From “Tai Bo in” The Analects of Confucius) 惜乎，子不遇時！如令子當高帝時，萬户侯豈足道哉！ What a pity, you are living in a wrong time! If you were born in the time of Emperor Gaozu, even a high noble title would be no big deal for you! (From “Biography of General Li” in Records of the Grand Historian) 惠王既去，而謂左右曰 :“公叔病甚 34，悲乎，欲令寡人以國聽 35公孫鞅也！” King Hui left and told his servants, “Gongshu is very sick, and it is so sad. He asked me to deliver the power to Gongsun Yang!” (From “Biography of Shang Yang” in Records of the Grand Historian) 仁夫，公子重耳！ So kind and benevolent is Chong Er! (From “Tan Gong II ” in The Book of Rites) 29

荒 , being corrupt and wasteful. 此 refers to the Jiucheng Palace. 31 猗與 , a word of praise. 32 那 , great in number. This line praises Lord Shang’s great number of military achievements. 33 託孤寄命 , to entrust him with a child king and the task of governance. 34 病 , to become confused due to sickness. 35 聽 , to place something at his disposal. 30

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南人有言曰 :“人而無恒，不可以作巫醫。” 善夫！ There is a saying in the south, “If a man has no perseverance, he should not be allowed to treat or pray for others” . This is so true! (From “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius) 逷矣，西土之人 36！ So far away are people in the West. (From “A Rally in Mushi” in The Book of Documents) 茂矣，美矣，諸好備矣！盛矣，麗矣，難測究矣！ So exuberant and so beautiful is she, that everything is so perfect! So magnificent  and so gorgeous is she, that it is almost unfathomable! (From “Ode to a Goddess” by Song Yu)

These exclamatory particles are largely equivalent to “啊” in modern Chinese. For example, “善夫 !” can be expressed as “好啊 !” (it is very true), while “有味 哉 !” as “有味啊 !” (it is interesting) and so on. When the word “矣” is used in exclamatory sentences, such as “至矣 !盡矣 !不可以加矣 !” (it is so perfect and unsurpassable), it is more or less equal to “it is excellent” “it is flawless” or “there  is nothing better than this” . However, in the example of “Ode to a Goddess” , only the word “矣” used in “諸好備矣，難測究矣” (everything is so perfect, it is almost unfathomable) can be translated as “了” , whereas the other four cases of “矣” , as well as the one used in “A Rally in Mushi” , can only be translated as “啊” . It can be argued that, for those cases of “矣” that can be translated as “了” , the word is a dynamic particle with more elements of explanation; for those cases of “矣” that cannot be translated as “了” , it is more a static modal particle of exclamation. If we take a closer look at the exclamatory sentences with predicate fronting, we can see the function of the exclamatory particle is to emphasize the exclamatory focus, which is similar to the use of a modifier in front of the exclamatory focus. With regard to the example from “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius, the word “與” was regarded as an interrogative modal article by Zhu Xi in his work Variorum of Four Books(《集註》). In the work Summary of the Functional Words in Chinese( 《助字辨略》), Liu Qi cited the example of “君子人 與！君子人也” (What a man of noble character! It is a man of noble character). The first clause is an exclamation, whereas the second one a decisive statement.  Liu’ s opinion is quite correct: with an exclamatory sentence followed by a declarative sentence, the description of a man of noble character is made quite clear and convincing. In a fit of passion, people often make some ejaculatory sounds without definite meanings. The words that describe such sounds and utterances are called  interjections, which constitute an independent component in an exclamatory sentence. The interjections in ancient Chinese include “嗚呼” (“於戲” “烏 嘑” “嗟” “嗟乎” “嗟哉” “噫” “嘻 (譆 )” “吁” and “唉” 37. The examples are 36

逷 , being far. This is a word of encouragement by Duke Wu of Zhou to his soldiers on their long march against King Zhou. 37 Other interjections are “都” in The Book of Documents, and “於 (wū)” in The Book of Songs, both used for expressing compliments.

11.2

Exclamatory Sentences

211

as follows. 嗚呼，孰謂汝遽去吾而殁乎！ Wu hu, who would have ever thought that you had left me and died! (From “A Condolence Passage for My Nephew” by Han Yu) 嗚呼，豈六義四始 38之風，天將破壞不可支持耶！抑又不知天之意不欲使下人 39 之病苦聞於上耶！ Wu hu, is it because the Heaven will destroy the tradition of “the six elements and the four beginnings” and never let it stand long? Or is it because I don’ t understand the Providence that the ordinary people’ s sufferings should not be heard of by the Emperor!  (From “A Passage for Yuan Zhen” by Bai Juyi) 嗚呼，其真無馬邪 (耶 ) ！其真不知馬也！ Wu hu, is there really no good horse! Or no one really recognizes a good horse! (From “On Various Topics” by Han Yu) 惜乎，吾不及其時進退揖讓於其間！嗚呼，盛哉！ What a pity, I was born in a different time, and could not have attended the rituals and  made the bows among them! Wu hu, how splendid it was! (From “The Reading of the Rituals” by Han Yu) 父曰 :“嗟，予於行役，夙夜無已！” 40 Father says, “Jie, you are in servitude far away, working nonstop day and night!” (From “A Long March in Servitude”, Odes of Wei, in The Book of Songs) 嗟乎，言未終而足下左轉 41，不數月而僕又繼行，心期索然，何日成就，又可爲 之嘆息矣。 Jie hu! Hardly had the voice died away than you were demoted. A few months later I was also on exile. Without passion, I don’ t know when the work can be completed. It is really sadly regrettable. (From “A Passage for Yuan Zhen” by Bai Juyi) 嗟哉董生，朝出至夜歸，讀古人書，盡日不得息；或山而樵，或水而漁，入廚 具甘旨 42，上堂問起居；父母不戚戚，妻子不咨咨 43！ Jie zai, Dong Sheng. He sets off at dawn and returns home at night. He reads ancient  books and takes no break all day long. In the mountains he cuts and collects firewood.  By the river he fishes for food. In the kitchen he makes nice meals. In the living room he  greats his family. His parents are never sad, and his wife and children are never angry. (From “A Song of Dong Sheng” by Han Yu) 4

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The scholars in the Han Dynasty identified six basic elements of the content of The Book of Songs: “fu” (narrative), “bi” (analogy), “xing” (association), “feng” (ballad), “ya” (court hymn) and “song” (eulogy). The chapter of fu begins with “Guan Ju”, the chapter of Minor Odes of the Kingdom begins with “Dears’ Call”, the chapter of Greater Odes of the Kingdom begins with “Wen Wang”, and the chapter of song begins with “Qing Miao”. These four texts are therefore called “the four beginnings”. The six elements and the four beginnings refer to the essence of poetry and literature. 39 下人 is the same as 下民，the ordinary people. 40 夙夜無已 , working nonstop day and night. 41 左轉 , sometimes written as “左遷”, to be demoted. 42 甘旨 , the nice food to serve the parents. 43 咨咨 , the look of irritation.

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Declarative, Exclamatory, Interrogative and Imperative Sentences

顔淵死，子曰 :“噫，天喪予！天喪予！” Yan Yuan died. The Master said, “Yi, the Heaven wants me to die! The Heaven wants me to die!” (From “Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius) 噫，斗筲 44之人，何足算也！ Yi, such a narrow-minded and superficial person is worthless! (From “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius) 噫，微 45斯人，吾誰與歸 46！ Yi, if there were no such a person, who else could I look up to! (From “Memorial to Yueyang Tower” by Fan Zhongyan) 噫嘻前朝，孽臣奸驕，爲昏爲妖！ Yixi, in the former dynasty, the treacherous officials were evil and arrogant, meddling  the minds and causing troubles! (From “Eulogy for the Great Dynasty of Tang” by Yuan Jie) 噫嘻，悲夫，此宋司馬桓魋之墓也。 Yixi, it is so sad, this is the grave of Huan Tui. (From “A Trip to Mount Heng” by Su Shi) 伯魚 47之母死，期 48而猶哭。夫子聞之，曰 :“誰與，哭者 ?” 門人曰 :“鯉也。” 夫 子曰 :“嘻，其甚也！” Boyu’ s mother passed away. A year later, he still cried for her. The Master heard the crying and asked, “Who is it, the crying one?” The students said, “It is Bo Yu.” The Master said, “Xi, this is too much!” (From “Tan Gong I ” in The Book of Rites) 嘻，子毋讀書游説，安得此辱乎！ Xi, if you did not go around persuading others, how could you have suffered such a  humiliation! (From “Biography of Zhang Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian) 譆，善乎，技蓋至此乎！ Xi, it is very good. Your skill is as excellent as it can be. (From “The Secret of Caring for Life” in Zhuangzi) 唉，竪子不足與謀！ Ai. This fellow is not worthy of working together. (From “Biography of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 4

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As an interjection is merely a vocal utterance, there is hardly any consistent connection between a particular voice and a certain feeling, so the context has to be taken into consideration. For the same reason, as shown above, two or three examples were given for a single word of interjection. Take “呜呼” as an example. It expresses the feeling of grief or sorrow in the first and second example. In the  third example, the idea is that the ordinary people don’ t understand the temper and strength of good horses, so they cannot keep and use a horse properly, yet instead they complain about the lack of good horses (good talents). Therefore, “呜 44

筲 , a small bamboo container. 斗筲之人 refers to a narrow-minded person. 微 , if it were not for. 46 歸 , to look up to, to admire. 47 伯魚 refers to the son of Confucius, whose name is Li. 48 期 (jī), the anniversary. 45

11.2

Exclamatory Sentences

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呼” is used here as a sign with a heavy heart. In the fourth example, it is used as a complimentary interjection to praise the magnificent ritual and music culture in the Western Zhou Dynasty. We can see a stark contrast in the usages between the first and the fourth examples. As for other examples, “嗟” is used to express care and concern, “嗟乎” is to express lament and regret, and “嗟哉” is to express appreciation and compliment. The first example of “噫” expresses grief, the second contempt, and the third admiration, so on and so forth. For further examples, in “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi, the sentence “嗚呼噫嘻，我知之 矣” (Wu hu yi xi, I now understand) expresses the feeling of inspiration, which is similar to “噢” and “咦” . What’ s more, in the sentence “咄！少卿良苦” (Duo! You must be very tired) in “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, the interjection only serves as a sound to call for attention. Proper interpretation of such sentences requires careful study and thinking. So far, we have discussed the construction of exclamatory sentences. Apart from what is mentioned above, there are also cases of using rhetorical questions or speculative tones to express exclamation. For example, “孰謂汝遽去我而殁乎 !” (Who would have ever thought that you had left me and died) is an exclamation conveyed as a question. “其真無馬邪！” (Is there really no good horse?) is a rhetorical question, in which “其” is equivalent to “岂” . The example of “豈六義 四始之風，天將破壞不可支持耶！抑又不知天之意不欲使下人之病苦聞於上 耶！” (is it because the Heaven will destroy the tradition of the six elements and the four beginnings and never let it stand long? Or is it because I don’ t understand the Providence that the ordinary people’ s sufferings should not be heard of by the  Emperor) carries a tone of speculation or conjecture. A similar example can be found in “Wen Yan” in The Book of Changes, “其唯聖人乎！知進退存亡 49而 不失其正者，其唯聖人乎！” (There is no one like the wise men! On knowing when to advance and retrogress, on knowning when to let live and die, there is no one like the wise men!) is also expressing a strong emotion with a speculative tone. To summarize, exclamatory sentences mainly convey strong emotions. As long as a sentence expresses a genuine and honest emotion, it should be regarded as an exclamatory sentence.

11.3 Interrogative Sentences Generally speaking, a sentence that asks a question is an interrogative sentence. However, some questions are indeed seeking an answer; some are used to express doubts and guesses. Even when the attitude is quite affirmative, interrogative forms  can also be adopted for the euphemistic purpose. In others sentences, a rhetorical question is used for a strong and emphatic tone. According to the different functions,  interrogative sentences can be further divided into inquiring interrogative sentences, 49

知進退存亡 , knowing when to advance and retrogress and when to let live and die, not to be limited in a particular phase or situation in the whole process of development.

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conjecture interrogative sentences, and rhetorical questions.

11.3.1  Inquiring Interrogative Sentences There are three types of inquiring interrogative sentences: specific questions, yes-no questions, and alternative questions. A specific question inquires about a particular aspect of something. In a specific question, the unknown aspect is indicated with an interrogative pronoun, requiring the interlocutor to provide the answer within the scope determined by the interrogative pronoun. Take the question “子爲誰 ?” (who are you?) as an example, as I don’ t know who you are, I am seeking an answer specifically with regard to “誰” (who). Yes-no question proposes an idea, and requires the interlocutor to provide either “ye” or “no” as an answer. For example, “能持矛鼓譟前登堅城乎 ?” (can you hold a lance and call out loudly, and take the lead to step on the city wall?) The answer to this question is either “是” (yes) or “否” (no), or either “能” (can) or “否 (不能 )” (no, I can’ t), with no need to mention the specific person, object, reason or purpose. An  alternative question lists several options, requiring the interlocutor to choose one as the positive answer. For example, the question of “事齊乎，事楚乎 ?” (shall we serve Qi, or serve Chu?) requires a choice between the two options. Although an alternative question requires the same answer form as an inquiring question, it is actually a combination of two yes-no questions. In other words, every option in the question can be addressed with either “是” (yes) or “否” (no). An alternative is to present both sides of the topic and press for a choice, such as “是否可行” (whether it is feasible), which is also a form of alternative question, and sometimes termed as “repeated questions” by some Chinese grammarians. The key element in a specific question is the interrogative pronoun. Yes-no questions and alternative  questions rely on the use of modal particles, modal adverbs or conjunctions. The key to understanding a specific question lies in its interrogative pronouns,  which can refer to a person, an object or an event. Personal interrogative pronouns include “誰” “疇” “孰” “何〔人〕” , among which “孰” can also be an impersonal pronoun. The examples are as follows. 誰習計會，能爲文收責 (債 )於薛者乎 ? Who knows about accounting, and can help with collecting debts in the region of Xue? (From “Stratagems of Qi” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 汝復誰 ? Who are you again? (From “Ghost Hunting by Song Dingbo” in Strange Stories) 吹參差兮誰思 ? Playing the panpipe, whom to miss? (From “Xiang Jun” , Nine Songs in The Verse of Chu)

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Interrogative Sentences

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虎兕出於柙，龜 50玉毁於櫝中，是誰之過與 ? Tigers and rhinoceros broke out of cage. Turtle shells and jade wares were destroyed in the case. Whose fault is this? (From “Ji Shi” in The Analects of Confucius) 帝曰 :“疇若予上下草木鳥獸 51?” Shun said, “who is in charge of the fauna and flora in our mountains, valleys, lakes  and marshes?” (From “In Honor of Shun” in The Book of Documents) 孰能爲我使淮南 ? Who can serve as my envoy to Huainan? (From “Biography of Ying Bu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 哀公問 :“弟子孰爲好學 ?” Duke Ai asked, “Which one among your students enjoys learning most?” (From “Yong Ye” in The Analects of Confucius) 客有爲齊王畫者，齊王問曰 :“畫孰最難者 ?” 曰 :“犬馬難。” “孰易者 ?” 曰 :“鬼 魅最易。” A man is painting for Duke Qi. The duke asked him, “What is the most difficult to  draw?” He replied, “Dogs and horses are difficult.” “What is easy?’ He said, “Ghosts  are the easiest.” (From “Wai Chu Shuo” in Hanfeizi) 賢者孰謂 ? 謂叔術也。 What is this virtuous man called? He is called Shu Shu. (From The 31st Year of Duke Zhao in Commentary of Gongyang)

As we can see in the examples above, the word “谁” is most frequently used. It can serve as the subject and object of a sentence, the predicate of a judgement, and an attributive of possessive relations, as illustrated in the first four examples.  Although the word “疇” is regarded as a loan character for “谁” , it can only serve as the subject. In the sixth, seventh and eighth examples, “孰” serves as the subject, while in the ninth example it is the object of the sentence. The word “孰” is largely equivalent to “誰” in modern Chinese. Besides, it can also refer to one of many options in the question, as exemplified in the seventh and eighth examples,  which is similar to the usage of “哪一个” (which one) in modern Chinese. Impersonal interrogative pronouns, such as “何” “奚” “曷” “焉” and “安” , are far more complex. A pronoun can serve multiple functions. In correspondence with the interrogative pronouns in modern Chinese, the following categories can be identified. The equivalents to “什麽” (what) include “何” and “奚” . In the sentence “問臧 52奚事 ?則挾筴 53讀書。” (The servant was asked what he was doing, and he said he was holding the bamboo slips for reading) (“The Joined Toes” in Zhuangzi), “奚事” here means “what are you doing” , and can be rewritten as “何事”. The equivalents to “怎樣” (how) include “何如” “如何” “奚如” “安” and “焉” . The first three pronouns are concerned with state of affairs, such  50

龜 , turtle shells are objects for divination about state affairs. The turtle shells and jade are both  priceless treasures. 51 若 , being smoothly or properly treated. 上 , the mountains. 下 , the lakes and swamps. 52 臧 , a term for servants. 53 筴 is the same as “策”, the bamboo slips bound together for book writing.

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as “今日之事如何 ?” (How are things going today?) (“Biography of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian), and “卿以爲奚如 ?” (How do you think of this?) (“Biographies of Zhao Sheng and Yu Qing” in Records of the Grand Historian). The latter two pronouns are concerned with reasons, such as “後生可畏，焉知來 者之不如今也 ?” (The youth is to be regarded with respect. How do you know that they won’t fare better than us?) (“Zihan” in The Analects of Confucius), and “子非 魚，安知魚之樂 ?” (You are not a fish yourself, how can you know the happiness  of a fish?) (“Autumn Floods” in Zhuangzi). In these examples, both “焉” and “安” can be replaced by “何” , but “何” cannot refer to state of affairs. If translated into  modern Chinese, “安知” and “焉知” allow two different interpretations. The literal  translation is “怎樣知道” (how to know), and the free translation could be “有什 麽理由知道” (is there any reason to know). The equivalents to “爲什麽” (why) include “何” “奚” “曷 (盍 )” , as in the examples of “夫子何哂由 54也 ?” (Why does the Master sneer at Zilu?) (“Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius), “子奚 不爲政 ?” (Why aren’ t you engaged in politics?) (“Wei Zheng” in The Analects of Confucius), and “盍不爲行 55?” (Why don’ t you promote the righteousness and justice?) (“Dao Zhi” in Zhuangzi). The usage scope of “曷 (盍 )” is quite narrow, and it is mostly used to ask about reasons. A rare exception, however, is found in “Biography of Wang Bao” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty. In the sentence “其得意若此，則胡 (何 )禁不止 ? 曷令不行 ?” (He is so proud. Why can’t the prohibitions stop it? Why can’t the orders be implemented?), “曷” means “what” . The equivalents to “哪兒” (where) include “何” “安” “焉” and “奚” . The examples are “牛何之 56?” (where is the cow going?) (“King Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius), “汝安從知之 ?” (where do you get to know it?) (“Biography of Ying Bu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty), “顧安所得酒乎 ?” (Where can I get some wine?) (“The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi), “且焉 置土石 ?” (Anyway, where to dispose the earth and stones?) (“The Questions of Tang” in Liezi), and “子路宿於石門，晨門 57曰 :‘奚自 ?’ ” (“Zilu” spent a night by the city gate. The gate guard asked, “where are you from?” ) (“Ying Wen” in The Analects of Confucius). Besides,“何以” can be used to ask about reasons. As a combination of interrogative pronoun “何” and preposition “以” , the literal meaning of “何以” is “with what” or “whereby”, and the extended meaning can be “because of what” as an inquiry about reasons. The interrogative pronouns about means and ways include “如何 (若何 )” and “奈何” , such as “爲之奈何” (How to do it?) In “A Song of Gai Xia” by Xiang Yu, “騅不逝兮可奈何 ?” (The horse is reluctant to go forward, what to do about it?), the word “奈何” here means “What to do about it” . Besides, a noun or a pronoun can be inserted in between the words of “如何” and “奈何” , and the derived structure of “如之何” or “奈之何” means “how to deal with it” . Again in “A Song of Gai Xia” by Xiang Yu there is an example “虞兮，虞兮，奈若何 ?” (Yu, Yu, What will happen to you after I die?) 54

由 refers to 仲由 , a student of Confucius with the style name of Zilu. 行 , the conduct of righteous and justice. 56 何之 , where is it going? 57 晨門 , the gate guard. 55

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As Xiang Yu was defeated and incapable of protecting his beloved one, he said “奈 若何” with a heavy heart. A similar example is found in “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi. “月白風清，如此良夜何” (With a bright moon and a fresh breeze, what can we do with such a good night) means how to spend such a good night. Furthermore, “如何” and “奈何” can also express the feelings of regret and “ 齊〕景 reluctance. An example is from The Spring and Autumn Annals of Yanzi. 〔 公游於牛山，臨齊國，乃流涕而嘆曰 :‘奈何去此堂堂之國而死乎！使古而 無死，不亦樂乎！’ ” (Duke Jing (of Qi) took a trip to Mount Niu and enjoyed an overlook of the landscape of Qi. He said with a tearful sigh, “How will I ever leave such a magnificent country and die! If a man lives forever and never dies,  how wonderful it will be!” ) The regretful and reluctant tone is clearly manifest in this sentence. However, although the word “怎麽” is used in translation, such a sentence is no longer interrogative but exclamatory. All the examples above, except for the last one from The Spring and Autumn Annals of Yanzi, requires a specific answer. For example, “臧奚事 ?” (Zang was asked what he was doing) requires the information about everything Zang did, which is, in this case, “挾筴讀書” (holding the bamboo slips for reading). As for the question is “且焉置土石 ?” (Where to dispose the earth and stones), the answer is “投諸渤海之尾，隱土之北” (to through it far away in the Bohai sea, and to the north of Yintu). When the question is “月白風清，如此良夜何 ?” (with a bright moon and a fresh breeze, what can we do with such a good night?), the answer is “今者薄暮，舉網得魚……顧安所得酒乎 ?” (Today, at dusk, I cast a net and caught a fish. … But where to get the wine), which partially solved the  question. Therefore, all these examples are specific questions58.  Interrogative pronouns are indispensable in specific questions, but interrogative  modal particles are sometimes used as well. In the above examples, “誰習計會， 能爲文收責於薛者乎 ?” (Who knows about accounting, and can help to collect debts in the region of Xue?), “是誰之過與 ?” (Whose fault is this?) and “夫子何 哂由也 ?(Why does the Master sneer at Zilu?) all have modal particles. Even for those without, proper modal particles can also be attached, such as adding “耶” at the end of the sentence “牛何之” (where is the cow going), and adding “乎” at the 58

Apart from those used in specific questions, the interrogative pronouns in modern Chinese can  have two different usages: general references and fuzzy references. “I can do anything but telling a joke” is a case of general reference, while “I remember such a story in a novel written by someone” is a case of fuzzy reference. There are also similar cases in ancient Chinese, where the interrogative pronouns were used for fuzzy references. For example, “有何人，天未明，乘馬以詔版付玄門 使，曰 :‘有詔。’因便馳走。”(Someone of unknown identity rode a horse to come before dawn, and gave an imperial edict to the porter, saying ‘Here is the imperial edict’ and rode away) (From “Biography of Xiahou Xuan”, History of Wei in Records of the Three Kingdoms). Another example is “兒子何處得枟寶月觀賦枠，朗然誦之。” (My son found an Ode to the Bring Moon from somewhere, and read it out loud.) (“A Letter to Mi Fu” by Su Shi). The interrogative pronouns here, respectively, indicate an unknown person and an unspecified place. “Referring to something unknown without an intent of inquiry” (see “Annotations of Chinese Words” by Yang Shuda, p.151) is the function of fuzzy reference. General references appeared in medieval Chinese, and were rarely seen before that.

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end of the sentence “且焉置土石 ?” (where to dispose the earth and stones). While interrogative modal particles are not necessary components in specific questions,  they are essential for yes-no questions. The interrogative modal particles of “乎” “與 (歟 )” “邪 (耶 )” and “也” can be found in the following examples of yes-no questions. 魯欲使樂正子爲政。孟子曰 :“吾聞之，喜而不寐。” 公孫丑曰 :“樂正子强乎 ?” 曰 :“否。” “有知 (智 )慮乎 ?” 曰 :“否。” 多聞識 59乎 ?” 曰 :“否。” “然則奚爲喜而不寐 ?” 曰 :“其爲人也好善。” “好善，足乎 ?” 曰 :“好善優於天下，而況魯國乎 ?” Yuezheng Zi would take charge of Lu. Mencius said, “Hearing the news, I am so happy that I can’ t sleep.” Gongsun Chou asked, “Is Yuezheng Zi very capable?” Mencius said, “No.” “Is he wise and insightful?” Mencius said, “No.” “Is he knowledgeable and well-informed?” Mencius said, “No.” “Then why are you so happy that you can’ t sleep?” Mencius said, “He likes taking good advices.” “Is it enough to take good advices?” Mencius said, “Taking good advices is enough for the governance of the entire world, let alone the State of Lu?” (From Gaozi II in Mencius) 以子之道，移之官理，可乎 ? To transfer your philosophy of tree planting to governance, can it work? (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) ” 曰 :“然則師愈與 ?” 子貢問 :“師與商也孰賢 ?” 子曰 :“師也過，商也不及。 Zigong asked, “Which one of the two, Shi or Shang, was the superior?” The Master said, “Shi goes beyond the due mean, and Shang does not come up to it.” Zigong said, “Then, the superiority is with Shi, I suppose?” (From “Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius) 文帝從霸陵上，欲西馳下峻阪。袁盎騎，並車 (攬 )轡。上曰 :“將軍怯邪 ?” Emperor Wen rode uphill from Baling, and intended to gallop downhill on the west side. Yuan Ang rode by the side of the royal chariot and tightly holding the rein. The emperor asked, “Does the general feel afraid?” (From “Biographies of Yuan Ang and Chao Cuo” in Records of the Grand Historian) 子張問 :“十世可知也 ?” Zizhang asked, “Can the affairs of ten generations after be known?” (From “Wei Zheng” in The Analects of Confucius)

Alternative questions propose two or more things and require the interlocutor to make a choice as the reply. As mentioned above, alternative questions are combined yes-no questions, therefore the same interrogative modal particles are used in both types of questions. As the interlocutor has to make a choice, either this or that, among several options, alternative conjunctions are sometimes used between the several options. In modern Chinese, the alternative conjunction is “還 是” , while in ancient Chinese, they can be “抑 (意 )” “將” “且” “寧” “爲 (爲當、 爲復、爲是 )” and so on. The examples are as follows.

59

識 has the same pronunciation as 志 (zhi), memory.

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滕，小國也，間 60於齊楚。事齊乎，事楚乎 ? Teng is a small state located between Qi and Chu. Shall it serve Qi, or serve Chu? (From “King Hui of Liang II ” in Mencius) 子路問强。子曰 :“南方之强與，北方之强與，抑而强 61與 ?” Zilu inquires about power. The Master said, “Is it power in the south, power in the north, or power in your own understanding?” (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites) 子禽問於子貢曰 :“夫子之至於是邦也，必聞其政。求之與，抑與之與 62?” Ziqin asked Zigong, “When our master goes to any country, he learns all about the government. Does he ask for his information? Or is it given to him?” (From “Xue Er” in The Analects of Confucius) 知 63不足邪，意知而力不能行邪 ? Is it because of the lack of intelligence, or because of the lack of strength? (From “Dao Zhi” in Zhuangzi) 豈厭世溷濁，潔身而逝乎，將民之無禄而天莫之遺 64? Is it because you are tired of the filthy earthly world, so you leave to preserve your  noble character, or is it because the common people do not deserve such a privilege, and the Heaven won’ t let you stay? (From “A Condolence Passage for Ouyang Xiu” by Su Shi) 足下欲助秦攻諸侯乎，且欲率諸侯破秦也 ? Do you want to help Qin to attack the feudal lords, or to lead the feudal lords to conquer Qin? (From “Biographies of Li Sheng and Lu Jia” in Records of the Grand Historian) 吾寧悃悃款款 65樸以忠乎，將送往勞來 66斯無窮乎 ? 寧誅鋤草茅以力耕乎，將游 大人 67以成名乎 ? 寧正言不諱以危身乎，將從俗富貴以媮生 68乎 ?……此孰吉孰凶 ? 何去何從 ? Shall I remain humble and honest, and stay honorable, or curry favor and make myself rich? Shall I exert myself to farm and weed, or bow to a patron and make a fame? Shall I speak the truth and incur danger, or conform to the rich and the powerful to preserve a worthless life? … Which is auspicious, and which is ominous? Which way to go, and which way to follow? (From “Bu Ju” in The Verse of Chu) 王江州夫人語謝遏曰 :“汝何以都不復進 ? 爲是塵務經心，天分有限 ?” Madam Wang asked Xie E, “How come you haven’ t made further progress? Is it because you were engrossed in the worthless and trivial matters, or because your talent 60

間 (jiàn)，to be located in between. 而 is the same as 爾 . 而强 , the power you should have. 62 求之與，抑與之與 , is it based on his own information, or being forced upon by the king? 63 知 is the same as 智 (intelligence). And 意 is the same as 抑 (or). 64 民之無禄 , the ordinary people have no such a good fortune. 天莫之遺 , the Heaven does not leave you for them. 之 refers to the people. 65 悃悃款款 , the look of diligence and honesty. 66 送往勞 (lào) 來 , to flatter and curry favor. 勞 , to extend regards. 67 游大人 , to be a hanger-on to a famous elite. 68 媮生 , to drift along and live a worthless life. 61

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is limited?” (From “Gentle Ladies” in A New Account of Tales of the World)

As clearly shown in the above examples, interrogative modal particles play an essential role in building alternative questions. They are used in most of the examples above. In contrast, the conjunctions are not necessary here. In the last sentence about the reasons for Xie E’ s lack of progress, even without an interrogative modal particle, the question “Is it because you were engrossed in the worthless and trivial matters, or because your talent is limited?” is still an alternative question, as it has an alternative conjunction “爲是” . If “爲是” were deleted, the sentence becomes “塵務經心，天分有限 ?” (Is it because you were engrossed in the worthless and trivial matters, and your talent is limited?), which is a yes-no question covering both options. The examples of “何去何從” (Which way to go, and which way to follow?) and “孰吉孰凶” (which is auspicious, and which is ominous?) are also alternative questions, yet it is different from others because it consists of two specific questions, hence no modal particles or  conjunctions are needed. Alternative conjunctions are used between two clauses, or at the beginning of each clause, such as those in the second through the seventh examples. The last example, in which “爲是” is placed at the beginning of the clause, is a special case. The alternative conjunctions such as “爲 (爲當、爲復、 爲是 )” first appeared in the Six Dynasties, and became popular in speech in the  Tang Dynasty, yet not very common in written ancient Chinese, as in the following example. □□ (昨夜 )光明倍尋常，照耀竹林及禪房。爲是上界天帝釋，爲是梵衆四天王， □□ (照耀 )佛會禪林内，能令夜分現禎祥 ? □□ (Last night) it was extraordinarily bright, illuminating the bamboo woods and the Buddhist temple. Is it because of the god from the Heaven, or is it because of the four Heavenly Kings.□□ (It shed light on) the Buddhist ceremony in the temple, can it bring auspicious signs tonight? (From “Story of A Handmaid in the Palace of King Bimbisara in Bianwen” )

Modern Chinese contains many repetitive structure in questions, such as “好 不好” (good or not good), “去不去” (to go or not to go), “能不能” (can or cannot), “去了没有” (to go or not). The equivalent expressions in ancient Chinese usually use “否 (不 )” (not) or “無” (no) to represent the opposite side of meaning. For example, in “Biography of Yu Dingguo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, a sentence is:“即 69有水旱，其憂不細，公卿有可以防其未然，救其 已然者不 ?” (If a flood or a drought occurs, the damage will be serious. Can you  prevent the disaster, and make relief after it happens?” ) (can, or cannot). Another example is “晚來天欲雪，能飲一杯無 ?” (At dusk it threatens snow. Won’ t you come for a cup?) (can, or cannot) in the poem “An Invitation” by Bai Juyi. Today, the negative (opposite) meaning in such words as “不” and “無” in these 69

即 , if.

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lines seem quite weak and implicit, and they are often regarded as modal particles that are interchangeable with “乎” . In that case, the sentences also become yesno questions. As a matter of fact, the modal particle “嗎” in yes-no questions in modern Chinese derives from the word “無” indeed.

11.3.2  Conjecture Interrogative Sentences A sentence with a speculative mood is called a conjecture interrogative sentence, which is usually made by using adverbs and interrogative modal particles with conjecture mood. Generally speaking, a conjecture interrogative sentence consists both an adverb and a modal particle. Occasionally, if not rarely, it may consist just one of the two components. There are two types of conjecture interrogative sentences. The first type is speculative, with an implication of “nearly” “probably” , or “perhaps” . The modal adverbs of “殆” “庶” and “其” are usually used in the sentences, as shown in the following examples. 勝好勇而陰求死士，殆有私乎 ? Sheng is aggressive and searches for die-hard warriors secretly. Can he be haboring motivations? (From “Biography of Wu Zixu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 盡發公擇之藏，拾其餘棄以自補，庶有益乎 ? I will find all the books collected by Gongze, and pick up the books he once discarded  to enrich my collection. Is this perhaps beneficial? (From “Li’s Library” by Su Shi) 易之興也，其於中古 70乎 ? 作易者，其有憂患乎 ? The study of The Book of Changes, was it composed in the Xia and Shang Dynasties? The author of The Book of Changes, did he have worries? (From “Xi Ci II ” in The Book of Changes) 則與吾業者，其亦有類乎 ? Is it perhaps also similar to my own profession? (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 汝聞人籟而未聞地籟，汝聞地籟而未聞天籟夫 71? Perhaps you only know the music of man, and not that of Earth. Or even if you have heard the music of Earth, perhaps you have not heard the music of Heaven. (From “Discussion of the Equality of Things” in Zhuangzi)

70

中古 refers to the period between Yin and Zhou Dynasties. 籟 , the bamboo flute.  人 籟 means human voices, 地 籟 means the natural sounds stirred up through percussion. 天籟 refers to the sound of the Heaven which commands the natural world. 71

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此夫身女好 72而頭馬首者與 ? 屢化而不壽者與 ? 善壯而拙老 73者與 ? 有父母而無 牝牡者與 ? Is it shaped like a woman’ s graceful body, with a horse-like head? Does it undergo several metamorphosis yet have not a long life? Does it enjoy the prime of life yet susceptible to be boiled to death? Does it have parents, yet have no males and females? (From “Silkworms” , “The Odes” in Xunzi) 此夫始生鉅 (巨 )74其成功小者邪 ? 長其尾而鋭其剽 75者邪 ? 頭銛達 76而尾趙繚 77 者邪 ? Is it big at the beginning, and later made quite small? Does it have a long tail and a sharp end? Is its head sharp and smooth, while its end wavy and tangled? (From “Needles” ,“The Odes” in Xunzi)

In the sixth and seventh example, only the interrogative modal particles are used in the sentences, therefore the tone of conjecture, which is not very significant, is largely implied in the context. The fifth example contains a relatively  special modal particle, which is largely equivalent to “吧” in modern Chinese, so the conjecture mood is easier to identify. The first four examples include, respectively,“殆” “庶” “其” and “其亦” , which make the conjecture tone quite obvious. In particular,“殆” and “庶” ave the meaning of “almost” “其” means “probably” or “perhaps” , with a little more weight on the latter, so these sentences are relatively more on the positive or affirmative side.  Another type of conjecture interrogative sentences expresses the tone of negotiation, carrying the meaning of “can it be” “is it possible that” “is it the case that” and “I am afraid that” . With a less affirmative tone, these sentences always  contain a modal particle of negative meanings, such as “得無 (得微、 得非 )”“將無” and “莫須” . Please see the following examples. 〔觸龍〕曰 :“日 78食飲得無少衰 79乎 ?”〔趙太后〕曰 :“恃鬻 80耳。” [Chu Long] said, “I’ m worried you are taking less at meals?” [the Empress Dowager] said, “Just a little porridge.” (From “Stratagems of Zhao” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 今者闕然數日不見，車馬有行色，得微往見盜跖邪 ? 72 These two examples were taken from “The Odes” in Xunzi. The passage contains five short odes  about rites, knowledge, clouds, silkworms and needles. Every short ode starts with the clues of a riddle, then describes the features or properties of the object, and finally introduces its name. 女好 , being soft and graceful. 73 拙老 , refers to the fact that, after making cocoons, the silkworms are to be boiled to death. 74 始生鉅 , the iron for needle-making is bigger than a needle. 75 剽 , the sharp end of a needle. 76 頭銛達 , the sharp end of a needle can pierce an object. 77 尾趙繚 , the thread in the needle is wavy and flexible.  78 日 is a redundant character here. 79 衰 , to get less. 80 鬻 is the ancient script of character 粥 .

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Interrogative Sentences

223

For some days I have not seen you. Your carriage and horses are travel-stained. Have you not been to see Robber Zhi? (From “Robber Zhi” in Zhuangzi) 得非玄圃 81裂 ? 或是瀟湘翻。 Is it not the great view of Xuanpu? Or the beautiful view of Xiang River. (From “On Liu Dan’ s Newly Painted Landscape Screen” by Du Fu) 阮宣子有令聞，太尉王夷甫見而問曰 :“老、莊與聖教 82同異 ?” 對曰 :“將無同 ?” Ruan Xuanzi enjoys a great fame. Wang Yifu visited him and asked, “What are the similarities and differences among Laozi, Zhuangzi and Confucius?” He replied, “Are  they not the same?” (From “Literature” in A New Account of Tales of the World) 獄之將上去，韓世忠不平，詣檜詰其實。檜曰 :“飛子雲與張憲書雖不明，其事 體莫須有 ?” When the charge was about to be submitted, Han Shizhong felt furious about the injustice, and accused Qin Hui of groundless fabrication. Qin Hui said, “Although things are not clear about Yue Yun and Zhang Xianshu, can there still not be a crime?” (From “Biography of Yue Fei” in History of the Song Dynasty)

The modal particles used in these sentences, such as “得無” and “將無” , are mostly consisted of two contrastive morphemes, with one positive and another negative:“得” and “將” are positive, “無” “微” and “非” are negative. With such modal particles, the sentences seem to pose a question of “isn’ t it?” or “doesn’ t it?” Compared to the first type of conjecture interrogative sentences, they are less  direct and less affirmative.  Apart from the two types discussed above, some conjecture sentences can be similar to rhetorical questions (compared to the second group of examples of “ 魏鑄〕射一麋以顧獻，曰 :‘子 rhetorical questions cited below). For example, 〔 有軍事，獸人 83無乃不給於鮮 84，敢獻於從者。” ([Wei Qi] killed a deer and returned to present it as a gift, saying, “You are on a military mission. Perhaps the hunters cannot provide with fresh game. I would give it to your attendants.”) (“The 12th Year of Duke Xuan” in Commentary of Zuo) and “疇昔之夜，飛鳴而過 者，非子也邪 ?” (Last night, the one flew away screaming, wasn’ t it you?) (“The  Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi). These sentences convey a more or less  affirmative attitude in the conjecture, but they are still conjecture questions rather  than rhetorical ones.

11.3.3  Rhetorical Questions Rhetorical questions use the question to confirm (either affirmation or negation). In  terms of the structural features, there are three types of rhetorical questions as follows. 81

玄圃 refers to the middle layer of Mount Kunlun in the legend. 聖教 , the teaching of the Confucian school. 83 獸人 , the official responsible for the game meat.  84 鮮 , the newly acquired beast. 82

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Declarative, Exclamatory, Interrogative and Imperative Sentences

The first type is to make an affirmative statement first, which is denied by means of an interrogative modal particle at the end of the sentence. For example, 禹八年於外，三過其門而不入，雖欲耕，得乎 ? Yu kept working hard for eight years away from home. For three times he passed his home without entering. Although he wanted to plow his land, how was it possible? (From Teng Wen Gong I in Mencius) 如使予欲富，辭十萬而受萬，是爲欲富乎 ? Suppose I want to get rich, and how come that I resigned my previous job that paid me a hundred thousand dans for one that only paid me ten thousand. Is it a way to get rich? (From “Gong Sun Chou II ” in Mencius） 禮云禮云，玉帛云乎哉 ? 樂云樂云，鐘鼓云乎哉 85? “It is according to the rules of propriety,” they say. “It is according to the rules of propriety,” they say. Are gems and silk all that is meant by propriety? “It is music,” they say. “It is music,” they say. Are bells and drums all that is meant by music?（From “Yang Huo” in The Analects of Confucius） 先生之門，固有執政焉如此哉 ? 子而説 (悦 )子之執政而後人 86者也。 In the house of the Master, isn’t there already a high personage like this? Perhaps you think that you are holding an important office and therefore should take precedence over  others.（From “The Sign of Virtue Complete” in Zhuangzi）

In the above examples, “是爲欲富” (it is the way to get rich) is a positive statement. The attached modal particle “乎” negates the previous statement, and the meaning becomes “是不欲富也” (it is not the way to get rich). The example from Zhuangzi was a conversation between Shentu Jia and his peer Zheng Zichan, who was the minister of Zheng. “此” refers to Zichan. The meaning of the sentence is, there was no such a self-assuming and arrogant student like you in the house of the Master, who held an important office and looked down on others.  The modal particle “哉” is used to deny the previous statement of “有執政如此” (holding an important office).  In the second type of rhetorical questions, a negative adverb is place at the beginning of a statement so as to confirm the subsequent statement. For example, 身不善而怨人，不亦反乎 ? Blame others for his own defects, isn’ t it against the Rites?（From “On the Proper Rites” in Xunzi） 女 (汝 )以知 (智 )者爲必用邪，王子比干不見剖心乎 ?女以忠者爲必用邪，關龍 逢不見刑乎 ? 女以諫者爲必用邪，吴子胥不磔 87姑蘇東門外乎 ? Do you think the wise is bound to be assigned to important positions, but wasn’ t Bi 85

The sentence means the essence of rites and propriety does not lie in the jade, silk, bells and drums. 86 説子之執政而後人 means you think that you are holding an important office and therefore should  take precedence over others. 87 磔 , the body is split apart.

11.3

Interrogative Sentences

225

Gan killed with his chest cut open and the heart taken out? Do you think the loyal is bound to be assigned to important positions, yet wasn’ t Guan Longfeng executed? Do you think the one offering warnings and advice is bound to be assigned to important positions, yet wasn’ t Wu Zixu killed with his body dismembered right outside the east gate of Gusu? (From “On the Right Side of the Seat” in Xunzi) 暮婚晨告别，無乃太匆忙 ? Newly wedded last night, sadly parting at dawn. Isn’ t it too pressing and too hasty? (From “Parting of the Newlyweds” by Du Fu) “月明星稀，烏鵲南飛”，此非曹孟德之詩乎 ? 西望夏口，東望武昌，山川相 繆 88，鬱乎蒼蒼，此非孟德之困於周郎者乎 ? “The moon is bright, and the stars are sparse, and the crows are flying southward” ,  isn’t it a poem by Cao Mengde? You can see from here Xiakou in the west and Wuchang in the east. The mountains and rivers are connected and enshrouded in a somber green. Isn’ t it where Mengde was once besieged by Zhou Yu? (From “The First Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi)

In the above sentences, what follows the words of “不” “非” and “無乃” is exactly what the entire sentence affirms. The third type of rhetorical questions uses interrogative pronoun or rhetorical modal particles to negate the subsequent statement. The modal particles of “豈” “詎 (渠 )” and “寧” are frequently used, another “其” is sometimes used, and “庸” also appeared in some ancient texts. The examples are as follows. 齊莊公朝，指殖綽、郭最曰 :“是寡人之雄也。” 州綽曰 :“君以爲雄，誰敢不 雄 89?” Duke Zhuang of Qi went to court, pointing to Zhi Chuo and Guo Zui and said, “I look up to them.” Zhou Chuo said, “If you look up to them, who dares not to do so?” (From “The 21st Year of Duke Xiang” in Commentary of Zuo) 人又誰能以身之察察受物之汶汶者乎 ? How can one allow his clean body be tarnished by dirty objects? (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian) 又安能以皓皓之白而蒙世之温蠖乎 ? How can one allow his unblemished character be smeared by the worldly dust? (As above) 是黄帝所聽熒 90也，而〔孔〕丘也何足以知之 ? These are things that perplexed the Yellow Emperor. How should Confucius know it? (From Discussion of the Equality of Things in Zhuangzi) 王之不明，豈是福哉 ? The king is not wise, how can this be a blessing? (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian)

88

繆 , the state of being connected and intertwined. 不雄 , not to look up to someone. 90 聽熒 , confusion or misunderstanding. 89

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既而嘆曰 :“華亭鶴唳 91，豈可復聞乎 ?” He said with a sigh, “The call of cranes in Huating, how can I hear it again?” (From “Biography of Lu Ji” in History of the Jin Dynasty) 華亭鶴唳詎可聞，上蔡蒼鷹 92何足道 ? Is the crane call in Huating still heard? Is the hunting hawk in Shangcai still remembered? (From “Hard is the Way of the World” by Li Bai) 丞相嘗使籍福請魏其城南田，魏其大望 93曰 :“老僕雖棄，將軍 94雖貴，寧可以勢 奪乎 ? The Minister once sent Jifu to ask Dou Ying for the farmlands in the south city. Dou Ying was furious and said, “Though I am old and useless, and Tian Fen is powerful and privileged, how can you take away my land by force?” (From “Biographies of Dou Ying” , Tian Fen and Guan Fu in Records of the Grand Historian) 此寧爲文邪，吾就子所能而作耳。 How can this be qualified as a passage? I was just writing it to suit your taste. (From “Preface of A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 〔仲弓〕曰 :“焉知賢才而舉之 ?”〔子〕曰 :“舉爾所知。爾所不知，人其舍諸 (之乎 ) ?” [Zhong Gong] asked, “How shall I know the men of virtue and talent, so that I may raise them to office?” The Master answered, “Raise to office those whom you know. As to those whom you do not know, will others neglect them?” (From “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius) 前日聞王發兵於邊，爲寇災不止。當其時，長沙苦之，南郡尤甚。雖王之國， 庸獨利乎 ? I learned lately that you launched attacks in the borderline where the bandits were getting rampant and unchecked. During that period of time, Changsha suffered a lot, and  Nanjun was even more miserable. Though the land is under your reign, does it really bring benefit to you? (From “A Bestowment to King of South Yue” by Emperor Wen  of Han)

In the first four examples, interrogative pronouns are used to negate the subsequent statement. “誰敢” (who dares) means nobody dares, “何足以知之” (How should Confucius know it) means he cannot know it. For the other examples, the rhetorical modal particles, which means “豈” “哪裏” and “難道” in modern Chinese, are used to negate the subsequent statements. “人其舍諸” (will others neglect them) means “will others let them go?” “庸獨利乎” (does it really bring benefit to you) refers to Wei Tuo’ s waging of warfare against Han, which not only costs provision and armaments but also causes casualties, hence “can you really benefit from this?” “詎可聞” means “where can it be heard” . In sentences 91

華亭 , Lu Ji’s hometown. This sentence is said by Lu Ji upon his death. 上 蔡蒼 鷹 . Li Si, the prime minister of Qin, was born in Shangcai. Right before he died, he thought of his past days of hunting in his hometown. 蒼鷹 refer to the eagle for hunting. Biography of Li Si in Records of the Grand Historian contained a record of his hunting with a yellow dog. For some unknown reasons, Li Bai changed the dog to the eagle in his poem. 93 望 , dissatisfaction and hatred 94 將軍 refers to Tian Fen here. 92

11.3

Interrogative Sentences

227

like these, there is no clear-cut distinction between interrogative pronouns and rhetorical modal particles. For example, in the sentence “丘也何足以知之” (how should Confucius know it) can be rewritten as “丘也庸 (詎、寧 )足以知之” . The sentence “寧可以勢奪乎” (how can you take away my land by force) can also be expressed as “何 (安、焉 )可以勢奪乎” . Though the words are of different types,  they performed the same logical function of negating the subsequent statements.

11.4 Imperative Sentences The function of imperative sentences is to make the interlocutor follow the speakers’ instruction or request. The tone can be strong or weak. The strong and decisive tone is used in orders or prohibitions, while the weak and indirect tone is used in request, persuasion and suggestion. To simplest way to make a request is to use a singular verb. The subject of the verb can sometimes be added, as in the following examples. 廣令諸騎曰 :“前！” Li Guang ordered the other cavalrymen: “Forward!” (From “Biography of General Li” in Records of the Grand Historian) 夜分就寢。未幾，夫子聞予嘆息聲，披衣起，肘予曰 :“醒，醒！……“ We went to bed at midnight. Shortly afterwards, my husband heard I sigh. He put on his clothes, got up and nudged me with his elbow, saying, “Wake up, wake up!...” (From “A Story of the Same Dream” by Qian Yi) 齊宣王見顔斶，曰 :“斶前！” 斶亦曰 :“王前！” King Xuan of Qi met Yan Chu, and said, “Come forward, Chu!” Chu also said, “Come forward, my King!” (From “Stratagems of Qi” in Stratagems of the Warring States)

Some words can be used in a sentence to make the imperative tone more explicit. They include some imperative modal particles, such as “其” “尚” “必” and “唯” , and some persuasive verbs or modal verbs such as “幸” “願” “乞” and “祈” 95. The examples are as follows. 其引兵走 96西河，遮鈎營之道！ Lead your army to Xihe, and guard the way of Gouying! (From “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 王其愛玉體，俱享黄髮 97期。 95

“请” was used in imperative sentences in the ancient texts after the Tang and Song Dynasties, but it is mostly used as a modal verb in ancient Chinese. In some ancient Chinese grammar books, some sentences with “ 请” as a modal verb were regarded as imperative sentences, which is not reasonable. 96 走 , to go in a hurry. 97 黄髮 refers to the elders, as the hair of older people get yellower.

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Declarative, Exclamatory, Interrogative and Imperative Sentences

Please take care of your health, and enjoy your life in old age. (From “A Compliment Poem to Cao Biao” by Cao Zhi) 尚明 98聽之哉！ Just investigate this carefully! (From “Punishment” in The Book of Documents) 〔蹇叔〕哭而送之，曰 :“晉人禦師 100必於殽 101，殽有二陵焉…… 蹇叔之子與師 99， 必死是間；余收爾骨焉 102。” Jian Shu’ s son was going for a battle. [Jian Shu] cried and saw him off, saying, “The  army of Jin is bound to intercept your troops at the place of Xiao, where there are two mountains. … You shall die in between the mountains, and I will collect your remains there.” (From “The 23rd Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo) 漸寒，比日起居甚安，惟以時自重 103！ It is getting cold. Please look after your health. Take care of yourself in accordance with the time and season! (From “A Letter in Reply to Huang Tingjian” by Su Shi) 軾愚憃無狀 104，孤危 105之迹，日以 106岌岌。夙蒙明公奬與 107過分，竊懷憂國之心， 聊復一發於左右。猶幸明公密 108之，無重其罪戾 109也。 Stupid and good for nothing, I found myself more than ever isolated and perilous. It is a great honor to have Ming Gong’ s acknowledgement and appreciation. Worrying for the country, I wrote and shared this article among the fellow colleagues, only in hope that Ming Gong would keep it to himself, and not burden me with more guilt and crimes. (From “On the Money Rewards of Catching Bandits” by Su Shi) 公子有德於人，願公子忘之也。 If you do favor for others, you should forget it. (From “Biography of Prince Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 臣在潮州之日，與其州界相接，臣之政事，遠所不如；乞以代臣，庶爲允當。 When I was in Chaozhou, the neighboring region was under his governance. In terms of governing performance, I am far too inferior to him. It is hoped that he would replace me in this position, which is indeed very proper and worthwhile. (From “A Letter of Recommendation for Han Tai” by Han Yu)

The modal verbs “可” “宜” and “當” are used sometimes for negotiation, and sometimes for arguing with determination. In both cases, they are related to the 98

明 is the same as “勉”. The sentence means “carefully”. 與師 , in the army. 100 禦師 , to intercept our army. 101 殽 , the name of a place. 102 The two sentences mean Jian Shu asked his son to die in between the mountains, so that he could collect his remains there. 103 以時自重 , Take care of yourself according to the time and season. 104 憃 (chōng), being stupid. 無狀 , being good for nothing. 105 孤危 , being isolated and perilous. 106 日以 , to become more so day by day. 107 與 , to praise and appreciate. 108 密 , to keep the secret. 109 無重其罪戾 , not to burn me with more guilt and crime. 重 , to increase or aggravate. 99

11.4

Imperative Sentences

229

action verbs as an important means to express the imperative moods. Please see the following examples. 還家十餘日，縣令遣媒來。云有第三郎，窈窕世無雙，年始十八九，便言 110多 令才 111。阿母謂阿女 :“汝可去應之。” Upon the tenth day after her return, there came one from the county magistrate. A go-between, to woo her for his son, a lad who had barely twenty summers seen, whose good looks put all other youths to shame, whose tongue was fluent and fully eloquent.  Her mother, hoping against hope, said, “You can give consent to this proposal.” (From “A Pair of Peacocks Southeast Fly” ) 阿母白媒人 :“貧賤有此女，始適還家門 112；不堪吏人婦，豈合令郎君 113? 幸可廣 問訊 114，不得便相許。” So to the go-between the mother said, “O honored sir, a stubborn child is mine, but lately sent back to her brother’ s house. Even a small official found her no good match,  how should she please the magistrate’s own heir? Please look wide and far, as we cannot give you the consent.” (As above) 見二人飲，一長鬣奴捧壺。……移時聞一人曰 :“明日可取白酒一瓶來。” Two people were drinking liquor together. A servant with a long beard was holding the flagon. … After a while, he heard one of them saying, “Get a flagon of liquor tomorrow.” (From “Jia Er” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories) ” 方郾城再捷，飛謂雲曰 :“賊屢敗，必還攻潁昌，汝宜速援王貴。 After another victory in Yancheng, Yue Fei said to Yue Yun, “The enemy has been repeatedly defeated, so they are bound to return and attack Yingchang. You should rush to the rescue for Wang Gui.” (From “Biography of Yue Fei” in History of the Song Dynasty) 孫勿惰，宜操小産業，坐食烏可長也 ? My grandson, don’ t be lazy. You should run a small business. How can it last long if you just sit idle and spend it all? (From “Wang Cheng” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 君當作磐石，妾當作蒲葦。蒲葦紉 (韌 )如絲，磐石無轉移。 Be your love as strong as the rocks, be mine resistant as the creeping vine. The vine is tenacious and unbreakable, and the rock is steadfast and unmovable. (From “A Pair of Peacocks Southeast Fly” )

To express a negative hope or expectation in an imperative sentences, the negative particles such as “勿” “弗” “無 (毋 )” and “莫” are often used, as in the following examples.

110

便言 , be good at conversation. 令才 , talents. 112 This line refers to Lan Zhi being sent back home soon after the wedding. 113 Lan Zhi was firstly married to a small official Jiao Zhongqing and was sent back home. How  could she be a good match to the heir of the magistrate? 114 廣問訊 , to seek a good match in every way. 111

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Declarative, Exclamatory, Interrogative and Imperative Sentences

多謝後世人 :戒之慎勿忘。 The future generations are to be reminded, never make the same mistake, and never forget. (From “A Pair of Peacocks Southeast Fly” ) 有弗學，學之弗能，弗措也。 To learn is to learn it thoroughly. I won’ t stop until I fully grasp it. (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites) 王無罪歲 115，斯天下之民至焉。 If Your Majesty won’ t put the blame on the poor harvest, people all over the places will come. (From “King Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius) 淇上健兒歸莫懶，城南思婦 116愁多夢！ The soldiers returning from Qi River should not lay idle. The wives who miss their husbands are sorrowful in their dreams. (From “A Tribute to the Triumphant Troops” by Du Fu)

Imperative sentences can also take the form of questions, mostly to offer negotiation and suggestion, as in the following examples. 〔或〕曰 :“子其行乎 ?” 太子曰 :“君實不察其罪，被此名也以出，人誰納我 ?” (The man) said, “Are you leaving?” The prince said, “His majesty hasn’ t investigated the crime yet. If I leave with such an accusation, who will accept me?” (From “The 4th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo) 晉獻公將殺其世子 117申生，公子重耳……曰 :“然則蓋 118行乎 ?” 世子曰 :“不可， 君謂我欲弑君也，天下豈有無父之國哉 ? 吾何行如之 119?” Duke Xian of Jin wanted to kill Prince Shensheng. Chong Er … said, “So why don’ t you leave?” The prince said, “I can’ t. The King accused me of the crime of regicide. Is there a country with no father? Where can I go?” (From “Tan Gong I ” in The Book of Rites)

The above two books actually contain the same story. A concubine of Duke Xian of Jin intended to frame a case against Prince Shensheng, accusing him of regicide. Someone (in Commentary of Zuo, “或” indicates an anonymous person, while in “Tan Gong”, it is said to be his brother Chong Er) advised him to escape. “子其行乎 ?” (are you leaving) “盖行乎 ?” (why don’ t you leave?) are both in question forms, but the real intention is to persuade Shensheng to run for life, therefore they are imperative rather than interrogative sentences. For further examples: 孫子謂田忌曰 :“將軍可以爲大事乎 ?” 田忌曰 :“奈何 ?” Sunzi said to Tian Ji, “Is my general willing to achieve a great feat?” Tian Ji said, 115

罪歲 , to blame the poor harvest for the lack of people. 思婦 , the wife who is missing her husband. 117 世子 , the first-born prince of a lord.  118 蓋 is the same as 盍 , meaning “why not”. 119 何行如之 , where can I go? 116

11.4

Imperative Sentences

231

“How to do it?” (From “Stratagems of Qi” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 客肯爲寡人來 120靖郭君乎 ? Can you invite Jingguo (Tian Ying) for me? (As above) 公孫濛謂鄒忌曰 :“公何不爲王謀伐魏 ?” Gongsun Meng said to Zou Ji, “Why don’ t you persuade the king to attack Wei?” (As above)

The first and third examples express a suggestive tone, while the second example expresses a tone of negotiation and request, all of which are expected by the speaker to be fulfilled. Some modal particles are also used in imperative sentences. The common ones include “矣” “也” and “哉” , as shown in the above examples of “尚明聽之哉” (Just investigate this carefully!), “無重其罪戾也” (not burden me with more guilt and crimes) ,“願公子忘之也” (you should forget it) and “弗措也” (I won’ t stop). Another two examples of “矣” are given below. 公子勉之矣，老臣不能從。 Strive harder, my prince. An old man like me can follow no more. (From “Biography of Prince Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 夫明堂者，王者之堂也；王欲行王政，則勿毁之矣。 The bright hall is a place for the king to govern; if you want to govern as a king, then don’ t demolish it. (From “King Hui of Liang II” in Mencius)

Two modal particles in ancient Chinese are typically used in imperative sentences. One is “来” , and the other is “者” . “来” appeared as early as in the Pre-Qin Period, while “者” was most commonly used in the Tang Dynasty. The examples are as follows. 若必有以也 121，嘗 122以語我來！ You must have some reasons. Please try to tell me! (From “In the World of Men” in Zhuangzi) 長鋏，歸來乎，食無魚。 Long sword, let’ go home. There is no fish in the meal. (From “Stratagems of Qi” in  Stratagems of the Warring States) 歸去來兮，田園將蕪胡不歸 ? Going homeward. The croplands and gardens are lying waste, why don’ t I go home? (From “Going Home” by Tao Qian) 把筆來，吾與汝就之。 Give me a brush pen, let me write it for you. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu)

120

來 , to invite someone to come. You must be prepared. 122 嘗 , to try. 121

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Declarative, Exclamatory, Interrogative and Imperative Sentences

白 123言 :天竺去來！圖畫裏峥嶸樓閣開。愛縱横二澗，東西水繞；兩峰南北，高 下雲堆。 Bai Juyi said, Let’ s go to Tianzhu! The picturesque pavilions are on the hills. The two lovely creeks are flowing towards the east and the west. The two summits, one in  the south and the other in the north, are towering aloft in the clouds. (From “A Poem to the tune of Qinyuanchun in honor of Xin Chengzhi124 ” by Liu Guo) 兼令臣商量，須作何處置，令欽漵奏來者。 I was also ordered to join the consultation. Once the decision was made, Qin Shu would report it to His Majesty. (From “A Petition for Ceasefire” by Lu Zhi) 右奉宣旨，思忠請前件馬軍合勢，令商量奏來者。 The messenger was ordered to deliver the imperial edict, saying that Si Zhong had suggested to combine the cavalry armies mentioned in the previous order. I was ordered to hold a consultation and made a decision, and to report to the messenger. (From “A Military Statement” by Li Deyu)

The character “来” (or “来乎” “来兮” ) in the first five examples is different from “来” in “奏来” in the sixth and seventh examples. “来” in “奏来” is a directional verb, which is a content word, whereas “来” in the previous examples is an imperative modal particle. For example, “长铗，归 来乎” (Long sword, let’ s go home) is what Feng Yuan was chanting in Duke Mengchang’ s house. If “来” were indeed a content word in this case, it had to be changed into “去” (go) to make sense. Such a usage of “来” is similar to that of an imperative modal particle “哩” in Wu dialect in modern Chinese. As “来” and “裏” , in their ancient pronunciations, belonged to the same phonetic category of “之” , it is possible that “哩” is indeed a variant form of “来”。“者” was usually used in statements or messages from the superiors to the subordinates. The usage of other variations, such as “着” and “咱” in the oral speech of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, is omitted here. Although many imperative sentences make requests for the interlocutors, it can also be used to address oneself. For example, in “君當作磐石，妾當作蒲葦” (Be your love as strong as the rocks, be mine resistant as the creeping vine), the first  clause is a request for others, the second is for oneself. For another example, the sentence “嗟乎，嗟乎！吾其長爲農夫以没世 125乎！” (Alas, I will live the rest of my life as a farmer!) from The Fourth Family Letter to My Younger Brother by Zheng Xie expresses a hope and expectation for the writer himself, hence also the imperative mood to make instruction of his own actions. So far we have discussed sentences of different moods and analyzed the means  of expression. A few more words are devoted here to the topic of modal particles. Taken together, there are not many modal particles, yet their usages, due to the 123

白 refers to Bai Juyi. This poem created an imaginative scenario where Bai Juyi, Li Pu and Su Shi met and each praised a scenic spot in Hangzhou. The two creeks and the two summits are all scenic spots around the place of Tianzhu in Hanghzou. 124 辛承旨 refers to Xin Qiji. 125 没世 , for all one’s life.

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complexity and variety, are hard to grasp. For example, “也” and “矣” can be used not only as declarative modal particles about decision and change, but also as imperative modal particles. “哉” can be used not only as an exclamatory modal particle, but also one in rhetorical questions and imperative sentences. The analysis and interpretation of such words, therefore, must take the contexts and other factors into consideration. For example, “豈不悖哉” (isn’ t it against the rites) is a rhetorical question, “子其勉哉” (you should strive harder) is an imperative sentence, while “洋洋乎盈耳哉” (How wonderful are my ears filled with the nice  sounds) is an exclamation. The above distinctions are made according to the usage of the rhetorical modal particle “岂” and the imperative modal particle “其” . This is the first point. Secondly, the two modal particles of “也” and “矣”，apart from being used in declarative and exclamatory moods, can express interrogative mood, which is similar to “耶” , as shown in the following examples. 將爲 126胠篋、探囊、發匱 127之盜而爲守備，則必攝緘縢 128，固扃鐍 129，此世俗之 所謂知 (智 )也。然而巨盜至，則負匱、揭篋 130、擔囊而趨，唯恐緘縢扃鐍之不固也。 然則鄉 131之所謂知者，不乃爲大盜積 132者也 ? The precautions taken against thieves who open trunks, search bags, or ransack tills, consist in securing with cords and fastening with bolts and locks. This is what the world calls wit. But a strong thief comes and carries off the till on his shoulders, with box and  bag, and runs away with them. His only fear is that the cords and locks should not be strong enough! Therefore, does not what the world used to call wit simply amount to making it easier for the strong thief? (From “Opening Trunks” in Zhuangzi) 危而不持，顛而不扶，則將焉用 133彼相 134矣 ? How can he be used as a guide to a blind man, if he does not support him when the man totters, nor raise him up when the man falls?’ (From “Ji Shi” in The Analects of Confucius)

In the above sentences, both “也” and “矣” have the same meaning of “耶” , which are interrogative modal particles to express a rhetorical question. What’ s more, some modal particles are essential for mood expression, yet are still likely to be omitted. The interpretation of such instances requires extra care and subtlety. See the following two examples.

126

爲 (wèi), for the sake of. 胠 and 發 , to open. 128 攝緘縢 , to secure with chords and ropes. 129 扃鐍 , the locking instruments. 130 揭 , to carry on the shoulder. 131 鄉 is the same as 向 , in the past. 132 積 , to create and save for a better opportunity. 133 焉用 , why do we use. 134 相 , of the level tone, refers to the guide for the blind. 127

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群盜相隨劇虎狼 135，食人更肯留妻子 ? (杜甫《三絕句》) The bandits are fiercer and crueller than wolves and tigers. How would they spare  the wives and children if they were cannibalistic? (From “A Collection of Quatrains” by Du Fu) 漏移寒箭丁丁急，月挂虚弓靄靄明。此夜離魂堪射斷，更須江笛兩三聲 ? (陸龜 蒙《江城夜泊》詩 ) The water clock is ticking quickly, and the crescent moon looks like a bow, shimmering in the sky. Such a night of parting is breaking my heart, how can I bear to listen to the sirens of departure? (From “Night Mooring at A River Town” by Lu Guimeng)

In these two sentences, the rhetorical modal particle “乎” was omitted in the structure of “更肯……” (how would) and “更须……” (how can), which means, respectively, “would they spare the wives and children?” and “do I need the sirens to remind me?” It should be noted that A Collective Interpretation of Words in Poetry, Songs and Dramas failed to notice this issue, and interpreted “更” in the sentence as “岂” , which is improper. All in all, the complicated issue of moods rquires careful reading and analysis. What has been covered in this chapter, though relatively in detail, is still far from being comprehensive.

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劇虎狼 , being more fierce and cruel than wolves and tigers. 

Chapter 12

Quantity and Comparison

In linguistic studies, the quantity of concrete objects is called nominal quantification while the quantity of actions is called verbal quantification. Each quantification consists of numerals as well as classifiers in Chinese. First, definite  quantification refers to a specific quantity or specific amount, such as the three hundred and five pieces of poetry in The Book of Songs, and one hundred and thirty chapters in Records of the Grand Historian. Second, there is indefinite quantification too, such as “十餘年” (more than ten years), “數人” (several people) and “少許” (a few). Some similar things may be compared with each other in terms of their properties. For example, in the poem of “Mume Blossoms in the Snow”( 《梅雪》 ) by Lu Meipo, the lines “梅須遜雪三分白， 雪却輸梅一段香” (The mume blossoms are not as white as the snow, but the snow is much less fragrant than the mume blossoms) involves a comparison between their whiteness and fragrance. As the difference in properties is very hard to measure, most, if not all,  of the comparisons are expressed in general terms. All such expressions in ancient Chinese will be discussed in the present chapter.

12.1 Definite and Approximate Quantification 12.1.1  Definite Quantification The numerals used to express definite quantification mainly include “一” (one), “二” (two), “三” (three), “四” (four), “五” (five), “六” (six), “七” (seven), “八”

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_12

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(eight), “九” (nine), “十” (ten), “百” (hundred), “千” (thousand), “萬” (ten thousand), and “億” (ten billion). In particular, the similarities and differences between “二” and “兩” should be noted. In ancient Chinese, “两” means two things in a pair or in contrast as follows: 霾 1兩輪兮縶四馬。 The two wheels were buried deep in the ground and the four horses were entangled as well. (From “Guo Shang” in “Nine Songs” in The Verse of Chu) 夫兩貴之不能相事 2，兩賤之不能相使 3，是天數 4也。 Two noblemen cannot serve each other, and two low-downs cannot command each other. This is quite reasonable. (From “On Politics” in Xunzi) 丁公爲項羽逐窘高祖彭城西，短兵接，高祖急顧丁公曰 :“兩賢豈相厄 5哉 ?” 於 是丁公引兵而還。 Ding Gu caught up with Liu Bang to the west of Peng Cheng, where both armies engaged in a close combat. Instantly Liu Bang looked at Ding and pleaded to him, “Both of us are worthies, why do we combat each other?” Hearing these words, Ding released Liu Bang and returned along with his troops. (From “Biographies of Ji Bu and Luan Bu” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In the above examples, “兩輪” (two wheels) form a pair; “兩貴” (two noblemen) and “兩賤” (two low-downs) means the two persons are equal in status; “兩賢” (two worthies) means the two men are equal in competence. Besides, there are other examples like “两翼” (two wings), “兩髀” (two thighs), “兩軍” (two armies), and “兩造” (two parties in a lawsuit). In ancient Chinese, the word “两” is rarely used as a common numeral6. “有” is often inserted between two numbers of different digit positions in ancient Chinese. For example, “朞 7，三百有六旬有六日” (A complete year has three hundred sixty-six days) in “In Honor of Yao” in The Book of Documents, and “凡馬之事二十有七；爲馬，大小八十有三；而莫有同者焉。” (There are twenty-seven activities related to horses. There are eighty-three horses, big or 1

霾 is the same as 埋 . According to Jiang Ji’s annotation, 霾 means the cart wheels couldn’t move as if being buried in the ground. 2 事 , to serve or to submit to. 3 使 , to order about. 4 天數 , a reasonable principle. 5 厄 , to be pressed or in difficulty.  6 There are two examples of“两”which indicates common numerals. One is “以一易一，人曰 : 無得， 亦無喪也。以一易兩，人曰，無喪而有得也。以兩易一，人曰 : 無得而有喪也” (To exchange one for one, the man says, “There is no gain and no loss.’ To exchange one for two, the man says, “There is gain but no loss.” To exchange two for one, the man says, “There is loss but no gain.”) In “On Naming” in Xun Zi. The other is “世所傳百兩篇者，出東萊張霸” (The one hundred and two passages were composed by Zhang Ba from Dong Lai.) in Records of Scholars in History of the Han Dynasty. 7 朞 , one whole year.

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small, yet no horse seems identical to any other horse) in “A Passage About a Painting” by Han Yu. In these examples, “有” is a phonetic loan word of “又”， indicating the following numeral is of a lower digit position. Multiplications are expressed in ancient Chinese with two words. The word “倍” means twice or double, while “蓰” means five times. However, “蓰” or “倍” seldom appears alone. In other words, they usually come together as an expression of an indefinite number, as in the following examples. 夫物之不齊，物之情 8也。或相倍蓰 9，或相什伯，或相千萬，子比而同之，是亂 天下也。 All things are different by nature. Their difference may be twice, five times, ten times,  a hundred times, several thousand times or tens of thousands of times as great. If you compare them and regard them as equal, everyone in the world will be baffled. (From  “Teng Wen Gong I ” in Mencius) 學者之於書，多且易致如此，其文詞、學術當倍蓰於昔人。 Today there are so many books available to scholars. So they should get literary and academic achievements twice or even five times as great as those in the past. (From “Li’s  Library” by Su Shi)

When it comes to three times, four times or more times, the expression consists of a numeral of the multiplication and, sometimes, the character “倍” is placed after the numeral. Please see the following examples. 君才十倍曹丕，必能安國，終定大事。 Your talent is ten times as good as Cao Pi. If you govern the state, the great cause will surely be fulfilled. (From “Biography of Zhuge Liang” in History of Shu in Records of the Three Kingdoms) 人一能之，己百之；人十能之，己千之；果能此道矣，雖愚必明，雖柔必强。 When others try hard, I will try a hundred times harder. When others try ten times, I will try a thousand times. In this way, even a fool may become wise, and a weak may become strong. (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites) 杜摯曰 :“利不百，不變法；功不十，不易器。” Du Zhi said, “If there is no hundred-fold benefit, we should not reform. If there is no  ten-fold benefit, we should not change the present talent.” (From “Biography of Shang  Yang” in Records of the Grand Historian)

The character “倍” is used in the first example rather than the second and third  examples. The sentence from “The Doctrine of Mean” means, if others make an effort to do something, I would take a hundred-fold effort in this aspect. If others  make with ten-fold effort, I would take a thousand-fold effort in this aspect. A conservative was quoted from “Biography of Shang Yang” in this aspect as thinking that reform is not necessary to reform if there would be no hundred-fold 8 9

情 , the real situation. 相倍蓰 , one thing is twice or five times as different as another. 

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benefit, and change of talent is not worthwhile if it wouldn’ t bring about a ten-fold  benefit. In the example from Mencius, “什伯” and “千萬” also mean, respectively, “ten times and a hundred times” , and “a thousand times and ten thousand times” . “什伯” is actually a different written form of “十百” (ten hundred). Like in modern Chinese, fractions are expressed in ancient Chinese as “几分 之几” (X parts of Y). The character “分” (part) may be omitted so that a simpler expression known as “几之几” emerges. When there is a classifier, the classifier is  attached to the denominator. A half is called “半” , two thirds is called “太 (大 )半” (big half), and one third is called “少 (小 )半” (small half). When the denominator is 10, the character “十” (ten) can be written as “什”，directly followed by the numerator; or the numerator is stated and attached with the character of “分” (part). The examples are as follows. 一年春事都來 10幾 ? 已過了，三之二。 How long is the spring time in a year? Two thirds of the season has passed already. (From “A Ci-poem to the tune of Qingyu’ an” by Ouyang Xiu) 天如彈丸，圍圜 11三百六十五度四分度之一。 The sky is like a pellet. The overall periphery has three hundred sixty-five degrees  and a quarter. (From “Shu” in “The Monthly Records” in The Book of Rites) 指碧衣取金釵鈿盒，各折其半，授使者。 [She] instructed the maids to fetch the golden hair pins and ornament boxes, and gave half of them to the messenger. (From “A Legend of Everlasting Romorse” by Chen Hong) 今東萊稱或以大半兩爲鈞。 Recently in Dong Lai, two thirds of “liang” is called a “jun” . [From Records of Craftsmanship by Zheng Xuan with annotations. In Jia Gongyan’s comments, “凡數，言大 者皆三分之二爲‘大’，三分之一爲‘少’ ” .(For numerals, two thirds is a “big” number and one third is a “small” one.) “Biography of The Thirteen Prince of Emperor Jin” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty contains a sentence “削其國，去太半” (Weaken the state power, and reduce two thirds of it.), and the annotation by Zhang Yan is “三分 之二爲太半，一爲少半” (Two thirds is the greater half, one third is the smaller half.)] 地方百里者，山陵處什一，藪澤處什一，溪谷流水處什一，都邑蹊道處什一， 惡田處什二，良田處什四。 In a region of one hundred square lis, the mountains and hilltops take up a tenth of the area, the lakes and marshlands take up a tenth, the valleys and rivers take up a tenth, the townships and roads take up a tenth, the arid farmlands take up two tenths, and the fertile farmlands take up four tenths. (From “Encouraging Immigration” in The Book of Shang Yang) 候時轉物 12，逐什一之利。 (They) waited for the right moment to trade their goods, in pursuit of a profit of one  tenth. (From “The Household of Gou Jian in Yue” in Records of the Grand Historian)

10

都來 , in total. 圜 is the same as 圓 . 12 轉物 , to trade the goods. 11

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魏成子以食禄千鍾，什九在外，什一在内 13。 Wei Chengzi enjoyed a high official salary. He spent nine tenths on others, and only  one tenth for himself. (From “The Biography of Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 到老方知非力取，三分人事七分天 14。 With age comes the wisdom of not only relying on mere efforts. In fact, it entails three  tenths of human effort and seven tenths of the Creator’ s will. (From “A Collection  on Poetry” by Zhao Yi)

In the above examples, “四分度之一” is a quarter of a degree. Literally, it means taking one out of the four equal parts of a degree. The phrase “四分” is an endocentric construction with the numeral “四” modifying the verb “分” (to divide). The rest of the examples are easy to understand. What’ s more, a special expression is found in “Biographies of Businessmen” in Records of the Grand Historian, as quoted below. 子貸金錢千貫，節駔會，貪賈三之，廉賈五之。 If you loan a thousand strings of gold coins to others, the brokers will assist with the business. A greedy broker takes one third of the interests, while a modest one takes one fifth.

In the above sentence,“三之” means one third, and “五之” means one fifth. Yet  in a preceding paragraph of the same passage,“棗栗千石者三之” (three thousand shi of dates and maize) means three times of one thousand, which is just opposite to the above usage. This weird usage, however, can be seen nowhere else but in Records of the Grand Historian.

12.1.2  Approximate Quantification There are two ways to express approximate quantification. First, indicate an approximate number or a range using one or two numerals. Some examples are as follows. 〔彌明〕年九十餘矣。 (Mi Ming) is more than ninety years old. (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 潭中魚可百許頭，皆若空游無所依。 There are around a hundred fish in the clear pond, which appeared swimming freely  in the air. (From “On A Small Pond” by Liu Zongyuan) 江邊諸將，無復在者，才留三千所兵守武昌耳。 13

He spent one tenth on himself, and nine tenths on others. 三分人事七分天 , You may try hard to make good poems, but the result relies most on how much talent you are endowed by the Creator with. 14

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Those generals along the river were gone now, only three thousand soldiers stayed here guarding Wuchang. (From “Biography of Zhou Fang” in History of Wu in Records of the Three Kingdoms) 二十尚不足，十五頗有餘。 (She is) not yet twenty, but older than fifteen. (From “Song of the Mulberries” ) 武德令 :三萬户已 (以 )上爲上州。 The Wude code: A region in habited by more than thirty thousand households should be called a “large prefecture” . (From “Regulation of the Registration of Residents and Administrative Divisions” in The Dynastic Records of Tang) 策勛十二轉，賞賜百千强。 There are dozens of books about her merits, and the rewards she got are more than several hundred or thousand. (From “The Ballad of Mulan” ) 秋水才深四五尺，野航恰受兩三人。 The river in autumn is about four or five chis in depth. And the boat at the ford could take no more than two or three people. (From “My Neighbor by the South Side” by Du Fu)

The above examples of “九十餘” (more than ninety), “百許頭” (about one hundred) and “三千所” (around three thousand) are all approximate expressions close to the amount indicated by the given numerals. “餘” means a bit more than the given numeral; “許” , whose literal meaning is “situation or scene, means it could be either a little more or a little less than the numeral; and “所” is a loan character of “許” .“已上” means the given numeral serves as a range, which is slightly different from “餘” or “許” . The expressions like “四五” (four and five)  and “两三” (two and three) use two adjacent numerals to indicate that the number is either four or five, and either two or three respectively. A similar expression is  “百千强” (more than several hundred or thousand), in which “百千” indicates a numeral range, and “强” , like “餘” and “許” , means the amount is slightly more than the given number. This is integration of the two usages. The quote “二十尚 不足，十五頗有餘” (not yet twenty, but older than fifteen) also uses two adjacent  numerals to indicate the range, with characters like “餘” and “許” denoting the numeral range. Similar to the expressions of “以上” (and more) and “强” (more than), the usages of “以下” (and less) and “弱” (less than) are easy to understand so that no further examples are given here. Second, express approximate quantification useing characters like “数” “少 许” and “若干” . “少许” indicate a very small amount, as in the line of “傾身營 一飽，少許便有餘。” (I tried my best to make a living, with just a little more to spare) in Tao Qian’ s “Drinking Poems” . “數” is equal to “幾” in modern Chinese, as in the line of “數家砧杵 15秋山下，一郡荆榛寒雨中” (A few households at the autumn hillside are beating the garments. Alas, the entire region is covered by trees in a chilly rain) from Wei Yingwu’ s poem “A Message to Wang Qing from a High Tower” . “數家” (a few households) in this line is the same as “幾家” (some households) in modern Chinese. It should be noted that, in modern Chinese, “幾” 15

“砧杵” refers to the stone and sticks used to make clothes. The word here refers to the sound of making clothes.

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has two different usages: The first one is to express the amount, such as “上街去買 幾本書” (buy a few books in the streets) while the other is to inquire the amount, such as “要完成這個工作得幾天呢” (How many days does it take to finish the  work?). In ancient Chinese, the former usage is often realized with the character “數” . Sometimes “幾” can also express the amount, but such usage did not appear until the Tang Dynasty. Instead, “幾” is mostly used to inquire the amount, and its distinction from “數” is quite clear. In all the following examples, “幾” is to inquire the amount. 畏首畏尾，身其餘幾 ? [If you] are too scared to hurt your head and tail, how many parts of your body can be left unscathed? (From “The 17th Year of Duke Wen” in Commentary of Zuo) 平原君曰 :“先生處勝之門下，幾年於此矣 ?” 毛遂曰 :“三年於此矣。” Zhao Sheng said, “How many years have you stayed in my household?” Mao Sui said, “Three years to this day.” (From “Biographies of Zhao Sheng and Yu Qing” in Records of the Grand Historian) 罷琴惆悵月照席，幾歲寄我空中書 16? Sorrowfully I put aside the guqin, moonlight shining upon my seat. In which year will I receive a message by air? (From “A Farewell Poem to Kong Chaofu” by Du Fu) 不知楊侯去時，城門外送者幾人 ? 車幾兩 ? 馬幾匹 ?道邊亦有嘆息，知其爲賢 以 17否 ? Mr. Yang, when you left, how many people, how many carts and how many horses were seeing you off ? Someone sigh by the road because he knew you are a worthy man?  (From “A Passage in Dedication to Yang Juyuan” by Han Yu)

The two lines are quoted from a farewell poem by Du Fu. The expression of “幾 歲寄書” (in which year will the message be received) means when a letter will be sent to him. In this case, if “幾歲” (which year) was misunderstood as “數歲” (a few years), the meaning would be completely different.  “若干” is sometimes written as “如干” , as in the following examples. 問天子之年，對曰 :“聞之，始服衣若干尺矣。” When asked about the age of the king, the replier would say, “It was heard that the dresses are a few chis long now.” (From “Qu Li II ” in The Book of Rites) 是用綴輯遺文，永貽世範 18，爲如干帙 19，如干卷。 His works are thus collected and compiled to serve as a model for the future generations with a few folders and a few volumes as such. (From “Preface to the Collection of Wang Wenxian” by Ren Fang)

Unlike “數” “若干 (如干 )” implies an unspecific amount. “數” expresses 16

As Kong Chaofu wanted to become a hermit, the poem describes the scenes of the immortals. 空 中書 refers to the letters from the Heaven. 17 以 is the same as 與 . 18 永貽世範 , serve as a perpetual model for the future generations. 19 帙 , the cloth folder of books. 如干帙 is the same as 如干套 and 如干函 (a few folders as such).

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a general range or an indefinite amount is indefinite, whereas “若干” means a specific number without giving the definite numeral. As seen above, the usage of  “若干 (如干 )” is analogous to x and y in algebraic equations. In specific contexts,  definite numbers, such as “爲三帙三十卷” (three folders and thirty volumes), may be used.

12.2 Nominal Quantification, Verbal Quantification, and Classifiers 12.2.1  Classifiers of Nominal Quantification Classifiers are names of the units in counting objects. If there is a natural unit to  count the object, the corresponding classifiers are called individual classifiers. As  there are no natural units for measuring, length, area, volume, weight and time, people have to invent some units in this regard. There are two types of artificial units,  one with a fixed standard and system and the other without. The first case includes  measurements such as the following weights and measures, currency and time. 余既滋蘭之九畹 20兮，又樹蕙之百畝。 Nine fields of orchids at one time I grew, for melilot a hundred acres too. (From “Li Sao” in The Verse of Chu) 竹之始生，一寸之萌耳。 The life of bamboo starts with a tender shoot of only one cun. (From “Wen Yuke and His Painting of Bamboo” by Su Shi) 江流有聲，斷岸千尺。 The river is resounding, and the precipices stand one thousand-chi high. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff” by Su Shi)

The examples of quantification without fixed standard or systems are as follows. 惠施多方，其書五車。 Hui Shi is good at divination, and his writings can fill five carts. (From “In the Social World” in Zhuangzi) 今盜宗廟器而族 21之，有如萬分之一 22，假令愚民取長陵 23一抔土，陛下何以加其 法乎 24? If someone steals a utensil from the ancestral temple, his entire clan will be executed. 20

畹 equals to 12 畝 , or 30 畝 in a different theory.  族 , to have the entire clan executed. 22 萬分之一 , one in ten thousand. 23 長陵 is the tomb of the Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty. 24 何以加其法 . If the entire clan is to be executed for stealing a utensil from the ancestral temple, then what kind of punishment is proper for destroying the mausoleum? That is to say, it is not proper to execute the entire clan. 21

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Yet this crime only deserves one in the ten thousand of the punishment. Suppose a stupid man takes a handful of soil from the mausoleum of Chang Ling, how will Your Majesty punish him then? (From “Biographies of Zhang Shizhi and Feng Tang” in Records of the Grand Historian) 侏儒 25三尺餘，奉 26一囊粟，錢二百四十。 The dwarf is only three-chi tall, with a salary of a pouch of maize and two hundred and forty coins. (From “Biography of Dongfang Shuo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

In the above examples, “車” (cart) and “囊” (pouch) are containers. “抔” (to hold with cupped hands) in “一抔土” (a handful of soil) is a nominalized verb. All these artificial units have no fixed standards or systems. In most cases, the corresponding classifiers derive either from the names of the containers, or the nominalization of the verbs related to the containers. Even when a natural unit of measurement does exist, some objects are still counted as a whole rather than individually. Such classifiers are called collective  classifiers as follows. 子行三軍則誰與 27? If you command the three armies of the state, whom would you have to act with? (From “Shu Er” in The Analects of Confucius) 齊景公有馬千駟，死之日，民無德 (得 )而稱焉。 Duke Jing of Qi had a thousand horse teams, each having four horses, but on the day of his death, the people did not praise him for a single virtue. (From “Ji Shi” in The Analects of Confucius) 未知一生當著幾量屐 ? How many pairs of shoes does one wear in a whole life? (From “Generosity” in A New Account of Tales of the World) 船上看山如奔馬，倏忽過去數百群。 As I stay on a boat, the mountains flash past like galloping horses. In an eye-blink,  hundreds of clusters have passed by. (From “The Mountain View on the River” by Su Shi) 一隊佽飛 28争識我，健兒身手此文官。 A group of imperial guards know nobody but me and marvel at my athletic skill though I’ m a scholar-offical. (From “Collected Poems in the Year of Yihai” by Gong Zizhen)

According to the military system of the Zhou Dynasty; five hundred soldiers  form a brigade, twenty-five hundred soldiers a division, and one hundred twentyfive hundred soldiers an army. Although the individual count number is thirty25

侏儒 , the dwarf performer to please the emperor. 奉 is the same as 俸 . 27 誰與 , which one to command. 28 佽飛 was the name of a brave warrior in the State of Chu. It was later used to refer to warriors in general. 26

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seven thousand five hundred, all these soldiers are instead called “three armies” ,  in which “军” is a collective classifier. Similarly “駟” and “量” are both collective classifiers too. “駟” means four horses, and “量” is the loan character of “緉” . As explained in Shuowen Jiezi, “緉，履兩枚也。” (The word means a pair of shoes.) In other words, “一量” means a pair of shoes, socks or clogs. For all the collective classifiers discussed above, each unit consists of a fixed number of components.  However, among other classifiers, “群” (a group), “隊” (a team)，“輩” (a circle of acquaintance), and “行” (a row) do not have a fixed number of the components.  Expressions like the groups and teams are uesd merely for the sake of convenience. Individual classifiers first appeared in the Pre-Qin Period and were not welldeveloped, but later they increased over time. Finally, their usage became more popular in the Northern and Southern Dynasties, thus paving the way for the emergence of classifiers in modern Chinese. A few examples are illustrated below.  晉車七百乘。 There are seven hundred carriages in Jin’ s army. (From “The 28th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo) 晉人與姜戎要 29之殽 30而擊之，〔一〕匹馬〔一〕隻輪無反 (返 )者。 The army of Ji intercepted Jiang Rong’ s troops at the place of Xiao, and attacked him. Not a single horse or a wheel ever returned. (From “The 33rd Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Gongyang) 魏氏之武卒……操十二石之弓，負服 31矢五十個。 The soldiers in Wei’ s army… can draw a powerful bow weighing twelve stones, and carry fifty arrows in the pouch. (From “On Military Strategies” in Xunzi) 木千章 32，竹竿萬個，其軺車 33百乘，牛車 34千兩 (輛 )，木器髤 35者千枚。 Timbers of one thousand trees, ten thousand bamboos, one hundred light carriages, one thousand grand carriages, and one thousand pieces of lacquerware. (From “Biographies of Businessmen” in Records of the Grand Historian) 明日復戰，斬首三千餘級。 The battle resumed on the next day, beheading more than three thousand men. (From “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 但某一介庸才，三隅頑學 36。 As a man of mediocre talent, he is learning very hard. (From “Seven Month” in The Book of Twelve Months by Xiao Tong) 傳詔饒僧明奉宣敕旨，垂賚 37細綾大文畫柳蟬山扇二柄。 29

要 (yāo), to intercept. 殽 , the name of a place. 31 服 is the same as 箙 , the container of arrows. 32 章 is the same as 株 . 33 軺 (yáo) 車 , a light carriage. 34 牛車 , a grand carriage. 35 髤 (xiū), lacquerware. 36 三隅頑學 refers to a slow learner who cannot draw inferences and generalize quickly. 37 賚 , to give. 30

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The imperial edict is hereby issued to bestow two fans of fine twill with large characters and paintings of willows on the monk. (From “A Note of Gratitude for Fans ” by Xiao Gang) 蒙賚豹裘一領。 With gratitude I was given a leopard fur coat. (From “A Note of Gratitude for a Fur Coat from the Eastern Palace” by Xiao Gang) 得所送飛白書 38縑屏風十牒 (叠 )。 I was given ten screens with Feibai Calligraphy. (In “Reply to Xiao Ziyun’ s Present of Screens with Feibai Calligraphy” by Xiao Gang) 今故賚爾香爐一枚……今故賚爾大硯一面。 Today I gave you one incense burner… Today I give you a big ink stone. (From “Notes of Ten Bestowments to Lu Jingyou” by Tao Hongjing) 一寸二寸之魚，三竿兩竿之竹。 Fish of the length of one cun or two cuns, and bamboos in twos or threes. (From “Song of a Little Garden” by Yu Xin) 蒙賚乾魚十番。 I feel privileged to be given ten pieces of dried fish. (From “A Note of Gratitude for Dried Fish from Duke Zhao” by Yu Xin) 當時四十萬匹馬，張公嘆其材盡下 39。 There were four hundred thousand horses all over the country, yet most of them, Duke Zhang said, were just ordinary ones. (From “A Song of a Painting of Horses in Tianyu Stable” by Du Fu) 庭前把燭唤兩炬，峽口驚猿聞一箇。 Two candles are burning bright in the yard. A calling of startled monkeys is heard from the valley. (From “Going Home at Night” by Du Fu) 一片花飛減却春，風飄萬點正愁人。 As a flying petal decreases the joy of spring, ten thousand [dots] fluttering in the wind  can only sadden me. (From “The Meandering River” by Du Fu) 潭中魚可百許頭。 There are about one hundred fish in the pond. (From “On a Small Pond” by Liu Zongyuan)

Among the above examples, four are from the Pre-Qin Period, six from the Han Dynasty, eight from the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and five from the  Tang Dynasty. It should not be inferred, though, that these are the only extant examples of those dynasties, or that these examples only appeared in certain specific dynasties without repetition. All we can know is that there have always  been individual classifiers in ancient Chinese, and the number has significantly increased since the 220–589 AD. As objects are always measured in term of natural units, individual classifiers are not entirely necessary. There were not many individual classifiers in the Pre-Qin Period, as the quantity of documents and argumentative passages was limited. Even after the Tang and Song Dynasties, 38 39

飛白書 , a style of calligraphy. 下 , of a low level.

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especially in ancient Chinese, it was still a common practice to join a numeral and a noun directly, as shown in the following examples. 隸而從者，崔氏二小生 :曰恕己，曰奉壹。 The ones who went with us were two young men of Cui’ s, Shuji and Fengyi. (From “On a Small Pond” by Liu Zongyuan) 蘭、春有黨數十。 The gang of Shen Lan and Shen Chun has dozens of men. (From “The Legend of Xie Xiao’ e” by Li Gongzuo) 二客從予，過黄泥之坂。 Two guests followed me and traveled past Huangniban. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) 二馬並驅攢 40八蹄，二馬宛 41頸鬃尾齊；一馬任前雙舉後 42，一馬却 43避長鳴 嘶。……後有八匹飲且行，微流赴吻若有聲。……最後一匹馬中龍，不嘶不動尾摇風。 Two horses are standing, with eight hooves pressed closely. Two horses are bending the necks, with the mane level with the tail. One horse is putting its weight on the front legs and kicking the horse behind it, which is edging backwards and neighing. … There are eight more horses in the rear, prancing and drinking. The water flowing into the horse mouths seems to make a gurgling sound. … The last horse is the dragon among the herd, who is fluttering its tail vigorously without making any sound or moving its  body. (From “Han Gan’ s Painting of Fourteen Horses” by Su Shi) 一女郎由東而西。 A girl is walking from the east to the west. (From “Ying Ning” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 忽一老嫗扶杖出。 Suddenly an old woman holding a walking stick stepped out. (As above) 即煩阿姨爲汝擇一良匹。 I hope you could take trouble to find me a nice spouse. (As above) 我一姐適秦氏，良確。 I have a sister who married a man of Qin’ s. That is correct. (As above) 而女殊密秘，不肯道一語。 But she did not say a word about their privacy. (As above) 細視，非女，則一枯木卧墻邊。 A closer look shows it is not a girl, but a piece of dead wood lying against the wall. (As above) 女逾年生一子。 A year later the woman gave birth to a son. (As above)

Among the above examples, only the one from Su Shi’ s poem contained individual classifiers in its latter part. The passage of  “Ying Ning” , in particular, 40

攢 , to appose something together. 宛 , to bend. 42 任前 , to support its body with two front legs. 雙舉後 , lifting the two hind legs. 43 却 , to step back. 41

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contained a great many cases without individual classifiers. It shows that, even in  the Qing Dynasty, novels in classical Chinese still seldom used such classifiers.  The obligatory usage of individual classifiers in modern Chinese owes its origin  to their prevalence from the Northern and Southern Dynasties. As a matter of fact, such classifiers became popular in vernacular rather than written language. The number of individual classifiers is still growing, as they do have certain advantages  in expression. One advantage is to reveal certain features or properties of the object, such as “柄” (handle) for paper fans, and “面” (surface) for ink stones, “竿” (sticks) for bamboos, and “片” (piece) or “點” (dot) for petals. Another advantage lies in its clear distinction between various possible individual units. For example, there are two lines in “Ying Ning” : “捻梅花一枝” (Playing with a small twig of mume blossoms) and “執杏花一朵，俯首自簪” (holding an apricot blossom, lowering her head to stick it in her hair). What the girl was playing with was a twig, instead of a blossom; and what she tried to stick in the hair is a single blossom, instead of several blossoms. Such a subtle distinction is hard to clarify without the proper classifiers. The usage of individual classifiers is not entirely necessary yet helpful in some cases. Therefore, the mixed usage of individual classifiers, as shown in the example from Su Shi’ s poem “Han Gan’ s Painting of  Fourteen Horses” , always exists in ancient literature as well as recent writings. What we have discussed so far is mostly the classification of classifiers. The  following discussion mainly focuses on the combination of numerals and nouns, as well as other related issues. In the combination of a numeral and a noun, the numeral can be placed either before the noun, as in “二馬並驅攢八蹄” (Two horses are standing, with eight hooves pressed closely), or after the noun, as in “蘭、春有黨數十” (The gang of Shen Lan and Shen Chun has dozens of men). The classifier must be placed behind  the numeral. The combination of a numeral and a classifier can be placed either  in front of the noun, as in “一介庸才” (a man of mediocre talent),“三竿兩竿之 竹” (bamboos in twos or threes), “四十萬匹馬” (forty thousand horses),“一片花 飛” (one flying petal), or behind the noun, as in “首三千餘級” (beheading more than three thousand men),“豹裘一領” (one leopard fur coat),“魚百許頭” (around one hundred fish). When the numeral and numeral-classifier combination is placed  behind the noun, emphasis is usually laid upon the given number, which is also specifically counted and measured.  A good example in point is a line in Records of the Three Kingdoms, quoting a comment by Zhuge Liang, “豫州 44軍雖敗於長 阪，今戰士還者及關羽水軍精甲萬人，劉琦合江夏戰士，亦不下萬人” (Although Liu Bei’ s army was defeated in Changban, the number of soldiers who returned and the navy troops under Guan Yu’ s command still reaches the ten thousand. The soldiers collected by Liu Qi in Jiangxia also exceed the ten thousand). If the numeral word is “一” (one), and the classifier is placed ahead of the noun,  then the word “一” can be omitted, as in the previous example of “匹馬隻輪無 反者” (Not a single horse or a single wheel ever returned) from Commentary of Gongyang. Besides, “Integrity” in A New Account of Tales of the World contained 44

豫州 refers to Liu Bei here.

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such a sentence “尺布斗粟之謡，常爲陛下耻之” (The rhyme about a foot-long cloth and a bucket of grains always makes me shameful for Your Majesty), which is derived from a folk rhyme in the time of Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, “一 尺布，尚可縫；一斗粟，尚可舂；兄弟二人不能相容” (a piece of one foot-long cloth serves well to sew a garment; a bucket of grain allows of husking; yet two brothers are unable to tolerate each other). A similar example can be found in “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff  ” , “我有斗酒，藏之久矣” (I have a big bucket of liquor stored up for a long time). In modern Chinese, “個人” as in the sentence “找 個人來” (go and fetch a person) is also a case of numeral ellipsis of “一” (one), whereas the sentence “個人有些意見” (I have some personal opinions) is not a case of ellipsis. The expression of “個人” also can be found in ancient Chinese, yet with a totally different meaning. It means “這個人” (this person) or “那個人” (that person), as in Zhou Bangyan’s poem to the tune of “Auspicious Dragon” “黯 凝伫 45, 因念箇人痴小 , 乍窺門户。” (I was standing still, lost in my sorrow, thinking about the person of a petite size, who used to lean against the door and look around). The classifiers can be used alone to indicate the meaning of “each one” , which  is also a usage of nouns. Please see the following examples. 鄭伯使卒出豭，行出犬鷄，以詛射潁考叔者 46。 Duke Zheng ordered every one hundred soldiers to bring one boar and every twentyfive soldiers to bring one dog and one rooster, to curse the man who shot Ying Kaoshu.  (From “The 11th Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Zuo) 勸民務農桑，令口 47種一樹榆，百本薤 48，五十本葱，一畦韭；家二母彘 49，五鷄。 To encourage the local farming and agriculture, he required each person to plant an elm tree, one hundred seedlings of scallion, fifty seedlings of green onion, and a little  square land of chives, and each household to raise two sows and five chicken. (From  “Biography of Gong Sui” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 凡所應有，無所不有；雖人有百手，手有百指，不能指其一端；人有百口，口 有百舌，不能名其一處也。 All possible sounds that should exist can be heard. Even if each person had one hundred hands, and each hand had one hundred fingers, they would not be enough to  identify all the sounds. Even if each person had one hundred mouths, and each mouth has one hundred tongues, they would not be enough to tell all the positions of the sounds. (From “Preface to The Sounds of Autumn” by Lin Sihuan)

From a utilitarian point of view, quantities should be stated explicitly and directly. However, ancient Chinese texts do not always conform to such a 45

黯凝伫 , to stand still in sorrow. 卒 , one hundred people. 行 , twenty five people.  出 , to take out. 豭 , a boar. They used boars, dogs and chicken blood to cast curses. 47 口 , each and every person. 48 薤 (xiè)，the name of a plant with chive-like leaves. 49 彘 (zhì)，a pig. According to the annotation by Yan Shigu, it is raised in every household. 46

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principle; and sometimes, vague or ambiguous expressions are used instead. Such indirect expressions can be divided into two types. The first type involves the usage of multiplications, fractions or addition and subtraction, as shown in the following examples. 鮐、鮆千斤，鯫千石，鮑 50千鈞，棗栗千石者三之。 One thousand jins of mackerels and anchovies, one thousand dans of various small fish, one thousand juns of salted fish, and three thousand shis of jujubes and maize. (From “Biographies of Businessmen” in Records of the Grand Historian) 種豆三畝，粟倍之。樹 51梅花千，桃、杏居其半。芋一區，薤韭各百本。 He planted beans in three mus of cropland, and the maize area was double that of beans. He planted a thousand mume trees, and equal numbers of peach trees and apricot trees. He also grew taro in a piece of land, plus one hundred seedlings of scallion and one hundred seedlings of chive. (From “Biography of Wang Mian” by Song Lian) 牛大小十一頭，橐駝三頭，驢如橐駝之數而加其一焉。 Eleven cows of different sizes, three camels, and donkeys of just one more than the  number of camels. (From “A Passage About a Painting” by Han Yu)

The second type is to use the head, horn, tail or hoof as the unit of counting, as in the following examples. 馬蹄躈千，牛千足，羊、彘千雙，僮 52手指千。 A thousand mouths and hooves of the horse, a thousand hooves of the cow, a thousand pairs of sheep and pig, and a thousand fingers of slaves. (From “Biographies of Businessmen” in Records of the Grand Historian) 江草秋窮似秋半，十角吴牛放江岸。 The grass by the river is as scarce as in the end of autumn. Ten cows are grazing at the river bank. (From “Herding the Cattle” in “The Five Poems” by Lu Guimeng)

In the above examples, “千石者三之” means three thousand shis. “倍之” (double it) is six mus. “如橐駝之數而加其一” (one more than the amount of camels) is four. The character “躈” is written as “噭” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, which means mouth. “蹄躈千” (a thousand mouths and hooves) actually means two hundred donkeys. “手指千” (a thousand fingers) is one hundred people. Expressions like these cannot be deemed to be examples of typical usages, instead, they are rhetorical variations to avoid rigidity and can be reasonably accepted. As for the characters of “蹄” (hoof) and “角” (horn), they were used as measurement units merely for expediency, hence should not be regarded as classifiers.  Classifiers may vary in time and space. For example, the classifier for carriage  was “乘” in ancient times, and later became “輛”. The classifier for shoes was “緉”, 50

鮐 , 鮆 , 鯫 , 鮑 are all names of fish. 樹 is used as a verb here. 52 僮 , servants being traded as goods. 51

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and later became “雙” . Some classifiers used in ancient texts might seem quite weird today. It is not necessary to go to the details.

12.2.2  Verbal Quantification The number of words of verbal quantification is less than nominal quantification  in modern Chinese, and less in ancient Chinese. The most common way to express verbal quantification is to use a numeral as the adverbial to modify or restrict the  verb. Please see the following examples. 令尹子文三仕 53爲令尹，無喜色；三已 54之，無愠色。 The minister Zi Wen thrice took office, and manifested no joy in his countenance.  Thrice he retired from office, and manifested no displeasure. (From “Gongye Chang” in  The Analects of Confucius) 昔馬融三入東觀 55，漢代稱榮；張衡再典 56史官，晉朝稱美。 Ma Rong was admitted thrice to the Eastern Library, which was greatly honored in the Han Dynasty; Zhang Heng was appointed twice as head of historical records, which was highly appraised in the Jin Dynasty. (From “Preface to Historical Studies” by Liu Zhiji) 烏得不能，但須其人一誠求耳。 Of course I can, only upon very sincere requests. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories) 濯之當愈，然須親出一謝醫人也。 It will recover after the wash, but she must step out of the room to express gratitude to the doctor. (As above)

A less common usage is to place the numeral after the verb as its complement, on the condition that a proper classifier already exists. For example: 〔聶嫈〕乃大呼“天” 者三，卒於邑 57，悲哀而死〔聶〕政之旁。 (Nie Ying) screamed thrice “Heavens” in long wails, and died in great grief next to Nie Zheng. (From “Biographies of Assassins” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In the above example, if the indicating word of “者” is omitted, the entire sentence can hardly be acceptable. The common classifiers of verbal quantification in ancient Chinese include “遍 (徧 )” “回 (迴 )” “過” and “度” . For example, 53

仕 , to hold a government post. 已 , to be removed from the post. 55 東觀 , the place where the Confucius scholars in the Han Dynasty composed books. 56 典 , to be in charge of. 57 於 (wū) 邑 , the tearful look. 54

12.2  Nominal Quantification, Verbal Quantification, and Classifiers

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” 言 :“讀書百遍，而義自見。” 人有從學者， 〔董〕遇不肯教，而云 :“必當先讀百遍。 When some people wanted to learn from him, Dong Yu was reluctant to teach, and said, “You must read for one hundred times.” As the saying goes, “If you read it a hundred times, the meaning will present itself.” (From “The Historical Record of Wei” as quoted in “Annotated Biography of Wang Lang” of History of Wei in Records of the Three Kingdoms) 庭前八月梨棗熟，一日上樹能千回。 When the pears and jujubes in front of my hall became ripe in the autumn, I could climb up in the tree a thousand times in one day. (From “A Poem of Worries Hundredfold” by Du Fu) 舊書不厭百回讀，熟讀深思子自知。 The old books are still worthy of reading for a hundred times. You will understand them better after careful reading and rumination. (From “A Farewell Poem to Scholar An Dun” by Su Shi) 願書萬本誦萬過，口角流沫右手胝 58。 I would like to copy the passage for ten thousand times and read it aloud for ten thousand times, even if it means spittle at the corner of my mouth and callus on my right hand. (From “On Han Yu’ s Monument Inscription” by Li Shangyin) 一日不思量，也攢眉千度。 Even when I stop missing her for just one day, I would still frown a thousand times. [From A Ci-poem to the tune of “Zhouyele” (Joyful Day and Night) by Liu Yong] 對瀟瀟暮雨灑江天，一番洗清秋。 The rain at dusk is pelting down on the river. The landscape in autumn, after being drenched, seems so clear and cold. (From A Song to the tune of “Gan Zhou” by Liu Yong)

In the above examples, the numerals and classifiers are adverbials or complements. In view of the development trajectory, when the verbal classifier is  absent, the numeral mainly serves as the adverbial of the verb. When the verbal classifier is present, there is a growing tendency for the numeral or classifier to be  placed after the verb as its complement. Instead, modern Chinese is dominated by the practice in which the numeral or classifier is placed after the verb.  Verbal classifiers such as “下” (/xia/), “頓” (/dun/) and “场” (/chang/) probably came into being as early as in the Northern and Southern Dynasties, but these terms, especially the first two ones, are rarely found in ancient texts or poetry. Even when they did occur, the usage is identical to that in modern Chinese, so it is not necessary to elaborate any further on this point. Such expressions as “看 一眼” (take a look) and “砍一刀” (make a slash) are also rarely seen in ancient Chinese texts.

58

胝 , the callus due to frequent friction.

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12.3 Comparison A comparison can be made between different objects in terms of the degrees of  certain properties. According to the different degrees involved, there are three different types of comparison: equative, comparative and superlative. Equative construction means equal degrees without differences. Comparative construction  entails different degrees with one higher or lower than the other. Superlative construction identifies the highest level beyond comparison.  The equative construction usually contains characters such as “同” “齊” “如” “猶” “似” and “若” , as shown in the following examples. 西北有高樓，上與浮雲齊。 There is a tall building in the Northwest, its top being as high as the floating clouds.  (From “Nineteen Anonymous Poems” ) 草緑衫同，花紅面似。 The dresses are as green as the grasses, and the complexions are as red as the flowers.   (From “A Poem of Xingyu Mountain” by Yu Xin) 臣朔年二十二，長九尺三寸，目若懸珠，齒若編貝，勇若孟賁，捷若慶忌，廉 若鮑叔，信若尾生。 I, Shuo, am twenty-two years in age, and nine chis and three cuns in height. I have eyes as bright as pearls, and teeth as white and neat as lined-up shells. I am as brave as Meng Bi the great warrior, and I race as fast as Qing Ji the famous runner. I am as honest as Bao Shu the virtuous gentleman, and as faithful as Wei Sheng the loyal lover. (From “Biography of Dongfang Shuo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 以齊王 59，猶反掌也。 With the power of Qi, to rule the country is as easy as turning over one’s hand. (From “Gong Sun Chou I ” in Mencius)

When it comes to a comparison between two objects in terms of one particular feature, the feature could be either explicitly stated in the sentence, or not mentioned at all. In the second example above,“绿” (green) and “红” (red) are the features of comparison. The sentence means the grass is as green as the green dresses, and the flowers are as red as the red faces. In the third example,“勇” (brave),“捷” (fast), “廉” (honest) and “信” (faithful) are all features of comparison, and they are all clearly stated in the sentence. In contrast, the features of comparison are not stated in the first and fourth examples. Inferring from the general message, the sentences could be paraphrased as “其高與浮雲 齊” (as high as the floating clouds) and “猶反掌之易也” (as easy as turning over one’ s hand), as the height and easiness are the respective feature of comparison in the two sentences. The features of comparison are also omitted in the lines of “目 若懸珠，齒若編貝” (I have eyes as bright as pearls, and teeth as white and neat as lined-up shells) of the third example. If stated clearly, it should be “brightness” 59

以齊王 , to rule the country with the power of Qi.

12.3

Comparison

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and “whiteness and cleanness” respectively. Comparative construction indicates superiority or inferiority. A common expression of superiority is to use preposition “於” and its object as the complement of the adjective as follows. 與人善言，暖於布帛，傷人之言，深 60於矛戟。 A nice remark feels warmer than cotton and silk, but a hurtful remark cuts deeper than a spear or halberd. (From “On Honor and Disgrace” in Xunzi) 或重於太山，或輕於鴻毛。 It may be weightier than Mount Tai, or lighter than a goose feather. (From “A Letter to Ren An” by Sima Qian)

In some occasions, “乎” instead of “於” is used, or neither is chosen, as in the following examples. 飽食終日，無所用心，難矣哉！不有博弈者乎！爲之，猶賢乎已 61。 The Master said, “Hard is it to deal with those who will stuff himself with food the  whole day, without applying his mind to anything good! Are there not gamesters and chess players? To be one of them would still be better than doing nothing at all.” (From “Yang Huo” in The Analects of Confucius) 退而讓頗，名重〔於〕太山。 He was modest to Lian Po, and his reputation puts Mount Tai to shame. (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” in Records of the Grand Historian) 趨人之急，甚〔於〕己私。 He always rushes to help others and cares about their business more than his own business. (From “Biographies of Swordsmen” in Records of the Grand Historian) 名高〔於〕北斗星辰上，身墮南州瘴海間。 With a great fame higher than the stars and constellations, he was reduced to the miasmatic land by the Southern Sea. (From “A Farewell Poem to Hu Bangheng” by Wang Tinggui, as quoted in Essays on the History of the Song Dynasty and “Gui Er” A Collection of Essays)

To express inferiority, such words as “不若” and “不如” can be used to connect the two objects in comparison. For example: 十室之邑，必有忠信如丘者焉；不如丘之好學也。 In a hamlet of ten families, there may be one honorable and sincere man like Confucius, but no one would study as hard as him.” (From “Gongye Chang” in The Analects of Confucius) 曰 :“獨樂樂 62與衆樂樂，孰樂 63?” 曰 :“不若與衆〔之樂〕。” 60

深 , being hurtful. 猶賢乎已 , it is still better than doing nothing at all. 62 樂樂 (yuè lè), to appreciate the music, to enjoy. 63 樂 (lè)，being enjoyable. 61

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Mencius asked, “Which is more enjoyable, to appreciate the music alone, or with others?” The king said, “It is more enjoyable to have fun with others.” (From “King Hui of Liang II ” in Mencius)

In the above examples, “必有忠信如丘者焉” (There may be one honorable and sincere man like Confucius) is an equative construction, while “不如丘之好學 也” (but no one would study as hard as Confucius) is a comparative construction. All the above comparative constructions involve two objects. A different type of  comparative construction, though, contains only the object being evaluated, with the other object being compared with what is omitted. Such a construction is realized by means of the modifiers of “superiority” . For the direct expression of  excellence or superiority, such characters as “甚” “大” , and “良” are often used, as in the following examples. 步樂召見，道陵將率 64得士死力，上甚説 (悦 )。 Buyue was summoned to the court, and reported that Li Ling was very capable of commanding his fearless and faithful soldiers. The emperor was quite pleased. (From “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 咄！少卿良苦。 Duo! You’ ve done a hard work indeed. (As above) 二子大懼，皆起，立牀下。 Greatly frightened, the two young men both stood up and got off their seats. (From  “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu)

To express an even higher degree, characters like “尤” “更” “愈” “彌” “益” and “滋” are often used as follows. 水遠，怎知流水外，却是亂山尤遠。 The rivers are going far away. How would I know that, when the rivers end, the ragged mountains are going even further. (From A Song to the tune of “Lament in the Pavilion” by Wang Yisun) 蟬噪林愈静，鳥鳴山更幽。 The forest feels more tranquil as cicadas are chirping. The mountain becomes quieter amid the bird song. (From “Boating on the Ruoye River” by Wang Ji) 退而修《詩》、《書》、《禮》、樂，弟子彌衆。 Instead, he compiled The Book of Songs, The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, and The Book of Music, and his students were in a large number. (From “The Household of Confucius” in Records of the Grand Historian) 自秦漢以來，作者益衆。 Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, the number of writers has become even greater. (From “Li’ s Library” by Su Shi)

64

將率 , to lead or to command.

12.3

Comparison

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子不聞夫越之流人 65乎 ? 去國數日，見其所知 66而喜；去國旬日，見其所嘗見於 國中者而喜；及期年 67也，見似人 68者而喜矣。不亦去人滋久，思人滋深乎 ? Have you not heard of the wanderer from Yue? When he had been gone from the State several days, he was glad when he saw any one whom he had seen in it; when he had been gone a month, he was glad when he saw any one whom he had known in it; and when he had been gone a round year, he was glad when he saw any one who looked like a native of his homeland. The longer he was gone, the more deeply did he miss the people. (From “Xu Wugui” in Zhuangzi)

Judging from modern Chinese, the six complements, including “尤” and “更” , all means “更加” (more), yet finer distinctions can be made among them.  “尤” “更” or “愈” indicates a stronger sense of comparison than “甚” “大” or “良” . “彌” “益” or “滋” “進而不止” (keep increasing). “彌衆” or “益衆” refers to “increasing day by day” , and “滋久” and “滋深” mean “increasingly longer” and “increasingly deeper” respectively. In essence, comparative constructions based on these complements also involve two different objects. For example,“甚 悦” (quite pleased) is the result of comparison with “悦” (pleased), 愈静” (more peaceful) expresses the result of comparison with the atmosphere of a cicada-free forest, and “益衆” (the number has become even greater) is the result of comparison with the situation before the Qin and Han Dynasties. In these cases, the other objects in comparison are not explicitly stated. The superlative constructions often contain such superlative adverbs as “最” “至” and “極” , which modify the feature in comparison, as in the following examples. 東極大海，跨蓬壺，見最高仙山。 As he reached the sea in the east and crossed Penghu, the highest celestial mountain could be seen. (From “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” by Chen Hong) 大學之道，在明明德，在親民，在止 69於至善。 The principle of higher education consists in preserving man’ s clear character, in giving new life to the people, and in dwelling in perfection, or ultimate good. (From “The Great Learning” in The Book of Rites) 山非極高水非深，無一直處方耐尋。 The mountain is not lofty, and the river is not deep, but twists and turns make each sight worth exploring. (From “A Poem of Mountain View” by Huang Jingren)

Another form of superlative construction is to use “無” or “莫” to deny the existence of anything comparable so as to affirm the peerless status of the object in  question. The examples are as follows.

65

流人 , people who wandered to a foreign land. 所知 , the acquaintances. 67 期年 , after a whole year. 68 似人 , someone who looks like a fellow countryman. 69 止 , to reach the destiny and stay there. 66

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敝邑所甚悦者，無大〔於〕大王。唯 70儀之所甚願爲臣者，亦無大〔於〕大王。 People in the town where I live loves no one else but Your Majesty. I, Zhang Yi, am willing to serve for no one else but Your Majesty. (From “Stratagems of Qin” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 察鄰國之政，無如寡人之用心者。 No one studies the politics of other countries as diligently and attentively as I do. (From “King Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius) 禍莫憯 71於欲利，悲莫痛於傷心，行莫醜於辱先 72，而詬 73莫大於宫刑。 Nothing is more disastrous than coveting profit for oneself; nothing is more sorrowful  than a broken heart; nothing is more hideous than humiliating one’ s ancestors, and nothing is more shameful than the punishment of castration. (From “A Letter to Ren An” by Sima Qian) 救寒莫如重裘，止謗莫如自修。 Nothing keeps warm better than a heavy fur coat, and nothing stops gossip better than cultivating oneself. (From “Biography of Wang Chan” in History of Wei in Records of the Three Kingdoms)

In the above examples, “無大大王” (no one else but the King) means the local people loves nobody else in the same way as they love the King (The King is the object of “悦” (like) and “願” (be willing to serve for). In other words, he is loved the most and served with the most willingness. In another sentence, “止謗莫如自 修” means the best way to stop gossips is to cultivate oneself. In these examples, as well as all the others, the sentence always contains an equative or comparative construction that sounds similar to the comparative construction of “不如” (not as good as) or “不若” (not better than). Such a form used to be improperly classified  as a type of comparative construction in Ma’s Treatise on Chinese Grammar. As a matter of fact, “不如” means not better than, or a little less than, whereas “無如” (no other but) means there is no one as good as it, which is actually the denial of the existence of anything comparable. Obviously, the latter construction should be classified as a superlative construction. 

70

唯 , an introductory particle. 憯 is the same as 慘 . 72 辱先 , a humiliation to one’s ancestors, referring to the punishment of castration, which mutilate a man’s body, bringing shame to himself as well as his ancestors from whom his body is derived. 73 詬 , shame. 71

Chapter 13

Compound Sentences and Conjunctions

There are a great number of long simple sentences in modern written Chinese, and they tend to contain a lot of coordinated structures and modifying components. Such sentences, however, are rare in ancient Chinese, and complicated topics are mostly expressed by compound sentences. Like in modern Chinese, compound sentences in ancient Chinese are constructed by means of “parataxis” and connective words which connect the clauses. Parataxis is the internal connection between the clauses, while connective words are mostly conjunctions and a few adverbs. The inter-clausal relations in compound sentences have been elaborated on in courses of modern Chinese, and can be applied to ancient Chinese. What should be noted, however, is the fact that different connective words are used in modern  and ancient times. As a matter of fact, there has never been a comprehensive and consistent classification of the inter-clausal relations in compound sentences. All  the Chinese grammarians can do, at most, is to reach a common view lest mistakes or biases, and an understanding of these fundamentals that help analyze the structures of compound sentences. In the following discussion, only the sentences of relatively simple structures are selected as examples of the sentence structures. Besides, conjunctions are used, mostly but not solely, to connect clauses, so that only some of the functions of conjunctions can be discussed along with compound sentences. In other words, the conjunctions used in certain types of compounds deserve further explanation. Therefore, this chapter will cover the functions of a few important conjunctions that matter more bearing than the classification of  compound sentences.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_13

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13.1 Examples of the Compound Sentences 13.1.1  Coordinate Compound Sentences (1) Compound sentences 君子食無求飽，居無求安。 A man of honor does not seek to gratify his appetite, or find any comfortable dwelling  for himself. (From “Xue Er” in The Analects of Confucius) 故吾不害其長而已，非有能碩茂之也；不抑耗其實而已，非有能蚤而蕃之也。 So, I just don’ t hinder its natural growth; and there is nothing special about making it grow taller or bigger. As such, I don’ t inhibit the fruit-bearing process or reduce its fruit; there is also no magic that can let it bear more fruit. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan)

(2) Contrastive sentences 矢人 1唯恐不傷人 2，函人 3唯恐傷人。 Arrow-makers fear that their arrows cannot bring enough hurt to the enemies, while armor-markers just fear that the opposite thing may happen. (From “Gongsun Chou I ” in Mencius) 秦亦不以城予趙，趙亦終不予秦璧。 The State of Qin didn’ t give its cities to the State of Zhao, and Zhao didn’ t give its jade ware to Qin. (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” in Records of the Grand Historian) 象、犀、珠、玉，怪珍之物，有悦於人之耳目而不適於用；金石、草木、絲麻， 五谷六材，有適於用，而用之則弊，取之則竭。 Precious items such as ivory, rhinoceros horns, pearls and jade may please the eye and ear, but have no practical use; practical things like gold, stone, grass, wood, silk, hem, as well as various grains and materials either will decay or run out after use. (From “Li’ s Library” by Su Shi)

(3) Progressive sentences 公語之故，且告之悔。 He told him the reason and expressed his regret too. (From “The 1st Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Zuo) 非獨〔聶〕政能也，乃其姊亦烈女也。 Not only is Nie Zheng a hero, but his sister is also a brave woman. (From “Biographies

1

矢人 , the arrow-makers. 不傷人 , the arrows cannot bring enough hurt to the enemies. 3 函人 , the armor-makers. 2

13.1

Examples of the Compound Sentences

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of Assassins” in Records of the Grand Historian) 豈但祁岳與鄭虔，筆迹遠過楊契丹 4。 The painter not only outshines the famous painters Qi Yue and Zheng Qian, but also puts Yang Qidan to shame. (From “On Liu Dan’ s Newly Painted Landscape Screen” by Du Fu) 蔓草猶不可除，況君之寵弟乎 ? It’s difficult to get rid of the creeping weed, not to mention your younger brother who  is in favor now. (From “The 1st Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Zuo)

In the above example, “況君之寵弟乎” (not to mention your younger brother who is in favor now) is a rhetorical question. The entire sentence means that, even the weed, once it started creeping, is hard to uproot, let alone the king’ s younger brother. If he is allowed to grow in power, it will be more difficult to deal with him. The subsequent clause takes a step forward with the mood of a rhetorical question. (4) Sequence sentences 秦王大喜，傳〔璧〕以示美人及左右，左右皆呼“萬歲！” The Duke of Qin was greatly pleased, showing (the jade) to the ladies and servants around him, and they all hailed “Long live the king!” (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” in Records of the Grand Historian) 已而相如出，望見廉頗，相如引車避匿。 A few days later Xiangru went out, saw Lian Po, and diverted his carriage to avoid meeting him. (As above) 侯生視公子色終不變，乃謝 5客就車。 Seeing that the prince’ s look did not change at all, Hou Ying bid farewell to the guests and went to board the carriage. (From “Biography of Prince Wei” in Records of the Grand Historian) 詔高力士潛搜外宫，得弘農楊玄琰女於壽邸。 According to the imperial order, Gao Lishi secretly searched for beauties outside the royal palace, finding Yang Xuanyan’ s daughter at the mansion of Prince Shou. (From  “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” )

(5) Selective sentences 〔兵刃既接，棄甲曳兵 6而走 7，〕或百步而後止，或五十步而後止。 (As soon as the battle started, some soldiers threw away their armor sets and fled,  weapon in hand.) Some kept one hundred steps and stopped, while some others merely 4

祁岳 , 鄭虔 , 楊契丹 are all the names of famous painters. 謝 , to bid farewell to. 6 兵 , weapons. 7 走 , to flee.  5

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ran fifty steps. (From “King Hui of Wang I ” in Mencius) 〔且以季布之賢，而漢求之急如此，〕此不北走胡，即南走越耳。 Ji Bu is a worthy man indeed. No wonder that the Han court is eager to get him or else he would run the Huns in the north or to the Yue in the south. (From “Biographies of Ji Bu and Luan Bu” in Records of the Grand Historian)

13.1.2  Modifying Compound Sentences (1) Transitional sentences 周勃厚重少文，然安劉氏者必勃也。 Zhou Bo is stable, honest and dislikes literature. Despite that, when the House of Liu is in jeopardy, he will surely come to their resue and bring peace to the world. (From “Biography of Emperor Gaozu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 今者薄暮，舉網得魚，巨口細鱗，狀如松江之鱸，顧安所得酒乎 ? Today, at dusk, we cast a net and caught a fish with a big mouth and fine scales, which looks like a bass in the Song River. But where can we find the wine? (From “The  Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) 孺人不憂米鹽，乃勞苦若不謀夕 8。 My mother Ruren did not need to worry about rice and salt in daily life, but she still worked hard as if there were no dinners available. (From “Stories of My Deceased Mother” by Gui Youguang)

(2) Causal sentences 夫趙强而燕弱，而君倖於趙王 9，故燕王欲結納於君。 The State of Zhao is powerful while the State of Yan is weak. You gained the favor of the Duke of Zhao, so the Duke of Yan wanted to get acquainted with you. (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” in Records of the Grand Historian) 以其境過清，不可久居，乃記之而去。 As the place was too bleak to stay long, we made a record and left. (From “On a Small Pond” by Liu Zongyuan) 打起黄鶯兒，莫教枝上啼；啼時驚妾夢，不得到遼西。 I hit the tree to scare away the oriole, so that it will no longer chirp on the branch. Otherwise its chirping would wake me up, making me unable to dream about Liaoxi. (From “Sorrows in the Spring Time” by Jin Changxu)

In the third example above, the final two sentences provide the reason, and the  sentence “莫教枝上啼” (so that it will no longer chirp on the branch) explains the purpose of the first sentence “打起黄鶯兒” (I hit the tree to scare away the oriole). 8 9

若不謀夕 , as if there were no dinners available. 倖於趙王 , to gain the favor of the Duke of Zhao.

13.1

Examples of the Compound Sentences

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(3) Hypothetical sentences 人而無恒，不可以作巫醫。 A man who has no persistence cannot be a doctor. (From “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius) 果能此道矣，雖愚必明，雖柔必强。 In this way, even a fool can become prudent, and a weak man can become strong. (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites) 若遇公於洪波之中，玄山之間，鼓以鱗鬚，被以雲雨，將迫毅以死，毅則以禽 獸視之，亦何恨哉 ? If I meet you in a deluge among the precipitous mountains, seeing you shaking the scales and whiskers and summoning the cloud and rain, trying to kill me via force, I would simply regard you as a monster, and die without any regret. (From “A Legend of Liu Yi” by Li Chaowei) 禦建德之役，既陳 (陣 )未戰，太宗望見一少年騎驄馬，鎧甲鮮明，指謂尉遲公 曰 :“彼所乘馬，真良馬也。” 言未已，敬德請取之。帝曰 :“輕敵者亡。脱以一馬損公， 非寡人願。” The Emperor confronted Dou Jiande in a decisive battle. When they had deployed the troops and the battle was yet to start, the Emperor saw a young man riding on a sturdy steed in glittering armors. The Emperor said to Yuchi Jingde, “What a magnificent steed  he is riding!” Before the utterance was finished, Jingde offered to catch the horse. The Emperor said, “He who despises the enemy will meet his end. If I lose a general just for a horse, it is not what I want.” (From Stories in Sui and Tang Dynasties by Liu Su)

(4) Conditional sentences 人有所不爲也，而後可以有爲。 Men must abandon one thing if they want to accomplish another thing. (From “Li Lou II ” in Mencius) 惟賢惟德，能服於人 10。 Only one’ s worth and virtue can convince others. (From “An Imperial Edict for Liu Shan” by Liu Bei)

(5) Concession sentences 老僕雖棄，將軍雖貴，寧可以勢奪乎 ? I am a useless old man while you are a privileged general. Even so, how dare you plunder my land by force? (From “Biographies of Dou Ying, Tian Fen and Guan Fu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 即饑寒毒熱不可忍，不去也。 Even though he suffered unbearable hunger, coldness or heat, this person would not  leave. (From “A Letter to Liu Yizhang” by Zong Chen)

10

能服於人 , to convince people sincerely.

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(6) Preference sentences 禮，與其奢也，寧儉。 In festive ceremonies, it is better to be frugal than extravagant. (From “Ba Yi” in The Analects of Confucius) 與吾得革車千乘也，不如聞行人燭過之一言。 I would rather hear an utterance from Messenger Zhu Guo the civil official, than obtain one thousand carriages. (From “The Merit of Honesty” in The Annals of LüBuwei)

If there is no parataxis, the inter-clausal relationship would be indicated by conjunctions or some adverbs, which are also noteworthy. For example, the first clause in a progressive sentence usually contains words such as “不 但” “不獨” “不特” “不徒” “非徒” “非獨” “匪特” “匪惟” “豈但” and “豈獨” , while the second clause usually uses “且” “又” “亦” and so on. Or the first clause contains “尚” “猶” and “且” , and the subsequent clause uses “況” or “矧” , with these two words sharing the meaning. In sequence sentences, the latter clause is usually led by “遂” “乃” “然後” “於是” and so on. In selective sentences, each clause contains the word “或” , or the previous clause contains “不” and the subsequent clause uses “即” . The latter clause in a transitional sentence often contains “然” “顧” “但” “第” “特” and so one. In these cases, “但” “第” and “特” , carrying the tone of concession, are equivalents of “不過” in modern Chinese. In causal sentences, “以” is used in the clause of reason/cause uses “以” , while “故” “是以” and “是故” are used in the clause of result. In hypothetical sentences, the first clause usually uses “如” “若” “果” “使” “令” “假令” “假如” “设” “脱” and so on, and “则” is often used in the subsequent clause. The first clause in a conditional sentence  often contains “必” or “惟” . The first clause in a concession sentences often contains “雖” , while words like “然” and “猶” , or “豈” , “寧” and “詎” are used in the subsequent one; or on different occasions, the previous clause contains “縱” “即” and “即令” , and the subsequent one uses “亦” . As for preference sentences, the first clause uses “與其” 11, and the following clause uses “不如” “不 若” “豈若” “豈如” and “孰若” ; or the first clause uses “寧” (would rather), and the subsequent one contains “不” or “豈” to deny the choice. All in all, knowing with these connective words well can greatly facilitate your analysis of the interclausal relationships of most compound sentences.

13.2 The Usage of Some Conjunctions This section discusses a few conjunctions, which serve to connect different words  and phrases or different clauses. Anyway, we will not differ words or phrases connected together from clauses connected together. 11

Only a single word of “與” is used in The Annals of Lü Buwei, which should be regarded as a rare case.

13.2

The Usage of Some Conjunctions

263

13.2.1 “而 ” and “则 ” The usages of “而” and “则” in ancient Chinese are so complicated that you can hardly find their proper counterparts in modern Chinese. The word “而” can be used to indicate coordination, subsequence, transition, contrast, hypothesis or suchlike. For instance, “而” indicates a coordinate relationship as follows. 飲且食兮壽而康。 With food and drinks, may you live long and prosper. (From “A Compliment Poem to Li Yuan on His Return to Pan Gu” by Han Yu) 他植者則不然，根拳而土易…… Unlike me. Other planters make the tree roots curl up and use fresh instead of old soil. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan)

When used to express a sequence,“而” indicates that one thing happens before another, or one thing exists or happens as the result of the previous one. 學而時習之。 Learn, and constantly review what you’ ve learn. (From “Xue Er” in The Analects of Confucius) 光弼用兵，謀定而後戰，能以少覆衆。 As a gengeral, Guangbi made plans before a war. This is why he could defeat enemies that far outnumbered his men. (From “Biography of Li Guangbi” in New History Book of the Tang Dynasty)

Each example indicates that one action should be taken before the other action. 玉在山而木潤，淵生珠而崖不枯。 If there is jade in the mountain, the woods will be luxuriant; if there is pearl in the deep pool, the valley will not be barren. (From “On Learning” in Xunzi) 若防 12大川焉，潰，而所犯 13必大矣。 It is like guarding the levees of a great river. Once they breach, the damage must be huge. (From “Discourses of Chu” in Discourses of the States) ……甚者爪其膚以驗其生枯，摇其本以觀其疏密，而木之性日以離矣。 … Some even went so far as to scratch the bark to test if the tree is still alive or to shake the roots to see if the tree dense or sparse. In this way, however, the tree will deviate more and more from its innate nature with each passing day. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan)

In the above three examples, “而” indicates that one thing happens as the result of the previous. In other words, the woods are luxuriant as the result of the jade in 12 13

防 , levees. It is used as a verb here. 犯 , damage.

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mountains, and the valleys are not barren as the result of the pearl in the deep pool; great damage can arise from the breaching of the levees; the tree deviates from its nature because of the aforementioned improper caring. In the first two examples,  “而” can be replaced by “则” , while in the last sentence, it can be replaced by “於是” . When “而” is used to indicate transition, the two objects or events it joins are usually opposite in nature. See the following examples: 子温而厲，威而不猛，恭而安。 The Master was gentle yet stern; majestic but not fierce, respectful yet easy. (From  “Shu Er” in The Analects of Confucius) 其妻問所與飲食者，則盡富貴也，而未嘗有顯者 14來。 His wife asked with whom he ate and drank, he said they were all wealthy and honorable people. And yet no dignitaries ever come. (From “Li Lou II ” in Mencius) 曾日月之幾何，而江山不可復識矣。 How many days and months have passed, but the rivers and mountains are now beyond recognition. (From “The Second Visit to the Red Cliff ” by Su Shi) 楚雖有富大之名，而實空虚；其卒雖多，然而輕走 15易北 16。 Though Chu sounds like a state of power and wealth, it is in fact weak and poor. Though its soldiers are great in number, they are always reluctant to fight and easy to  defeat. (From “Biography of Zhang Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In all the above examples except the first one,“而” can be translated as “可是、 但是” (but). The word in the first example also carries some meaning of “but” , but its tone is slightly weaker. The second and third examples are transitional compound sentences, and the fourth is a concession sentence, with the first clause  expressing concession about certain facts or possibilities, and the second clause stating a denial or negation with a strong tone of transition. “而” is sometimes used for contrast, as in the example below. 左右曰 :“秦西巴有罪於君 17，今以爲子傅 18，何也 ?” 孟孫曰 :“夫一麑而不忍，又 何況於人乎 19?” His attendants said, “Qin Xiba has failed you, but you still made him the teacher of your son. Why?” Meng Sui said, “He cared so much even for a fawn, let alone a person.” (From “On Human World” in Huainanzi)

14

顯者 , dignitary. 輕走 , reluctant to fight.  16 北 , to be defeated. 17 As the story goes, Meng Sun once hunted a fawn and asked Qin Xiba to take it home. Qin could not bear the crying of the doe and finally set the fawn free. That is why it is said that Qin had once  failed Meng Sun. 18 以爲子傅 , Meng Sun appointed Qin Xiba as the teacher of his son. 19 何況於人 , it means Qin would take good care of Meng’s son as well. 15

13.2

The Usage of Some Conjunctions

265

In the above example,“而” functions in the same way as “尚” “且” or “猶”, indicating that the care for a fawn serves as a contrast to the care for a person. In contrastive sentences, the small or the insignificant usually serves as the contrast of the big  or the significant. The first clause states a contrast, while the second clause makes  a progression. “而” can also be used in a hypothetical sentence, as in the following examples. 子産而死，誰其嗣之 ? If Zi Chan dies, who will be his heir? (From “The 30th Year of Duke Xiang” in Commentary of Zuo) 人而無恒，不可以作巫醫。 A man who has no persistence cannot be a doctor. (From “Zilu” in The Analects of Confucius)

In these sentences, “而” means “要是” (if). Furthermore, “而” can be used to join adverbials and predicates, as in the following examples. 子路率爾而對。 Zilu replied hastily. (From “Xian Jin” in The Analects of Confucius) 其隟 20(隙 )也，則施施 21而行，漫漫而游。 In spare time, I strolled and roamed at leisure. (From “A Visit to the Western Hill” by Liu Zongyuan)

The character “而” in such sentences does not play a specific role, and its function is no more than the soothing of the intonation. “则” is usually used to indicate sequence, retrospect, contrast or classification.  For the sequential function, it means that one thing happens after another thing or one thing comes as a result of another thing. In some cases, “则” can indicate chronological sequences, cause-effect relations or the results of hypothetical or conditional statements. Please see the following examples. 韓信使人間 22視，還報 23，則大喜。 Han Xin sent a man to observe in secret, who returned to report, then Han Xin was greatly pleased. (From “Biography of Lord Huaiyin” in Records of the Grand Historian) 予樂而如其言，則崇其臺，延其檻，行其泉之高者而墜之潭。 I took his advice with great pleasure. Then I raised the platform, extended the handrails, channel the spring water to the height and then fall into the pond. (From “Gumu Pond” by Liu Zongyuan) 20

隟 , the spare time. 施施 , slowly and casually. 22 間 , to spy on something. 23 還報 means Chen Yu did not take the advice of Li Zuoche. 21

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Compound Sentences and Conjunctions

諸兒見家人泣，則隨之泣。 As the children saw other family members crying, they cried too. (From “Stories of My Deceased Mother” by Gui Youguang) 王如知此，則無望民之多於鄰國也。 Since Your Majesty knows this, you need not hope that your people will become more numerous than those of the neighboring kingdoms. (From “King Hui of Liang I ” in Mencius) 三十日不還，則請立太子以絶秦望 24。 If I don’ t return in thirty days, please crown the prince to force Qin to abandon its plan. (From “Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru” in Records of the Grand Historian) 其蒔也若子，其置也若棄，則其天者全而性得矣。 When planting the seedlings, I treat them like my own children. When leaving them to grow, I behave as if I were careless about them. In this way, the nature of trees can be preserved. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 凡事豫則立，不豫則廢；言前定，則不跲 25 ；事前定，則不困；行前定，則 不疚 26。 In all things, success depends on previous preparation, and without such previous preparation there is sure to be failure. If what is to be spoken be previously determined, there will be no stumbling. If affairs be previously determined, there will be no difficulty  with them. If one’ s actions have been previously determined, there will be no trouble in connection with them. (From The Doctrine of Mean in The Book of Rites)

In the first two examples, “则” indicates a chronological sequence, that is, the man felt pleased when he knew that someone returned to report, and the reconstruction happened after the purchase of the land and houses by Gumu Pond. The third example expresses a causal relationship. The fourth and fifth example  state the results or consequences of hypotheses. The last two examples express the expected results if certain conditions are satisfied. These cases of “则” are respectively equivalent to “乃、 於是” (in the first and second examples), or “就” (in the third examples), or “那麽” (in the fourth, fifth and sixth examples). “则” in the last example can also be translated as “就” , that is, “凡是一件事情，有了準備就 能成功，没有準備就要敗壞……” (When it comes to anything, preparation will let you succeed and no preparation will make you fail). In fact, the sentence means “有了準備，那麽能成功……” (If you make preparations, you can succeed). As the statement involves a very strong argumentative logic, either condition determines the result, so that “则” can be translated as “就” . In the previous example of “玉在山而木潤” (If there is jade in the mountain, the woods will be luxuriant), “而” can be replaced by “则” . There are, of courses, cases where they are not interchangeable. For example, “奪門而出” (to force 24

If Duke Zhao was detained by the State of Qin, then Zhao should crown the prince to rule the country. Without a coercive advantage, Qin would have to abandon its plan. 25 跲 (jiá), to stumble or meet a trouble. 26 疚 , get in trouble.

13.2

The Usage of Some Conjunctions

267

open the door and rush out) cannot be re-written as “奪門則出” (if you force open the door, then you can rush out). In the above examples, the character “则” in the fourth and fifth sentences cannot be replaced by “而” either. Generally speaking, although both characters can express sequence, it is not proper to use “而” in hypothetical or inferential sentences, as indicated in the two examples. The sentence “凡事豫則立，不豫則廢” (Whatever you do, preparation can assure you of success; instead, without preparation you will fail) can also be changed into “凡 事豫而立，不豫而廢” , which means “以豫而立，以不豫而廢” (the preparation will lead to success, while no preparation will cause failure); this interpretation merely gives the reasons for success and failure. The original expression, however, is a proper inference. The emphasis of the rephrased sentence lies in “豫” (preparation) and “不豫” (no preparation), whereas that of the original sentence lies in the character “则” . “则” can be used to join two clauses in a retrospective sentence, with the second clause, containing “则” , and describes the status quo of a certain event. The time of this event is often much earlier, or at least no later than the event stated in the first clause. The character “则” in such a sentence expresses the original status of the event, as in the following examples. 使子路反見之，至，則行矣。 The Master ordered Zilu back to see him again, but when he arrived there, the old man had gone away. (From “Wei Zi” in The Analects of Confucius) 其子趨而往視之，苗則槁矣。 His son went to see the crops in a hurry, only to find that the seedlings had already  withered. (From “Gong Sun Chou I ” in Mencius) 使使 27往之 28主人，荆卿則已駕 29而去 30榆次矣。 A messenger was sent to visit the place of the landlord, only to be told that Jing Ke had already left Yuci in a carriage. (From “Biographies of Assassins” in Records of the Grand Historian)

“则” can also be used to contrast two objects, with both explicated stated in the sentence, as in the example below. 故吾不害其長而已，非有能碩茂之也；不抑耗其實而已，非有能蚤而蕃之也。 他植者則不然，根拳而土易，其培之也，若不過焉則不及。 So I just don’ t hinder its natural growth; and there is nothing special about making it grow taller and bigger. As such, I don’ t inhibit the fruit-bearing process or reduce its fruit; there is also no magic that let it bear more fruit. Unlike me, other planters make the tree root curl up and use fresh soil instead of old soil. Overall, they just care too much about the tree or do not care about it enough. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan) 27

使使 , to send a messenger. 之 , to reach. 29 駕 , to drive a carriage. 30 去 , to leave. 28

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In this example, “则” is used to demonstrate the differences between “他 植者” (other planters) and “吾” (me), connecting the two objects in contrast. Some ancient Chinese texts, however, described only one party of comparison or contrast, for example, 定 31人之謂禮。楚一言而定三國，我一言而亡之。我則無禮，何以戰乎 ? Bringing peace to others is called rites. The State of Chu used one single sentence to bring peace to three states, whereas we used a sentence to destroy them. It’ s obvious that we have no rite.So, how can we fight this time? (From “The 28th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo)

“我則無禮” (we have no rite) is only one side of the story, implying the other side “非楚無禮” (It’ s not Chu that has no rite). This is in fact an expedient expression. Contrastive descriptions indicated by “则” may also appear in concession sentences, as in the examples below. 其室則邇，其人甚遠。 His house is close by, but he is far away. (From “The Land by the East Gate” , Odes of Zheng in The Book of Songs) 楚則失矣，而齊亦未爲得也。 The State of Chu made a mistake, but the State of Qi did not necessarily do the right thing. (From “Song of the Royal Hunting” by Sima Xiangru)

The first example contrasts a house with a person, which means, although two people are living close to each other, their minds are far apart. “则” in this sentence carries the meaning of “確是” or “固然” (although), making a concession for the theme stated in the subsequent clause. “则” in the second example has the same meaning, but the sentence presents a similarity instead of a difference.  Similar expressions like “善則善矣，而未盡善也” (Good as it is, it is still not perfect) are also concession sentences, presenting the gains and losses of an object or an affair. Obviously they are derived from the construction of “室邇人遠” (The house is nearby but the man is far away), with “则” in the first clause.  When it comes to classification, “则” is usually used in a series, with each component indicating the meaning of “論到……，那就……” (speaking of … then…). For example, 漢之得人，於兹爲盛。文學，則司馬遷、相如；滑稽，則東方朔、枚皋；應對， 則嚴助、朱買臣…… This epoch of the Han Dynasty abounded with luminaries. In terms of literature, there were Sima Qian and Sima Xiangru. In view of eloquence, there were Dongfang Shuo and Mei Gao. As to suggestion-offering, there were Yan Zhu and Zhu Maichen…. (From 

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定 , to pacify.

13.2

The Usage of Some Conjunctions

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“Biography of Gongsun Hong” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

In the above example, “文學” (literature),“滑稽” (eloquence) and “應對” (suggestion-offering) are different categories, while names like “司馬遷” (Sima Qian) are different humans that belong to the categories. Usage as such is thus called classification.  A further point to note is the construction combining “而” or “则” with “然” , as follows. “鄒人與楚人戰，則王以爲孰勝 ?” 曰 :“楚人勝。” 曰 :“然則小固不可以敵大，寡 固不可以敵衆，弱固不可以敵彊 (强 )。” “If the people of Zou should fight with the people of Chu, which state does Your Majesty think will win the war?” “The people of Chu will win.” “Yes, a small country cannot defeat a great country; likewise, a handful of people cannot defeat the enemies that far outnumber themselves; and the weak cannot overbear the strong.” (From “King Hui of Liang” in Mencius) 三里之城，七里之郭 32，環而攻之而不勝。夫環而攻之，必有得天時者矣，然而 不勝者，是天時不如地利也。 There was a city, with an inner wall of three lis in circumference, and an outer wall of seven lis. Though this city is besieged and attacked, the enemy does not take it. The besiegement and attack should owe their origin to some favorable natural condition. But why does the enemy not subjugate the city? That’ s because the natural condition is not so important as the geographical advantage. (From “Gong Sun Chou II ” in Mencius)

In both examples, there should be a pause following the character “然” , that is, “然，則小固不可以敵大……” (Yes, a small country cannot defeat a great country) and “然，而不勝者……” (But why does the enemy not subjugate the city?). The first sentence means “If this is the case, then the small country certainly  cannot defeat a great one” , and the second sentence means “even in such case they still cannot take the city” . The character “然” is used to confirm the previous  statement, and “则” in the second clause indicates inferences, and “而” indicate transition in meaning. Such a construction represents the typical usage of “然則” and “然而” in ancient Chinese. In actual usage, however, the meaning of “然” becomes less significant. In the example from “Biography of Zhang Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian, “楚雖有富大之名，而實空虚；其卒雖多，然而輕走易北” (Though Chu sounds like a state of power and wealth, it is in fact weak and poor. There are a great number of soldiers, but they are always reluctant to fight and easy to defeat), “然而” is equivalent to “然” . Sometimes “然而” can be reduced into “然”, serving as a transitional conjunction. In modern Chinese writings, “然而” (but) has become a singular conjunction of transition, whereas “然则” has become a singular conjunction of sequence, meaning “那么” (then).

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郭 , the outer city.

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13.2.2 “因 ” The word “因” (tap into/rely on) in ancient Chinese is different from “因爲” (because) in modern Chinese. “因” used to be a verb with the meaning of “to depend on” . 爲高必因丘陵，爲下必因川澤 33。 A high terrace must be built relying on the terrain of the hill while a pond must be dug relying on the water of the stream or marsh nearby. (From “Li Lou I ” in Mencius) 因利乘便，宰割天下，分裂河山。 Tapping into these advantages, the State of Qin sliced off parts of the other states and  redivided the territory of the world. (From “The Fall of Qin” by Jia Yi) 公等録録 34，所謂因人成事者也。 You guys are mediocre and rely on others to achieve success. (From “Biographies of Zhao Sheng and Yu Qing” in Records of the Grand Historian) 梁鴻少孤，詣太學受業，同房先炊已，呼鴻及 35熱釜炊。鴻曰 :“童子不因人熱 者也。” 滅竈更燃火。(《東觀漢記》，《太平御覽》卷七五七引 ) Liang Hong was orphaned at a young age. While he was learning in the imperial college, his roommate finished cooking and asked Hong to use the still-hot cooker to  cook. Hong said, “I will not rely on others for the heat.” Then he damped down the stove and made a fire again. (From “Dong Guan” Records of the Han Dynasty, as quoted in Imperial Readings of the Tai Ping Era, Vol 757) 〔公孫鞅〕因孝公寵臣景監以求見孝公。 (Gongsun Yang) begged for the reception of Duke Xiao with the help of the minister Jing Jian. (From “Biography of Shang Yang” in Records of the Grand Historian) 又因厚幣用事者臣靳尚，而設詭辯於懷王之寵姬鄭袖。 With expensive gifts he bribed Minister Jin Shang, who fabricated a slander and told Lady Zheng Xiu, a concubine of the King. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian)

The character “因” is used in the above sentences with slightly different shades  of meaning. “因丘陵” “因川澤” and “因利” mean, respectively, to make use of the terrain of the hill, the water of the stream or marsh, and existing advantages. “因人成事” means to rely on others to achieve success. “因人熱” means to use others’ cooker while it is still hot. “因景監” means to get help from a man called Jiang Jian. However, in all these examples, the character “因” is used as a verb, and the main idea is “to depend on or to rely on something or somebody” . Therefore, it can be extended to the usage of expressing reasons. For example:

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The mountains are high, so, to raise a thing high, we must depend on a mound or a hill; The rivers are low, in order to dig to a great depth, we must make use of the low ground of a stream or a marsh. 34 録録 , the look of obedience. 35 及 , to take the advantage of something.

13.2

The Usage of Some Conjunctions

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因前使絶國 36功，封〔張〕騫博望侯。 Because of his previous credit of serving as an envoy to a remote country, Zhang Qian was honored as Duke of Bo Wang. (From “Biographies of Wei Qing and Huo Qubing” in Records of the Grand Historian)

The meaning of “因” in the above example is almost the same as “因为” (because) in modern Chinese, yet the structural features are still different. “因 为” in modern Chinese is used to connect clauses, while “因” in this example is followed by a nominal modifying phrase “前使絶國功” (his previous credit of serving as an envoy to a remote country). “因” in this case is actually equivalent to “由於” (because of), which is a preposition rather than a conjunction. When serving as a conjunction in ancient Chinese, “因” , unlike “因爲” , is often placed at the beginning of the second clause, similar in meaning to “於是” (then), “遂” or “乃” , as shown in the following examples. 單父人吕公善沛令 37，辟仇從之客，因家焉。 Mr.Lü, who came from Danfu, was on good terms with the governor of Peixian County and hid in the governor’ s place to avoid his enemies38. Then he settled down over there. (From “Annals of Liu Bang the Emperor Gaozu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 宅邊有五柳樹，因以爲號焉。 There are five willows by my house, therefore I named myself after the willows. (From  “The Story of Five-Willow Gentleman” by Tao Qian) 謂劉曰 :“吾不解世俗書，子爲我書。” 因高吟曰 :“龍頭縮囷蠢，豕腹漲彭亨。” He said to Liu, “I don’ t know the worldly writing, you can write it down for me.” Then he chanted in a loud voice: “The dragon’ s head is retracted timidly, the pig’ s belly is bloated like a balloon.” (From “Preface to A Poem of Shiding Lianju” by Han Yu) 賀以其問之異，因反詰之。 He Sheng found his questions very strange, and then countered him with another question. (From “A Story of Rui Yun” in A Collection of Bizarre Stories)

The connection indicated by “因” in the above examples lies somewhere between causation and sequence. In fact, they can all be replaced by “遂” or “乃” . In particular, the third example involves no causal relationship at all, therefore the word “因” in this case is different from either “因爲” (because) or “所以” (so) in modern Chinese. Such a distinction should be discerned with great care.

36

使絶國 , to serve as an envoy to a remote country. 善沛令 , be on good terms with the governor of Peixian County 38 辟仇從之客 , to hide in the governor’s place to avoid his enemies. 辟 is the same as “避”. 37

13

272

Compound Sentences and Conjunctions

13.2.3 “ 縱 ” and “ 雖 ” Either “縱” or “雖” can be used to connect the modifying clause in concession sentences. As “縱” is rarely used in modern Chinese, it is now replaced by “即 使、就算” (even if). But “即使” or “就算” is distinctly different from “雖” , the former two indicate a hypothetical concession while the latter indicates a factual concession. For example, 理論雖然聽起來很高明，可是還没有經過實踐的檢驗。 Theories sound reasonable, but they are yet to be tested in practice. 即使理論聽起來很高明，也未必能付之於實踐。 Even some theories may sound reasonable, they may not be put into practice.

The former example admits that theories sound reasonable, while the latter simply states a hypothesis that theories may sound reasonable, implying the possibility that “some theories can be unreasonable” . “縱” in ancient Chinese is not completely equivalent to “即使” or “就算” in modern Chinese. Please see the following examples. 縱我不往，子寧不嗣音 39? Even though I do not go to visit you, why don’ t you send me a word? (From “Zi Jin” , Odes of Zheng in The Book of Songs) 縱江東父老憐而王我 40，我何面目見之 ? Even if the people of Jiangdong, out of sympathy, still regard me as their King, how can I bring myself to face them? (From “Annals of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian) 章臺柳，章臺柳，昔日青青今在否 ? 縱使長條似舊垂，亦應攀折他人手。 The willow in Zhangtai, the willow in Zhangtai, it was so lush before, is it still over there now? Even if a long branch is still weeping as before, someone else must have plucked it off by hand. (From “The Story of Lady Liu” by Xu Yaozuo)

The character “雖” in ancient Chinese is not entirely the same as its counterparts in modern Chinese. Actually, it may indicate a factual or hypothetical concession as follows. 老僕雖棄，將軍雖貴，寧可以勢奪乎 ? I am a useless old man while you are a privileged general, Even so, how dare you plunder my land by force? (From “Biographies of Dou Ying, Tian Fen and Guan Fu” in Records of the Grand Historian)

39 40

嗣音 , to keep sending messages. 王我 , to regard me as a king.

13.2

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雖有五男兒，總不好紙筆 41。 Although I have five sons, none of them has any interest in reading and writing. (From  “A Poem of Encouragement for My Sons” by Tao Qian)

The above sentences indicate that, Duke Weiji lost his power and status while Duke Wu’ an was in power, and that Tao Qian had five sons. “雖” is used to confirm these  facts. Its usage can be found in the following hypothetical concessions. 果能此道矣，雖愚必明，雖柔必彊 (强 )。 In this way, even a fool can become prudent, and a weak man can become strong. (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites) 君不聞大魚乎 ? 網不能止，鈎不能牽；蕩 42而失水，則螻蟻得意 43焉。今夫齊， 亦君之水也。君長有齊陰 44，奚以薛爲 45? 失齊，雖隆 46薛之城到於天，猶之無益也。 Have you heard of a giant fish? It can never be contained by a net or held by a hook.  Yet in a different situation, where there is no water, it may fall prey to a tiny bug or an ant.  Now the entire state of Qi is like the water to you. As long as you enjoy the protection of Qi, what do you want from the city of Xue then? Once you lose the State of Qi, even if Xue were surrounded by the sky-high walls, it would still be of no avail. (From “Stratagems of Qi” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 孟子謂戴不勝曰 :“……有楚大夫於此，欲其子之齊語也，則使齊人傅諸 47，使楚 人傅諸 ?” 曰 :“使齊人傅之。” 曰 :“一齊人傅之，衆楚人咻 48之，雖日撻而求其齊 49也， 不可得矣……” Mencius said to Dai Busheng, “…Suppose that there is a great officer of Chu here,  who wishes his son to learn the speech of Qi. Will he in that case employ a man of Qi as his tutor, or a man of Chu?” “He will employ a man of Qi to teach him,” said Busheng. Mencius went on, “If but one man of Qi is teaching him, and there are a multitude of men of Chu continually shouting out about him, even if his father beats him every day, wishing him to learn the speech of Qi, it will still be impossible for him to do so….” (From “Teng Wen Gong II ” in Mencius)

In the above examples, the usage of “雖” is the same as that of “即使” or “就算” (even if), especially in the second example, as no city wall can be as high as the sky, such a statement is definitely hypothetical. 

41

紙筆 refers to reading and writing. 蕩 , to transfer. 43 得意 , to be capable of overpowering the big fish and feeding on it.  44 陰 is the same as 蔭 . 有齊陰 , to be under the protection of the State of Qi. 45 奚以薛爲 means what do you want from the city of Xue then? 46 隆 , to raise. 47 傅諸 is the same as “傅之乎”. 傅之 , to be his master. 48 咻 , to shout and make noise. 49 求其齊 , to ask him to speak in the tongue of Qi. 42

Chapter 14

Sounds, Rhymes and Tones

14.1 Pronunciation Changes and Chinese Phonology When it comes to Chinese language phonological changes are the most complicated and most significant of all. In The Book of Songs, the songs were collected from different dynasties and states throughout five hundred years, ranging from Qi in  the east to Qin in the west. Since the verses and songs were collated according to yayan, or the literal language, they maintained consistency in rhyme and meter. However, since the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, folk songs and ballads manifested a great disparity in their use of rhymes, as indicated in the following examples. 衆心成城，衆口鑠金。 Efforts of many people can build a city; slanders in public can melt a metal. (From  “Discourses of Zhou” in Discourse of the States) 日已夕兮予心憂悲，月已馳兮何不渡爲，事寢 1急兮將奈何。 The sun is setting and my heart is filled with sorrow. The moon is rising fast, why  don’t you cross the river yet? What would you do when there is something urgent? [From Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue(《吳越春秋》)]

The rhymes in the above examples are different from those in The Book of Songs. To be specific, “城” and “金” or “悲” and “爲、何” were actually used in these ballads though they do not belong to the same rhyme division. The 1

寢 is the same as “寖”, gradually.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_14

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Verse of Chu and The Book of Songs differ from each other dialectally as well as  historically. The rhymes used in these two classic books, however, are different  from those in poetry of the Han Dynasty, which are different from those in the poetry of the Tang Dynasty too. The Song Dynasty witnessed more complex practices of sound coordination, as word pronunciations became even more divergent with the literary works incorporating more colloquial expressions. Please see the following example. 芳徑，芹泥雨潤。愛貼地争飛，競誇輕俊。紅樓歸晚，看足柳昏花暝。應自棲 香正穩，便忘了天涯芳信。愁損翠黛雙蛾，日日畫欄獨憑。 On a path fragrant, the grassy earth is cleansed by a fresh rain. The swallows are flying low with a swift gait. They return to the red chamber late, enjoying the willows  and flowers in the twilight to the fullest. They must be feeling at ease in their nests, forgetting to bring the message to the far distance. Every day the girl frowns and worries, leaning on the windowsill alone. (From a poem to the tune of “A Pair of Swallows” by Shi Zuda)

In the second half of the poem, “徑” “暝” , and “憑” belong to the same division with the ending rhyme of /-eng/ or /-ing/; while “潤” “俊” “穩” and “信” belong to another division with the ending rhyme of /-in/ or /–en/. These two rhymes are incompatible usually, but were used together in this work. Another example is given as follows. 閲人多矣，誰得似長亭樹。樹若有情時，不會得青青如此。 Having seen too many people in parting, who else can be as lonesome and solitude as the willow by the pavilion? If a tree had feelings, it would not have been so lush green. (From a poem to the slower tune of “Lament in the Pavilion” by Jiang Kui)

In the above example, “樹” rhymes with “此” , which was not usually allowed in the modern poetry of the Tang or Dynasty. In ancient Chinese, many phonetic loan characters can be used interchangeably because they once shared the same pronunciation. However, their phonetic or phonological relations are difficult to discern after great changes in this regard. For  example, in the line of “光被四表” (The honorable deeds and virtues are spreading far and wide) from “In Honor of Yao” in The Book of Documents, the character of “光” can be written as “横” , as both “光” and “横” were loan characters of “廣” , but they later developed different pronunciations. Besides, “於戲” is the phonetic loan for “嗚呼” , and “遜遁”2is for “逡巡” , yet their pronunciations became quite divergent. The same is true for phono-semantic characters. The phonetic radical of “江” is “工” , the phonetic radical of “悦” is “兑” , and the phonetic radical of “講” is “冓” , but the connection between the characters and the radicals are no longer obvious. As for many polysyllabic words, including alliterative 2

From “Biography of Yang Lun”, Biographies of Scholars in Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty.

14.1  Pronunciation Changes and Chinese Phonology

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compounds or rhyming compounds such as “委蛇” “差池” “孟浪” and “文莫” 3, since the modern pronunciations reveal little about their phonological connection, the written characters might induce a different interpretation astray from their original meanings. All the complex changes mentioned above are more significant than those in  grammar, lexis or semantics. On the other hand, many issues about ancient Chinese grammar, vocabulary and characters, such as particles, loan characters and phonosemantic characters, can only be analyzed in a phonological manner. Moreover, phonological issues are always involved in our understanding or appreciation of classic literature. Besides, such issues are of great importance to the learning of ancient Chinese language. The study of the patterns of sound changes in history is called phonology, and an important division of traditional Chinese phonology is “ancient phonology” . The present study focuses on not only the ancient phonology before the Sui and the Tang Dynasties, but also the pronunciations and rhymes from the Tang and Song Dynasties. We will discuss the linguistic phenomena, the literary application, and the relationship between ancient and modern Chinese phonology. Phonological changes occur to the system of sounds and rhymes. Since there are no vivid materials available, ancient Chinese phonology has to rely on the written materials like books or documents of three different sources. The first is  all the linguistic records in ancient texts. The great number of samples of phonetic loan characters, exegesis, dialects, polysyllabic words and rhyme coordination, once sorted out carefully, can reveal the phonological phenomena in each historical period. The second source is the character books and rhyme books, which are materials that were arranged in the past. The analytical methods, such as radicals and sound classes, character and word analysis, the meaning and phonological radicals, variant forms and pronunciations, are all forms of factual observation of the phonological system. The third source is the characters and writings about sound coordination as early as the Xia, the Shang or Zhou Dynasties (mainly The Book of Songs and The Verse of Chu), and as late as the great number of odes, poems and drama from the Han Dynasty onwards. A careful study of the rhyme development helps us better appreciate the musicality in these verses and understand the historical characteristics, which are sometimes beyond the scope of rhyme books based mostly on categories and divisions. All the above sources of materials afford us five different aspects of ancient Chinese phonology: rhyme coordination, phono-semantic characters, phonetic loan characters, exegesis, and poly-syllabic words. Rhyme coordination or consistency is mainly based on the verses in ancient times, such as the following example quoted from “Guan Ju” , Odes of Zhou and the South in The Book of Songs. 參差荇菜，左右采之，窈窕淑女，琴瑟友之。 Now gather left and right, the cresses sweet and tender; O lute, play music bright, for 3

“文莫” is the same as “黽勉”, as in the ancient pronunciation, the onset of “文” is the m-sound.

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the bride fair and slender!

Another example is quoted from “Fu Yi” , Odes of Zhou and the South in The Book of Songs. 采采芣苢，薄言采之；采采芣苢，薄言有之。 The plantain herbs are lush and lovely, let us gather them all. The plantain herbs are luxuriant and abundant, let us collect them all.

In the two examples, the pronunciation of “采” is coordinated with that of “友” “有” and “苢” , which is different from the pronunciations in later times. According to many verses in the Pre-Qin Period, these characters followed the same rhyme, and the early-ancient pronunciation of “有” and “友” belongs to the same rhyme division as “采” and “苢” . There are some other examples. 爰有寒泉，在浚之下；有子七人，母氏勞苦。 The cold spring has its source in the land of Jun. With seven sons in total, the mother is still toiling in hard labor. (From “Gentle Breeze” , Odes of Bei in The Book of Songs) 古公亶父，來朝走馬，率西水滸，至于岐下，爰及姜女，聿來胥宇。 The former King Danfu came and herded the horses in the morning. He marched westward, along the riverbank, until he arrived at the foot of Mountain Qi. Danfu then married a girl with the family name of Jiang, and together they surveyed the landscape and the household. (From “Mian” , Greater Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs)

In the above examples,“下” rhymes with “苦” “父” “馬” “滸” “下” “女” and “宇” . There are, however, lines in “Xiang Jun” in Nine Songs in The Verse of Chu as follows. 鳥次兮屋上，水周兮堂下。 The birds are perching on the roof of the house, the water is flowing in front of the  grand hall. 裊裊兮秋風，洞庭波兮木葉下。 How gentle is the autumn wind, ruffling the Dongting Lake and blowing the fallen leaves.

In the above two examples, “下” rhymes with “渚” “予” “浦” and “女” . While the pronunciation of “下” remains the same as in The Verse of Chu and The Book of Songs, it is different from that in modern Mandarin, but similar to certain  vernacular sounds in modern Wu dialect. The character of “予” had different pronunciations in later times. When used as a pronoun (“me” ) it has a flat tone,  and when used as a verb (“give” ) it has a rising tone. In the examples from The Verse of Chu; however, “予” as a pronoun still had a rising tone, indicating that the early-ancient pronunciation of this character made no distinction in tones.

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The poetry and prose in the Tang Dynasty observed the divisions in rhyme books4. Yet some popular rhymes and folk songs kept records of the actual usage of some sounds at that time, such as“Song of a Lute Player” by Bai Juyi. 今年歡笑復明年，秋月春風等閑度。弟走從軍阿姨死，暮去朝來顔色故。門前 冷落車馬稀，老大嫁作商人婦。 Pleasure and laughter from one year to the next, while the autumn moon and spring breeze passed unheeded. Then her brother joined the army, her aunt died, and the days and nights slipped by and her beauty fades. No more carriages and horsemen thronged her gate, and growing old she became a merchant’ s wife.

In this example, the sound of “婦” is coordinated with “度” and “故” , which is inconsistent with the conventional rhyme books in the Tang Dynasty. It is possible that, in this poem, Bai Juyi adopted the local accent of Chang’ an at that time5. Rhymes in the popular verses in the Yuan Dynasty were different from the traditional ones in the Tang or Song Dynasty. Please see the following example from a musical piece to the tune of Zheguiling (Picking the Osmanthus) by Yu Ji. 美乎周瑜妙術，悲夫關羽雲徂。 Splendid is Zhou Yu’ s smart strategies, sorrowful is Guan Yu’ s sacrifice. 

In the above example, “乎” “瑜” “術” “夫” “羽” and “徂” are all rhymes. In old-time rhyme books, the character “術” had an entering tone, but here it was coordinated with the characters with a level tone and a rising tone. This is because the rhymes in Yuan verses were based on the Northern Dialect at that time, in which most of the entering tones were classified as the other three tones. Though  different from the ancient tonal system, it is in fact closely tied to the phonology of  modern Mandarin. The voluminous materials of ancient verses afford us an understanding of not  only the phonological features of different historical ages, but also the rhyming techniques adopted in different genres across the ages. The knowledge about instances of sound coordination also helps us better appreciate the verses of various genres in different ages.  4

There is no way to fully grasp the actual usage of rhyme books in the Tang Dynasty, yet the study of rhyme books was indeed in prime time then. According to Preface to Supplementary Edition of Qieyun in the Tang Dynasty by Sun Mian, “若細分其條目，則令韻部繁碎，徒拘桎於文辭耳。” (If the entries and items are made to fine, the rhyme divisions will become too complicated and fragmented to use in literary compositions), which seems to indicate that this rhyme book is compiled for the use of diction and literature. 5 At the time of Emperor Xuanzong in the Tang Dynasty, Yuan Yanjian compiled A Rhyme Book of “Yun Ying”, which is now lost. According to the records quoted in Pronunciations and Meanings of Buddhist Texts by Huilin, the rhymes used by Bai Juyi in this poem are consistent with Yun Ying(《韻 英》, a rhyme book). Huilin also pointed out that Yun Ying was based on the Chang’an accent, so it is different from the book of Qieyun (Cutting Rhymes) by Lu Fayan.

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With regard to phono-semantic characters, the sound changes make it difficult  to discern the connection between the phonetic radical of a character and its modern pronunciation. Please see the following examples. 江　工聲 The phonetic radical of “江” (/jiang/) is “工” (/gong/). 强　弘聲 The phonetic radical of “强” (/qiang/) is “弘” (/hong/). 宜　多聲 The phonetic radical of “宜” (/yi/) is “多” (/duo/). 等　寺聲 The phonetic radical of “等” (/deng/) is “寺” (/si/). 聲, 六聲 續　賣聲 , 聲 , The phonetic radical of “續” is “賣” or “ ” The phonetic radical of “ ” is “ ” The phonetic radical of “ ” is “六”

Admittedly, some of the examples above reflect changes of graphological features, but the disconnection between the phonetic radicals of the characters and their own pronunciations are largely due to phonological changes. The phonosemantic characters are not made at the same time, and every historical age has a few newly coined phono-semantic characters, as indicated in the following quote from Shuowen Jiezi. 鬲，鼎屬。㽁，漢令，鬲從瓦厤聲。 “鬲” belongs to the category of 鼎 . The character of 㽁 was a new character in the Han Dynasty. The pronunciation of “鬲” is the combination of the sounds of “瓦” and “厤” .

In this entry, the characters of “鬲” and “㽁” are graphological variants, and especially the latter is phono-semantic character that was coined in the Han Dynasty. Analysis shows that this pair of phonological variants have similar or identical pronunciation to “鬲” and “厤” in the Han Dynasty. A contemporary example is the creation of character “砼” 6 based on the fact that, nowadays, “仝” and “同” have the same pronunciation. According to Shuowen Jiezi, however, the pronunciation of “仝” is the same as that of “全”，so it could not have served as the phonetic radical of “砼” . Ancient books are teeming with phonetic loan characters. As a means to carry meaning with sounds7, such characters are supposed to have the same pronunciation as the original characters. Sound changes and transformations, however, make it difficult to identify the phonetic loan characters; and thus, their  meanings are sometimes inadequately or even wrongly interpreted. Therefore, 6 7

The pinyin of 砼 is /tóng/，and the meaning is concrete. See Section 2 in Chapter 2, Structure of Chinese Characters.

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the phonological rules of ancient Chinese are essential for the identification of phonetic loans and meaning interpretations. In previous studies on ancient Chinese phonology, the examination of phonetic loan characters costs the most effort and  time, and attains the greatest achievements. As stated in Shuowen Jiezi, “忍，能也” (to endure means to be capable), yet the meaning of “能” seems unrelated to “忍耐” . In fact, “能” is a phonetic loan character of “耐” , which originally was a variant form of “耏” . According to Shuowen Jiezi, “耏，罪不至髠也” (a punishment lighter than head shaving); therefore its literal meaning is a slight punishment of shaving off the sideburns. The  meaning of endurance, on the other hand, is also derived from phonetic loans. Such a case of successive phonetic loans is almost impossible for accurate interpretation. “Li Yun” in The Book of Rites contains a sentence “故聖人耐以天下爲一家、中 國爲一人者，非意之也” (The saint regards the entire world as a family, and the entire country as one person, this is not his willful conception) In Zheng Xuan’ s annotations, “耐，古能字也” (“耐” is the ancient form of “能” ). As the character of “熊” has the same sound as “能” , it can be inferred that the ancient pronunciation of “能” is interchangeable with that of “耐” , hence the two characters can be regarded as phonetic loans. In Du Fu’ s “A Collection of Quatrains” there are two lines “不如 醉裏風吹盡，可忍醒時雨打稀” (I would rather see them blown away by the wind when I’ m drunk, and I couldn’ t bear to see them smashed in the rain when I am awake.) The word “可忍” is the same as “可耐”。The interchangeable use of the pronunciations still exists in some dialects of modern Chinese. Another example is from The Book of Songs. 遄臻于衛，不瑕有害。 I rush back to my homeland of Wei. Oh, would this bring any trouble or calamity? (From “Spring water” in Odes of Bei in The Book of Songs) 胡不萬年。 How wouldn’ t I wish him a long life and a lasting reign? (From “Cuckoos” , Odes of Cao in The Book of Songs) 遐不謂矣。 Why don’ t I tell him? (From“The Mulberry Trees” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs, yet quoted from“Biao Ji” in The Book of Rites as “瑕不謂矣” )

In the above examples, “不瑕” is the same as “遐不” , meaning “wouldn’ t my act” . The characters of “瑕” “遐” “胡” and “何” are all phonetic loan characters having the same pronunciation, and their meanings have to be interpreted according to the sound. As for “瑕” in the song of “Spring Water” , though acknowledged as a phonetic loan of “遐” in Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs, it was still interpreted as “not far” , thus regarding “遐” as the original character rather than a phonetic loan. Here are some examples from Zhuangzi.

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是其言也，其名爲吊詭 8。 Remarks as such should be called weird and uncanny. (From “Discussion of the Equality of Things” in Zhuangzi) 彼且蘄以諔詭幻怪之名聞。 The man is famous for his weird and uncanny remarks. (From “The Sign of Virtue Complete” in Zhuangzi)

In the above examples, “吊詭” is the same as “諔詭” . Other variant forms in ancient books include “卓詭” “俶詭” and “倬詭” . The pronunciations of these graphological variants at present are very different from each other, yet their ancient pronunciations were similar or even identical, thus being used interchangeably. Such an occurrence is not uncommon in the literary works in later ages, which contained not only traditional phonetical loan characters but also newly coined ones, as shown in the example below. 馬上誰家白面郎，臨階下馬據人牀。 Who is that frivolous young gallant on horseback? He dismounts from his horse, ascending the steps and sitting on the bed. (From “Song of Youth” by Du Fu)

“白面” is the same as “薄媚” , meaning frivolous and uncourteous. Despite their different written forms, these two characters have similar pronunciation and form a polysyllabic word that cannot be interpreted literally.9 Besides, “誰 家” is equal to “什麽” (what) that sounds similar to “啥格” (what) in the modern Wu dialect and thus cannot be interpreted as the original meaning either. Further examples are given below. 一任他懣嗔惡。 Just leave them sulky and grudging. (From A poem to the tune of “Lady of Charm” by Zhao Changqing) 我讀書莫學浪兒門一輩。（《張協狀元》戲文） I am reading and not learning from those rascals. (From Chinese opera “Zhang Xie the Top Scholar” ) 又不知你每生著何意。（《錯立身》戲文） I have no idea of your intentions. (From Chinese opera “Twists and Turns in Life” )

In the above examples, “懣” “門” and “每” are all equal to “們” that is commonly used today. According to Collection of Vernaculars and Colloquialism （《通俗編》）(Vol. 33), “北宋時先借懣字用之，南宋别借爲門，而元時則又借 ” (The character of “懣” was firstly used as the phonetic loan in the Northern  爲每。 8

吊詭 , weird and unusual. Please refer to Semantic Study of Dunhuang Bianwen（ 《敦煌變文字通釋》 ）by Jiang Lihong, p.271, the fourth revised and enlarged edition published by Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House. 9

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Song Dynasty, then “門” in the Southern Song Dynasty, then “每” in the Yuan Dynasty). Nowadays, however, none of these loan characters is still in use. The sound connections of these phonetic loan characters afford us the knowledge of the sound patterns in different historical ages, allowing researchers to explore the meanings of these characters and words through their sound connections. The principle of “similar pronunciation implying interchangeable meanings” prevails in ancient phonological research. Characters that have similar or related pronunciations and meanings are often used for mutual interpretation. For example, Shuowen Jiezi contains the following entries: “老 , 考也 ; 考 , 老也” (The character “老” is the same as “考” and vice versa); “天，顛也” (The character “天” is the same as “颠” ); “旁 , 薄也” (The character of “旁” is the same as “薄” ); and “祼 , 灌 , 祭也” (The character of “裸” is the same as “灌” , meaning a sacrificial ceremony). For these characters of “mutual explanation”10, the original and subsequent characters, synonymous characters and phonetic loan characters, there is always a phonological connection of either alliteration or rhyming, which constitutes the method of “sound explanation” . This method can sometimes be vague and mysterious, as seen in the cases of “羊 , 祥也” [The character of “羊” (sheep) is the same as “祥” (auspicious)] and “龜 , 舊也” [The character of “龜” (tortoise) is the same as “舊” (old)]. In particular, the book Explanation of Terms by Liu Xi in the Qing Dynasty exclusively used the method of sound explanation and contained quite some far-fetched cases of ancient philology. However, such a method provided a great number of materials for phonological research. Explanation of Terms is of great importance to phonological research rather than research. Please see the following example. 漢之廣矣，不可泳思；江之永矣，不可方思。 The River Han is too wide to swim across; the River Han is too long to ferry across. (From “Han Guang” , Odes of Zhou and the South in The Book of Songs)

Here the characters of “廣” “泳” “永” and “方” are all rhymed. As stated in Shuowen Jiezi, “永，長也” (The character of “永” is the same as “長” ). The Book of Songs says “江之永矣” (The river is long); “羕，水長也” (The character of “羕” means a long river), as represented by the line of “江之羕矣” quoted from The Book of Songs. This is a graphological variant of “Han Guang” , and such explanatory quotations prove that “永” and “羕” used to be the same character, and “羕” was the subsequent phono-semantic character with “羊” as its phonetic radical. They each rhymed with “長” , but were divided into two different rhymes  according to the pronunciations in later ages. Such reference pervading ancient character books and annotations may serve as a useful guide to our investigation and examination of ancient Chinese phonology. 10

Scholars such as Dai Zhen and Duan Yucai regarded the two characters in “老，考也；考，老也” as “轉注” (mutually explanatory characters).

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Polysyllabic words in Chinese include alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds. Due to the changes in pronunciation, such words as “光景”“分别”“委 蛇” “鹵莽” and “狼狽” do not reveal any obvious pronunciation connection, so that these characters may be wrongly interpreted despite the principle of “the meaning exists in the sound” . For example, a sentence in “The Carefree Excursion” of Zhuangzi is “剖之以爲瓢，則瓠落而無所容” (Had I cut it in half for ladles, the ladles would have been too flat to hold anything). Here “瓠落” is the same as “濩落” 11, or as “廓落” 12. The sound connection involved in these polysyllabic words can help us better grasp the word meanings, and examine the ancient pronunciations and language use in real practice. No researcher in the field  of classic books and ancient phonology can neglect this aspect of learning. 13 Based on the great number of materials about sound coordination, phonosemantic characters, philological analysis and polysyllabic words, the historical changes of Chinese speech sounds can be divided into three distinctive stages. First, the period before the Han Dynasty features early-ancient speech sounds. The speech sounds and word pronunciations at this time are usually referred to as the “ancient sounds” by previous scholars of Chinese phonology. Second, the period from the Six Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties features medieval ancient sounds, which concide with the completion of rhyme books. In the Song Dynasty, while the rhyme books and traditional literature still followed the trends of the previous stage, the folk literature ushered in a new era. Third, the period from the Yuan Dynasty features modern speach sounds. This period is followed by the contemporary Mandarin phonological system based on the Beijing accent. Each age has its own representative works, character books and rhyme books, including a small number of recordings about the vernaculars and dialects. Instead of disrupting the phonological system, these dialects, when examined in comparative research, actually enriched the phonology in each age.

14.2 Fanqie (Cutting Sounds) Generally speaking, the investigation of ancient speech sounds can only rely on historical recordings in written form. Consequently, speech sound analysis is mostly based on pronunciation of characters. The pronunciation of a given character constitutes three components: First, the onset consonant that is the initial consonant of a syllable. Second, the final or rhyme that is the vowel part of a syllable and consists of the onset, nucleus and coda.Third, the tone that is the pitch 11

As the two lines of“Five Hundred Words upon My Leaving the Capital for Fengxian”by Du Fu:“居 然成濩落，白首甘契闊” (Such an idea turned out to be useless and unrealistic, leaving me toiling every day until my hair turned grey). 12 As a line in “Nine Arguments” in The Verse of Chu: “廓落兮羈旅而無友生” (Staying alienated and lonely, I have no friend in company). 13 Please refer to Section 3, Chapter 3, The Polysyllabic Words.

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of the syllable. The structure can be illustrated in the following example. 莊:

zh

Consonant

u (onset)

a (nucleus) Rhyme

ng (coda)

the level tone Tone

Such a phonetic analysis has long existed in the study of natural languages. As recorded in Shuowen Jiezi, “聿 :吴謂之不律” (the character of “聿” /yu/ is pronounced in Wu dialect as the combination of “不律” /bu-lü/); and “筆 :秦謂之 筆” (The character of “筆” /bi/ is pronounced in Qin dialect as “筆” /bi/). In these examples, “不律” /bu-lü/ is the break-up analysis of the pronunciation of “筆” ” (The character of “壺” /hu/is /bi/. Another example is “壺，昆吾，圜 (圓 )器也。 “昆吾” pronounced as /kun-wu/, meaning a round container). In this entry “昆吾” is the dissection of the pronunciation of “壺” . A line in “Explaining Grasses” in Erya is “茨，蒺藜” , in which “蒺藜” /ji-li/ is the dissection of the pronunciation of “茨” /ci/. Such a practice of breaking up the pronunciation of a character into two syllables was called “slow-down reading” in ancient times. According to the principle of “slow-down reading” , the first sound should be the same as or similar  to the consonant of the character, and the second sound should be the same as or similar to the rhyme of the character with the same tone. When the slow-down reading is applied in the analysis of character pronunciation, it constitutes the “fanqie” (sound cutting) method. Following the method of “sound explanation” in the Han Dynasty, the meaning of characters and words are interpreted with reference to its phonologically related characters, that is, homophones, alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds. To select the alliterative and rhyming compounds for sound explanation, scholars should analyze the consonant and rhyme of a given character, sometimes with consideration of the tone. In Liu Xi’ s Explanation of Terms, a character book based on sound explanation, there are two entries of “Explaining the sky” as follows. 天 : 豫、司、兖、冀 14以舌腹言之，天，顯也，在上高顯也。青、徐以舌頭言之， 天，坦也，坦然高遠也。 “天” (sky): The character is pronounced in the dialects of Henan, Hebei and north Shandong with the middle part of the tongue. “天” /tian/ has the same sound as “顯” /xian/, so it means something vast and high above. The character is pronounced in the dialects of Southeast Shandong and North Jiangsu with the front tip of the tongue. “天” has the same sound as “坦” /tan/, so it means flat and far above.  風 :兖、豫、司、冀横口合唇言之，風，氾也，其氣博氾而動物也。青、徐言 風踧口開唇推氣言之，風，放也，氣放散也。 14

豫 , 司 , 兖 , 冀 are names of ancient places which are now located in Henan, Hebei and the north of Shandong. 青 and 徐 are also names of ancient places located in south of Shandong and the north of Jiangsu.

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“風” (wind): The character is pronounced in the dialects of Henan, Hebei and north Shandong with a closed mouth and lax lips. “風” /feng/ has the same sound as “氾” /fan/, so it means abundant and powerful air moving the objects. The character is pronounced in the dialects of Southeast Shandong and North Jiangsu with an open mouth and pursed lips. “風” has the same sound as “放” /fang/, so it means flowing off and scattering away.

Liu Xi interpreted the pronunciation of “天” (sky) according to the articulations in different dialects, and interpreted the pronunciation of  “風” (wind) according to the pronunciations of the rhyme part in different dialects. Obviously Liu could accurately analyze the consonants and rhyme structures in the dialectal pronunciations of “天” and “風”, with the perception of the alliterative relationship between “天” and “顯” , and between “天” and “坦” , and the rhyming relationship between “風” and “氾” , and between “風” and “放” in different dialects. He also  managed to describe the articulatory distinctions in terms of the different position  of the consonants, the opening and closing of the lips, and the phenomenon of nasalization (氾 -an; 放 -ang). Such a phonetic analysis was no doubt a new interpretation of great importance in his time, when the phonetic analysis of fanqie appeared. As a significant improvement in phonology and philology, the fanqie method impacted more than the mere phonetic notation of characters and words. Before the emergence of the fanqie method, the most commonly used method in Chinese character books and annotations was called “讀若” (also known as “讀如” “讀爲” “讀與某同” “讀若某同” ), meaning “read as” . Other scholars might use alternative terms like “緩氣、 急氣” (slow breath or hasty breath) (Gao You15) or “長 言、短言” (long speech or short speech) (He Xiu16), which also belonged to the method of “reading” . The character “讀” (read) may point to the act of either: one is reading the pronunciation of the character, and the other is the meaning or the interpretation of the character. For example, an entry in Shuowen Jiezi is “ ，讀 若愆” ( is read as愆 ), indicating that“ ” and “愆” share the same pronunciation and have interchangeable meanings. Another entry is“ ，讀若《詩》‘摽有梅’” ( is read as “摽有梅” in The Book of Songs), indicating that“ ” and “摽” have the same pronunciation, and that “摽” is the phonetic loan character of“ ” [the original meaning of “摽” is “擊也” (to strike)]. Another entry is“ ，讀若隱” , indicating that“ ” is the original character for “隱括” (“檃括” ) (the standard), and “隱” is the loan character with the same pronunciation. However, among the “read15

Gao You, a scholar in the Eastern Han Dynasty, who annotated The Annals of Lü Buwei and Huainanzi. His annotation to On Tao (the Way) in Huainanzi contains such an entry: “蛟，讀人情 性交易之交，緩氣言乃得耳。” (The character “蛟” is read as “交” in the phrase “交易” (trade, communication), the articulation is made in slow breath.) Another example is in his annotation to “On Geography” in Huainanzi: “旄，讀近綢繆之繆，急氣言乃得之。” (The character “旄” is read similar to “繆” in the phrase “綢繆”, the articulation is made in hasty breath.) 16 He Xiu, a scholar in the Eastern Han Dynasty, who compiled Explanations of Commentary of Gongyang. The terms of “long speech” and “short speech” appeared in his annotation to “The 28th Year of Duke Zhuang” in Commentary of Gongyang.

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as” examples found the extant literature (e.g., Shuowen Jiezi), some are especially given for sound explanation, some reveal certain semantic relationship yet without solid evidence, and still some apparently have a different pronunciation, and are  used only for meaning explanation, graphological correction or proof-reading. All in all, due to the prevalence and complexity of the “read-as” method, it is neither precise nor convenient as a method of phonetic notation, incurring quite some ambiguities for present studies. Another method is called “直音” (direct phonetic notation), which simply uses a homophone as a means of phonetic notation. Only two such entries in Shuowen Jiezi as are quoted as follows. 公，從八，從厶，音司。 The character “公” has the radical of “八” and the radical of “厶” , and the same pronunciation as that of “司” . ，籀文齋，從 省，音禱。 The character of “ ” , the Liu script of character “齋”，has the radical of “ ” , and the same pronunciation as that of “禱” .

It is likely that these two examples of “direct notation” did not exist in the original text of Shuowen Jiezi, but were later added by others. As very few entries in this book include phonetic notations below the radicals or below the graphological variant characters, the so-called “direct notation” might not be adopted in the Han Dynasty. Due to the great changes in pronunciations, and the fact that not all characters have the homophones, “direct-notation” is fairly limited and in accurate. At the end of the Han Dynasty, “反切” (fanqie, cutting sounds) was invented to meet the needs of phonetic notations of ancient books and the translation of Indian Buddhist scriptures. It also benefitted from the introduction of the Indian phonetic  notation. The earliest example of fanqie in extant literature in the Han Dynasty dates back to Ying Shao’ s annotation to Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, two entries of which were quoted from “Records of Geography” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty by Yan Shigu. It seems that fanqie had been in wide use in the later Han Dynasty. Since the Wei-Jin Period, the method had prevailed in phonology and philology, as well as in the rhyme books. “反” (fan) and “切” (qie) are interchangeable terms17, and both can be used in phonetic notation. In practice, the method could be expressed as “某某反” (so and so fan) or “某某切” (so and so qie). The term of fanqie had not appeared until after the Tang Dynasty. To put it more clearly, “反” and “切” were first combined 

17

The chapter of “On Sounds and Words” in Family Instruction of the Yan contains such an entry: “徐仙民《毛詩音》，反‘驟’爲‘在遘’，《左傳音》切‘椽’爲‘徒緣’。”(In The Pronunciations in Mao’s Annotation of The Book of Songs by Xu Xianmin, the pronunciation of “驟” is analyzed as “在 遘”；in The Pronunciations in Commentary of Zuo, the pronunciation of “椽” is analyzed as “徒緣”. The dictions indicate that “反” and “切” can be used interchangeably in analysis.)

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into a word in the Song Dynasty18. The previous academic practice of defining the  two characters separately was indeed not correct. The fanqie method uses two characters to represent the consonant, rhyme and tone of a given character. The upper character represents the consonant, and the lower character represents the rhyme and the tone. Therefore, the upper character and the given “phoneticized” character are alliterative, while the lower character and the “phoneticized” character are rhymed with the same tone. Please see the following example. 步　　薄故切 步、薄—— 雙聲。 步、故—— 叠韻，去聲。 The pronunciation of “步” can be cut into “薄” and “故” . “步” and “薄” are alliterative. “步” and “故” are rhymed and both in the falling tone.

As the upper character only represents the consonant, its rhyme and tone are not taken into consideration; as the lower character only represents the rhyme, its consonant is not taken into consideration. Another example is given below. 光　　古皇切 The pronunciation of “光” can be cut into “古” and “皇”

In the above example, the upper character “古” can be replaced by “姑” “公” “岡” , … as they all have the same consonant. The lower character “皇” can be replaced by “旁” “幫” “荒” and so on, as they share the same rhyme. 光

古 k—(u) 皇 (

)—uaŋ

k—uaŋ(guang)

The above diagram reveals two principles: The upper character has nothing to do with the tones. (“光” has a level tone whereas “古” has a falling-rising tone). The lower character has nothing to do with the voicing. (“光” is unvoiced whereas “皇” is voiced).

Such a method was not only used most in the annotation, explanation or character books in the later Han Dynasty or the Six Dynasties, but also epitomized in the rhyme books in the Sui, Tang and Song Dynasties [Qieyun (or Cutting Rhymes,《切韻》) by Lu Fayan, Tangyun (the supplementary edition of qieyun in the Tang Dynasty) by Sun Mian, Guangyun (or Extended Rhymes) by Chen 18

Fanqie as a word first appeared in Shiyou Yayan(《師友雅言》) by Wei Liaoweng in the Song Dynasty.

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Pengnian, and Jiyun (or Assembled Rhymes) by Ding Du]. The present study on the pronunciations of medieval Chinese has to rely on the fanqie method, especially the related materials in Guangyun. It is also used for phonetic notation in many character books or dictionaries. Such a method of using characters for phonetic notation marked a significant leap forward in the history of Chinese linguistics. No  wonder that it is essential for us to analyze ancient Chinese language or reading ancient books such as character books, rhyme books and dictionaries. However, fanqie also has some drawbacks. Take the entries in Guangyun for example. It is sometimes difficult to derive the pronunciation of a character simply  based on the cutting characters. The different sound systems in medieval Chinese  and modern Chinese19, the method itself can be inconvenient sometimes, such as the following examples: 旦　得按切　　 The pronunciation of “旦” can be cut into “得” and “按” . 舉　俱羽切 The pronunciation of “舉” can be cut into “俱” and “羽” .

The pronunciations of the above two characters can be easily derived by the fanqie method. However, 航　胡郎切　　 The pronunciation of “航” can be cut into “胡” and “郎” . 怪　古壞切 The pronunciation of “怪” can be cut into “古” and “壞” .

In the above two examples, the pronunciation can be difficult due to the rhyme  finals of the first cutting characters and the blocking of the articulatory position  of the second cutting characters. A careful analysis of the consonants of the first  cutting characters and the rhymes of the second cutting characters has to be made before the correct pronunciation is derived. Please see the following examples. 刊　古寒切　　 The pronunciation of “刊” can be cut into “古” and “寒” . 心　息林切 The pronunciation of “心” can be cut into “息” and “林” .

The characters of “刊” and “心” are both of the level tone, but the second cutting letters “寒” and “林” are of the rising tone. Without the prior knowledge that “古” and “息” cannot serve as the onset consonants of a syllable in the rising tone, such examples can be very confusing and misleading. Further examples are given here: 19 Please refer to “Explanations and Examples of Fanqie” 《反切釋例》 ( ) by Yin Huanxian, in Chinese Language, 1962, Vol.8-9

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子　即裏切 The pronunciation of “子” can be cut into “即” and “裏” . 利　力至切 The pronunciation of “利” can be cut into “力” and “至” .

In these two examples, the rhymes of the two cutting characters seem in compatible with the given characters. The complicated matches and variations of the consonants and the rhymes often cause confusion or mistakes in the application of the fanqie method. As seen above, the consonants and the rhymes of the upper and lower characters, the variations in voiced and unvoiced sounds, and the very properties of the vowels all pose difficulties in the use of the fanqie method. Even worse cases involve the differences between ancient and modern speech sounds.  Therefore, there was a need for methodological improvement to optimize the fanqie method. Back in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, some phonologists made the following attempts. For example, 先　《廣韻》:蘇前切 潘耒《類音》:薛烟切 《音韻闡微》:息烟切 According to Guangyun, the pronunciation of “先” can be cut into “蘇” and “前” . According to Sound Classification by Pan Lei, the pronunciation of “先” can be cut into “薛” and “烟” . According to Interpreting Pronunciations and Rhymes, the pronunciation of “先” can be cut into “息” and “烟” .

In both Sound Classification and Interpreting Pronunciations and Rhymes, the lower character of “前” was replaced by “烟” , which has no significant consonant but has a level tone. Besides, the upper character “蘇” , which has the level tone, was respectively replaced by “薛” and “息” , which are of the entering tone. The pronunciation of “先” can be instantly derived by a quick reading of “薛” and “烟” . The improvement brings about certain problems as well conveniences, because only a few characters that have significant consonants can  serve as lower characters. This point is indicated in the following example from Sound Classification. 中　竹 切 ( ，《集韻》:于宫切。) The pronunciation of “中” can be cut into “竹” and “ ” . (According to Jiyun, or Assembled Rhymes, the pronunciation of “ ” can be cut into “于” and “宫” .)

With such a complicated and rare character serving as the lower character for the common character “竹” (bamboo), the above example clearly indicates the limitation of the method. Therefore, despite the rigor of the fanqie method, its

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limitations in practice are too difficult to deal with because of its inherent defects.  To make things worse, the rhyme books and character books throughout the ages adopted their respective systems of fanqie with different upper and lower characters, which represent different systems of consonants and rhymes rendering  the whole issue even more complicated. Nowadays, fanqie is no longer needed for description or analysis of modern Chinese pronunciations, thanks to the convenience of pinyin. This alphabetical phonetic notation solves many problems of lower and upper characters. Nevertheless, knowledge about the fanqie method is still necessary for research on ancient pronunciations or ancient character books or rhyme books.

14.3 Tones Tones are the length and pitch of the speech sounds. It is now impossible to know the exact tone pitches of ancient pronunciations. What can be known, from ancient literature, that fanqie materials and rhyme books represent the categories of tones. The terms of “four tones” , namely ping (the level tone), shang (the rising-falling tone), qu (the falling tone) and ru (the entering tone), date back to the Qi and Liang period of the Southern Dynasties. Before the emergence of the “four tones” , there were no terms to specify the tones of character pronunciations. Some ancient scholars used the “five notes” (gong, shang, jue, zhi, yu) in Chinese music to name the speech tones, yet there are few historical records available now. He Xiu once argued the long and short speech of the pronunciation of “伐” , which was probably a distinction in tones. However, the issue remains controversial as there is now no way to determine whether the level tone is long whereas the other three tones are short, or the falling tone is long whereas the entering tone is short. The identification of “four tones” appeared as  the result of the development in phonological studies, the popularization of the fanqie method, the establishment of phonological frameworks in literature and the introduction of Indian Buddhist phonology.20 The ideas of “four tones” were firstly  used in literary theories, later introduced to rhyme books, and eventually gained popularity. The following example is from A Rhyme Book of “Yuanhe 《元和 ( 韻譜》)” . 平聲哀而安　　上聲厲而舉 去聲清而遠　　入聲直而促 The level tone is sad and calm; the falling-rising tone is sharp and uplifting; the falling tone is clear and far-reaching; the entering tone is straight and hasty.

20 聲明 . One type of Indian Buddhist Sutras focused on the analysis of rhymes and consonants in Sanskrit, which is in fact Indian Buddhist phonology.

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The above quote only explains the names of the “four tones” and described their possible pitch status, but offers little help with the specific distinctions of the  tones. However, despite the differences in character pronunciations in modern and  ancient times, and the great divergences among dialects, the category of tones of a given character largely remains the same, as shown in the following examples. 顛、田　平聲，現代語音同。 典上聲，現代語音同。 甸去聲，現代語音同。 “颠” and “田” are of the level tone, the same as its modern pronunciation. “典” is of the falling-rising tone, the same as its modern pronunciation. “甸” is of the falling tone, the same as its modern pronunciation.

Although the specific tone pitches of the above characters are different as they  are pronounced in different local dialects, the categories of the tones still remain  the same. The present discussion of tones in ancient phonology focuses on the categories instead of the tones. When it comes to the application in literature, the four tones are further divided into two groups, with the level tone as one group, and the rest three tones the other. Such a division pitch seemed to have appeared at the advent of the theory of “four tones” . In his work of “Wen Jing” Book on Chinese Poetry, the Japanese Buddhist monk Kukai discussed Shen Yue’ s theory of “eight defects” with the following statement. 〔平頭〕上句第一字與下句第一字同平聲不爲病，同上去入一字即病。 If the first character of the previous line and the first character of the subsequent line  are both of the level tone, this is not a defect; if both of them are of the falling-rising, falling or entering tone, this is a defect.

The falling-rising, falling and entering tones are collectively named as “ze” (oblique) tones. The level-oblique contrast in tones started in the Tang Dynasty. ” 殷璠《河嶽英靈集序》: “或五字並側 (同仄 )，或十字俱平，而逸駕終存。 Either five characters are all of the oblique tones, or ten characters are all of the level  tones, then the beautiful writing is completed. (From “Preface to Collection of Poems by Distinguished Poets” by Yin Fan)

The above statement could be regarded as the earliest record of the contrastive pair of terms, but the distinction of “flat” and “oblique” tones had already appeared  in the poetry of the Six Dynasties. 葉低知露密，崖斷識雲重。 The leaves are hanging low because of dew-drops and the precipices are partly hidden behind thick clouds. (From a poem by Xie Tiao) 蟬噪林逾静，鳥鳴山更幽。

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The forest feels more tranquil as cicadas are chirping. The mountain becomes quieter amid the birdsong. (From a poem by Wang Ji) 樹動懸冰落，枝高出手寒。 As the trees shake, the icicles start falling; the branches are so high that my hands feel cold really. (From a poem by Yu Xin)

As seen from the above examples, the antithetical pairing of sounds and tones had set the model for the poets in the Tang Dynasty. The distinction between the level tone and the oblique tones, therefore, must have appeared much earlier than the Tang Dynasty, but there are no documents or recordings available. The use of tones in ancient poetry also varies with time and genres. In the poetry of the Han Dynasty, there was a very strict distinction among the four tones. This topic will be discussed in later chapters. In the poetry in the Han Dynasty or that of the Wei Dynasty, or the Six Dynasties, the coordinated rhymes were divided into four tones, yet there were no tonal patterns for the characters in the poetic lines. From Qi and Liang onwards, “four tones” emerged, and the level tone was separated from the oblique tones too. The rhymes followed four tones, and the antithetical use of level and oblique tones in a line was gaining more recognition. The Tang Dynasty witnessed the advent of “lüshi” , which is a type of poems of eight lines, each containing five or seven characters, with a strict tonal pattern and  rhyme scheme. The rhymes in “lüshi” are usually of the level tone, and the tones of the characters in a line follow the antithetical level-oblique pairing. After the Tang Dynasty, “gushi”, or the type of pre-Tang classic poems, still observed the traditional forms set in the Wei and Han times, whereas “lüshi” always followed the standards set in the Tang Dynasty. As for ci, a type of classical Chinese poetry that emerged in the Tang Dynasty and Five Dynasties and flourished in the Song Dynasty, the rhymes were usually  divided into three groups: the level tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone, as well as the entering tone. The antithesis of the level and oblique tones is generally observed, with certain strict rules about the usage of the falling-rising, falling and entering tones. Careful attention was also paid to certain characters with regard to the voicing in articulation. The voicing in articulation is an acoustic phenomenon. For example, the pronunciation of “天” is voiceless, whereas that of “田” is voiced, yet both are of the level tone. However, the voicing in articulation may affect the variations of tones. According to the influence of voicing, the four tones can be divided into two types: 平聲 :刀　逃　　上聲 :島　稻 去聲 :到　導　　入聲 :篤　讀 The level tone: “刀” versus “逃” The falling-rising tone: “島” versus “稻” The falling tone: “到” versus “導” The entering tone:“篤” versus “讀”

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Due to the disappearance of voiced sounds in the Northern accents after the Song and the Yuan Dynasty, the above differentiation remained only in the tonal  distinctions. With the gradual disappearance of the entering tone, it further evolved into the “four tones” (the level tone, the rising tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone) in modern pronunciation, tough the voiced sounds still exist in some dialects (such as the Wu dialect). The changes are also manifest in the use of tones in literary works. The poetry (including ci) after the Yuan Dynasty still followed the traditional conventions, while in the Yuan plays (qu), most characters of the entering tone were grouped into the level, falling-rising and falling tones, and a further distinction between the yin tones and yang tones was made. The yinyang distinction in tones was generally based on the previous voiced-voiceless distinction in articulation. As Yu Ji said in Preface to Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains, “以聲之清濁，定調之陰陽” (the yin or yang tone may be determined according to the voiced or voiceless pronunciation). 21 The development of tones is reflected in sound coordination and character pronunciation in literary works. The pre-Tang poetry before the Six Dynasties can be regarded as a type, the lüshi (modern-style poetry) in the Tang Dynasty and ci in the Song Dynasty form a different type, and Yuan plays (qu) is the third type. No new genre of poetry had been created since the Ming Dynasty, and the traditional conventions were generally followed until the appearance of modern poetry. The tones are used not only in literature but also in the semantic analysis of characters. Following the ancient Chinese phonology, the different meanings of a polysemous character do not necessarily have different tones, as shown in the  following examples. 予我　贈予 生長　長短 郡縣　縣 (懸 )掛 下降　降服 “予我” (/yu wo/)　versus “贈予” (/zeng yu/) “生長” (/sheng zhang/)　versus “長短” (/chang duan/) “郡縣” (/jun xian/)　versus “縣 (懸 )掛” (/xuan gua/) “下降” (/xia jiang/)　versus “降服” (/xiang fu/)

In the above examples, the characters in the pairs of words had no tonal distinctions that exist in modern Chinese. After philology, semantics and phonology became popularity in the Han Dynasty and Six Dynasties, the tones were more often and more carefully used for distinguishing the meanings of characters. However, there was no definite conclusion in this regard. An example  from “On Sounds and Words” in Family Instruction of the Yan is given here. 夫物體自有精粗，精粗謂之好惡；人心有所去取，去取謂之好惡 (原注 :上呼號， 21

According to the analysis of yin-yang tones in Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains, “荒字屬 陰，黄字屬陽” (The pronunciation of “荒” has yin tone, while that of “黄” has yang tone), which is consistent with the Northern accents of modern Chinese.

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下烏故反 )。此音見於葛洪、徐邈。而河北學士讀《尚書》云“好 (原注 :呼號反 )生惡 (原 注 :於谷反 )殺”，是爲一論物體，一就人情，殊不通矣。 Objects are either refined or coarse, accordingly they are regarded as good or bad;  people have their own preferences and aversions and thus these feelings are called likes and dislikes (the pronunciation of the first character can be cut into “呼” and “號” ; the pronunciation of the second character can be cut into “烏” and “故” ). The pronunciation analysis was conducted by Ge Hong and Xu Miao. Scholars in Hebei commented on The Book of Documents, “Cherish life and stop killing” , (the pronunciation of “好” is cut into “呼” and “號” , while the pronunciation of “惡” is cut into “於” and “谷” ). The two interpretations are not interchangeable because they point to very different things. 

As seen in the above quotation, Yan Zhitui agreed with the scholar in Hebei on the falling tone of the character of “好” , but he disagreed on the entering tone of “惡” as used in the context of “物體精粗” (the refined or coarse objects). This  example rightly proves that the method of using tones to differ one meaning from  another meaning of a character was yet to be determined at that time. The use of tones to identify the specific meaning represented an important advance in the monosyllabic words of ancient Chinese. Changes in meaning naturally bring about changes in pronunciation, including tones. Take the character of “行” as an example, it used to be regarded as coordinated rhymes with “筐” “鏜” “涼” and “狂” . All of the 32 rhymed characters are of the level tone. In Guangyun, however, “行” has four different tones.  一、平聲，“庚” 韻，“行步也”。 二、平聲，“唐” 韻，“伍也，列也”。 三、去聲，“映” 韻，“景迹，又事也，言也”。 四、去聲，“宕” 韻，“次第”。 The first is the level tone, rhymes with “庚” , and means “walking” . The second is the level tone, rhymes with “唐” , and means “lines and rows” . The third is the falling tone, rhymes with “映” , and means “words and deeds” . The fourth is the falling tone, rhymes with “宕” , and means “order or sequence” .

Among the four meanings corresponding to the four different pronunciations,  some are the extended meaning of the original ones. In other words, meaning extension leads to sound differentiation. The above four pronunciations involved differentiations of the rhyme and the tone. A further example of such differentiations is given here. 《詩》:“高山仰止，景行行止。” From The Book of Songs, “The high mountains and great deeds hold men in awe” .

In Lu Deming’ s The Annotation of Classics, the first “行” character should be in the falling tone. As there was no phonetic notation for the second “行” character, it is supposed to be in the original level tone. Why, while most of the thirty-odd characters of “行” used in The Book of Songs are of the level tone, does

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this particular case use the falling tone? And why are the two adjacent characters of “行” are of different tones? This represents the function of tones in identifying  meanings. The first “行” is a noun, meaning “great deeds” , whereas the second is a verb, meaning “put into practice” 22. The use of tones for meaning differentiation became prevalent in the semantics  and phonology studies of Buddhist scriptures in the Six Dynasties and the Tang Dynasty, some of which could be too fragmental and inconvenient to read. As the frequently used characters usually have more extended meanings, almost each one has multiple tones, as indicated in the following example from Distinguishing the Sounds in Classics by Jia Changchao in the Song Dynasty. The character “上” : The meaning is higher status and the pronunciation can be cut into “時” and “亮” (in the falling tone); The meaning is to rise up and the pronunciation can be cut into “時” and “掌” (in the falling-rising tone). The character “下” : The meaning is lower status and the pronunciation can be cut into “胡” and “賈” (in the falling-rising tone); The meaning is to go down and the pronunciation can be cut into “胡” and “嫁” (in the falling tone).

In the above example, “居高定體” (higher status) refers to the meaning of “上” used in “君上” (the monarch), whereas “居卑定體” (lower status) refers to the meaning of “下” used in “臣下” (the officials in the court). Both characters are  used as nouns, which are different from the meaning of “rise up” or “go down”  as verbs.  However, such differentiation might not be consistent with the actual  pronunciations in ancient times. For example, in the two lines of “洞庭波兮木葉 下” (The wind is ruffling the Dongting Lake and blowing the fallen leaves.) and  “流澌紛兮將來下” (The river is flowing all the way downstream) from “The Nine  Songs” in The Verse of Chu, the character “下” is used in both cases as a verb, yet it is rhymed with characters of the falling-rising tone rather than the falling one. Similarly, the character “下” used in such sentences as “羅生兮堂下” (growing in thickness below the steps of the grand hall) and “雲容容兮而在下” (the vast and misty sea of clouds beneath my feet) serves as a word of locality, which also has a falling-rising tone. Therefore, these rules of differentiating meanings from tones  did play a definite role in promoting philology and phonology. Some common characters such as “長” “好” “惡” “傳” “分” “觀” and “難” have acquired fixed  pronunciations in modern phonology, thus being free of confusions. The method, however, might not be of much help in the reading of the ancient books of the PreQin Period. In the philological terminology, a character of its original pronunciation and tone is called “讀如字” (a character read as itself). If the pronunciation and tone 22

The last character “止” is a modal particle.

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are different from the original, it is then called “破讀” (a character read as a variant). Take the character “爲” as an example. If it is read as itself, it should be of the level tone. If it is read as a variant, it should be of the falling tone. The variations are sometimes marked with “點發” (notation). Some of the characters with different tones for different meanings became fixed  in modern Chinese phonology, others underwent continuous changes and even fell into disuse due to the conventions and language habits. For example, “思” and “過” used to have both level and falling tones, but the poets since the Tang Dynasty paid little attention to meaning differentiation in their choice of coordinated rhymes.  魚龍寂寞秋江冷，故國平居有所思。 The river is cold and desolate in the autumn, and I am thinking of my house in Chang’ an. (From “Poems in the Autumn Days” by Du Fu)

The character “思” in the above example has a level tone, which is compatible with its meaning in the line. 英雄今古恨，父老歲時思。 The regrets of the hero linger until today, and the countrymen are thinking of him all the time. (From “A Visit to the Memorial Hall of Pang Tong” by Lu You)

Since the character “思” is used as a noun here, it should be of the falling tone, but it was actually of the level tone for sound coordination. 幽居地僻經過少。 Living in seclusion at a quiet corner, I am rarely visited by a passer-by. (From the poem “Receiving a Guest” by Du Fu)

The character “過” in the above example has the original tone, which is compatible with its meaning. But a different case was illustrated in the following example. 窗間有螢過，枕上見星流。 Fireflies got in through the windows, twinkling like stars above my pillow. (From the  poem “Sitting Up Late on a Summer’ s Night” by Lu You)

In this example, the character “過” (pass) has the same meaning as that in Du Fu’ s poem, yet it has a falling tone. When pronounced in a falling tone, the character “過” means “error” or “surpass” , which is not compatible with the meaning in this line. The above examples seem to indicate that the ancient poets might not be too meticulous with those distinctions. In modern Chinese pronunciation, many trivial differences no longer exist. No one pronounces the character “除” in “除夕” (the eve of the Spring Festival) in falling tone, or pronounce the character “聞” in “新 聞” (news) in falling tone. Similarly, the tones of “慮” in both “思慮” and “憂慮”

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Sounds, Rhymes and Tones

are the same, and the tones of “親” in both “親戚” and “親愛” are the same too. In modern Chinese phonology, some polysemous characters no longer have distinctive tones, because the tones for different meanings used to play an important role in the semantic development of monosyllabic words. Some of the monosyllabic words, such as “長” “量” “喪” and “傳” , are still in use today, and their respective tones are still useful for meaning distinction. However, with the significant growth in the amount of polysyllabic (mostly disyllabic) words in  modern Chinese, tones are much less important for meaning differentiation. For  example, when used as a transitive verb, the character “治” is of the level tone; and when used as an intransitive verb or a noun, it is of the falling tone. Such a distinction, however, is no longer necessary, because of the common usage of disyllabic words “治病” (cure an illness), “治學” (pursue the studies), and “治 水” (regulate the rivers and watercourses). Even if all the forms of “治” are pronounced in the falling tone, the above word meanings are still quite clear, so the pronunciation with the level tone gradually fell into disuse. For another example, the character “騎” in “騎兵” (horseman) was supposed to be of the falling tone, but it is usually pronounced with the level tone, without causing any misunderstanding. However, this character in the line “尚餘二十八騎” (There are twenty-eight horsemen left) from “Annals of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian should still be pronounced with the falling tone, and the level tone will be regarded as a mistake. What’ s more, the character “反” in “平反” should be pronounced with a level tone, but is actually of the falling-rising tone. The character used in the sentence “杜周治之獄，無反者” (When Du Zhou takes charge of the cases, no verdict has been reversed) from “Records of Economy” in History of the Han Dynasty, for example, has to be of the level tone. If pronounced with the falling-rising tone, the character can be wrongly interpreted as “rebel against” , which deviates from the original meaning of the text. What’ s more, the character “調” has different tones in “調和” and “曲調” , and the character “好” has different tones in “愛好” and “好壞” . Such distinctions have become a fixed  convention in modern Chinese, and could be regarded as different characters. That  is to say no mispronunciation is allowed. Learning the four tones in ancient Chinese phonology requires two different methods. First, we need to discern the corresponding relationship and exceptions through the comparison between modern and ancient pronunciations. Second, based on our own dialectal accents, we can find more examples (such as the minimal sets of “東” “董” “凍” and “篤” , or the set of “皇” “榥” “況” and “霍” ), to understand different tonal contours and make inferences accordingly (for  example, “東” “分” “江” “支” and “師” have the same tonal contour, thus being of the level tone; “凍” “去” “個” “向” and “正” have the same tonal contour, thus being of the falling tone). Sound distinctions or inference should be made, with regard to the variation of the entering tone and certain special characters. The rhyme characters of the level versus oblique tones and the four tones can be learned through extensive reading of the classic poetic woks. It should be noted that the poetic works following the format of pre-Tang classic poems, lüshi and ci poetry by modern-time writers usually contain many mistakes of the level

14.3 Tones

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versus oblique tones, so they cannot serve as a reliable source of references. With extensive reading of classics and research on the field of the phonology, we can  gradually grasp the patterns and the principles, consolidating our knowledge of ancient Chinese phonology. Table 1　Contrast of tones in ancient and modern Chinese language Level vs. Oblique tones

Level

Four tones in ancient Chinese

level

Modern Chinese

Level

Oblique

Falling-rising

Rising

Falling

Entering

FallingLevel, rising, falling-rising, (Falling) Falling Falling rising falling

Voiceless/ Semi- Voiced Modern wu Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiced voiced fallingdialect level level falling falling falling entering entering falling- rising rising Character

“東”

“同”

“島老”

“稻”

“太”

“大”

“百拍”

“白”

“陌”

Chapter 15

Rhyme Books and Dengyun

15.1. Consonant Categories and Rhyme Categories, Alphabets and Rhyme Groups Among the extant materials of fanqie in the rhyme books of the Song Dynasty, there are 3,815 phoneticized characters (qieyin) in Guangyun, and 4,473 phoneticizations in Jiyun, which seem highly fragmented and meticulous. As a matter of fact, so many phonological variants are not likely to exist in the speech repertoire of a single person or a speech community. Take Guangyun as an example, among more than three thousand fanqie characters, there are 466 upper characters to represent initial consonants, and 1,196 lower characters for the syllable finals. Many of these phoneticizations are in fact identical, and some  only vary slightly. The study of these scattered materials, therefore, involves trimming and generalization. It now seems that, among the 466 upper characters in Guangyun, only forty-odd groups are necessary, and the 1,196 lower characters can be trimmed down to around three hundred groups. With the help of the level, falling-rising, falling and entering four tones (平、上、去、入 ), the number can be further reduced to less than one hundred. Based on the sorting work of Chen Li in the Qing Dynasty and of Huang Kan in modern times, there are forty-one consonant groups in Guangyun. In other words, only 41 characters are enough. 1

1

See A Study on Qieyun《切韻考》 ( ) (in “Dongshu” Reading Notes) by Chen Li, and The Study of Sounds and Pronunciations( 《音論》 ) by Huang Kan.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_15

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Chen Li also summarized 311 rhyme groups in Guangyun.2 With the sorting method developed by Chen Li and Huang Kan, the 4,473 phoneticizations in Jiyun can be sorted into 40 consonant groups and 315 rhyme groups. Previous studies on fanqie in rhyme books may diverge on some small issues, but the final number of groups was generally similar due to the adoption  of similar analytic methods. These numbers reflect, on the one hand, the refined  system of phonological analysis in ancient times, and on the other hand, the confusion and inconvenience in using so many phoneticizations. For example, a voiceless unaspirated velar sound in Guangyun can be represented by all these characters below. 古、公、過、各、格、兼、姑、佳、詭、 居、舉、九、俱、紀、幾、規、吉

As a matter of fact, all of the seventeen upper characters listed above belong to a singular group, and can be represented by one character “見” (including two sounds represented in pinyin as g and j). The method of using a single syllable to represent a speech sound was firstly  created and used in the Tang Dynasty. With the introduction of Indian phonological notations in the Tang Dynasty, as well as the inspiration of the fanqie method, the “thirty-six phonetic alphabets” , also known as the “thirty-six pivots” , was developed, presumably by Shou Wen in the Tang Dynasty.3 The thirty-six phonetic alphabets are as follows. Velars: “見” “溪” “群” “疑” Plain dental: “端” “透” “定” “泥” Retroflex dental: “知” “徹” “澄” “娘” Heavy-lip sounds (bilabials): “幫” “滂” “並” “明” Light-lip sounds (labio-dentals): “非” “敷” “奉” “微” Plain sibilant: “精” “清” “從” “心” “邪” Retroflex sibilant: “照” “穿” “牀” “審” “禪” Throat sounds (gutturals and velars): “影” “喻” “曉” “匣” Half-tongue sounds (lateral):“來” Half-teeth sounds (coronal): “日”

The above thirty-six phonetic alphabets can largely summarize the consonants in the medieval Chinese pronunciations (in which “喻” is actually a vowel, with a zero initial at the position of an initial consonant). By comparison, Guangyun contains five more initial consonants as its upper characters of fanqie, that is, “莊” “初” “船” “山” and “於” , which were derived from the five alphabets of  “照” “穿” “牀” “審” and “喻” . Comparison between the thirty-six phonetic alphabets and modern speech 2 3

See A Study on Qieyun (in “Dongshu” Reading Notes) by Chen Li. See Finger-and-Palm Charts of Qieyun《切韻指掌圖》 ( ).

15.1. Consonant Categories and Rhyme Categories, Alphabets and Rhyme Groups

303

sounds shows that, apart from the voiced initial consonants (“群” “定” “澄” “並” “奉” “從” “邪” “牀” “禪” and “匣” ) largely retained in some dialects, some sounds have been further divided into several ones (such as the velar) and some were combined with others (such as the retroflex dental).  The formulation of the thirty-six phonetic alphabets is a significant creation in  the history of Chinese phonology, which greatly inspired the subsequent work of phonological analysis and alphabetic notation. Both the notational alphabets in modern times and the pinyin system currently in use benefitted more or less from  the idea of the thirty-six phonetic alphabets. Syllable finals were also thoroughly analyzed in Guangyun. Over 1,000 lower characters were combined into 315 groups, some of which could be further combined, for example: 膎　佳　蟹　隘　懈　蛙　緺　媧　賣　卦

The above ten lower characters can be divided into two groups as follows. “膎” “佳” “蟹” “隘” “懈” : The first group. “蛙” “緺” “媧” “賣” “卦” : The second group (with the haed vowel /u/).

These characters are related to three tones, i. e., the level, falling-rising and falling tones.Thus they can also be divided into six classes. In Guangyun, the six classes were combined into three rhyme divisions: Character

Rhyme Division

膎佳 蛙緺媧

Character

Rhyme Division

Character

蟹 佳

○

Rhyme Division

隘懈 蟹

賣卦

卦

More than three hundred rhyme classes were combined into 206 rhyme divisions of four tones (level, falling-rising, falling and entering) with one to four classes under one division. These rhyme divisions were further combined several times in the Song and Qing Dynasties, and eventually became the 206 rhyme divisions in Book of Rhymes (Peiwen Yun)(《佩文韻》), serving as the rhymes for poetry in ancient times. For all the characters within one division, the main phonemes of the rhyme part are largely the same. Many rhyme divisions with different tones and similar vowels can be further  generalized and combined. Such a broad category is called “韻攝” (rhyme group) which helps to simplify the complex system of characters. Some rhyme groups in Guangyun are listed as follows. 侵、覃、談、鹽、添、咸、銜、嚴、凡、寢、感、敢、 琰、忝、豏、檻、儼、範、沁、勘、闞、艷、掭、陷、 鑒、釅、梵、緝、合、盇、葉、貼、洽、狎、業、乏

15 Rhyme Books and Dengyun

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Among the thirty-six rhyme divisions, all those with a closed-lip sound as the final were combined into the rhyme group of “咸” . According to different grouping  systems, there could be sixteen or thirteen clusters. Based on the rhyme system of the Northern dialects, twelve rhyme groups can be identified.  Rhyme grouping can play two different roles. For one, it helps to illustrate the relationship between the rhyme divisions; for the other, it can illuminate the correspondence between dialects by associating changes in actual speech sounds. Therefore, rhyme grouping significantly contributes to aspects such as modern phonological analysis, dialect surveys, and phonetic alphabet development. Both the “phonetic alphabet” and vowels used in the current pinyin system largely derived from the method and achievements of rhyme grouping. 4

15.2. Denghu Among the examples given in the previous sections, where are the two classes of the rhyme “佳” , and why are they combined into one rhyme division? This is because the vowel parts of rhyme “佳” mainly consist of two types of phonemes that differ in the existence (or lack) of the rhyme onset “u” . If the rhyme onset has  no “u” sound, it is pronounced with the mouth open; if the rhyme onset has the “u” sound, it is pronounced with the mouth closed. The distinction between these two classes of rhymes lies in the “open-mouth” or “closed-mouth” in pronunciation. According to the variations of mouth shape of the rhyme onsets, we can distinguish four different types of hu (“呼” , meaning “to call” ): open-mouth hu, closed-mouth hu, level-teeth hu and pursed-lip hu. For example, the pronunciations of “恩” “因” “温” and “醖” represent the four different types of hu. Among the four, the “open-mouth hu” and the “level-teeth hu” belong to the same category, while the “closed-mouth hu” and the “pursed-lip hu” belong to another. In this sense, the four types of hu are sometimes termed four types of “openness and closeness” , elsewhere termed as the “four grades” . Such a theory based on mouth-shape distinctions is called denghu, which had become prevalent since the Ming Dynasty. The “mid-vowels” of the Chinese phonetic alphabets (丨、乂、凵 ) and the rhyme onsets (i, u, ü) in the pinyin system are developed on the basis of the theory of The correspondence between the twelve rhyme groups in “Method of Alphabetic Notations of Character Pronunciations” (at the beginning of Kangxi Dictionary) and the vowels in the pinyin system:

4

裓

迦

歌

結

該

e i u ü

a

o e üe

ie

ai

傀

高

鈎

干

根

岡

庚

i ei

ao

ou

an

en

ang

eng ong

15.2. Denghu

305

denghu as well as the accents of the Northern dialects of modern Chinese. Before the advent of denghu theory, a different grading method was adopted among the phoneticians in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. According to this method, a distinction is also made between open-mouth and closed-mouth, with further four grades made in open-mouth and closed-mouth respectively. This is an integrated analysis of both the mouth shapes and degrees in terms of “洪 細” (/hóng-xì/, broad-narrow) of major vowels. The degrees of broad-narrow are relative, and closely related to the four types of hu. In particular, the open-mouth and closed-mouth sounds are regarded as relatively “broad” , while the level-teeth and the purse-lips sounds are relatively “narrow” . The “broad-narrow” distinction helps explain the classifications and combinations of rhyme divisions in rhyme books. For example, the rhyme divisions of “冬” and “鍾” both contain closed-mouth hu, but “冬” sounds are all of the first grade, and are relatively “broad” , whereas “鍾” sounds are of the third or fourth grade, which are relatively narrow. What’ s more, while all the four divisions of “豪” “肴” “宵” and “蕭” have open-mouth hu, “豪” is the most “broad” (first grade) and “肴” is less “broad” (second grade) as well as “宵” is “narrow” (third grade) and “蕭” is “narrower” (fourth grade). The “broad-narrow” distinction can also illustrate the complicated variations in dialects. For example, the pronunciations of “官” and “關” underwent different changes in the Northern  and Southern dialects. This is because, although the two characters are the closedmouth hu, “官” is relatively “broad” (first grade) while “關” is relatively “narrow” (second grade). As the variations and changes of pronunciations were very subtle, the theory of “the four grades of openness and closeness” is suitable for the fanqie analysis in the rhyme books about the medieval Chinese; however they can hardly verify the phonological system of the Northern dialects in modern times, and were gradually replaced by the denghu theory in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Nevertheless, in analyzing the correspondence between fanqie and modern Chinese dialects, the theory of “four grades” can still be of much avail.5 Dengyun in the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Dengyun in the Song and Yuan Dynasties

Open-mouth Openness Level-teeth Closed-mouth Closeness Pursed-lip

5

First grade

Broad

Second grade

Less broad

Third grade

Narrow

Fourth grade

Most narrow

First grade

Broad

Second grade

Less broad

Third grade

Narrow

Fourth grade

Most narrow

See the Character List for Dialect Survey《方言調查表》 ( ) compiled by the Institute of Linguistics of Chinese Academy of Sciences (the forerunner of the Institute of Language, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences).

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15 Rhyme Books and Dengyun

15.3 Rhyme Books and Dengyun Charts Lu Fayan in the Sui Dynasty stated his preface to Qieyun, “欲廣文路，自可清濁 皆通，若賞知音，則須輕重有異” , which means that the use of rhyme books are twofold: one is for sound coordination in literary works (“廣文路” ), and the other is for the analysis of speech sounds in actual use (“賞知音” ). The former requires broad rhyme divisions, while the latter requires narrow rhyme classes. These are the major concerns for all the previous rhyme books. The rhyme books earlier than Qieyun of Lu Fayan included Consonant Categories 《聲類》 ( ) by Li Deng in the Wei Dynasty and Collection of Rhymes 《韻 ( 集》) by Lü Jing in the Jin Dynasty, but they are all lost now. The original Qieyun is also lost, and what is available today is incomplete volumes or various enlarged or supplementary copies. 6What we can see now are the rhyme books in the Song Dynasty—Guangyun and Jiyun, which were adapted from Qieyun and Tangyun (Supplementary edition of qieyun in the Tang Dynasty) by Sun Mian. Following the same format, Guangyun and Jiyun identified four tones: the level, falling-rising, falling, and entering tones. The level tone has many rhyme divisions, and hence is divided into two volumes with no significant phonological  distinctions. Each of the four tones contains 206 rhyme divisions, and each division is named after the first character, such as “一東” and “二冬” . The method of fanqie is used for all phonetic notations, such as “東，德紅切” (The pronunciation of “東” can be cut into “德” and “紅” ). In comparison, many characters were added in Jiyun, and the fanqie method has been improved to some extent. These two rhyme books were not compiled for the use of sound coordination in poetry, because the rhyme divisions were relatively “narrow” , some of which have only a few characters in one division (for example, the division of the 42nd “拯” of the falling-rising tone has only six characters), and which are unsuitable for sound coordination. For the convenience of poem-writing, quite a few divisions were combined for common use. Later, to meet the need of examinations, the rhyme divisions in common use were combined and issued as The Rhyme Book for the Ministry of Rites 《禮部韻略》 ( ) in the Song Dynasty. Since then, until Book of Rhymes (Peiwen Yun) in the Qing Dynasty, a series of combinations had been made, and eventually the 106 rhyme divisions were widely recognized, which served a different purpose from those of Guangyun and Jiyun. All these achievements and adaptations of rhyme books, however, still followed the system of Qieyun. From the Tang and Song Dynasties to modern times, similar rhymes have been adopted in all the writings of the Chinese classical poetry, precisely because the same system has been followed in the rhyme books, despite of the differences in actual pronunciations of different historical ages.  Among the qu (melody) in the Yuan Dynasty, both Zaqu 《雜曲》 ( ) and Sanqu 《散曲》 ( )were based on the Northern pronunciation, so the rhymes had to be 6

See the beginning of Guangyun.

15.3 Rhyme Books and Dengyun Charts

307

consistent with the emotional, formal and musical features of this literary genre. Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains 《中原音韻》 ( ), compiled by Zhou Deqing for the rhymes used in qu, consists of 19 rhyme divisions, which were further divided into two groups of yin and yang. The entering tone was arranged into the level, the falling-rising and the falling tones, which is very similar to the Beijing accent in modern times. This book also contains the “closed-lip” rhymes, which were largely identical to the ones in modern Min and the Cantonese dialects, but there were no such sounds in the modern Beijing dialect. It indicates that the pronunciations of Northern dialects have also undergone significant changes since  the Yuan Dynasty. The rhymes used in ci poetry is different from those in classic poetry or qu (melody). The rhymes of ci appeared after Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains.7 As a matter of fact, there were no commonly adopted ci rhymes among the poets since the Song Dynasty. Some relied on the local and vernacular accents, and others broadened the rhymes of poetry, allowing sound coordination of the falling-rising and the falling tones to better suit the musical features of ci poetry. Although only a few rhyme books for ci were compiled, they were not put in use. In the Qing Dynasty, Correct Rhymes for Ci-poems by Ge Zai focused on the phonological and rhyming principles, analyzed the rhythmic patterns of ci poetry, and summarized the actual use of rhymes in previous literary works. The book was later recognized as a proper rhyme book for ci, and consulted by modern-time writers of ci poetry. With the commonly used Northern accents in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, a rhyme book based on the Northern accents was then in need. Correct Rhymes Compiled in the Hongwu Period 《洪武正韻》 ( ) compiled in the Ming Dynasty was an “official rhyme book” , intending to replace the old rhyme books with the “elegant pronunciations” of Central China. However, the book was neither brave enough to drastically reform the traditional rhyme books, nor thorough and precise enough in its survey of the Northern accents, rendering itself awkward with the mixture of rhymes and little recognition in the history of phonology. By contrast, Interpreting Pronunciations and Rhymes 《音韻闡微》 ( ), compiled by the imperial government at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty as an official book,  greatly reformed not only the format of the rhyme books but also the method of fanqie. For the convenience of use and checks, it inherited the classic format in the rhyme books of the Tang and Song Dynasties, as well as the dengyun charts. To facilitate direct pronunciation, the book stipulated the upper and lower, which also contributed to the subsequent development of “Chinese phonetic alphabets” . Correct Rhymes Compiled in the Hongwu Period was once designated as the reference book of sound coordination for official examinations, but in fact it was  not suitable (as the literati at that time still generally followed the rhyme books in the Song Dynasty). By contrast, Interpreting Pronunciations and Rhymes is a 7

Some scholars in the Qing Dynasty (such as Li E) regarded “Lufei” Book of Rhymes for Ci Poetry as the ci rhymes in the Song Dynasty. In fact it was compiled in the Ming Dynasty, and was not for the purpose of ci rhymes.

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15 Rhyme Books and Dengyun

relatively precise and rigorous book of phonology. The “rhyme charts” based on the dengyun method can be divided into two schools due to the developments of the method. The school in the Song and Yuan Dynasties was represented by works such as Finger-and-Palm Charts of Qieyun (which is incredulously said to be compiled by Sima Guang), “Yunjing” Book of Rhyme Charts, Summary of the “Seven Sounds” Theory (by Zheng Qiao in the Song Dynasty), and The Guide Book of Qieyun for the Phonological Studies of Classics (by Liu Jian in the Yuan Dynasty). All these works use the phonetic alphabets as the vertical axis and the rhyme groups as the horizontal axis, and tabulate eight grades of openness and closeness in square tables. These rhyme charts mainly use dengyun to explain the fanqie method in rhyme books. The school of the Ming and Qing Dynasties was represented by works such as The Rhyme Charts in The Glossary of Chinese Characters (by Mei Yingzuo in the Ming Dynasty), Introduction to Principles of Rhymes (by Lan Tingxiu in the Ming Dynasty) and Sound Classification (by Pan Lei in the Qing Dynasty). The alphabets and rhyme groups were determined according to actual language use, and the tables were made on the basis of the four types of hu. The rhyme charts in the Song and Yuan Dynasties are of great importance for the study of fanqie and medieval-ancient pronunciations of Chinese, while those in the Ming and Qing Dynasties are also indispensable references in the investigation of the phonological developments of modern Chinese. As for the rhyme book about modern pronunciations and modern poetry, there once was some effort in compiling books, yet they should be better regarded as records than analyses or collations. With the present call for the promotion of common speech of the Chinese language and the standardization of modern Chinese, a precise and practical rhyme book of modern Chinese can be surely expected.

Chapter 16

Ancient Speech Sounds

16.1 Early-Ancient Sounds and Medieval-Ancient Sounds The historical changes of speech sounds are very complicated, involving not only chronological variations across eras, but also dialectal variations in each single era. To investigate the speech sounds of ancient Chinese language, linguists had put great efforts in discovering the patterns of phonological variations, and the phonological system of each historical period. The achievements are significant,  but many questions still beg answers, including the division of the historical stages of the ancient speech sounds. For the convenience of description, the commonly-accepted three-stage framework is for now adopted here. Stage 1: The stage of early-ancient sounds, mainly defined according to materials such as The Book of Verse, The Songs of Chu, and the dictionaries before the Han Dynasty. Stage 2: The stage of medieval-ancient sounds, mainly defined according to the  rhyme books and rhyme charts in the Sui, Tang, and Song Dynasties. The use of rhyme in literary works in the Six Dynasties can also be inferred accordingly. Stage 3: The stage of northern speech sounds since the Song, Yuan and Ming Dynasties can be related to the northern speech sounds in modern times, and is regarded as part of the modern phonology. Such a division method is a little sketchy. For example, on the one hand, the verses in the Han Dynasty were closely related to those in the Six Dynasties, while the dictionaries, annotations and explanations were more closely connected with the early-ancient pronunciation. On the other hand, the rhyme books in the Tang

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_16

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and Song Dynasties were inconsistent with the rhymes used in the contemporary poetic works. What’ s more, in the study of early-ancient and medieval-ancient sounds, scholars tended to select the representative materials as the standard of conventions, dismissing the dialectal variations as merely exceptions, rendering their theories far from being comprehensive. The scholars in the Qing Dynasty studied the ancient speech sounds for the sake of exegeses of classics; therefore, the ancient sounds refer to the early-ancient sounds, which is still followed today. In other words, our present discussion of ancient sounds only refers to the early-ancient sounds. Our present study of the ancient sounds serves the purpose of not only exegeses but also literary appreciation, as shown in the following examples. 帝高陽之苗裔兮，朕皇考曰伯庸。攝提貞於孟陬兮，惟庚寅吾以降。 A prince am I of ancestry renowned, illustrious name my royal sire hath found. When Sirius did in spring its light display, a child was born, and Tiger marked the day. 紛吾既有此内美兮，又重之以修能，扈江離與辟芷兮，紉秋蘭以爲佩。 With lavished innate qualities indued, by art and skill my talents I renewed; Angelic herbs and sweet grass too, and orchids late that by the water grew, I wove for ornament. (From “Li Sao” , The Verse of Chu)

In the above stanzas, the sounds of “庸” and “降” , as well as “能” and “佩” are supposed to rhyme with each other, but the effect of sound coordination is imperceptible in modern pronunciation. Besides, these characters belonged to different rhyme divisions in the rhyme books on medieval-ancient sounds. Given  such a situation, there is no way for us to understand the metric patterns of “Li Sao” , let alone to appreciate it seriously. As a matter of fact, the ancient sounds of “庸” and “降” can be coordinated. According to “Teng Wen Gong II ” in Mencius, “洚水警予。洚水者，洪水也” (“The flood warned us. ‘洚水’ means ‘洪水’ , the flood). In this example, as “洚” and “洪” have the same sound, Mencius used the common expression “洪水” to explain “洚水” in ancient books. The relationship between “庸” and “降” is similar to that between “洪” and “洚” , proving that the first pair of characters can be coordinated in sound. By the same token, a better  understanding can be achieved with regard to the following examples from The Book of Songs. 子之豐兮，俟我乎巷兮，悔予不送兮。 Full and good looking was the gentleman. Who waited for me in the lane! I repent that I did not go with him. (From “Fairness” in “Odes of Zheng” ) 4

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In the above example, the sounds of “豐” “巷” and “送” are coordinated. 君子至止，福禄攸同；君子萬年，保其家邦。 The king has made his honorable presence, with happiness and dignity beyond compare; may the king live ten thousand years long, ensuring the strength and stability of our state. (From “Zhan Bi Luo Yi” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom) 4

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In the above example, the sounds of “同” and “邦” are also coordinated. Besides, “能” can be used to form the phono-semantic character of “態” 1, in the same way as “乃” serving as the sound radical of “仍” and “孕” 2. The sound connection between “佩” and “能” is the same as that between “能” and “態” , as well as “乃” “仍” and “孕” . Therefore, the ancient sounds of “能” and “佩” can be coordinated. The study of ancient sounds thus proved the sound coordination between “庸” and “降”, as well as “能” and “佩”, which helps us better appreciate the rhyme patterns and structures of “Li Sao” . This is the function in literature. “Li Yun” in The Book of Rites contains such a sentence, “故聖人耐以天下爲一 家，以中國爲一人者，非意之也” (A sage may unite the people under Heaven as a family and unite all the people in the plain-states as one man, which is not a surmise). In this sentence, “耐” is the same as “能” , and both are loan characters. “能” often serves as a loan character, while “耐” is rarely used as such, therefore which is often regarded as a loan character of “能” . The two characters can be used interchangeably precisely because they once had the same pronunciation. As the evidence shows, the characters “能” and “佩” in “Li Sao” were coordinated in sound. This example proves the contribution of the study of ancient sounds in exegeses. “Prunus Japonica” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs contained two lines, “每有良朋，烝也無戎” (The close friends in ordinary times are of little avail in critical moments). According to Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs, “烝，填也” (“烝” is the same as “填” ), which is hard to understand. Zheng Xuan provided an explanation for Mao’ s annotation, that is, to “古聲填、寘、塵同” (The ancient sounds of “填” “寘” and “塵” were the same). On the other hand, according to Shuowen Jiezi, “填” and “寘” have the same sound, with the meaning of “塞也” (to fill in), which has nothing to do with the  character “烝” . However, in ancient pronunciation, the sound “填” and “寘” was the same as that of “塵” , which has the meaning of “久” (long time). Therefore, in this case, “填” should be the loan character of “塵” . The entry of “烝，填也” , in fact, is to use the meaning of a loan character for explanations, with “烝” serving as the loan character of “塵” . With the help of the homophonic relationship among these characters, Zheng Xuan managed to invent this meaning to explain Mao’ s annotation. What’ s more, Zheng Xuan noted the distinctive sounds of these characters at his time, while the ancient sounds of “填” “窴” and “塵” were all the same. Inferring from the sound connection between “塵” and “填” , a further example can be found in replacing “田完” with “陳完” , as in “陳完者，陳厲公 佗之子也” (Chen Wan is the son of Chen Li) from “The Biography of Tian Wan” 1

According to Shuowen Jiezi, “態，從心，從能”(“態” is formed by the radicals of “心” and “能”). In Duan Yucai’s annotation, “能亦聲” (The radical “能” is the sound). It shows that “能” is serving as the sound radical. 2 According to Shuowen Jiezi, the character of “孕” is formed by “乃”. Duan Yucai argued for “乃” as the sound radical, and regarded the entry in Shuowen Jiezi as an error. Duan’s argument is generally accepted today.

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in Records of the Grand Historian. For another example in Zhuangzi, the word “諔詭” in “The Sign of Virtue Complete” is the same as “吊詭” in “Discussion of the Equality of Things” . The connections between “塵” “陳” and “諔” on the one hand and “填” “田” and “吊” on the other help us to understand the changing patterns of ancient pronunciation. In order to learn the loan characters in ancient classics and thoroughly comprehend the ancient books, it is important to understand the differences between the ancient and modern sounds, and to grasp  the patterns of phonological changes. The study of medieval-ancient sounds also serves two purposes. With regard to phonological analysis, for one thing, it helps to sort out the fanqie method in rhyme books, thus serving as references for the present-day standard pronunciation. On the other hand, it enriches our knowledge of the analytic method of sounds, rhymes and tones, which can be used for dialect surveys and studies on phonological correspondence. With regard to literary studies and appreciation, the study of medieval-ancient rhyme books and pronunciations can help us understand the rhyme patterns in poetry, serving as the references for contemporary forms of arts. Since the rhyme books and dengyun materials are already neatly organized and systematic, the study of medieval-ancient sounds is different from the way the early-ancient sounds were investigated, compared and inferred. What we should do is to use the phonological methodology for interpretation, understanding, acceptance or application. Many issues in this field remain unsolved until now, such as the relationship between fanqie used in Qieyun and Guangyun and the actual pronunciations, between fanqie used in rhyme books and the dialectal pronunciations, between fanqie and the rhymes used in literary works, and the phonetic values of denghu, all of which still await further linguistic investigations, and the commonly-accepted conclusions are still pending. Many efforts had been made by the scholars since the Qing Dynasty in the research on early-ancient sounds, with substantive progress in both the rigor of methodology and the systematicness of the conclusions. Generally speaking, the methodological principle is to infer from Guangyun, and to inquire the combination or separation of ancient sounds based on rhyme divisions and consonants in the medieval-ancient sounds. The reference materials include those related to exegeses, loan characters, rhymes, character books and dialects. Important works include Correction of the Supplementary Edition of Qieyun in the Tang Dynasty and The Sounds and Pronunciations in The Book of Songs by Gu Yanwu, Tables and Charts of Consonant Categories and Studies on Consonants and Rhymes by Dai Zhen, “Liu Shu” Explanations of Phonological Charts by Duan Yucai, Consonant Categories in Poetry by Kong Guangsen, The Rhyme Book of The Book of Songs, and The Chu Songs and Others by Wang Niansun, Studies of Rhyme in The Book of Songs and Corrections of the Four Tones in the Supplementary Edition of Qieyun in the Tang Dynasty by Jiang Youhao, A Collective Study of the Twenty-Two Ancient Rhyme Charts by Xia Xin, as well as “Shijiazhai” Studies on Sinology and Questions and Answers in the Book of Qianyantang (concerning the invention of ancient consonants) by Qian Daxin.

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Among the modern-time scholars of ancient phonology, Zhang Binglin and Huang Kan in particular had made significant contributions to the study of rhyme  divisions and consonants of the ancient sounds. In our present discussion, rhyme divisions of early-ancient sounds are based on the “twenty-two divisions” 3proposed by Xia Xin; and consonants of early-ancient sounds are based on the “twenty-one pivots” 4proposed by Zhang Binglin. The merits and drawbacks of different methodologies and achievements are exempt from the following discussions.

16.2 Rhyme Divisions of the Ancient Sounds Scholars of exegeses in the Han Dynasty had already recognized chronological changes of speech sounds. For example, in his explanation of Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs, Zheng Xuan stated “古音不、柎同” (the ancient pronunciations of “不” and “柎” were the same) and “古聲填、窴、塵 同” (the ancient pronunciations of “填” “窴” and “塵” are the same). In Liu Xi’ s Explanation of Terms, “古者曰車，聲如居；今曰車，聲近舍” (the ancient pronunciation of “車” was similar to that of “居” , while the present pronunciation of “車” is similar to that of “舍” ). Although such remarks are far cry from precise descriptions of the ancient phonological features, the ideas per se deserve attention. It is based on such a recognition that the scholars in the Han Dynasty could use the phonological examples to explain loan characters, analyze phono-semantic characters, understand the ancient language and literature, as well as comprehend the ancient classics. The Sui and Tang Dynasties witnessed the prevalence of rhyme books. However, the scholars of the ancient classics rigidly stuck to the ideas of the Han Dynasty as stated in the rhyme books and failed to explain the phonological phenomena with a historical perspective. Without understanding the changes in speech sounds, they could not comprehend the phonological inconsistency between ancient classics and contemporary practices. Despite their efforts in seeking a variety of methods, the explanations were largely far-fetched and untenable due to the restrictions of the rhyme books of their era. One of the methods was to change a different character. In reading the two lines “無偏無頗，遵王之義” (Being neither biased nor partial, one should obey the late king’ s principles of justice) in Hongfan in The Book of Documents, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty considered the characters “頗” and “義” as belonging to different rhymes in the language of his time, hence defying  3

Please see A Collective Study of the Twenty-Two Ancient Rhyme Charts by Xia Xin, the Phonology Series edition. 4 Please see the first volume of Balanced Inquiries into Traditional Learning(《國故論衡》) by Zhang Binglin, “Tables of the Sound Pivots”, and “Study of Alliteration in Ancient Times”, the edition of Zhang’s Collections Series.

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sound coordination. He then issued an imperial order to change “頗” to “陂” , because, according to the pronunciations at that time, the characters “陂” and “義” could rhyme. Needless to say, such a method is quite crude and unreasonable. As a matter of fact, “陂” and “頗” were indeed the same character sharing not only the same sound but the same meaning. For example, in the line “彼澤之陂，有蒲有荷” (By the water of the pond, there are cattails and lotuses) in “By the Water” of Odes of Chen in The Book of Songs, “陂” rhymes with “何” “爲” and “沱” , indicating that “陂” actually does rhyme with “頗” . If “頗” could not rhyme with “義” , how could “陂” do so? Therefore, a mere change of the characters cannot offer a desirable  solution. In fact, the ancient sounds of “頗” and “義” used to belong to the same rhyme division. For example, as indicated in The Book of Songs, the character “儀” once derived its sound from “義” . Please see the following examples. 泛彼柏舟，在彼中河，髧彼兩髦，實維我儀，之死矢靡它。 The cypress boat is flowing in the middle of the river. A young man with the hair  brushing his brows is whom I admire. Only death shall see my heart changed. (From “Cypress Boat” in Odes of Yong in The Book of Songs) 其告維何，籩豆静嘉，朋友攸攝，攝以威儀。 What was his announcement? The dishes of bamboo and wood are clean and fine.  Your friends assisting at the service, have done their part with reverent demeanor. (From “Ji Zui” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs)

Many similar examples could prove that the ancient sound of “義” did rhyme with “頗” , and there was no need to change the character. The sounds of “陂、 儀” and “坡、頗” started to diverge in the Tang Dynasty, and were classified respectively into the divisions of “戈” and “支” in the rhyme books, thus incurring misunderstandings in the reading of ancient classics. Another method is called “叶句” (xieju). In his work “Study of Sounds in Mao’s Annotation of The Book of Songs” in Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics, Lu Deming tried to explain the line “遠送於南” (Seeing her off  to the south) from “Flying Swallows” in Odes of Bei by quoting from Phonetic Interpretation of Mao’s Annotation of The Book of Songs by Shen Zhong in the Northern Zhou Dynasty, “南，叶句，宜乃林反” (the pronunciation of “南” , following the principle of xieju, is better cut into “乃” and “林” ). According to this quotation, the character “南” in this line should rhyme with “音” and “心” ; however, as “南” no longer rhymed with those two since the Six Dynasties, readers still have to pronounce it as the sound combination of “乃” and “林” so as to achieve sound coordination. This method was quite popular in the Song Dynasty. In particular, there were abundant examples of “xieyin” (sound coordination) in Commentaries on The Book of Songs( 《詩集傳》) by Zhu Xi. For example, 坎坎伐檀 (叶徒沿反 )兮， “Kan-kan” go his blows on the sandal trees, (The sound of “檀” can be cut into “徒” and “沿” .)

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置之河之干 (叶居焉反 )兮， And he places what he hews on the river’ s bank, (The sound of “干” can be cut into “居” and “焉” ) 河水清且漣 (音連 )猗。 Whose waters flow clear and rippling. (The sound of “漣” is the same as that of “連”) (From “Chopping Woods” in Odes of Wei) 山有栲 (叶去九反 )， On the mountains is the Kao tree, (The sound of “栲” can be cut into “去” and “九” ) 隰有杻 (女九反 )， In the low wet grounds is the Niu tree. (The sound of “杻” can be cut into “女” and “九” ) 子有廷内，弗灑弗埽 (叶蘇後反 )， You have courtyards and inner rooms, but you will not have them sprinkled or swept; (The sound of “埽” can be cut into “蘇” and “後” ) 子有鍾鼓，弗鼓弗考 (叶去九反 )， You have drums and bells, but you will not have them beat or struck, (The sound of “考” can be cut into “去” and “九” .) 宛其死矣，他人是保 (叶補苟反 )。 You will drop off in death, and another person will possess them. (The sound of “保” can be cut into “補” and “苟” ) (From “Hemiptelea on the Hills” in Odes of Tang)

According to the pronunciations in Zhu Xi’ s era, the characters in the above examples couldn’ t form rhymes, so he had to explain them with “xieju” , or sound coordination. In some cases, the same character in a poem might have two different pronunciations, as in the following examples: 彼茁者葭 (音加 )， Strong and abundant grow the rushes; (The sound of “葭” is the same as that of “加”) 壹發五豝 (百加反 )， He discharges one arrow at five wild boars. (The sound of “豝” can be cut into “百” and “加” ) 於嗟乎騶虞 (叶音牙 )。 Ah! He is the keeper of the wild animals! (The sound of “虞” is the same as “牙” ) 彼茁者蓬， Strong and abundant grows the artemisia; 壹發五 (子公反 )， He discharges one arrow at five wild boars. (The sound of “五” can be cut into “子” and “公” ) 於嗟乎騶虞 (叶五紅反 )。 Ah! He is the keeper of the wild animals! (The sound of “虞” can be cut into “五” and “紅” ) (From “The Wild Animals” in Odes of Shao and the South)

In the above poem, the pronunciation of “虞” was first cut into “音” and “牙” , then into “五” and “紅” , a misinterpretation which not only ran counter to the

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actual ancient pronunciation, but also made strained inference of the rhyming patterns in The Book of Songs. The same mistake could also be found in Zhu Xi’ s interpretation of “Dews on the Road” in Odes of Shao and the South. In the line “誰謂女無家” (Who can say that you did not get me betrothed?), “家” , was not a rhyming word, but was wrongly regarded as one. However, it did not make much sense by arguing that it rhymed not only with “角” “屋” “獄” and “足” on the one hand, but also with “牙” “墉” “訟” and “從” on the other. As an unconvincing solution, Zhu Xi proposed the pronunciation of “家” as the same as “穀” , yet in a different occasion he cut the pronunciation of “家” into “各” and “空” , while that of “牙” into “五” and “紅” . Dubious as it was, such a method used contemporary pronunciation to misinterpret the ancient pronunciation, without acknowledging the differences between the two.   As an effort to criticize Shen Zhong’ s “xieju” principle, the third method was based on the idea of “古人韻緩” (The ancient scholars allowed broad rhymes) proposed in Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics by Lu Deming. In the interpretation of “遠送於南” from “Flying Swallows” in Odes of Bei, he made a comment of “今謂古人韻緩，不煩改字” (The ancient scholars allowed broad rhymes and would not bother with changing different characters). By “changing  different characters” he actually referred to Shen Zhong’ s “xieju” method. Following this argument, the rhyme divisions used by ancient scholars were much broader, allowing the sounds of different divisions, such as “南” “音” and “心” , to be accepted as rhyming words. However, such an argument was no more than a compromise based on the rhyme books and rhyme divisions in his own time, and was still inconsistent with the realistic features of the ancient sounds. As a matter of fact, the ancient sound of “南” could indeed be cut into “乃” and “林” , so it did belong to the same rhyme as “心” and “音” . Neither the method of “xieju” nor the so-called “broad rhyme” was necessary for the correct interpretation. In The Book of Songs, the character “南” was used in poems such as “Gentle Breeze” in Odes of Bei, “The Outskirts of the Land of Zhu” in Odes of Chen, “The Drums and Bells” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom, “Quan E” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom, and “Pan Shui” in Lu Songs. In all these cases,“南” was rhymed with “心” “音” “欽” “琴” and “林” , so the ancient sound of “南” could be accurately inferred therefrom. Besides, in the lines of “Summons of the Soul” in The Verse of Chu, “湛湛江水兮上有楓，目極千里兮傷春心，魂兮歸來哀江南” (The clear river is gently flowing, with maple woods standing on the river banks. Stretch my  eyes and see the spring-time landscape with sorrow. I am summoning the soul to return to the unforgettable south), “南” also rhymed with “楓” and “心” , which is consistent with the rhyming patterns in The Book of Songs. None of the above three methods correctly reflected the reality of ancient speech sounds. However, some contemporary scholars of Zhu Xi had started to investigate the ancient sound system. More rigorous research methods were developed in the Ming Dynasty, and further refined in the Qing Dynasty. Considerable achievements had been made since then, particularly with regard to the analysis of the ancient rhyme divisions. The study of ancient rhyme divisions by the scholars in the Ming and Qing

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Dynasties was largely based on The Book of Songs and The Verse of Chu. Through meticulous paralleling, generalization and analogies, the conventional and common phenomena were distinguished from the sporadic and exceptional ones, and then the rhymes were clustered into different divisions. Please see the  following example from “The Northern Hill” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs. 陟彼北山，言采其杞。偕偕士子，朝夕從事。王事靡盬，憂我父母。 溥天之下，莫非王土；率土之濱，莫非王臣。大夫不均，我從事獨賢。 I ascend that northern hill, and gather the medlars. An officer, strong and vigorous,  morning and evening I am engaged in service. The king’ s business is not to be slackly performed; and my parents are left in sorrow. Under the wide heaven, all is the king’ s land; within the sea-boundaries of the land, all are the king’ s servants. His great officers are unfair, making me serve thus as if I  alone were worthy.

A careful reading of the above two stanzas may reveal a few patterns as listed below. The sound of “母” rhymes with “杞” “子” and “事” , which is inconsistent with the rhymes in later ages. There were, however, a lot of cases in The Book of Songs in which “母” was used as the end rhyme. For example, in “Jiang Zhong Zi” in Odes of Zheng, “子” “裏” “杞” and “母” are all rhyming words; in “Four Stallions” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom, the rhyming words are “止” “杞” and “母” ; in “Little Happiness” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom, the rhyming words are “梓” “止” “母” , “裏” and “在” ; in “Jiong Zhuo” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom, the rhyming words are “饎” “子” and “母” ; in “Bi Gong” of Lu Songs, the rhyming words are “喜” “母” “士” “有” “祉” and “齒” . It can be inferred that, quite unlike the sound in later ages, the ancient sound of “母” belonged to the same rhyme division with its ancient rhyming peers. The ancient sound of “下” rhymes with that of “土” . In The Book of Songs, “下” rhymes with “女” “處” “苦” “股” “羽” “野” “宇” “户” and “鼠” . In The Verse of Chu, “下” rhymes with “渚” “予” “御” “伫” “妒” “女” “浦” “舆” “雨” “所” and “舞” . In The Book of Changes, “下” rhymes with “斧” “土” “舆” “女” “普” “輔” “處” “旅” “故” “虎” , and “睹” . In The Book of Rites, “下” rhymes with “户” “俎” “鼓” “嘏” “祖” “所” “祜” “旅” “武” “語” and “古” . All in all, a great dead of material now prove that the ancient sound of “下” is different  from that of the later ages. “賢” rhymes with “濱” “臣” and “均” . In The Book of Songs and other ancient classics, “賢” rhymes with such words as “人” “真” “陳” “薪” “身” “民” and “賓” , which, in turn, are further connected with “天” “填” “田” “顛” “千” “堅” and “年” in terms of sound coordination, loan characters, or radicals of phonosemantic characters. It can be seen, therefore, that the ancient sounds of all these characters once belonged to the same rhyme division. Given the above examples, a few methodological principles can be summarized as follows. By comparing the facts of sound coordination, loan characters, phono-

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semantic characters, exegeses and polysyllabic words with the rhyme divisions in Guangyun, it can be seen that, in correspondence to the ancient sounds, some of the rhyme divisions in Guangyun can be combined, while others can be divided and then partly combined. Based on the factual materials about sound coordination, loan characters, phono-semantic characters, exegeses and polysyllabic words, the entire system of ancient rhymes can be derived. In this case, the materials of sound coordination are of great importance. What is stated above was the methodology adopted by previous scholars of ancient phonology. Based mainly on the cases of sound coordination in The Book of Songs, they investigated the ancient pronunciations widely and thoroughly, and further verified the sound patterns according to phonological principles and  the connections between ancient and modern sounds. Thanks to Gu Yanwu and Jiang Yong in the early Qing Dynasty as well as Zhang Binglin and Huang Kan in modern times, the rhyme divisions have been rigorously and meticulously determined. Today, in the application of their methods, with due progress in phonetics, dialect surveys and comparative speech sounds, many defects in previous studies are yet to be corrected. In recent years, there emerged quite a few newly-determined rhyme divisions, which were largely minute variations of the divisions made in the Qing Dynasty. What is commonly adopted at present is the twenty-two divisions proposed by Xia Xin in the Qing Dynasty, which integrated the ideas of many distinguished scholars, including Zheng Xiang in the Song Dyansty, Gu Yanwu, Jiang Yong, Duan Yucai and Dai Zhen in the Qing Dynasty, as well as Xia Xin’ s contemporaries Wang Niansun and Jiang Yougao. Both Niansun and Jiang Yougao proposed their versions of twenty-one divisions with minor differences, and their thoughts were later incorporated in the twentytwo divisions of Xia Xin, which was also acknowledged by Jiang Yougao himself. As this line of research may greatly facilitate our reading of the ancient classics, it is rightly adopted for the present purpose. Xia Xin’ s work is mainly based on the materials that are familiar to scholars of generations, including, for the large part, the rhymes in The Book of Songs, and the radicals in phono-semantic characters. The twenty-two rhyme divisions are listed as follows5. 之部　幽部　宵部　侯部　魚部　歌部　支部　脂部 至部　祭部　元部　文部　真部　耕部　陽部　東部 中部　蒸部　侵部　談部　葉部　緝部

The twenty-two rhyme divisions listed above can be divided into three categories. The first category contains ten divisions from “之” to “祭” , and was named “陰聲” , the yin sounds, because they do not have the terminal sounds (-n, -ng, -m). In particular, the two divisions of “至” and “祭” only have the falling and entering tones, but not the level and falling-rising tones. The second category, 5

Please see the second volume of A Collective Study of the Twenty-Two Ancient Rhyme Charts by Xia Xin.

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“陽聲” or the yang sounds, consists of another ten divisions from “元” to “談” , which all have a nasal coda. Among these divisions, “元” “文” and “真” belong to the same group (-n); “耕” “陽” “東” “中” and “蒸” another group (-ng), and a third group contains “侵” and “談” (-m). The third category is called “入聲” (the entering tone), including the divisions of “葉” and “緝” , neither of which has the other three tones. The category of the entering tone also has codas, so it has the same syllable structure as that of the category of yang sounds. On the other hand, the category of the entering tone is also closely connected to the category of yin sounds in terms of their phonological changes. Therefore, in the history of phonological studies, the third category is combined with the yin sounds, or with the yang sounds, or even with both of the two categories. In ancient rhymes, both “葉” and “緝” were used separately as the entering rhymes. By adopting the twenty-two divisions of Xia Xin, the rhymes in “The Northern Hill” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom can be analyzed as below. “杞” “子” “事” and “母” all belong to the division of “之” . “下” and “土” both belong to the division of “魚” . “濱” “臣” “均” and “賢” all belong to the division of “真” .

What’ s more, the twenty-two divisions can thoroughly explain the cases of phono-semantic characters, exegeses and loan characters. For example, an entry in Shuowen Jiezi is “馬，武也” (the sound of “馬” is the same as that of “武” ), as the two characters both belonged to the division of “魚” . It is also stated that, these characters have the same sound, such as “頗” and “皮” , “義” and “我” , “宜” and “多” , as well as “奇” and “可” . As a matter of fact, all these characters belong to the division of “歌” . In other words, quite unlike their modern pronunciations, “皮” “宜” and “奇” used to rhyme with the sound of “歌” in their ancient pronunciations. The passage of “Li Lou I ” in Mencius contained such lines “爲 淵敺魚，爲叢敺爵 (雀 )” (To drive the fish into the deep waters, in the otter, to  drive the sparrow to the wood is the hawk), in which “敺” is a loan character of “通” . The ancient sounds of “區” “驅” and “敺” all belonged to the division of “侯” . If they are read as their modern pronunciation, it is difficult to discern the  relationship of loan characters involved. For example, a line in “Han Guang” in “Odes of Zhou and the South” of The Book of Songs is “江之永矣” (How wide the river is), which was later quoted in Shuowen Jiezi as “江之羕矣” (How long the river is). In interpreting the line of “況也永嘆” (What they can do is to sigh) in “Prunus Japonica” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom in Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics, Lu Jianming made a remark, “況，本作兄” (“況” can be written as “兄” ), which means “況” was written as “兄” . That is to say, “永” and “羕” are graphological variants, the same as “兄” and “況” , because the ancient sounds of these characters all belonged to the division of “陽” . In comparison with the rhyme divisions in Guangyun, the twenty-two divisions of the ancient sounds not only incorporate the four tones, but also differ in the rhyme entries. For example, the division of “歌” incorporates the rhymes of “歌” and “戈” , as well as part of the rhyme of “支” and a half of “麻” in Guangyun.

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The rhyme entries of the ancient sounds still follow the conventional ones in Guangyun for convenience, but its contents have been changed greatly. Like modern pronunciation, the ancient pronunciation also involved complicated variations. Although our research and generalization are largely based on relatively conventional and standard materials, quite a few cases still defy generalization based on ancient phonological principles, so they should at best be regarded as exceptions. However, when such “exceptions” recur, certain principles are also deduced accordingly. For example, in the lines “弓矢既調，射 夫既同” (The bows and arrows were adjusted to one another; the archers acted in unison) in “Che Gong” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom of The Book of Songs, “同” and “調” could be of the same rhyme or not. However, in “Li Sao” of The Verse of Chu, there must be sound coordination between the lines of “求榘矱之所同” (seeking the like-minded) and “摯咎繇 (皋陶 )而能調” (finding Yi Yin and Gao Yao as the wise ministers). Why, in this case, did “同” and “調” share the same rhyme? As it cannot be explained by the conventional examples in the “TwentyTwo Divisions” , it can only be regarded as an accidental coincidence of rhymes, or an exception. However, with the evidentiary examples mounting in number, we can not only explain the rhymes in “Li Sao” , but also prove whether the above example from “Che Gong” in “Minor Odes of the Kingdom” did involve the use of rhymes, hence shedding new light on the study of ancient rhyme divisions.

16.3 Consonant Categories of Ancient Sounds The “thirty-six alphabets” can largely cover the consonants in the medievalancient Chinese, yet fails to agree with the cases of the ancient sounds. Zheng Xuan once commented on “Prunus Japonica” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs, “古聲不、柎同” (The ancient sounds of “不” and “柎” are the same). He also stated that “古聲填、窴、塵同” (The ancient sounds of “填” “窴” and “塵” are the same). His comments of “古聲同” (the ancient sounds are the same) referred to both the rhymes and the onset consonants. At present, it has been proved that “不” and “柎” both belong to the division of “魚” in the twenty-two divisions of ancient rhymes, while “填” “窴” and “塵” belong to the division of “真”. The consonants could be analyzed in terms of the “thirty-six alphabets” as follows. “不” belongs to the pivot of “幫” , a heavy-lip sound. “柎” belongs to the pivot of “非” , a light-lip sound.

Of the above two “lip sounds” , one is slightly lighter and the other is heavier. “填” and “窴” belong to the pivot of “定” , a tongue-tip sound. “塵” belongs to the pivot of “澄” , a tongue sound.

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These lingual sounds differ in the positions of the tongue. As shown above, the  distinction between “light-lip” and “heavy-lip” sounds and that between “tonguetip” and “tongue sounds” are quite clear in the medieval-ancient and modern pronunciations, but, in Zheng Xuan’ s opinion, their ancient sounds were the same. Similar cases can be found in fanqie examples in Guangyun, which derived from Qieyun in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. A few examples are given as follows. The sound of “眉” can be cut into “武” and “悲” ; The sound of “頻” can be cut into “符” and “真” ; The sound of “貯” can be cut into “丁” and “吕” .

The sounds involved in the above fanqie examples are not only different from  their modern counterparts, but also inconsistent with the sounds in the Song Dynasty, when Guangyun was compiled. As a result, these fanqie examples were revised in Guangyun. In some cases, the given character and its upper character belong to the same category, such as “眉” (“眉” and its upper character “武” are both lip sounds with difference in lightness or heaviness) or “貯” (“貯” and its upper character “丁” are both lingual sounds with different tongue positions), such fanqie cases with the same category but different consonants are called “類 隔” (leige). Those revised fanqie cases with the same consonant are called “音和” (yinhe), as seen in the following examples. The sound of “眉” can be cut into “目” and “悲” . The sound of “頻” can be cut into “步” and “真” . The sound of “貯” can be cut into “知” and “吕” .

In the above examples, “眉” and “目” , “頻” and “步” , as well as “貯” and “知” are all of the same consonant; that is to say, the given characters and their phoneticized characters have the same consonant. The revision of Guangyun comes first, followed by Jiyun, in which these “leige” cases were all replaced by “yinhe” cases. Such an improvement still fell short of explaining phenomena in ancient pronunciation before the Han Dynasty. The “ancient sound” as Zheng Xuan noticed in The Book of Songs is not an issue of “leige” or “yinhe” . Furthermore, the appearance of “leige” also deserves careful investigations. For the scholars of ancient phonology, most of their efforts have been put in the  study of ancient rhyme divisions, as the issues of rhymes in The Book of Songs and The Verse of Chu were usually the topics they first confronted, while the studies of  ancient consonants were paid less attention to. The aforementioned ideas of “leige” were briefly noticed by the scholars using the dengyun method, yet never applied in solving the problems of ancient consonants. It was in the Qing Dynasty that Qian Daxin attempted to explain the lingual sounds and tongue sounds in ancient pronunciations based on voluminous materials and the “thirty-six alphabets” . In his two articles of “On the Lack of ‘Light-Lip Sounds’ in Ancient Pronunciation” and “The Unreliable Theory of ‘Leige’ of the Lingual Sounds” , Qian argued that,

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in the “thirty-six alphabets” “非” “敷” “奉” and “微” should be incorporated in “幫” “滂” “並” and “明” ; while “知” “徹” and “澄” should be incorporated in “端” “透” and “定”6. Such an argument could explain why “不” and “柎” had the same consonant, and “填” and “塵” also had the same consonant, as Zheng Xuan pointed out. It also helped to solve the issue of “leige” in Guangyun. Qian’s theory was later accepted by Zhang Binglin, who wrote “On Classifying the Sound Class of ‘Niang’ and ‘Ri’ as ‘Ni’ ”7. By then, the study on the ancient consonant system was nearly completed. Recent scholars contributed to the consonant categories of “照” and “喻” with useful supplements, thus solving most of the issues of ancient consonants. Qian Daxin used more than a hundred pieces of evidence to prove the lack of “light-lip sounds” and “tongue sounds” in ancient pronunciations. For example, The phrase “服牛乘馬” (to drive the bulls and horses to pull the cart) from “Xi Ci” in The Book of Changes was quoted in Shuowen Jiezi as “犕牛乘馬” (to saddle the bulls and horses to pull the cart). The phrase “大野既猪” (the big lakes collected deep water) from “Yu Gong” in The Book of Documents was quoted in “Annals of the Xia Dynasty” in Records of the Grand Historian as “大野既都” .

These are evidences of variant characters found in quoted texts. A phrase from “On Archery” in The Book of Rites is “賁軍之將” (A general who lost a battle). Zheng Xuan’ s annotation to the phrase is “賁讀爲僨，覆敗也” (“賁” is said as “僨” , and means to lose a battle). A phrase from “Xiao Situ” in The Rites of Zhou is “四邱爲甸” (Four units of qiu form a unit of dian). Zheng Xuan’ s annotation to the phrase is “甸之言乘也” (“甸” is said as “乘” ).

These are evidences from exegeses. In Shuowen Jiezi, “魴” can be written as “鰟” . “咥” and “耋” both belong to the sound of “至” .

This is evidence from the radicals of phono-semantic characters. A sentence from the passage “On Sacrifice” in The Book of Rites is “勿勿諸其欲其 饗之也” (eagerly hoping that the spirits of late parents would enjoy the sacrifice). Zheng  Xuan’ s annotation is “勿勿，猶勉勉也” (“忽忽” is the same as “勉勉” ). A phrase from “Seven Passages” by Mei Sheng in Zhaoming Wenxuan (Literary Selections) 《昭明文選》 ( ) is “逾岸出追” (the water runs over the banks and flows 6

See “Shijiazhai” Studies on Sinology(《十駕齋養新錄》), Volume 5, and Questions and Answers in the Book of Qianyantang(《潛研堂答問》), Volume 12, by Qian Daxin. 7 See Balanced Inquiries into Traditional Learning, first volume. 

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beyond the sand piles). Li Shan annotated it “追，古堆字” (“追” is the ancient character of “堆” ).

These are evidences from loan characters. Besides, Qian used alliterative words such as “密勿—蠠没” and “追琢—雕琢” ( to prove that there was only one type of “libal sound” and “tongue sound 《昭明文 選》) ” . All these materials he used as proofs are reliable and convincing. Summarizing the previous theories, Zhang Binglin composed a table of pivot sounds, containing twenty-one ancient consonant categories: Guttural sounds: 見　溪　群　疑 Glottal sounds: 曉　匣　影 (喻 ) Tongue sounds: 端 (知 )　透 (徹 )　定 (澄 )　泥 (娘日 )　來 Dental sounds: 照 (精 )　穿 (清 )　牀 (從 )　審 (心 )　禪 (邪 ) Labial sounds: 幫 (非 )　滂 (敷 )　並 (奉 )　明 (微 )

There are also intricate connections among the twenty-first pivot sounds. For  example, “群” has the sound of “君” , because “見” and “群” are loan characters. “填” has the sound of “真” , because “定” and “端 (知 )” are loan characters. More recently, new discoveries are gained with regard to the ancient sounds of the pivot of “喻” , part of which turned out to be closely related to the pivot of “定” 8. For example, the character of “陶” in “皋陶” (Gao Yao) was a loan character of “繇” , yet it later evolved into two different consonants. Besides, the character of  “臺” can be pronounced with both the consonants “定” and “喻” . Likewise, the consonants of the “照” category and “端” category are also closely related. Knowing the differences between ancient and modern consonants is of great use in analyzing variant characters, loan characters, exegeses and phono-semantic characters in ancient books. Among others, we now know that the word “申 棖” in The Analects of Confucius is the same as “申棠” in Records of the Grand Historian, while “汶山” in The Book of Documents is the same mountain name as “岷山” in Records of the Grand Historian. The studies of ancient consonants also shed some light on the correspondences among the modern dialects9.

16.4 Ancient Tones The identification of ancient tones is the most controversial issue in the study of  ancient phonology. Of course, the actual tone pitch is certainly unknown, and 8

Please see Study on the Ancient Sounds of the Initial Consonant of “Yu” 《 ( 喻母古讀考》) by Zeng Yunqian. 9 Consonant Categories by Qian Daxin contains a great deal of reference materials on ancient consonants.

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there is little practical value of study. What is under discussion here is the issue of tone categorization, which can be deduced from the distinction of “four tones” (the level tone, the falling-rising tone, the falling tone and the entering tone) proposed in the Qi and Liang Dynasties. That is to say, the present discussion is not concerned with the impact of voiceless sounds (dim sound) and voiced sounds (clear sound) on tones. Scholars in the past three hundred years have contributed many different theories about ancient tones.  (1) Gu Yanwu: the uniform tones (the four tones have no distinction and can be used interchangeably) (2) Duan Yucai: The ancient pronunciation has the level, falling-rising and entering tones, but not has the falling tone. (3) Zhang Binglin: In ancient pronunciation, the level and falling-rising tones form one category, while the falling and entering tones form another category. (4) Huang Kan: The ancient pronunciation has the level and entering tones, but not has the falling-rising and falling tones.

Among the above, Gu Yanwu’ s theory has gained credence from many scholars including Dai Zhen and Qian Daxin. Huang Kan’ s theory might seem to have evolved from the theories of Duan and Zhang; however, his distinction between “level tone” and “entering tone” was actually concerned with the coda, a component of the rhyme structure, rather than the tones. His position with regard to tone distinctions, as a matter of fact, was the same as Gu Yanwu’ s idea of the uniform tones. The above theories can be classified into two types. The first  type, including the theories of Duan and Zhang, argued for certain distinctions among ancient tones; whereas the second type, including those of Gu and Huang, maintained that there was no distinction among the ancient tones, or they were uniform. What’ s more, some scholars, including Wang Guowei, once proposed to incorporate the yang sounds with the coda and characters of the entering tone as one group with no distinction of the four tones, and to incorporate the yin sounds without the coda as another group with distinctions of four tones. Such a proposal, however, was only marginally received. Wang Niansun and Jiang Yougao revised Gu Yanwu’ s theory by adding a further argument as below. (5)Wang Niansun and Jiang Yougao: There were four tones in ancient pronunciation, yet their realization in specific character sounds differs from those in modern Chinese. 

Such an argument is relatively balanced and convincing. Our present discussions of the ancient tones are mainly based on Corrections of the Four Tones in the Supplementary Edition of Qieyun in the Tang Dynasty 《唐 ( 韻四聲正》) by Jiang Yougao. Earlier studies on tones used to examine the character sounds in ancient classics in term of “four tones” . As there were quite a number of inconsistent examples, it was usually believed that there was no distinction of the four tones in ancient

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sounds, thus giving much freedom to pronunciation and sound coordination. Please see the following example. 適子之館兮，還，予授子之粲兮。( 《詩· 鄭風· 緇衣》) We will go to your court, and when we return, we will send you a feast! (From “The Black Dress” in “Odes of Zheng” in The Book of Songs)

In this example, the character “館” is pronounced in the falling-rising tone in modern pronunciation, while in the poem below it rhymes with “粲” which has the falling tone. 揚之水，不流束薪。終鮮兄弟，維予二人。無信人之言，人言不信。( 《詩·鄭風·揚 之水》) The fretted waters, do not carry on their current a bundle of firewood. Few are our  brethren; there are only we two. Do not believe what people say; they are not to be trusted. (From “Fretted Waters” , Odes of Zheng in The Book of Songs)

“信” usually has the falling tone in modern times, but in this poem, it rhymes with “薪” and “人” , which shows the level tone. 帝子降兮北渚，目渺渺兮愁予。裊裊兮秋風，洞庭波兮木葉下。(《楚辭·九歌·湘 夫人》) Lady Xiang descended on the northern sandbank. Gazing into the distance, I felt sorrowful to see not clear. The branches are waving in the cool autumn wind, and Lake Dongting is ruffled with leaves falling. (From “Lady Xiang” , Nine Songs in The Verse of Chu)

“予” has two different tones in modern pronunciations. “予” in “予我” (to give me) has the level tone, while in “贈予” (to bestow) it has the falling-rising tone. In the above example, the meaning of “予” is “to give me” , yet it still rhymes with “渚” and “下” , which both have the falling-rising tone. Given the fact that characters of different tones can be used in sound coordination, it seems that ancient pronunciation makes no distinction in the four tones. Such a conclusion, unfortunately, is partially correct. Ancient pronunciation differs from the modern one not only in consonants and rhymes, but also in tones.  For example, “館” is identified in rhyme books as the falling-rising or falling tone.  Its pronunciation with the falling tone, though no longer existing today, used to exist in the early-ancient pronunciations. It is only a case reflecting the transition  from the early-ancient and medieval-ancient sound to the modern sound. Besides, “信” always rhymes with the level-tone characters in The Book of Songs, as shown in the following examples. In “Drum Beating” in Odes of Bei: 洵” and “信” are rhymed. In “The Rainbow” in Odes of Yong: “人” “姻” “信” and “命” are rhymed. (Note: here “命” also has the level tone in The Book of Songs, with examples in “Fretted

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Waters” in Odes of Tang, “Collecting the Bean Leaves” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom, and “Jia Yue” “Quan E” and “Jiang Han” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom) In “Endless Rain” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom: “天” “信” “臻” and “身” are all rhymed. In “An Eunuch in the Palace” in “Minor Odes of the Kingdom” : “翩” “人” and “信” are rhymed.

All these rhyming characters belong to the ancient rhyme division of “真” , all having a level tone. Also a sentence in “Xi Ci” in The Book of Changes “往者屈也， 來者信也；屈信相感而利生焉” (The leaving one is bending, and the coming one is stretching. Both bending and stretching are reciprocal and driven by its own interest). Here “屈信” is the same as “屈伸” (to bend and stretch). By drawing on the evidence from sound coordination and loan characters, it is proved that the ancient pronunciation of “信” had the level tone, and later changed to the falling tone. As for “予” , it usually rhymes with the characters in the falling-rising tone in The Book of Songs, as shown in the following examples. In “Owls” in Odes of Bin: “雨” “土” “户” and “予” are rhymed; In “The First Month” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom: “雨” “輔” and “予” are rhymed; In “The Wind in the Valley” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom: “雨” “女” and “予” are rhymed; In “The Fourth Month” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom: “夏” “暑” and “予” are rhymed; In “Gather the Beans” in Minor odes of the Kingdom: “股” “下” “紓” “予” are rhymed. In “Yun Han” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom: “沮” “所” “顧” “助” “祖” and “予” are rhymed. (The sound of “顧” also has the falling-rising tone in The Book of Songs. For example, the rhyming characters in “Large Rats” in Odes of Wei are “鼠” “黍” “女” “顧” “女” “土” and “所” , all of which have the falling-rising tone. Therefore, in “The Gate of the Tomb Passage” in “Odes of Chen” , “顧” is rhymed with “予” , which both have the falling-rising tone.)

As shown in the above examples, “予” had only the falling-rising tone in ancient pronunciation. The distinction between the level tone and the falling-rising tone for different meanings had not existed until the medieval-ancient period.  What’ s more, “慶” is pronounced in modern Chinese in the falling tone, yet its ancient pronunciation is a yang sound with the level tone. For example, the lines in “Kun Wen Yan” of Annotations on The Book of Changes are “積善之家，必有 餘慶；積不善之家，必有餘殃” (A household of virtues will bring good fortunes; a household of evils will incur disaster), in which “慶” is rhymed with “殃” . “正” can have both the level and falling tones in modern pronunciations, and the level tone is only used in “正月” (the first month of the lunar year). Its ancient sound,  however, had only the level tone. In “So Splendid” , Odes of Qi, in The Book of Songs, “正” is rhymed with “名” “清” “成” “甥” ; in “The High Mountain of

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Zhongnan” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom, it is rhymed with “寧” and “平” ; in “Yun Han” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom, it is rhymed with “星” “贏” “成” and “寧” . With no exception, all these rhyming characters are of the level tone. A sentence in “The Offices of ‘Summer’ ” in The Rites of Zhou is “以軍法治之，司 馬弗正” (To rule it according to the military laws, and the office of Sima cannot take it over for use). Zheng Xuan’ s annotation is “雖有軍事，不賦之” (even in the time of a warfare, it cannot be drafted). So “正” must be the loan character of “征” as used in “征赋” (to draft), which has the level tone. All these facts of sound coordination and loan characters thus confirm the level tone of the ancient sound  of “正” . As for the tale about changing the tone of “正” in “正月” from the falling tone to the level tone out of respect for the homophonic character “政” in the name of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty, it is an obviously groundless story10. As we can see, the ancient tones of “館” “信” “予” and so on are different from the tones in their modern pronunciation, and the facts of sound coordination are consistent with their ancient tones; therefore, the argument for a “uniform tone” in ancient pronunciation should be dismissed. Like the “broad rhymes in ancient sounds” , the “uniform tone” argument again runs counter to the real situations of the ancient sounds, largely due to the lack of understanding. After all, there are also a large number of examples of sound coordination in the earlyancient verses which are consistent with the modern pronunciations. For example, the rhyming characters in “Guan Ju” of Odes of Zhou and the South in The Book of Songs are listed below. “鳩” “洲” and “逑” are in the level tone. “流” and “求” are in the level tone. “得” “服” and “側” are in the entering tone. “采” and “友” are in the falling-rising tone. “筆” and “樂” 11 are in the falling tone.

As shown in the above examples, the four tones were clearly distinguished, which are the predominant pattern in The Book of Songs and The Verse of Chu. What’ s more, among the twenty-two divisions of ancient rhymes, some only contain the characters in the level and falling-rising tones, some only contain those in the falling and entering tones, and others only contain those in the entering tone alone. These are facts of the distinction of four tones. Based on the facts above, scholars such as Jiang Yougao asserted the distinction 10

In his explanation of “Biography of the First Emperor of Qin” in Records of the Grand Historian, Zhang Shoujie stated, “始皇以正月旦生於趙，因爲‘政’，後以始皇諱故音征” (The First Emperor was born in the first month of the lunar year in Zhao, so he was named “政”. Out of respect for the royal name, the sound of “正” is changed to “征”.) 11 The character “樂”has the falling and entering tones in The Book of Songs. In the passages of “The First Month of the Lunar Year” “Yi” “Han Yi” and “Fresh Fish from the South”, it rhymes with the characters of the falling tone. In the passages of “The Rivers of Zhen and Wei” “Gently Flowing River”, and “Hawks”, it rhymes with characters of the entering tone.

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of four tones in ancient pronunciation. The specific tones of ancient characters, of  course, is different from the modern tones, so they are not interchangeable. In Xia  Xin’ s words, Among the three hundred passages, the level and oblique tones are clearly distinguished and arranged in order. The four tones in ancient pronunciation are different from those in the modern one. Jiang’ s work Corrections of the Four Tones in the Supplementary Edition of Qieyun in the Tang Dynasty contains the most explicit and definite investigations in this regard. (From Postscript to the Book of Ancient Phonological Charts)

In Corrections of the Four Tones in the Supplementary Edition of Qieyun in the Tang Dynasty, Jiang listed quite a few examples to illustrate the difference in tones  between the early-ancient and modern sounds. For example, the ancient sounds of “享” “頸” and “顙” are in the level tone, but their modern sounds are in the falling-rising tone. The ancient pronunciations of “訟” “化” “震” and “患” are also in the level tone, but the modern sounds are in the falling tone. The ancient pronunciation of “偕” has the falling-rising tone, but its modern pronunciation has the level tone. The ancient pronunciation of “狩” is also in the falling-rising tone, but its modern pronunciation is in the falling tone. Such an argument is indeed much more convincing and acceptable. Similar evidence of tone changes can also be found in the development from medieval-ancient to modern pronunciations. For example, in medieval-ancient rhyme books, the pronunciations of “境” “幸” “負” “下” and “範” were all in the falling-rising tone, but now they are all pronounced in the falling tone. The sounds of “佐” “訪” “譴” “屢” and “緯” are in the falling tone in rhyme books, yet their modern pronunciations are of the falling-rising tone. Like the chronological changes in consonants and rhymes, the historical variation of four tones is also a natural phenomenon in language development. Today, it is no longer possible to ascertain the precise sound value and tone pitch of the ancient pronunciations from the actual sounds. What we intend to derive, by means of text research and sound examinations, is a system of the ancient rhyme divisions, consonants and tones, which can avail the explanations of many facts in ancient language use, the reading of ancient classics, and the understanding of the historical development of the Chinese language. The study of ancient pronunciation must be based on the ancient books read in the “ancient sounds” itself. It is unreasonable, to read The Book of Songs by using the ancient Northern pronunciations of yayan (proper pronunciation), or to read The Verse of Chu by using the southern dialects of Chu. Modern scholars have put much effort  in “stimulating and inferring” the ancient pronunciations, which significantly contributed to our understanding of the ancient phonological system and its historical development. However, such “modeling and measuring” is never meant to achieve the impossible purpose of striking a conversation face-to-face with the ancient people. As Zhang Binglin said,

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Ancient Tones

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今之言韻者，亦故而已矣，惡其鑿也。( 《國故論衡》卷上，《音理論》) In today’ s study on ancient rhymes, it is enough to explore the old patterns, and it is undesirable to be subjective and judgmental. (From “Theories of Sounds and Pronunciations” in the first volume of Balanced Inquiries into Traditional Learning)

In the above comment, “故” (old) means to derive the system of ancient sounds based on the ancient materials so as to understand the ancient phonological features, which is what we can do today. “鑿” means to judge the ancient sounds with the subjective attitude, which is unscientific and futile.

Chapter 17

Tonal and Rhythmic Patterns

17.1 Rhyming Patterns and Antithetic Arrangements Literary compositions in rhyme appear early in ancient Chinese, mostly to the beat of labor routines in everyday life. The ballads and proverbs in colloquial language were the “sounds of the nature” . Later some verses were deliberately composed and recorded, as in the following example from “Boyi and Houji” in The Book of Documents. 元首明哉，股肱良哉，庶事康哉。 元首叢脞哉，股肱惰哉，百工墮哉。 If the king is wise and the ministers are honorable, everything will go well and smooth. If the king is fussy and the ministers are lazy, everything will go in waste.

Composed in the time of Emperor Shun, it could be regarded as the earliest record of poetry. There are other ancient works of poetry, such as “The Game Song of Clog-Throwing” allegedly composed in the time of Emperor Yao: 日出而作，日入而息，鑿井而飲，耕田而食，帝力於我何有哉 1。 The sun rises and I work; the sun sets and I rest. Dig a well and drink water, work the land and feed myself. The great power of Emperor is not of my concern.

1

Please see The Historical Records of Emperors 《帝王世紀》 ( ) by Huangfu Mi.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_17

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Or “The Song of the South Wind” which was allegedly composed in the time of Emperor Shun: 南風之薰兮，可以解吾民之愠兮；南風之時兮，可以阜吾民之財兮 2。 How balmy is the south wind blowing, it alleviates the miseries of my people; how timely is the south wind blowing, it enriches the wealth of my people.

The above two both appeared in the books of the Jin Dynasty; therefore, even with certain references and proofs, they should be taken with due caution. In “The Song of the South Wind” , for example, “愠” and “薰” were used for sound coordination; however, the level tone and the falling tone in the ancient rhyme division of “文” did not allow such sound coordination 3, and hence it bears testimony to the counterfeit. Prose in ancient Chinese also features rhythmic patterns, with abundant examples of rhymes and antithetic structures in ancient books. For example, The Book of Changes contains many ballads and proverbs, and Laozi was almost written in verse. The narrative and argumentative writing of verse also contains many rhymed sentences and antithetical structures, as shown in the following examples. 故絶聖棄知，大盜乃止；擿玉毁珠，小盜不起；焚符破璽，而民樸鄙；掊斗折衡， 而民不争。 Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, and gangsters will stop; fling away jade and destroy pearls, and petty thieves will cease. Burn tallies and break signets, and the people will revert to their uncouth integrity; split measures and smash scales, and the people will not fight over quantities. (From “Opening Trunks” in Zhuangzi) 市南子曰 :君無形倨，無留居，以爲君車。……少君之費，寡君之欲，雖無糧 而乃足。(《山木》) The officer from Shinan rejoined: if your lordship abjures your personal state, and  gives up your wish to remain here, that will serve you for a carriage. … Minimize your lordship’ s expenditure, and make your wants few, and though you have no provisions prepared, you will find you have enough. (From “The Tree on the Mountain” in Zhuangzi) 憍泄者，人之殃也；恭儉者，偋五兵也。雖有戈矛之刺，不如恭儉之利也。(《荀 子· 榮辱》) Pride and arrogance incur calamity for people. Modesty and respect help people to fend off all the weapons. Even the sharpest ends of the dagger-axes and spears cannot  beat the power of modesty and respect. (From “On Honor and Disgrace” in Xunzi) 若夫招近募選隆勢詐尚功利之兵，則勝不勝無常，代翕代張，代存代亡，相爲 2

Please see The Analects of Confucius 《孔子家語》 ( ), which was a fake copy written in the Jin Dynasty. 3 In “Mian” , Greater Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs, both the rhyme divisions of “愠” and “問” are of the falling tone. While the level tone of the division “熏” is used for the rhyming in “Waterfowls” and “Yun Han”. The distinction can be clearly made accordingly.

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雌雄耳矣。(《議兵》) As for the army recruited on account of the tactics and utility, there is no telling whether they will win or lose the battle. They can be weak or strong, and may persist or perish, and they win or lose alternately. (From “On Military Strategies” in Xunzi)

In later ages, some prose writers also preferred to use rhyming and rhythmic patterns to enhance the beat in their writing, as illustrated in the following examples by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan. 入者主之，出者奴之；入者附之，出者污之。( 韓愈《原道》 People tend to venerate the school they choose to follow, and belittle the one they choose to oppose; they adhere to the one they choose to follow, and befoul the one they choose to oppose. (From “The Essentials of the Moral Way” by Han Yu) 勿動勿慮，去不復顧。其蒔也若子，其置也若棄。 Don’ t move it or worry about it, just leave it without looking back. When I plant the seedlings, I treat them like my own children. When I leave them to grow, I leave without turning back. (From “The Story of Guo Tuotuo Planting Trees” by Liu Zongyuan)

The antithetical arrangement of rhymed words as such was given full play throughout the history of Chinese classic literature, ranging from fu-poetry in the Han Dynasty to lüshi-poetry (also known as “modern style poetry” ) in the Tang Dynasty. If well applied, the stylistic device greatly facilitates the expression of ideas. When badly applied, it can be no more than an empty shell of forms, sometimes blamed for the so-called “literary decline of the eight dynasties” . Succeeding to The Book of Songs and The Verse of Chu, fu-poetry gradually evolved into an independent genre of verse, which epitomized the social and cultural development in the Han Dynasty. In the Six Dynasties, there appeared xiaofu, which expresses feelings and emotions, and pianti, which is rhyme-less but antithetical in structure, and mostly serve as a preface. Later sanfu came into being, which was rhymed prose without antithetical arrangements. All above can be said as derivations from fu-poetry in the Han Dynasty. The appearance of lüshi-poetry could be attributed to the social factors as well as the literary and linguistic ones, including the five-character-in-one-line poems and the seven-character-in-one-line poems, the technique of antithetical arrangement in fu-poetry, the development of rhyme books, and the ideas about “four tones” . There were numerous rhyming and rhythmic constraints in the writing of lüshi-poetry with regard to the rhyming patterns and antithesis. As the poets in the Tang and Song Dynasties had attained great achievements in rhyme schemes, their followers in the later ages largely inherited and followed the conventions of the two dynasties. At the same time, the rhyme books, which originally served as a means of phonological analysis and recording, became the yardstick of using rhymes in poetry. From the Song Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the use of rhymes in poetry writing was constrained by a rigid system in a given

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rhyme book, thus gradually deviated from the actual pronunciations4. Confined to  the rhyme and rhythmic restrictions, poets struggled to adapt and manipulate the structures and meanings of words, thus creating a unique style for ancient poetry, which in turn contributed to the semantic and grammatical development of the Chinese language. Please see the following examples. 紺園澄夕霽，碧殿下秋陰。(沈佺期《游少林寺》) The temple seems bright and clear against the setting sun after the rain; the grand palace was shaded in the gloomy color of an autumn day. (From the poem “A Visit to the Shaolin Temple” by Shen Quanqi) 薜蘿山徑入，荷芰水亭開。(杜審言《夏日過鄭七山齋》) The climbing figs are reaching for the winding path in the hill; the lotus and water  chestnut flowers are blooming around the waterside pavilion. (From the poem “A Visit  to Zheng Qi’ s Hillside Villa in Summer” by Du Shenyan) 久拚野鶴如雙鬢，遮莫鄰鷄下五更。(杜甫《書堂飲既夜復邀李尚書下馬月下賦 絶句》) It has been long since my hair became as gray as the wild cranes; and no more do I care for my neighbor’ s rooster crowing before the daybreak. (From “A Jueju Poem Composed in Moonlight with an Invitation to Mr. Li After a Drink in the Study” by Du Fu)

The dictions and structures used in the above examples never existed in colloquial expressions. In particular, the line by Du Fu was intended to say that the hair was as gray as the wild cranes. However, the sixth character in the first  line requires a level tone, and it also needs to be in the arrangement to form an antithesis with “五更” (day break) in the next line; hence the use of a powerful inverted structure “野鶴如雙鬢” (the hair became as gray as the wild cranes). As we can see now, to allow understanding and appreciation, poetic writings should, on the one hand, conform to the rhyming and rhythmic patterns, and on the other, flexibly use language without undue distortion. 

17.2 The Rhyming Patterns in the Old Poetry The old poetry is varied in length. Usually, there could be four, five or seven characters in one line, and the mixed patterns of three, five or seven characters.  The four-character-in-one-line poems are derived from The Book of Songs, which were mostly used in epigraphs and eulogies. The mixed patterns were often adopted in the writing of ballads, proverbs, yuefu poetry and gexing (poetic songs). 4

The use of rhymes in the examinations of the Song Dynasty must follow the officially-issued The Rhyme Book for the Ministry of Rites. The official rhyme book in the Qing Dynasty, Book of Rhymes (Peiwen Yun), was also compiled on the basis of The Rhyme Book for the Ministry of Rites. The writing of old-style poetry in later ages was all based on Book of Rhymes (Peiwen Yun).

17.2  The Rhyming Patterns in the Old Poetry

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The most common pattern contains five or seven characters in one line.  In the old poetry with five or seven characters in one line, the semantic boundary usually lies in the second, the fourth or the sixth character, as shown in the following examples. 結廬／在人境，而無／車馬／喧。問君／何能／爾，心遠／地自偏。(陶渊明 《飲酒》) In people’ s haunt I built my cot; of wheel’ s and hoof’ s noise I hear not. How can it leave on me no trace? A secluded heart makes a secluded place. (From “The Poems on Drinking” by Tao Yuanming) 中興／諸將／收山東，捷書／夜報／清晝／同。(杜甫《洗兵馬》) The generals had retrieved the land to the east of Mount Huashan; when the news of victory arrived at night, it looked like a clear and bright day. (From “A Tribute to the Triumphant Troops” by Du Fu)

There was no restriction of tones within each line, allowing free use of the level and the oblique tones. Sometimes five consecutive level-tone characters are used  in one line, as in “天衢陰峥嶸” (The sky is getting gloomy with dark clouds) and “憂端齊終南” (My miseries and worries reach as high as Mount Zhongnan) from the poem “Upon My Leaving the Capital for Fengxian” by Du Fu. Sometimes five consecutive oblique-tone characters are used in one line, as in “況乃粉黛假” (Let alone the clay figures with fake colors) and “故物獨石馬” (What was left are the stone horses) from “On Yuhua Palace” by Du Fu. However, a coordinated tone pattern always serves as the cornerstone in the musicality of poetry. When lüshi-poetry started to prevail in the Tang and Song Dynasties, the writers of the old poetry managed to adopt the tone arrangements different from those of lüshipoetry, highlighting its unique feature of free rhythmic patterns. There are two rhyming patterns in ancient poetry, one with a consistent rhyme, and the other with rhyme switches. The rhymed words can either lie at the end of each line, or at the end of an alternate line. In Du Fu’ s poems “A Recruiting Sergeant at Xin’ an” “Parting of the Newlyweds” “Lament of an Old Man” , and “Lament of a Homeless” , a consistent rhyme was used in each poem. Some other works by Du Fu, such as “The Pressgang at Stone Moat Village” and “Officer at the Western Pass” , contained rhyme switches with slight differences. In “The  Pressgang at Stone Moat Village” , every four lines uses the same rhyme, with six rhyme switches in the entire piece, while in “Officer at the Western Pass” , the first  two lines have the same rhyme, and, after the rhyme switch, the other lines use a different yet consistent rhyme. Some of his long poems, such as the five-hundredcharacter “Upon My Leaving the Capital for Fengxian” and the seven-hundredcharacter “An Expedition to the North” , also use a consistent rhyme. By contrast, “A Poem on Zhongnan Mountain” by Han Yu contained up to one hundred and two rhyming characters, covering almost all the characters under the narrow rhyme divisions of “宥” (such as “候” and “幼” ). Rhyme switching in the old poetry does not necessarily follow certain rigid rules, yet it should have some bearing with the transition of topics or meaning. For

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example, the ancient poem “A Ballad of Horse Drinking at a Spring by the Great Wall” contains frequent and irregular switches of rhymes. 青青河邊草，綿綿思遠道。——起韻； 遠道不可思，夙昔夢見之。——轉韻一； 夢見在我傍，忽覺在他鄉。——轉韻二； 他鄉各異縣，展轉不可見。——轉韻三； 枯桑知天風，海水知天寒。 入門各自媚，誰肯相爲言。——轉韻四； 客從遠方來，遺我雙鯉魚。 呼童烹鯉魚，中有尺素書。 長跪讀素書，書中竟何如。——轉韻五； 上有加餐食，下有長相憶。——轉韻六。 Green and lush is the grassland by the riverside, reminding me of my beloved one so far away. — the starting rhyme So far away is the one I miss, every day and night we meet each other in dreams. — the first rhyme switch In dreams he is by my side, yet I woke up to find him still in a foreign land. — the  second rhyme switch A foreign land has so many different regions, yet my husband is nowhere to find. —  the third rhyme switch The withered mulberry trees can feel the blowing wind, even the wide ocean is aware of the chilly season. The ones who returned home stayed with their own families, no one would bother to send a message for me. — the fourth rhyme switch Finally a visitor came after a long journey, bringing me a carp-shaped wooden case. I called for the servant to open the case, revealing a silk letter one chi long. Kneeling in respect and reading the letter, what is the message he sent to me. — the fifth rhyme switch  The former part of the letter is about my meals, the latter part about his longing and missing. — the sixth rhyme switch

In the first half of the poem, every line contains a different rhyme with a switch  in every two lines, creating a rather pressing and rapid rhythm. The two lines of “枯 桑知天風，海水知天寒” evokes the emotion with a pair of antithetical sentences, while the tone is relaxed and slowed down. The final two lines end the entire poem with a rhyme of the entering tone. The twists and turns of different rhyming  characters perfectly match the ups and downs of emotion expressed in the poem. If an ancient poem contains rhyme switches, it tends to make a sudden and powerful ending with the last two rhyming characters, an effect usually sought after in the five-character-in-one-line poems and the seven-character-in-one-line  poems. A case in point is “Seven Poems Written in Tonggu County” by Du Fu, all of which adopted the technique of the rhyme switch. As for the poems with regular rhyme switches, the contents are regularly divided accordingly. For example:

17.2  The Rhyming Patterns in the Old Poetry

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漢帝寵阿嬌，貯之黄金屋。咳唾落九天，隨風生珠玉。寵極愛還歇，妒深情却疏。 長門一步地，不肯暫迴車。雨落不上天，水覆難再收。君情與妾意，各自東西流。 昔日芙蓉花，今成斷根草。以色事他人，能得幾時好 ? (李白《妾薄命》) The Emperor Wudi of Han favored Lady Chen Jiao, and put her in a golden chamber. Her spittle was valued as precious jade and pearls that are blowing in the wind from the high sky. Despite all the favors, the love will still end. With fierce jealousy the affection  gets cold. The palace where she lived was a stone’ s throw from the Emperor’ s palace, yet he was still reluctant to pay a brief visit. The fallen rain will never return to the sky, and the spilled water can never be gathered up again. Her love and his affection are thus  parting far and forever. The lotus flower of yesterday has now become the rootless grass.  Pleasing others with her good looks, how long can the happiness last? (From a yuefu poem “A Lady of Poor Fate” by Li Bai)

In this poem, every four lines not only share the same rhyme but also constitute a coherent meaning unit. Of course, the formal features cannot always constrain the meaning, as in the case of Du Fu’ s poem “The Pressgang at Stone Moat Village” . As a whole, there is a rhyme switch in every four lines. However, in the lines of “聽婦前致詞，三男鄴城戍” (I hear what she tries to speak out, “I’ d three sons guarding the town high.” ), there appeared an unexpected mid-way switch. Then the rhyme continues in the line of “猶得備晨炊” (And I cook morning meals as my due) with the third switch. Such is a case of irregular meaning units. Alternate rhymes are most common of all, with the first line not using the rhyme, as in the case of “A Lady of Poor Fate” . In some works the rhyme starts in the first line5, as in the case of “The Pressgang at Stone Moat Village” . The consistent rhyme is typically used in the old poetry with seven characters in one line, represented by “Bailiang Platform” allegedly written in the time of Emperor Wu in the Han Dynasty, which use a consistent and singular rhyme throughout the whole piece. Some seven-character-in-one-line poems, apart from the predominant consist rhymes, may occasionally contain a few rhyme-less lines, as in the poems of “Lament of the Royal Offspring” and “Satire on Fair Ladies” by Du Fu. Some five-character-in-one-line poems also use consistent rhymes. In the first half of “A Ballad of Horse Drinking at a Spring by the Great Wall” , there is a rhyme switch in every line, a technique that was rarely adopted in the works of later ages. Hardly did a poem contain only one and consistent rhyme. In seven-characterin-one-line poems, the rhymes can switch in every two lines, as shown in the following example: 江東湖北行畫圖，鄂州南樓天下無。高明廣深勢抱合，表裏江山來畫閣。雪筵 披襟夏簟寒，胸吞雲夢何足言。庾公風流冷似鐵，誰其繼之方公悦。(黄庭堅《南 樓長句呈公悦》) The picturesque landscape unfolds itself to the east of the river and to the north of 5

The rhyme that starts in the first line is called “the starting rhyme”, usually aligned with rhyming  words in the second and the fourth lines.

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the lake; the South Tower is indeed one of a kind. High and bright, solidly structured, it features in the landscape like a tower in a painting. Feast in the snow, or summer party on the bamboo mat, all the joy and dreams that no words can describe. Master Yu, once famous for his merry lifestyle, is as cold as iron now, only to be succeeded by my friend, Fang Gongyue. (From “A Long Poem Dedicated to Gongyue on the Splendid Architecture of the South Tower” by Huang Tingjian)

Sometimes the rhymes can switch in every three lines, as in the following example. 君不見走馬川〔行〕6，雪海邊，平沙莽莽黄入天。輪臺九月風夜吼，一川碎石大 如斗，隨風滿地石亂走。匈奴草黄馬正肥，金山西見烟塵飛，漢家大將西出師。 將軍金甲夜不脱，半夜軍行戈相撥，風頭如刀面如割。馬毛帶雪汗氣蒸，五花連 錢旋作冰，幕中草檄硯水凝。虜騎聞之心膽懾，料知短兵不敢接，車師西門伫獻捷。 (岑參《走馬川行奉送出師西征》) Can’ t you see the wide river of Zuomo is closely connected to the ocean of snow, and the yellow sand in the vast desert reach as high as the sky? The autumn wind in Luntai is howling in the September nights, and the rocks in the Zuomo River are as large as bushels, tossed around by the gale. The grassland of Hun’ s is now turning yellow and their horses are getting fat, and they came to harass the frontiers to the west of Mount Jin, so the general of the Han Dynasty is about to lead his armies on a western expedition. Clad in his golden armors without taking them off at night, the general is  leading the army on a midnight march, the soldiers’ dagger-axes colliding with each other, with the cutting wind blowing on their faces. The snowflakes on the horseback  evaporated in the heat of sweat, while ice instantly crystalized on the piebald horse, even the ink for writing campaigns for war is now frozen. The Hun horsemen were all frightened, not surprisingly they were afraid to engage in close combat, so we are waiting at the west gate for the news of victory. (From “A Ballad of the Zuomo River on General Feng’ s Departure for the Western Expedition” by Cen Shen)

Such a format was also inherited by the seven-character-in-one-line poems in the Song Dynasty. The rhyme switch in every three lines could be dated back to the stone inscriptions by Li Si in the Qin Dynasty, but it was used in four-character eulogies, a typical example of which is “Eulogy on the Dynastic Revival of the Great Tang” by Yuan Jie in the Tang Dynasty. These works have little bearing to the seven-character-in-one-line poetry. The old poetry is relatively lenient of the use of rhymes, allowing the use of the falling-rising tone, the falling tone and the entering tone as well as the level tone. It is also acceptable to use the adjacent rhyme divisions with the same tone and similar sounds. For example, the adjacent rhyme divisions used in Du Fu’ s poem “Taking Refuge in Pengya” included “真” “文” “元” “寒” “删” and “先” . The adjacent rhyme divisions used in “Five Hundred Words upon My Leaving the Capital for Fengxian” included “質” “物” “月” “曷” “黠” and “屑” . Some poems are rather strict with the use of rhymes, such as Du Fu’ s “A Poem on 6

The character “行” is redundant here, and the rhyming characters are “川” “邊” and “天”.

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Qiaoling Mausoleum” , in which all the thirty rhyming characters belong to the same division of “青” . The same is true for Li Bai’ s “A Ballad of Yuzhang” , in which all the eleven rhyming characters belonged to the same division of “删” . In some cases, such a strict pattern is merely accidentally achieved, while in others, it was driven by the poet’ s ambition to demonstrate his talent in the high degree of difficulty. The rules of using rhymes in the examinations in the Tang Dynasty  might also play a role, as there were no such restrictions of the rhyming patterns of ancient poems. The old poetry before the Six Dynasties preceded most of the rhyme books, so it has never been concerned with the rhyme divisions. Based on the phonological features of these rhymed characters, we could sort out the system of rhyme categories, and provide reliable references for the understanding of the language style at that time.7

17.3 The Formation of Rhyming and Rhythmic Patterns, and Modern Style Poetry In the Qi and Liang Dynasties, the argument of “four tones” had gained popularity, and the poetic theory of “eight defects” was developed and advocated by Zhou Yong and Shen Yue. They proposed such terms as “平” (the level tone), “上” (the falling-rising tone), “去” (the falling tone) and “入” (the entering tone) specifically  for tones to replace the notions of “宫” (/gōng/), “商” (/shāng/), “角” (/jué/),“徵” (/zhǐ/) and “羽” (/yǔ/) which were previously used for musical notes. They also proposed eight combinations of consonants, rhymes and tones to be avoided in poetry writing, namely, “eight defects” , including “平頭” (the flat head), “上尾” (the upper tail), “蜂腰” (the wasp waist), “鹤膝” (the crane’ s knee), “大韻” (the major rhyme), “小韻” (the minor rhyme), “正紐” (the straight pivot) and “旁紐” (the side pivot)8. All these rigid rules and taboos, however, had been countered 7

It was stated in “Letters to My Brother Lu Ji” in The Collected Works of Lu Shilong that “李氏云， 雪與列韻”(According to Li, the sounds of “雪” and “列” are rhymed), from which we can see that the poets in the Jin Dynasty used the rhyme books to check their own use of rhymes. 8 Shen Yue’s work of A Book on Four Tones is now lost. The names of the “eight defects” were quoted in “Wen Jing”, a book on Chinese poetry by the Japanese monk Konghai. “The flat head”  means the first characters of two different lines in the five-character-in-one-line poems cannot have  the same tone. “The upper tail” means the last characters of two different lines cannot have the same  tone. “The wasp waist” means the second and the fifth characters in one line cannot have the same  tone, except for the level tone. “The crane’s knee” means the last characters in the first and the third  lines cannot have the same tone. “The major rhyme” means the first nine characters in two lines cannot contain the characters that rhyme with the final rhyming character. “The minor rhyme” means  the two lines cannot contain characters of the same rhyme. “The straight pivot” means there cannot be homophonic characters of different tones in one line. “The side pivot” means there cannot be  alliterative characters in one line. Konghai came to study in China in the Tang Dynasty, and copied quite a few ancient Chinese books.

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even in their own time. For example, in his work On Poetry, Zhong Rong argued, “平上去入，僕病未能；蜂腰鶴膝，俚俗已具” (Regrettably I cannot tell apart the four tones; as for the defects of “wasp waist” or “crane’ s knee” , they have been well understood even in folksongs and ballads). The old poetry contained a large number of sentences that ran counter to the rules and taboos, yet without hampering the poetic beauty. Naturally, the theory of “eight defects” failed to strike a loud note in the age of the old poems with five characters in one line. Such a theory, however, did not appear without a good reason. For one thing, that historical period witnessed the transition of the five character-in-one-line type of poetry, and the “eight defects” rightly reflected the preferred style of some poets at that time. In some sense, the latter also ushered in the new age of modern style poetry. Poems with fixed patterns were called “modern style poetry” in the Tang Dynasty, because the patterns only came into being in the Six Dynasties and became fully grown in the Tang Dynasty. In the Six Dynasties, though the comprehensive rules of rhythmic patterns were still lacking, there already appeared some poetic works with quite rigorous patterns. A case in point is “A Poem for Xu Ling” by Yu Xin. 故人倘思我，及此平生時。莫待山陽路，空聞吹笛悲。 If you miss me, my old friend, come to visit me when I’ m still alive, rather than lamenting in the flute song when I’ m gone.  

Another example is “A Verse Inspired by ‘There is no Artifical in the Cave’ ”  by Wang Shenli. 巖間無結構，谷處極幽尋。葉落秋果迥，雲生石路深。 早梅香野徑，清澗響邱琴。枉有棲遲客，留連芳杜心。 There is no artifical in the cave, and the valley is so secluded. The leaves are falling  with various seeds and nuts, and the pebbled path winds forward into the cloud. The country tracks are fragrant of early blossoms of mume trees, and the clear creek is resonant with the sound of guqin. A traveler alone is lingering around, feeling quite reluctant to leave.

Both of the above poems were written before the Tang Dynasty, yet their rhythmic patterns and antithetical arrangements met the requirements of modern style poetry to near perfection. It was the right time for the lüshi-poetry to appear in the Tang Dynasty. The so-called “modern style poetry” is also known as “律詩” (lüshi) or “格 律詩” (metrical poetry). According to the number of characters in one line, there are five-character poems, seven-character ones, and the rarely seen poems of six  characters. According to the number of lines in a poem, there are “絶句” (jueju), which consists of four lines, “lüshi” which consists of eight lines, and “排律” (pailü), which contains more than eight lines. In particular, the term “lüshi” can be used as a collective term for all the poetry with fix patterns, and a specific term for 

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the eight-line genre with five or seven characters in one line.  The modern style poetry has the following features. There is a fixed pattern for  the arrangement of the level and oblique tones; each poem has only one rhyme, which is usually the level tone, but the oblique tone is also used occasionally. For “jueju” poems with five characters in one line, the oblique tones are more often used. There are also strict restrictions about the rhyme divisions, allowing very little flexibility in use. Except for the first two and last two lines, “lüshi” and “pailü” both require neat antitheses, which can be occasionally violated on certain conditions. Sometimes a poet might intentionally create a variation with the regular use of an adjacent rhyme (such as the “forward and backward pattern” with two rhymes used in alternation). Antithesis can also be used in jueju poems, while lüshi poems may not contain an antithetical structure in three or four lines, or even in the entire poem. As for the patterns of the level and oblique tones, sometimes deviations are made for metric variation, and sometimes the conventions are utterly violated as a form of creativity. All in all, the structures and patterns of modern style poetry are always neat and orderly, and its clear distinction from old poetry mainly lies in the explicit sense of rhythm, thanks to the rhythmic patterns and antithetical structures in it. The patterns of the level and oblique tones in modern style poetry is shown as follows. Please note that the five-character or seven-character jueju poem is half the length of lüshi poems, so the following patterns are repeated once in lüshi poems. ① 平平仄仄平平仄 (仄平平 )，仄仄平平仄仄平， 仄仄平平平仄仄，平平仄仄仄平平。 ② 仄仄平平平仄仄 (仄仄平 )，平平仄仄仄平平， 平平仄仄平平仄，仄仄平平仄仄平。 ③ 平平平仄仄 (仄仄平 )，仄仄仄平平， 仄仄平平仄，平平仄仄平。 ④ 仄仄平平仄 (仄平平 )，平平仄仄平， 平平平仄仄，仄仄仄平平。 Pattern 1: LLOOLLO (OLL), OOLLOOL, OOLLLOO, LLOOOLL. Pattern 2: OOLLLOO (OOL), LLOOOLL, LLOOLLO, OOLLOOL. Pattern 3: LLLOO (OOL), OOOLL, OOLLO, LLOOL. Pattern 4: OOLLO (OLL), LLOOL, LLLOO, OOOLL. (Note: L for the level tone, and O for the oblique tone)

The first line of the poem may or may not use a rhyming character, while the  rhyming alternative occurs more frequently. The pailü poetry can consist of five  or seven characters in one line, with the five-character version being the majority.  Among the well-known poems, “Climbing White Stork Tower” by Wang Zhihuan is a jueju poem with five characters in one line; “Leaving the Town of Baidi at  Dawn” by Li Bai is a jueju poem with seven characters in one line; “Ascending the Yueyang Tower” by Du Fu is a lüshi poem with five characters in one line; and  “Eight Poems in the Autumn Days” by Du Fu is a lüshi poem with seven characters to one line. Pailü poetry with five characters in one line is the designated genre for 

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official examinations in the Tang Dynasty, which, by convention, should contain  twelve lines with six different rhymes, and was later changed into the Tang pattern  of sixteen lines with eight rhymes. Prevalent as it was, good works were scarce. Typical examples included the long piece “Thirty-Six Lines Written in a Boat in Serious Illness” by Du Fu and a few “lianju” (couplets) by Han Yu and Meng Jiao. Pailü poetry with seven characters in one line is relatively rare, examples of which included the two poems of “The Tomb-Sweeping Day” by Du Fu, and a couple of pieces in the collected works of Bai Juyi and Yuan Zhen. Sometimes poets had to defy the metric restrictions for the sake of meaning expression, and sometimes they deliberately violate the metric patterns to create irregular variation in syllable structures, known as “拗體” (the crooked style). Even the irregular style follows its own patterns and routines. Some may strive to counterbalance the irregularity with certain “remedies” , while others followed the ancient patterns with no regard for regularity at all. Examples of such “remedies” can be found in “Thoughts on the Historical Sites” by Du Fu. 庾信平生最蕭瑟，暮年詩賦動江關。（其一） Yu Xin lived a life of desolation, but the poems he wrote in his old age were resonant far and wide. 千載琵琶作胡語，分明怨恨曲中論。（其三） For a thousand years her pipa performance has always been in the tune of Hu, and the melody is clearly imbued with sorrow and anger.

In the lines quoted above, “最蕭瑟” (desolation) and “作胡語” (the tune of Hu) contained irregular variations of tones, as level-tone characters “蕭” and “胡” were used in the slots which should be filled by oblique-tone characters. As a remedy,  the oblique-tone characters “最” and “作” were respectively used in the line. Other examples are found in “A Lone Wild Goose” by Du Fu, and “Verse Inspired by ‘Farewell on the Ancient Grassland’ ” by Bai Juyi. 孤雁不飲啄，飛鳴聲念群。 The lone wild goose neither drinks nor eats; instead it is flying and calling for its flock. 野火燒不盡，春風吹又生。 Wildfire cannot burn it out; Spring breeze brings it back to life.

In the above lines, “飲” and “不” were both oblique-tone characters used in the slots for level-tone characters. As remedies, “聲” and “吹” were respectively used as the third characters in the following line. Apart from these cases of variations and remedies, some poems contained completely irregular variations, as in the following poem “Verse in Response to Youjinshu” by Huang Tingjian. 漢家飛將用廟謀，復我匹夫匹婦仇。真成折棰禽胡月，不是黄榆牧馬秋。 幄中已斷匈奴臂，軍前可飲月氏頭。願見呼韓朝渭上，諸將不用萬户侯。 General Li of the Han Dynasty defeated the Huns troops, taking revenge for the men

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and women in our country. This is indeed a month for us to fight the enemies, rather than  a month for them to feed their war horses. Without stepping out of your tent, you have cut off an arm of the enemy troops. With their skulls as cups our soldiers are drinking  wines to their hearts’ content. It is hoped that the Huns leader would come to us and surrender, even if it means the general won’ t get the great fortunes and fames.

Such a poem possesses a more imposing grandeur than most lüshi poems do. Later in the Song Dynasty, some poets imitated the irregular style with willful violations, and naturally failed to produce excellent works. Some others were engaged in the futile struggle with the rules of variations and remedies. After all, the fixed patterns and rules should serve for the purpose of expressing and exploring the meaning, rather than restraining and ruining it. In some cases, it is only natural and inevitable to sacrifice the form for the sake of content. However,  both old and modern poetry pursue the sonorous and harmonious effect in sounds,  which means more than the arrangements of the different tones.

17.4 The Metric and Rhyming Patterns in Ci Poetry (Lyrics) The tunes of ci poetry have different origins. Some derived from modern style poetry, some from local ballads, some from chanting songs in the border garrisons, some exotic tunes were introduced from foreign countries, and some were conventionalized accompanying melodies. As a result, the metric and rhyming patterns of ci poetry are rather complicated. In the Song Dynasty, when there appeared a great number of works of ci poetry, the format and patterns were gradually standardized and developed. For example, though “單調” (the onestanza structure), a ci-poem with multiple rhymes and alternate rhyming patterns were popular in the Tang and Five Dynasties, they were rarely adopted in the Song Dynasty, which instead witnessed the emergence of a large number of works with long tunes and slow lyrics. Some of these poems were new adaptions of the old melodies, while others were novel pieces of creation. Ci poetry is also called “长短句” (long- and short-verse), which perfectly captures its distinctive feature as compared with modern style poetry. The long and short lines in ci poetry are also different from those in yuefu poetry, as ci imposes strict restrictions on the patterns of tones. Ci poems can have one or two stanzas, or even three or four stanzas. The twostanza poem usually repeats the song twice. Therefore, a two-stanza ci poem sometimes have two identical halves, and sometimes involves a few changes at the beginning of the second half, as in the case of “Manjianghong” (The River All Red). Some poems may have completely different stanzas, as in the case of  “Dongxiange” (Song of an Immortal in the Cave). All of these features were determined by the real-time music performance. The tone arrangements in ci poetry are the same as those in modern style

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poetry. According to the rhyme books of ci poetry, either a level-tone or an oblique-tone character should be used in a given slot in a line. Some ci poems can be very similar to those of modern style poetry, such as the tune of “Zhegutian” (Partridge Sky). (上片 ) 仄仄平平仄仄平，平平仄仄仄平平。平平仄仄平平仄，仄仄平平仄仄平。 (下片 ) 平仄仄，仄平平。平平仄仄仄平平。平平仄仄平平仄，仄仄平平仄仄平。 (First stanza) OOLLOOL, LLOOOLL. LLOOLLO, OOLLOOL. (Second stanza) LOO, OLL. LLOOOLL. LLOOLLO, OOLLOOL.

Like in lüshi poems, the third and the fourth lines in the first stanza of ci poems also use antithetical sentences. The two three-character lines in the second stanza involves nothing more than the syllabic variations. Therefore, the overall metric pattern of the above poem is almost identical to that of a lüshi with seven characters in one line, or a doubling version of two jueju poems. A ci poem as such, in fact, was composed according to a piece of modern style poetry with its accompanying melody. The tone arrangements in ci poetry are determined by the specific tunes without  much room of variation. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, when ci-poems were used for musical performance, a few characters could be added or deleted for the sake of convenience. As the singing style was not passed down to later generations, ci-poems had to be composed strictly according to the music score without any further deletion or addition. The patterns of tones in ci-poetry are difficult to remember, but it is relatively easier to recognize according to the characters and lines in some well-recited famous works. In most cases, ci-poetry is only concerned with the arrangement of the level and oblique tones. However, some poets were very particular in distinguishing the falling-rising tone, the falling tone, and the entering tone, and, occasionally, the distinctions between the voiceless and voiced sounds were also taken into consideration. Please see the following example from “Qingshangyuan” (The Sorrow of Qingshang) by Yan Shu. 雁過南樓，行人回淚眼。 When the wild gooses are flying pass the south tower, the passengers’ eyes well up  with sad tears. 夢未成歸，梅花聞塞管。 Even in dreams I could not return home, only to hear the Huns pipe playing the tune of “Mume Blossoms” .

The final two characters in the two stanzas are, respectively, of the falling tone  and the falling-rising tone, which seems to be a deliberate arrangement. What’ s more, Zhou Bangyan was also very meticulous about the tone patterns, as shown in the following lines. 人静烏鳶自樂，憔悴江南倦客。

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When people are in rest, the crows are enjoying themselves. The worn-down passenger from the south felt bored and tired. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Mantingfang” (A Courtyard in Full Bloom)]

The last two characters in the two stanzas are, respectively, of the falling tone and the entering tone, an arrangement that occurred in great numbers in his cipoems. Similar examples can be found in the following excerpts from The Study of Ci-poetry by Zhang Yan. 先人 (張樞，張炎之父 )曾賦《瑞鶴仙》一詞，有云“粉蝶兒撲定花心不去”，按 之歌譜，聲字皆協，惟 “撲” 字稍不協。遂改爲“守”字，乃協。……又作“惜花春起早” 云 “瑣窗深”，深字音不協，改爲幽字又不協，再改爲明字，歌之始協。 My father (Zhang Yan’ s father is Zhang Shu) once wrote a ci-poem to the tune of “Heruixian” (An Immortal of the Auspicious Crane). One of the lines was “the butterflies were devoted to the flower and refused to leave” , in which all the characters  were well coordinated with the melody except for the character of “撲” (to devote to). He then changed the character to “守” (to guard), and all the tones were then well set. … He also wrote a poem called “Getting up early in spring to appreciate the flowers” , which contained a line of “far behind the window” . But the character “深” (deep) did not fit in the tone pattern, so he changed it into “明” (bring and clear), then the poem became harmonious with the melody.

In the above example, “撲” has the entering tone, and “守” has the fallingrising tone. “深” and “幽” both have the yin-level tone (the level tone), and “明” has the yang-level tone (the rising tone). It should be noted that the meaning of “深” and “幽” is opposite to that of “明” , yet the poet still sacrificed the semantic  congruence for the sake of almost trivial subtlety of the yin-level versus the yanglevel tones, indicating that the tonal patterns were given much attention in poetry writing at that time. After all, ci-poems were composed for singing performance. As it is impossible to perform according to the musical scores, those subtle distinctions are no longer important, and today, all we need to know for the reading or writing of ci-poetry is the matching patterns of the level and oblique tones. Of course, the understanding of the poets’ efforts in optimizing the tonal patterns can  help us better appreciate the stylistic beauty of this genre. Some ci-poems used one consistent rhyme, and some switched the rhymes. Examples of rhyme-switching in ci-poetry are as follows. 小山重叠金明滅 (韻 )，鬢雲欲度香腮雪 (叶 )，懶起畫娥眉 (轉韻 )，弄妝梳洗遲 (叶 )。　　照花前後鏡 (轉韻 )，花面交相映 (叶 )，新貼綉羅襦 (轉韻 )，雙雙金鷓鴣 (叶 )。(温庭筠《菩薩蠻》) Layer upon layer are the hills and knolls in the shimmering morning glory (the starting rhyme), her hair is whisking by the cheeks as fair as the snow (sound coordination). She wouldn’ t bother to pencil her eyebrows (rhyme switch), and gloomed herself in a sluggish manner (sound coordination). Looking at the flowers in her hair in the mirrors in front and behind (rhyme switch), 

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the flowers are as fair as her complexion (sound coordination). She put on the silk dress newly made (rhyme switch), embroidered with pairs of golden partridges (sound coordination). (From a ci-poem to the tune of “Pusaman” by Wen Tingyun) 月落星沈 (韻甲 )，樓上美人春睡 (韻乙 )，緑雲傾，金枕膩 (叶乙 )，畫屏深 (叶甲 )。　　 子規啼破相思夢 (韻丙 )，曙色東方才動 (叶丙 )。柳煙輕，花露重 (叶丙 )，思難任 (叶 甲 )。(韋莊《酒泉子》) The moon went down and the stars have faded (the first starting rhyme), a fair lady  sleeping in a chamber on a spring day (the second starting rhyme). Her hair is askew and her pillow is smooth (coordination to the second rhyme), and the painted screen is far inside (coordination to the first rhyme).  The chirping of cuckoos disrupted her dream of love (the third rhyme), yet it was only the crack of dawn (coordination to the third rhyme). The willow leaves are thick and light, and the blossoms are heavy with dew (coordination to the third rhyme), and the lovesickness is now unbearable (coordination to the first rhyme). [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Jiuquanzi” (A Tune of Jiuquan) by Wei Zhuang]

The majority of ci-poetry has only one rhyme throughout the entire piece. The “long tune” in particular uses a consistent rhyme as its norm. As for the rhyming words, they can be of the level tone, or the oblique tone, or strictly limited to the entering tone, all in accordance to specific rules. In some cases, the  ci-poems of the same tune have two different varieties, with one of the level tone, and the other  of the oblique tone. For example, “Manjianghong” (The River All Red) usually uses rhymes of the entering tone, but some ci-poems to this tune by Jiang Kui and Wu Wenying used rhymes of the level tone. Similarly, the ci-poems to the tune of “Yiqin’ e” (A Dream of a Qin Lady) usually used rhymes of the entering tone, yet the works by He Zhu and Qin Guan used rhymes of the level tone. In contrast, the ci-poems to the tune of “Yongyule” (Melody of Yongyu) usually used rhymes of the oblique tones, but Chen Yunping once composed a piece with the rhyming characters of the level tone. Some tunes specifically require the use of entering tone for the oblique-tone rhyme, such as “Sanbuyue” (Melody of Three Groups), “Yulingling” (Ringing Bells in the Rain), the slow tune of “Langtaosha” (The Waves are Washing the Sand), and a tune to the first stanza of the middle part of  “Nishangqu” (Rainbow Skirt Featured Dress)9. All these features should be noted when we are appreciating ci-poetry. In ci-poetry, the rhyming words of the falling-rising tone and the falling tone usually form sound coordination, as shown in the following example. 燕雁無心，太湖西畔隨雲去 (去 )。數峰清苦 (上 )，商略黄昏雨 (上 )。 第四橋邊，擬共天隨住 (去 )。今何許 (上 )，憑欄懷古 (上 )，殘柳參差舞 (上 )。(姜 夔《點絳唇》) Neither the wild geese nor the swallows are in the mood for the sceneries, and they fly  9

The Rhymes in Ci Poetry by Ge Zai in the Qing Dynasty recorded thirty-eight tunes that specifically require the use of the entering tone, among which twelve tunes may allow the use of the level tone, but the falling-rising tone and the falling tone are not allowed.

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with the clouds by the west side of Lake Taihu (the falling tone). There remain several hills in solitude (the falling-rising tone), seemingly murmuring among themselves about the impending storm at dusk (the falling-rising tone). By the fourth bridge I planned to keep company with Lu Guimeng (the falling tone). But what can I do now (the falling-rising tone)? As I am leaning on the railing in nostalgia (the falling-rising tone), all I see is the fluttering of the withered willow twigs  (the falling-rising tone). [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Dianjiangchun” (Rouged Lips) by Jiang Kui]

In some ancient works of ci-poetry, all the rhyming characters are either of the falling-rising tone or the falling tone. Cases as such should be regarded as exceptions rather than the norm. Ci-poetry also allows some special forms of rhyming. For example, there is a “福唐獨木橋體” (single-plank bridge style) in Huang Tingjian’ s ci-poems, which uses the same rhyming character in the entire poem. Xin Qiji also used a so-called “些语韻” (xie-rhyme), also known and “長尾韻” (the long-tail rhyme), in his cipoems, which used the character “些” (the sound is xie) at the end of each line, with a rhymed character placed in front of “些” . These are all varieties of rhyming patterns in ci-poetry. In the Song Dynasty, ci-poems were composed mostly to match the tune for singing performance, the sounds in regional dialects were usually used for rhyming. Scholars of ci-poetry in later ages compiled a few books on the rhymes in ci-poetry based on other rhyme books and the actual use of rhymes in ci-poetry in the Song Dynasty, and the most widely accepted one is The Rhymes in CiPoetry by Ge Zai in the Qing Dynasty. Based on the rhyme divisions identified in  Guangyun, this book consists of nineteen divisions, including fourteen divisions of the level tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone, and five divisions of the  entering tone. Its rhyme divisions are much broader than those for poem rhymes. The tonal and rhyming patterns of ci-poetry is closely related to the tunes and melodies. Some musical terms and symbols are now known through careful investigation, but others are still far beyond our understanding, hence exempted from our present discussion.

17.5 The Tunes and Rhymes of Qu (Melody) In ancient Chinese literature, there is a distinction between Southern qu and Northern qu. Their differences lie in the patterns of meter and notation, which in  turn exert influences on their artistic styles. What is more, the legendary stories  in the Ming Dynasty consist of tunes that are musically independent, and the organization is not as fixed as the drama genres of “taoshu” and “zaju” in the Yuan Dynasty. Instead, the lyrics of the legendary stories are also composed in accordance to the melodies, inheriting the features of the ci-poem in the Song

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Dynasty and qu in the Yuan Dynasty. However, our present discussion is focused on the genre of qu in the Yuan Dynasty. There are three specific genres of qu: “Xiaoling” (小令 ), “taoshu” (套数 ) and “zaju” (杂剧 ). “Xiaoling” is a single-stanza qu with a specific name of its tune.  “Taoshu” consists of a set of qus of the same musical modes. “Xiaoling” and “taoshu” are usually for singing and chanting, though sometimes with exceptions. “Zaju” is the genre of opera with several pieces of “taoshu” in specified numbers.  Apart from these genres of melodies, there is also a genre “kebai” 10, which is for the purpose of plot development. Generally speaking, there are four pieces of “taoshu” in “zaju” , and the piece is called “zhe” (折 , a scene). Sometimes there is an additional stanza called “xiezi” (楔子 ). The melody of qu in the Yuan Dynasty has the following features. There are limits to the length of the sentences, but the number of characters is not fixed. In accordance to content or music requirements, the number of characters can be added or deleted. If necessary, even addition or deletion of sentences is allowed. The entering tones are divided into the level, the falling-rising and the falling tones. Sometimes the level and oblique tones can be mixed in use, but sometimes a distinction between the falling-rising tone and the falling tone are explicitly made. The tunes in a “taoshu” have to follow certain sequences. The entire piece should follow the same musical mode and the same rhyme. Every “zhe” in “zaju” uses one “taoshu” , which is performed by only one singer, who is usually the main character. Other performers are responsible for the “kebai” part instead of singing. We will elaborate on the following features in detail. The addition of characters is called “chenzi” (衬字 ), and the deletion of characters called “jianzi” (减字 ). Singing without lyrics is called “tousheng” (偷 声 ). For example, a stanza of the qu of “pomegranate blossoms” in the second zhe of the first act of “Shiliuhua” (Romance of the Western Chamber) contained such a “chenzi” . (大師 )一一問行藏，(小生 )仔細訴衷腸。自來西洛是吾鄉，宦游四方，寄居咸陽。 (先人拜 )禮部尚書多名望，五旬上因病身亡，平生正直無偏向，(止留下 )四海一 空囊。 (The master) asked where I came from, (the young man) answered in detail. I came from Xiluo and traveled around in many places. For now I am living in Xianyang. (My late father) was appointed the Minister of Rites and enjoyed a great fame, but he died of sickness in his early fifties. An honest man as he always was, (he left me nothing but) an  empty pocket.

In the above paragraph, the added characters are essential for understanding. Therefore, the argument that “chenzi” consists mostly of insignificant function words is unconvincing. The added characters, admittedly, are relatively 10

科白 (kebai) includes the actions and spoken parts in the drama.

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insignificant in terms of musical beats, but are important in terms of the content.  In the above example, some of the added words serve as the subjects of sentences, and some as the main part of the predicate, which are significant.  In contrast, “jianzi” (deletion of characters) can be found in the following example from “Two-stanza melody of ‘Xinshuiling’ (New Water)” by Guan Hanqing. 玉驄絲鞚金鞍，繫垂楊小庭深院。□□明媚景，□□艷陽天，急管繁弦，(東 )樓上 恣歡宴。 The roan stallion, with a silk headstall and a golden saddle, is tied to a willow tree in a small courtyard. It is a pleasant scene on a bright sunny day. Playing the pipes and plucking the strings, we are having a joyous feast on the (eastern) tower.

In some cases, too many added characters might lead to the addition of sentences and even stanzas, and then the singing melody had to be modified accordingly. Such a piece of qu should be regarded as an “alternative genre” rather than a case of “chenzi” . As shown in the following example of a stanza in “the melody of “Flowers in the Backyard” in the first zhe of the third act of Romance of the Western Chamber. (我只道拂 )花箋打稿兒，(元來他染 )霜毫不勾思。(先寫下 )幾句寒温序，(後隨着 ) 五言八句詩。不移時，(把 )花箋錦字，(叠做個 )同心方勝兒。(忒風流忒敬思，忒 聰明忒浪子，雖然是假意兒，小可的難到此。) (I would just flatten) the paper for the drafting, (and he) started to write without preparation. (He started with) a few words of niceties, (followed by) a poem of eight lines with five characters to each. After a little while, (he folded) the letter (into) a heartshaped square. (It is so romantic, so charming, so smart and so gallant. Though without genuine affection, his talent is far out of reach for those ordinary men.) 

The last four lines as quoted above were different from the standard format of  the melody of “Flowers in the Backyard” . Among the names of the different pieces of qu, some have their own meaning, such as “一半兒” (a half) in the melody of “Yiban’ er” (A Half), while some have no clear meaning, such as the expression “兀的……也麽哥” in the melody of “Daodaoling” (Song of Daodao), and “也波” in the melody of “Tianxiale” (Worldwide Joy). Though without meaning, these characters take the position of beats in singing performance, and should be regarded as the standard format rather than simply added characters. As qu in the Yuan Dynasty uses the northern pronunciations (“the sound of the Central Plains” ) without the entering tone, its tonal system is largely the same as the Northern dialects of modern Chinese, including the yin-level tone, the yanglevel tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone. The grouping of the entering tone was stipulated as follows by Zhou Deqing in his work of Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains.

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The entering-tone characters with a voiceless sound are grouped as the falling-rising tone: “見” “溪” “端” “透” “知” “徹” “幫” “滂” “非” “敷” “精” “清” “心” “照” “穿” “審” “影” “曉” . The entering-tone characters with semi-voiced sounds are grouped as the falling tone: “疑” “泥” “娘” “明” “微” “喻” “來” “日” . The entering-tone characters with voiced sounds are grouped as the level (yang-level) tone: “群” “定” “澄” “並” “奉” “從” “邪” “牀” “禪” “匣” .

Such grouping, however, does not completely align with the matching of tones between the northern and southern dialects of modern Chinese. For example, among the rhymes used in the Yuan Dynasty, a great number of entering-tone characters were grouped as the falling-rising tone, while none of them was grouped as the yin-level tone. By contrast, there were much less entering-tone characters in modern Chinese that are grouped as the falling-rising tone, and many frequentlyused characters among those are actually pronounced in the yin-level tone. What’ s more, qu of the Yuan Dynasty was mostly concerned with the matching between the level and oblique tones, while rhyming of characters in different tones was usually allowed, as shown in the following example from the melody of “Four Pieces of Jade” in Guan Hanqing’ s zaju named “The Story of Lu Zhailang” . 將一杯醇糯酒十分的吃 (入作上 )，更怕我酒後疏狂失了便宜 (陽平 )，扭回身剛 咽的口長吁氣 (去 )，我乞求得醉似泥 (陽平 )，唤不歸 (陰平 )，我則圖别離時不記 得 (入作上 )。 I drink a cup of sticky rice liquor to my heart’ s content (the entering-tone character “吃” is grouped as the falling-rising tone), yet I’ m afraid I may get drunk and lose my mind (the character “宜” as the yang-level tone). Then I turn around and take a deep sigh (the character “氣” as the falling tone), wishing I would get as drunk as a fiddler (“泥” as the yang-level tone), and I would never wake up (“歸” as the yin-level tone). I hope I won’ t remember a thing about the parting (the entering-tone “得” as the falling-rising tone).

In some cases, the matching of the falling-rising tone and the falling tone was strictly required, usually at the last sentence of the melody. For example, the last sentence in the melody of “Qingxuanhe” must contain the combination of “falling tone + falling-rising tone” ; the last sentence in the melody of “Shanpoyang” (Sheep on the Hill) must contain the combination of “level tone + falling tone + level tone” ; the last sentence in melodies of “Zuifugui” (Returning Home Drunk), “Duanzhenghao” (Young Scholars So Fair) and “Bubujiao” (Step by Step) must contain the combination of “oblique tone + oblique tone + level tone + level tone + falling tone” . Such requirements were recorded as “ten tactics of ci-poem writing” in Sounds and Rhymes of the Central Plains, yet they were not strictly followed in the works of the Yuan Dynasty. This is probably due to the different singing styles at that time, which is now impossible to know precisely. Another common principle is to avoid the use of two consecutive falling-rising-tone words or two consecutive falling-tone characters, except for the case of reiterative locution

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or polysyllabic words. This is because both the ci-poems and qu should at best conform to the natural patterns of language. Two consecutive falling-rising-tone characters or two consecutive falling-tone characters, when placed at the end of the sentence, are usually difficult to pronounce, therefore sounding awkward either  in singing or reading. Even in modern Chinese, we usually modify the tones in pronouncing such a combination of characters. Like the rhymes in ci-poetry, the rhymes used in qu were also specified. For  example, one type of rhyme is called “短柱” (short-pillar), which is used in the middle of sentences, consisting of several pairs of words with a pause in-between and a single rhyme. An example from the third zhe of the first act of Romance of the Western Chamber is the line “(我 )忽聽、一聲、猛驚” ([I] heard a word and felt suddenly surprised), another from the fourth zhe of the fifth act is “自古、 相女、 配夫” (from ancient times, to choose an matched man according to the daughter’ s conditions). In the genre of “xiaoling” , the short-pillar rhyme is sometimes used throughout the whole work. Such rhymes in the middle of sentences can be found in ci-poems in the Song Dynasty, such as the line “啼痕、酒痕、無限” (the tear stains and wine stains are countless) and “當年、夢緣、能短” (too short is the dream of seeing you again) from Wu Wenying’ s ci-poem to the tune of “Sanshumei” (Three Fair Ladies). As the rhyming structure appeared both in the first and the second stanzas, it seems to be a deliberate technique. The “short-pillar  rhymes” , in particular, was firstly used in qu of the Yuan Dynasty. The genre of “taoshu” consists of a set of melodies arranged in specific sequences following the same musical mode. No rhyme switch is allowed in the middle of the work. As a result of these musical arrangements, every zhe in “zaju” is in fact a piece of “taoshu” performed by only one singer. Such a convention was completely violated in the performance of “传奇” (legendary story) of the Ming Dynasty, which, then, was related to the singing tradition of the southern qu. All these details, as well as the topics on musical modes and names of qu, are not given detailed explanation in the book.

Chapter 18

Rhetorical Devices in Chinese Classic Literature

Chinese classic literary works teem with various rhetorical devices, yet a systematic and comprehensive review is still lacking today. For the aesthetic appreciation of classic literature and the understanding of the verbal ingenuity of ancient writers in their creative work, a general introduction to the common rhetorical devices is in need here. Works on rhetorical studies usually make a distinction between passive rhetoric and active rhetoric, and the latter is further divided into many figures of speech belonging to some general categories. Our present discussion is limited to active rhetoric. Due to the lack of explicit classification in extant books on rhetoric, we will draw on the work of Introduction to Chinese Rhetoric by Chen Wangdao, and elaborate on this topic from three perspectives: the rhetorical devices related to aesthetic conceptions and materials, those related to phrasal or sentential arrangements, and those related to tonal and rhyming patterns. A rather sketchy classification as such makes no clearcut distinction, and there is inevitably overlapping among the three aspects. Our discussion also covers some features that are not included in other reference books, as the so-called “figures of speech” fall short of capturing all the rhetorical  features used in ancient classics. On the other hand, as some figures of speech are  largely the same in both the ancient and the modern literary works or language practice, they will not be described in detail here.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_18

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18.1 The Rhetorical Devices Related to Aesthetic Conceptions and Materials 18.1.1  Trope and Entrusting As a common figure of speech, a trope will not be  explained in detail here. What  is noteworthy, however, is the use of repetitive tropes in ancient literature; that is, the use of quite a few overlying tropes for description or explanation. Repetitive tropes help to elaborate on the topics with great details and thoroughness, and contribute to the smooth and abundant flow of expression in the work, as shown in  the following two examples. 其形也，翩若驚鴻，婉若游龍，榮曜秋菊，華茂春松；彷彿兮若輕雲之蔽月， 飄颻兮若流風之迴雪；遠而望之，皎如太陽昇朝霞；迫而察之，灼 1若芙蕖出渌波。 (曹植《洛神賦》) Her body soars lightly like a startled swan, gracefully, like a flying Chinese loong. In splendor brighter than the autumn chrysanthemum, in bloom more flourishing than the  pine in spring; dim as the moon mantled in filmy clouds, restless as snow whirled by the  driving wind. Gaze far off from a distance: she sparkles like the sun rising from morning  mists; press closer to examine: she flames like the lotus flower topping the green wave.  (From the fu-poem “Ode to the Goddess of the Luo River” by Cao Zhi) 長洪 2斗 3落生跳波，輕舟南下如投梭，水師 4絶叫鳧雁起，亂石一綫争磋磨。有 如兔走鷹隼 5落，駿馬下注 6千丈坡，斷弦離柱 7箭脱手，飛電過隙珠翻荷。(蘇軾《百 步洪》詩 ) The torrents of Baibu Rapids are gushing and splashing, the southbound skiff is spinning around in it like a flying shuttle. The mariners’ crying stirred up the wild geese  and ducks. Going through the thin waterway, the boat seems to be ground and polished by the surrounding rocks. The swift skiff goes so fast like a running rabbit or a dashing  falcon, like a steed galloping along a vast slope, like a harp string broken and an arrow let loose, like a crackling flash, like a morning dew dropping from the lotus leave. (From  the poem “Baibu Rapids” by Su Shi)

Of the above two poems, the first describes a beautiful lady, and the second, a  skiff going in torrents. By means of a variety of objects, the first poem presents a  detailed depiction of the posture, manner and complexion of the Goddess of the 1

灼 , the bright and shiny look. 洪 , the waterfall. 3 斗 is the same as 陡 , suddenly. 4 水師 , the mariner. 5 隼 (sǔn)，a wild falcon. 6 注 means the same as 注射 , to dart or to project. 7 柱 , the little pegs to fasten the strings. 2

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Luo River, impressing the readers with a lithe, beautiful and magnificent female  image. The second poem invokes many swift objects for the vivid description of the skiff tossing in the rapids, which effectively captures the readers’ fixation and  arouses their anxiety. Such effects would not have been achieved with just one or  two tropes. Another example is from “A Passage in Dedication to Shi Hong” by Han Yu. 與之語道理，辨古今事當否，論人高下，事後當成敗，若河決下流而東注，若 駟馬駕輕車就熟路，而王良、造父 8爲之先後也，若燭照數計而龜卜也。 Talking with him about the events at present and in ancient times, about different people and their merits and defects, about the successes and failures, is eloquent like the torrents bursting the riverbanks and gushing eastward to the sea, like a team of four stallions drawing a light chart on a familiar track. He is on a par with the horse connoisseurs Wang Liang and Zao Fu. Listening to him is like receiving the illumination of the candlelight, like seeing into the future with good counting and calculation.

In the above example, the three tropes used in parallel carry a regular and strong rhythmic pattern and a smooth flow of ideas, presenting the wisdom and  eloquence of Shi Hong in full description. Apart from the above, the same technique was also used in “A Praising Verse of Wen Yuke’ s ‘Feibai’ Style of Calligraphy” by Su Shi in his description of the beauty of the “feibai” style; also in “A Letter in Reply to Lu Xiefei” by Yao Nai in presenting the masculine and feminine beauty in writing styles. The latter will be further discussed later in this chapter. If a trope only contains the target objects in comparison, but not the indicator of comparison (such as the characters of “如” and “猶” ) and the original objects in comparison, such a figure of speech is called metaphor. The use of metaphor in  describing humans or events in a relatively implicit manner, in Chinese literary studies, is called “比兴” (evocation) and “寄托” (entrusting), which are common ways of expression in literatures. Generally speaking, the most common means of entrusting is to compare a human to an object, a device sometimes termed “托物” (entrusting to objects), which was used, though not frequently, in The Book of Songs, such as “Large Rats” and “The Near East” . Later, the technique was lavishly used in the works by “ 離騷》之文，依《詩》 Qu Yuan. As stated in “Preface to Li Sao” by Wang Yi, 《 取興，引類譬喻。故善鳥香草，以配忠貞；惡禽臭物，以比讒佞；靈修美 人，以媲 9於君；宓妃佚女，以譬賢臣；虬龍鸞鳳，以托君子；飄風雲霓，以 爲小人” (“Li Sao” followed the examples in The Book of Songs to evoke imagery and tropes. The pleasant birds and fragrant herbs were matched to the honorable and virtuous, the evil falcons and stinking filth were matched to the wicked and  treacherous. The fairies and goddesses were used to describe the kings, and the Goddess of the Luo River and other beauties were used to describe the honorable 8 9

王良 and 造父 were both famous horse trainers in ancient times. 媲 has the same meaning as 配 .

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ministers at court. The Chinese loong and phoenix were entrusted for the description of men of virtue, while the breeze, clouds and rainbows were for the villains). Such a statement demonstrates the abundant use of entrusting tropes in “Li Sao”. In The Verse of Chu, the most complete sample of entrusting technique is “An Ode to the Tangerine” , which is one of the earliest and best poems that entrust feelings to an object in the thousand-year-long history of Chinese poetry. In this poem, Qu Yuan expressed his steadfast commitment to honorable deeds and ideals by means of the description of tangerine trees. Since then, this tradition had been handed down in classic literature. For example, the great poet Du Fu always wrote about such topics as eagles, falcons and horses to express his expectation of great achievements. Bai Juyi, a poet famous for his straightforward ideas and plain style, also produced some entrusting poems, such as the yuefu poem of “Yajiu Sword” . There were similar works in ancient prose, such as “Three Fables” and “Story of a Little Bug” by Liu Zongyuan. After the fall of the Southern Song Dynasty, there appeared a book titled Yuefu Supplementary Collection of Ci-poems, which contained ci-poems by the adherents of the Southern Song Dynasty. In these gloomy and sentimental songs of a fallen state, the poets adopted Qu Yuan’ s entrusting technique and entrusted their laments and sorrows to five different topics: ambergris, white lotus, cicadas, water shield, and crabs. The two examples below are taken from poems respectively by Du Fu and Bai Juyi. 致此自僻遠，又非珠玉裝。如何有奇怪，每夜吐光芒。虎氣必騰上，龍身寧久藏！ 風塵苦未已，持汝奉明王。(杜甫《蕃劍》) Came here from a remote place and not decorated with pearls and jade. What’ s so special about it? It shines brilliantly every night. The air of tiger will eventually rise high, and the body of Chinese loong will not hide long! Sadly the wind-blown dust does not cease, I will hold you in hand to serve the wise emperor. (From “On a Sword” by Du Fu) 歐冶子 10死千年後，精靈闇 11授張鴉九。鴉九鑄劍吴山中，天與日時神借功。金 鐵騰精火翻焰，踴躍求爲鏌鋣劍。劍成未試十餘年，有客持金買一觀。誰知閉 匣 12長思用，三尺青蛇不肯蟠。客有心，劍無口，客代劍言告鴉九 :“君勿矜 13我玉 可切，君勿誇我鐘可刜 14。不如持我決浮雲，無令漫漫蔽白日，爲君使無私之光及 萬物，蟄蟲昭蘇 15萌草出。(白居易《鴉九劍》) A thousand years had passed since the death of Great Swordmaker Ouye Zi, then the elves secretly imparted the casting skills to Zhang Yajiu. When Yajiu was forging swords in the Mountain Wu, the Heaven designated an auspicious day and the gods lent him their force and skills. The essence of golden iron was extracted, and the fierce  flame was made to help him make a sword as great as Mo Ye. Ten years past after the  10

歐冶子 , a famous sword-maker in ancient times. 闇 is the same as 暗. 12 閉匣 , the sword was encased in a box. 13 矜 , to boast. 14 刜 , to cut. 15 The dormant bugs lying underground are aroused. 11

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sword had been completed and it remained being unused. One day, a visitor offered to  pay for a look at it. Though encased in a box, the sword itself wanted to be of use. The three-chi-long sword, like a snake, was reluctant to coil up and lie still. The sword could not speak, and the empathetic visitor said on its behalf to Yajiu, “Please don’ t boast that I can cut the jade and chop the bell. I’ d rather be used to sever the clouds to reveal the shining sun. I wish to help the selfless sunlight shine upon the world, arousing the  dormant bugs and the sprouting grass.” (From “Yajiu Sword” by Bai Juyi)

The sword described in Du Fu’ s poem was taken from an ethnic group, seemingly a plain and ordinary one without any impressive decorations. As a matter of fact, it was a unique sword of magical spirit, and never failed to display its brilliance and sharpness. So the poet wanted to dedicate it to a wise king to appease the troubled state. In this sense, by associating an ordinary weapon with the great issue of national security, the poem successfully elevated the significance  of its theme. But Du Fu was intended not to write about a sword, but about a person, who came from a humble origin, claimed neither noble acquaintance nor social reputation, failed to acquire a decent official position, but carried with  him great talents and honorable ideals, and refused to live an insignificant life in silent obscurity. Such a person, however, was exactly what a troubled nation needed urgently, so the poet was anxious to recommend him to a wise king. In other words, another reasonable interpretation is that the sword is the embodiment of the talented who had the ideal but no opportunity to serve the country and the people, and Du Fu regarded himself as one of them. Although Bai Juyi’ s poem was also about a sword, the feelings entrusted were very different from that in Du  Fu. “Yajiu Sword” is the penultimate piece in his collection of new yuefu poems, followed by the last piece titled “The Poem Collector” . The brief preface to “Yajiu Sword” contained a statement, “思決壅也” (to pierce through the dark clouds), the character “壅” means the dark side of reality. The poet compared the gloomy situations to the thick clouds that blocked the sunshine, and was determined to disperse the clouds and allow the sunlight to shine upon the world, bringing life to those hidden or withered in want of daylight. In this sense, the sword is a weapon to break apart the heavy clouds, and in Bai Juyi’ s case, his sword was his new yuefu-poems. By placing this poem ahead of the last piece of “The Poem Collector” , the poet was declaring the ideals and motivations of writing the new yuefu-poems. In “Li Sao” , the poet frequently compared himself to a female figure, such as  the line “衆女嫉余之蛾眉兮，謡諑謂余以善淫” (They envied me my mothlike eyebrows fine, and so my name his damsels did malign), a technique often  adopted by poets in later ages. For example, Chen Shidao, a poet in the Northern Song Dynasty, used to follow Zeng Gong and received his favor at a younger age. After Zeng Gong passed away, Su Shi offered to take Chen in as his own student.  To express his faithful commitment to Zeng Gong, Chen composed a well-known poem “A Lady of Poor Fate” .

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主家十二樓，一身當三千 16。古來妾薄命，事主不盡年。……忍著主衣裳，爲人 作春妍！ My master had a high mansion of twelve stories, and I alone enjoyed his favor as much as that of three thousand maids. A lady like me always has a poor fate, as I couldn’t serve my master until the end of my living years. … How could I bear to please others, dressed in the clothes he had bestowed!

Xin Qiji, a ci-poet in the Southern Song Dynasty, once was ostracized by the corrupted bureaucratic officials at his time and failed to realize his ambition to fight against the Jurchen Jin Dynasty and to reclaim the lost territory. In great frustration and indignation, he compared himself to Empress Chen, who was abandoned by Emperor Wu in the Han Dynasty. 長門事，準擬佳期又誤，蛾眉曾有人妬。千金縱買相如賦，脉脉此情誰訴 ? 君 莫舞，君不見玉環飛燕皆塵土 ? 閑愁最苦，休去倚危欄，斜陽正在，烟柳斷腸處。 《摸魚兒· ( 淳熙己亥，自湖北漕移湖南，同官王正之置酒小山亭，爲賦》) In Changmen Palace, the appointed date was again delayed, as the fair complexion incurred jealousy. A large sum of money was spent on the famous verse by Sima Xiangru, yet there is no one whom I could confide my affection to. Dance no more, I tell  you all. Can’ t you see the fair ladies Yuhuan and Feiyan both became dust now? Sorrow in idleness is most unbearable, so don’ t lean on the railings of a high tower, when the sun is setting in the heart-breaking place covered by misty willow trees. [From a cipoem to the tune of “Moyu’ er” (Groping for Fish), composed in the year of Yihai, on my southbound travel, in a drinking party in a hillside pavilion with Wang Zhengzhi]

Generally speaking, in a feudal society, the status of liegemen was similar to those of wives and mistresses, who were often engaged in sentimental disputes with their husbands; therefore, the ancient men of letters often compared their own life and feelings to those in romantic relationships. Apart from the aforementioned techniques of entrusting feelings to objects and comparing oneself to female figures, some Chinese poetic works invoked fairy tales and mythical stories to describe humans and events, but we won’ t go into detail in this regard. Entrusting is essentially a kind of trope. Unlike other tropes that are usually used for more explicit description, entrusting is used instead for implicit and ambiguous effects, probably because explicit and straightforward expressions were  not allowed at that time, or because the poet deliberately strived for a thoughtprovoking or dramatic effect. If poorly applied, it might render the text excessively  vague and obscure, while the proper use of entrusting can enhance the elegance and depth of the writing. Therefore, the reading of classic works should be associated to the social and political context as well as the poet’ s personal history. The descriptions of some apparently irrelevant objects and romantic sentiments 16

一身當三千 , the line first appeared in Bai Juyi’s “Everlasting Remorse”, “後宫佳麗三千人， 三千寵愛在一身” (Among the three thousand beauties in the palace, she is the only one with such a favor).

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should be carefully considered to explore the hidden meanings. Of course, farfetched investigation of “the true facts” or fabrication of the “implied meanings” should be opposed. There is another technique in ancient literature similar to entrusting, that is, to allude to something through fabrication, which probably found its origin in Zhuangzi. For example, a sentence in the passage “Rambling in the North” is “知 北游於玄水之上，而適遭無爲謂焉” (Zhi had rambled northwards to the region of Dark Water, and happened to meet Wu Weiwei), which contained fabricated names of two people and one place. The name of “知” (to know) is used for a boastfully learned person, and the name of “無爲謂” (not to matter) is used for a casual and relaxed person with little ambition. The name of “玄水” (Dark Water) helps to depict an ambiguous and implicit atmosphere. Later in the Han Dynasty, the famous litterateur Sima Xiangru made up a debate among three people named Zixu (no one), Wuyou (nobody), and Wushi (nothing), alluding to the fact that the story is utter fabrication without any factual evidence. Since then, many fabricated figures had appeared in literary works, such as Mao Ying in “The Story of Mao  Ying” by Han Yu in the Tang Dynasty, and Yuan Wuyou in “Stories of Fairies and Monsters” by Niu Sengru. The former alludes to a Chinese brush pen, while the latter means nobody, like the phrase “烏有先生” (Mr. Nobody) mentioned above. In A Dream of Red Mansions written in the Qing Dynasty, the hangerson of Jia Zheng were called Zhan Guang and Bu Shiren, which were homophonic to, respectively, “沾光” (to gain some benefit from another) and “不是人” (not a human). In Jiang Shiquan’ s A Collection of Nine Works of Qu, a character that appeared in “A Slice of Rock” and “The Second Stele” is named Xue Tianmu, which, as a matter of fact, refers to Jiang himself. As Jiang styled himself as Tiaosheng, and the headstream of Tiao River is in Mount Tianmu, he used Tianmu to allude to his own style name. What’ s more, the character “薛” looked similar to his surname “蔣”. Similar cases especially abounded in The Scholars, too. Most of these fabricated names for allusion are made up merely for entertainment, yet they are still an important feature worthy of knowing.

18.1.2  Simulative Depiction A number of classic literary works focused on paintings as the topic and depicted the figures or objects in a painting as if they were real, describing their actions,  behaviors, sometimes even mental activities. Such a technique could bring the figures or objects in paintings to life, which seemed lifelike and full of vitality. Among others, the technique was adopted by Du Fu in many of his poems on paintings, as in the following examples. 堂上不合生楓樹，怪底江山起煙霧 ? 聞君掃却赤縣圖，乘興遣畫滄洲趣。……

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得非玄圃裂，無乃瀟湘翻 17? 悄然坐我天姥 18下，耳邊已似聞清猿。( 《奉先劉光府 新畫山水障歌》) How come a maple tree stands in the hall, and smokes are rising in the mountains and rivers? You have just finished painting “The Magnificent Landscape” , then, in the mood for joy, took out this painting of Cang Zhou.… The great view in the painting is as wonderful as that of the scenic spots of Xuanpu and Xiaoxiang. I can’ t help feeling that I am sitting at the foot of Mount Tianmu, and I can almost hear monkeys calling in the woods. (From “On Liu Dan’ s Newly Painted Landscape Screen” by Du Fu) 先帝御馬玉花驄，畫工如山貌不同 19。是日牽來赤墀下，迥立閶闔 20生長風。詔 謂將軍拂絹素 21，意匠慘淡 22經營中。斯須九重真龍出 23，一洗萬古凡馬空。玉花却 在御榻上，榻上庭前屹相向。( 《丹青引贈曹將軍》) The late emperor owned a steed named Jade Piebald. The painters all failed to capture its own features in their works. When the steed was one day led to the courtyard below the red steps, its proud posture against the grand gate seemed even more magnificent.  The emperor instructed General Cao to flatten the silk paper, then you started to contemplate on the features and skills. After a little while a Chinese loong-like steed appeared on the white silk, which dwarfed all the ordinary horses painted in all times. When the painting of Jade Piebald was positioned on the royal seat, it looked exactly the same as the real one standing proudly opposite in front of the steps. (From “A Poem in ‘Danqing’ Style Dedicated to General Cao” by Du Fu)

The first line of the poem “On Liu Dan’ s Newly Painted Landscape Screen”  raised a question: how come a maple tree stands in the hall, and smokes are rising in the mountains and rivers? The character “底” means “how” here, as a maple tree standing in a hall is a very unreasonable situation. The maple tree, and the mountains and rivers in the painting were almost true to life, so much so that the poet was confused and unable to tell the truth from the false. The line of “聞君掃 却赤縣圖，乘興遣畫滄洲趣” (You have just finished painting “The Magnificent Landscape” , then, in the mood for joy, took out this painting of Cang Zhou) made it clear that this was a painting by Liu Dan. In the following line, “悄然坐 我天姥下，耳邊已似聞清猿” (I can’ t help feeling that I am sitting at the foot of Mount Tianmu, and I can almost hear monkeys calling in the woods), the poet found himself also blended in the painted landscape. He could not only appreciate the sight of the mountains and rivers, but also hear the shouts of the monkeys, which fully demonstrated the vividness and impressiveness of the painting. In the second example, “A Poem in ‘Danqing’ Style Dedicated to General Cao” adopted 17

玄圃 is said to be the second layer of Mount Kunlun. Both 玄圃 and 瀟湘 are famous scenic spots, which were vividly painted by Liu in his paintings. 18 天姥 , the name of a summit in Tiantai Moutian. 19 如山 , there are many painters. 貌不同 , the paintings do not resemble the original. 20 迥立閶闔 , to stand out against the grand gate. 21 絹素 , the silk paper used for painting in ancient times. 22 意匠慘淡 , the painter put great effort in art designing.  23 斯須 , for a short while. 九重 , inside the royal palace. 真龍 , a magnificent steed. 

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a different approach by making a comparison between the horse in painting and  the real one. The poet first described the “真龍” (literally “real Chinese loong” , referring to the painted horse) who descended from the Heaven and dwarfed all the ordinary horses in “ten thousand ages” , referring to both the past and the future. He then made a comparison between a horse in the painting positioned on the royal seat, where a real horse would never be allowed to stay, and the real one standing at the foot of the red steps. The words “相向” (opposite) and “屹” (to firmly stand) used in this line effectively highlighted the posture and pride of the  painted horse and the real one, rendering a very unexpected yet impressive effect.  In these two poems, verbs such as “生” (appear), “起” (rise), “坐” (sit), “聞” (hear) and “出” (appear) and “向” (to face) contributed to the descriptive effect, while the  adjectives such as “屹” also added to the vividness. Another example is from “A Praising Verse of Wen Yuke’ s Painting of Withered Trees” by Su Shi. 怪木在廷 (庭 )，枯柯北走。窮猿投壁，驚雀入牖。居者浦氏，畫者文叟。贊者蘇子， 觀者如流 24。 A crooked tree was standing in the courtyard, its withered branch stretching to the north. The desperate monkeys came and bumped against the wall, and the startled sparrows fluttered through the window. The resident was named Pu, the painter was named Wen, the audience was named Su, and the followers came and went in an endless flow. 

In this short passage, the vividness of Wen Yuke’ s painting of withered trees was well summarized in merely four lines, especially the two lines after the character of “走” . The desperate monkeys came and bumped against the wall, and the startled sparrows fluttered through the window, because they all took the  painting for real and wanted to take refuge in the withered tree. Similar to the line of “悄然坐我天姥下，耳邊已似聞清猿” (I can’ t help feeling that I am sitting at the foot of Mount Tianmu, and I can almost hear monkeys calling in the woods), this line took a step forward. While Du Fu was describing human senses and feelings in his poem, Su Shi was invoking the animal senses to demonstrate the expertise of the painter, which, of course,was not strictly realistic. Such a technique has also been used in novels. In the forty-first chapter of A Dream of Red Chambers, Granny Liu bumped into Yihong Garden in drunk and saw a painting on the wall. She also took her own reflection in a mirror for her  relative in-law. All these episodes feature very attractive descriptions. A technique as such as similar to the likening approach in rhetoric, which either likens an object to a person, or vice versa. What we have discussed so far is yet to be named, and for now it is called “simulative description” .

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如流 , come and go in an endless flow. 

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18.1.3  Diction and Substitution An important factor of literary expressiveness is concise diction. Many wellknown passages and widely-cited lines are usually famous for just one or two key words. Generally speaking, to achieve impressive effects, the choice of verbs and  adjectives deserves more attention, and the choice of function words should also be cared for. Many excellent examples in this regard could be found in literary classics, as in the following example. 一更山吐月，玉塔 25卧微瀾，正似西湖上，涌金門外看，冰輪横海闊，香霧入樓寒。 停鞭且莫上，照我一杯殘 26。(蘇軾《江月》詩 ) Early in the evening, the moon emerges from mountains. The moon casts its shadow like a jade tower lying upon the ruffling lake. It reminds me of the view on the West  Lake outside the Yongjing Gate. The moon is shaped like an ice wheel, riding across the ocean wide, and its cool fragrance enters the chamber. I beg the god of moon stop waving his whip and driving the moon forward, so I could enjoy the remaining wine under its shine. (From “Moonlight on the River” by Su Shi)

The above poem was composed when Su Shi ascended on Hejiang Tower in Huizhou. The noteworthy choices of words include, among others, characters “横” (to cross) and “入” (to enter). As described in the poem, the moon crossed the South Sea that is wide and far, as indicated by the character “闊” , indicating the mobility of the moon. In the lines “停鞭且莫上，照我一杯殘” , the poet asked the god of the moon not to whip on the moon to drive it forward, so that he could take his time to enjoy his wine under the moonshine. With the character “横” indicating the mobile moon in the previous line, the idea of stopping the moon in the final line is reasonable and justified. The fragrant mist in the moonlit night is  cool both in and out of the chamber, yet the character “入” stressed the personal perception of the poet himself. Therefore, the two characters cannot be replaced by others. Another well-chosen character is “吐” (to spit) in the phase of “山吐月” (the moon emerges from mountains), which described the emergence of the moon from darkness. However, the smart diction was not the invention of Su Shi, because the line “四更山吐月” (Shortly after midnight, the moon emerges from mountains) was initially composed by Du Fu, and Han Yu also wrote two lines “蟲鳴室幽幽， 月吐窗迥迥” (The insects are singing while the chambers are peaceful; the moon is rising while the windows are clearly visible). Nevertheless, the character “卧”(to lie) in “玉塔卧微瀾” (The moon casts its shadow like a jade tower lying upon the ruffling lake) is another clever choice by Su Shi, as it effectively impressed the readers with the serene image of moonlight lying upon the ruffling lake. A few more examples are given below.

25 26

玉塔 , the shadow of the moon on the water. 殘 , the remains.

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葉上初陽乾宿雨，水面清圓，一一風荷舉。(周邦彦《蘇幕遮》詞 ) The raindrops from last night are drying up in the morning sun. In the clear water of the round pond, the locus flowers are straightening up in the breeze. (From a ci-poem to the tune of “Sumuzhe” by Zhou Bangyan) 風老鶯雛，雨肥梅子，午陰嘉樹清圓。地卑山近，衣潤費爐煙。(前人《滿庭芳》詞 ) The young orioles are growing fast in the wind, and the mumes are getting ripe in the drizzling rain. The pretty tree proffers a cool shade in the middle of the day. In such a  lowland near hillside, the clothes are always damp and it takes a lot of incense burners to dry them up. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Mantingfang” (A Courtyard in Full Bloom) by an anonymous poet]

The first ci-poem describes the raindrops on the lotus leaf drying in the morning sun, and the lotus flower straightening up after the rain and swaying in the breeze.  The verb “舉” (straighten up) in the line vividly depicted the graceful posture of lotus flowers. The second ci-poem describes a setting in a damp lowland, where people had to use the heat of incense burners to dry up their clothes. The verb “费” (cost) here seems to indicate that the clothes have to be dried again and again, as the place and the clothes were helplessly damp. The verbs discussed above are the key to the aesthetic effects of the entire line  or even the entire piece. Some other characters, such as “乾” (dry) in “乾宿雨” (The raindrops from last night are drying up), “老” (old) and “肥” (ripe) in “風 老鶯雛，雨肥梅子” (the young orioles are growing fast in the wind, and the mumes are getting ripe in the drizzling rain) were all used as intransitive verbs in the line, which make the sentence terse and forceful, typically in many classic literary works. Apart from verbs, well-chosen adjectives are also essential for the subtle description of the characteristics or features of the topic. In the tanci-novel Flowers from the Heaven in the early Qing Dynasty, Zuo Yizhen, the daughter took the liberty of revising the letter by her father, Zuo Weiming. As a punishment, the father required the daughter to alter the words of “溶溶” (clear and bright) and “淡淡” (gentle and light) in the line “梨花院落溶溶月，柳絮池塘淡淡風” (in the courtyard full of pear blossoms, the moonlight seems so clear and bright; by the pond surrounded by misty willows, the breeze feels so gentle and light), which was allegedly from a poem of the Tang Dynasty. If a suitable replacement could be found, the daughter could be exempted from punishment, yet she failed to find  any other better diction. As a matter of fact, the two lines were written by Yan Shu, a litterateur of the Song Dynasty, rather than a poem in the Tang Dynasty. Yet the story well illustrates the meticulous diction in classic literature. Sometimes a seemingly plain word could also play a critical role in expression27, as shown in 27

As recorded in Qingxiang Notes by Wu Chuhou in the Song Dynasty, “:“晏元獻 (晏殊的謚號) 嘗 覽李慶孫富貴詩云 :‘軸裝曲譜金書字，樹記花名玉篆牌。’公曰 :‘此乃乞兒相。余每言富貴不 言金玉錦綉，惟説氣象。若“樓臺側畔楊花過，簾幕中間燕子飛”“梨花院落溶溶月，柳絮池 塘淡淡風”，窮兒家有此景致也無 ?’ ”(Yan Shu used to comment on Li’s line of “musical scores in scrolls and calligraphy in gold; the register in formal books and name cards in jade”, saying “This

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the following example. 生生燕語明如剪，嚦嚦鶯歌溜的圓。(湯顯祖《牡丹亭· 驚夢》) The crispy chirping of swallows is like the sound of crackling scissors, and the mellow songs of orioles are so smooth and melodious. (From “The Dream Interrupted” in Peony Pavilion By Tang Xianzu)

In the above example, the clear and crispy sounds of swallows are described as “生生” (fresh) and “明” (clear). The opposite of being “fresh” is “old” , which sounds heavy and gloomy; and the opposite of being “clear” is being muddy and vague. The melodious songs of orioles are described as “圓” (round) and “溜” (smooth), as the opposite to “round” is rigid, while the opposite to “smooth” is coarse. The writer was meticulous in his choice of these words. Take “溜” (to slide) as an example, even though it was used as a verb, its expressive potential was quite close to an adjective. On the other hand, though “如剪” (like the scissors) was not an adjective, it constituted a very smart trope. By comparing the chirping of swallows to the crackling sound of sharp scissors, the imagery was in perfect alignment with the meanings of “fresh” and “clear” in the same line. Function words also constitute an indispensable part of phrases and sentences. Prose contains relatively more function words than verse, which is largely constrained by the syntactic formats, but function words are also necessary in verse. If properly used, they could significantly enhance the expressive effect of  the writing, prose and verse alike. An example is given as follows. 吾年未四十，而視茫茫，而髮蒼蒼，而齒牙動摇。念諸父 28與諸兄皆康强而早 世 29，如吾這衰者，其能久存乎 (韓愈《祭十二郎文》) I am still under forty, yet my eye-sight is poor, yet my hair is gray, yet my teeth are loose. As I am thinking about it, all my uncles and brothers were strong, but they died early; a weak man as I am, how can I survive long? (From “A Condolence Passage for My Nephew” by Han Yu)

Some critics argued for the merits of conciseness and proposed to delete the two characters of “而” (yet) in this paragraph. Actually, Han Yu the well-known scholar deliberately repeated the character to indicate the progressive connection between the sentences. All these accumulated effects of aging thus paved the way  for the subsequent question of “how can I survive long” . There are a few more examples in this regard.

is a beggar’s vision. When I write about wealth and fortune, I refrain from the use of gold, jade and silk but focus on the atmosphere. The scenes of “Poplar blossoms are drifting past the pavilion, and the swallows are flying through the drapes”, and “in the courtyard full of pear blossoms, the moonlight seems so clear and bright; by the pond surrounded by misty willows, the breeze feels so gentle and light” are never to be found in poor neighborhood.) 28 諸父 , uncles. 29 早世 , to die early.

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今宵更把銀釭 30照，猶恐相逢是夢中。(晏幾道《鷓鴣天》詞 ) Tonight, holding up the red lantern once again for illumination, I am still afraid that our meeting is just a dream. (From a ci-poem to the tune of “Zhegutian” (Partridge Sky) by Yan Jidao) 更能消幾番風雨，匆匆春又歸去 ? 惜春長怕花開早，何況落紅無數 ? (辛棄疾《摸 魚兒》詞 ) How much wind and rain could it stand, the spring time is about to leave. So precious is the pleasant season, that I hope the flowers won’ t bloom too early, lest countless flowers are ruined by the rainfall. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Moyu’ er” (Groping for Fish) by Xin Qiji]

In the first example, the poet used the word “猶恐” (I am still afraid) instead of “爲恐” (I am afraid). As he used to meet his beloved in dreams and to wake up to find it in vain, so this time, even when they actually met each other, he was  still afraid that it was a dream again. The character “更” (again) in “更把銀釭 照” (holding up the red lantern once again for illumination) means he held up the lantern again and again, lest he found himself still in a dream. The careful choice of “猶” and “更” in this example fully expressed the mixed feelings of surprise, happiness, confusion and anxiety. As for the second example, what the poet intended to express in the first two lines is, even without winds and rains, the spring season was to end anyway. Now the weather got windy and rainy for consecutive days (“幾番” ), how could the spring season stand it? As Chen Tingzhuo commented in Discussion on Ci-Poetry in Baiyu Chamber, “更能消三 ” [the three characters of “更能 字，是從千回萬轉後倒折出來，真是有力如虎。 消” (how can it stand) are rich in the implication and as forceful as a tiger]. In fact, the most significant effect lies, among the three characters, in the final one of “更”. While verbs, adjectives and functional words are playing the most important role in a sentence, the choice of nouns also deserves some attention. We will discuss this issue in the following topic on “substitution” . In some cases, a suitable word is avoided and replaced by another word of the same or similar meaning. Such a technique is called “代语” (substitution), also known as “易字” (alternative character). It is used to avoid repetition, or to meet the requirements in tonal or metric patterns, or to seek novelty or profoundness in expression. For example: 夫以武侯之賢，寧靡籌其不可也 ? (孫樵《刻武侯碑陰》) For such a wise man as Zhuge Liang, how could his plan not work? (From “Inscription on Wuhou Stele” by Sun Qiao)

In the above sentence, the character “靡” served as the substitution for “不” to avoid repetition in the context. Apart from “靡” , the character of “微” could also be used without any change in meaning. Other examples of substitution are given below. 30

釭 , a lantern.

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昔好杯中物，今爲松下塵。(李白《憶賀監》詩 ) He used to enjoy drinking such much, but now he is buried deep beneath a pine tree. (From the poem “In Remembrance of He Zhizhang” by Li Bai) 群山萬壑赴荆門，生長明妃尚有村。(杜甫《咏懷古迹》詩 ) The hills and mountains are reaching towards Jingmen, where the village in which Lady Ming was born still remains. (From the poem of “Thoughts on the Historical Sites” by Du Fu)

In the first example, “杯中物” (the thing in the cup) is the substitution of the word “wine” , because the poem requires three characters to form an antithetical match to the word “松下塵” (the dust beneath the pine tree). In the second example, Du Fu used the character “群” in the phrase instead of “千山萬壑” (hills and mountains). Since “群” has a voiced sound while “千” has a voiceless one, the substitution adds to the resounding effect of the poetic line.  Most importantly, some cases of substitution can serve the purpose of creating novel expressions or conveying more profound meanings, as shown in the following examples. 泠然紫霞賞 31，果得錦囊術 32。雲間吟瓊簫，石上弄寶瑟。(李白《登峨眉山》詩 ) Climbing up the mountain and appreciating the purple rosy clouds, I seem to get the gist of being immortal. I play the jade flute among the clouds, and pluck the strings on  mountain rocks. (From the poem “On Mount Emei” by Li Bai ) 大臣聞而薦之，天子以爲諫議大夫。人皆以爲華，陽子不色喜。(韓愈《争臣 33論》) A minister heard about him and made a recommendation, then the Emperor appointed him as official of admonition. Everyone deemed it as a great honor, but Yang Zi did not  show any happy expression. (From “On Officials of Admonition” by Han Yu)

In the above two examples, the character “吟” (to chant) was used in substitution for “吹” (to blow), and the character “華” (radiance) was used in substitution for “榮” (glory), simply because the characters of “吹” and “榮” had been used too often. A similar line in Du Fu’ s poem “Satire on Fair Ladies” is “簫 管哀吟感鬼神” (even the fairies and ghosts were touched by the playing of pipes and flutes), in which “吟” describes the action of playing the pipes and flutes, whereas in Li Bai’ s poem it was used with more syntactic subtlety. As for another example, “Tian Zifang” in Zhuangzi contained a line “肩吾問於孫叔敖曰 :‘子三 爲令尹而不榮華，三去之而無憂色……’” (Jian Wu asked Sunshu Ao, saying, ‘You, Sir, were thrice chief minister, and did not feel elated; you were thrice dismissed from that position, without manifesting any sorrow….’ ). It can be seen that the use of character “華” in Han Yu’ s article actually derived from Zhuangzi. A few more examples are given as follows. 31

泠然 , up in the air. 紫霞賞 , to appreciate the purple rosy clouds. 錦囊術 refers to the arts of being immortal. 33 争 is the same as 諍 . 争臣 refers to imperial censors. 32

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熊咆龍吟殷巖泉，栗深林兮驚層巔 34。(李白《夢游天姥吟留别》) Growls of bears and snarls of Chinese loongs echoed among the rocks and streams; appalling the deep forest and terrifying the lowering cliffs. (From the poem “A Visit to  Mount Tianmu in a Dream” by Li Bai) 白浪如山那可渡，狂風愁殺峭帆人。(李白《横江詞》) The white waves are as high as mountains, how can I cross the river then. The gusts of gale on the river appalled the mariners too. (From “Poems of Crossing the River” by Li Bai) 携朋挈儔，去故就新，駕塵彍風，與電争先。(韓愈《送窮文》) Gather your friends and summon your pals, please leave the old place for a new one. Speed up your carriage in dust and raise your sails in wind, please leave as quickly as the lightning goes. (From “Sending off Miseries and Poverty” by Han Yu) 曩 35蟠南陽時，人不與仲、毅伍 36。(孫樵《刻武侯碑陰》) When he was living in Nanyang, no one regarded him as worthy of Guan Zhong and Yue Yi. (From “Inscription on Wuhou Stele” by Sun Qiao)

In the first example, the phrase “殷巖泉” means the loud sound was echoing among the rocks and streams. The character “殷” derived from the line “殷其 雷，在南山之陽” (The rumbling sound came from the sunny side of the south mountain) from “Rumbling Sounds” in Odes of Shao and the South in The Book of Songs. According to The Annotation of Classics, the pronunciation of “殷” is the same as that of “隱” , which indicates a faint or inexplicit effect. The phrase “殷巖 泉” appeals to the readers’ hearing by adding to the rumbling sound with certain lingering and indistinct effect. In the second example, the phrase “峭帆人” refers to mariners, yet the word “峭帆” (to hoist the sails) highlighted the expertise of mariners in manipulating the wind. If the professional mariners were shocked, the wind must be exceptionally fierce and the waves must be extremely terrifying. What’ s more, the meaning of the character “峭” is high, so “峭帆” (to hoist the sails high up) is more vivid than the ordinary word “扬帆” . In the example from Han Yu’ s “Sending off Miseries and Poverty” , the line “駕塵彍風，與電争先” (speed up your carriage in dust and raise your sails in wind, please leave as quickly as the lightning goes) expressed his hope to send off the miseries and poverty as quickly as possible. Actually, the common expression is “追風” (to chase the wind), but Han Yu used the verb “彍” (to shoot arrows with a crossbow) instead of “追” . As an arrow let loose from a crossbow definitely goes faster than the wind,  the verb “彍” is a more forceful choice than “追” . In the last example,“蟠南陽” (living in Nanyang) refers to Zhuge Liang’ s reclusive stay in Nanyang. As Xu Shu once regarded Zhuge Liang as a crouching Chinese loong, so the character “蟠” (the 34

Growls of bears and snarls of Chinese loongs echoed among the rocks and streams; appalling the deep forest and terrifying the lowering cliffs.  35 曩 , before. 36 Zhuge Liang compared himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi, but the people at that time could not accept it. 與 , to grant or to allow.

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curled-up posture of a Chinese loong) was used here. What’ s more, since Chinese loong is a mythical animal with various transformations, the verb “蟠” can only be used to refer to great talent as Zhuge Liang, rather than the ordinary men in recluse. There have always been two different opinions about the use of substitution.  In particular, it was a debatable issue in the studies on ci-poetry. The following comments were from Yuefu Study of Ci-poetry by Shen Yifu in the Song Dynasty. 煉句下語，最是緊要。如説桃，不可直説破桃，須用“紅雨、劉郎” 等字；説柳， 不可直説破柳，須用“章臺、灞岸” 等字。又用事，如曰“銀鈎空滿”，便是書字了， “玉筯雙垂”，便是淚了，不必更説淚；如“緑雲繚繞”，隱然髻髮；“困 不必更説書字； 便湘竹”，分明是簟，正不必分曉。 Words and phrases must be carefully considered. If you want to describe peach blossoms, you must not mention them explicitly, but use phrases such as “红雨” (red rain) and “劉郎” (Liu Yuxi) instead. When writing about willow trees, you must not explicitly mention them, but use “章臺” (Zhangtai Street)or “灞岸” (bank of Ba River) instead. To put it the other way round, the phrase “銀鈎空滿” (fill up with the silver  hooks) means writing characters; “玉筯雙垂” 37 (a pair of jade tendons) means tears; “緑雲 38繚繞” (the curled-up green cloud) means buns of hair; and “困便湘竹” 39(the comfortable bamboo for sleeping) refers to the bamboo mat. There is no need to use the explicit words.

However, some scholars expressed their disagreements. 其（指沈氏）意欲避鄙俗，而不知轉成涂飾 40，亦非確論。 （《四庫全書總目提要》） The author (Shen Yifu) intended to avoid the vulgar and earthy diction, yet the writing may become empty flourish and vacuous decorations. It is still a controversial issue. (From The Contents to the Complete Library of the Four Branches of Literature) 詞忌用替代字。美成《解語花》之“桂華 (花 )流瓦” 41，境界極妙，惜以“桂華” 二 字代月耳。夢窗 42以下則用代字更多，其所以然者，非意不足則語不妙也。蓋意 37

It was said in Liu Tie that Queen Zhen of King Wen of Wei, Cao Pi, had a fair face, so her tears looked like jade tendons. 38 Please see Du Mu’s Ode to Epang Palace, “緑雲擾擾，梳曉鬟也” (Like curling green clouds are her hair knots newly made in the morning). 39 困便湘竹 was used in Zhou Bangyan’s ci-poem, “倦脱綸 (guān) 巾，困便湘竹，桐陰半侵朱 户” (Taking off the silk headdress wearily, lying on the bamboo sleepily, the shade of trees half approaching inside the vermillion gates). 便 (piān)means to rest comfortably. 湘竹 refers to bamboo mats for sleeping. 40 涂飾 refers to flourish and vacuous decoration in writing.  41 美成 is the style name of Zhou Bangyan. A line in his ci-poem “Jieyuhua” is “桂華流瓦，纖雲散， 耿耿素娥欲下” (The glittering glory from fragrant trees is flowing on the roof tiles. When the thin  clouds scatter, the glorious fairy ladies are about to descent from the Moon”. 耿耿 , the bright look. 素娥 , the fairies in the Moon. 42 夢窗 (Mengchuang) is the style name of Wu Wenying, a ci-poet in the South Song Dynasty, whose collective work is titled “Four Volumes of Mengchuang”.

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足則不暇代，語妙則不必代。……沈伯時 43 《樂府指迷》……若唯恐人不用代字者； 果以是爲工，則古今類書具在，又安用爲詞耶 ? 宜其爲枟提要枠所譏也。(王國維《人 間詞話》) Characters of substitution should be avoided at all costs. In Zhou Bangyan’ s cipoem to the tune of “Jieyuhua” (Flowers of Understanding), the line of “桂華 (花 )流 瓦” (The glittering glory from fragrant trees is flowing on the roof tiles) invoked an excellent conception, yet it is a pity that the notion of the Moon was replaced by “桂 華” (the luster of fragrans trees). More cases of substitution have appeared after the time of Wu Wenying’ s Four Drafts of Ci-Poetry by the Dreamy Window. As for the reasons to use substitution, it must be either scarce ideas or poor diction. With sufficient  ideas, the poet wouldn’ t bother with substitution; with good diction, he would have no need for substitution. … In Shen’ s Yuefu Study of Ci-Poetry, … it seems that the author strongly advocated the use of substitution. If it is indeed a worthy technique, with all the reference books in both the modern and ancient times, how can we choose our words properly? That is the reason why it was criticized in The Contents to the Complete Library of the Four Branches of Literature. (From Poetic Remarks in the Human World by Wang Guowei)

Both of the opinions quoted above proffered one-sided arguments. The beauty  of language lies in either its being natural and plain, or its being subtle and elaborative. Therefore, proper use of substitution can also create aesthetic effects.  There are indeed excellent examples in poetry, such as the line of “虎氣必騰上， 龍身寧久藏 ?” (The air of tiger will eventually rise high, and the body of Chinese loong will not hide long) in Du Fu’ s “On a Sword” . The poet used “the air of tiger” and “the body of Chinese loong” to demonstrate the spirit and character of the sword, which is an impressive example of substitution. As for the good examples in ci-poetry, Li Qingzhao had a reputation for the fluent and natural flow  of imageries in her works. But a line in “A Memory of Flute-Playing” is “念武 陵人遠，煙鎖秦樓” (The man from Wuling is so far away, and the Qin Tower is hidden deep in the mist); the poetess cleverly used “the man from Wuling” to refer to her husband, and the Qin Tower to her living place, without hampering the clarity and coherence of the meaning. With regard to Zhou Bangyan’ s ci-poem to the tune of “Jieyuhua” (Flowers of Understanding), Cai Song once stated in his Explanations of Yuefu Study of Ci-Poetry, “美成《解語花》‘桂華流瓦’ 句，單看 似欠分曉，然合下句‘纖雲散，耿耿素娥欲下’ 觀之，則寫元夜明月，而兼用 雙關之筆，何等精妙。雖用替代字，不害其爲佳。” (The line of “the glittering glory from fragrans trees is flowing on the roof tiles” in Zhou’ s ci-poem to the tune of “Jieyuhua” (Flowers of Understanding), if it is read in isolation, it seems a bit implicit. With reference to the following line “When the clouds scattered and the lady in white seemed descending from the Moon” , we can better appreciate the description of the full moon and the use of a clever pun. In this sense, the use of substitution does not impair the beauty in writing). That is to say, Zhou Bangyan personified the Moon as a fairy lady in white, thus forming a harmonious  43

沈伯時 (Shen Boshi) is the style name of Shen Yifu.

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echo to the previous imagery of “the glittering glory from frangras trees” without taxing the explicit expression of the ideas. Cai Song’ s opinion is also reasonable. On the other hand, with due caution, we should not unconditionally accept Shen Yifu’ s arguments, lest the excessive use substitution would stuff the writing with  verbal boredom and vulgarity. All in all, the choice of words and phrases has to be appropriate so as to enhance the stylistic subtlety without being absurd, and to promote the coherence without being coarse. Such should be the ideal of diction.

18.2 The Rhetorical Devices Related to Phrasal and Sentential Arrangements 18.2.1  Parallelism and Antithesis In terms of syllable structures, Chinese words are either monosyllabic or disyllabic, and some disyllabic words often consist of monosyllabic words (as the morphemes). As a result, these two types of words can be flexibly arranged to form neat and  symmetrical phrases or sentences. On the other hand, as people tend to associate one thing to another that is similar or opposite to it, many cases of antithetical arrangements of Chinese phrases occurred. Antithesis is the construction that matches two linguistic units of either identical, reciprocal, or opposite meanings, which are called in Chinese “偶” (pair) or “對” (pair) and “對偶” (antithesis). For example, all the following examples involve a pair of antithetical units: “天” (sky) and “地” (land), “上” (above) and “下” (below), “東” (east) and “西” (west), “父” (father) and “子” (son),“夫” (husband) and “婦” (wife). What is more, linguistic units of identical structures and similar meanings can be arranged together to form parallelism, called “排” (line) or “排比” (parallelism) in Chinese. For example, the sentence “季孫行父秃，晉郤克眇，衛孫良夫跛，曹公子手 44僂” (Ji was bald, Xi of State Jin had a blind eye, Sun of State Wei was a cripple, and Shou of State Cao was a hunchback) from “The 1st Year of Duke Cheng” in Commentary of Gu Liang is a parallel sentence. Parallelism can consist of only two linguistic units, but there should be identical characters in the same position, such as the line “或 紅如丹砂，或黑如點漆” (It is either as red as cinnabar, or as black as pitch) from the poem “An Expedition to the North” by Du Fu. Parallelism and antithesis are widely used in both verse and prose. The reasons lie in the following aspects. For one thing, parallelism and antithesis facilitate the construction of artistic conceptions, so meanings can be enriched and expanded. With regard to the formal and metrical patterns, they help to achieve order and symmetry in language, and the rhythmic tonal arrangements further add to the mnemonic and resonant effect. Generally speaking, due to the restrictions of metric  patterns, the verse, especially the modern style poetry, is most suitable for the 44

手 (Shou) is the given name of Prince Cao. 僂 , a hunchback.

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use of the antithesis. Therefore, our discussion on this topic mostly draws on the examples from verse, and poems in particular. On the other hand, the prose usually strives for vigor in its expressive flow, so the parallelism involving more than two  linguistic units is used more frequently in prose than in verse. Relatively speaking, parallel structures are not as refined and meticulous as antithetical ones, so we will  mainly focus on the latter in our follow discussion. First of all, parallelism does not strictly require the same number of characters or length of sentences as antithesis does. In most cases, repetitive characters are not allowed in antithesis, though occasionally some function words such as “之” and “而” can be repeated. By contrast, parallelism mostly requires a few identical characters in each constituent unit. In other words, parallelism is more flexible in sue than antithesis. There are two forms of parallelism: the coordinate and the subordinate forms. The examples for the former are given as follows. 江南可采蓮，蓮葉何田田，魚戲蓮葉間。魚戲蓮葉東，魚戲蓮葉西，魚戲蓮葉南， 魚戲蓮葉北。(古樂府《江南》) South of the Yangtze River teems with lotus seeds. How dense and flourishing are the lotus leaves, around which fish dart and play! North and south, east and west.  between the lotus leaves they dart and play. (From the ancient yuefu poem “South of the Yangtze River” ) 是以别方不定，别理千名，有别必怨，有怨必盈，使人意駭神奪，心折骨驚。 雖淵雲 45之墨妙，嚴樂 46之筆精，金閨之諸彦，蘭臺之群英 47，賦有凌雲 48之稱，辯 有雕龍之聲 49，誰能摹暫離之狀、寫永訣之情者乎！ (江淹《别賦》) Therefore, the parting can happen to different parties, for different reasons, but parting  always brings about sorrow, and sorrow always fills up the heart, making one mindless  and soulless, heart-broken and bone-shattered. Even though Wang Bao and Yang Xiong could compose elegant prose, Yan An and Xu Yue could write sophisticated essays, even for all the literati in front of the Golden Gate, and all the geniuses on the grand palace whose fu-poems as beautiful are as the soaring clouds, whose argumentations are as magnificent as Chinese loong sculpture, none of them could fully depict the scenes of departure, and the sorrows of an eternal parting! (From “A Fu-Poem on Parting Sorrows” by Jiang Yan)

In the above example, “别方不定，别理千名” (the parting can happen to 45

淵雲 refers to 子淵 , the courtesy name of Wang Bao and 子雲 , the courtesy name of Yang Xiong, both of whom are great ci-fu writers in the Western Han Dynasty. 46 嚴樂 refers to Yan An and Xu Xue, who were political commentators in the Western Han Dynasty. 47 金閨 and 蘭臺 refer to the place where the literary scholars worked and studied in the Han Dynasty. 48 As mentioned in Records of the Grand Historian, when the Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty read “A Fu-Poem About the Son of Heaven” by Sima Xiangru, he felt elated like the soaring clouds. 49 During the period of Warring States, many scholars gathered in Jixia in the State of Qi. Zou Yan and Zou Shi were two widely acclaimed scholars. 雕龍 refers to the refined decorations in speech.  See “Biographies of Mencius and Xunzi” in Records of the Grand Historian.

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different parties, for different reasons) is a parallel structure; so is the line “有别必 怨，有怨必盈” (parting always brings about sorrow, and sorrow always fills up  the heart). Within each case, the constituent units are coordinate components with no difference in status or importance. Such form of parallelism is mainly used for  expression and elaboration. Particularly, to highlight the difficulty in describing the parting sorrow, the author implied that even the most ingenious men of letters were inadequate for the job. In such a context, a straightforward statement of “雖 淵雲墨妙，猶難摹暫離之狀、寫永訣之情者也” (Even though Wang Bao and Yang Xiong could compose elegant prose, they still fell short of fully depicting the scenes of departure, and the sorrow of eternal parting) might weaken the expressive force, whereas the three parallel structures in the example, covering all the great talent in literature and oratory, greatly enhanced the expressiveness and impressiveness. The four lines of “鱼戲” (fish dart and play) describe the scene  of the fish enjoying themselves swimming around beneath the lotus leaves, which  rightly reflects the travelers’ pleasure in finding and tracing the movements of these little creatures. If put in one sentence as “魚戲於蓮葉之東西南北” (North and south, east and west. between the lotus leaves they dart and play), the verb “戲” (play) would not have been fully presented with so many vivid details. The subordinate form of parallelism is shown in the following examples. 故木受繩 50則直，金就礪 51則利，君子博學而日參省 52乎己，則知 (智 )明而行無 過矣。故不登高山，不知天之高也；不臨深谿，不知地之厚也；不聞先王之遺言， 不知學問之大也。(荀子《勸學》) So the plank becomes straight with the help of the ink line, and metal weapons get sharp with the help of the grindstone. If a man of virtue studies widely and each day reflects on himself, his wisdom will become clear and his conduct will be without fault. If you do not climb a high mountain, you will never comprehend the highness of Heaven; if you do not look down into a deep valley, you will never know the depth of the Earth; and if you do not hear the words handed down from the ancient kings, you will never understand the greatness of learning. (From “On Learning” in Xunzi) 夫大木爲杗 53，細木爲桷 54，欂櫨侏儒 55，椳闑扂楔 56，各得其宜，施以成室者，匠 氏之工也；玉札丹砂，赤箭青芝，牛溲馬勃 57，敗鼓之皮，俱收並蓄，待用無遺 58

50

受繩 , the carpenter makes a straight line on the plank with the ink line and then saw the plank accordingly. 受繩 refers to the plank being put on the straight mark by the ink line. 51 金 , weapons. 就礪 , to be put on the grindstone. 52 參 is the same as 三 . 三省 , to check repeatedly. 53 杗 , the beam of a house. 54 桷 , the rafter of a house. 55 欂櫨 , the brackets on the top of columns to support the beams. 侏儒 , the struts on the beams. 56 椳 , the hinges. 闑 , the supporting log in the middle of a gate. 扂 (diǎn)，the latch. 楔 , the protective planks on the sides of the gate. 57 All the terms above are names of medicine. 58 無遺 , all are checked and sorted out with no missing items.

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者，醫師之良也；登明選公 59，雜進巧拙 60，紆餘爲妍 61，卓犖爲傑 62，校短量長，惟器 是適 63者，宰相之方 64也。(韓愈《進學解》) So large planks are made into beams, and smaller ones are made into rafters, brackets, struts, gate posts and door belts, serving different purposes in the construction  of a house. This is the expertise of the craftsmen. Herbal materials like garden burnet, cinnabar, rhizoma gastrodiae, plantain herb, various fungi, even the leather of broken drums, are all thoroughly collected and sorted out, serving for different healing purposes.  This is the expertise of physicians. The promotion and selection of talent are carried out justly and fairly, and both the smart and the clumsy have their roles to play. The modest will be acclaimed for their virtue, and the bold will acquire excellence. Appraising the strengths and weaknesses of each one, and assigning different positions appropriate to  their talents and characters, this is the expertise of a prime minister. (From “An Address to Students” by Han Yu) 枯藤老樹昏鴉，小橋流水人家，古道西風瘦馬。夕陽西下，斷腸人在天涯！ (馬 致遠《天净沙· 秋思》) Over old trees wreathed with rotten vines fly evening crows; under a small bridge  near a cottage a stream flows; on ancient road in the west wind a lean horse goes. Westward declines the sun; far, far from home is the heartbroken one. (From a ci-poem to the tune of “Tianjingsha” (Sunny Sand) by Ma Zhiyuan)

The example from Xunzi contains two sets of parallel structures, each containing three parallel components. The first two components are subordinate  to the last one, as they express the metaphorical meaning in support of the main idea in the last component. The example from Han Yu’ s “An Address to Students” contains three sets of parallel structures. The first discusses craftsmen’ s choice of  large and small planks for different purposes, and the second discusses physicians’  choice of various materials for medical purposes, both serving as the subordinate arguments for the main idea that the prime minister should make careful and wise selection of talent according to their own strengths and merits. All in all, parallelism adopted in the first two examples helps to invoke associative imageries  and enhance the force of persuasion. As for Ma Zhiyuan’ s ci-poem, the first three  sentences were once regarded as coordinate arrangements of a few nouns without any logic. This opinion is ill-grounded. The theme of this poem is “斷腸人在天涯” (far from home is the heartbroken one), while the “heartbroken one” is the lone man riding a lean horse against the background of a remote and desolate place far from home. The image of a lean horse trotting on an ancient road in the west wind indicates a long journey of weariness and dreariness. The evening crows 59

登明選公 , to select and promote talent. 雜進巧拙 , both the smart and the clumsy have their roles to play. 61 紆餘爲妍 , the manners are natural and graceful. 62 卓犖爲傑 , the heroes with great honor. 63 校短量長，惟器是適 , Appraising the strengths and weaknesses of each one, and assigning different positions appropriate to their talents and characters. 64 方 is the same as 術 . 60

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could perch on the old trees wreathed with rotten vines, and the cottage under a small bridge over a stream could offer shelter for the family who lived in it. In contrast, the solitude and misery of a lone traveler on a lean horse was effectively  highlighted. Therefore, the first two sentences serve as the subordinate descriptions  for the main message contained in the last sentence. So it is also a case of the subordinate form of parallelism. The following discussion focuses on antithesis. As Chinese linguist Wang Li pointed out, “There have always been antithetic structures in Chinese classic literature, which brought about the ‘antithetical literature’ , that is, a pair of antithetical phrases in our common saying. The writing of antithetical phrases involves the matching of a noun with another noun, a verb with another verb, an adjective with another adjective, and a function word with another function word. For a strictly neat antithesis, even the classifiers65, numerals, auxiliary verbs66, conjunctions, prepositions and modal particles have to possess a matching peer. Even more strict cases require the matching of a pair of astronomical terms, geographical terms, shapes and bodies, animal and plant terms, and so on.” 67 His remarks explained the fundamental structural features of constructing antithesis: a pair of antithetical phrases consists of two structural components, and the words in the same positions in these two components are equivalent in both meaning and part of speech. As a matter of fact, the rigid matching in terms of part of speech can be sometimes sacrificed for expressiveness and spontaneity of writing.  In other words, a pair of sentences with largely equivalent structures could be regarded as antithesis. The neat and orderly matching, on the other hand, often serves a standard rather than a guarantee of literary excellence. “The Pair Phrases” in Classic Book of Literary Criticism contains comments on the antithesis, “反對 爲優，正對爲劣……仲宣《登樓》68云 :‘鍾儀幽而楚奏，莊舄顯而越吟。’ 此 反對之類也。孟陽《七哀枠》:‘漢祖想枌榆，光武思白水。’ 此正對之類也。” (Words of opposite meanings form a good antithesis, whereas words of similar meanings form a poor one. … In the fu-poetry “On the Top of a Tower” by Wang Can, the sentences “鍾儀幽而楚奏，莊舄顯而越吟 69” (Zhong Yi the prisoner played the music of his homeland Chu; Zhuang Xi the officer talked in the accent  of his homeland Yue) is a case of antitheses with opposite meanings. In Meng 65

Classifiers are quantifiers.  It refers to “把” and “被”. 67 See “Word Classes of the Chinese Language”, published in Chinese Language Learning, April 1952. 68 仲 宣 is the courtesy name of Wang Can, one of the Seven Masters in the Jian’an Period, who stayed in Hubei to stay away from the trouble at the end of the Han Dynasty and composed the fu-poetry “On the Top of a Tower” to express homesickness. 69 鍾儀 , according to The 9th Year of Duke Cheng in Commentary of Zuo, Zhong Yi was a musical performer of Chu and became a captive of Jin. When the Duke of Jin required him to play the instrument, he performed a tune of Chu. According to Biography of Zhang Yi in Records of the Grand Historian, Zhuang Xi was from the land of Yue during the period of Warring States. When he was sick during his service in Chu, he still talked in the accent of Yue. 66

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Yang’ s poems of “Qi Ai” Style70, the sentences “漢祖想枌榆，光武思白水” (the Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty missed his hometown of Fenyu, and the Emperor Guangwu of the Han Dynasty missed his hometown of Baishui) is a case of antitheses with similar meanings). In the first example, the character “幽” (be imprisoned) and “顯” (be promoted to a high position) are opposite in meaning. In other words, the two men of drastically different circumstances shared the same  feeling of homesickness, thus enriching the messages and feelings of the pair. This is the meaning of “反對爲優” (words of opposite meanings form a good antithesis). In the second example, however, “思” (to miss) and “想” (to think of) have the same meaning; both Gaozu and Guangwu were the emperors of the Han Dynasty; and Fenyu and Baishui were names of the hometowns. Therefore, the two sentences actually serve the function of only one, and this is the meaning of “正對爲劣” (words of similar meanings form a poor antithesis). As the meanings of the two sentences in such a couple are almost the same, or all the items listed in the couplet belong to the same category, such poetic writing was also called “合 掌” (palms together), which should be avoided in the use of antitheses. Following this logic, the aforementioned technique of matching of a pair of astronomical terms, geographical terms, shapes and bodies… may achieve structural neatness, but not necessarily the ideal literary effect. A few more examples are analyzed as follows. 葉似楊梅烝霧雨，花如盧橘傲風霜。(蘇軾《次韻劉燾撫句蜜漬荔支》詩 ) Its leaves are like waxberry leaves in the misty rain, and its flowers are like kumquat  blossoms bracing the frosty wind. (From a poem following the rhyming pattern of “Candied Lichee” by Su Shi) 竹簟暑風招我老，玉堂花蕊爲誰春 71? (蘇軾《玉堂栽花，周正孺有詩，次韻》詩 ) As I am getting old on the bamboo mat and in the summer heat, who is enjoying the spring time in the jade hall in full bloom? (From a poem following the rhyming pattern of Zhou Zhengru’ s poem by Su Shi) 十年簿領催衰白，一笑江山發醉紅 72。(蘇軾《次韻林子中蒜山亭見寄》詩 ) Ten-year’ s workload in the office made my hair grey, whereas a glimpse of the landscape made my face radiant. (From a poem following the rhyming pattern of Lin Zizhong’ s poem by Su Shi)

70

孟陽 Meng Yang is the courtesy name of Zhang Dai in the Jin Dynasty. “Qi Ai” is a title of poems. Cao Zhi and Wang Cai have also composed poems titled “Qi Ai”. 71 玉堂 refers to the Hanlin Academy in the Song Dynasty. According to Ouyang Xiu, “嗚呼！余且 老矣，方買田淮潁之間。若夫涼竹簟之暑風，曝茅檐之冬日，睡餘支枕，念昔平生仕宦出處， 顧瞻玉堂，如在天上” (I am old and bought a piece of land somewhere between Huaizhou and Yingzhou. I enjoy the summer breeze on the bamboo mat and the winter sunshine under the thatched roof. When I wake up and lie on the pillows, I will reflect on those busy days of office work, then  I look around my house and feels like living in heaven”. Obviously Su Shi’s poem is adapted from this passage. 72 簿領 , the official documents and files. 衰白 , the body is weak and the hair turns grey. 發醉紅 , the face blushes after being drunk.

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In the three examples above, the first one contains two synonymous characters  “似” and “如”, and the rest of the lines are similar too; thus it is a case of “antitheses with similar words” . In the second example, “竹簟暑風” (the bamboo mat and the summer breeze) refers to the modest everyday life after retirement, and “玉堂花蕊” (the jade hall in full bloom) describes a scene in a magnificent government office.  The couplet means that, “as I am going to retire soon, the flowers in the jade hall  are no longer of my concern.” The third couplet first described Lin Zizhong’ s poor  health due to the office work, then depicted his joy of seeing the natural scene, highlighting a contrast between his overstrained body and the youthful mind. With matched words of opposite meanings, the last two couplets form a delightful contrast with a flexible choice of words, thus a good case of antitheses with opposite meanings. While a couplet with two lines expressing the same meaning should indeed be avoided, it does not mean all the good antithetical constructions should contain opposite items. Some couplets contain neither opposites nor repetitions, yet are still neatly arranged and effective in expression. Such are also good cases of antitheses, as shown in the following examples. 春蠶到死絲方盡，蠟炬成灰淚始乾。(李商隱《無題》詩 ) Till the end of life a silk worm keeps spinning silk. Till burning itself out a candle goes on lighting us. (From a poem “Untitled” by Li Shangyin) 暮雨自歸山悄悄，秋河不動夜懨懨。(李商隱《楚宫》詩 ) The rain passed at dusk, leaving the mountains in peace; the river stayed calm in the night of weariness. (From the poem “The Palace of Chu” by Li Shangyin) 含風鴨緑 73粼粼起，弄日鵝黄 74裊裊垂。(王安石《南浦》詩 ) The green water of the clear river is sparkling in the breeze; the yellow willow buds are dangling and waving in the sunlight. (From the poem “The Place of Nanpu” by Wang Anshi) 千林風雨鶯求友，萬里雲天雁斷行。(黄庭堅《宜陽别元明 75用觴字韻》詩 ) The oriole is searching for its peers in the deep woods against wind and rain; the wild goose is leaving its flock flying among the clouds in the vast sky. (From a poem “Seeing  off Yuan Ming in Yiyang” by Huang Tingjian)

In summary, antithesis requires pairs of equivalent components with distinctive meanings, so that the two lines echo with each other without boring repetition. It is in this sense that literary critics argued for the superiority of antitheses with opposite meanings and the inferiority of those with identical meanings. In pursuit of the novelty in antithesis construction, Chinese literati created several techniques, which are explained as follows. 73

鴨緑 , the water as green as the duck’s head. 鵝黄 , the bright yellow willow twigs. 75 元明 is the older brother of Huang Tingjian. 74

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One technique is called “flowing water couplets” , in which the two lines constitute one grammatical sentence conveying a unified and coherent message.  Though it may not read like an antithetical couplet, the characters were in fact neatly positioned and matched. As commented by Huang Zunxian in his preface to “Ren Jing” Collection of Poems, it is a technique that “以單行之神，運排偶之體” (express the idea of a single line in the style of a couplet). An important distinction, however, should be made between “two lines that form one grammatical sentence” and, as previously discussed, “two lines that express the same idea as one” . In the former case, the two components in a couplet are connected to form a complete sentence, while in the latter case, the two components in a couplet are merely repetitive or largely overlapping. In other words, “a sentence” in the former case is in the grammatical sense, whereas “a sentence” in the latter is in the semantic sense. The examples of “flowing water couplets” are as follows.  一别臨平山上塔，五年雲夢澤南州 76。(蘇軾《次韻杭人斐維甫》詩 ) Once I bade farewell to the tower on the mountain of Linping, for years I have stayed in the place to the south of Yunmeng Lake. (From a poem following the rhyming pattern of “Wen Weifu from Hangzhou” by Su Shi) 誰謂石渠劉校尉 77，來依絳帳馬荆州 78? (黄庭堅《次韻馬荆州》詩 ) Who could have thought that Captain Liu from Shiqu, now found a shelter in the residence of Governor Ma in Jingzhou? (From a poem following the rhyming pattern of Ma Jian’ s poem by Huang Tingjian)

In the first example, poet Su Shi told about his experience of staying in Huangzhou for five years after leaving Hangzhou. (Hangzhou is close to Linping,  where there was a tower on the mountain. Su Shi was so impressed by the tower that he mentioned in a ci-poem to the tune of “Nanxiangzi” (Song from the Southern Village), “誰似臨平山上塔，亭亭，迎客西來送客行” (The tower on the mountain of Linping, so upright and lofty, greeting the travelers from the west and seeing them off). As for the second example, Huang Tingjian composed  this poem when he returned to Jingzhou after being degraded and sent to Qianzhou, and expressed his joy and gratitude for receiving the help and support from Ma Jian. Each of the two couplets contains one consistent and coherent message. Another case similar to Huang’ s couplet is a line in Lu You’ s poem “Reflections” “豈知鶴髮殘年叟，猶讀蠅頭細字書 ?” (How would you know an 76

雲夢澤南州 refers to Huangzhou in Hubei province, which lies to the south of Yunmeng Lake in ancient times. 77 石渠劉校尉 refers to Liu Xiang in the Han Dynasty, who was responsible for collating books in the national library. Huang Tingjian used to hold a similar post, so he compared Liu to himself. 78 絳帳馬荆州 refers to Ma Jian, the governor of Jingzhou. The scholar Ma Rong in the Eastern Han Dynasty has the same family name as Ma Jian. According to Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty, “施絳紗帳，前授生徒，後列女樂”(He had dark red curtains hung in the hall, taught his students in the front, and enjoyed music and performance behind the curtains). Ma Jian is used to allude to Ma Rong here.

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old man with white hair is still reading books of bug-sized small characters) A second technique is “cross match” , that is, to place the semantically equivalent characters in non-matching positions in the couplet. A typical example is from Li Qunyu’ s poem “In Dedication to a Singer on a Wine Party” “裙拖六 幅湘江水，鬢聳巫山一段雲” (Her long skirt is like paintings of six pieces about the Xiang River, and her hair is like a curl of cloud on the Wushan Mountain). For another example, 春殘葉密花枝少，睡起茶多酒盞疏。(王安石《晚春》) In late spring the leaves grow lush but the flowers get sparse; When I wake up, I prefer to take some tea instead of wine. (From the poem “Late Spring” by Wang Anshi)

As a comment of the above couplet in his work Correcting the Errors in Literature, Yan Youyi in the Song Dynasty quoted a remark from his friend Jiang Hui, “此一聯以‘密’ 字對‘疏’ , ‘多’ 字對‘少’，正交股用之，所謂蹉對法也” [the character “密” (dense) is the opposite of “疏” (sparse), and “多” (many) is the opposite of “少” (few). So the words in the two lines form a cross match]. In Li Qunyu’ s poem, “六幅” (six pieces) is the counterpart of “一段” (one stretch), and “湘江” (the Xiang River) is the counterpart of “巫山” (the Wushan Mountain), yet these words are not neatly placed in the matching positions in the couplets. The reasons for such a staggering arrangement partly lie in the metric restrictions. The tonal pattern of the line “鬢聳巫山一段雲” (her hair is like a curl of cloud on the Wushan Mountain) should be “仄仄平平仄仄平” (OOLLOOL). If the semantic counterparts were placed in the same positions, then the phrase would become “一 段巫山” (a stretch of the Wushan Mountain), thus violating the arrangement of the level and oblique tones. On the other hand, the “cross match” is also a deliberate demonstration of the verbal skills. For example, “葉密” (the leaves are lush) could have been replaced by “葉茂” or “葉盛” which are also semantically appropriate, but the matching between “密” and “疏” manifests the poet’ s consideration of word choices. Another form of antitheses is “borrowed match” , referring to the use of equivoques or puns in the equivalent positions in the couplets, as shown in the following examples. 竹葉於人既無分，菊花從此不須開。(杜甫《九日》詩 ) As “bamboo leaves” are no longer of my concern, the chrysanthemums shall never bother to bloom either. (From the poem “The Ninth Day” by Du Fu) 驥子春猶隔 79，鶯歌暖正繁。(杜甫《憶幼子》詩 ) Jizi is still not by my side in the spring time, yet the orioles are busily singing in the days of warmth. (From the poem “In Remembrance of My Youngest Son” by Du Fu) 白地誰留住，青山自不歸。(白居易《寄山僧》詩 ) For no reason you prefer to stay, not returning to the green mountains. (From “A Poem for a Monk in the Mountain” by Bai Juyi) 79

驥子 is the courtesy name of the youngest son of Du Fu. 隔 , being not by my side.

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每苦交游尋五柳，最嫌尸祝擾庚桑 80。(王安石《次韻酬徐仲元》詩 ) What is annoying is when others are hoping to meet “Five-willow” , and what is upsetting is when others are paying tribute to “Gengsang” . (From a poem following the rhyming pattern of “In Gratitude to Xu Zhongyuan” by Wang Anshi)

In the first example, the equivalent phrases of “竹葉” (bamboo leave) and “菊花” (chrysanthemum) both literally refer to plants. As a matter of fact, the “bamboo leaves” is the name of a kind of liquor, so the antithesis between “bamboo leaves” and “chrysanthemums” is based on a pun. In the second example, in terms of literal meanings, “驥” (a good horse) and “鶯” (oriole) both refer to living creatures, so they are well matched. “子” (son) and “歌” (song), however, do not seem to match. It should be noted that “歌” in this context is the homophonic pun of “哥” (brother), ensuring the semantic matching of “驥子” and “鶯歌” . In view of the antithesis as a whole, “驥子” is actually the name of Du Fu’ s youngest son, and therefore is a proper noun, whereas “鶯歌” (the orioles are singing) is a phrase. The antithetical arrangement of these two distinctive components is based on the equivocal interpretation of the words. In the third example, the phrase “白地” means “平白地” (for no reason at all), and the couplet means “for no reason you prefer to stay, not returning to the green mountains” , in which “白地” serves as a function word, whereas “青山” (green mountains) is a notional phrase. Apparently these two are not equivalent. The literal meanings of the characters, however, rightly form a neat antithesis, as “白” (white) is the counterpart of “青” (green), and “地” (earth) is the counterpart of “山” (mountain), allowing the antithesis with “borrowed puns” . The antithetical components in the fourth example are names of people, which involve rich background information. According to “Shi Lin” Commentary of Poetry by Ye Mengde in the Song Dynasty, “嘗有人面稱公，喜 ‘五柳、庚桑’” 之句，以爲的對 81。公笑曰 :‘君但知柳對桑爲的，然庚亦是數。’ 蓋以十干數之 82” (Someone spoke highly of the couplets containing “Five-willow” and “the Gengsang” , regarding them as a neat antithesis. On hearing this, the poet smiled and said, “you only noticed the match between willow and mulberry, but failed to find that the character ‘庚’ is also a numeral” , since this character is the seventh of the ten heavenly stems). The neat antithesis fully demonstrates the literary ingenuity of the poet. By means of “borrowed match” , some words and phrases that are otherwise incompatible could be matched in pairs. Many poets in the Tang Dynasty, including Du Fu, Li Bai and Meng Haoran, used “borrowed match” in their poems. 80

五 柳 , Tao Yuanming also styled himself as Mr. Five Willows. 庚 桑 , according to “Gengsang Chu” in Zhuangzi, Gengsang Chu went to Mount Weilei and stayed for three years. Upon the grand harvest, the local people advocated to make him the king and build an ancestral temple in his honor. 尸 refers to the one representing the ancestors in the temple. 祝 , to worship and pray. Wang Anshi used “Five-willow” and “Gengsang” to allude to himself, meaning that he was afraid of being visited, noticed and interrupted by others. 81 的 , neat in structure. The character in the following sentence has the same meaning. 82 The ordinal numbers used by ancient Chinese people.

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It gradually became a fixed format in late Tang Dynasty, then a decadent petty skill. However, so neat and natural are the first and the third examples above, they  should still be regarded as antithetical constructions of great excellence. Another form is called “internal match” . In this case, not only are the two lines in the antithetical couplet largely equivalent, but each line contains some antithetical words or phrases within itself. The words “當句” mean “within the same sentence” , and the examples are given as follows. 一山門作兩山門，兩寺原從一寺分。東澗水流西澗水，南山雲起北山雲。前臺 花發後臺見，上界鐘聲下界聞。遥想吾師行道處，天香桂子落紛紛。(白居易《虔 州天竺寺》詩，見蘇軾《天竺寺》詩的序 ) One gate to the temple is divided into two gates, and two temples derived from one temple. The water in the eastern creak is flowing to the western creak, and the cloud  from the southern hill is emerging from the northern hill. The flowers in the front platform are visible from the rear platform, and the bell toll of the upper level are heard at the lower level. In reverie I see my master walking by, the fragrant laurel blossoms are drifting down. (From a poem “Tianzhu Temple in Qianzhou” by Bai Juji, as quoted in the preface to the poem “Tianzhu Temple” by Su Shi) 密邇平陽接上蘭，秦樓鴛瓦漢宫盤。池光不定花光亂，日氣初涵露氣乾。但覺 游蜂繞舞蝶，豈知孤鳳憶離鸞。三星自轉三山遠，紫府程遥碧落寬。(李商隱《當 句有對》詩 ) Close to Pingyang Mansion and connected to Shanglan Temple, the residence of the princess is decorated with delicate tiles and fairy plates. The light is flickering on the  pond, so are the flowers, and the morning dew is drying in the early sunlight. The busy  bees are dancing with the butterflies, while the lonely phoenix is missing her partner.  When the tryst is over, they will again be separated, as his residence is far on the other side of the sky. (From “A Poem of Internal Match” by Li Shangyin) 流鶯飄蕩復參差，渡陌臨流不自持。巧囀豈能無本意，良辰未必有佳期。風 朝露夜陰晴裏，萬户千門開閉時。曾苦傷春不忍聽，鳳城何處有花枝 ? (李商隱 《流鶯》詩 ) The oriole is always flying around, above the tracks or close to the riverbank, unable  to settle down. Its melodious songs are meant to convey a message, yet the pleasant spring time may not promise it a nice appointment. So it sings in the windy morning and chilly night, in the cloudy day and the sunny time, so it sings at the opening and closing time of the thousands of windows and doors. The songs are too sad to stand in the sorrowful spring time, but where can it find a branch to perch on in the grand capital  city? (From a poem “The Flying Orioles” by Li Shangyin)

In the first and third examples, apart from the two ending lines, all the other  six lines contain “internal match” , while all the eight lines in the second example contain “internal match”. In particular, the fifth and sixth lines in the third example  involve multiple and varied pairs of antithetical components, including twocharacter words of “風朝” (windy morning) versus “露夜” (chilly night), “萬户” (ten thousand windows) versus “千門” (a thousand doors), and single characters of “陰” (cloudy) versus “晴” (sunny), “開” (open) versus “閉” (close). The poets

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in later times also used the technique, mostly for the writing of only one or two couplets in a poem, obviously to avoid the excessively decorative style. A case in point is the second couplet in the poem “Endless Rainy Days from Baling to Pingjiang and Linxiang” by Huang Tingjian, “野水自添田水滿，晴鳩却唤雨鳩 歸” (The flowing water in the valley has filled up the paddy fields, and the cuckoo  birds in the sun are calling for their peers caught in the rain). For another example, a line in Su Shi’ s poem “In Dedication to the Late Buddhist Monk Wen” is “三 過門間老病死，一彈指頃去來今” (In my three visits I’ ve witnessed aging, sickness and death, with a flick of the finger we experienced the past, future and  present). With the careful arrangement of “老” (aging), “病” (sickness) and “死” (death) versus “去” (past), “来” (future), “今” (present), the poet created a novel form of “internal parallelism” on the basis of “internal match” . There is also a form of “alternate match” , also known as “fan match” , in which the first and third lines are antithetical counterparts, while the second and fourth  lines are antithetical counterparts. This form originated from “Collecting the Fern” , Minor Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs. 昔我往矣，楊柳依依；今我來思，雨雪霏霏。 On that day when I left here, the willow trees were soft and waving; Today I come back, the sleet is cold and drizzling

A later example can be found in the first piece of the second poem of “Two Poems on the Encounter with Pei Wu” by Zheng Gu in the Tang Dynasty, as cited below. 昔年共照松溪影，松折溪荒僧已無；今日重思錦城事，雪鋪花謝夢何殊 ? Last year we enjoyed the reflection of pine trees in the creek, yet the tree was broken,  the creek dried up, and the monk was gone; this year I reflected on my experiences in Jincheng; the snow is piled up, and the blossoms have fallen, but the dreams are no different. 

The structure of the above poem is identical to that of “Collecting the Fern” . Some poets were not confined to the routine contrast between the past and the present, adding novelty to the expressive power of the “alternate match”, as shown in the following examples. 得罪台州去，時危棄碩儒 83。移官蓬閣 84後，穀貴殁潛夫 85。(杜甫《哭台州鄭司户 蘇少監》詩 ) 83

碩儒 refers to Zheng Qian, who was demoted to Taizhou. 蓬閣 refers to Su Yuanming in Mishujian, responsible for the work of book collection. 85 潛夫, as recorded in Biography of Wang Fu in Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty, Wang Fu refused to take a government office and lived in seclusion instead. 潛夫 is the title of the book he composed. Here it is used to refer to the death of Su Yuanming and his frustration in politics. 84

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Being degraded to Taizhou, Zheng Qian found himself in a hard time. Being assigned to a post in Peng Pavilion, Su Yuanming met the end of his life. (From the poem “A Tearful Tribute to Zheng Qian and Su Yuanming” by Du Fu) 邂逅 86陪車馬，尋芳謝朓洲 87。凄涼望鄉國，得句仲宣樓。(蘇軾《用前韻再和許 朝奉》詩 ) In company I traveled on horse and by cart, visiting the beautiful scene in the island of Xie Tiao; In solitude I looked homeward, writing a few lines on the tower of Zhongxuan. (From “A Poem in Reply to Xu Chaofeng Using the Previous Rhymes” by Su Shi)

So far, we have discussed different forms of antithetical couplets. The essence  of antitheses lies in its use of neat and orderly form for the creation of balanced structures and lively rhythms. However, excessively “neat” structure may impair the spontaneity of the verbal flow and render the style rigid and clumsy. All the  forms created by poets in different ages reflected their common pursuit for variety  and novelty, but, if poorly applied, the writing might become pretentious, stuffy  or hollow. It is fair to say that the gist always lies in the proper content and artistic images, and the forms only serve a minor and auxiliary role at best.

18.2.2 Loops A “loop” is the repeated or overlapping components in two sentences or two chapters. For example, the beginning of the subsequent sentence or chapter repeats the ending of the previous sentence or chapter. These loops help to join a series of sentences or chapters like a chain of links, achieving a unique expressive force by means of a dense and tenacious structure. If used in argumentative essays, such a technique helps to present the ideas in a thorough and orderly manner, naturally guiding the readers’ minds to the final  conclusion, thus effectively enhancing the rigor of the argumentation. Please see  the following examples. 古之欲明 88明德 89於天下者，先治其國；欲治其國者，先齊其家；欲齊其家者， 先修其身；欲修其身者，先正其心；欲正其心者，先誠其意；欲誠其意者，先致其 知；致知在格物 90。物格而後知至，知至而後意誠，意誠而後心正，心正而後身修， 身修而後家齊，家齊而後國治，國治而後天下平。(《禮記· 大學》) 86

邂逅 , to meet unexpectedly. 謝朓 Xie Tiao used to made a poem “In Memory of an Old Friend” “芳洲有杜若，可以贈佳期” (There is a beautiful flower in Fang Zhou, which can be presented as a greeting). Su Shi’s poem is  adapted from this line. 88 明 , to illustrate and carry forward. 89 明德 , the grand and honorable virtues. 90 格物 , to explore and understand the knowledge of things. 87

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The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtues throughout the kingdom, first  ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their  families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing  to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts,  they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts,  they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in  the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were  cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy. (From “The Great Learning” in The Book of Rites) 昔者，紂爲象箸，而箕子怖。以爲 :“象箸 91必不加於土鉶 92，必將犀玉之杯；象箸 玉杯必不羹菽藿 93，則必旄 94、象、豹胎；旄、象、豹胎必不短褐 95而食於茅屋之下， 則〔必〕錦衣九重，廣室高臺；吾畏其卒 96，故怖其始。” 居三年，紂爲肉圃，設炮 烙 97〔格〕，登糟丘，臨酒池，紂遂以亡。(《韓非子· 喻老》) In the past, Ji Zi was frightened at the sight of King Zhou of Shang using ivory chopsticks. As he considered it, “ivory chopsticks are definitely used together with cups  of rhinoceros horns or jade, instead of the clay pots; the ivory chopsticks and jade cups are definitely used for the dishes of yak meat, elephant meat or leopard fetus, instead  of the bean leaves; the dishes of yak meat, elephant meat or leopard fetus are definitely  enjoyed with the nine-layered embroidered dresses in grand halls and high platforms, instead of the sackcloth clothes in thatched cottages. Being afraid of its ending, I was frightened by its beginning.” After three years, King Zhou set up an extravagant and dissolute place of joy filled up with meat, roast, wine and liquor. Soon afterwards King  Zhou was conquered and killed. (From “Explanations of Laozi’s Teachings” in Hanfeizi)

With regard to lyrical writing, this cyclic and repetitive form is conducive to the expression of deep emotions and abundant pathos. For example, the beginnings and endings of chapters are interlinked in “A Compliment Poem to ‘White-Horse’ Cao Biao” by Cao Zhi, which is too long for the limited space of the book. Examples of interlinked beginning and ending of sentences are presented as follows. 他，他，他傷心辭漢主，我，我，我携手上河梁。他御從入窮荒，我鑾輿返咸 陽。返咸陽，過宫墻；過宫墻，繞迴廊；繞迴廊，近椒房；近椒房，月昏黄；月昏黄，

91

象箸 , ivory chopsticks. 加 means the same as 用 (to use). 土鉶 , clay containers for food. 93 羹菽藿 , the thick soup of bean leaves. 94 旄 is the same as 氂 , yak. 95 褐 , sackcloth clothes. 96 卒 , the ending. 97 炮格 , copper utensils for roasting meat. 92

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夜生涼；夜生涼，泣寒螿 98；泣寒螿，緑紗窗；緑紗窗，不思量 ? 呀！不思量除是鐵 心腸，鐵心腸也愁淚滴千行。(馬致遠《漢宫秋》第三折 ) She, she, she sadly parted from the Emperor of Han, and I, I, I bade my farewell too. She went to the place which was poor and desolate, and I sat in my imperial carriage and returned to Xianyang. I returned to Xianyang and passed the palace walls; I passed the palace walls and zigzagged in the winding corridors; I zigzagged in the winding corridors and approached our wedding chamber; I approached our wedding chamber and saw the gloomy moonlight; I saw the gloomy moonlight and felt the evening chill; I felt the evening chill and heard the cricket cry; I heard the cricket cry and sat by the green screen window; would I stop thinking by the green screen window? Alas, even if I had a heart of stone, with a heart of stone I still would have shed tears a thousand times. (From the third zhe of “Sorrow in the Han Palace” , by Ma Zhiyuan) 憑做出百種凄涼，凄涼只在，花冷月閑庭院。紅樓翠幕，可有人聽，聽也可曾腸斷 ? (況周頤《蘇武慢· 寒夜聞角》詞 ) Even though there could be a hundred types of sorrow, sorrow was only found in the courtyard of withered blossoms and faded moonlight. In the red chambers with green curtains, do I have a listener? Or does the listener also have a broken heart? [From a cipoem to the slow tune of “Suwuman” (the tune of Su Wu) by Kuang Zhouyi]

The first example contains abundant pathos, and the second example is full of subtlety. The repetitive and cyclic form of “loops” are especially suitable for the expression of such refrained and implicit emotions rather than the bright and blunt messages.

18.2.3  Irregularity and Inversion Irregularity and inversion are unconventional means to enrich structural variety. Irregularity refers to the effort to transform identical or orderly structures into ragged ones for the sake of structural variedness, while inversion is to change the conventional word order to achieve a peculiar and unique effect. In general, the  purpose of these two techniques is to break away from the rigid convention and seek more spontaneous and flexible flow of expression. Irregularity, however, should not be confused with the lack of order. It is instead a sophisticated technique of variation on the basis of order and convention. Similarly, inversion does not mean willful violation of the logic and fabric of the language. To realize their ideal rhetorical effects, the two techniques must be applied with due respect  to the general principles of the Chinese language. In his work Introduction to Chinese Rhetoric, Chen Wangdao further divided irregularity into four types. The first type is the change of certain characters to avoid repetition, as clearly shown in the following example. 98

螿 , cricket.

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清尊美酒斗十千，玉盤珍羞 99值萬錢。(李白《行路難》) Fine wine in golden goblets costs, ten thousand cash per dou, and the delicacies on jade platters are worth ten thousand cash too. (From the poem “Hard is the Way of the World” by Li Bai)

The second type is the jagged order of words, which involved the asymmetrical arrangement of words in sentences. Apart from the aforementioned “cross matching” in antithesis, the jagged word order can be used in parallel or repeated sentences, as shown in the following examples. 我則 (只 )道拂花箋打稿兒，元來他染霜毫不勾 (構 )思，先寫下幾句寒温序 100，後 題著五言八句詩。(王實甫《西厢記》第三本第一折 ) I would just flatten the paper for the drafting, and he started to write without preparation. He started with a few words of niceties, followed by a poem of eight lines with five characters to each. (From the first zhe of the third act of Romance of the Western Chamber by Wang Shifu) 孟子見梁惠王，王曰 :“叟，不遠千里而來，亦將有以利吾國乎 ?” 孟子對曰 :“王 何必曰利，亦有仁義而已矣。……王亦曰仁義而已矣，何必曰利！”《孟子· ( 梁惠 王上》) Mencius went to see King Hui of Liang. The king said, “Venerable sir, since you have not counted it far to come here, a distance of a thousand lis, may I presume that you are provided with counsels to profit my kingdom?” Mencius replied, “Why must Your  Majesty use that word profit? What I am provided with, are counsels to benevolence and  righteousness…. Let Your Majesty also say, ‘Benevolence and righteousness, and let these be your only themes.’ Why must you use that word of profit!” (From “King Hui of  Liang I” in Mencius)

The first example involves jagged word orders in parallel structures, while the  second example involves jagged word orders in repetitive sentences. The purpose of this technique, of course, is to change the old pattern and create novelty, but in some cases, the jagged word order is an inevitable result of the natural flow of  message. In the above example from Mencius, as King Hui of Liang mentioned the idea of profit, Mencius had to firstly refute this idea, and to propose his own  arguments afterwards. This is why the sentence “何必曰利” (why must you use that word of profit) was placed at the beginning of his argument. Later in the paragraph, when all reasons had been fully explained to justify his own argument, the sentence “仁義而已矣” (what I am provided with are counsels to benevolence and righteousness) was placed in front of “何必曰利” , as the latter in this context contained only the minor information. The third type of irregularity is the varied length of sentences. By making some 99

珍羞 , precious delicacies. 寒温序 , the niceties and greetings exchanged in meeting or correspondence, such as comments on the weather or everyday life.

100

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parallel sentences longer or shorter, the passage seems jagged in length and rich in variety, as shown in the following example. 自諸子而降，其爲文無弗有偏者。其得於陽與剛之美者，則其文如霆，如電， 如長風之出谷，如崇山峻崖，如決大川，如奔騏驥；其光也，如杲日，如火，如金、 鏐 101、鐵；其於人也，如憑高視遠，如君而朝萬衆，如鼓萬勇士而戰之。(姚鼐《復 魯絜非書》) Since the time of the scholars in the P re-Qin P eriod, the writings all had their unique styles. Some are rich in masculinity, and the writings were like thunders, like lightning, like gales in the valley, like the lofty mountains and steep cliffs, like great rivers breaking the banks, and like fine steeds dashing forward; the brightness was like  the bright sun, like fire, like refined gold and iron; such a man is like one with a highup status and a far-away view, like a king receiving the worship of his people, like a war cry for brave warriors in thousands. (From “A Letter in Reply to Lu Xiefei” by Yao Nai)

In this paragraph, the masculine beauty in writing is described with a series of similes, presented in parallel structures with jagged word orders. The parallelism is constructed by means of the character “如” (like). Instead of rigidly presenting these structures in a cookie-cutter framework, the writer arranged three sets of similes, with the first set pivoted on the character “如” , the second set led by “其 光也” (the brightness) and the third group, “其於人也” (such a man). These three sets constitute the first level of the jagged order. What’ s more, the metaphorical  objects in the second set are all static objects, while the ones in the first set are all  about human behaviors or activities, and the ones in the first set include both the  static and dynamic entities, thus constituting the second level of the jagged order. A close reading of the paragraph reveals both single-character words and multiplecharacter words, as well as phrases of different types. Combining these words and phrases, some set starts with shorter components and ends with longer ones, as in the third set; some contains longer components at the beginning and ending part, while shorter ones in the middle, as in the second set; some has a relatively wordy middle part yet short and brief on two ends, as in the first set. All in all, the  paragraph is jaggedly arranged with great sophistication, typically in terms of the various lengths of the sentences102. This paragraph is the textbook example of the use of varied sentence lengths to achieve irregularity in paragraphs and passages. As proses impose no restrictions on sentence structures, the lengths can be flexibly altered. By contrast, the sentences in poems are well ordered and predetermined, while those in the ci-poems and qu-poems are always varied in length with fixed patterns. However, Zhou Bangyan the ci-poet once experimented with a particular method of altering the sentence length. Of the two lines in a couplet, either the first line is lengthened with an additional character at its beginning, or the second  line with an additional character at the end, as in the following examples.

101 102

鏐 (liú), refined gold.  “A Passage About a Painting” by Han Yu is also a classic piece of impressive irregularity.

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彭澤 103歸來，左右琴書自樂，松菊相依。( 《西平樂》) When Tao Qian returned home, he had the Chinese lyre and books for entertainment, and the pine trees and chrysanthemums for company. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Xipingyue” (The Melody from Xiping)] 始信得庾信愁多，江淹恨極須賦。( 《宴清都》) Now I understand the great sorrow of Yu Xin, and I know why Jiang Yan had to write a fu-poem to express his lament. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Yanqingdu” (Banquet in the Heavenly Palace)] 夜闃 104無人到，隔窗寒雨，向壁孤燈弄餘照。(《早梅芳》) In a quiet night of loneliness, the chilly rain was falling outside the window. The solitary lamp, facing the wall, cast its gloomy shadow. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Zaomeifang” (Early Mume Blossoms)]

Such a format seemed to have been exclusively used by Zhou Bangyan, so it could be regarded as the unique style of his own. The fourth type of irregularity is realized through variation in sentence types, for example, by juxtaposing declarative and interrogative or exclamatory sentences, by combining positive and negative statements, or by inserting a different type of sentence in a uniformed string of other sentences. The examples  are given as below. 昔公生不誅孟明 105，豈有死之日而忍用其良 106? (蘇軾《鳳翔八觀·秦穆公墓》詩 ) When the King was still alive, he once pardoned Mengming. How would he, at his death, have the heart to bury the man of virtue alive as his sacrifice? (From the poem  “Eight Scenic Spots in Fengxiang: The Tomb of King Mu of Qin” by Su Shi) 老夫人轉關兒没定奪 107，啞謎兒怎猜破 ? 黑閣落甜話兒將人和 108，請將着人 109不 快活。( 《西厢記》第二本第三折 ) The old lady’ s strategies are quite unpredictable, how can I figure out the riddles?  She is talking in a tough and soft tone to confuse me, which is really annoying. (From the third zhe of the second act in Romance of the Western Chamber) 見安排着車兒馬兒，不由上熬熬煎煎的氣。有甚麽心情花兒靨兒 110，打扮的嬌 嬌滴滴的媚 ? 準備着被兒枕兒，則 (只 )索 111昏昏沈沈的睡。從今後衫兒袖兒，都

103

As Tao Qian used to be the magistrate of Pengze County, he was later referred to as “Pengze”. 闃 (qù), quiet. 105 孟明 , a general in the reign of Duke Mu of Qin. 106 According to the record in Odes of Qin in The Book of Songs, three outstanding ministers were buried alive with the deceased Duke Mu of Qin. 107 轉關兒 , strategies and tricks. 没定奪 , being unfathomable. 108 和 , in the falling tone, to coax. 109 着人 , to ask someone to do something. 110 靨 , the decoration on the face used by women in ancient times. 111 則索 , to have no choice but do. 索 in the following sentence of “索與我” is of the same meaning. 104

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揾做重重叠叠的泪。兀的 112不悶殺人也麽哥 113，兀的不悶殺人也麽哥 ?久已後書兒 信兒，索與我恓恓惶惶的寄。(又第四本第三折 ) I saw the horse and the carriage came as arranged, and couldn’t help feeling annoyed. Who is in the mood for the flowers and rouge, and who is in the mood for the dresses  and decorations? The quilts and pillows are all ready, but I just feel tired and drowsy. From today on, all my dresses and sleeves will be soaked in my tears. Isn’t it depressing, and isn’ t it upsetting? Later in future, I will have to send the letters in great sorrow and anxiety.（From the third zhe of the fourth act in Romance of the Western Chamber)

The first example could be paraphrased into two declarative sentences of “King  Mu of Qin didn’ t kill Mengming when he was alive, so, at his death, he did not have the heart to bury the men of virtue alive as his sacrifice” . Similarly, the second  example could also be paraphrased as “轉關兒没定奪，啞謎兒難猜破” (the old lady’ s strategies are quite unpredictable, and the riddles are difficult to figure out).  However, by using the words of “豈有” (how would) and “怎” (how can), these declarative sentences are transformed into interrogative sentences. In the third example, the interrogative sentence of “有甚麽心情……” (who is in the mood for) is also converted from a declarative one. Besides, the two sentences of “兀的不” (isn’ t it), which do not contain any reduplicative words, are embedded in a series of sentences with reduplicative words, thus adding a unique streak to the pattern. Inversion can be applied at the discourse and the sentence level. The former is related to the overall organization, which does not follow any fixed pattern; the latter is related to the construction of sentences, which, in most cases, can be restored. The following examples demonstrate both cases of discourse inversion. 童稚情親四十年，中間消息兩茫然。更爲後會知何地 ?忽漫相逢是别筵！不 分 114桃花紅勝錦，生憎柳絮白於綿。劍南春色還無賴，觸忤愁人到酒邊。(杜甫《送 路六侍御入朝》詩 ) Forty-year’ s separation from my childhood friend, with little information about each other, and a great sense of loss. Who could have known that we would meet in some other place? An unexpected reunion turned out to be a farewell banquet again! Now I have no mood for appreciating the peach blossoms brighter than brocades; instead, I detest the willow catkin whiter than the cotton. The spring time in Jiannan is so annoying, for it reminds me of the sorrow of departure with a cup of wine. (From a poem “Seeing off My Friend to the Court” by Du Fu) 楚天千里清秋，水隨天去秋無際。遥岑遠目，獻愁供恨，玉簪螺髻 115。落日樓頭， 斷鴻聲裏，江南游子。把吴鈎 116看了，欄杆拍遍，無人會 117，登臨意。(辛棄疾《水 112

兀的 here is the same as 這 (this). 也麽哥 , a remaining sound at the end of a sentence with no particular meaning. 114 不分 is the same as “不忿”, cannot bear something. 115 目 , to look far. The meaning of this line is: Gazing at the mountains so far away, all I can feel is sorrow and regret, and the mountains look like ladies’ hairpins and ringlets. 116 吴鈎 is the name of a treasured sword. 117 會 , to understand. 113

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龍吟· 登建康賞心亭》詞 ) The autumn sky in the south is vast and clear, and the river is flowing towards the far  edge of the sky in the endless season. Gazing at the mountains so far away, all I can feel is sorrow and regret, and the mountains look like ladies’ hairpins and ringlets. At dusk the sun is setting by the tower. The calling sound of the lone goose echoed my lament as a lonely traveler. At the sight of the treasured sword, I angrily slapped the handrails, but no one could understand my feelings at the moment. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Shuilongyin” (A Chant of the Chinese Loong in Water) by Xin Qiji]

The first half of Du Fu’ s poem describes a sequence of events, including, in the  order of occurrence, the friendship of the poet and his friend since early childhood, the long-time separation out of touch, an unexpected yet brief reunion at present, and an impending parting again soon after. In future, there was no telling when they would meet again. The poet, however, violated the order of occurrence, and chose to firstly write about “後會” (later reunions) in future, which shows his deep regrets about the uncertainty of future destinies. The expression of “情親 四十年” (forty-years’ friendship) indicates that the poet was already of a senior age when he wrote this poem. The long-time separation with little information put these two childhood friends out of touch for too long, and the present reunion was again followed by an immediate separation. All these experiences left the poet with the foreboding about their future, justifying his deep concern about “later reunions” and, as a natural result, his violation of the natural sequence and wrote about this idea ahead of the present reunion and the impending separation. Such a leap in narration can also strike a strong resonance in the readers’ mind. The second example is a ci-poem by Xin Qiji on his experience of ascending a tower. A natural sequence of events should include, first of all, the person who ascended  the tower, then the actions of ascending and looking afar, and finally the view as  seen from the tower. This ci-poem, however, starts with the view from the tower, followed by detailed descriptions in three lines of “遠目” (gazing afar). The person who ascended the tower was not mentioned until in the subsequent lines of “落日樓頭” (the sun is setting by the tower). The writing follows a different logic  and commands a broad view, as shown in the imagery of “千里清秋，秋無際” (the autumn sky is vast and clear in the endless season). The conventional order of “person” “gazing” and “view” would not have generated such a great momentum in writing, and the overall structure would have seemed banal and boring. Sentence inversion refers to the change of position of the components in a sentence, not including some special structures, such as proposing the pronoun object in front of the predicate in the negative and interrogative sentences. Though few in number, the cases of sentence inversion are usually conspicuous and controversial. As shown in the following examples, sometimes the verb and its object are inverted, and sometimes the subject and the object are inverted. 樹入牀頭，花來鏡裏，草緑衫同，花紅面似。(庾信《梁东宫行雨山銘》) The tree branch stretches to reach the bedside, and the blossoms are reflected in the mirror. The grass is as green as the dresses, and the flowers are as red as the

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complexions. (From “Inscription of Xingyu Mountain” by Yu Xin)

In this example, the phrases of “衫同” and “面似” are the reversion of “同 衫” and “似面” . Such a reversion of the verb and its object allows the sound coordination between “似” and “裏” , without causing much difficulty in understanding. The inverted structure also adds to the novelty of expression. 久拚野鶴如雙鬢，遮莫 118鄰鷄下五更。(杜甫《月下賦絶句》詩 ) It has been long since my hair by the temples was as gray as the wild cranes; and no more do I care for my neighbor’ s rooster crowing before the daybreak. (From “A Juejupoem Composed in Moonlight” by Du Fu) 監 (爁 )電 119似身呈忿怒，血盆如口震雄威。(敦煌變文《維摩詰經講經文》) Its body is like flashing lightning, full of fury; and its mouth is like a bloody basin,  sounding of power. (From “Scriptures of Vimalakirti Sutra” in Dunhuang Bianwen)

In the above examples, the subjects and objects in both lines of “雙鬢如野 鶴” and “身似爁電，口如血盆” are inverted, obviously out of the consideration for the tonal patterns of level and oblique tones. In particular, Du Fu’ s poem also contains antitheses between “野鶴” (wild cranes) versus “鄰鷄” (my neighbor’ s rooster), and between “雙鬢” (the two temples) and “五更” (the five watches of  the night), which would not have been possible if the conventional word order had been followed. However, such cases of inversion may cover a wide range of movement, which could be a bit strained and unnatural if frequently used. As the above examples of inversion contain “如” (as) and “似” (like) to indicate the use of simile, they are still reasonable and easy for understanding. The following example of inversion from the eighth piece of Du Fu’ s “Poems in the Autumn Days” , however, often becomes the focus of literary criticism. 昆吾御宿自逶迤，紫閣峰陰入渼陂 120。香稻啄餘鸚鵡粒，碧梧棲老鳳凰枝。佳 人拾翠春相問 121，仙侣同舟晚更移 122。彩筆昔曾干氣象 123，白頭吟望若低垂 124。 Kunwu and Yusu were meandering around, and the Summit of Zige Mountain cast its

118

遮莫 , although. 爁 , the spread of fire. 爁電 refers to the sparkling lightning. 120 昆吾 and 御宿 are both names of places in the south of the city of Chang’an. 渼陂 is a big lake to the north of Zige Mountain. 121 佳人 refers to the singsong girls in a trip. 問 , to send a gift, that is, to present her with a kingfisher’ s feather. The word 拾翠 came from a line in “Ode to the Goddess of the Luo River” by Cao Zhi:“或採明珠，或拾翠羽” (to collect a bright pearl, or to pick up a kingfisher’s feather).  122 Du Fu once traveled in Meibei with Cen Shen and his brother, which was recorded in the passage of “A Trip to Meibei”. 移 , to sail a boat. These sentences described their trip in the past. 123 氣象 refers to the magnificent landscape. Du Fu wrote a poem to describe the landscape, and his  literary talent seemed to have threatened the natural scenery. 干 means to offend or to threaten.  124 At the time of his writing “Poems in the Autumn Days”, Du Fu was stranded in the city of Chengdu, Sichuan Province. 119

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shadow on the pond of Meibei. The rice grains on the ground were leftovers of parrots, and the branches of plane trees were the perch for old phoenixes. I used to go out with singsong girls in spring time, picking up kingfisher feathers, and I used to take boat tours at night with my close friends. At that time my literary talents roared up with great momentums, but now as an old man I lower my head down with my bitter reminiscence.

The two lines in the above example have always been regarded as the inversion of “鸚鵡啄餘香稻粒，鳳凰棲老碧梧枝” (the rice grains on the ground were leftovers of parrots, and the branches of plane trees were the perch for old phoenixes). While some critics commended it as original and creative, others bluntly criticized its affectation and ambiguity. Given the fact that the poet must be honest and sincere in his writing, if he changed the word order simply for novelty at the expense of fluency and coherence, such a practice is indeed inappropriate and deserves criticism. However, two aspects of the expression are worthy of noticing. First of all, the two versions have different focuses. While the  conventional line of “鸚鵡啄餘香稻粒，鳳凰棲老碧梧枝” lays its focus on the parrots and phoenixes, the inverted version features rice grains and plane branches. The intended message should be “there are so many rice grains that even the parrots have leftovers; and the plane branches are so strong and elegant that even phoenixes would like to perch on them” . In other words, the first line describes  the rice surplus that is more than enough to feed the parrots, and the second line describes the desirability of plane woods that is good enough to accommodate the legendary bird. As the saying goes, “鳳凰非梧桐不棲，非練實不食” (a phoenix perches nowhere except on the plane branch, and eats nothing but the bamboo fruits), and the character “老” (old) in this line is to modify the phoenix rather than the plane tree. All in all, these two lines are meant to indicate that the environment is affluent and comfortable for birds and for people. The conventional word order  of “鸚鵡啄餘，鳳凰棲老” , in contrast, fell short of presenting the desirability of the environment. What’ s more, these two lines described what the poet personally saw at the time when “my literary talents roared up with great momentum” . Naturally, the sight of the rice grains reminded one of the parrots’ feedings, and the sight of the plane tree was associated with the image of an old phoenix. In contrast, the conventional word order “鳳凰棲老碧梧枝” (the phoenix perches on the branch of an old plane tree) would seem unreasonable, as the poet could not have encountered such a scene during his brief tour. Following this line of argument, the distinction between the conventional structure and Du Fu’ s version is the result of different conceptualization rather than a simple case of inversion. Secondly, if  the two lines had adopted the conventional word order, such as “鸚鵡啄餘” , the following several lines would have followed exactly the same subject-verb-object structure: “parrots – feed – grains” “phoenix – perch – branches” “singsong girls – pick up – kingfisher feathers” and “good friends – take – (boat)” . A frozen  pattern as such would never have made a good piece of lüshi-poem. Therefore, I think these two lines are a deliberate choice of the structure rather than a strained inversion, and the stylistic effect is better than that of the conventional word order.  There is another form of inversion, which switches the two equivalent

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components in an antithetical construction, as shown in the following examples. 或有孤臣危涕，孽子 125墜心，遷客海上，流戍 126隴陰。(江淹《恨賦》) The solitary officials in court shed regretful tears, and the illegitimate sons felt heartbroken. The lonely travelers crossed the vast sea and were sent to the remote frontier in Longyin. (From “A Fu-Poem on Eternal Regrets” by Jiang Yan) 有别必怨，有怨必盈，使人意駭神奪，心折骨驚。(江淹《别賦》) Parting always brings about sorrow, and sorrow always fills up the heart, making one  mindless and soulless, heart-broken and bone-shattered. (From “A Fu-Poem on Parting Sorrow” by Jiang Yan)

In Li Shan’ s annotations of Selections of Refined Literature, he commented on the two lines about “孤臣” (solitary officials in court) as follows. “然心當云‘危’， 涕當云‘墜’，江氏愛奇，故互文以見義” [Generally, the character of “危” (danger) is used to modify the heart, and “墜” (drop) to modify “涕” (tears). However, Jiang was so keen on creativity that he switched the two words without changing the meaning of the sentences]. Besides, his comments on the two lines about “心折” were “亦互文也” (also a case of word switching). In other words, the conventional expressions should be “孤臣墜涕，孽子危心” and “心驚骨折” , and the equivalent of words was deliberately interchanged simply for the sake of novelty in expression. However, there seemed to be other motives for word switching in these contexts. In particular, “墜心” means the heart is about to drop or fall apart, indicating the misery and sorrow of the abandoned illegitimate sons. Besides, “危” can be used to describe a hanging object that is about to fall, so the phrase “危涕” aptly describes the welling-up tears that are endlessly overflowing, whereas the use of “墜” would indicate a gap or end of the tears. Likewise, “心折骨驚” in the second example is an exaggerated expression rather than an inversion. The misery that broke (折 ) a heart must be far more than the misery that frightened (驚 ) a heart. On the other hand, “骨” (the bones) are without consciousness. Instead of using “心驚” (to frighten the heart) or “神驚” (to frighten the nerves), the poet wrote about “frightening the bones” to emphasize the great sensation of excessive grief and horror. In light of such a unique effect, these examples are not to be regarded as cases of inversion. The examples of inversion discussed above are often the inevitable results due to certain constraints in writing. In some cases, the apparently inverted structures are due to a different consideration, and therefore cannot be regarded as examples  of inversion. If there is no necessity to change the word order, it is not right to violate the grammatical or logical rules. In this sense we advocate the use of inversion with more caution than passion. The organization of phrases and sentences is a formal issue. All the cases of antitheses, loops, irregularity and inversion are concerned with the formal features. It should be noted that the formal features only afford the possibilities  125 126

孽子 , a son not born of the legal wife. 流戍 (shù), to be dispatched to guard the frontiers.

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of expression. Without content, the formal features can never constitute a work of excellence. Our present discussion covers only the forms that can be used to convey the good content, while the latter is a different subject that lies beyond the  scope of this book. The same is true of the following discussion of the rhetorical devices related to phonological features.

18.3 The Rhetorical Devices Related to Phonological Features The previous chapter on Chinese phonology mainly discussed the issues of the sound coordination and choice of tones in poems, ci-poems and qu-poems, and the purpose was to explain the proper use of rhymes and tones, as well as the fundamental phonological requirements in classic literature. The achievement of phonological beauty is yet another subtle issue to be explored. Hopefully, the following sections may be conducive to literary understanding and appreciation. Profound and meticulous analysis, however, is neither possible nor necessary in the present discussion.

18.3.1  Use of Rhymes The important issues related to the use of rhymes include those of single rhymes, rhymes within a sentence, and the tones of rhymed words. The concept of “single rhyme” has two different meanings. For one, the term  “single rhyme” refers to the use of rhymed words in the odd-numbered sentences, or in the even-numbered sentences. For another, “single rhyme” can also mean the repetition or variation of the rhyme words. In most cases, sound coordination occurs in the even-numbered lines of a poem. It is the case for lüshi-poems and jueju-poems, as well as most of the older type of poems. In some older type of poems, however, there exists a variety which allows sound coordination in the even-numbered sentences. For example, the aforementioned poem “A Ballad of the Zuomo River” by Cen Shen used one rhyme for every three lines. A similar format was also adopted by Du Fu in some of his works as follows. 自斷此生休問天 127，杜曲 128幸有桑麻田。故將移住南山邊，短衣匹馬隨李廣，看 射猛虎終殘年 129。(杜甫《曲江三章章五句》)

127

This sentence means “I’ve known my destiny, so I stopped asking the Heaven about it”. The phrase “問天” was adapted from Qu Yuan’s “Inquiry to the Heaven”. 128 杜曲 , the name of a place to the south of Chang’an County in Shaanxi. 129 After Li Guang retired and stayed at home, he often hunted tigers in Mount Zhongnan as a pastime. Once he returned home after drinking and walked past Baling, and was stopped by the

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I think I’ve known my destiny, so I stopped asking the Heaven about it. It is fortunate that there are a few mulberry and jute fields in Duqu. I would move to the side of the  southern hill, dressed in a short tunic and riding a horse. I would follow the example of Li Guang, who spent his remaining years hunting tigers in the mountains. (From the poem “The Meandering River” by Du Fu) 荆南芮公得將軍，亦如角鷹下翔雲。惡鳥飛飛啄金屋，安得爾輩開 130其群 ? 驅 出六合梟鸞分 131！ (杜甫《王兵馬使二角鷹》) When the general came into service for Ruigong, it was like the eagles descending from the clouds. The wicked birds were hovering around and pecking on the golden mansion, how could you dispel them away? Dispel them in all directions and distinguish the good birds from the evil ones! (From the poem “General Wang Handling Two Eagles” by Du Fu)

The quoted section in the first example contains five lines. If following the routine of jueju-poems or lüshi-poems, there would not have been the third line, and every two lines would have followed one rhyme. In the second example, every two lines use one rhyme, while the last line “驅出六合梟鸞分” (dispel them in all directions and distinguish the good birds from the evil ones) uses a different  rhyme of its own. Taken together, both poems contain a stand-alone line with a different rhyme, either in the middle or at the end of the piece, thus violating  the conventional format of rhyming in the even-numbered lines. This is the first  sense of the “single rhyme” strategy. Generally speaking, rhyming in the evennumbered lines seems stable and appealing. By contrast, “single rhyme” is full cadence and power. In particular, the mood in the poem “The Meandering River” is mixed and fluctuating. On the one hand, the poet had little confidence about his own prospect, and wished to retire in the place of Duqu; on the other hand, he was in fact reluctant to resign and expressed his subdued ambition by alluding to General Li Guang’ s tiger-hunting. Right in the middle of these two conflicting messages appears the stand-alone line “故將移住南山邊” (I would move to the side of the southern hill) with a different rhyme, rendering an unexpected twist of  the phonological pattern with a powerful cadence in the line. In the poem “General Wang Handling Two Eagles” , Du Fu expressed his disgust of those “evil birds” which were hovering in flocks and doing evil deeds, and his hope for good birds  of power to dispel them far and wide. The final stand-alone line with a separate  rhyme here conveys a decisive tone. As the previous line is ended with three characters of the level tone in a row, the stand-alone line sounds more intense and emotional. In summary, “single rhyme” is a technique of sound coordination to guarding official. His servant introduced him as “the ex-general Li”, and the official replied, “Even  a present general is not allowed to pass at night, let alone an ex then?” So the phrase “故將” (the ex-general) is the convey a sense of loss and frustration. 殘年 refers to the rest of Du Fu’s life. 130 開 , to scatter or to dispel. 131 六合 , refers to the universe, encompassing the six directions of up, down, front, back, left and right. 梟 is the evil bird, 鸞 is the good bird. To distinguish the evil and the good means to defeat the evil and to pacify the good people.

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convey unusual emotions. With occasional exceptions in The old poetry, classic poems usually do not allow the repeated use of the same character for rhyming. However, ci-poems and qu-poems are different in this regard. In many tunes, the same rhyme can be used  twice in a row, or a rhymed line can be repeated, both for the purpose of conveying subtle, implicit or profound feelings, as shown in the following examples. 花自飄零水自流，一種 132相思，兩處閑愁。此情無計可消除，才下眉頭，却上心頭。 (李清照《一剪梅》詞 ) Let the flowers wither and water by itself drift. For love, there is only one sort; but  sorrow has made two places its resort. It’ s all in vain trying to dispel this sentiment: No sooner was it loosened from the brows, than up to my heart a new one grows. (From a ci-poem to the tune of “Yijianmei” (A Twig of Mume Blossoms) by Li Qingzhao) 自約賞花人，别後總風流雲散。水遠，怎知流水外，却是亂山尤遠 ? (王沂孫《長 亭怨· 重過中庵故園》詞 ) Those friends who used to appreciate the flowers with me, when parted, always scattered and got lost like the wind and the cloud. So far away was the river, but how would you know that, far beyond the flowing river, the mountains were even farther away?  [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Changtingyuan” (Lament in the Pavilion) by Wang Yisun] 少年不識愁滋味，愛上層樓，愛上層樓，爲賦新詞强説愁。而今識得愁滋味， 欲説還休，欲説還休，却道天涼好個秋。(辛棄疾《醜奴兒》詞 ) In my younger days, I only tasted gladness. But I loved to mount the top floor, but I  loved to mount the top floor, to write a song pretending sadness. And now I’ ve tasted  sorrow’ s flavors, bitter and sour, and can’ t find a word, and can’ t find a word, but “what a golden autumn hour！” [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Chounu’er” merely say， (Song of an Ugly Slave) by Xin Qiji]

The tune of “Chounu’er” (Song of an Ugly Slave) is also known as “Caisangzi” (Collecting the Mulberry Fruits). In Xin Qiji’ s ci-poem to this tune, the first and  the second half of the piece formed a contrast between the past and the present, each containing the repetition of a rhymed sentence, rendering the intonational contour full of emotional ups and downs. In the routine format of the tune of “Chounu’ er” (Song of an Ugly Slave), the two lines in the middle of the first and  second half piece do not necessarily contain repeated sentences. However, some tunes require the use of repeated sentences as their conventions. For example, in another ci-poem by Xin Qiji to the tune of “Dongpoyin” (Melody of Dongpo), the final line in the first piece is “雁行吹字斷，雁行吹字斷” (The colony of flying wild geese was disrupted, the colony of flying wild geese was disrupted),  and the final line in the second piece is “羅衣寬一半，羅衣寬一半” (The clothes became looser by half, the clothes became looser by half). Such a repetition often contributes to the expression of profound and restrained feelings. As for the rhyme within a sentence, it refers to the case in which the characters in the middle as well as the end of a line are all rhymed. Such a rhyming pattern 132

一種，the same.

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was first seen in The Book of Songs, as shown in the following examples. 日之夕矣，羊牛下來。( 《王風· 君子于役》) The sun is setting, and the sheep and cows are going down the hill. (From “My Man is Away” from Odes of Wang in The Book of Songs) 日居月諸，胡迭而微。( 《邶風· 柏舟》) The sun and moon turn dim so soon. (From “The Cypress Boat” in Odes of Bei in The Book of Songs)

The rhyme within a sentence is more often used in ci-poems and qu-poems. As shown in the following examples from ci-poems, the rhymes within a sentence are not accidental co-occurrence, but stylistic patterns are deliberately created by the poets. 傍池闌 (欄 )倚遍，問山影，是誰偷 ? 但鷺斂瓊絲，鴛藏綉羽，礙浴妨浮 133。寒流 暗衝片響，似犀椎 134帶月静敲秋。因念荷涼院宇，粉丸曾泛金甌 135。妝樓曉澀翠罌 油 136，倦鬢理還休。更有何意緒，憐他半夜，瓶破梅愁 ? 紅稠淚乾萬點，待穿來寄 與薄情收 137。只恐東風未轉，誤人 138日望歸舟。(蔣捷《木蘭花慢· 冰》詞 ) As I was leaning over the handrails by the pond, asking “who stole the shadow of the mountains?” But the herons had closed their silky wings, and the mandarin ducks had hidden their colorful features, as it was inconvenient for them to bath or to float. The  cold current was stealthily moving, making slight noises, like the sound of striking a metal instrument at a quiet autumn night. It reminded me of the courtyard with lotuses in full bloom, and the reflection of the moon in my wine cup was like a pink pellet. In the  morning, in the chamber upstairs, the hair oil was frozen. Though the hair was messy, I could not comb it. What worried me more was the broken vase and the withered mume blossoms. The ten thousand tears were stained in blood; I would string them up and sent to my beloved. Yet I was afraid the eastern wind would fail me, leaving me in earnest watch for the returning boat every day, but in vain. [From a ci-poem to a slower tune of “Mulanhua” (Magnolia Flowers) by Jiang Jie] 琅然清圜 (圓 )誰彈 ? 響空山無言 139。(蘇軾《醉翁操》詞 ) The sound of jade, so clear and mellow. Who is playing the instruments? It is resonating in the serene mountains, no one is speaking. [From a ci-poem to the tune of “Zuiwengcao” (A Drunkard’ s Chanting) by Su Shi]

133

The meaning of this line is, the ice interrupted the shadow of the mountain, and hindered the activities of the birds. 134 An ancient percussion instrument made of jade or metal, which is named 方響 , and played with a stick made by the rhinoceros horn. 135 This line describes the reflection of the pavilion in the wine cup.  136 This line means, the hair oil was frozen in the morning. 137 This line means, the ten thousand tears were stained in blood, I would string them up and sent to my beloved. 稠 , great in number. 138 誤人 , to entice or to cheat someone. 139 This line describes the pleasant sounds of the instrument to mimic the clear and melodious sound of streams in the peaceful mountains.

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The boldfaced characters in the above examples are all rhymed ones within a sentence. The proper use of such technique can add vigor to the phonological patterns and enhance the aesthetic feeling of the rhythm. In the ci-poem to the tune of “Zuiwengcao” (A Drunkard’ s Chanting) by Su Shi, the rhyme appeared in almost every two characters, rendering the compact and forceful effect in reading.  Such a format gradually evolved into the “short-pillar” rhymes in qu-poems in the Yuan Dynasty, which has been discussed in the previous chapter on rhymes. An additional example is given below. 鸞輿三顧茅廬，漢祚難扶，日暮桑榆 140。深渡南瀘，長驅西蜀，力拒東吴，美 乎周瑜妙術，悲夫關羽雲殂 141。天數盈虚，造物乘除 142，問汝何如 ? 笑賦歸歟。(虞 集《折桂令》曲 ) Thrice did the royal cart visit the humble cottage, when the Han Dynasty was in crisis, and the sun was setting over the mulberry and elm trees. Then they went to the South and crossed the Lu River, went to the West in the territory of Shu, went to the East to counter Wu. How brilliant was the scheme of Zhou Yu, and how tragic was the death of Guan Yu. Man’ s destiny follows the heavenly calculations, and the counterbalancing and trade-offs are all made by the Creator, what do you think of it? I would rather retire early and return home. [From a qu-poem to the tune of “Zheguiling” (Picking the Fragrans) by Yu Ji]

As the above qu-poem followed the Northern pronunciation, the characters of the entering tone are pronounced in either the level, the falling-rising or the falling tone, and the level tones and the oblique tones can rhyme with each other. For example, “輿” and “廬” are of the level tone, while “顧” has the falling tone, yet these characters were used for sound coordination. As a result, the same rhyme appears in every two characters, constituting a textbook example of the “shortpillar” rhyme. What is also noteworthy is the tones of the rhymed characters, especially those of the entering tones. Generally speaking, the level tone sounds stable and relaxed, while the entering tone sounds pressed and forceful. So the entering tone is suitable for expressing such emotions as indignation, sorrow and depression, which cannot be properly rendered in flat and elegant tones. The well-known cipoem to the tune of “Manjianghong” (The River All Red) by Yue Fei was said to have adopted the entering tone for rhyming. If it had used the level tone as that in the poems by Jiang Kui or Wu Wenying, the intended emotions of rage and sorrow would not have been fully expressed. What’ s more, the ci-poem to the tune of “Shengshengman” (A Slow, Slow Song) by Li Qingzhao also used the entering tone for rhyming to better articulate the profound feelings of misery and depression. Two more examples are given as follows. 140

It refers to the time when the sun was setting over the mulberry and elm trees. 殂 , to die. 142 乘除 , to increase or decrease in the trade-off. 141

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凄惻，恨堆積。漸别浦縈回，津堠 143岑寂，斜陽冉冉春無極。念月榭携手，露 橋聞笛；沉思前事，似夢裏，淚暗滴。(周邦彦《蘭陵王》詞 ) With great grief, the sorrow is mounting high. As I bid farewell, the fort by the river is standing silently in the slanting sunrays in the spring time. I miss the time when we were holding hands in the moonlit pavilion, or listening to the flute songs on the dewy  bridge. Reminiscence feels like a dream, and my tears are falling, soundless. [From a cipoem to the tune of “Lanlingwang” (Duke Lanling) by Zhou Bangyan] 羅帶光消紋衾叠 144，連環解 145、舊香頓歇，怨歌永，瓊壺敲盡缺 146。恨春去不與人 期，弄夜色、空餘滿地梨花雪。(周邦彦《浪淘沙慢》詞 ) The silk belt is fading, and the embroidered quit is folded up. When the beloved ones are parted, the sweet scent is gone, and the bitter songs last long, until the jade instrument is worn. It is annoying that the spring ends without a designated time, now at night, what is left on the ground are the snow-white pear blossoms. [From a ci-poem to the slow tune of “Langtaosha” (The Waves are Washing the Sand) by Zhou Bangyan]

Both describing the bitter feeling of separation, the first ci-poem is relatively implicit and restrained, and the second one relatively outspoken 147. Though different in styles and techniques, the two poems both adopted the entering tone  for emotional expression.

18.3.2  Alliterative Compounds, Rhyming Compounds, and Reduplicative Words Reduplicative words consist of repeated characters. Like alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds, they either contain the repeated consonants or vowels, or both consonants and vowels. When properly used, they could enhance the acoustic beauty in poetic lines. As a matter of fact, The Book of Songs abounds with the skillful use of such a technique, as shown in the following examples. 角枕粲兮，錦衾爛兮。( 《唐風· 葛生》) How beautiful is the pillow of horn! How splendid is the embroidered bedding. (From 143

津堠 , a guarding fort at a ferry. 紋衾叠 , the embroidered quit is folded up because the lover has left and there was no use of it. 145 連環解 refers to the departure of a lover. 146 永 , long. The line means “the bitter songs last long, until the jade instrument, which is used to keep the beat, is worn”. 147 As commented by Chen Tingzhuo, this line “蓄勢在後，驟雨飄風，不可遏抑。歌至曲終， 覺 萬 匯 哀 鳴， 天 地 變 色” (The impetus is conserved in the latter half, like a strong wind and a heavy rain being unstoppable. By the end of the poem the entire world seems to have gone dark and gloomy). Though a little bit exaggerated, Ting’s comment rightly captures the atmosphere delivered in these lines. 144

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“Growing Vines” in Odes of Tang in The Book of Songs) 不敢暴虎 148，不敢馮河 149。( 《小雅· 小旻》) No one dares to fight a tiger barehanded, and no one dares to cross the Yellow River  on foot. (From “The Sky” in Minor Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs) 《大雅· 卷阿》) 顒顒卬卬 150，如圭如璋。( So dignified and respectable, they are like the ritual vessels of precious jade. (From  “Quan E” in Greater Odes of the Kingdom in The Book of Songs)

In the first example, “錦衾” (embroidered bedding) is a rhyming compound, and the characters of “粲” and “爛” are rhymed with each other. What is more ingenious is the use of the alliterative characters of “角” and “錦” , and the rhyming characters of “枕” and “衾” . In the second example, “暴” and “馮” are alliterative, so are “虎” and “河” . In the third example, with all the characters having the /yi/sound as initials, the phrase “顒顒卬卬” (so dignified and respectable) contains duplicative words and alliteration at the same time. While these examples from The Book of Songs are probably spontaneous occurrences, the use of alliterative and rhyming compounds since the Six Dynasties was largely the result of the deliberate effort of the literary figures, typically found as equivalent  counterparts in antitheses, as shown in the following examples. 倉皇已就長途往，邂逅 151無端出餞遲。(杜甫《送鄭十八虔貶台州司户》詩 ) So hasty he was leaving for the far-away destination, so mindlessly I was late for the farewell dinner. (From a poem “Seeing off Zheng Qian to Taizhou” by Du Fu) 料峭春寒中酒，交加曉夢啼鶯。(吴文英《風入松》詞 ) The wine in the chilly early spring time, with bird songs in my dreams in the morning. (From a ci-poem to the tune of “Fengrusong” (Pine Woods in Wind) by Wu Wenying)

In the above examples, “倉皇” and “料峭” are rhyming compounds, and “邂 逅” and “交加” are alliterative compounds. As these cases are all polysyllabic words, they are relatively easier to recognize. Careful attention should be paid to the alliterative or rhyming words that do not constitute polysyllabic words so as to appreciate the poets’ ingenuity and the phonological beauty in works, such as the following examples. 卑枝低結子，接葉暗巢鶯。(杜甫《陪鄭廣文游何將軍山林》詩 ) The low-hanging branches are bearing fruits, the orioles are hiding their nests under the layered leaves. (From the poem “A Visit to General He’ s Garden with Zheng Qian” by Du Fu) 雲移雉尾開宫扇，日繞龍鱗識聖顔。(杜甫《秋興》詩 ) 148

暴虎 , to fight a tiger barehanded.  馮 (píng) 河 , to cross the Yellow River on foot. 150 顒顒卬卬 , the look of dignity. 151 邂逅 , in this context it means something happens by coincidence. 149

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The court fans parted like moving clouds. The Chinese loong patterns are sparkling in the sun, revealing the look of His Majesty. (From “Poems in the Autumn Days” by Du Fu)

In the first example, “卑枝” and “接葉” are rhyming words used as antithetical equivalents. The second example contains more cases of alliteration and rhyming words. In particular, “雲移” is a case of alliteration with the initial of /yu/, “開 宫” is a case of alliteration of palatals with the initials of /xi/ and /jian/, “日繞” is a case of alliteration with the initial of /ri/, and “識聖” is a case of alliteration with the initial of /shen/. What’ s more, “雉尾” is two rhymed characters, and “扇” rhymes with “顔” in a separate line. All these fourteen characters were neatly arranged in different alliterative or rhyming pairs, which could hardly be the result  of spontaneity. A similar example is a line from a ci-poem “Xiangyue” (The Moon in the Land of Xiang) by Jiang Kui, “暝入西山，漸唤我一葉夷猶乘興” (As the sun is setting over the Western Hill, someone is calling for me, traveling in a boat in great leisure). In this line, “一葉夷猶” contains alliterative characters with the initials of /ying/ and /yu/, while “乘興” are rhymed characters, both of which reflect the flexible use of alliterative and rhyming words in poems.  Apart from acoustic beauty in syllables, the use of alliterative, rhyming and duplicative words is also conducive to vivid depiction. In works of qu in the Yuan Dynasty, a string of alliterative, rhyming or duplicative words are often used, mostly in combination, to describe an atmosphere or a sound. The echoing and resonating effect of these words enhances the expressiveness of the lyrics by  exposing readers to the peculiar atmosphere or the particular sound. Please see the following examples. 我只見黑黯黯天涯雲布，更那堪濕淋淋傾盆驟雨。早是那窄窄狹狹溝溝塹塹路 崎嶇，知奔向何方所 ? 猶喜的消消灑灑斷斷續續出出律律忽忽嚕嚕陰雲開處，我 只見霍霍閃閃電光星炷。怎禁那蕭蕭瑟瑟風，點點滴滴雨，送來的高高下下凹凹 凸凸一搭模糊，早做了撲撲簌簌濕濕渌渌疏林人物，倒與他妝就了一幅昏昏慘慘 瀟湘水墨圖。(《貨郎旦》第四折 ) All I can see is the sky covered by dark clouds, and the sudden storm is pouring down. The narrow, bumpy and winding path, where is it leading to? To my joy, on and off, quick and fast, more or less, the clouds scatter a little, so I can see the flashes of  lightning and twinkling starlight. Whistling and rustling, the wind is blowing. Dripping and dropping is the rain. Everything everywhere is a total mess, and I am totally soaked through and through, and the makeup becomes a blurry landscape of ink painting. (From the fourth zhe of “Story of the Peddler’ s Song” ) 則 (只 )被這吸裏忽剌的朔風兒那裏好篤簌簌避，又被這失留屑歷的雪片兒偏向 我密蒙蒙墜，將這領希留合剌的布衫兒扯得來亂紛紛碎，將這雙乞量曲律的肐膝 兒罰他去直僵僵跪，兀的不凍殺人也麽哥！兀的不凍殺人也麽哥！越惹他必丢匹 搭的響駡兒這一場撲騰騰氣。(無名氏《殺狗勸夫》第二折 ) In the chilly north wind I have to find a shelter, but upon me the fluffy snowflakes are  still falling. My clothes were torn apart in rags, and I bent my frozen knees and rigidly knelt on the ground. It is so freezing cold! It is so very freezing cold! And he would

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scold me loudly in great anger. (From the second zhe of “Reasoning with Husband by Killing a Dog” )

As the above examples contain quite a few combinations of alliterative, rhyming and duplicative words, detailed explanations are spared due to the limit of space. What is noteworthy, however, is the phrases such as “失留屑歷” , in which the alternate characters form alliterative pairs. In other words, the characters of “失” and “屑” are alliterative, so are “留” and “歷” , with each alliterative pair marked differently in the above examples. The deliberate use of alliterative, rhyming and  duplicative words for describing atmosphere or sound could be traced back to the ci-poem to the tune of “Shengshengman” (A Slow, Slow Song) by Li Qingzhao in the Song Dynasty, and reached its prime time in qu in the Yuan Dynasty.

18.3.3 Rhythms Rhythm, the regular pauses and connections in sounds, is an indispensable component in literary works. Chinese poems, ci-poems and qu are all literary forms with significant rhythmic features.  All languages are of natural rhythms. In classic Chinese, the prose often follows the natural rhythm, as shown in the following examples. 志士 /不忘 /在溝壑，勇士 /不忘 /喪其元 152。 The determined officer never forgets that his end may be in a ditch or a stream; the brave officer never forgets that he may lose his head. (From Teng Wen Gong II in  Mencius) 于越夷貉 153/之子，生而 /同聲 154，長而 /異俗者，教 /使然也。 The sons of the ethnic minorities in the south and in the north are born with the same crying sound. That they grow up and follow different traditions is the result of education.  (From “On Learning” in Xunzi)

Adjustments of such natural rhythms became the rhythmic patterns in verse. That is to say, the rhythmic patterns in poems, ci-poems, qu, and the classic genres of epigraph and eulogy are all based on modifications and adjustments. As for the differences between the natural and adjusted rhythms, the former is suitable  for chanting, and the latter, for singing. For verse in particular, the lines of poems are neat and orderly, with a uniformed rhythm; the varied length of the lines of ci-poems and qu, however, adds to the irregularity of the rhythmic patterns and 152

元 , the head. The two lines mean, “The determined officer never forgets that his end may be in a  ditch or a stream; the brave officer never forgets that he is ready to lose his head.”  153 于越夷貉 refers to the ethnic minorities in the south and northeast of ancient China. 154 生而同聲 , to be born with the same crying sound, indicating that men are born without much difference in nature. 

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allows more flexibility in expression. In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest pattern of uniform and orderly rhythms was the four-character-in-one-line format in The Book of Songs. With the help of sound coordination, the format allows easy chanting and singing of at least three hundred poems. However, as such a format contains an almost compulsory pause in the middle of the four characters, its rhythm can be relatively dull. After the appearance of five-character-in-one-line or seven-character-in-one-line  poems, the four-character-in-one-line format was exclusively used for the study of classics, rather than for singing and chanting. The five-character-in-one-line format  allows more rhythmic variation, while the seven-character-in-one-line format is not only free in rhythm but also rich in meanings. As a line containing more than seven characters is not suitable for singing, the five- and seven-character-in-oneline formats have become the formula for the modern style poetry since the Han and Wei Dynasties. With these formats set as the routine, other “varied numbered” lines, such as those with three, four or five characters, are usually regarded as a minor component in a seven-character-in-one-line poem, hence deserving no further discussion. A short sentence often has a rapid beat, a long one has a soothing and easy beat, and an excessively long sentence tends to be sloppy and laggard in rhythm. A skillful writer has to make proper choices among the forms. Some even chose to use three-character lines in verse or prose, and such a rapid rhythm is usually suitable for conveying the feelings of depression or restraint rather than joy and relief, as shown in the following example. 女阿細，黔潘氏，嫁琅琊，夫甚貴，事夫良，頗識字。夫遠戍 155，出居庸，居庸關， 莽萬重，行倉皇，不可挈。托弱小，友朋職，我婦何，割屋宅 156。細有釵，直 (值 )十金， 何貸之，糴米鹽，久不償，慚以怵，細甚俠，無德色。望夫臺，細徘徊，涼風厲， 夫不來，細悲吟，泪霪霪。子先肂 157，辰以奄 158，莫 之，莫襚之 159，報釵德，銘瘞 之。居庸關，天之西，夫不歸，冢萋萋 160。槥 161無漆，愧釵德，樹之棗 162，心甚赤。(龔 自珍《潘阿細碣》) Lady Xi is from the household of Pan in the place of Qian. As a literate lady, she married to a well-off man in Langya, and served him well. Her husband was sent to a  garrison outside the Juyong Pass of the Great Wall. He left in a hurry, and ten thousand mountains kept them separated. When her friends asked for help and entrusted her with their young children, she divided her house for their accommodations. Xi had a precious hairpin that was worth ten ingots of gold. She sold it for rice and salt instead. After a 155

戍 (shù), to serve in the army and be stationed in a different place.  割屋宅 , to divide the house to accommodate them. 157 肂 (sì), to bury the coffin underground.  158 辰以奄 , after a long time. 159 , to put jade and rice in the mouth of the deceased. 襚 , the clothes of the deceased. 160 冢萋萋 , the grave was full of grass. 161 槥 (huì), a small coffin.  162 樹之棗 , to plant a jujube tree on the grave. 之 refers to the grave. 156

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long time, her friends still couldn’ t pay it back and felt guilty, but with a warm heart Xi never showed a condescending look. She missed her husband and yearned for his return. In chilly wind she waited and waited in vain, with sorrow mingled with bitter tears. She was buried in a coffin for a long time, with no proper funeral rituals. In honor  of her virtue, an epigraph was made on her grave. Juyong Pass is far away to the west. Her husband never returned, and her grave was full of grass. Her small coffin was not  painted, and her great virtue was not honored. A little jujube tree was planted there, and the fruits are as red as her heart. (From “Epigraph for Pan Xi” by Gong Zizhen)

Five-character-in-one-line poems always have a pause between the second and the third character, and seven-character-in-one-line poems usually contain a pause between the fourth and the fifth character. Unlike these two types of poems, the  lines in ci-poems and qu can vary in length and rhythm, so there may exist quite long sentences, such as the one the previous example from “Story of the Peddler’ s Song”. Further explanation is needed with regard to the following two points. First of all, these long sentences still consist of meaning components of three or four characters, as indicated in the following example: 我只見／黑黯黯／天涯雲布，更那堪／濕淋淋／傾盆驟雨。早是那／窄窄狹狹 ／溝溝塹塹／路崎嶇，知奔向／何方所 ? All I can see is the sky covered by dark clouds, and the sudden storm is pouring down. The narrow, bumpy and winding path, where is it leading to?

Second, the beauty in rhythmic variations will be lost if sentences are used out of the proper context. Only when they are used in combination to achieve the balance between uniformity and variety could the unique rhythmic patterns be revealed. In the above example, the first and second sentences are of the same  structure, consisting of three meaning components of, respectively, three, three and four characters. The meaning components in the third and the fourth sentences are all of three characters, with an additional four-character component inserted in the third sentence. The long sentences in ci-poems may contain as many as eight, nine or even ten characters. Examples of an eight-character line include “鄉心日行萬 里，幸此身生入玉門關” (In homesickness my heart traveled ten thousand miles in a day, hoping to bring my body back inside the Jade Gate Pass in my life time), and “鈞天紫城何處 ?問瑶池八駿幾時還 ?” (Where is the heavenly palace and purple city? Where will the eight steeds from the heavenly residence return home?) from a ci-poem to a slower tune of “Mulanhua” (Magnolia Flowers) titled “Sending off Chen Shiquan Returning to the South” composed in the Song Dynasty. Ninecharacter lines are seen in the examples of “小樓昨夜又東風，故國不堪回首月 明中” (Last night, in the attic revisited by the eastern wind, it was unbearable to look toward home in the fair moonlight) and “問君能有幾多愁，恰似一江春水 向東流” (How much sorrow do I have? It is like the spring flood of a long river  flowing east) from a ci-poem to the tune of “Langtaosha” (The Waves are Washing

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the Sand)163 by Li Yu. Ten-character lines can be found in “春且住，見説道天涯 芳草無歸路” (I hope the spring season can hold its steps, lest the vast grassland block my way home) and “君莫舞，君不見玉環飛燕皆塵土” (Please stop jumping around in joy, can’ t you see the beauties of Yuhuan and Feiyan now are both dust and ash?) from a ci-poem to the tune of “Moyu’ er” (Groping for Fish) by Xin Qiji. Generally speaking, these long sentences contain natural pauses after the second or the third character in a line, and the rhythmic patterns are repeated in the first and second half of a ci-poem, creating a jagged yet orderly sequence of syllables throughout the entire piece of work. Largely similar to the long sentences in ci-poems, those in qu sometimes are even longer and freer in style. Classic literati sometimes took care to use function words to highlight the rhythmic effects. When Ouyang Xiu wrote “A Passage on the Hall of Zhoujin” for  Han Qi, his first draft started with the line of “仕宦至將相，富貴歸故鄉，此 人情之所榮，而今昔之所同也” (Becoming a general or a minister, or returning the hometown with fortune and fame, this is generally deemed as an honor, much alike in the past and the present). In the final draft, however, he added a character  “而” in front of “至將相” and “歸故鄉” . With this function word of “而” , the two phrases of “至將相” (becoming a general or a minister) and “歸故鄉” (returning the hometown) are highlighted, since the two verbs of “至” (to reach) and “歸” (to return) have to be stressed, adding the force of the syllables. Likewise, when Su Shi, who was the student of Ouyang Xiu, wrote “Epigraph for Han Yu in Chaozhou” , he also used two characters of “而” in the opening line “匹夫而爲 百世師，一言而爲天下法……” (An ordinary man was the master for a hundred years, and a remark became the law for the whole country), which highlighted the rhythmic pattern by stressing the two phrases of “匹夫” (an ordinary man) and “一 言” (a remark). In addition, a line in Chen Hong’ s “The Legend of Everlasting Remorse” is “每至春之日，冬之夜，池蓮夏開，宫槐秋落，梨園子弟，玉琯 發音，聞枟霓裳羽衣枠一聲，則天顔不怡，左右逴欷” [In the days of spring or nights of winter, or the summer time when lotus flowers are in full bloom, or  the autumn season when the leaves of pagoda trees fall, the court musicians use the jade instrument to play the tune of “Nichang Yuyi” (Rainbow Skirt Feathered Dress). Upon hearing it the Emperor became sad, and the attendants started to sigh in tears]. The four lines about the spring, winter, summer and autumn seasons are of jagged structures, with the shorter lines naturally followed by the longer ones. If without the two characters of “之” , the rhythm of the first two lines would have  been too hasty and pressed. All these examples illustrate the close relationship between the use of functional words and the rhythmic patterns of syllables. The last point of discussion is the relationship between rhythm and meaning. Rhythm is the regular pauses and connections in pronunciation. A discourse contains both short and long pauses, and the biggest pause occurs at the end of a complete sentence. In most cases, rhythm and meaning are always consistent, as indicated in the following example. 163

There is a fault in the Chinese version. The two lines belong to “Yumeiren” (Fair Lady Yu).—— Translator’s Note

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穿花／蛺蝶 //深深見，點水／蜻蜓 //款款飛。(杜甫《曲江》詩 ) The butterflies are seen playing among the blossoms, and the dragonflies are skimming lightly above the water. (From the poem “The Meandering River” by Du Fu)

In the above example, every pause indicates a meaningful unit, which makes it easy for understanding. In the verse, however, the rhythmic patterns are almost fixed, and hence are difficult to fully accommodate the meaning. Some poets even  deliberately created conflicts between meaning and rhythm, rendering a very unique style, as indicated in the following examples. 永夜角聲悲自語，中天月色好誰看 ? (杜甫《宿府》詩 ) In the long night the miserable call of a horn is sounding in loneliness; in the sky the bright moon is appreciated by no one. (From the poem “Staying Overnight in the Office”  by Du Fu) 白菡萏香初過雨，紅蜻蜓弱不禁風。(陸游《六月二十四日夜分夢范至能、李知幾、 尤延之同集江亭，諸公請予賦，詩記江湖之樂，诗成而觉，忘数字而已》詩 ) The white lotus flower is so fragrant just after the rain stops. The red dragonflies are  too vulnerable to stand the breeze. (From a poem “A Dream of a Boat Tour with Friends on the Evening of June the Twenty-Fourth” by Lu You)

According to the natural pauses, the two examples should have been analyzed as “永夜角聲／悲自語，中天月色／好誰看” and “白菡／萏香，紅蜻／蜓 弱” , but meaning analysis offers a different parsing: “永夜角聲悲，中天月色好” and “白菡萏，紅蜻蜓” . Such arrangements help to create, in the first example,  a strong sense of solemnity and tragedy, and in the second example, the joy of freedom and self-content. For another example, the first three lines of a ci-poem to the tune of “Qinyuanchun” (Spring in a Pleasure Garden) are as follows. 斗酒／彘肩，風雨／渡江，豈不／快哉！ (劉過 ) You treated me with a jar of wine and a pig’ s leg, and I crossed the river in wind and rain to meet you, what a joy it is! (From the ci-poem to the tune of “Qinyuanchun” by Liu Guo)

But the following ci-poem to the tune of “Qinyuanchun” contains a different structure.  何處相逢，登寶釵樓，訪銅雀臺。(刘克庄《夢方孚若》) Where shall we meet, ascending the Baochai Tower together, or visiting the Tongque Platform with you? (From a ci-poem “Dreaming My Friend Fang” to the tune of “Qingyuanchun” by Liu Kezhuang)

In the above example, “寶釵樓” and “銅雀臺” each serves as a meaning unit, giving the line a proud and defiant tone. Such a sentence is called a “crooked sentence” , which is often used to convey a special feeling or atmosphere. The biggest pause in language is the end of a sentence in the grammatical

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sense. The common people and literati, however, tend to pause at smaller units than sentences. For example, the lines “豈意石渠劉校尉，來依絳帳馬荆州” (Who could have thought that Captain Liu from Shiqu, now found a shelter in the residence of Governor Ma in Jingzhou?) is one sentence in the grammatical sense, but it is usually read as two utterances for common people or poets. It is why, in rhetorical studies, a distinction can be made between the phonological analysis and the semantic analysis. In classic poetry, it is sometimes possible to identify only the phonological components, but not the semantic ones. For example, in the lines of a ci-poem to the tune of “Chounu’ er” (Song of an Ugly Slave) by Xin Qiji, “愛 上層樓，愛上層樓” (but I loved to mount the top floor, but I loved to mount the  top floor), and “欲説還休，欲説還休” (and couldn’ t find a word, and couldn’ t  find a word), it can be difficult to tell whether the second utterance is the extension  of the first one, or is the start of something new. In addition, some poets might deliberately widen the gap between the semantic and phonological analysis, in order to create a unique style, as shown in the following example. 南山之下，汧渭 164之間，想見開元天寶年 :八坊分屯隘秦川 165，四十萬匹如雲煙。 騅、駓、駰、駱、驪、騮、騵、白魚、赤兔、騂、皇、䮧 166，龍顱鳳頸獰且妍，奇 姿逸德隱駑頑 167。(蘇軾《書韓幹牧馬圖》詩 ) Underneath the Southern Hill, between the Qian River and the Wei River, my imagination goes to the years of Tianbao. The royal court set up eight workshops to raise horses. The place of Qinchuan was not enough for the four hundred thousand horses to gallop around in clouds of dust. The horses were of all kinds of colors and patterns, shapes and sizes. Some had the head like that of a Chinese loong, some had the neck of a phoenix, some looked cunning, and some seemed handsome, with remarkable postures and movements, among which hidden a few bad-tempered ones. (From the poem “Han Gan’ s Painting of Horses” by Su Shi) 男兒不能忍窮守家弄，乃使風霜雨雪饑渴凍，勞憊憂愁疾病痛，一一盡入老親夢。 (江湜《龍巖州除夕醉後賦長句》) A young man could not bear the poverty and stay at home. He braved the wind and rain, endured hunger and coldness, and suffered from worries, sickness and pains. (From  the poem “Long Lines Composed in Drunk on the New Year’ s Eve” by Jiang Shi)

The boldfaced components in the two examples, in the common circumstances, should be regarded as two or at least one sentence in the logical (or semantic and grammatical) sense, but in Su Shi’ s poem, the boldfaced component became the subject of “龍顱鳳頸獰且妍，奇姿逸德隱駑頑” (Some had the head like a Chinese loong, some had the neck like a phoenix, some looked cunning, and 164

汧 and 渭 are the names of two rivers in Shaanxi. 八坊 , the eight horse-breeding areas in the Tang Dynasty. 秦川 , the name of a place in Shaanxi. 隘 refers to a narrow and crowded place with a lot of horses. 166 These two lines introduce the names of different horses.  䮧 is pronounced in the same way as 韓 (han). 167 逸德 , remarkable features. 隱駑頑 , the inferior horses are not seen. 165

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some seemed handsome, with remarkable postures and movements, among which hidden a few bad-tempered ones), and in Jiang Shi’ s poem, the boldfaced component became the pivot between th e characters “使” and “入” . As a result, there is little room left for proper analysis, thus creating unexpected stylistic effects: Su’ s poem has a decisive tone and a broad vision; and Jiang’ s poem has  a compact syllable structure (also related to the tonal arrangement) and an intense atmosphere. Though each of the two poems conveys its unique sentiment and style, the expressive effect is achieved by violating the consistency between sound  and meaning.

Chapter 19

General Knowledge of Classic Chinese Bibliography

19.1 Bibliography The general knowledge of classic Chinese bibliography is on the “periphery” of classic Chinese. Reading ancient Chinese books is essential to the study of classic Chinese. Some general knowledge in this regard facilitates the learning of classic Chinese and the understanding of ancient Chinese books. What is bibliography? It is about the catalogue, synopsis, classification and collation of books, as well as the compilation and layout system of books. Classic Chinese bibliography was established by Liu Xiang and his son Liu Xin during the reigns of Emperors Chengdi and Aidi of the Han Dynasty. According to “Records of Art and Literature” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty: 至成帝時，以書頗散亡，使謁者陳農求遺書於天下，詔光禄大夫劉向校經傳、 諸子、詩賦……每一書已，向輒條 1其篇目，撮 2其指意，録而奏之。 By the time of Emperor Chengdi, many books had been lost, so the emperor ordered Chen Nong to collect books around the country, and required Liu Xiang to collate Confucian classics and commentaries, works of other schools of thought, and poetry of various forms.… Each time the collation was completed for a book, Liu Xiang sorted the contents, summarized the main idea, and registered it in the record.

1 2

條 , to list item by item. 撮 , to summarize. 指 is the same as 旨 .

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_19

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In the above excerpt, “條其篇目” (to sort the contents) refers to the catalogues, “撮其指意 ” (to summarize the main idea) refers to the synopsis, and “ 録 ” (to register) refers to the compilation and records. The compilation of the contents and the abstracts is the basis of bibliography, and the combination of the two is the catalogue of books. A catalogue can be made for a single book, as described in the sentence “每一書已……” (Each time the collation was completed for a book.…); it can also be made for many books. Classic Chinese bibliography mostly focuses on the catalogue of many books, including that of a single book. To compile the catalogues of many books for readers, scholars should sort out the books. Apart from the compilation of catalogues, classification and synopsis, the books also had to be sorted out following certain compilation styles, and the study on all these aspects belongs to the realm of bibliography. The general knowledge of bibliography and book contents can inform us of the good books for reading, and the right way to read them.

19.2 “Seven Categories” and “Four Sections” There were two major catalogue systems in classic Chinese bibliography, namely “Seven Categories” and “Four Sections” . In the period of the Emperor Chengdi of the Han Dynasty, Liu Xiang covered Confucian classics and their commentaries, works of other schools of thoughts, and poetry of various forms. What’ s more, Ren Hong the military officer collated  military books, Yin Xian the imperial astronomer collated books on fortunetelling and divination3, and Li Zhuguo the imperial doctor collated medical books4. After Liu Xiang died, Emperor Aidi of the Han Dynasty ordered Liu Xin the son of Liu Xiang to continue with the project, who eventually catalogued the books as “Seven Categories” . Generally speaking, Liu Xiang preferred to compile and summarize the individual books separately, while Liu Xin classified all the books into categories and compiled general catalogues accordingly. “The Seven Categories” consists of the General Notices, the category of six arts, the category of the other schools of thoughts, the category of poetry, the category of military books, the category of divination, and the category of medicine. The summaries that Liu Xiang wrote for each book were later combined into a book named “别録” (the individual record), which is now lost5. Some of the summaries, such as that of 3

數術 , the art of yin-and-yang, and divinations. 方技 , the medical prescriptions and techniques. 5 As recorded in Preface to the Seven Records by Ruan Xiaoxu in the Liang Dynasty, “昔劉向 校書，輒爲一録，論其指歸，辨其訛 ( 誤 ) 謬，隨竟 ( 校書完畢 ) 奏上，皆載在本書。時又 别集衆録， 謂之《别録》，即今之《别録》是也” (When collating the books, Liu Xiang would classify the catalogue, check the errors, and then report to the Emperor. All these contents were recorded in this book, which was later compiled as The Individual Record, as we now know it). It indicated that The Individual Record was still existent in the Liang Dynasty. 4

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Records of Warring States, fortunately, are still extant today, but the complete book of The Individual Records is no longer accessible. The original copy of The Seven Categories is also lost now, but Ban Gu extracted some important parts from The Seven Categories and incorporated them into “Records of Art and Literature” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, so “Records of Art and Literature” could be regarded as an abridged version of The Seven Categories. In this book, the category of “General Notices” is a guide to the use of the book, which was unfortunately not preserved in “Records of Art and Literature” . The other six categories were compiled according to the divisions of work among Liu Xiang, Ren Hong, Yin Xian and Li Zhuguo. The following explanation of the contents is based on the catalogue of “Records of Art and Literature” . The category of “six arts” contains Confucian classics and relevant notes and commentaries, which were called “經” (classics) and “傳” (commentaries) collated by Liu Xiang as recorded in “Records of Art and Literature” . This category consists of The Book of Changes, The Book of Documents, The Book of Songs, The Book of Music, The Book of Rites, The Spring and Autumn Annals, The Analects of Confucius, The Classic of Filial Piety and the books about “Little Learning” (the learning of sounds, characters and meaning of words). Among these books, The Analects of Confucius and The Classic of Filial Piety are remarks of Confucius transcribed by his disciples, whereas The Book of Changes, The Book of Documents, The Book of Songs, The Book of Music, The Book of Rites and The Spring and Autumn Annals are official books compiled by the central or  state authorities and later revised by Confucius. The books about “Little Learning” discuss characters and words, which were regarded by ancient scholars as the key to the reading of the classics6, and hence attached to the end of the category of “six arts” . It should be noted that ancient history books did not constitute a separate category. The category of The Spring and Autumn Annals in The Seven Categories and “Records of Art and Literature” was originally the records of events kept by ancient official historians, while Commentary of Zuo, which is the explanation of The Spring and Autumn Annals was classified as a book of “The Classics” , is in fact a separate book of history. The historical works registered in the table of contents of “Records of Art and Literature” 7 include twenty-one articles from Discourses of the States, thirty-three articles from Records of the Warring States, nine articles from The History of the Chu and the Han by Lu Jia in the early Han Dynasty, and one hundred and thirty articles from Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian. The category of “Other Schools of Thoughts” includes the academic works by the great thinkers and political commentators from the Pre-Qin Period to the Han Dynasty, with a few records of folklore and anecdotes. “Records of Art 6

As stated in Xu Shen’s Preface to Shuowen Jiezi: “蓋文字者，經藝之本，王政之始” (Characters and words are the roots of classics, and the beginning of the kingdom and its reign). In this statement, the character “經” in “經藝” has the same meaning as that in “經傳” and “藝” has the same meaning as that in “六藝” (six arts). This statement well illustrated the opinion. 7 著録 , to register in the table of contents.

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and Literature” classified the books about ten schools of thoughts, and defined them according to the ancient government offices responsible for these thoughts  and works. 儒家者流，蓋出於司徒之官；道家者流，蓋出於史官；陰陽家者流，蓋出於羲 和之官 8； 法家者流，蓋出於理官 9；名家者流，蓋出於禮官；墨家者流，蓋出於清廟之 守 10；縱横家者流，蓋出於行人 11之官；雜家者流，蓋出於議官；農家者流，蓋出於 農稷之官 12；小説家者流，蓋出於稗官 13。 The school of Confucianism derives from the office of civil affairs; The school of Daoism derives from the office of history; The school of Yin-Yang derives from the office of astrology and calendars; The school  of Legalism derives from the office of justice and punishment; The school of Logicians  derives from the office of rites; The school of Mohism derives from the office of ancestral temples; The school of diplomacy derives from the office of envoys and diplomats; The school  of syncretism derives from the office of imperial consultants; The school of agriculture  derives from the office of farming; The school of “minor talks” derives from the office of folklore and customs.

In ancient China, the academic knowledge was dominated by the ruling class and inaccessible to the common people. Therefore, it is reasonable to trace different schools of thoughts to the government offices. What runs counter to the  fact, however, is to match a particular office with each of the schools. With a very   long history, such a claim in “Records of Art and Literature” had been widely accepted as a common sense in the study of various schools of thoughts in the Pre-Qin Period. Two points deserve some explanations. The first is the so-called  “九流十家” (nine mainstreams out of the ten schools) in the different schools of thoughts. As stated in “Records of Art and Literature” , “諸子十家，其可 觀者，九家而已” (Among the ten schools of thoughts, nine schools are worth careful reading), thus excluding the school of “minor talks” . As “Records of Art and Literature” used such phrases as “儒家者流，道家者流……” (the stream of Confucianism, the stream of Daoism, etc.), the later scholars used the phrase “九流” 8

羲和 , the official in charge of astrology and calendar in ancient times. 理官 , the official in charge of justice and punishment. 10 清廟之守 , the official in charge of ancestral temples. As ancestral temples are solemn and peace-  ful, so they are called 清廟 . 11 行人 , envoys and diplomats. 12 稷 , is an important type of crops in ancient times. 農稷 refers to the officials in charge of farmingand crops. 13 According to Ru Chun’s annotations to Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, “細米爲稗，街 談巷説，其細碎之言也。王者欲知閭巷風俗，故立稗官，使稱説之”( 稗 is the thin rice, referring to the gossips in the streets. In order to learn about the folk customs, the king set up officials in  charge of the provincial customs and folklore to be informed). 9

19.2  “Seven Categories” and “Four Sections”

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(nine mainstreams) to refer to the academic thoughts in the Pre-Qin Period as well as the nine schools of thoughts of their followers. A line in “Collected Poems in the Year of Yihai” written by Gong Zizhen for his son is “五經爛熟家常飯，莫似 而翁歠 (啜 )九流！” (I’ ve learned the “Five Classics” by heart, but you shouldn’ t follow my example by learning about the “Nine Mainstreams” ), in which the meaning of “九流” is equivalent to “五經” (“Five Classics” , that is, five of the six arts except The Book of Music) mentioned in “Records of Art and Literature” . Second, the meaning of “小説” (minor talks) in this context is different from “stories or fiction” . Rather, it refers to the fragmentary and unsystematic accounts  or records. Lu Xun once studied Ban Gu’ s annotations for “Records of Art and Literature” and analyzed fifteen books of the “minor talks” included therein, with  the following comment: “據班固注，則諸書大抵或托古人 14，或記古事；托人者 似子而淺薄，記事者似史而悠謬 15者也 ” (According to Ban Gu’ s annotations, these books were mostly written in the name of ancient people, or written to record ancient events. Those written in the name of ancient people read like classics, but were in fact superficial; those written to record ancient events read like history, but  were far from the factual). Chinese bibliographers in later times used “minor talks” to cover all the books that were considered superficial, miscellaneous, or even ridiculous. It was in the Song Dynasty that the meaning of “小説” also included stories. Nevertheless, some miscellaneous books of literary sketches in later times were also named as “minor talks” . For example, Literary Notes of Shaoshi Library by Hu Yingling in the Ming Dynasty and Literary Notes of Liuyan Chamber by Li Rihua were both included in Yiren Records as “minor talks” . The narrative genre of story-telling, on the other hand, was also named “稗官” (the office of folklore)  or “稗官家言” (writings of the office of folklore). As stated in Wang Pijiang’ s preface to Stories in the Tang Dynasty, “唐稗嘉篇，麤 (粗 )萃於此” (The good pieces of folklore in the Tang Dynasty were collected in this book). This is also an example of referring to the legendary stories in the Tang Dynasty as “唐稗” (folklore in the Tang Dynasty), which was also used commonly in bibliography since the time of “Records of Art and Literature” . The category of poetry includes literary works. Since literary collections did not appear before the Han Dynasty, they were not covered in this category. What’ s more, the works by Qu Yuan, Song Yu and Jing Chai were the origin of the fupoetry in later times, so they were included in “Records of Art and Literature” under the titles of “Fu-poetry by Qu Yuan” “Fu-poetry by Song Yu” and “Fu-poetry by Jing Chai” . Only later when these works were compiled under the title of The Verse of Chu did they constitute a separate group. The classification method changed after the Wei and Jin Dynasties. In Records of Classics and Commentaries in History of the Sui Dynasty compiled in the Tang 14

托古人 , to compose a book in the name of ancient people, such as thee passages of “Tian Yi” in “Records of Art and Literature”. As Ban Gu noted, “天乙謂湯。其實非殷時，皆依托也” (The Tian Yi passage is an account of the time of Tang, which is actually not written in the time of Yin but in its name.) 15 悠謬 , far from factual.

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Dynasty, the classification system of “Four Sections” has been established and adopted by bibliographers till the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The “Four Sections” refers to “經” (Confucian classics), “史” (history), “子” (thoughts of ancient scholars and schools), and “集” (collections). As Zhongjing Catalogue of Books compiled by Xun Xu in the Jin Dynasty used “甲” (first), “乙” (second), “丙” (third) and “丁” (fourth) as section headings, the aforementioned “Four Sections” were also known as “甲部” (the first section), “乙部” (the second section), “丙 部” (the third section) and “丁部” (the fourth section) respectively. For example, the “Section of History” is also named “The Second Section” . It should be noted, however, that the content and sequence of the four sections in Records of Classics and Commentaries in History of the Sui Dynasty is not entirely the same as those in Zhongjing Catalogue of Books. The differences between “Four Sections” and “Seven Categories” lie in the following aspects: “The Section of Confucian Classics” is equivalent to “The Category of Six Classics” . “The Section of History” is a new category, while in “Seven Categories” , the relevant books were included in The Spring and Autumn Annals in the category of “six arts” . After the Han and Jin Dynasties, the number of historical books increased so greatly that the category of The Spring and Autumn Annals could no longer cover such a wide range of historical works, and a separate section was needed. “The Section of the Thoughts of Ancient Scholars and Schools” covers the contents of four categories: the category of the schools of thoughts, the category of military books, the category of divination, and the category of medicine. What’s more, the Section of Collections is slightly extensive in range than the Category of Poetry. In the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, the ruling class befriended the scholars of the Han nationality, and started to compile Complete Library of the Four Branches of Literature to tamper or delete sensitive writings related to the national integrity of Han. The compilation, on the one hand, caused damage to the ancient Chinese culture, and on the other hand, played some positive roles in collecting and sorting the ancient books. After completion, Ji Yun and other officials responsible for the work compiled Synopsis of the General Catalogue of the Complete Library of the Four Branches of Literature (The Synopsis for short). It followed the layout system of “Four Sections” , each consisting of several groups. What’ s more, a general abstract was written for each section, and an individual abstract was written for each group, so as to explain the origins, development, merits and drawbacks of the books and schools covered in each group and section. Each book also had an abstract, covering its main ideas and relevant comments. Neatly classified and arranged, the general abstracts, individual  abstracts and book abstracts can also serve as references for reading and studying. The Synopsis could be regarded as a comprehensive book on Chinese bibliography in the recent period. The sections and groups included in The Synopsis are listed as follows: 經部十類 : 《易》類 ； 《書》類； 《詩》類 ； 《禮》類； 《春秋》類 ； 《孝經》類 ；五 經總義類；四書類 ； 《樂》類；小學類。

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史部十五類 : 正史類 ；編年類 ；紀事本末類 ；别史類 ；雜史類 ；詔令奏議類；傳記類； 史鈔類；載記類；時令類；地理類；職官類；政書類；目録類；史評類。 子部十四類 : 儒家類；兵家類；法家類；農家類；醫家類；天文算法類；術數類 ；藝 術類；譜録類；雜家類；類書類；小説家類；釋家類；道家類。 集部五類 : 《楚辭》類 ；别集類 ；總集類 ；詩文評類 ；詞曲類。 Ten groups of the Section of Confucius Classics: The Book of Changes, The Book of Documents, The Book of Songs, The Book of Rites, The Spring and Autumn Annals, The Classic of Filial Piety, the General Ideas of “Five Classics” , the “Four Books” , The Book of Music, the books of characters and words. Fifteen groups of the Section of History: Official histories, annals/chronicles, records of events, privately compiled histories,  miscellaneous histories, imperial edicts and memorials, biographies, historical extracts, documents and records, seasons and time, geography, positions and offices, political books, catalogues, historical commentaries. Fourteen groups in the Section of Thoughts of Ancient Scholars and Schools: The school of Confucianism, the school of military arts, the school of Legalism, the school of farming, the school of medicine, astrology and divination, mathematics, arts, classification and listing, eclectics, “minor talks” , the school of Buddhism, the school  of Daoism. Five groups in the Section of Collections: The Verse of Chu, collections of individual works, general collections, poetic and prose commentaries, collections of ci and qu.

The specific contents of the books of the forty-four groups in the four sections  are beyond the realm of discussion here. What is explained hereafter covers the groups of the official histories,  annals,  records  of  events  in  the  Section  of  History, and the groups of general collections and individual collections in the Section of Collections. The group of official histories in the Section of History includes biographical  history books, a type that was firstly set up in Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian. There are twenty-five official history books in this section as follows: 《史 記》 漢司馬遷著，劉宋裴駰《集解》，唐司馬貞《索隱》，張守節《正義》； 《漢 書》 漢班固著，唐顔師古注； 《後 漢 書》 劉宋範曄著，唐章懷太子李賢注； 《三 國 志》 晉陳壽著，劉宋裴松之注； 《晉 書》 唐房玄齡等著； 《宋 書》 梁沈約著； 《南 齊 書》 梁蕭子顯著； 《梁 書》 唐姚思廉著； 《陳 書》 唐姚思廉著；

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《魏 書》 北齊魏收著； 《北 齊 書》 唐李百藥著； 《周 書》 唐令狐德棻等著； 《隋 書》 唐魏徵等著； 《南 史》 唐李延壽著； 《北 史》 唐李延壽著； 《舊 唐 書》 五代劉昫等著； 《新 唐 書》 宋歐陽修、宋祁等著； 《舊五代史》 宋薛居正等著； 《新五代史》 宋歐陽修著； 《宋 史》 元托克托等著； 《遼 史》 元托克托等著； 《金 史》 元托克托等著； 《元 史》 明宋濂等著； 《新 元 史》 今人柯劭忞著； 《明 史》 清王鴻緒等著。 Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian in the Han Dynasty. The Variorum of Records of the Grand Historian was written by Pei Yin in the Song Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Annotation of Records of the Grand Historian was written by Sima Zhen in the Tang Dynasty. Correct Interpretation of Records of the Grand Historian was written by Zhang Shouyi; Historical Records of the Han Dynasty by Ban Gu in the Han Dynasty. The annotations were written by Yan Shigu in the Tang Dynasty; Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty by Fan Ye in the Song Dynasty of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The annotations were written by Li Xian, a prince of the Tang Dynasty; Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou in the Jin Dynasty. The annotations were written by Pei Song in the Song Period the Northern and Southern Dynasties; History of the Jin Dynasty by Pang Xuanling and others in the Tang Dynasty; The History of Song of the Southern Dynasties by Shen Yue in the Liang Dynasty; History of the Southern Qi Dynasty by Xiao Zixian in the Liang Dynasty; History of the Liang Dynasty by Yao Silian in the Tang Dynasty; History of the Chen Dynasty by Yao Silian in the Tang Dynasty; History of the Wei Dynasty by Wei Shou in Qi of the Northern Dynasties; History of the Northern Qi Dynasties by Li Baiyao in the Tang Dynasty; History of the Zhou Dynasty by Linghu Defen and others in the Tang Dynasty; History of the Sui Dynasty by Wei Zheng and others in the Tang Dynasty; History of the Southern Dynasties by Li Yanshou in the Tang Dynasty; History of the Northern Dynasties by Li Yanshou in the Tang Dynasty; The Old Tang History by Liu Xu and others in the Five Dynasties; The New Tang History by Ouyang Xiu, Song Qi and others in the Song Dynasty; History of the Song Dynasty by Toqto’ a and others in the Yuan Dynasty; History of the Liao Dynasty by Toqto’ a and others in the Yuan Dynasty; History of the Yuan Dynasty by Song Lian in the Ming Dynasty; New History of the Yuan Dynasty by Ke Shaomin in modern times;

19.2  “Seven Categories” and “Four Sections”

417

History of the Ming Dynasty by Wang Hongxu and others in the Qing Dynasty

These history books usually contain the following contents. Synopsis was written for the state affairs in the time of each emperor, and served as the outline  of the entire book under the title of “本紀” or “紀” (annals). What’ s more, biographies were written for the noteworthy historical figures under the title of “列傳” or “傳” (biography). Some biographies were about a single person, while others were combined biographies about several people, which were called “合傳” (group biography). The attached biographies of the brothers, sons, subordinates or other relatives were called “附見” (attachment). There were also collective biographies about a type of people, such as “Biographies of Scholars” or “Biographies of Swordsmen” . The summative records about laws and regulations, about political, economic, social or culture issues, and about astronomy and geography were called “書” (book), “志” (record), or “考” (investigation)16. The tabulation of people, years and titles were called “表” (tables), which offers a clear view of the general information. There is a particular genre in Records of the Grand Historian called “世家” (the household stories), which recounted the stories of the ministers and feudal princes for generations. In later works, the household stories were maintained only in New History of the Five Dynasties, and the others were incorporated into biographies. The historical books compiled in accordance to the aforementioned styles were called “紀傳表志體” (style of annals, biographies, tables and records), or simply “紀傳體” (the style of annals and biographies). Having been authorized by the authorities, these books were included in the group of “official histories” . Among the above twenty-five history books, twenty-two were dynastic histories  which recount the events in a particular dynasty. Records of the Grand Historian, History of the Southern Dynasties, and History of the Northern Dynasties were general histories that record the events of several dynasties. In particular, Records of the Grand Historian depicts the events from the Yellow Emperor to the Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty; History of the Southern Dynasties records the events in the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen Dynasties during the Southern Dynasties; and History of the Northern Dynasties records the events in the Northern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Norther Zhou periods during the Northern Dynasties. As for the style of annals and biographies, the contents of the history books were different across historical times. What’ s more, some of the history books had only annals and biographies, but not tables and records. Annals are the records of significant historical events in the chronological order.  It originated from The Spring and Autumn Annals and Commentary of Zuo, which had long been incorporated in the section of “Confucian Classics” . In later ages, the earliest chronicle was Annals of the Han Dynasty by Xun Yue in later Han. “ 獻〕帝好典籍，常以班固 As stated in History of the Later Han Dynasty, 〔

16 The term “書” was used in Records of the Grand Historian, the term “志” was used in History of the Han Dynasty, and the term “考” was used in New History of the Five Dynasties.

418

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General Knowledge of Classic Chinese Bibliography

《漢書》，文繁難省 17，乃令悦依《左氏傳》體，爲《漢紀》三十篇……辭約事 詳，論辨多 美。” (The Emperor Xian of the Han Dynasty likes reading classics. As Ban Gu’ s History of the Han Dynasty contained complicated structures and was hard for memorization, the Emperor ordered Xun Yue to follow the style of Commentary of Zuo and to write thirty articles under the heading of Annals of the Han Dynasty…. With concise expression and eloquent argumentation, the events were recorded in detail in these articles). Later than that, Yuan Hong in the Jin Dynasty composed Annals of the Later Han Dynasty, and Gan Bao in the Jin Dynasty composed Annals of the Jin Dynasty (now lost). The masterpiece of annals is History as Mirror in Aid of Governance by Sima Guang in the Song Dynasty. The motivation of its compilation was stated as follows. 每患遷、固以來 18，文字繁多，自布衣之士，讀之不遍，況於人主，日有萬機 19， 何暇周覽 20? 臣常不自揆 21，欲删削冗長，舉撮機要，專取關國家興衰，繫生民休 戚 22，善可爲法，惡可爲戒者，爲編年一書，使先後有倫 23，精粗不雜。私家力薄， 無由可成。《(進資治通鑑表》) The historical works since the time of Sima Qian and Ban Gu were so lengthy and complicated that even the ordinary men could not understand them all. The emperor was engrossed in his daily governance, and how could he afford the time for thorough  reading? I often considered to cut out the redundant and lengthy parts, summarize the main ideas, and select the content that is of great national and social significance.  The good examples can serve as a code, and the bad ones serve as a warning or remonstrance. I plan to write a chronicle with proper synopses and details. I know my personal capacity is limited, and I don’ t know if I could complete the project. (From Memorial of History as Mirror in Aid of Governance)

With the support from Emperor Yingzong of the Song Dynasty, Sima Guang started his project in the third year of the Zhiping period of Emperor Ying (AD 1066). There were assistant scholars including Liu Ban (Gongfu by style), Liu Shu (Daoyuan by style) and Fan Zuyu (Chunfu by style). After nineteenyear’ s effort, the project was completed in the seventh year of Yuanfeng period  of Emperor Shenzong (AD 1084), covering one thousand three hundred and sixty-two years from the Warring States period to the Five Dynasties. The whole project consists of two hundred and ninety-four volumes. To facilitate checking and searching, the writers “briefly summarized the major events” and compiled  a thirty-volume “catalogue” in the orders of time and state. What’ s more, the 17

省 (xǐng), to remember. 遷、固以來 refers to the historical works such as Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian and Historical Records of the Han Dynasty by Ban Gu. 19 萬機 , busy governance. 20 周覽 , to read through. 21 揆 , to measure and consider. 22 休戚 , happiness and sorrow. 23 倫 , sequence and order. 18

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reference materials were also critically reviewed and classified for the compilation  of a thirty-volume “literature review” (The Memorial). Apart from the official histories of different dynasties, the reference materials included as many as three  hundred and twenty-two types of unofficial histories and books. Such works as Annals of the Han Dynasty and Annals of the Later Han Dynasty merely record events of a single dynasty. In contrast, History as Mirror in Aid of Governance is much grander in scale. Though it was intended to serve the Emperor’ s reading, the stances and opinions were not without questions. Nevertheless, the concise yet comprehensive book is an essential work in Chinese history books because it depicts the significant events of different dynasties. In addition, Hu Sanxing (Shenzhi by style) in the Yuan Dynasty wrote annotations for this book, with detailed explanations of the system evolution and geographical facts, which is a necessary reference book for reading History as Mirror in Aid of Governance. Since the completion of the original work, there have appeared many continued works, among which the most well-known was Sequel to History as Mirror in Aid of Governance by Bi Yuan in the Qing Dynasty, which recorded the historical events in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. The genre of “records of events” originated from the work of Records of Events in History as Mirror by Yuan Shu (Jizhong by style) in the Southern Song Dynasty. As biographical books of history focus on individual figures, a single event may be separately recorded in the biographies of several people involved in this event, causing redundancy and repetition. Annals, on the other hand, record the historical events in the chronological order, thus avoiding repetition. However, as one year might witness many different events, or one event might span quite a  few years, the annalistic style may fail to trace the whole story from the start to the end, a defect that existed in Commentary of Zuo and History as Mirror in Aid of Governance alike. On that account, Sima Guang also compiled an index called Catalogue of History as Mirror to facilitate checking and searching, which was still inconvenient for reading. Based on History as Mirror in Aid of Governance, Yuan Shu listed two hundred and thirty-nine entries for historical events (such as “dictatorship of Li Linfu” or “Rebellion of An Lushan and Shi Siming” ), and, following the orders of events and years, represented the whole event from the start to the end. Such a work of coherence and clarity ushered in a new style of history-writing besides biographies and annals. Since then, the same style had been followed in numerous works, including Records of Events in Commentary of Zuo by Gao Shiqi in the Qing Dynasty, Records of Events in History of the Song Dynasty and Records of Events in History of the Yuan Dynasty by Chen Bangyan in the Ming Dynasty, Records of Events in History of the Ming Dynasty by Gu Yingtai in the Qing Dynasty. The nine books of this style, including Yuan Shu’ s, were later collectively referred to as Nine Records of Events. Apart from the political commentaries from different schools of thoughts and  Records of the Grand Historian and documents, there were other books in the PreQin Period, such as The Verse of Chu by Qu Yuan et al. However, works of literary grace were still quite rare at that time, and mostly included in the categories of “six arts” “schools of thoughts” or “poetry” , so there were no literary collections

420

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at that time. The writings in the Eastern and the Western Han Dynasties were characterized by elaborate styles and rhetorical techniques for the first time, and  professional literary writers started to appear. From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the period of the Three Kingdoms, various works of poetry, fu- poetry, inscriptions, eulogies and admonishments were included in Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty and Records of the Three Kingdoms. They could be regarded as the collections in later ages. Roughly at the same time or a little later, the very heading of “集” (collections) came into being24. Since then, this heading was used to refer to any collection of a number of verse or prose of no specialized topics. There were collections of prose, collections of verse, or collections of both. The collection of the works of a single writer is called the “individual collection” , while those containing works of several writers are called “general collections” . Well-known individual collections include Poem Collection of Xie Xuancheng (by Xie Tiao), Bai’s Collection in the Period of Changqing, Complete Collection of Ouyang Xiu, and Writings in the Period of Yuanfeng (by Zeng Gong). General collections, on the other hand, may come in different types of format. In brief, some general collections offer a synthesis of various styles in various dynasties,  such as Selections of Refined Literature compiled by Xiao Tong the Prince Zhaoming of the Liang Dynasty; some included the writings of a single style, such as Collection of Yuefu Poems by Guo Maoqian in the Song Dynasty, and Collection of the Siliu Prose by Wang Zhijian in the Ming Dynasty. Some general collections contained the writings of a certain historical age, such as Collection of the Writings in the Song Dynasty by Lü Zuqian in the Song Dynasty; and some contained the writings in a particular area, such as Collections of Writings in Hunan by Luo Ruhuai in the Qing Dynasty. Some general collections of ancient classics to advocate the writers’ own literary values. For example, Wang Shizhen in the Qing Dynasty selected the great poetic works in the prime time of the Tang Dynasty to compile The Collections of Poetic Creation in the Tang Dynasty, which illustrates his own understanding about the poetic value of “elegant subtlety” . Some general collections cover the works of a particular school or a group of writers, such as Collection of the Xikun School by Yang Yi and Liu Yun in the Song Dynasty, and Poem Collected Poems of the Female Disciples of Master Suiyuan by Yuan Mei in the Qing Dynasty. Sometimes, works on the same topic were compiled as a general selection, such as Collections of Poems about Life in Palace by Three Writers composed by Mao Jin in the Ming Dynasty (The three writers were Wang Jian and Lady Huarui in the Tang Dynasty, and Wang Gui in the Song Dynasty), and Collection of Poems on Various Topics about the Southern Song Dynasty by Li E et al. in the Qing Dynasty. As for the purpose of compilation, some collections were intended 24

The sentence in “Records of Classics and Commentaries” in History of the Sui Dynasty stated “别集之名，蓋漢東京(即東漢)之所創也” (The concept of individual collection was invented in the Eastern Han Dynasty). However, Zhang Xuecheng in the Qing Dynasty, the author of General Meanings of Literature and History, argued that the concept should have first appeared in the  Jin Dynasty.

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to preserve the literature, some to demonstrate the ideals of writing, and some to promote learning and appreciation. The various motivations and functions lie beyond the realm of the present discussion.

19.3 Annotations and Interpretations of Classics 19.3.1  Annotations and Interpretations of the Confucian Classics The annotations and commentaries discussed in this section are all about the Confucian classics. Since Confucius edited the “six arts” and passed it down to his followers, there had been annotations and commentaries about the “six arts” . In particular, The Spring and Autumn Annals has two annotative works, namely, Commentary of Gongyang and Commentary of Gu Liang. (Commentary of Zuo was sometimes considered as an independent history book rather than an annotative work about The Spring and Autumn Annals.) What’ s more, the articles of “The meaning of the ceremony of capping” , “The meaning of the marriage ceremony” , “The meaning of the drinking festivity in the country” , “The meaning of the ceremony of archery” , “The meaning of the banquet” , “The meaning of the ceremonies in missions” and the like in The Book of Rites are explanations of the corresponding articles in The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonials, also known as The Ritual Classic in the Han Dynasty. The articles of “Xi Ci” (the Appendix) in The Book of Changes, and “Explanation of Changes” in the “Author’ s Preface to Records of the Grand Historian” are both explanations about The Book of Changes. All in all, there had been a large number of annotative works about the classics before the Han Dynasty. In the Han Dynasty, these annotative works were also regarded as classics, including The Book of Changes, The Book of Documents, The Book of Songs, The Rites of Zhou, The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonials, The Book of Rites, Commentary of Zuo, Commentary of Gongyang, and Commentary of Gu Liang. The annotative works about classics after the Han Dynasty came under various headings. Some were called “傳” (commentaries of classics), such as Mao’s Annotations of The Book of Songs, or Mao’s Annotations for short; some are called “箋” (notes), such as Commentaries on Mao’s Annotations of the Book of Songs by Zheng Xuan; some were called “解” (explanation), such as Explanations of Commentary of Gu Liang; some were called “解詁” (exegeses), such as Explanations of Commentary of Gongyang by He Xiu; some were called “注” (annotations), such as Annotations to The Rites of Zhou, Annotations to The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonials, and Annotations to The Book of Rites by Zheng Xuan, which were collectively known as Three Annotations About Rites. There were also some so-called “章句” (syntactic and semantic analysis of ancient writing), but they could be generally called “notes” . The specific similarities and  differences among these terms are beyond the scope of this chapter. In brief, some 

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of the Confucian scholars in the Han Dynasty tried to explain the lexical meanings, which is called “exegesis or philology” ; some tried to interpret the ideas, which is the meaning of “commentaries” ; and some tried to summarize the main message, such as the preface to every article in Mao’s Commentaries. Probably due to the limited conditions of writing, the notes and commentaries in the Han Dynasty were usually very brief and difficult to understand. In Volume Six of Dongshu Book Notes by Chen Li in the Qing Dynasty, the author made the following comments on Mao’s Commentaries: 《載芟》篇 :“載 25獲濟濟。” 傳云 :“濟濟，難也。” 乍讀之，幾不可解。讀鄭箋云 :“難 者，穗衆難進也”，而後明其意，謂禾穗粗大稠密，獲者難入於其中。此形容豐年 景象，令人解頤矣 26。 A line in the song of “Clearing away the Grass” is “and the grain is piled up the fields” . According to Mao’s Commentaries, “濟濟 means difficult” . At first, it feels almost impossible to understand the text. Zheng’ s Commentaries on Mao’s Annotations of The Book of Songs features a line “it is difficult to enter because the grain is piled up”.  Then I came to know the meaning. To put it more clearly, the grains were so big and dense that the farmers found it hard to enter the field. Actually, this line depicts a great  harvest. As soon as I realized this point, I burst into laughter.

As shown in the above examples, the notes and commentaries might be vague and obscure, sometimes requiring further explanations and investigations. As a remedy, the study of “interpretation” started to appear in the Six Dynasties. According to Records of Classics and Commentaries in History of the Sui Dynasty, all the books of Confucian classics had the corresponding interpretative works. For example, The Book of Changes has its Interpretations of The Book of Changes by Zhou Hongzheng in the Chen Dynasty, The Book of Rites has its Interpretation of The Book of Rites by Huang Kan in the Liang Dynasty, and Commentary of Zuo has its Interpretation of Commentary of Zuo by Liu Xuan in the Sui Dynasty. During the reigns of Emperor Taizong and Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty, Kong Yingda and others studied the extant literature and composed an interpretive work titled Correct Interpretations of the Five Classics that consists of one hundred and seventy volumes and covers the contents of The Book of Changes, The Book of Documents, The Book of Songs, The Book of Rites and Commentary of Zuo. In the Yonghui period of Emperor Gaozong, Jia Gongyan wrote interpretive works about The Rites of Zhou and The Book of Rites and Rituals. Later than that, interpretive works about Commentary of Gongyang and Commentary of Gu Liang were also completed. In the Song Dynasty, interpretive works about The Classic of Filial Piety, The Analects, Erya and Mencius were also completed. In particular, Mencius was originally a book of Confucianism and was classicized in the Song Dynasty because of Han Yu’ s high appraisal of its “excellent purity” . In the Ming Dynasty, the concept of “Thirteen Classics” was proposed and, in the Song 25 26

載 , an introductory particle without meaning. 解頤 , to smile in understanding.

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Dynasty, the corresponding interpretative works were written and collectively known as the following Annotations and Interpretations of the Thirteen Classics: 《周 易 注 疏》 魏王弼、晉韓康伯注，唐孔穎達正義 ； 《尚 書 注 疏》 漢孔安國傳 27，孔穎達正義 ； 《毛 詩 注 疏》 漢毛亨、毛萇傳，鄭玄箋，孔穎達正義 ； 《周 禮 注 疏》 漢鄭玄注，唐賈公彦疏 ； 《儀 禮 注 疏》 鄭玄注，賈公彦疏 ； 《禮 記 注 疏》 鄭玄注，孔穎達正義； 《春 秋 左 傳 注 疏 》 晉杜預集解，孔穎達正義 ； 《春秋公羊傳注疏》 漢何休解詁，唐徐彦疏 ； 《春秋穀梁傳注疏》 晉范寧集解，唐楊士勛疏 ； 《論 語 注 疏》 魏何晏集解，宋邢昺疏 ； 《孝 經 注 疏》 唐玄宗注，宋邢昺疏 ； 《爾 雅 注 疏》 晉郭璞注，宋邢昺疏 ； 《孟 子 注 疏》 漢趙岐注，宋孫奭 28疏。 Annotations and Interpretations of The Book of Changes: the annotation by Wang Bi in the Wei Dynasty and Han Kangbo in the Jin Dynasty; the correct interpretation by Kong Yingda in the Tang Dynasty; Annotations and Interpretations of The Book of Documents: the commentaries by Kong Anguo in the Han Dynasty; the correct interpretation by Kong Yingda in the Tang Dynasty; Annotations and Interpretations of Mao’s Commentaries of The Book of Songs: the commentaries by Mao Heng and Mao Chang in the Han Dynasty, the annotation by Zheng Xuan, and the correct interpretation by Kong Yingda; Annotations and Interpretations of The Rites of Zhou: the annotation by Zheng Xuan in the Han Dynasty, and the interpretation by Jia Gongyan in the Tang Dynasty; Annotations and Interpretations of The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonials: the annotation by Zheng Xuan, and the interpretation by Jia Gongyan; Annotations and Interpretations of The Book of Rites: the annotation by Zheng Xuan, and the correct interpretation by Kong Yingda; Annotations and Interpretations of Commentary of Zuo: the explanation by Du Yuji in the Jin Dynasty, and the correct interpretation by Kong Yingda; Annotations and Interpretations of Commentary of Gongyang: the explanation by He Xiu in the Han Dynasty, and the interpretation by Xu Yan in the Tang Dynasty; Annotations and Interpretations of Commentary of Gu Liang: the explanation by Fan Ning in the Jin Dynasty, and the interpretation by Yang Shixun in the Tang Dynasty; Annotations and Interpretations of The Analects of Confucius: the explanation by He Yan in the Wei Dynasty, and the interpretation by Xing Bing in the Song Dynasty; 27

Kong Anguo’s Commentaries of The Book of Documents and a part of The Book of Documents were said to be a pseudograph written in the Wei and Jin Dynasties. The original title of the book was maintained here. 28 Zhu Xi argued that Sun Shi’s Interpretation of Mencius was actually a pseudograph by a scholar in Shaowu, Fujian. The name of Sun Shi was maintained in the present discussion.

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Annotations and Interpretations of The Classic of Filial Piety: the annotation by Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, and the interpretation by Xing Bing in the Song Dynasty; Annotations and Interpretations of Erya: the annotation by Guo Pu in the Jin Dynasty, and the interpretation by Xing Bing in the Song Dynasty; Annotations and Interpretations of Mencius: the annotation by Zhao Qi in the Han Dynasty, and the interpretation by Sun Shi in the Song Dynasty.

The annotations and interpretations of the classics since the Han Dynasty had always been compiled as separate books rather than attached to the classics. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the annotations and interpretations were attached to the classics. Apart from the annotative and interpretive works, the Six Dynasties witnessed the emergence of the study of “sounds and meaning” , that is, the phonological and semantic analysis of the difficult characters in the classics and  their annotations. On the basis of previous studies and materials, Lu Jianming in the Tang Dynasty compiled the thirty-volume work of The Annotations of Classics. In the Song Dynasty, Lu’ s explanatory notes were incorporated other the annotations and interpretations. As a result, Annotations and Interpretations of the Thirteen Classics as we now know of is the combination of the classics and their annotations, explanations and interpretations. The layout format of classic texts, annotations, explanations and commentaries is illustrated with the following entry from “The 26th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo:   夏，齊孝公伐我北鄙，街人伐齊，洮之盟故也。公使展 喜犒師。勞齊師。

犒苦報反，勞 注勞齊師。 正義曰：犒者，以酒食餉 疏 也。勞，力報反，下文同。 饋軍師之名也。服虔云：“以師枯槁， ” 勞苦謂之勞也。《魯 故饋之飲食。 ” 語》云：“使展喜以膏沐犒師。

In summer, Duke Xiao of Qi sent troops to intrude on the northern border of our state. Then State Wei attacked State Qi because they had formed an alliance with us [State Lu] at Tao. Our Duke [Xi] assigned Zhan Xi to kao the army. In terms of fanqie, kao (犒) is Actually, to kao means to reward the Qi army. kubao pronounced as (苦報) and refers to rewarding. Similarly, lao (劳) is pronounced as libao (力報) and omitted hereinafter. Commentary includes an annotation that kao (犒) means rewarding the Qi army. Correct Interpretations says, “To be specific, kao (犒) means bringing wines and foods to the army.” This is because they made great efforts to attack the enemies. “The Discourse of Lu” says, “Zhan Xi was assigned to reward the army.”

In the above example29, the big characters are sentences of the classic, and the characters subsequent to the square box are interpretations. The two lines of small characters between the classics and the interpretation are annotations 29 The square boxes were originally white characters with black background. The punctuation marks were added by the compiler.

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and explanations. In particular, the characters ahead of the small circle are the annotations, and those after the small circle are phonetic notations of the character “犒 ” in the classics and the character “勞 ” in the annotation. The four characters of “注 勞 齊 師 ” in front of the small circle in the interpretation part serves as a reminder, which means that the following words are the explanation of the line of “勞齊 師 ” in the annotation. In Kong Yingda’s interpretations of the Five Classics, the interpretive part starts with three characters of “正 義 曰 ” (as the correction interpretation goes), which are also used in the interpretations of The Analects of Confucius, Mencius and The Classic of Filial Piety. On the other hand, the interpretive works of The Rites of Zhou, The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonials, Commentary of Gu Liang, and Erya use the expression of “釋曰 ” (as the explanation goes), while the interpretation of Commentary of Gongyang uses “解云 ” (as the explanation goes). All of these expressions serve the same function. The annotations and interpretations written by the scholars in the Han and Tang Dynasties followed the traditions of the ancient masters. In other words, they were well grounded and relatively closer to the historical facts, as well as very detailed in the explanation of words. Despite of these merits, these works seemed rather conservative. In case of errors or obscurity, the writer of interpretations always tried to strain the explanations as an effort of “疏不破注 ” (the interpretation should not question or challenge the annotation). To make things worse, these conservative interpretations were usually lengthy, verbose and implicit. In the Song Dynasty, various Confucian scholars considered such a practice as failing to interpret the gist of the classics, and started to write their own annotations and explanations, such as Commentaries of The Book of Changes by Cheng Yi, The Original Meaning of The Book of Changes, Commentaries of The Book of Songs, Commentaries of the Four Books, and General Interpretation of The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonials by Zhu Xi, and Commentaries of The Book of Documents by Cai Shen. Generally speaking, the scholars in the Song Dynasty not only expressed their own opinions, but also elaborated on the essence of the classics based on their personal experiences rather than exegeses of individual characters and words. They were not afraid of breaking the shackles of traditions and willing to appreciate the expressive tones in the classics at the same time, so their interpretations were more appropriate and subtle than previous ones. On the other hand, however, without due effort in text exegeses, there would inevitably be many cases of inaccuracy. What’ s more, their innovative opinions could be subjective or partial sometimes. All in all, both the annotations and interpretations in the Han and Tang Dynasties and those in the Song Dynasty had their own drawbacks and merits, and each could serve as a useful guide to our study of the classics. In the Qing Dynasty, scholars considered the Confucian studies of the Song Dynasty as shallow and empty and emphasized the importance of explanations and interpretations through textual exegeses and ancient laws and regulations as the scholars in the Han Dynasty had done. Great achievements were made in text explanation and evidence investigation, but the works in this period were tedious and meticulous. Though they considered themselves superior than the scholars in the Song and Tang Dynasties, but their studies seemed almost the

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same as those of the Han and Tang Dynasties compared with relative strengths and weaknesses compared the scholars of the Song Dynasty. With regard to evidence investigation, however, the study in the Qing Dynasty was far more sophisticated than its predecessors in the Tang and Song Dynasties. The productive period of the Qing Dynasty witnessed the completion of a great number of interpretive works about ancient classics, some of which were later collectively titled Explanatory Notes and Commentaries of Thirteen Classics. Some of the well-known pieces are Explanatory Notes and Commentaries of The Book of Documents by Sun Xingyan, Correct Interpretation of The Rites of Zhou by Sun Yirang, Correct Interpretation of The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonials by Hu Peihui, Correct Interpretation of The Analects of Confucius by Liu Baonan, Correct Interpretation of Mencius by Jiao Xun, and Interpretations of Erya by Hao Yixing. Among all these profound and thorough works, Correct Interpretation of The Rites of Zhou embodies the highest achievements of the Han learning in the Qing Dynasty.

19.3.2  Annotations and Interpretations of Other Classics In Chinese bibliography, the annotations and commentaries of the Confucian classics are called “注疏” , while those of other classics are generally called “箋 注” . The latter covers relevant works of various fields, such as Commentary and Explanation on Well-Known Law Cases of the Tang Dynasty, Compendium of Materia Medica and Annotations to Shuowen Jiezi and Explanations of Regional Dialects. As the content of the specialized fields is beyond the scope of the present  chapter, we will briefly discuss the annotations and commentaries of literature,  history, and different schools of thoughts. In pre-Qin scholars’ works of different schools, some articles already interpreted  the thoughts of previous or contemporary masters. For example, “Interpretation of Laozi’ s Teachings” and “Explanation of Laozi’ s Teachings” in Hanfeizi explained the writer’ s understanding of Laozi’ s works from the perspective of legalism. In the same book of Guanzi, some writings, such as “Explanation of Xingshi” “Explanation of Lizheng Jiubai” and “Explanation of Banfa” , offered explanations  to the articles of “Xingshi” “Lizheng” and “Banfa” (“Jiubai” is a chapter in the part of “Lizheng” )30. Obviously, these explanatory articles were later attached to the 30

Here is an example of the use of one article to explain another in the books of thoughts of different schools. The article “Xing Shi” in Guanzi contains the lines “山高而不崩，則祈羊至矣； 淵深 而不涸，則沈玉極矣” (If the mountain is high and stable, people will offer sheep as sacrifice there;  if the water is deep and never dries up, people will come to pray for blessings by dropping jade). In the same book, the article “Explanation of Xingshi” contained the following explanation: “山者， 物之高者也。惠者，主之高行也；慈者，父母之高行也；忠者，臣之高行也；孝者，子婦之 高行也。故山高而不崩，則祈羊至；主惠而不解 ( 懈 )，則民奉養；父母慈而不解，則子婦順； 臣下忠而不解，則爵禄至；子婦孝而不解，則美名附。故節高而不解，則所欲得矣，解則不得。 故曰 :‘山高而不崩，則祈羊至矣。’ (The mountain is something high. The high deed of a king

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original ones by scholars of Guanzi’ s theory. As articles of this type were written primarily for meaning interpretation rather than text exegeses, they were not taken as seriously as the annotations and commentaries in later ages. If we agree not to deem such cases as explanatory notes or commentaries, the annotations and interpretations of the works in the sections of “History” “Thoughts of Ancient Scholars and Schools” and “Collections” probably started to appear in the Eastern Han Dynasty, much later than those of the Confucian classics. The recorded works, such as “Sound and Meaning Interpretations” for Historical Records of the Han Dynasty written by Fu Qian and Ying Shao, Annotation of The Annals of Lü Buwei and Annotation of Huainanzi by Gao You, and Textual Components in The Verse of Chu by Wang Yi, were all completed in the Eastern Han Dynasty. From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Six Dynasties, apart from the studies on Confucian classics, those on metaphysical classics had also made great progress. Books such as Laozi and Zhuangzi were highly acclaimed as classics with abundant annotations and commentaries, including the well-known works of Annotations of Laozi by Wang Bi in the Wei Dynasty, Annotations of Zhuangzi by Guo Xiang in the Jin Dynasty, and Annotations of Liezi by Zhang Zhan in the Jin Dynasty. At the same time, the study of history had also been advanced, yet the focus of most annotative works was still History of the Han Dynasty. Besides, in his annotation of Records of the Three Kingdoms, Pei Songzhi in the Song Dynasty of the Northern and Southern Dynasties cited many materials from privately compiled histories, unofficial histories, and biographies in order to investigate the historical facts, to record different story versions, and to fill up the missing links in the history. Three times  as long as the original book and abundant in materials, this work has always been a noteworthy annotation of history. What’ s more, Li Daoyuan in the Wei Dynasty wrote the commentary of Classic of Waterways by Sang Qin in the Han Dynasty. With materials as rich as those in Annotation of Records of the Three Kingdoms, Annotation of Classic of Waterways is a valuable reference book to the study of waterways in China. In the four sections or branches of literature, “Collection” had just come into being at this time, and its content was far less important than that of “History” or “Thoughts” . Therefore, annotations specially written for literary collections or poetry anthology were still very rare. The Tang Dynasty witnessed great achievements in annotative works not only of Confucian classics but also of the books on history, thoughts and literary collections. Previous annotative works of Records of the Grand Historian and Historical Records of the Han Dynasty were summarized and reviewed. To be specific, Annotation of Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Zhen, Correct is his kindness; the high deed of parents is their love; the high deed of a minister is his loyalty; the high deed of a son is his filial piety. If a mountain is high and stable, people will come to offer sheep  and pray. If a king is always kind, his people will provide for him; if the parents are always loving, the son will be obedient; if the ministers are always loyal, they will be granted titles and fortune; if a son is always filial and obedient, he will be given a good reputation. That is to say, if one always  keeps his virtue, he will get what he wants. If he slackens, he will not get what he wants. That is the meaning of the sentence). The rest of the explanations were omitted.

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Interpretation of Records of the Grand Historian by Zhang Shoujie, and The Variorum of Records of the Grand Historian by Pei Yin in the Song Dynasty of the Northern and Southern Dynasties all served as important references for the reading of the original book. As for History of the Han Dynasty, Yan Shigu’ s annotation heavily drew on the previous works since Fu Qian and Ying Shao. The annotation of History of the Later Han Dynasty was written by Confucian scholar Zhang Da’ an and others under the leadership of Prince Zhanghuai31. All these annotative works became important references for the reading of the three classics of history. Annotations of the books of “Thoughts” included Yin Zhizhang’ s annotation of Guanzi and Yang Liang’ s annotation of Xunzi. Yang Liang’ s work was relatively superior to that of Yin Zhizhang, but the latter was still widely used by the readers of Guangzi. In the section of “Collection” , the most noteworthy work should be the annotations of Selections of Refined Literature. Selections of Refined Literature compiled by Xiao Tong is a comprehensive anthology of poetry and parallel prose from the Pre-Qin Period to the Liang Dynasty. It has such a great influence on the subsequent literary creation that Du  Fu, the great poet in the Tang Dynasty, considered “thorough understanding of Selections of Refined Literature” as an important aspect of literary cultivation. Great litterateur like Du Fu and Han Yu all put much effort in the study of this work. There had been quite a few annotations since Xiao Tong finished the project  of Selections of Refined Literature, and, in particular, Cao Xian in the Sui Dynasty was a well-known scholar specialized in this field. Unfortunately, all these earlier  works are now lost. Drawing on Cao Xian’ s academic achievements, Li Shan in the Tang Dynasty wrote the now popular Annotation of Selections of Refined Literature, boasting a wide coverage of one thousand and sixty or seventy types of cited materials. For the readers in later times, this annotation helped them not only to read the original book, but also to collate the ancient texts according to the cited materials, and to search and edit the lost ancient books. Today, the actual use of Annotation of Selections of Refined Literature goes far beyond its original purpose, and the book has become an essential reference for the study of text exegeses32 and ancient literature. However, some scholars in the Tang Dynasty found Li’ s annotation complicated and redundant, containing “only the explanations of the events rather than the meanings” . In the period of Kaiyuan under the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, Lü Yanzuo synthesized the annotative works by Lü Yanji, Liu Liang, Zhang Xian, Lü Xiang and Li Zhouhan under the title of Annotations by Five Ministers, which aimed to outshine Li’ s work. In spite of being complicated 31

Records of Classics and Commentaries in History of the Sui Dynasty included Sounds in His- tory of the Later Han Dynasty by Liu Fang of the Wei Dynasty in the Northern Dynasties, Annotation of the Standard Pronunciations in the Han Dynasty by Chen Zangjing, and The Standard Pronunciations in the Han Dynasty by Xiao Gai in the Jin Dynasty. While these books are all lost today, they might have been consulted for the compilation of Prince Huaizhang’s annotation. 32 For example, Explanation and Investigation of the Ancient Characters in Selections of Refined Literature by Xue Chuanjun in the Qing Dynasty is an interpretative work based on Li Shan’s annotation about ancient loan characters.

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and redundant, Li’ s work contained the sources of allusions that allow further text interpretation, and it offered explanation about both the events and the meanings.  By contrast, the content of Annotations by Five Ministers was coarse or even meaningless. For example, a line of explaining the hunting scene described in A fupoem on the Western Capital by Ban Gu is “ 許 少施巧，秦成力折，掎僄狡 33， 扼猛噬，脱角挫脰 34，徒搏獨殺” (Xu Shao was swift and nimble in movement, and Qin Cheng was strong and powerful. They stood up to the fierce beast and kept its fangs at bay. They pulled off its horns and twisted off its neck, and, singlehandedly, defeated the beast and ended its life). Li’ s annotation was an honest, simple statement of “許少、秦成未詳” (There is no detailed information about Xu Shao and Qing Cheng), but the Five Ministers’ annotation was “昔人之捷人 壯士，搏殺猛獸” (These past heroes fought boldly with beasts and killed them), which was neither informative nor sincere. Therefore, it is fair to say that since the Tang Dynasty, critics had generally considered that the annotation by Li Shan is superior to that by the “Five Ministers” . After the Tang Dynasty, the individual collections of some famous scholars also had annotations. In the Song Dynasty, the poetry collection by Du Fu boasted a thousand different versions of annotations, and Han Yu’ s collection was said to  have five hundred versions of annotations. With such a great number, it is not hard  to imagine how complicated and repetitive these works were. Some annotations of the famous ci-poets’ collections in the Song Dynasty, however, were more concise and proper, as the annotators and poets were living in the same period of time, and the annotators had studied the works quite thoroughly. Such works included Annotation of Valley-Style Poems by Ren Yuan and Shi Rong, Annotation of Houshan Poem Collection by Ren Yuan, and Annotation of Wang Anshi’s Poem Collection by Li Bi35. In the Qing Dynasty, many more annotations of well-known literary collections started to appear, such as the following ones: 《杜 工 部 集 箋 注 》 錢謙益，簡稱錢箋，俗稱錢注杜詩 ； 《杜 少 陵 集 詳 注 》 仇兆鰲，簡稱《杜詩詳注》； 《杜 詩 鏡 銓 》 楊倫 ； 《李 太 白 集 注》 王琦 ； 《李 長 吉 歌 詩 匯 解 》 李賀撰，王琦注 ； 《王 右 丞 集 箋 注 》 王維撰，趙殿成注 ； 《玉 谿 生 詩 詳 注 》 李商隱撰，馮浩注 ； 《昌 黎 先 生 詩 集 注 》 顧嗣立 ； 《蘇文忠公詩編注集成》 王文誥 ； 《絶 妙 好 詞 箋》 周密編，厲鶚、查爲仁箋。 Annotations of Du Fu’s Literary Collection by Qian Qianyi, also known as Qian’s Annotations or Qian’s Annotations of Du’s Poems; 33

掎 (jǐ), to hold the feet. 僄狡 , nimble and strong beasts. 脰 , short neck. 35 The three aforementioned works are respectively annotations to the collected poems by Huang Tingjian, Chen Shidao and Wang Anshi. 34

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Comprehensive Annotations of Du Fu’s Literary Collection by Qiu Zhao’ ao, also known as Comprehensive Annotations of Du’s Poems; Interpretations of Du’s Poems by Yang Lun; Collected Annotations of Li Bai’s Literary Collection by Wang Qi; Collected Interpretations of Li He’s Poems by Wang Qi; Annotations and Interpretations of Wang Wei’s Collection by Zhao Diancheng; Thorough Annotations of Li Shangyin’s Poems by Feng Hao; Annotations of Han Yu’s Collection of Poems by Gu Sili; Synthesis of Annotations of Su Shi’s Collection of Poems by Wang Wengao; Commentaries of Excellent Ci-poems, edited by Zhou Mi, annotated by Li Xiao and Zha Weiren.

The above examples, though of various titles and diverse contents, are collectively known as “箋注” (notes and annotations). The term “ 箋” (notes) was firstly used in Commentaries of Mao’s Annotation of The Book of Songs by Zheng Xuan, which had the same meaning as “ 注” (annotation), and was often used in such phrases as “簽注” (comments) or “簽 記” (brief notes) in contemporary use. Despite of the common term, the specific  contents of these works differ greatly. Some were intended to explain the meanings  of characters; some to mark and explain the allusions and quotations; some to illustrate the evolution of the texts; some to reveal the historical background of the author or the events; some to interpret the thoughts and ideas, and some to comment on the merits and defects of the work. An annotative work may contain several different aspects of materials, and at the same time, focuses on different aspects due to its intended purposes or target audience. Take the different  versions of annotations of Du’ s poems for example, “詳注” (comprehensive annotations) featured a wide scope of coverage with detailed notes of allusions and quotations; while “ 笺 注 ” was more precise and profound so that the historical facts were used to interpret meanings. By comparison, “鏡銓” (annotations and interpretations) was more reader-friendly. Apart from the explanations of the meaning and events, it also offered suggestions for beginners by marking the boundaries between paragraphs and demonstrating the writing techniques. The appraisal of the merits and defects of an annotative work should not be solely determined by a singular criterion. For instance, it would be totally unacceptable to blame Qian’s Annotations for its incomplete explanation of literal allusions. Despite all the differences, an annotative work should always strive to be correct,  thorough and concise. Seen in this light, those annotative works were not without problems. For example, Comprehensive Annotations of Du’s Poems claims an abundant collection of the short commentaries and explanations about Du’ s poems before the 17th century. Although it offered great convenience for the readers, many unnecessary quotations still incurred aversion and criticism36. This is indeed 36

With regard to the two lines in the poem of “A Visiting Guest”: “幽棲地僻經過少，老病人扶再 拜難” (Living in such a desolate place, I have received very few visitors. Being old and sick, I need someone to hold me and find it difficult to make a bow), Comprehensive Annotations of Du’s Poems

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an issue of consideration for readers of annotations. In the past, there were some village school textbooks for pupils that were compiled by pedants and spread in the streets, usually receiving little attention from serious scholars. Though such textbooks appeared quite reader-friendly, readers may find in those annotations some ambiguous, superficial and useless “knowledge” . The following example is taken from such an annotation of Xie Fangde’ s poem in Collection of A Thousand Poets. (The annotative book was authored by Wang Xiang and Jin Sheng from Langya, with no further personal information) 尋得桃源好避秦，桃紅又是一年春。花飛莫遣隨流水，怕有漁郎來問津。( 謝 枋得《慶全庵桃花》詩 ) 王注 : 桃源，在常德府武陵縣。晉有漁人王道真，沿溪捕魚，見溪上流有桃花 逐水而來，因逆流而上，尋至洞口。入見桑麻鷄犬，桃花相映 ；平生未歷，不知 何境。問其土人，謂曰 : “吾等先世避秦之亂，來此居住，不知幾何歲月，亦不知 是何朝代，男耕女織，不與人世相通。君何爲至此 ?” 道真辭歸，以告太守，使 數十人往訪之，竟迷失其處。先生見桃花，而憶桃源之人避秦而隱，但見桃花開， 始知一歲之春，無時日紀也。使我居之，當花飛時，不使之隨流入溪。恐有漁郎 見之，來問津涯也。 Peach Blossom Land is a nice place to escape the clutches of the Qin Dynasty. Lovely blossoms imply the coming of a new spring. Do not let the petals fall in the flowing  water, lest a fisherman might notice and come for inquiry. (From the poem “On Peach  Blossoms in Qingquan Temple” by Xie Fangde) Wang’ s annotation: Peach Blossom Land is located in Wuling County, Changde Prefecture. In the Jin Dynasty, Wang Daozhen saw peach blossom petals flowing in  the river as he was walking along the bank for fishing. Tracing the petals upstream, he  discovered a cave and entered it. Then he saw mulberry trees and peach trees, as well as chickens and dogs. He had never seen such a view and known such a place. Upon inquiry, the residents replied, “Our ancestors had come here to to escape the tyranny of Qin. We do not know which year or month it is, and we do not know which dynasty it is now. Completely cut from the outside world, the men do the farming and the women do the weaving. How did you come here?” Daozhen then bid farewell and returned to report to the local official. Then dozens of people were mobilized to search for this place, but  they all lost the way. In this poem, the peach blossoms reminded the poet of the story about the refugees living in Peach Blossoms Land. The blossoms mark the start of a new spring without indicating the specific time or day. If I had a chance to live there, I  would take care not to let the petals fall in the flowing water, in case a fisherman would  notice and come for inquiry. contained four different sources of derivation: According to a poem by He Xun: One who lives in a  desolate place has much spare time; according to a poem by Xie Shuyuan: I wished for more such experiences; according to Song Zongbing (cited from History of the Southern Dynasties): When I returned Jiangling in illness, I said, “老病俱至，名山恐難遍觀” (Being old and sick, I’d have little chance to visit all the famous mountains); according to the ancient poem “A journey to Longxi”: Spare me of the second greeting.

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This piece of annotation has some problems. First of all, the line of “if I had a chance to live there” was just a perfunctory paraphrase of the original poem which failed to explain the real intention of the poet. As a patriot fighting against  the mongols at the end of the Song Dynasty, Xie Fangde repeatedly refused to serve the new dynasty after the fall of Song, and was eventually forced to move to the north, and staged a hunger strike until his death in Minzhong Temple of Beijing. What he meant to express in this poem is seek a refuge after the fall of Song. Wang’ s annotation, therefore, was indeed a far cry from the gist. Secondly, the story of Land of Peach Blossoms derived from Tao Qian’ s “Peach Blossom Spring” , in which the fisherman was not named. It was said that the same story  was also recorded in the book of Anecdotes About Spirits and Immortals Continued by Tao Qian, in which the fisherman was also not named, but an explanatory note  states that “ 漁人姓黄名道真” (the fisherman’ s name is Huang Daozhen). It is improper, therefore, for Wang to disregard the well- known “Peach Blossom Spring” in favor of an alternative explanation. What is worse, he even mistook the surname “王” (Wang) as “黄” (Huang), rendering the annotation even less reliable. Therefore, annotations as such are indeed useless and negligible. In the beginning, there was no marked difference between “箋” (notes) and “注” (annotations), though they were used for different purposes. The explanations of  literary works and allusions were called “注” , while the historical explanations, anecdotes, comments and other related materials were called “箋” . For example, Commentaries of Excellent Ci-poems by Li Xiao and Zha Weiren contains only commentaries but no annotations, because this book was primarily oriented to critics rather than beginners. A particular style of annotations of Confucian classics was called “集解” (variorum), such as Variorum of The Analects of Confucius by He Yan, and Variorum of Commentary of Gu Liang by Fan Ning. Variorum of The Analects not only synthesized the ideas of previous scholars, such as Kong Anguo, Bao Xian, Zhou (name unknown), Ma Rong, Zheng Xuan, Wei Chenqun, Wang Su, Zhou Shenglie, but also incorporated the ideas of He Yan. Variorum of Commentary of Gu Liang drew on the previous achievements of the writer’ s father Fan Wang, and “with joint efforts of several scholars and their students, each wrote about his  own knowledge and ideas and the proper explanations…. This work contained the ideas of different writers, with their own names signed, and was titled Variorum of Commentary of Gu Liang” (as cited in the preface)37. The annotative and investigative works bloomed in the Qing Dynasty, producing a great abundance of academic notes and commentaries. These scattered 37

The ideas of some of Fan Ning’s followers were found in the variorum, such as his cousin Fan Shao, his three sons Fan Tai, Fan Yong and Fan Kai. Besides, Du Yu wrote annotations of Commentary of Zuo and titled his work Combined Annotation of Spring and Autumn Annals and the Confucian Classics, because he meant to explain both The Spring and Autumn Annals and Commentary of Zuo at the same time. The meaning of “集解” (combined annotation) in this context is different  from “集解” (variorum) in He Yan’s and Fan Ning’s works.

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materials were later collected and appraised to contribute to the annotations and commentaries of the books categorized as “History” or “Thoughts” section. For the “History” section, there were Supplementary Annotations of History of the Han Dynasty and Variorum of History of the Later Han Dynasty by Wang Xianqian. For the “Thoughts” section, there were, among others, Variorum of Xunzi by Wang Xianqian, Variorum of Zhuangzi by Guo Qingfan, and Variorum of Hanfeizi by Wang Xianshen. Variorum of Xunzi, for instance, not only recorded the annotations by Yang Liang in the Tang Dynasty, but also incorporated the ideas of many scholars in the Qing Dynasty, such as Lu Wenchao, Wang Zhong, Hao Yixing, Wang Niansun, Wang Yinzhi, Gu Guangyi (known as Gu Qianli in the book), Liu Taigong, Chen Huan, Yu Yue, and of course Wang Xianqian himself. With these annotations and commentaries of different sources, the readers could learn about  the achievements of many scholars in one book, which is both convenient and beneficial for their own learning. This chapter mainly introduces the studies and annotations of the books of the “Four Sections” until the Qing Dynasty. As a matter of fact, the annotative works continued to expand after the Qing Dynasty, but they will not be covered in our present discussion. In a nutshell, all these annotative works are pieces of precious heritage of ancient classics, which deserve critical acceptance and further investigation.

19.4 Series and Reference Books 19.4.1 Series Series refers to a collection of books of one type or different types to facilitate searching. One of the contributions of series lies in preserving some less wellknown books. The Yupian Book of Characters by Gu Yewang in the Liang Dynasty is an example. The Expanded Yupian Book of Characters enriched by Tang Sunqiang and revised by Chen Pengnian and Qiu Yong in the Song Dynasty was the only copy available before the Guangxu Period of the Qing Dynasty. Although this version contained many more words than Gu’ s version, it deleted almost all the cited ancient books in the original annotations, so that the content of Gu’ s work was nearly invisible. In Guangxu Period of the Qing Dynastsy, Li Shuchang, then Ambassador to Japan, acquired four scattered volumes of the original book during his visit to Japan, and incorporated them in Guyi Series of Ancient Books, thus finally affording the readers a glimpse of the long-lost original copy of The Yupian Book of Characters. Some books that had received little attention usually had very few copies, and some short books were not easy for individual printing or preservation. By comparison, books in series were convenient for both printing and distribution. In other words, a series serves as an important source of the accessible books for readers.

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Book series might vary in size and scope, and cover a wide range of topics. Some could be further classified to allow convenient searches and checks, while  some voluminous ones with rich details could facilitate further exploration. Some of the works included Baichuan Series of Books by Zuo Gui in the Song Dynasty, Zhihai Series by Qian Xizuo in the Qing Dynasty, The Series of Origins of Classics by Zhang Haipeng, The Series of Zhibuzu Chamber by Bao Tingbo, and The Series of Yueya Hall by Wu Chongyao. All these were lengthy, voluminous and rich in content, and served as very useful sources of information for scholars. The wide range and diverse categories of such comprehensive series, however, may cause inconvenience for searching or checking. Besides, some series were marked for the categories due to different printing purposes. In terms of the content of series,  two categories could be identified: general series and specific series38. (1) General series cover a comprehensive range of books without distinguishing specific types The first category:“舉要” (main ideas), which collect the major works in different types of books to provide readers with the fundamental reading materials.  For example, Main Ideas of the “Four Sections” compiled and published by Zhonghua Book Company and Series of the Fundamentals in Chinese Studies by The Commercial Press were both completed by selecting the essential books in this regard. In comparison, the former covered a wider range, while the latter was more selective. The second category:“雜纂” (miscellaneous compilation), which covers a wide range of topics, such as the aforementioned Baichuan Series of Books and The Series of Zhibuzu Chamber. In particular, among the several books included in Volume Twenty-six of The Series of Zhibuzu Chamber, Readings of The Book of Changes by Quan Zuwang in the Qing Dynasty is a work on the Confucian classic; Investigation of the Forged Books in All Times by Yao Jiheng in the Qing Dynasty is a book on bibliography; “Shengshui Yantan” Sketches of History by Wang Pizhi in the Song Dynasty belonged to the genre of sketches, and Ci-poems by Caochuang by Zhou Mi in the Song Dynasty was a poetry collection. Such a diversity indicated well the wide scope of motif selection of some series. The third category: “景舊” (old copies), which is meant to preserve the original conditions of the ancient books. For example, The “Shili” Series by Huang Pilie in the Qing Dynasty and Guyi Series of Ancient Books by Li Shuchang mostly imitated the copies of the ancient books in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. The fourth category: “輯佚” (stray documents), which were searched from the stray copies of ancient books in other materials and edited and published as a book. For example, “Yuhan Shanfang” Series of Scattering Books by Ma Guohan39 in the 38

Please refer to pages 104-120, Study of Bibliography by Wang Pijiang, The Commercial Press, 1934. 39 It was originally compiled by Zhang Zongyuan, who also compiled Investigations of Records of Classics and Commentaries in History of the Sui Dynasty.

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Qing Dynasty included six hundred and thirty-two scattering books from the Han to the Tang Dynasty, and was indeed a voluminous work in this category. (2) Specific series collect books of the same age, place, author or academic subject The first category: “專代” (specific times) contained books of a particular time  or times. For example, Series of the Han and Wei Dynasties by Cheng Rong in the Ming Dynasty originally contained thirty-eight books, and later unscrupulously increased to ninety-six books, some of which were actually written in the Tang Dynasty. Series of Academic Books in the Qing Dynasty was also a series of a specific time. The second category: “專地” (specific place) contained books about a particular  place in order to preserve the local literature and documents. Examples of this category included Series of Books About Yongjia by Sun Yiyan from Yongjia in the Qing Dynasty, and Series of Books About Wuxing by Liu Chenggan from Wuxing. The third category: “專人” (specific person) contained books written by a particular scholar in order to give a global view of his academic achievements, such as “Chuanshan” Series of Books, which contained the works by Wang Fuzhi, a scholar in the Qing Dynasty, “Jingyunlou” Series by Duan Yucai, and Series of Zhang’s Works by Zhang Bingling in modern times. The fourth category:“ 專學” (specific subject) contained books of a particular  subject in order to offer proper or rich materials for relevant studies. For example, the voluminous series of the Confucian classics was Annotations and Interpretations of the Thirteen Classics, and the grand series of the historical study was The Twenty-Five Histories. Gu Yanwu compiled a short series of ancient Chinese phonology named Five Books on Phonology, including The Study of Sounds and Pronunciations, The Sounds and Pronunciations in The Book of Changes, The Sounds and Pronunciations in The Book of Songs, Correction of the Supplementary Edition of Qieyun in the Tang Dynasty and The Book of Ancient Phonological Charts. Series books of this category were very important, in that scholars could search for the useful books by specific subjects according to his own needs. Series in this category also claimed the largest number of books, some of which are listed as follows for reference. 《古經解匯函》 《通志堂經解》 《皇清經解》 《續皇清經解》 《小學匯函》 《澤存堂五種》

《九通》

清鍾謙鈞刻，專收漢唐諸儒解經的書 ； 清納蘭性德刻，專收宋元人注經的著作 ； 清阮元刻，專收清人解經的書 ； 清王先謙刻，續阮書 ； 鍾謙鈞刻，專收有關文字音韻訓詁的書 ； 清張士俊刻，包括《玉篇》、《廣韻》、宋郭忠恕《佩 觿》、宋賈昌朝《群經音辨》、元李文仲《字鑒》 等五種 “小學” 書； 清武英殿匯刻唐杜佑《通典》、宋鄭樵《通志》、元 馬端臨《文獻通考》等九部屬於政書類的史書 ；

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《二十二子》 《漢魏百三名家集》 《全上古秦漢三國六朝文》 《漢 三 國 兩 晉 南 北 朝 詩 》 《全唐文》 《全唐詩》 《五朝詩别裁》

General Knowledge of Classic Chinese Bibliography

清浙江官書局刻先秦至漢代的子書 ； 明張溥編，六朝文學家的作品略備於此 ； 清嚴可均編 ； 近人丁福保編 ； 清嘉慶朝敕編 ； 清康熙朝敕編 ； 清沈德潛、張景星等編的唐、宋、元、明、清朝詩 的選集； 《全宋詞》 近人唐圭璋編 ； 《彊村叢書》 清朱孝臧匯刻唐、宋、金、元人詞 ； 《四印齋所刻詞》 清王鵬運匯刻唐、宋、金、元人詞 ； 《元曲選》 明臧懋循匯刻元人雜劇 ； 《稗海》 明商濬編刻，專收古代小説。 Aggregation of Commentaries of Ancient Classics by Zhong Qianjun in the Qing Dynasty, a series about scholars’ explanations and commentaries of the Confucian classics in the Han and Tang Dynasties; “Tongzhitang” Commentaries of the Confucian Classics by Nalan Xingde, a series about the commentaries of the Confucian classics in the Song and Yuan Dynasties; Commentaries of the Confucian Classics in the Qing Dynasty by Ruan Yuan in the Qing Dynasty, a series about commentaries of the Confucian Classics in the Qing Dynasty; Commentaries of the Confucian Classics in the Qing Dynasty (Continued) by Wang Xianqian in the Qing Dynasty, a continuation of the series by Ruan; Aggregation of the “Little Learning” by Zhong Qianjun, a series on explanation of Chinese characters and sound system; “Zecuntang” Series of Five Books by Zhang Shijun in the Qing Dynasty, a series of “little learning” , including “Yupian” Book of Characters, Guangyun, Peixi by Guo Zhongshu in the Song Dynasty, and Distinguishing the Sounds in Classics by Jia Changchao in the Song Dynasty and A Critique of Shuowen Scholars by Li Wenzhong in the Yuan Dynasty; Series of Nine Books by Wu Yingdian in the Qing Dynasty, a series on politics, including An Encyclopedic History of Institutions by Du You in the Tang Dynasty, A Comprehensive Record of History by Zheng Qiao in the Song Dynasty, and A General Study of Documents by Ma Duanlin in the Yuan Dynasty; Twenty-Two Schools of Thoughts by the Official Publishing House in the Qing Dynasty, a series about different schools of thoughts from the Pre-Qin Period to the Han Dynasty; Series of One Hundred and Three Writers in the Han and Wei Dynasties by Zhang Fu in the Ming Dynasty, a series of books by well-known writers during the Six Dynasties; A Complete Series of Prose Works in the Remote Past, the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Three Kingdoms Period and the Six Dynasties, by Yan Kejun in the Qing Dynasty; Poetry in the Han Dynasty, the Three Kingdoms Period, the Jin Dynasty, the Southern Dynasties and the Northern Dynasties by Ding Fubao in modern times; The Complete Prose of the Tang Dynasty by the royal court during Jiaqing Period of the Qing Dynasty;

19.4  Series and Reference Books

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The Complete Poetry of the Tang Dynasty by the royal court during Kangxi Period of the Qing Dynasty; Collection of Poetry in Five Dynasties by Shen Deqian, Zhang Jingxing and others in the Qing Dynasty, a series about poetry in the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties; The Complete Ci-poetry of the Song Dynasty by Tang Guizhang in modern times; “Qiangcun” Series by Zhu Xiaozang in the Qing Dynasty, a book series about cipoetry in the Tang, Song, Jin and Yuan Dynasties; “Siyinzhai” Series by Wang Pengyun in the Qing Dynasty, a book series about cipoetry in the Tang, Song, Jin and Yuan Dynasties; A Collection of Qu in the Yuan Dynasty by Zang Maoxun in the Ming Dynasty, a series of zaju-drama in the Yuan Dynasty; “Baihai” Series by Shang Jun in the Ming Dynasty, a series of ancient stories.

As the books series are great in number, only the most common ones are listed above for reference. The Commercial Press had compiled Synthesis of Book Series before the year of 1949, which contains the most important books from various series. Some were typed and printed out, others were photocopied to preserve the original features (such as the original stray copies of The Yupian Book of Characters previously collected in Guyi Series of Ancient Books). This was a very practical selection. Given the large number of any book series, it is not easy to find a suitable book  from the series. To address this problem, some reference lists, such as Booklist of Series40, had been compiled. However, they merely copied the titles of the series and the book entries, thus being still inconvenient for use. Before 1949, Jin Buying compiled Index of Book Series, which classified different sections according to the radicals, and listed the names of series for each book in order to facilitate checking. The drawback of this work was, on the one hand, the limited number of books. On the other hand, as a reader has to search for the name of the series under the subheadings, the total number of sub-headings (that is, the total number of types of books) remains unclear. Later than that, Dictionary of Book Series compiled by Yang Jialuo followed a similar format as that in Index of Book Series but contained more books. After 1949, the three-volume Synthesis of Chinese Book Series was compiled by Shanghai Library. The first volume was a general index of  all the series classified and arranged ; the second volume contained all the books in different sections, following the order of “the Confucian classics”, “History” “Thoughts” and “Collections” ; the third volume included the titles of the books and the index. With 2,797 types of book series included, this project was unprecedented in both the great scale and the precise format. The Synthesis allows readers to search for books according to the sections, writers or titles, thus remedying the flaws of the previous series indexes. 41

40

Booklist of Series 匯刻書目 was compiled by Gu Xiu in the Qing Dynasty. The classification of the general index for book series is not entirely the same as that in our dis-  cussion, and is not explained here in detail. 41

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19.4.2  Reference Books Many reference books had appeared since the Six Dynasties for the purpose of helping readers and writers to learn about the historical backgrounds or to search for the origin of cited works or allusions. The so-called “類書” (reference books), at first, was records by categories. In other words, the compiler sorted out the materials in ancient books by topics (such as astronomy, geography, monarchs, officials, personnel, and flora and fauna), and classified them into different categories and types to facilitate searching. The famous reference books in the Six Dynasties, such as Royal Reader and Imperial Reader of “Xiuwen”, are all lost now, so they are not discussed for now. The important reference books since the Sui and Tang Dynasties have been introduced in the fourth chapter “Explaining Word Meanings” , including Book Excerpts from the Northern Hall by Yu Shinan of the Tang Dynasty, Classified Anthology of Literary Works by Ouyang Xun, For Beginners by Xu Jian, The Six Tablets of the Masters Bai and Kong compiled by Bai Juyi of the Tang and continued by Kong Chuan of the Song Dynasty and Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia compiled by Li Fang of the Song Dynasty, and Reference Book of “Yuanjian” compiled by the government of the Qing Dynasty. All these reference books adopted a similar style: First, the book usually covered a wide range of categories from astronomy, geography to biology. Second, the specific contents of the categories, on the other hand, were slightly different. For example, Classified Anthology of Literary Works and Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia contained excerpted materials from the books in each category, occasionally with the original connotations. By contrast, For Beginners, The Six Tablets and Reference Book of “Yuanjian” contained three types of materials: The first type is the excerpts from the ancient books, which is the same as Classified Anthology and Imperial Encyclopedia. The second type is “pairs of events” , which were notes attached under the entries of events or allusions with antithetical expressions of two, three or four characters. Two examples of “pair of events” written in the Section of “Heaven” of For Beginners are indicated as follows: 建木拒松—— 《吕氏春秋》曰：“白人 42之南，建木之下，日中無影，蓋天地之中 也。”《山海經》曰：“大荒之中有方山，上青松，名曰拒格之松，日月所出入。” 貫白虹夾赤鳥——《漢書》曰：“鄒陽上書説梁孝王曰：“昔荆軻慕燕丹之義，白 虹貫日，太子畏之。”《左傳》曰：“哀公六年，楚有雲如衆赤鳥，夾日以飛。……” 43 “The Jianmu tree” and “the Juge Pine” —According to The Annals of Lü Buwei, “To the south of the white people’ s residence, the Sun does not cast a shadow under the Jianmu tree, as it is the center of the Heaven and the Earth.” According to The Classic of Mountains and Rivers, “On a square mountain in the far, far away place stood an

42

白人 was originally written as “白民”, and later changed to avoid the taboo of the name of Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty. 43 In the original format, the annotation was aligned right between the two lines of text. The transcribed text adopted a single-line format, with the long dash to mark the annotation.

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evergreen pine tree called Juge, and it was the place that the Sun and the Moon pass by.” “The white rainbow” and “the red birds” —According to History of the Han Dynasty, “Zou Yang once told King Xiao of Liang, Jing Ke admired Prince Dan of Yan for his righteousness so that a white rainbow ran through the Sun, but the Prince still felt uncertain.” According to Commentary of Zuo, “In the sixth year of the reign of Duke Ai, a cloud as a crowd of red birds appeared in the land of Chu and flew along the both sides  of the Sun.”

The third type is “attached texts” , that is, to put all the poems, fu-poems and prose related to the topic in the attachment. In For Beginners, for example, the excerpts in the first part and “pairs of events” in the second part could enrich readers’ knowledge of allusions and other aspects, while the “attached texts” can serve as model writings. What’ s more, “pairs of events” can also be used as materials in the writing. All these aspects demonstrate the purpose of reference book compilation. The format of “pair of events” gradually evolved into such books as “Shilei” Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of the Confucian Classics and History, and Reference Book of Two-Character Words. “Shilei” Encyclopedia was compiled by Wu Shu in the Song Dynasty, which recorded the objects and events in the form of “pianfu”, with notations listed below the sentence. Every two lines serve as the entry title of an event or object, and are also easy to remember when read as a coherent text. A not so good example of this format was a much later book named The Children’s Knowledge Treasure. Encyclopedia of the Confucian Classics and History and Reference Book of Two-Character Words also introduced the entries first and then provided the source of citations, but they did not use the format of paired antitheses. In particular, the entries in Reference Book of Two-Character Words only contained two characters. Apart from the comprehensive reference books, there were also reference books of specific topics. Some are about surnames, such as “Jijiu” Book of Surnames by Wang Yingling in the Song Dynasty; some are about seasons, such as “Yuzhu” Treasury by Du Taiqing in the Sui Dynasty and A Reference Book About Years and Seasons by Chen Yuanqian in the Song Dynasty; some are about plants, such as A Book of Flowers by Wang Xiangjin in the Ming Dynasty and Extended Book of Flowers in the Qing Dynasty. Besides the reference books about objects and events, the ancient scholars also copied and simplified the excerpts from ancient books for easy reading. Main Ideas in Books by Wei Zheng in the Tang Dynasty and The Book of “Yilin” by Ma Zong are two books of this type, which mostly contained the excerpts from the books about the thoughts of different schools in the Pre-Qin Period. Taken from the books of the same category, these excerpts could also be regarded as reference books. A new format of reference books appeared at the end of the Song Dynasty, when Yin Shifu compiled Reference Book of Rhymes, which classified the materials according to different rhyme entries. Such a format allows for objective  classification and convenient searching, but a book like this was no longer a

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reference book. Two books that also adopted rhyme classification are The Yongle Canon in the Ming Dynasty and “Peiwen” Rhyme Book in the Qing Dynasty, with slightly different forms of compilation. The former classified the event entries into different rhymes according to their first characters, while the latter, the last  characters. Today, there are only incomplete copies of The Yongle Canon, but even the remaining parts still make it a masterpiece due to its extensive coverage of materials. In brief, reference books primarily consist in facilitating the searching process. A user can easily obtain useful information or find clues about the useful  materials. Moreover, reference books also offer access to abundant allusions and  rich vocabulary. What’ s more, reference books contribute to the collection and collation of stray documents of the ancient times. The copied excerpts in reference books, though not original and not complete, could still  offer readers a glimpse  of at least a part of the ancient books. Some reference books, such as The Yongle Canon, often contained full-length ancient books. In the Qing Dynasty, no less than a few hundred books were identified from The Yongle Canon, including the three classical plays that are now deemed as precious reference materials for the study on the Southern Xi (drama) in the Song and Yuan Dynasties: The Young Butcher Named Sun, Zhang Xie the Top Scholar, and Twists and Turns in Life. As the reference books before the Song Dynasty were based on earlier copies of ancient books, they served as good references for text criticism. Therefore, many critics and collators of ancient books since the Qing Dynasty had relied heavily on such reference books as Main Ideas in Books, For Beginners, Classified Anthology of Literary Works, The Six Tablets of the Masters Bai and Kong and Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia in terms of collation of ancient texts. Readers of ancient reference books should also be aware of the fact that many materials were not directly taken from the original copies; instead these reference books usually copied each other, which inevitably caused many errors, careless omissions and contradictions. Scholars in the Ming Dynasty seemed particularly keen on forging ancient books and ancient events. Some reference books at that time, such as “Qianque” Reference Book by Chen Renxi, contained some very unreliable materials. It is fair to say that, except The Yongle Canon, the reference books since the Song Dynasty could at best serve as an index of materials, while those before the Song Dynasty were more reliable. Anyway, errors and contradictions in such books should be treated carefully.

19.5 System of Compilation of Ancient Books As the ancient conditions and habits of book compilation were different from the  present time, the system of book compilation of ancient books was also distinctive from today. Unlike modern books, most ancient books did not offer any usage guide. Without any prior knowledge about the compilation system, a common

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reader would have great difficulty in understanding ancient books. This section will briefly introduce the compilation style of ancient books so as to offer some  help for reading.

19.5.1  “Inner” and “Outer” When compiling books, ancient scholars often referred the tenets, guidelines or essential principles of such books as “the inner parts” while mentioning the peripheral or miscellaneous passages as “outer parts” or “miscellaneous parts” . For example, the modern version of Zhuangzi consists of thirty-three parts, including seven “inner parts” , fifteen “outer parts” and eleven “miscellaneous parts” . Apart from the “Tian Xia” (Under the heaven) of the “miscellaneous parts” , which serves as the preface to the whole book, the classification of other  parts all fit in the aforementioned criterion. What’ s more, as the supporting part  for the “inner parts” , the “outer parts” are still largely systematic, while the “miscellaneous parts” seem less systematic, as represented by “introduction” 44 and “extended arguments” . Besides Zhuangzi, extant texts include twenty-one “inner parts” and thirty-three “outer parts of Huainanzi in the section of “Thoughts of Different Schools” in History of the Han Dynasty. As Yan Shigu put in his annotation: “内篇論道，外篇雜説” (The inner parts explain the main idea, and the outer parts discuss miscellaneous issues). The twenty-one inner parts became what is now known as Huainanzi45. According to the twenty-first inner part “Summary of the Main Ideas” , these twenty-one inner parts are regarded as a whole. As the outer parts of Huainanzi are all lost today, there is no way for us to have a glimpse of the content. What’ s more, in the book Baopuzi by Ge Hong in the Qin Dynasty, the inner parts discussed the cultivation of deities and immortals, and the outer articles discussed the mortal businesses. This is because the cultivation was the utmost concern for Ge Hong, a believer in existence of Taoist deities and immortals and the earthly life was unimportant yet unavoidable in comparison with his belief. In All About Historiography by Liu Zhiji the historian in the Tang Dynasty, the inner parts discussed the origin and development of historical studies and the theories of historical writing. Among the outer parts, the first two parts of “Establishment of Official Historians” and “History of the Past and the Present” were historical accounts, and the rest were all miscellaneous sketches of various topics. In General Principles of Literature and History by Zhang Xuecheng, a historian in the Qing Dynasty, the inner parts introduced the theories, and the outer parts recorded the arguments about the compilation layouts in compiling local gazet-

44

緒言 , introduction. 緒 , the head of a silk thread. 緒言 refers to an introductory part to be clarified and elaborated, as explained in Zhuangzi. 45 Huainanzi was compiled by the guest scholars of Liu An in the Han Dynasty.

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teers, which demonstrated the application of Zhang’s historical theories . The above examples show that the so-called “inner parts” in ancient books are, at least for the authors, the guidelines and essence of the books which deserve more attention from readers.

19.5.2 Prefaces For a school of thought, a part or even a book, it is sometimes necessary to explain or describe its main ideas and background. In ancient books, such content was either written by the author himself, or attached by scholars of a particular school, thus constituting the preface of the entire book, or prefaces of all the parts in a book. Unlike those in modern books, the prefaces to ancient books were usually attached to the end, such as “Summary of the Main Ideas” in Huainanzi, “Author’ s Preface” in Records of the Grand Historian, “The Preface” in History of the Han Dynasty, “Preface to Shuowen Jiezi” by Xu Shen, and “The Preface” to Classic Book of Literary Criticism by Liu Xie. What’ s more, the final parts of The Analects of Confucius and of Mencius, respectively named “Yao Shuo” and “Jin Xin” , were both prefaces written by compilers, though no “preface” was explicitly stated in the title. The last part of Zhuangzi “Tian Xia” (under the heaven) discusses different schools of thoughts and evaluated the status of Zhuangzi’ s theory as below. 芴漠無形，變化無常。死與生與，天地並與，神明往與 ? 芒乎何之，忽乎何適 ? 萬物畢羅，莫足以歸。古之道術有在於是者，莊周聞其風而悦之。……其於本 也 宏大而辟，深閎而肆，其於宗也可謂稠適而上遂矣 47。 That the shadowy and still is without bodily form; that change and transformation are ever proceeding, but incapable of being determined. What is death? What is life? What is meant by the union of Heaven and Earth? Does the spiritual intelligence go away? Shadowy, where does it go? Subtle, whither does it proceed? All things being arranged as they are, there is no one place which can be fitly ascribed to it. Such were  the questions belonging to the scheme of Dao in antiquity, and they were appreciated by Zhuang Zhou. When he heard of such subjects, he was delighted with them.… As regards his dealing with the Root (origin of all things), he is comprehensive and great, opening up new views, deep, vast, and free. As regards the Author and Master (the Great Dao Itself), be maybe pronounced exact and correct, carrying our thoughts to range and play on high.

46

This is based on the current version of General Principles of Literature and History. In this paragraph, the part from the beginning to “莫足以歸” describe the grandeur and subtlety of “Dao”; the rest part consists of complimentary remarks on Zhuangzi’s philosophy of Dao. The meanings are too intricate and too profound to explain here.

47

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In the above excerpts, Zhuangzi was referred to as “ 其 ” (he), which indicates that this passage was other scholars’ comments on Zhuangzi. In other words, this is a preface that scholars of this school wrote to Zhuangzi. Either “Author’ s Preface to Records of the Grand Historian” or “Preface to History of the Han Dynasty” not only introduced the historical and academic background, the motivation and process of writing and the compilation style, but also summarized the main idea of each part. For example, “Author’ s Preface to Records of the Grand Historian” contained such a paragraph as follows. 救人於戹，48 振人不贍 49，仁者有乎。不既 50信，不倍言 51，義者有取焉。作《游俠 列傳》第六十四。 The swordsmen saved people from danger, which demonstrated their kindheartedness and sense of justice. They kept their words and take resolute actions, and are true to their great honors and loyalty. This is about the sixty-fourth part “Biographies of Swordsmen” .

The above excerpt is a short preface to a part. The short preface to each part in Records of the Grand Historian and History of the Han Dynasty were all written by the author himself and later assembled as a complete longer chapter. An ancient scholar who were expert in some field of research tended to write a preface for each part of a particular book, such as those for the parts in The Book of Documents allegedly written by Confucius, and those for Mao’s Annotation of The Book of Songs written by scholars before and in the Han Dynasty. These prefaces used to have separate editions at that time, and in today’ s annotated versions, they are placed at the beginning of the respective parts. To understand the main ideas of a mere part or an entire book, readers should better consult the author’ s preface or the introduction by others of school. Some introductions such as Preface to Mao’s Annotation of The Book of Songs are also valuable reference materials. Therefore, the knowledge about prefaces of ancient books is indeed necessary.

19.5.3  Variations and Adjunctions Due to the limited writing conditions in ancient times, differences or errors may arise from the transcription of books. Many ancient books were passed down among several scholars of a particular school of thought, so it is not clear whom the main author was, and other authors always added new chapters, passages or ideas indiscriminately. Reading the text of the Pre-Qin Period often involves material investigation, That is to say, readers should tell the authentic 48

戹 is the same as “厄”, a difficult or dangerous situation. 振人不贍 , to assist someone in poverty. 50 既 , as explained in Shuowen Jiezi, means “eat up”. 既信 is the same as 虧信 . 51 倍 is the same as “背”. 背言 , to eat one’s words. 49

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and reliable from the forged or ungrounded, and admit the value of the entire book despite some untrustworthy details. Given the fact that Chinese ancient scholars were not so much concerned with individual authorship, some knowledge about variations and additions of books is helpful to our understanding and appreciation of ancient books. Content variation in transcription is best illustrated in the Yu Yue’ s preface to Annotations to Mozi by Sun Yirang. 墨子死，而墨分爲三，有相里氏之墨，有相夫氏之墨，有鄧陵氏之墨 52。今觀《尚 賢》、 《尚同》、 《兼愛》、 《非攻》、 《節用》、 《節葬》、 《天志》、 《明鬼》、 《非樂》、 《非 命》，皆分上中下三篇，字句小異，而大旨無殊。意者此乃相里、相夫、鄧陵三家 相傳之本不同，後人合以成書，故一篇而有三乎。 After Mozi’ s death, his school known as Mohism was divided into three sects: First, the sect of Xiangli. Second, the sect of Xiangfu. Third, the sect of Dengling. As we read Mozi today, the part of “Exultation of the Virtuous” , “Identification with the Superior” ,  “Universal Love” , “Condemnation of Offensive War” , “Economy of Expenditures” , “Simplicity in Funerals” , “Will of Heaven” , “On Ghosts” , “Condemnation of Music” and “Anti-fatalism” was divided into three subparts, retaining roughly the same general meaning despite small differences in diction. This is probably due to the variations among the three sects of Xiangli, Xiangfu and Dengling. Therefore, when later scholars assembled these parts into one book, every part contained three subparts like these.

The above description seems to be reasonable. Let me tell you a story. A master is giving lectures and a few students are taking notes at the same time. Naturally, their lecture notes may contain the same general ideas, but there would be some differences. The same was true for the different copies of ancient books.  In a different scenario, a part might contain different versions of transcription, as  the two versions included in the first volume of Yu Yue’ s Examples of Doubtful Expressions in Ancient Books. 凡著書者，博採異文，附之簡策，如《管子· 法法篇》之 “一曰”，《大匡篇》之 “或 曰”，皆爲管氏學者傳聞不同而並記之也。《韓非子》書如此者尤多，如《内儲 説 上》篇，引魯哀公問孔子莫衆而迷事，又載：“一曰：晏嬰子聘魯，哀公問曰：‘語 曰：莫三人而迷……’ 53 ”《外儲説左》篇，引孟獻伯相魯事，又載：“一曰：孟獻伯 52

The idea of three versions of Mozi was stated in “Famous Schools of Thoughts” of Hanfeizi. The original text from “Nei Chu Shuo I” is quoted below. 魯哀公問於孔子曰 :“鄙諺曰 :‘莫衆而 迷。’今寡人舉事，與群臣慮之，而國愈亂。其故何也 ?”孔子對曰 :“明主之問臣，一人知之， 一人不知也；如是者明主在上，群臣直議於下。今群臣無不一辭同軌乎季孫者，舉魯國盡化 爲一；君雖問境内之人，猶不免於亂也。”一曰 : 晏嬰子聘魯。哀公問曰 :“語曰 :‘莫三人而迷。’ 今寡人與一國慮之，魯不免於亂。何也 ?”晏子曰 :“古之所謂莫三人而迷者，一人失之，二人 得之，三人可以爲衆矣。故曰 :‘莫三人而迷。’今魯國之群臣以千百數，一言於季氏之私； 人 數非不衆，所言者一人也。安得三哉！” (Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius, “I know a proverb, ‘one gets confused if he does not consult many people’. I gathered my minsters to discuss the state affairs, but things are getting messier. Why is that?” Confucius replied, “When a wise lord consults  53

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拜上卿，叔向往賀……“如此之類，不下數十事。 When compiling a book, the author might have selected many different versions of  materials and added such attachments to the main body. For example, some lines in the part of “Fa Fa” in Guanzi were introduced with the expression “one said” or, in the part of “Da Kuang” “some said” , indicating that the lines were actually another version as the result of transcription by different scholars. Hanfeizi abounded in similar cases of variations. In the part of “Wai Chu Shuo I” about Duke Ai of Lu asking Confucius about consultation with a group of people, a different version of the same story was also included, “One said: When Yingzi visited Lu, Duke Ai asked, ‘No consultation with three people may cause confusion.’” In a different part about Xianbo assisting the business of Lu, a different version was included: “One said: Xianbo was appointed  as the senior minister, and Shuxiang went to congratulate him.” There are no less than dozens of similar cases of variation in this book. This scenario was essentially the same as the previous one about the three versions of Mozi. In the case of Mozi, the original version evolved into several versions, while in this case, the different versions were incorporated into the same text.

The practice seemed similar to Mozi, but Hanfeizi was still a bit different from Mozi. The former merely has one part, but the latter has several parts in this regard. Adjunction or continuation may occur to both the texts and the materials. As for the adjunction, the part “You Du” in Hanfeizi discussed the fall of the four kingdoms of Jin (Chu), Qi, Yan and Wei, which occurred in the span from the twenty-third year to the twenty seventh year of the First Emperor of Qin. As a matter of fact, Hanfeizi was killed as early as in the fourteenth year of the First Emperor of Qin. Obviously, this part was not written by Hanfeizi. Ancient scholars have also put much effort in screening the forged works, some of which had been  deleted, and some, such as the article of “You Du” , could be regarded as useful addition by scholars of the school of Hanfeizi’ s thoughts, rather than the cases of deliberate forging. Adjunction of materials sometimes occurred when the remarks in the adjunct parts were mixed with the main body. In Records of the Grand Historian, the account of Laozi’ s life was ended with the line “於是老子迺 (乃 )著書上下篇， his ministers, one may know the answer and another may not. In such a case the lord is seated high above, with the ministers discussing below. Now all the ministers are following the idea of Ji Sun, so the entire state of Lu is actually of one voice. Although you widely consult people in the state, it is still in confusion.” In a different version of the story, Yan Yingzi was appointed as consultant  in the State of Lu. Lord Ai asked him, “A proverb says ‘one gets confused without consulting three people’. Now I consult with everyone in the state but things are still getting messy. What is the reason?” Yan replied, “The old proverb suggests us to consult three people, because one person may make a mistake, while the other two may get it right, so three can make a crowd. That is why one may get confused if he does not consult three people. Now, there are thousands of ministers in the state of Lu, all voicing on behalf of Ji’s interest. Despite of the great number of people, there is only one opinion voiced. How could you really consult three people in this way!”

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言道德之意；而去，莫知其所終” (Then Laozi wrote a book of two volumes, elaborating on his ideas of “the Dao” (The Great Way) and “the De” (The manifestations of the Dao). Then he left and no one knew where he was going). There was an additional paragraph. 或曰：老萊子，亦楚人也。著書十五篇，言道家之用，與孔子同時云。蓋老子 百六十餘歲，或言二百餘歲，以其修道而養壽也。自孔子死之後百二十九年，而 史記周太史儋見秦獻公，曰 : “始秦與周合，而離。離五百歲，而復合。合七十歲， ” 或曰儋即老子，或曰非也，世莫知其然否。老子，隱君子也。 而霸王者出焉。 Someone said, Laolaizi was also from the land of Chu. He wrote fifteen books on  the  application of the Daoist ideas, and was a contemporary of Confucius. Laozi had lived for more than one hundred and sixty years. Another saying is that he had lived over two hundred years, because he had practiced the Dao a n d achieved longevity. One hundred and twenty-nine years after the death of Confucius, Taishi Dan visited Duke Xian of Qin and said, “Qin and Zhou were originally united, later they separated. Five hundred years later, they were united again. Seventy years afterwards there appeared a conqueror.” Someone said Taishi Dan was Laozi, but others disagreed. No one knew for sure. Laozi was a hermit in the world.

The above excerpt was followed by an account of the descents of Laozi. According to Lü Simian’ s On Textual Components, the above excerpt was in fact adjunctions written by others mistakenly incorporated into the main text. “The line starting with ‘Some said, Laolaizi’ was written by someone who recorded the fact that Laolaizi and Laozi were both from Chu. The line starting with ‘Laozi had lived more than one hundred and sixty years’ was written by a different person who probably believed in deities and immortals. The idea of identifying Laozi as Taishi Dan was probably another adjunction by a third person.” 54 Mixed with the biographical record of Laozi, this paragraph was largely incompatible with the previous account, which might have confused ancient readers. Lü’ s explanation helped to clarify this problem. In some cases, interpretative or commentary remarks might get mixed with the main body. For example, The Classic of Mountains and Rivers stated, “有神人二八，連臂爲帝司夜於此野。在羽民 東，其爲小人頰赤肩。盡十六人” (There were eight pairs of immortals whose arms were joined together to keep watch at night in the vast land for the God of Heaven. These immortals stayed to the east of the land of the feathered men, who had small cheeks and red shoulders. So there were sixteen of them) in this excerpt, the character“ 盡” might have been a typo of the similar character “ 蓋” , which indicates that “there were sixteen of them” was in fact an interpretation of “eight pairs” in the text. As stated in Guo Pu’ s annotations, “疑此後人所增益語耳” (I suspect this sentence was an adjunction by others). In some other cases, new materials or interpretations were added to the original text due to the progress in knowledge or the change of times. As The Classic of Mountains and Rivers was a book compiled in the Pre-Qin Period, it was impossible to contain such names of place as Changsha, Lingling, Guiyang and Zhuji, which had not been established 54

See pages 30-33 of the book, The Commercial Press edition.

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until in the Qin and Han Dynasties. On the other hand, it is also unreasonable to suspect that the book was forged in the Han Dynasty simply based on this detail. Also, The “Jijiu” Textbook by Shi You in the Western Han Dynasty contained two additional chapters written in the Eastern Han Dynasty, as the place name “gaoyi” in the text had not appeared until Emperor Guangwu had ascended to the throne. This is a case of adjunction due to the change of time and events. In summary, variation in transcriptions and adjunction of materials cause some trouble in understanding of ancient books. Though it may seem difficult for  beginners, they still need to learn about the relevant knowledge.

19.5.4  Titles of “Parts” and “Scrolls” The volume of ancient books were measured in terms of “篇” (parts) or “卷” (scrolls). The former derived from the linked-up bamboo slips for writing, and the latter derived from the scrolls of silk sheets for writing. As for their distinctions, a “part” is defined by the unit of meaning, whereas a “scroll” is often  determined by the length of the silk sheet. Therefore, in some cases, a “part” can be a “scroll” , while in others, a “scroll” may consist of several “parts” , or vice versa. For example, Records of the Grand Historian consists of one hundred and thirty “parts” , and the current edition consists of one hundred and thirty “scrolls” , indicating that the numbers of parts and scrolls are the same. In most of the literary collections in later ages, a “scroll” consisted several “parts” , so the former is a bigger unit of volume than the latter. Historical Records of the Han Dynasty consists of one hundred “parts” and one hundred and twenty “scrolls” . “Annals of Liu Bang the Emperor Gaozu” , “Records of Economy” , “Records of the Five Elements” or “Biography of Wang Mang” was divided into two or even three “scrolls” . So in this case, a “part” is a bigger unit than a “scroll” . Guangyun was divided into five “scrolls” , namely, “上平” (the upper level tone), “下平” (the lower level tone), “上” (the falling-rising tone), “去” (the falling tone) and “入” (the entering tone) according to the format of History of the Han Dynasty, there should be only four “parts” , namely, “the level” “the falling-rising” “the falling” and “the entering” ones, as “the level tone” contains many more rhymes and characters than the other three, it had to be further divided into “the upper level” and “the lower level” , so these two “scrolls” had no distinction in content and significance. A piece of article can be further divided into several paragraphs, which can be termed as “章” (chapter), “節” (section), or “篇” (part) in a different sense. “Record  of Music” in The Book of Rites contained eleven paragraphs. According to Kong Yingda’ s interpretation, “蓋十一篇合爲一篇。謂有《樂本》，有《樂論》，有 《樂施》，有《樂言》，有《樂禮》，有《樂情》，有《樂化》，有《樂象》，有《賓牟 賈》，有《師乙》，有《魏文侯》” (The eleven parts form a single part, including “Yue Ben” “Yue Lun” “Yue Shi” “Yue Yan” “Yue Li” “Yue Qing” “Yue Hua”

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“Yue Xiang” “Bing Mou Jia” “Shi Yi” and “Wei Wenhou” ). Within the article of “Records of Music” , these eleven “parts” could be regarded as eleven chapters. In The Verse of Chu, the parts of “Nine Songs” and “Nine Verses” both contained several parts or chapters. The “parts” and “scrolls” all have titles, some of which have specific meanings,  and others have not. For example, the part of “Pattern of the Family” in The Book of Rites recorded the rules for sons, daughters and daughters-in-law to serve their parents or parents-in-law. The statement of “ 以閨門之内，軌儀可則，故 曰 《内則》” (within the scope of a household, these rules should be followed. So it is named “Pattern of the Family” ) (from the annotations by Confucius), which indicates the meaning of the title. In the same book, the titles of “Zhongni at home at ease” and “Confucius at home at leisure” were merely the first sentence  of the text used as a bookmark. In ancient terms, “以初發語名篇” (to name the passage after its opening words). All the three hundred-odd poems in The Book of Songs were named after the opening words, so were the passages in The Analects of Confucius and Mencius. In Zhuangzi, the “inner” parts have meaningful titles, while the outer and miscellaneous parts were titled after the opening words. In contrast, almost all the titles in Xunzi and Hanfeizi have specific meanings. The title of a book was called “大題” (the big title), which, by the ancient conventions, was placed below the passage title. In Zheng Xuan’ s Annotations and Interpretations of The Rites of Zhou as an example, the first line was “天官冢 宰第一” (First of the Internal Minister), which is the passage title. The second line was “周禮，鄭氏注” (The Rites of Zhou, annotated by Zheng), which is the “big title” and the surname of the annotator. However, this ancient convention was not always observed in modern times and was often changed or modified. A part title was usually placed at the beginning of the part while a title of a shorter part or chapter was usually placed in the end. In The Verse of Chu, the famous parts such as “Nine Songs” “Nine Verses” “Seven Advices” (by Dongfang Shuo), “Nine Memories” (by Wang Bao), “Nine Sighs” (by Liu Xiang) and “Nine Thoughts” (by Wang Yi) all followed the same format. What’ s more, “The Odes” in Xunzi included five small parts on “Rites and Rituals” “Knowledge” “Cloud” “Silkwo rms” and “Needles” . Accordingly, the characters of “禮” (rites and rituals), “知” (knowledge) “雲” (cloud) “蠶” (silkworm) and “箴” were respectively attached to the end of the five parts. Ancient readers might mistake  them for redundant characters rather than part titles. The eleventh part in “Record of Music” of The Book of Rites, also known as “Shiyi” in Confucius’ annotations, started with the line of “子贛 (貢 )見師乙而問焉” (Zigan/Zigong, visited Shiyi and asked a question) and ended with “子贛問樂” (Zigan asked a question about music). In Combined Annotations of The Book of Rites by Sun Xidan in the Qing Dynasty, the last four characters were given the following explanation: “此篇題之 名。古書篇題，皆在篇末，此十一篇蓋皆有之。先儒合十一篇爲一篇，而删 去其 每篇末篇題之名，獨此失於删去，故尚存耳” (This is the title of the part. Part titles in ancient books were all placed at the end of the part. All the eleven parts should have had a title. When the previous scholars assembled the eleven parts into one, all the titles at the end of each part except this one were deleted.

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That’ s why it remained here). In other words, “Zigan asked a question about music” is the alternative title of “Shiyi” , which is also an example of the part title placed at the end of a part or chapter. Lu Yun, a litterateur in the Jin Dynasty, imitated Qu Yuan’ s “Nine Verses” by writing “Nine Sorrows” , in which the chapter title was also placed at the end of each chapter. However, when Literary Collection of Lu Shilong was compiled in the Song Dynasty, the title of the final  chapter was somehow deleted. To make things worse, the title placed at the end of the first chapter was mistaken for the title of the second chapter, so were the other  titles originally placed at the end of the chapters. In particular, as the title of the second chapter “涉江” (Crossing the River) was mistaken for the title of the third chapter, in the epilogue of the second chapter, the lines of “念兹涉江，懷故鄉兮” (As he was crossing the river and thinking about his hometown) was also falsely incorporated into the next chapter. The line was then placed after the title “Crossing the River” and served as the opening line of the third chapter. In the same way, the epilogues originally placed at the end of the chapters were all falsely moved after the title to the next chapter. It is important to know that, in The Verse of Chu, the epilogue could never be placed at the beginning of the part or chapter55. Due to the compiler’ s ignorance of the rule of title placement, the arrangement of the classic had been largely disorganized and thus beyond recognition. Some knowledge about the style of ancient books, therefore, is indeed necessary.

55

A line at the end of “Li Sao” is “亂曰 : 已矣哉！國無人兮，莫我知兮，又何懷乎故都 ? 既 莫足與爲美政兮，吾將從彭咸之所居” (Epilogue: So be it! Since in that kingdom all my virtue spurn, Why should I for the royal city yearn? Wide though the world, no wisdom can be found. I’ll seek the stream where once the sage was drowned.) Therefore, the epilogue is also called “亂辭”. As for the specific meaning of “ 亂”, there have been many different explanations but no decisive  conclu- sion. What is certain is that the writers after Qu Yuan, without an exception, always used the term to introduce the epilogue of a part or chapter.

Chapter 20

Doubtful Expressions in Ancient Books

Chinese ancient books, especially those written in the Pre-Qin Period, contained many unique expressions that were significantly different from those in later times  in both grammatical and rhetorical senses. Ignorance in this regard may cause troubles in reading and understanding. In a helpful attempt, Yu Yue, a scholar in the Qing Dynasty, made a comprehensive illustration of the special cases in ancient books in his seven-volume book Examples of Doubtful Expressions in Ancient Books( 《古書疑義舉例》). More recently, in Huang Kan’ s work of Reading Notes of Classic Book of Literary Criticism(《文心雕龍札記》), the chapter titled “A Brief Discussion of the Doubtful Sentences in Ancient Books” concisely covered the content of the works by Yu Yue, Gu Yanwu, Wang Niansun and others. This chapter will illustrate and explain some examples from Huang’ s work so as to offer guidance in understanding the ancient expressions. The examples that have  been discussed in other chapters will not be repeated in the present one.

20.1 Expressions in Reverse Order 20.1.1  Characters in Reverse Order The examples are given below.

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9_20

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令尹子瑕言蹶由於楚子 1，曰 :” 彼何罪 ? 諺所謂‘室於怒，市於色’ 者，楚之謂 矣。……”《左傳· ( 昭公十九年》) Minister Zixia talked to the King of Chu about Jueyou: “What was he guilty of? The saying that ‘Get angry at home, so pull a long face in the street’ is referring to the State of Chu.” (From “The 19th Year of Duke Zhao” in Commentary of Zuo) ” 武王之伐殷也，革車三百兩，虎賁 2三千人，王曰 :“無畏，寧爾也，非敵百姓也。 〔殷人〕若崩厥角稽首。( 《孟子· 盡心下》) When King Wu punished Yin, he had only three hundred chariots of war, and three thousand life-guards. The king said, “Do not fear. Let me give you repose. I am no enemy to the people!” On this, they bowed their heads to the earth and bumped their foreheads as forcefully as the mountains are to collapse. (From “Jin Xin II” in Mencius) 湯、武者，至天下之善禁令者也。( 《荀子· 正論》) Tang of the Shang Dynasty and King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty were the most capable ones to carry out prohibitions and bans. (From “On Justice of Tang and King Wu” in Xunzi)

In the first example, Jueyou was the younger brother of Wuzi, and the other figure is King Ling of Chu. According to Du Yu’ s annotation, “言靈王怒吴子而 執其弟，猶人忿於室家而作色於市人” (King Ling was angry with Wuzi and vented his anger on his brother, which is the same as someone who felt angry at home and then pulled a long face to strangers in the streets). So the expression in the example reversed the character order in “怒於室，色於市” (feel angry at home, and pull a long face in the streets). In the second example, the sentence of “若 崩厥角稽首” (they bowed their heads to the ground and bumped their foreheads as forcefully as the mountains are to collapse) is actually the reversed expression of “厥角稽首若崩” , in which “厥角” means to bump the foreheads, “稽首” means to bow their heads to the ground, and “若崩” means the bowing was so forceful as if the mountain were about to collapse. The line in the third example was the reversed version of “天下之至善禁令者也” (the most capable ones to carry out prohibitions and bans). In some cases, characters were put in reverse order to make rhymes. For example, the first stanza in “Before the East was Bright” in Odes of Qi of The Book of Songs starts with “東方未明，顛倒衣裳” (before the east turned bright/ before the dawn, I was putting on my clothes upside down), while the second stanza starts with the same expression in reverse order “東方未晞，顛倒裳衣” , simply for the sake of sound coordination between “明” and “裳” in the first stanza, and between “晞” and “衣” in the second. Many inverted expressions for the sake of rhyming in ancient books were later revised to the conventional ones. For example, a line in “Autumn Floods” in Zhuangzi was “無南無北，奭然 3四

1

言蹶由於楚子 , to talk to the King Ling of Chu about Jueyou. 虎賁 , warriors. 3 奭然 is similar to 釋然 , the look of relief. 2

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Expressions in Reverse Order

453

解，淪 4於不測；無西無東，始於玄冥 5，終於大通 6” (Without any regard to the south and the north, with freedom he launches out in every direction, and is lost in the unfathomable. Without any regard to the west and the east, starting from what is abysmally obscure, he comes back to what is boundlessly free). As “東” and “通” were rhymed, the character of “西” was placed before “東” in the original text. The current copies, however, reversed the order to “無東無西” (without any regard to the east and the west), probably because the transcriber was accustomed to the conventional expression of “東西” and revised it accordingly.

20.1.2  Sentences in Reverse Order The examples are given as below. 不如逃之，無使罪至，爲吴大伯 7，不亦可乎！猶有令名，與其及 8也。( 《左傳·閔 公元年》) It is better to escape so as to avoid the punishment. Being a Duke in the land of Wu, isn’ t it a good option too! You could still keep the good reputation, and it is better than incurring the disaster. (From “The 1st Year of Duke Min” in Commentary of Zuo) 孔子少孤，不知其〔父之〕墓，殯於五父之衢，人之見之者，皆以爲葬也。其慎也， 蓋殯也，問於郰曼父 9之母，然後得合葬於防 10。(《禮記· 檀弓上》) Confucius, being quite young when he was left fatherless, did not know (his father’ s) grave. Afterwards he had (his mother’ s) body coffined in the street of Wufu. Those who  saw it all thought that it was to be interred there, so carefully was everything done, but it was only the coffining. By inquiring of the mother of Manfu of Zou, he succeeded in  burying it in the same grave with his father at Fang. (From “Tan Gong I” in The Book of Rites)

In the first example, King Xian of Jin intended to abolish Prince Shensheng,  and Minister Shiwei offered advice to the prince. The natural order of the expression should have been “與其及也，不如逃之，無使罪至。爲吴大伯，猶 有令名，不亦可乎！” (Instead of incurring the disaster, it is better to escape so as to avoid the punishment. Being a lord in the land of Wu, you could still keep the good reputation. Isn’ t it a good option too) The second example has always 4

淪 , to go deeper into. 玄冥 , profound and obscure. 6 大通 , free and unbounded. 7 吴大 (tài) 伯 , the son of the legal wife of the King of Chou, who learned about the king’s intention to pass the crown to his younger brother Ji Li, and ran away to the land of Wu in the south. 8 及 , to incur a disaster. 9 郰 (zōu) 曼父 , the name of a person. 10 合葬於防 means that the father of Confucius died before his mother. After his mother’s death, the coffin of his father was taken out and buried with the coffin of his mother in the place of Fang.  5

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remained quite unclear. In Examples of Doubtful Expressions in Ancient Books, the author quoted the explanation proposed by Sun Huosun from Gaoyou in Study on “Tan Gong” “此二句 (指蓋殯也，‘問於郰曼父之母’)乃倒句也。蓋殯淺而葬深， 孔子之父實殯於五父之衢，而見之者皆以爲葬。孔子不敢輕啓父墓而遷葬， 乃其慎也。乃問於郰曼父之母，始得其實 (確是殯，不是葬 )。當云‘問於郰 曼父之母，蓋殯也’，故作倒句以取曲折耳。” (The two lines of “it was only the coffining. By inquiring of the mother of Man-fu of Zou” were actually inversed  in order. The body of Confucius’ s father was indeed coffined in the street of Wufu, and the passers-by all thought he had been buried. Confucius was very careful and cautious not to open his father’ s grave and move it recklessly. So he inquired of the mother of Man-fu of Zou and found the truth that his father was coffined  rather than buried. So the natural expression should be ‘After inquiring of the mother of Man-fu of Zou, it was only the coffining’ . The inverted sentence added  some twists and turns to the story). With such an explanation, the meaning of this inverted sentence becomes much clear.

20.1.3  The Inverted Sequence of Writing The example is given below. 聲服 11無通於百縣，則民行作 12不顧，休居不聽。休居不聽，則氣不淫；行作不顧， 《商君令· 墾令》) 則意必壹。意壹而氣不淫 13，則草 14必墾矣。( Enjoyable music and fancy clothes should be banned in the country, then farmers will not see the fancy clothes while working, and will not hear the decadent music while resting. If they do not listen to such music while resting, they will not develop corrupt ideas; if they do not see such clothes while working, they will keep their minds focused. With focused minds and no corrupt ideas, they will reclaim the wastelands. (From “Land Reclamation” in The Book of Lord Shang)

In the above example, “休居不聽，則氣不淫” (if they do not listen to such music while resting, they will not develop corrupt ideas) should have been placed after “行作不顧，則意必壹” (if they do not see such clothes while working, they will keep their minds focused). Following the same sequence, “意壹而氣不淫” (with focused minds and no corrupt ideas) should have been “氣不淫而意壹” (with no corrupt ideas but focused minds). In other words, the sequences of writing in both cases were inverted.

11

聲服 , the corrupt music and fancy clothes. 行作 , to engage in labor. 13 淫 , being corrupt and lazy. 14 草 , wasteland. 12

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Ellipsis

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20.2 Ellipsis Apart from the different cases of ellipsis discussed in a previous chapter of “Ellipsis and Word Order” , two special cases of ellipsis will be introduced in the present section.

20.2.1  Ellipsis in Repeating the Preceding Text The example is given as follows. 〔秦〕威彊 (强 )乎湯、武，廣大乎舜、禹，然而憂患不可勝校 15也，諰諰然 16常 恐天下之一合而軋己 17也。……曷謂威强乎湯、武 ?湯、武也者，乃能使説 (悦 )己 者使 18耳。今楚，父死焉，國舉焉 19，負三王之廟 20而辟 (避 )於陳蔡之間，視可司 間 21，欲剡其脛而以蹈秦之腹 22。然而秦使左案左，使右案右 23，是乃使仇人役也。此 所謂威强乎湯、武也。曷謂廣大乎舜、禹也 ? 曰 :古者百王之一天下臣諸侯也，未 有過封内千里者也 24。今秦，南乃有沙羡與俱，是乃江南也；北與胡貉爲鄰；西有 巴蜀；東，在楚者乃界於齊……是地遍天下也。此所謂廣大乎舜、禹也 25。威動海内， ( ) 彊殆中國 26，然而憂患不可勝校也，諰諰然常恐天下之一合而軋己也。《荀子·彊國》 The State of Qin is more powerful than Tang of Shang or Wu of Zhou, and it covers a land larger than that of Emperor Shun and Yu. But it is also suffering from countless  perils, always worrying that the other states would launch joint attack against itself. … Why do I say Qin is more powerful than Tang of Shang or Wu of Zhou? Tang of Shang and Wu of Zhou could only order their advocates about. In contrast, King Huai of Chu died in Qin, and Ying the capital of Chu was also conquered by Qin. The king of Chu carried the memorial tablets of three former kings and sought refuge around the land of 15

校 , to compare or to calculate. 諰諰然 , a fearful look. 17 一合而軋己 , to join together as one and challenge someone. 18 使 , to obey or follow the order. 19 國舉 , the country was conquered. 20 負三王之廟 , to leave the ancestral temple of the State of Chu. 三王 , also termed “三后” in “Li Sao”, probably refers to Xiong Yi, Ruo Ao and Fen Mao in Dai Zhen’s interpretation. 21 司 is the same as “伺”, to spy on or wait for an opportunity to fight back.  22 剡其脛而以蹈秦之腹 , to sharpen his calf to step and pierce the belly of Qin, which is a metaphorical expression. 23 案 , the meaning is the same as “則”. 使左案左，使右案右 , it was willfully driven to the left or to the right by its enemy, indicating its obedience. 24 This line means his territory (under the ruling of the central government) was never larger than a thousand li. 25 In some current versions, this line is mistakenly placed at the end of the paragraph. The present version is correct. 26 彊殆中國 means that its power makes all the states in the middle land feel threatened. 16

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Chen and Cai, waiting for a chance to make a stride and stamp on the land of Qin. But now, the king of Chu was willfully driven around by his enemy. That’ s is why I say Qin is more powerful than Tang of Shang or Wu of Zhou. Then why do I say Qin covers a land larger than that of Emperor Shun and Yu? In ancient times, even when a king defeated other lords and conquered the land, his territory had never been larger than a thousand li. Today, in the State of Qin, its southern border reaches to Shaxian to south of the Yangtze River; its northern border is adjacent to that of Hu and He; its western territory covers Ba and Rong; and its eastern territory occupies the land of former Chu and borders with the State of Qi. … So it covers all the lands under the Heaven. That’ s why I say Qin covers a land larger than that of Emperors Shun and Yu. The power of Qin poses great threat to the whole nation, and it is strong enough to conquer all the states in the middle land. However, it is plagued with countless dangers and perils, and is always afraid of being attacked by the joint force of all the other states. (From “On Powerful States” in Xunzi)

The above excerpt starts with the topic sentence “威彊 (强 )乎湯、 武， 廣大乎舜、 禹” (The State of Qin is more powerful than Tang of Shang or Wu of Zhou, and it covers a land larger than that of Emperors Shun and Yu), followed by two separate parts of explanation, and is ended with “威動海内，强殆中國” (The power of Qin poses great threat to the whole nation, and it is strong enough to conquer all the states in the middle land). So the second “廣大” (the land is large) was omitted as an effort to avoid unnecessary redundancy rather than a reckless missing of words.

20.2.2  Ellipsis for the Sake of Conciseness The examples are given as follows. 沽酒市脯不食。( 《論語· 鄉黨》) He did not partake of wine and dried meat bought in the market. (From “Hometown” in The Analects of Confucius) 以索牛馬皆百匹。( 《左傳· 襄公二年》) So a hundred cows and a hundred horses were sent as gifts. (From “The 2nd Year of Duke Xiang” in Commentary of Zuo)

In the above two examples, the complete expressions should have been “沽酒 不飲，市脯不食” (He did not drink the wine bought from a tavern, and he did not eat the dried meat bought in a market), and “以索牛百頭，馬百匹” (So a hundred cows and a hundred horses were sent as gifts). Some words were obviously omitted for the sake of conciseness or convenience of expression. Note here that it is different from the previous case of ellipsis, in that, in the previous case, the  omitted content is present in the preceding text, while in this case the omitted content is not mentioned at all.

20.3

Repetition

457

20.3 Repetition 20.3.1  Repetition with Synonymous Words The examples are given as follows. 心猶豫而狐疑兮，欲自適而不可。 Hesitant and wavering, I wanted to go but wandered around. (From “Li Sao” ) 欲遠集而無所止兮，聊浮游以逍遥。 I longed to travel far, yet with no bourn, I could but wander, aimless and forlorn. (From “Li Sao” ) 覽相觀於四極 27兮，周流乎天余乃下。 To earth’ s extremities I looked and watched; then descended from the heaven wide. (From “Li Sao” ) 繕完葺墻，以待賓客。 When the walls were fixed, the guests were accommodated. (From “The 31st Year of  Duke Xiang” in Commentary of Zuo) 昔我先君桓公，與商人皆出自周 28，庸次比耦 29以艾殺 30此地，斬之 31蓬蒿藜藋， 而共處之。 The former Duke Huan used to migrate with people of Shang from the land of Zhou. They took turns to farm the land by weeding and clearing, and they all lived together here. (From “The 16th Year of Duke Zhao” in Commentary of Zuo)

In the above examples, “猶豫” (to hesitate) is synonymous with “狐疑” (to waver), “浮游” (to roam) is synonymous with “逍遥” (to wander), “覽” (to view)， “相” (to look) and “觀” (to watch) all have the same meaning; “繕” (to repair), “完” (to fix) and “葺” (to mend) also share the same meaning; and “庸” “次” and “比” all mean “to take turns” . In particular, the usage of “完” in “繕完葺” is the same as that in “父母使舜完廪” (parents asked Shun to fix the barn). As stated  in Volume 3 of Regional Dialects, “庸、恣、比、更、迭，代也” (the first fiver  characters all mean “in one’ s place” ). “次” and “恣” are loan characters, and “庸次比耦” means to take turns to farm the land. In the third, fourth and fifth examples, three synonymous characters were used as one. Of course, the cases with two synonymous characters are too many to count.

27

四極 , the faraway places in all directions. 出自周 , to migrate from the land of Zhou to the land of Zheng. 29 耦 refers to the old practice of ploughing the land by two persons side by side. 30 艾 is the same as “刈”. 艾殺 , to weed and clear the wasteland. 31 斬之 is the same as “斬其”. 28

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Doubtful Expressions in Ancient Books

20.3.2  Repetition of Characters of the Same Function The examples are given below. 一薰一蕕 32，十年尚猶有臭。(《左傳· 僖公四年》) The smell of a fragrant herb or a smelly grass remains even after ten years. (From “The 4th Year of Duke Xi” in Commentary of Zuo) 人喜則斯陶 33。 When one is happy, his joy will show. (From “Tan Gong II” in The Book of Rites) 夫威彊 (强 )未足以殆鄰敵也，名聲未足以縣天下 34也，則是國未能獨立也，豈 渠 (詎 )得免夫累乎 ? 《荀子· ( 王制》) If the state is not powerful to threaten its neighboring enemies, and if its reputation is not spreading far and wide, how can it stand in the world on its own, and be free of perils and dangers? (From “On Politics” in Xunzi)

20.3.3  The Repetitive Use of Character “曰 ” in Direction Quotations The examples are given as follows. ” 乞曰 :“不可得也 38。 ”曰 :” 勝謂石乞 35曰 :“王與二卿士 36， 皆五百人當之 37， 則可矣。 39 ( 哀公十六年》) 市南有熊宜僚者，若得之，可以當 五百人矣。”《左傳· Sheng said to Shi Qi: “To kill the king and the two ministers, five hundred men are  enough.” Qi said: “I can’ t mobilize that many people” . He then said: “There is a man called Xiong Yiliao living in south of the market. If you could get him, he would serve as five hundred men.” (From “The 16th Year of Duke Ai” in Commentary of Zuo) 陽虎欲見孔子，孔子不見。歸 40孔子豚，孔子時其亡 41皕瑏瑠也而往拜之，遇諸 涂 (途 )。謂孔子曰 :” 來，予與爾言。” 曰 :” 懷其寶而迷其邦 42，可謂仁乎 ? 曰 :不可。

32

薰 , the fragrant herb. 蕕 , the smelly grass. 陶 , to show or reveal the joyous mood. 34 縣天下 , to enjoy the support from around the state. 35 勝 refers to Mi Sheng, the grandson of King Ping of Chu. 石乞 , the accomplice of Mi Sheng. Mi planned to rise in rebellion in Chu. 36 王與二卿士 refers to King Hui of Chu and two ministers, respectively known as Zi Xi and Zi Qi. 37 當之 , to deal with them. 38 不可得也 , I cannot mobilize five hundred people.  39 當 , be equal to. 40 歸 , to present a gift. 41 亡 , not be at home. 42 懷其寶而迷其邦 , to conceal one’s talent when the state is in confusion. 33

20.3

Repetition

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好從事而亟失時 43，可謂知 (智 )乎 ? 曰 :不可。日月逝矣，歲不我與 44。” 孔子曰 :” 諾， 我將仕矣。” Yang Huo wished to see Confucius, but Confucius would not go to see him. On this, he sent a pig as a present to Confucius, who, having chosen a time when Huo was not at home, went to pay his respects for the gift. He met him, however, on the way. Huo said to Confucius, “Come, let me speak with you.” He then asked, “Can he be called benevolent who conceals his talents and leaves his country to confusion?” He then said, “No.” He then asked: “Can he be called wise, who is anxious to be engaged in public employment, and yet is constantly losing the opportunity of being so?” He again said, “No.” He then said: “The days and months are passing away; the years do not wait for us.” Confucius said, “Right; I will go into office.” (From “Yang Huo” in The Analects of Confucius)

In the first example, the second45 character “曰” (say) was used to introduce Shi Qi’ s remarks. Similarly, the second character “曰” in the second example was also used to introduce Yang Huo’ s remarks. They were both used to indicate a different utterance rather than a different speaker. Besides, still in the second example, the third and the fourth character “曰” was also used to introduce Yang Huo’ s remarks, while Confucius remained silent until Yang Huo had finished his  final words “歲不我與” (the years do not wait for us), and then Confucius coldly replied “諾，我將仕矣” (Right. I will go into office). With the repetitive use of  the verb “曰” , a sharp contrast was presented between Yang Huo the talkative and Confucius the silent, depicting a vivid scene of Confucius’ reluctant reception of something he did not like.

20.4 Variations in Text 20.4.1  Implications in Text The examples are given as follows. 國危則無樂君，國安則無憂民。( 《荀子· 王霸》) If a state is in danger, the king is never happy. If a state is stable, the people are never worried. (From “On Ruling by Power” in Xunzi) 正直之道可以得利，則臣盡力以事主；正直之道不可以得安，則臣行私以干 46上。 《韓非子· ( 奸劫弑臣》) 43

好從事而亟失時 , anxious to be engaged in public employment, and yet is constantly missing the opportunity. 44 歲不我與 , Time does not allow me to delay. 我 , is Yang Hu’s comment on behalf of Confucius. 45 It should be the third “曰”.——The translator’s note 46 干 , to be acquired by improper means.

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If honest practice can bring benefit, the subordinates will try their best to serve their  lord; if honest practice cannot bring stability and comfort, the subordinates will disobey their lord to seek private gains. (From “The Evil Ministers” in Hanfeizi)

In the above examples, the meanings are sometimes implied in the text. In the first example, if a state is in danger, the king is never happy, neither are the people;  if a state is stable, the people are never worried, neither is the king. So the missing statements about the king(君 ) and the people(民 ) are mutually implied in the text. By the same token, in the second example, the statement of “可以得利” (can bring benefit) implies the idea of “可以得安” (can bring stability and comfort), and the statement of “不可以得安” (cannot bring stability and comfort) also implies “不可以得利” (cannot bring benefit). Unfortunately, unaware of such implied meanings in text, some scholars mistakenly changed “憂民” (people are worried) to “憂君” (the king is worried), and changed “得利” (to bring benefit) to “得安”(to bring stability) 47while collating the texts of Xunzi and Hanfeizi.

20.4.2  Different Characters with the Same Meaning The examples are given as follows. 不患無位，患所以立。 I am not concerned that I have no place, I am concerned how I may fit myself for one.  (From “Li Ren” in The Analects of Confucius) 將使紫燕駢衡，緑虵 (蛇 )衛轂，纖驪接趾，秀騏齊亍 48，覲王母於崑墟，要帝臺 於宣岳，跨中州之轍跡，窮神行之軌躅 49。(顔延年《赭白馬賦》) Imagine the horses of Zhebai and Ziyan are pulling a carriage abreast, with Lvyi galloping by the side, with Xianli and Xiuqi running in the rear. They would go to visit Queen Mother of the West in Kunlun Mountains, and invite Ditai the immortal to the top of Xuan Mountain. The carriage tracks are left all across the middle land, and eventually end in the extremely far. (“A Fu-Poem About the Zhebai Horse” by Yan Yannian)

In the first example, “立” is the ancient writing of “位” (place), and the whole sentence means one should not be afraid of not having a place; instead he should 47

This is based on the arguments by Gu Guangqi and Wang Xianshen in the Qing Dynasty. 紫燕 , 緑虵 , 纖驪 , and 秀騏 are all famous steeds in ancient times. 駢衡 , pulling a carriage abreast under the ledger in front of the carriage. 轂 , carriage axle. The four lines compares the horse described in the poem to the famous steeds in the past. 49 The last four lines describe the flying of the Zhebai Horse to the far extremity. 覲, to present oneself before a king. 崑墟 (Kunlun Mountains) and 宣岳 (Xuan Mountain) are legendary celestial residences. 要 (yāo), to make an appointment. 帝臺 , the name of an immortal. 跨中州之轍跡 , the carriage tracks are left all across the middle land. 窮神行之軌躅 means it flies with the speed and  distance beyond comparison. 48

20.4

Variations in Text

461

worry whether he is learned and virtuous enough for his place. In the second example, “亍” is also the ancient writing of “躅” , which means tracks or foot prints. In both examples, two different written forms were used to avoid repetition  of the same character in sound coordination.

20.4.3 Parenthesis The example is given below. 僕……以爲李陵素與士大夫 50絶甘分少 51，能得人死力，雖古之名將不能過也。 身雖陷敗，彼，觀其意，且欲得其當 52而報於漢。(司馬遷《報任少卿書》) I… think Li Ling has always shared his happiness and woe with his fellow generals and soldiers, and accordingly they would serve him with die-hard loyalty. It is a feat that even the famous general in ancient times had not achieved. Though he was besieged and had to surrender, he, as I guess what he might be thinking was still seeking the opportunity to serve the Han Dynasty. (From “A Letter to Ren An” by Sima Qian)

In the above example, “觀其意” (as I guess what he might be thinking) is a parenthesis between the complete sentence of “彼且欲得其當而報於漢” (he was still seeking the opportunity to serve the Han Dynasty), and the conventional expression which should have been “觀其意，彼且欲……” (As I guess what he might be thinking, he was still.…) The use of a parenthesis adds a twist in the tone. According to “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, Sima Qian made a comment on Li Ling, “身雖陷敗，然其所摧 敗，亦足暴於天下。彼之〔所以〕不死，宜欲得當以報漢也” (Although he was defeated and captured, he had given the Huns army such a fatal strike that he had lived up to his great reputation in the world. The reason why he chose to live on was to seek the opportunity to serve the Han Dynasty). With reference to History of the Han Dynasty, we can tell that “彼” (he) should be the subject of the following statement of “欲得其當而報於漢” (to seek the opportunity to serve the Han Dynasty). In the annotations of some recent literary collections, the character “彼” was mistakenly parsed as a component of the preceding sentence, and “陷敗 彼” was falsely explained as “being defeated by the Huns” , which was definitely  an erroneous interpretation.

50

士 refers to the soldiers. 大夫 refers to the generals and officials.  絶甘分少 , to share the delicious food and limited supplies with the crowd. 52 當 , to achieve a deed of merit to offset the previous guilt of surrender in failure.  51

The Learning and Teaching of the Ancient Chinese Language WANG Li

To promote the theories of Marxism-Leninism, the historical and cultural heritage should be critically inherited and absorbed. The reading of ancient works is also necessary for our better understanding of the history of social development, literature and science. Learning and study of the ancient language is also a mustbe. To achieve the aforementioned purposes, we need to cultivate our abilities in reading the ancient books. The learning of the ancient Chinese language, first of all, requires a historical  perspective. We are to understand that modern Chinese language derives from the ancient Chinese language, with inheritances and developments. The derivational relation makes it easier for us to read ancient Chinese books than those in foreign languages, since many words are intelligible at a glance. On the other hand, since the evolution of language has brought many changes, the ancient Chinese differs  from its modern counterpart in phonological, grammatical and lexical aspects. Older times left us with more complex language. In summary, knowing the continuity of language, , we will not be intimidated by learning ancient Chinese language; knowing the development of language, we can pay due attention to texts and language, and avoid cursory reading or superficial understanding. In our reading and study of the ancient Chinese language, which one, out of the three aspects of sound, grammar and lexis, should be grasped first? I would advice   to go with lexis first. Now that ancient books are naturally in the written language,  the sound system does not count much. It is in the reading of poetry and verse that phonological features become significant, as they are related to the rhymes. Even  so, it is not a bad idea to delay the phonological study later. Grammar, on the other hand, important as it is, remains relatively stable with few chronological changes. The understanding of some function words, as well as a sketchy knowledge of grammar, would do for most of the reading. Vocabulary in language, however, is developing quickly, or as Stalin once pointed out, it is in a state of constant change. Some words were frequently used in ancient times, but they are rarely © Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9

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or never used nowadays; some modern words, however, have never appeared in the ancient language. Most importantly, it is to note that the same word, which is often presented as the same character, may contain quite different meanings in  the ancient and modern Chinese languages. Misunderstanding and confusion may easily arise out of negligence. Therefore, lexis should be the first aspect to grasp. I would use two examples to elaborate on my points. The first example is the  poem “On Reading”《觀書有感》 ( ) by Zhu Xi. 半畝方塘一鑒開，天光雲影共徘 徊。問渠那得清如許？爲有源頭活水來 (There lies a glassy oblong pool, where light and shade pursue their course. How could it be so clear and cool? For fresh water comes from the source.) The character “鑒” in the first line means “mirror” , while in modern colloquial  Chinese “鏡” rather than “鑒” is used fort hat meaning. The second example is a poem “Wintery Scenery”《冬景》 ( ) by Su Shi. 荷盡 已無擎雨蓋，菊殘猶有傲霜枝。一年好景君須記，最是橙黄橘緑時。(The withered  lotus  flowers  lost  their  leafy  shelter  from  the  rain  and  the  wretched  chrysanthemums are still braving the frost. Please remember the good times of a year, when the oranges are yellow and tangerines are green.) The lines are apparently easy to comprehend, but “蓋” can be tricky. It refers to the canopy of a carriage, similar to an umbrella to shelter from the rain. The umbrella actually derived from the idea of canopy. In this sense, the phrase “擎雨 蓋” means “an umbrella to shelter from the rain” . The clever use of the metaphor of an umbrella in describing the lotus leaf is both precise and vivid.In conclusion, in our reading of ancient Chinese poems and texts, it is important to pay attention to every character, and consult dictionaries whenever needed. As the examples of “鑒” and “蓋” indicate, a thorough understanding of the words can lead to a better appreciation of the entire poem. In studying or reading the ancient Chinese, it is not proper to focus only on rarely-used words or meanings, because these rarities are not the priority. As the rarely-used word or meaning usually occurs in a single text, incomprehension which of course should be avoided does not necessarily hamper our study of another texts. The common usages of common words, on the other hand, appear in almost every ancient book, and the lack of understanding thereof will significantly compromise the reading of many other texts or even causes complete  misunderstanding. The development of reading ancient books requires an effective  method. Previously, students can understand nothing more than what has been explained by their teacher. Such a practice must be changed, as people hope to grasp the key to the ancient Chinese language. Such a key, however, does not guarantee a full grasp within three to five months, as all knowledge has to be acquired with diligence and effort. It can be said that a key to a faster development  is actually a systematic way of learning; in this case, the key is to grasp the common usages of common words. It is a way of coping with complexity by means of simplicity. I would use “再” for elaboration. This is a common character in both the modern and ancient Chinese, but the meanings of different cases are not identical.  In ancient Chinese, especially in early-ancient Chinese, “再” was used as a verbal

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quantification meaning “twice” , which was quite different from its modern usage  of “the repetition of actions” . The modern usage of “再” is equal to the usage of “復” in ancient Chinese. Misunderstanding would arise if we wrongly equate the different usages of “再” in early-ancient Chinese and modern Chinese. To take an example from “Cao Gui on War” in Commentary of Zuo, “一鼓作氣，再而 衰，三而竭” (The fighting spirit aroused by the first roll of drums is depleted by the second and exhausted by the third). Though “再” here seems to have the same meaning as the character does in modern Chinese, they are different. The phrase in Commentary of Zuo means “the first roll of drums… the second roll…  the third roll…” , in which “再” can only be explained as “twice” , rather than any other number of times. With regard to the words of verbal quantification in ancient  Chinese, “一” refers to “once” , as in the example of “一鳴驚人” (to amaze people with a single brilliant feat); “三” refers to “three times”, as in the expression “三過 其門而不入” (too busy to go home, even passing by one’ s own house). Similarly, numeral characters from “四” (four) to “十” (ten) are used in expressions such as “六出祁山” (to march out of Mount Qi six times) and “七擒孟獲” (to catch Meng Huo seven times). The only exception is “twice” , which is expressed neither as “二” (two) nor “两” (two), but “再 (again)” . As the examples indicate, knowledge of the common usages of this common word could avoid misunderstanding in the reading of early-ancient Chinese books. Otherwise, one may easily misinterpret “五 年再會” (to meet twice in five years) as “to meet again after five years” , and “再 舉足爲步” (to lift the foot twice to make a step) as “to lift the foot again to make a step” (the notion of “step” in ancient times is different from its modern usage). With respect to grammar, it is also important to focus on the conventional rules of the ancient language, rather than delving into some rare function words and their special usage. All in all, we need to focus on the plain facts of language and solidly grasp the general knowledge first. Learning the ancient language requires a balanced attention on both the conceptual and perceptual knowledge. In the previous teaching practices, some teachers stuck to the old mode of “characters and words, sounds and rhyme, as well as gloss and exegesis” . Profound and abstract as it seems, it is of little avail in practice. Some others might explain the grammar and function words, which is more practical. However, a good command of the ancient Chinese language cannot be achieved without sufficient perceptual knowledge. It is suggested that  one or two hundred ancient texts should be intensively studied to enrich the perceptual knowledge, and as a result, many concepts and ideas beyond textbooks could be understood and appreciated by oneself. The elevation from the perceptual to the conceptual knowledge indicates a truly satisfactory command of the ancient Chinese language. How to learn the ancient language? One may ask. Is it better to start from the sequence of the early-ancient, medieval and finally modern language? Or is it better to reverse the order of learning? Answers to this question remain varied and divergent. Some propose a chronological order, as in Gems of Chinese Literature(《古文觀止》), starting from the essays of the Zhou Dynasty, then the Qin, Han, Six Dynasties, Tang, Song and Ming Dynasties (with the addition of

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those from the Yuan and Qing Dynasties, as well as poems). The chronological order helps to reveal the linguistic evolution. What’ s more, as most of the classical idioms and allusions can be traced to the works in the Pre-Qin Period, the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties, starting with the earlier texts will make it easy to study the later works. Some other people, however, propose to read Gems of Chinese Literature in the reverse order, for the reason that it is better to start with the easier and the newer parts, and then to proceed with the harder and the older ones. The third position is somewhat neutral, holding that material selection should be based only on the difficulty level, with the easy texts placed ahead of the difficult  ones, with no consideration of their historical ages. The three proposals have their respective merits, and should be evaluated according to specific circumstances. In middle school teaching and learning (or ten-year schooling), it is proper to start with the relatively recent and easier texts and then the older and harder ones; in colleges and universities, the chronological order is more reasonable. The third proposal is also applicable. For example, the students can start with a few easy texts in early-ancient Chinese, then those in middle and modern Chinese. Following a cyclic order, they can continue with the reading of some profound texts from the Pre-Qin Period. By all means, once they have learned to combine the perceptual and conceptual learning methods and grasped the common words and conventional grammar, they can expect to make some progress. The chronological order is a matter of secondary significance. The last issue concerns recitation, which, as a useful and traditional learning method, can enhance the perceptual knowledge. Perusal and recitation can deepen our understanding of the ancient Chinese language, not only consolidating the command of lexis and grammar, but also contributing to the appreciation of text structures and masterly styles. As the old saying goes, “Repetitive reading of three hundred poems from the Tang Dynasty can make you a poet” , the function of repetitive reading cannot be overlooked. For the learners of previous ages, careful and repetitive reading of texts could promote their reading and writing abilities. For the present generation who could learn from modern texts in vernacular Chinese, it is not necessary to learn the art of writing from the ancient texts. However, ancient poetry and verse could still be used for reference, especially for those who have a higher expectation for their literary competence. Another undue concern is that the recitation of ancient texts might cause some negative ideological influence.  On  the  contrary,  equipped  with  the  thoughts  of  Marxism-Leninism,  we are supposed to stand the test and to be able to tell the “fragrant flowers from  poisonous weeds” , rather than being afraid of being “poisoned” . After all, the reading materials are strictly selective and ideologically proper, which could greatly benefit the learners if critically absorbed. As for specific requirements and  amount of recitation to students, teachers should flexibly master them. Students  should not be overburdened and stressed out with rigid requirements and improper administration. In principle, as a useful learning method, recitation should be encouraged. Guangming Daily, 1961 December, 16th

Preface to Shuowen Jiezi XU Shen

In ancient times, land was ruled by Fu Xi, who observed the heavenly bodies in the sky, explored the landscape on the earth, and studied the images and traces of birds and beasts, as well as the veins and skeletons of the land. Drawing analogies to the human body or the worldly objects, Fu Xi created the Eight Trigrams to demonstrate the basic patterns of changes and developments. The basic patterns refer to the laws of nature. In the time of Shen Nong, rope knots were used as a way of keeping records and managing affairs. With increasingly  complex businesses and affairs, deceptions and forgeries started to appear. Cang  Jie, the court chronicler working for the Yellow Emperor, saw the traces of birds and beasts and realized that the animals can be distinguished accordingly. So, he invented the written characters. Since then, all trades were regulated, and all objects were specified. The purpose of Cang Jie’ s inventing characters probably  derived from the “Guai Hexagram” , which means the announcement of decisions in the court. In other words, the function of written characters was to publicizing decrees and advocating conducts for the court. Men of virtue could use the characters to bring benefits to the local residence, improve the governance, and remind people of social taboos. In the first phase of his invention, Cang Jie made  characters by copying images of the objects, which are called “wen” (文 ). Later he incorporated the images and sounds to form more productive characters, which are called “zi” (字 ). “Wen” represents the original image of the objects, while “zi” allows derivation and production. The characters that were put down on bamboo strips or silk sheets are called “shu” (書 ), which means copy or imitation. After the long ages of “Three Emperors” and “Five Kings” , some characters changed their forms, and others developed variants. On the ceremonial steles on Mount Tai left by the rulers of seventy-two generations, the characters of inscriptions are rarely alike. Following the system of the Zhou Dynasty, children at the age of eight should enter the elementary school and be taught by their masters about the six categories of Chinese characters. The first is a self-explanatory character, which are 467

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intelligible at a glance and straight-forward in meaning. The second is pictographic characters, which imitate the appearance of the object, and resembles the outline of its referent. The third category is phono-semantic characters, which consist of the pictographic and phonetic parts analogous to the meaning and pronunciation of the referent. “江” (river) and “河” (river) are both phono-semantic characters. The fourth category is associative compounds, such as “武” (military) and “信” (trust), the meanings of which derive from the meaning combination of the graphemes in the character. The fifth is mutually explanatory or synonymous characters which are variants of the same lexis, for example, “考” (examine) and “老” (old) mutually explanatory and synonymous. The sixth is phonetic loan characters, which are to use a character of similar pronunciation to refer to the referent, as in the cases of “令” (order) and “长” (long). In the reign of King Xuan in the Zhou Dynasty, the court historian Zhou composed fifteen texts in the characters of great seal script, some of which were  similar to the ancient characters, and some were different. When Confucius composed “the Six Classics” , and Zuo Qiuming recounted his commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, ancient characters were used and their meanings could still be understood and explained. After that, the provincial lords started to rule by force and to defy the orders of the king. Regarding the rites and music as hindrances, they even abandoned the classic books and records. The country was then divided into seven kingdoms, with difference in field dimensions and cart sizes, in laws and decrees, and indressing codes, as well as in different accents of speech and various forms of characters. After the First Emperor of Qin unified  the whole country, prime minister Li Si proposed to unify all the variations and to ban the written forms that were incompatible with Qin’ s characters. Li Si also wrote Cang Jie Primer, government official Zhao Gao wrote Ai Li Primer, and court historian Hu Wu wrote Bo Xue Primer, all characters therein were of Zhou’ s great seal script. Some characters were simplified or modified, which were later called the less seal script. Around the same time, the Emperor Qin started to burn Confucius classics and eradicate ancient codes and records. A great number of soldiers, guards and officers were drafted and the government offices  were burdened with bureaucratic complexities. To further simply the writing, the clerical script appeared, and the ancient scripts ceased to exist. Since then, there were eight different types of Qin script: large seal, small seal, engraved, insect, ancient imperial seal, official, weaponry and clerical script. Cursive script emerged in the Han Dynasty. According to the laws in Han: Students started to take exams at the age of seventeen. Those who could recognize over nine thousand characters could serve as petty officials. A higher-level exam  included the eight different scripts. Those who passed the provincial exams would  take a further exam given by the court historians. The most outstanding candidates would serve as secretaries of the Privy Council. If the government officials made  mistakes in script and writing, they would be accused and impeached. At present, however, these regulations are not strictly observed and implemented. The scripts and characters are no longer carefully studied, and relevant theories have been long lost. During the reign of the Emperor Xuan of the Han Dynasty, the court

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found a man who could read the ancient scripts in Cang Jie Primer and sent Zhang Chang to learn from him. What’ s more, Du Ye the provincial governor of Liang Zhou, Yuan Li from Pei, and Qin Jin the lecturer of classics, all could read the ancient scripts. During the reign of the Emperor Ping of the Han Dynasty, Yuan Li and more than one hundred scholars were summoned to lecture on scripts in Weiyang Palace. Yuan Li was appointed as “Primary Scholar in Philology” . Court official Yang Xiong collected their ideas and compiled Xun Zuan Passage, summarizing fourteen script passages since Cang Jie Primer of 5,340 in total. It covered all the characters used in the ancient books. During his regency, as a token for his attempt at promoting rites and rituals, Wang Mang ordered the Senior Minster of Public Works Zhen Feng to check and proofread books, which led to some modifications of ancient scripts. There were six types of script at that time.  The first is called the archaic script, which was used in some ancient books found  in the walls of the Confucius’ residence. The second is called the deviant script, which was the variant of the archaic ones. The third type is the seal script, which was invented by Cheng Miao under the order of the Emperor Qin. The fourth is the clerical script invented in the Qin Dynasty. The fifth is the variant seal script  used in stamps. The sixth type is called the bird-and-insect script used on posters and banners. Duke Gong of Lu once demolished the residence of Confucius, and discovered in the walls copies of The Book of Rites, The Book of Documents, The Spring and Autumn Annals, The Analects of Confucius, and The Classics of Filial Piety. Zhang Cang, the lord of Beiping, also contributed a copy of Commentary of Zuo. The provincial states and kingdoms also unearthed many archaic vessels with inscriptions in similar ancient scripts. Given the general similarities found in these materials, though it is still hard to trace the entire developments of the archaic scripts, the general situation of writing scripts in the Pre-Qin Period can be clearly revealed. Common people, however, often criticize and even defame those who could read and write the archaic scripts, deeming them as merely novelty seekers who deliberately coined unintelligible scripts and pretended they were discoveries from the walls of Confucius’ residence. According to them, the archaic scripts deviated from and even violated the conventions, and those who advocated archaic scripts were pursuing personal fame and gain. What’ s more, some Confucian scholars competed against each other to offer unreliable explanations to the characters and classic texts. Some believed that the clerical script in the Qin Dynasty were actually invented by Cang Jie, claiming that characters and scripts were passed down from generation to generation without much change and variation. Distortions were such that they even claimed, among others, that the upper part of the “horse” character plus the “human” character makes the “long” character, that “human” character plus a “ten” character makes a “funnel” character, that the “insect” character derived from the “middle” character with curvy strokes. In handling legal cases, the officials sometimes also referred to the scripts in their judgment, for example, in the phrase of “the person of law enforcement takes money from others” , someone wrongly interpreted “苛” as “end of the sentence” . Cases like this abounded at that time, which were inconsistent with

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the archaic scripts found in Confucius’ walls, and also incompatible with the seal script. Ordinary people had limited knowledge and were ignorant of what they had rarely seen. They had never met a learned scholar, nor did they understand the principles of characters. So, they took the archaic arts as eccentricity, but the crude vernacular as treasure, believing that they had grasped the profound knowledge and understood the thoughts of sages. When reading the line “幼子承 詔” (the young pupil received orders) in Cang Jie Primer, they supposed the line was written by an ancient king and the wording was divine. Such confusions and misunderstandings were really erroneous and offensive. As stated in The Book of Documents, “I want to observe the patterns of the ancient world” . The study of characters must be consistent with the archaic texts without making far-fetched interpretations. Confucius once stated, “I still remember some historians used to prefer leaving a blank entry when uncertainty arose, a practice that is no longer seen nowadays!” It is not because they did not want to ask others, but because they did not want to follow their own assumptions and speculations, thus confounding the right and the wrong, and confusing other scholars with clever talks and slippery explanations. Characters are the basis of classics as well as politics. By means of characters and words, the previous generation could pass down their culture to the following generation, and the later generations could learn about the ancient culture. As the saying goes, “Once the foundation was laid, the right way could be found” . The knowledge of the fundamentals helps one to understand the profound and avoid confusion. In my compilation of the small seal script and archaic great-seal script, I extensively consulted the opinions of different sources, as long as they are supported by reliable evidence, and formulated my explanations accordingly. I wanted to compile this book to sort out all the categories, clarify the errors, inform the scholars, and to promote the linguistic theories. The characters in this book are arranged according to the radicals to avoid overlaps and mixed content. All things will be covered and recorded in this book. In case of something that is difficult for readers to understand, I will use analogies for clarification. Among the  works cited, The Book of Changes is of Meng’ s version, The Book of Documents is of Kong’ s version, The Book of Songs is of Mao’ s version, The Book of Rites, The Rites of Zhou and The Spring and Autumn Annals are all of Zuo’ s version. The Analects of Confucius and The Classics of Filial Piety are both of the archaic versions. In the cases which my knowledge failed to cover, I would leave a blank entry instead. Excerpts from Annotations of Shuowen Jiezi by Wang Yun

Supplementary Notes to Preface to Shuowen Jiezi JIANG Lihong

This passage is “supplementary” in the sense that it is on the basis of Wang Yun’ s annotations to Shuowen Jiezi. A few supplements, modifications and explanations  will be offered to clarify Wang’ s version and facilitate the learning of beginners. The article included here is the first half of Preface to Shuowen Jiezi, which covers the author’ s gist of Chinese characters in general and his work in particular. Xu Shen (courtesy name, Shuzhong) is a native of Runan in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As a student of Jia Kui, a famous scholar who was also mentioned in Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen himself was also a well-known scholar in Confucian classics, enjoying the praise of “五經無雙許叔重” (Xu Shuzhong was peerless in the study of the Five Classics). His works include Shuowen Jiezi, Different Meanings of the Five Classics(《五經異義》), and Annotations of Huainanzi(《淮 南鴻烈閒故》), but the latter two have been long lost, and some parts of Shuowen Jiezi are also different from the original. Of the two current versions of Shuowen Jiezi, the first is Xu Kai’ s version created  in the Southern Tang Dynasty during  the period of the Five Dynasties, usually known as the Junior Xu’ s version; the second is Xu Xuan’ s version, later checked and proofread in the Song Dynasty, also known as the Senior Xu’ s version. Wang Yun, courtesy name Luyou, is a native of Anqiu of Shandong in the Qing Dynasty. As an expert of Shuowen Jiezi, his works include Annotations of Shuowen Jiezi and Interpretation of the Examples in Shuowen Jiezi(《說文釋例》). In the Qing Dynasty, the most well-known scholars of annotations to Shuowen Jiezi were Yan, Duan, Gui and Wang. Wang refers to Wang Yun; Yan refers to Yan Kejun from Wucheng (today in Wuxing), the author of Corrections and Interpretations of Shuowen Jiezi(《說文校義》); Duan refers to Duan Yucai from Jintan, the author of Annotations of Shuowen Jiezi(《說文解字注》); and Gui refers to Guifu from Qufu, the author of Evidence of the Interpretation of Shuowen Jiezi(《說文解字義證》). Apart from these, Zhu Junsheng (courtesy name Yuanhe, from Wuxian in Jiangsu) also authored Interpretations and Pronunciations in Shuowen Jiezi(《說文解字 471

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定聲》). All the works mentioned above are important reference materials in the study of Shuowen Jiezi. The article consists of two parts, the first part starting from the very beginning  to “The sixth type is called bird-and-insect script used on posters and banners” . It introduces the origin and development of Chinese characters and scripts, as well as the regulations of the six scripts. The rest of the article constitutes the second part, which explains the motive and format of compiling Shuowen Jiezi. The first part consists of five paragraphs. The first paragraph, from the beginning to “Men of virtue could use the characters to bring benefits to the local residence, improve the governance, and remind people of social taboos” , introduces the origin of written scripts. The second paragraph, starting from “in the first phase of his invention” to “the characters of inscriptions are rarely alike” , explaining the meanings of “文” “字” and “書” . The third paragraph starts with the line “Following the system from the Zhou Dynasty, children at the age of eight should enter the elementary school” and ends with “as in the cases of ‘令’ (order) and ‘长’ (long)” , which explains the meaning of the six scripts. The fourth paragraph, starting with “in the reign of King Xuan in the Zhou Dynasty” and ending with “the clerical script” , recounted the changes and developments of scripts in the Western Zhou Dynasty, the Warring State period and the Qin Dynasty. The fifth paragraph, from “cursive script emerged in the Han Dynasty” to “The sixth type is called bird-and-insect script used on posters and banners” , introduces teaching, learning and study of characters and scripts in the Han Dynasty. The second part consists of four paragraphs. The first paragraph starts with “Duke Gong of Lu once demolished the residence of Confucius and discovered copies in the walls” and ends with “the general situation of writing scripts in the Pre-Qin Period is clearly revealed” . It explains the reliability of the archaic scripts used in classics and ancient vessels. The second paragraph, from “Common people, however, often criticize and even defame those who could read and write archaic scripts” to “Such confusions and misunderstandings were really erroneous and offensive” , discussed the oppositions to archaic scripts from “common people” and refuted their erroneous remarks about characters and scripts. The third paragraph, from “As stated in The Book of Documents, ‘I want to observe the patterns of the ancient world’ ” to “The knowledge of the fundamentals helps one to understand the profound and avoid confusion” , elucidates the significance  of characters and scripts and proposes to follow the fundamentals in explaining characters, which is also the motive of creating Shuowen Jiezi, that is, the study of the ancient classics. The fourth paragraph, from “in my compilation of the small seal script and archaic great-seal script” to the end of the article, introduces the format of the compilation.

Discussion of “Mutual Explanation” JIANG Lihong

Xu Shen explained “mutual explanation” as such, “characters of mutual explanation have the same radical and can be mutually explained. For example, the characters of ‘考’ and ‘老’ is a pair in this case” . This statement is a bit ambiguous, bringing about many discussions and theories among the scholars of later generations. Most of them agreed with Xu’ s statement, while a few abandoned his theory and started new ones of their own. With such a simple statement as this, there is no way for us to know whether the scholars actually comprehended Xu’ s idea, or whether it was proper to be discarded. That is also the reason I did not include formal discussions on “mutual explanation” in this book. However, leaving a blank entry like this might fail to satisfy some readers with a particular interest in characters of “mutual explanation” . Therefore, in this article, I would discuss a few popular explanations in this regard since the Qing Dynasty as a supplementary to the book, which may serve as reference for those who study “Six Scripts” . One of the earliest influential theories is “mutual annotation”, advocated by Dai  Zhen, Duan Yucai, Wang Yun, and Liu Shipei. The theory of “mutual annotation” was firstly proposed by Dai Zhen in his article “On Little Learning: A Response to Jiang Shenxiu”《答江慎修先生論小 ( 學書》): I think both “考” and “老” are phono-semantic characters and associative compounds in terms of the inherent nature of characters; they are also characters of mutual explanation in terms of the usage. So, the notion of ‘mutual explanation’ means the ancient people set up categories based on their speeches and usages, and they were used to explain the present speeches and usages. Hence, it is the same as “mutual annotation”, that is, the ancient and present characters offer explanations and annotations  to each other. In Shuowen Jiezi, “考” was explained as “老” , whereas “老” was explained as “考” . They were used as examples of characters of “mutual explanation” in the Preface to Shuowen Jiezi. In the chapter of “Explaining Old Words” in Erya, as many as forty characters share the same meaning. Are they all cases of “mutual explanation” 473

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among the six categories of characters? The variant characters in vernacular usages and special characters in archaic and literary expressions can all be understood by means of mutual explanation. This is the meaning of Xu Shen’ s statement: “Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical and can be mutually explained” . For example, the characters of ‘初’‘哉’‘首’ and ‘基’ are all the same as “始” (beginning), while “卬” “吾” “臺” and “予” are all the same as “我” (I). These characters serve as explanations for each other, hence the term “mutual explanation” .

Later, Duan Yucai, a student of Dai Zhen, and Wang Yun tried to make the theory of “mutual annotation” more compatible with Shuowen Jiezi, and distinguished two types of “mutual explanation” in the book. The first type refers to the characters of the same radical, and the second, different radicals, which means two or more characters of mutual explanation may have the same or different radicals in Shuowen Jiezi. They also analyzed a number of entries, all limited within the scope of Dai Zhen’ s theory. Their theories were very straightforward: first, characters that provide explanations for each other are those  of mutual explanation; second, synonymous characters (words) are those of mutual explanation. As for the meaning of “Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical” , Dai Zhen failed to offer any interpretation. Duan’ s supplementary  notes were as follows. As for “Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical” , it means the setting up categories of meaning and the selection of the initial character. For example, the first entry in “Explaining Old Words” of Erya designated “始” as the initial character. (Annotation to the Passage 15 of Shuowen Jiezi) 1

According to Duan’ s idea, all the synonymous characters (words) form a “category” , with their meaning as the “initial” . This is a very far-fetched interpretation because the so-called “categories” might be infinite in number and  too complicated to form a pattern. As for the example of “the character of ‘考’ was explained as ‘老’ , whereas ‘老’ was explained as ‘考’ ” , which one out of the two characters should be the initial then? Far from being self-contained, the theories proposed by Dai and Duan had been mercilessly criticized and scorned. What’ s more, while Dai and Duan used examples from “Explaining Old Words” to explain their notion of “mutual annotation” , the characters belonging to the same entry in “Explaining Old Words” , however, sometimes failed to offer explanations for  others. For example, “話” “猷” “載” “行” “訛” are all the same as “言” .

In Shuowen Jiezi, Mao Heng’s Exegesis of The Book of Songs, and The Book of 1 The first entry in “Explaining Old Words” of Erya: 初 , 哉 , 首 , 基 , 肇 , 祖 , 元 , 胎 , 俶 , 落 , 權輿 , 始也 (the beginning).

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Documents, “話” was explained as “reasonable sayings and remarks” , while “訛” means slanderous and treacherous remarks. How can these two characters explain each other? In his discussion of “mutual explanation”, Liu Shipei also cited Dai and Duan’s theory of “mutual annotation” as evidence. But he also found the examples in Erya inapplicable in explaining “mutual annotation” , because “the examples are too many to contain” (泛濫而失厥歸 2). He modified Dai and Duan’ s arguments  in his work “Discussion of Mutual Annotation” , stating that only those characters of the same radical section in Shuowen Jiezi could be regarded as cases of “mutual annotation” . Apart from “老” and “考” (both in the section of 老 ), other examples include “蓤 (菱 )” and “芰” (section of 草 ); “茅” and “菅” (section of 草 ); “諫” and “證” (section of 言 ); “柟” and “梅” (section of 木 ); and “極” and “棟” (section of 木 ). To some extent, Liu rectified Dai and Duan’ s theories, but still failed to  clearly explain the meaning of “Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical” . Besides, as the specifications of Six Scripts had been established before  Xu Shen’s time, how could we use the sections in Shuowen Jiezi to explain “mutual annotation” ? Therefore, such supplementary modifications to Dai and Duan’ s arguments were still far from satisfactory. The argument of “mutual annotation” intended to explain Xu Shen’s ideas from the perspective of meaning annotation, while some others attempted to approach it from the formal and structural perspective. For the sake of convenience, these arguments will be divided into two types, that is, the “simplified forms” argument  and the “separate entries” argument. The advocates of the “simplified forms” argument included Qian Dazhao and Zeng Guofan. In his “Self-Narration of the Comprehensive Explanation of Shuowen Jiezi”《說文統釋自序》 ( ), Qian gave a very concise account of his ideas about mutual explanation. A more detailed account thereof could be found in Zeng Guofan’ s article “Discussion with Scholar Zhu on Mutual Explanation”《與朱太 ( 學孔揚論轉注書》), which stated: Without playing trickery or undue speculation, I would propose my argument while sticking to the original idea of Xu Shen’ s example of “考” and “老” . The character of “老” is an associative compound, while “老” is a character of mutual explanation. The radicals that contain multiple components and numerous strokes are those of characters of mutual explanation, such as the sections of “犛” “爨” “畫” “眉” “冓” “筋” “稽” “ ” “ ” “重” “老” “履” “ ” “鹽” “弦” and “酉” . In most phono-semantic characters, the left parts are usually the more important components, which can never be simplified,  while the right parts are the phonological components of lesser importance. As for the characters of mutual explanation, the more important parts are usually the associate compounds, which cannot be simplified, while the phonological components are of lesser importance. If the important component is simplified, how can one understand the  less important component? It, therefore, takes diligent learning and careful consideration to fathom the meaning from the simplified forms. In this way, even though the 2

歸 , home to return to.

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component of “匕” in the character “老” is missing, we can still know that “考” and “耋” both derived from “老” . By the same token, though the components of “舟” and “久” are missing from “履” , we could still derive “屨” and “屐” from “履” ; though “豕” is missing from “ ”, it is still possible to derive the meanings of “囊” and “橐” from “ ”; though “夢” is missing from “ ” , the meanings of “寤” and “寐” can still be derived from it. The same argument can be made for the sections of “犛” “爨” “畫” “眉”, and so on. In summary, Xu Shen’ s statement “Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical” refers to the ones with the complete form of the important component, while the second line of “and [they] can be mutually explained” refers to those with simplified  forms of the important component, while the meaning can still be derived.

In the cited paragraph, Zeng’ s arguments were clearly stated. Simply put, the characters of mutual explanation are phono-semantic characters with simplified formal components. The advocates of the “separate entries” argument included Zheng Zhen and Sun Yirang. Zheng’ s theory was cited in Elementary Introduction to Shuowen Jiezi by his son Zhitong. Sun’ s theory was clarified in the article “Clarification of the  Meaning of Mutual Explanation” in his work of Mingyuan( 《名原》). Zheng’ s the argument, as cited below, could cover most main ideas in Sun’ s theory: The number of characters was quite limited in ancient times, one character could be used as several ones in different contexts. After some time, in order to avoid confusion,  it is suggested to explain a character with one that is semantically close to it. Let us see the examples of two sections of “示” and “玉” in Shuowen Jiezi. For the character of “齋” in the section of “示” , it is interpreted as “abstention and purification of one’ s body and  mind, belonging to the section of 示 , and the phonological component being 齊 in the simplified form” ; “禷” is explained as “offering a sacrifice to deities, belonging to the  section of 示 , and the phonological component being 類” . In the section of “玉” , the character of “玠” is explained as “a big tablet of jade, belonging to the section of 玉 , and the phonological component being 介……” , “瑁” is explained as “the jade article which resembles the head of a plough, held by the emperor to greet the lords, … belonging to the section of 玉 , with the phonological components being 冒” . These characters, on the surface, are phono-semantic ones, yet a closer study revealed that the characters of “齊” “類” “介” and “冒” are all the original characters, and their meanings in classic references are, respectively, “a fast ceremony” “worshipping the deities” and “the same as 冒” . So the above examples are in fact the combination of these original characters with such radicals as “示” and “玉” , that is, the case of “注” (explanation). By contrast, the real phono-semantic characters, such as “球” “琳” “琅” , and “玕” , consist of both formal and phonological components, while the phonological components, that is, “求” “林” “良” , and “干” in these cases, have quite different meanings and usages.  To summarize, a phono-semantic character takes the formal component as the core, accompanied by different phonological components. In contrast, a character of mutual  explanation takes the phonological component as its core, attached with different formal  components to indicate different usages. In a word, these two types of characters look  alike but follow opposite principles.

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This is also a very clear argument. Again, to paraphrase, a phono-semantic character containing a loan character as its phonological component (“齊” “類” “介” and “冒” cannot be interpreted as fast ceremony, sacrifice, or jade article) is a  case of mutual explanation. Although explaining the issue from different perspectives, both the “separate  entries” argument and the “simplified forms” argument interpreted “mutual explanation” as a kind of phono-semantic character, which was also improper. If we admit that a character with a simplified phonological component is still a phono-semantic character, why couldn’ t we admit that a character with a simplified formal component is also a phono-semantic one, too? It is also a farfetched argument to deem “球” “琳” “琅” and “玕” as real phono-semantic characters, whereas “ 齋 ” “ 禷 ” “ 玠 ” and “ 瑁 ” are fake ones, simply because the former group takes the formal components as their cores, and the latter, the phonological components. After all, the core of phono-semantic characters should always lie in the phonological components3. Zheng’ s argument was based on the convenient examples in ancient books about “齊” “類” “介” and “冒” being used as “齋” “禷” “玠” , and “瑁” , while there were no examples of “求” “林” “良” and “干” being used as “球” “琳” “琅” and “ 玕 ” . This is completely a matter of coincidence. It is also highly possible that, in ancient times, the characters of “求” “林” “良” and “干” could have been perfectly well used as “球” “琳” “琅” and “玕” . All the characters of “嗚” “鳿” and “隝” belong to the section of “烏” (Though “嗚” was not included in Shuowen Jiezi, it is still a Chinese character). The expression of “嗚呼” , however, used to be written with “烏” in ancient books. For all three characters consisting of a formal and a phonological component, how can we deem “鳿” and “隝” as real phono-semantic characters, yet “嗚” as a fake one? To further extend the discussion, the character of “兑” is the phonological component of both “説” and “悦” ; and “説” , rather than “悦” , was usually used in ancient books to mean joy and happiness. Does the core of “悦” lie in its phonological component? Or is “悦” also a real phono-semantic character? It can be seen from above that the arguments for the distinction between phonosemantic characters and characters of mutual explanation with reference to the relative importance of the formal versus phonological components cannot hold water. If the characters of “simplified forms” and of “separate entries” are both  phono-semantic characters, there would be no need to isolate them as cases of “mutual explanation” . The argument of “simplified forms” closely conforms to the statements in Shuowen Jiezi, and, to some extent, reasonably explained the line “Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical and can be mutually explained” . However, it is far from being incontestable. For one thing, it claimed that Shuowen Jiezi included a “section of mutual explanation” , which is a forced imposition on Shuowen Jiezi similar to the far-fetched arguments by Liu Shipei. For another, it interpreted “首” in the first line as radicals. As a matter of fact, Xu Shen himself  3

Please refer to Introduction to the Ancient Chinese Language.

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didn’ t make such an explanation. He merely mentioned that entries in Shuowen Jiezi were arranged in different sections. Therefore, there is no way to tell whether  the “radical” argument, which was proposed by others afterward, is truthful or not. Zhang Binglin also proposed that “mutual explanation” refers to the synonymous characters with phonological constraints (Liu Shipei also held similar opinions), which could be regarded as the “modified sound” argument. In his article “On Loan Characters of Mutual Explanation”, he pointed out: The use of speech preceded the creation of characters. Characters were then created to phonologically represent human speech. Despite the differences in dialects, the meanings are the same. When the pronunciations were changed either for different consonants or variant rhymes (雙聲相轉，叠韻相迆 4), an alternative character was invented, which was called “mutual explanation” . Then what is the meaning of “建類一首” (Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical)? The “類” here refers to sound categories. As Zheng Xuan stated in “Preface to The Rites of Zhou” “it is the sound category of the original character” . The annotations to “Officers of Summer” in The Rites of Zhou included such an entry: “the character of ‘薙’ reads as ‘鬀’5, meaning children’ s hair, it can be written as ‘夷’ in accordance to its category” . The meaning of “首” is what is now known as the foundation of language. Guanzi pointed out in the passage of “Di Yuan” “The five musical notes derived from the very first one” . A similar point was also made in “The  Secrete of Caring for Life” in Zhuangzi, “in accordance with the melody of Jingshou” , which refers to the foundation of sounds. “考” and “老” have mutually interchangeable meanings and slightly different forms. They seem different in terms of formal and structural features, yet share the same origin  in language. The different characters are in fact of the same category.

According to Zhang’ s ideas, a single word could be transcribed as different characters due to the changes and variations in its pronunciation, leading to several characters that are different in forms and related in sounds. This is his understanding of “mutual explanation” . His ideas about linguistic variations and changes were correct, but is this the meaning of mutual explanation? As we can see from the cited paragraph, compared to Dai and Duan’ s arguments, Zhang’ s argument incorporated phonological constraints, but it was still very general. It seems that any characters, no matter if they are pictographic, self-explanatory, associative compound or phono-semantic, can be indiscriminately deemed as cases of mutual explanation as long as they share similar or identical meaning and a certain phonological connection. Such a sweeping definition, however, is hardly  convincing. His interpretation of the eight-character statement by Xu Shen was also very subjective. The “sound categories” in his interpretation are in fact the 4 5

迆 , to change and evolve. 鬀 is the same as “剃” in modern Chinese.

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twenty-three divisions of ancient rhymes established and used in Guogu Lunheng (Comprehensive Inquiries on Sinology) and Wen Shi (The Origin of Language), which, again, was the imposition of his own system upon the ancient language. The twenty-three divisions of ancient rhymes were academic achievements of the scholars in the Qing Dynasty, how could they become the fundamental “categories” in the creation and use of characters in ancient times? The reference to “the foundation of language” is, at best, as ambiguous as Duan’ s statement of “the setting up categories of meaning and the selection of the initial character” . In the lengthy, 2,400-character passage “On Loan Characters of Mutual Explanation” , Zhang Binglin simply interpreted “首” as “the foundation of language” , yet without any specific explanations thereof. From Dai Zhen to Zhang Binglin, despite the various perspectives, this line of arguments all intended to address the defining statement in Shuowen Jiezi, that is, “Characters of mutual explanation have the same radical and can be mutually explained. For example, the characters of ‘考’ and ‘老’ is a pair in this case” , as well as the examples in it. In contrast, another scholar Zhu Junsheng broke free from Xu’ s theory and proposed his own, that is, the “extended meaning” argument. His ideas were concisely introduced in the following two lines in the introductory part of his work Interpretations and Pronunciations in Shuowen Jiezi: For the characters of mutual explanation, the formal structure remains the same, and similar meanings can be derived, as in the cases of “令” and “長” . In contrast, the loan characters originally had no meanings but are phonologically derived from other characters, as in the cases of “朋” and “來” .

This is also a very straightforward argument. The meaning extension makes characters of mutual explanation, while phonological borrowing makes loan characters. The seal-script entries in Interpretations and Pronunciations in Shuowen Jiezi often include the item of “mutual explanation” . For example, the item of “mutual explanation” under the seal-script entry of “重” cited the article of “Ji Tong” in The Book of Rites, “it is to respect the state” with the explanation of “猶尊也” (it is the same as respect). In other words, “尊” is the extended meaning of “重” . Such an account of mutual explanation is completely disconnected from Xu Shen’ s statements. For scholars of Shuowen Jiezi, it is quite an act of ungratefulness and even betrayal. In this line of reasoning, pictographic, selfexplanatory and phono-semantic characters as well as associative compounds, they are all concerned with the formal structure; whereas characters of mutual explanation and loan characters are concerned with the usage. Therefore, it seems quite reasonable to regard meaning extension as mutual explanation, and phonetic borrowing as loan characters. It also helps to explain certain issues related to the use of characters and words. However, such a novel account could at best serve as a new perspective to the study of Six Scripts, but its contribution to the study of the meanings of ancient characters is yet to be proved. Whether we should equate meaning extension as mutual explanation, therefore, seems to be an issue

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of names. If “meaning extension” can clearly explain the usage of characters, why bother to squeeze it into the framework of Six Scripts, and forced its equivalence with “mutual explanation” without any prior evidence? The conclusion of this passage, if there must be one, can be a single comment: Given the lack of literature, the present discussions about the ancient classics are no more than intellectual entertainment.

Examples of “Interchangeable Characters” in Chinese ZHANG Tongguang and JIANG Lihong

In general terms, when two or more characters with different original meanings are  used for the same meaning, they are regarded as “interchangeable characters” . The basic condition of interchangeability is that the characters should have identical or similar pronunciation. However, as there are many characters   with different forms  and similar pronunciation, if they are allowed to be used interchangeably without any constraint, it will inevitably incur great difficulty in reading. Therefore, the interchangeability of characters must follow certain conventions and be limited by the scopes of usage. Interchangeable characters abounded in ancient literature and recurred frequently. The lack of knowledge in this regard may cause reading difficulties, and therefore it is necessary to learn about them. Interchangeability of characters varies across different regions and historical ages. For example, “一” was written as “壹” in “Great Learning” of The Book of Rites, as in the line of “壹是皆以修身爲本” (All must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides). But it was also written as “亦” in Dunhuang Bianwen. Furthermore, in the Dunhuang documents which represent the north-west accents, “清” was interchangeably used as “妻” , “定” as “第” and “禮” as “領” (with no distinction between sound i and sound ing). These are just common examples in ancient texts. Generally speaking, among the interchangeable characters, one is regarded as the “authentic character” , while others are “interchangeable variants” . In practice, the “authentic character” comes first, followed by its variants. Group 1: In many cases, the variants are phonological components of the authentic character which is a phono-semantic character consisting of the variant and a formal component. 1. “汝” and “女” 子謂子夏曰 : “女爲君子儒，毋爲小人儒！” 481

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Confucius told Zixia, “You should be a scholar after the style of the superior man, and not after that of the mean man!” (From “Yong Ye” in The Analects of Confucius)

2. “捨” and “舍” 以爲無益而舍之者，不耘苗者也。 Those who think it no use fostering the spirits are like those who do not weed their seedlings. (From “Gongsun Chou I” in Mencius)

3. “歟” and “與” 管仲、晏子，猶不足爲與？ Are Guan Zhong and Yanzi stillnot good enough for us to learn? (From “Gongsun Chou I ” in Mencius)

4. “境” and “竟” 聘禮：大夫受命不受辭。出竟，有可以安社稷、利國家者，則專之可也。 The rites of envoys: the envoy accepts the task of visiting a foreign country, but his actions are not constrained by specific instructions. Once he crosses the order, he is entitled to make his own decisions that are beneficial to the state. (From “The 19th Year  of Duke Zhuang” in Commentary of Gongyang) 御史大夫弘羊以爲：此乃所以安邊竟，制四夷，國家大業，不可廢也。《(孫劉 田王楊蔡陳鄭傳贊》)漢書· 公 Minister Sang Hongyang pointed out that this is a way of the State which can help to keep the borders secure and the enemies at bay, so it cannot be abolished. (From Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

5. “猝” and “卒” 群臣驚愕，卒起不意，盡失其度。《(戰國策· 燕策三》) All the officials at court were dumbfounded. It was totally unexpected, so they lost  their usual manners. (From “Stratagems of Yan III ” in Stratagems of the Warring States) 孟子見梁惠王，出，語人曰：“望之不似人君，就之而不見所畏焉，卒然問曰：‘天 下惡乎定？’ ……” Mencius had an audience with the Duke Hui of Liang.When he came out, he said to some persons, “When I looked at him at a distance, he did not appear like a sovereign; when I drew near to him, I saw nothing venerable about him. Yet, abruptly he asked me, ‘How can the situation of the kingdom be settled down?’ ….” (From “Duke Hui of Liang I” in Mencius) 卒死，誰當復言之者？《(漢書 · 趙充國傳》) If I were dead, who can tell His Majesty the truth? (From “Biography of Zhao Chongguo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

6. “嗜” and “耆” 耆秦人之炙，無異於耆吾炙。 My liking of meat roasted by people of Qin is not different from my liking of the  meat roasted by myself. (From “Gaozi I” in Mencius)

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其耆欲深者，其天機淺。《( 莊子· 大宗師》) Those of very strong earthly desires are usually shallow in inherent wisdom. (From “The Grand Master” in Zhuangzi) 吉馭吏耆酒。《(漢書· 丙吉傳》) The carriage driver of Bing Ji was fond of drinking. (From “Biography of Bing Ji” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

7. “價” and “賈” 有美玉於斯，藴櫝而藏諸？ 求善賈而沽諸？ For such a fine jade, would you lock and store it inside a closet? Or would you sell  it for a good price? (From “Zihan” in The Analects of Confucius)

8. “避” and “辟” 伯夷辟紂，居北海之濱。 To stay away from King Zhou, Boyi dwelled on the coast of the North sea. (From “Li Lou I” in Mencius) 時上疾，辟暑甘泉宫。《( 漢書 · 武五子傳》) At that time the emperor was under the weather and stayed in Ganquan Palace to avoid the summer heat. (From “Biographies of the Five Sons of Emperor Wu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

9. “譬” and “辟” 君子之道，辟如行遠，必自邇 ；辟如登高，必自卑。 It is no easy thing to be a man of honor. To this end, you & apos; d start from small things. It feels as if you were taking the first step of a journey or beginning your hiking  at the foot of the mountain. (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites)

10. “僻” and “辟” 故君子在車則聞鸞和之聲，行則鳴佩玉，是以非辟之心無自入也。 When a gentleman was on his carriage he might hear the sound in harmony, and hear the sound while walking. In this way, no wicked idea could enter his mind. (From “Yu Zao” in The Book of Rites)

11. “憫” and “閔” 宋人有閔其苗之不長而揠之者。 A man in the State of Song worried that the crop seedlings did not grow, so he pulled them up to help them grow. (From “Gongsun Chou I ” in Mencius) 褒於道病死，上閔惜之。《(漢書· 王褒傳》) Wang Bao died on the way, and the emperor felt quite sympathetic to him. (From “Biography of Wang Bao” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

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12. “屢” and “婁” 不救之患，日寖婁深。《(漢書· 孝成許皇后傳》) The calamities, if without remedies, may get worse day by day. (From “Biography of the Empress Xu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 婁奏封章。 He repeatedly submitted sealed memorials to the throne. (From “In Praise of Zhao Chongguo” by Yang Xiong)

13. “悒” and “邑” 安能邑邑待數十百年以成帝王乎！ How can I wait in gloom for decades to acquire my kingship? (From “Biography of Lord Shang” in Records of the Grand Historian)

14. “值” and “直” 陵至浚稽山，與單于相直。 Li Ling reached Mount Junji and confronted the chief of Huns. (From “Biography of Liling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 向使傭一夫於家，受若直，怠若事，又盜若貨器，則必甚怒而黜罰之矣。( 柳 宗元《送薛存義序》) If an employee of yours stayed in your house and received your payment, but was slack at work and stole your properties, you would definitely get angry as well as would punish and dismiss him. (From “A Passage in Dedication to Xue Cunyi” by Liu Zongyuan) 春衣一對直千金。( 白居易《繚綾》) A set of nice clothing in spring is extremely precious. (From “Liaoling Silk” by Bai Juyi)

15. “藏” and “臧” 直至其門，使左右入求之。家人驚恐，女逃匿，扶將出拜。帝下車泣曰：“ 大 姊何臧之深也？” The emperor arrived at the gate and sent the attendants to seek her. The household got into a panic, and the lady was in hiding. With the attendants’ support, she went out to meet the emperor. The emperor got off the carriage and said in tears, “My sister, why did  you hide yourself?” (From “Biography of Empress Wang of Emperor Jin” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 沛公至咸陽，諸將皆争走金帛財物之府分之，何獨先入收秦丞相御史律令圖書 臧之。《(漢書·蕭何傳》) When Liu Bang’ s army entered the city of Xian Yang, all the generals rushed to the municipal warehouse and divided the treasures and textiles, whereas Xiao He alone went to the royal palace in search for the legal documents of the Qin Dynasty and hid them well. (From “Biography of Xiao He” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

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16. “縱” and “從” 自見功大威行，遂從耆 (嗜 )欲。 He took pride in great achievements and abandoned himself to desires. (From “Biography of Gong Yu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

17. “ 隔 ” and “ 鬲 ” 是以親戚之路鬲塞而不通。 In this way he was blocked from his families and relatives. (From “Biographies of the Five Sons of Emperor Wu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

18. “傭” and “庸” 庸者笑而應曰：“若爲庸耕，何富貴也？” His co-workers replied with a laugh, “You are only an employed farmer, how can you become rich?” (From “Biography of Chen She” in Records of the Grand Historian)

19. “俸” and “奉” 弘位在三公，奉禄甚多。 Gongsun Hong was among the three ducal ministers and enjoyed a high salary. (From “Biography of Gongsun Hong” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

Group 2: The characters have the same phonological components or have the same or similar pronunciation. 20. “悦” and “説” 學而時習之，不亦説乎！有朋自遠方來，不亦樂乎！人不知而不愠，不亦君 子乎！ To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’ s merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (From “Xue Er” in The Analects of Confucius)

21. “貺” and “況” 君親拜迎於大門之内而廟受，北面拜況。 The lord should greet the guests inside the gate of the temple, and receive their greetings in the temple. He should accept and appreciate the presents while facing the north. (From “Rites of Paying Visits” in The Book of Rites)

22. “倘” and “黨” 欲自殺，左右曰：“黨得削國，幸不死。” He wanted to commit suicide. The attendants said “If you ask the emperor to remove your land ownership, probably you could keep your life.” (From “Biographies of the

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Five Sons of Emperor Wu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 太守竟論殺孝婦，郡中枯旱三年。後太守至，卜筮其故。于公曰：“孝婦不當死， 前太守彊 (强 )斷之，咎黨在是乎？” The prefecture chief declared the woman guilty and put her to death. After that, the prefecture suffered a three-year drought. When the successive chief came into office and tried to find out the cause of draught through divination, Yu Dingguo told him “The  woman should not have been sentenced to death, but the ex-chief imposed the sentence. Is this where the fault probably lies?” (From “Biography of Yu Dingguo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

23. “叛” and “畔” 寡助之至，親戚畔之。 When the lack of support reaches its critical point, even a ruler’ s own relatives will rebel against him. (From “Gongsun Chou II” in Mencius) 豪杰畔秦相立。《(史記· 南越尉佗列傳》) The warlords betrayed Qin and became enemies among themselves. (From “Biographies of the Lords in South Yue” in Records of the Grand Historian)

24. “途” and “塗” 塗有餓殍而不知發。 Dead bodies of the starved were littered on the road, but the granaries were not opened to provide relief. (From “King Hui of Liang I” in Mencius) 君子遵道而行；半塗而廢，吾弗能已矣。 A gentleman should follow the right way to go forward. To give up the cause halfway is not what I will do. (From “The Doctrine of Mean” in The Book of Rites)

25. “嫡” and “適” 立適以長不以賢。 The elderest son of the duke’ s legal wife rather than any more virtuous son should be designated as the sole heir. (From “The 1st Year of Duke Yin” in Commentary of Gongyang)

26. “謫” and “適” 發閭左適戍漁陽九百人。 Nine hundred people in poverty were dispatched to guard Yuyang. (From “Biography of Chen Sheng” in Records of the Grand Historian)

27. “幟” “織” and “職” 望見單于城上立五采幡織。 They saw the chief Chanyu putting the banners of five colors on the city walls. (From  “Biography of Chen Tang” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 於是皇帝輦出房，百官執職傳警。 The emperor went out of the palace chamber on his imperial carriage then the

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officials held banners on guard. (From “Biographies of Liu Jing and Shusun Tong” in  Records of the Grand Historian)

28. “歡” and “驩” 楚懷王新與秦合婚而驩。 King Huai of Chu was recently getting along with Qin through intermarriage. (From “Biographies of Chu Lizi and Gan Mao” in Records of the Grand Historian)

29. “娱” and “虞” 霸者之民，驩虞如也。 People under a hegemonic sovereign are joyous. (From “Jin Xin I” in Mencius) 辟如女工有綺穀，音樂有鄭衛，今世俗猶皆以此虞説耳目。 The silk among the textiles, and the songs of official music and folk tunes, are all  materials to please people’ s eyes or ears. (From “Biography of Wang Bao” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

30. “愕” and “鄂” 群臣皆驚鄂失色。 All the officials on court were white in a state of shock. (From “Biography of Huo  Guang” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

31. “漠” and “幕” 徑萬里兮度沙幕。 They traveled thousands of miles and crossed the desert. From “Biography of Li Ling” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty 兵威沖絶幕，殺氣淩穹蒼。 The morale of the army penetrated the desolate desert, and the threatening vigor soared high into the sky. (From the ancient yuefu poem “Outside the Northern Gate of Ji” by Li Bai)

32. “贍” and “澹” 埶位齊而欲惡同，物不能澹，則必争。 If two people have the same power and influence, as well as similar likes and dislikes,  the quantity of resources and goods will not be sufficient to meet their  needs. This will  incur competition and struggle. (From “On Politics” in Xunzi) 道家使人精神專一，動合無形，澹足萬物。 Taoism helps to concentrate one’ s spirit, make one’ s actions compatible with the invisible “Way” , and to bring abundance to the world. (From “Biography of Sima Qian” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

33. “詎” “巨” “渠” and “遽” 沛公不先破關中，君巨能入乎？ If Liu Bang did not break into the Guanzhong plain first, how could you go there? 

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(From “Biography of Liu Bang” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 掾部渠有其人乎？ Could there be such a person in the office? (From “Biography of Sun Bao” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 吾言何遽不善？ How could my words be not wise? (From “Gong Meng” in Mozi)

34. “又” and “有” 受任於敗軍之際，奉命於危難之間，爾來二十有一年矣。 I was given heavy responsibilities when we were facing defeats. I received important duties in dangerous and difficult situations. Since then, twenty-one years have elapsed.  (From “Memorial to the Throne on His Expedition” by Zhuge Liang)

35. “無” and “亡” 亡而爲有，虚而爲盈。 A consistent man will not take nothing for something, nor the empty for the full. (From “Shu Er” in The Analects of Confucius) 然其私心不能亡恐。 But deep in the mind he couldn’ t be fearless. (From “Biography of Zhao Chongguo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 合天下之知，併天下之威，是以舉秦如鴻毛，取楚若拾遺，此高祖所以亡敵於 天下也。 To bring together all persons with ability and powers under the sky, then you will be able to conquer Qin as if it were a light feather, or to subdue Chu as if it were a piece of litter. This is how the Emperor Gaozu of Han became peerless and invincible. (From “Biography of Mei Fu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

36. “纔 ( 才 )” “裁” , and “財” 寡人蠻夷僻處，雖大男子，裁如嬰兒。 I have stayed in this remote and savage place. Despite being a grown-up, I am as simple-minded as a baby . (From “Biography of Zhang Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian) 光爲人沈静詳審，長財七尺三寸。 Huo Guang is a quiet and cautious man, with a height of only seven chis and three cuns. (From “Biography of Huo Guang” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 郅支人衆中寒道死，餘財三千人到康居。《(漢書·匈奴傳下》) Most people led by Zhizhi Chanyu were frozen to death on the road and only three thousand managed to arrive at Kangju. (From “Biographies of the Huns” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

37. “背” and “倍” 倍道而妄行，則天不能使之吉。 If you go and act wildly against nature, then the Heaven cannot bring good fortune. (From “On Heaven” in Xunzi)

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38. “疲” and “罷” 韓子盧者，天下之疾犬也；東郭浚者，海内之狡兔也。韓子盧逐東郭浚，環山者三， 騰山者五。兔極於前，犬廢於後 ；犬兔俱罷，各死其處。 Hanzilu is the fastest dog on the earth, and Dongguojun is the quickest hare under the sky. When Hanzilu was chasing Dongguojun, they ran around three mountains for five  laps. The hare died from exhaustion first and the dog died afterwards. Both of them lost  their lives in their positions. (From “Stratagems of Qi” in Stratagems of Warring States)

39. “猶” and “由” 以齊王，由反手也。 They could have helped push Qi to head the entire kingdom as easily as turning over the hand. (From “Gongsun Chou I” in Mencius)

40. “冀” and “幾” 方遂心利其言，幾得以富貴。 Fangsui was quite impressed by these words, hoping to acquire fortune in this way. (From “Biography of Juan Buyi” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

41. “帥” and “率” 蓋君子聞鼓鼙之聲則思將率之臣。 The gentlemen heard the sounds of big and small drums and thought of the commanders and generals. (From “Biography of Chen Tang” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

42. “霸” and “伯” 百里奚居虞而虞亡，之秦而秦伯。 When Baili Xi stayed in the State of Yu, Yu was conquered. When he went to the State of Qin, Qin became the conqueror. (From “Biography of Han Xin” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

43. “促” and “趣” 廣既歸鄉里，日令家共具設酒食，請族人故舊賓客相與娱樂 ；數問其家金餘尚 有幾所，趣賣以共具。 When Shu Guang returned home, he asked his families to prepare dishes and wine, and invited his clansmen, old friends and guests for recreation. For many times he asked his family about how much money remained at home and urged them to pay for more feasts. (From “Biography of Shu Guang” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

44. “罹” and “離” 竄於風寒之地，離霜露疾疫瘃之患。 They hid themselves in cold places, suffering from hard situations, illnesses and frostbite.  (From “Biography of Zhao Chongguo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

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45. “三” and “參” 髡竊樂此，飲可八斗而醉二參。 Kun enjoyed the feast very much. Even after having about eight cups of wine, he was not even half-drunk. (From “Biography of Chunyu Kun” in Records of the Grand Historian)

46. “慧” and “惠” 甚矣，汝之不惠！ You are really unwise!(From “Shuo Fu” in Liezi)

47. “嗚呼” ; “於戲” and “惡乎” 於戲！保國艾民，可不敬與？ Alas! They protected the country and cared about the people. Could we not respect them? (From “Hereditary Houses of the Three Kings” in Records of the Grand Historian) ” 晏子捧杯血仰天而嘆曰：“惡乎！崔子將爲無道，而殺其君。 “Alas! Yanzi held the cup of blood, looked up to the sky and sighed, Cui followed the evil way and killed his lord.” (From Exoteric Traditions of the Han Version of the Odes by Han Ying)

48. “屈伸” and “詘信” 吾聞君子詘於不知己而信於知己者。 I heard that a gentleman would only be wrongly by those who do not understand him and be respected by those who understand him.(From “Biographies of Guan Zhong and Yan Ying” in Records of the Grand Historian)

49. “睥睨” and “辟倪” 辟倪兩宫，幸天下有變，而欲立大功。 He coveted the thrones and hoped for a chance to take over the power. (From “Biographies of Dou Ying, Tian Fen and Guan Fu” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In some of the above examples, the interchangeable variants are the phonological components of the authentic characters; in others, both the authentic and variant characters share the same phonological components. There are also cases that are different from the above two. All in all, the interchangeable characters are “similar in pronunciation” because of same consonant, similar rhymes, or same consonant and similar rhymes. However, pronunciation may change over time. Some characters might have shared similar pronunciation in ancient times, but they are no longer similar in their modern pronunciations, as in the cases of “嫡” and “適” in Example 25, “疲” and “罷” in Example 38, as well as “嗚呼” and “於戲” in Example 47. For those who haven’ t grasped the knowledge about ancient sounds and rhymes, rote learning might be the only way.

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It is felt that “standard characters” are the original ones, while their “interchangeable variants” are loan characters, which is not completely accurate. Most of the “standard characters” are indeed the original ones, but it is not always the case. Here are some examples. In “汝” and “女” in Example 1, the standard character “汝” was the name of a river. Of “又” and “有” in Example 34, “又” originally means the right hand. In Example 39 (“猶” and “由” ), “猶” was the name of a beast and could be used as a second-person pronoun. It is also a loan character in itself. What’ s more, both characters of “冀” and “幾” in Example 40, meaning “intention” or “hope” , are both the loan characters of “覬” , which was so rare that it was later replaced by “冀” as the standard character for “希冀” (hope). In Example 41, both “帥” and “率” could be used to refer to generals. As a matter of fact, the original meaning of “帥” is a “scarf” , whereas that of “率” is bird-catching nets, neither of which is related to the meaning of “generals” . In other words, both are loan characters. According to an entry in Shuowen Jiezi: the character of “ ” (which is mistaken for “衛” in the modern version) is the standard character for “將” and “帥” . In conclusion, not all standard characters are the original ones. Group 3: In some cases, the loan characters are used for such a long time that the original characters are completely forgotten. Then the loan characters are regarded as the authentic ones, while the original characters as the interchangeable variants. For example, 50. “荷” and “何” 可憎猧子色茸茸，抬舉何芳喂飼濃。(無名氏《長興四年應聖節中興殿講經文》) The cute Pekingese is so fluffy, and the pet owner has to take all the trouble to feed it. (From  “Preaching Scriptures for the Birthday of the Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang Dynasty at Zhongxing Palace in the Fourth Year of Changxing” by an anonymous author)

51. “納” and “内” 思天下之民，匹夫匹婦有不被堯舜之澤者，若己推而内之溝中。 (Yi Yin) had the people of the kingdom at heart. If a man or woman who failed to benefit from the Way of Yao and Shun, he would feel as if he was the one who pushed  them into the ditch. (From “Wan Zhang I” in Mencius)

52. “向” “嚮” and “鄉” 頃之，有縛而至戲下者，信解其縛，東鄉坐，西鄉對而師事之。 After a while, Li was roped and sent to the battalion. Han Xin immediately untied and asked him to take a seat facing east, while Han himself was seated facing west, treating Li as if he were his master. (From “Biography of Han Xin” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

53. “義” and “誼” 田假，與國之王，窮而歸我，殺之不誼。 Tian Jia is the lord of our ally, who turned to me out of desperation. It is unjust to kill

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him. (From “Biography of Tian Dan” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

54. “偶” and “耦” 嘉耦曰妃，怨耦曰仇。 Happy and suitable marriages are called “妃” , whereas unhappy marriages are called “仇” . (From “The 2nd Year of Duke Huan” in Commentary of Zuo)

In the five “standard characters” mentioned above, “荷”  is  a  flower  name,  “納” means the dampness of silk1 and “向” refers to windows2 as well as “義” was the archaic form of “儀” and “偶” means an “idol” . Therefore, they are all loan characters when used in modern meanings. Instead, their corresponding “interchangeable characters” are the authentic ones. In particular, the form of “鄉” in bronze inscriptions was “ ” , showing an image of two persons facing each other to eat with a food vessel in between. An extended meaning of this character, therefore, is “to face” . The seal script of “鄉” with the meaning of “village” was “ ” , showing the two characters of “邑” facing each other, and was pronounced as “ ” (the same as “香” ). Therefore, the structure of this character was in fact different from that of the  “鄉” in “東鄉坐 (take a seat facing east)” . It is only in regular script that these two characters were written in the same way. Group 4: The “interchangeable character” used to be the original character in ancient Chinese language, but later it acquired another meaning and became fixed to the new meaning. A different character was then created to stand for the  standard character, which is usually a phono-semantic character with the original one as its phonological component. Please see the following examples. 55. “暮” and “莫” 文王之爲世子：朝於王季日三。鷄初鳴而衣服，至於寢門外，問内竪之御者曰：“今 日安否何如？” 内竪曰：“安。” 文王乃喜。乃日中又至，亦如之。及莫又至，亦如之。 When King Wen of Zhou was a prince, he would visit his father three times in a day. When the roosters crowned at their first time, he arrived at the gate of the resting  chamber and asked one attendant on duty, “Is my father feeling well today?” The attendant would reply, “Yes.” And he would be pleased. At noon, he would do as what he did in the morning. At dusk he would come again and did the same. (From “Prince Wen” in The Book of Rites)

56. “債” and “責” 誰習計會，能爲文收責於薛者乎？ Who are familiar with accounting and would go to the land of Xue to collect debts 1

In Liu Xiang’s poem “Nine Passages of Sighs” “裳襜襜而含風兮，衣納納而掩露” (My dress is gently blowing in the wind, and my garment is slightly damp with dew). 2 In “Qi Yue” in Odes of Bin in The Book of Songs, “塞向墐户” (to block the north windows and smear mud on them in order to fend off the chill).

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for me? (From “Stratagems of Qi” in Stratagems of the Warring States)

57. “礪” and “厲” 使河如帶，泰山如厲，國以永存，爰及苗裔。 Even if the Yellow River would become as thin as a ribbon, Mount Tai would become as flat as a grindstone, the state would still persist forever, and bounties would be passed  on to the descendants. (From Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

58. “墜” and “隊” 雲懼，隊於車，傷足喪屨。 The duke was frightened and fell off the carriage, his foot hurt and a shoe lost.  (From  “The 9th Year of Duke Zhuang” in Commentary of Zuo)

59. “影” and “景” 夫匈奴獸聚而鳥散，從之如搏景。 The Huns gather like beasts and scatter like birds. To chase them is like wrestling with a shadow. (From “Biography of Zhufu Yan” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

60. “曝” and “暴” 雖有天下易生之物也，一日暴之，十日寒之，未有能生者也。 Even for a plant that is most likely to survive, if it is exposed to the scorching sun for one day and to the freezing chill for ten days, it still cannot survive. (From “Gaozi I” in Mencius)

61. “熟” and “孰” 丘治《詩》、 《書》、 《禮》、 《樂》、 《易》、 《春秋》六經，自以爲久矣，孰知其故矣。 I studied the six classics: The Book of Songs, The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. I think I have studied for a long time and understood the truth. (From “The Principles of Nature” in Zhuangzi) 五穀蕃孰，六畜遂字。 The crops are ripe and the cattle are growing well. (From “Biography of Yan An” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

62. “腰” and “要” 一脛 (小腿 )之大幾如要。 The leg is as thick as the waist. (From “Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi” in Records of the Grand Historian)

In the above examples, “莫” in Example 55 is written as “ ” in seal script, showing the sun is falling towards the grassland, that is, the time of dusk. The

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character was later used as a word of prohibition (don’ t), so a character of “日” was added to the original one to form a new character for “dusk” . So “暮” is a derived character specifically referring to “dusk” . Philologists in the past used to  think it improper to include an additional “日” in “暮” , because there is already one in “莫” . As a matter of fact, duplications as such are not only numerous but also inevitable. As a further example, “要” in Example 62 is written as “ ” in seal script, showing a figure standing with his hands on his hips. It was later  used to mean “agreement” or “briefness” , so “月” (flesh) is added to the original  character to form the specific word “腰身 (waist)” . The rest of the above examples all follow the rule of derivation. Group 5: The interchangeable character is used to represent the extended meaning. Subsequently, other specific characters, most of which were phonosemantic characters with added or modified formal components, were made for a  better meaning-representation, as shown in the following examples. 63. “佯” “陽” , and “詳” ( “詳” should have been put in Group 2, but it is incorporated here for the sake of convenience) 諸將皆嘸然，陽應曰：“諾。” The generals were all in shock and disbelief, and pretended to agree by saying, “Yes”. (From “Biography of Han Xin” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 大戰良久，於是〔韓〕信、張耳詳棄鼓旗走 (奔向 )水上軍。 After a long battle, Han Xin and Zhang Er pretended to abandon their drums and banners and retreated to their ground by the river. (From “Biography of Marquis Huaiyin” in Records of the Grand Historian)

64. “横” and “衡” 一人衡行於天下，武王耻之。 As long as there is one tyrant in the land, King Wu of Zhou would feel ashamed. (From “King Hui of Liang II” in Mencius)

65. “惑” and “或” 無或乎王之不智也。 There is nothing strange about the foolishness of the lord. (From “Gaozi I” in Mencius)

66. “諷” and “風” 大將軍霍光風惠以便宜從事。 General Huo Guang suggested Chang Hui to act flexibly in accordance to the circumstances. (From “Biography of Huo Guang” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

67. “輛” “緉” , and “兩” 武王之伐殷也，革車三千兩，虎賁 (勇士 )三千人。

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King Wu of Zhou launched a war against the Yin Dynasty. He mobilized three thousand chariots and three thousand brave warriors. (From “Jin Xin II” in Mencius) 今奉細布襪二兩。(徐淑《報秦嘉書》) I am now sending you two pairs of fine-cloth socks. (From “A Letter to Qin Jia” by  Xu Shu)

68. “悌” and “弟” 孝弟也者，其爲仁之本與！ Filial piety and fraternal duty are the fundamentals of benevolence! (From “Xue Er” in The Analects of Confucius)

69. “肢” “枝” , and “支” 爲長者折枝，語人曰 ：“我不能。” 是不爲也，非不能也。 If told to bow before the elderly and you say “I am incapable” , that is reluctance, rather than the lack of capability. (From “Duke Hui of Liang I” in Mencius) 惰其四支，不顧父母之養。 They are too lazy to labor with one’ s feet and hands and would not support their parents. (From “Li Lou II” in Mencius)

70. “賑” and “振” 緩刑罰，薄賦斂，哀鰥寡，恤孤獨，養耆老，振匱乏。《(漢書· 嚴助傳》) He lightened the penalties, reduced the tax burden, sympathized with the widows and widowers, comforted the orphans and childless elders, supported the seniors, and offered relief to the poor. (From “Biography of Yan Zhu” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty) 虚倉廪，開府臧，相振救。 He emptied the granaries and opened the government storehouses to provide relief. (From “Biography of Yu Dingguo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

In Example 63, “陽” means “surface” as an extension, which is derived from the meaning of “陰陽” (yin and yang). So the emotions and reactions is fake ones. In Example 64, “衡” originally refers to the wooden crosspiece of a cart to yoke the cattle, which is naturally extended to mean “horizontal” . “或” in Example 65 is a character of ambiguities (the original meaning of “或” is “域” , used to mean “probably” as a loan character). Therefore, “惑” (doubtful) means being unable to decide,

so “或” also contains the meaning of “惑” . In Example 66, “風” has the meaning of “to move” , while to persuade or to suggest others (including the use of sarcasm) also lead to the change of mind or behaviors of others, which is the meaning of “諷” . “弟” in Example 68 means “the moral rules that a good brother must obey” , which is also expressed as “悌” . So the two characters are also semantically related. Both “枝” and “支” originally mean branches. Since human bodies are like the tree trunk and limbs are like branches, both “枝” and “支” also contain the meaning of “肢” (limbs). In Example 70, “振” means “to cheer up” or “to support” . Therefore, it has the same meaning of “賑” (to relieve), as the poverty-stricken people usually need to be supported and helped. In all these examples, the

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interchangeable variants appeared before the specialized standard characters were adopted. In a few cases, the “standard character” was in fact written in a wrong form, as shown in the following examples:

71. “陣” and “陳” 有人曰 ：“我善爲陳，我善爲戰。” 大罪也。 Someone said, “I’ m good at deploying troops, and good at battling.” This is a huge sin. (From “Jin Xin II” in Mencius) 望匈奴有數千騎，見廣，以爲誘騎，皆驚，上山陳 (布陣 )。 He saw thousands of Hun cavalrymen, who, seeing Li Guang, thought it was a bait and went to the mountains in fright and deployed their soldiers there. (From “Biography of General Li” in Records of the Grand Historian) 充國迺 (乃 )與壯士百餘人潰轉陷陳。 Zhao Chongguo led hundred-odd brave soldiers to charge forward and breach the defenses. (From “Biography of Zhao Chongguo” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty)

In the above examples, “陳” was written as “ ” in seal script, with the original meaning of “display” and the extended meaning of “troop deployment” . But it was never written as “陣” with the component of “車” before the Jin Dynasty. After Wang Yi in the Jin Dynasty wrote “陳” as “陣” in Elementary Learning(《小 學章》), the latter gradually acquired the status of the standard character. To summarize all the above examples, “mutual interchangeability” is a looselydefined concept, and is different from loan characters. Among the interchangeable  characters, they are still the original ones, archaic ones, or the characters of the extended meanings, which lies somewhere between the original and the loan (extended) characters. Most importantly, the interchangeable characters all have the same or similar pronunciation. Ancient Chinese texts contain a lot of examples of interchangeable characters, and the relevant knowledge would be of great avail to the understanding of texts. They must be diligently memorized and applied in reading. A further point should be also noted here. Although “説” is the interchangeable variant of “悦” , but “説” in “唐雎説信陵君” (Tang Ju Counseled Duke Xinling) means “to persuade or to advise” . What’ s more, though “陳” is the interchangeable variant of “陣” , but in “下有陳死人” (Lying underground are the long deceased), “陳” means “old” . Therefore, whether a character is used as an interchangeable variant should be determined in the context.

Discussion on Meanings of “無慮” in “Common Usages” in General Exegeses of the Classics WANG Yinzhi 1

My father said that where “wulü” (無慮 ) appears in books, people since the beginning of the Tang Dynasty have not yet understood the meaning, but caught the meaning of words literally from the context, a n d most of them gave strained interpretations and drew far-fetched analogies. Now I make a little argument. Gao You commented on the “Chuzhen Xun” of Huainanzi that “wulü (無慮 ) means the approximate number” . Guangya tells that “Wulü (無慮 ) means doufan (都凡 ) and dou (都 ) represents the most” . Doufan is the same as in most cases, which is the approximate number said by Gao You. Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of the Heaven 《周髀算經》 ( ) tells that “Roughly wulü (無慮 ) acquired the seven in thirteen degrees and nineteen sub-degrees” . “The 11th Year of Duke Xuan ” in Commentary of Zuo commented that “Wulü (無 慮 ) means a rough estimate” . The meaning is also the same as the approximate number. In the 11th Year of Duke Xuan, the explanation of Commentary of Zuo tells that “Wulü (無慮 ) is pronounced according to its original sound, and one sound of wulü is a phoneticization” . Wulü (無慮 ) are the characters of rhyming compounds. “Records of Emperor Guangwu” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty tells that “In our country, wulü (無慮 ) is dadi (大氐 ) for making coins”. Yan Shigu commented that “The dadi still stands for dafan (大凡 ). Wulü (無 慮 ) is also called for being approximate but not for detailed” . 1

Wang Yinzhi, born in Gaoyou in the Qing Dynasty, courtesy name Boshen, is the son of Wang Niansun. Wang Niansun, courtesy name Shiqu, was the student of Dai Zhen. The commentariology of wording in the Qing Dynasty made a great scale well-established by the father and son of Wang’s family, and later so-called textual research scholars could not surpass them, even if they made some supplements. Wang Niansun authored Commentary on the Meaning of Terms in Extended Erya and Reading Magazine(《讀書雜誌》), and Wang Yinzhi wrote General Exegeses of the Classics(《經義 述聞》) and Explanations of the Grammatical Particles in the Classics and Commentaries. “述闻” means “telling what he learned from his father.”

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The “Biography of Zhao Chongguo” tells that “亡慮萬兩千人” (about 12,000 people) [‘Wang’ (亡 ) is the same as wu (無 )]. The note says that “Wulü (無慮 ) means approximate” . Note: Yan Shigu considered that wulü (無慮 ) means the approximate and that wulü (無慮 ) is not for the detailed. The “Records of Emperor Guangwu” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty says that “Engineering Master Dou Rong said that it was wulü (無慮 ) things used in guangmao2(廣 袤 ) cemetery mausoleums.” Li Xian commented that “In Guangya, wulü (無慮 ) means doufan. It stands for asking for instructions on the doufan system of the cemetery” . Note: Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty often said wulü (無 慮 ), and Li Xian quoted all from Guangya to explain it, so it is not wrong. The total number of things is called wulü (無慮 ), and general description of matters is also called wulü (無慮 ). All of them mean doufan (都凡 ). “Movement of Ritual”《禮運》 ( ) shows that “聖人耐以天下為一家、以中國為一人者，非意 之也” (The sage could take the world as one family, and the whole China as one person, it is not their subjective meaning). Zheng noted that “The meaning is that wulü (無慮 ) exists in their mind” , which means that the mind holds a rough idea. The Correct Meaning of The Book of Changes(《周易正義》) says that, it was to think hard at invisible places, but to lose the meaning3. In “The 11th Year of Duke Xuan” , Commentary of Zuo says that “Send the host to lüshi (慮事 ) to report to the Situ” . Du noted said “Lüshi (慮事 ) means calculating the achievements by wulü (無慮 )” . Calculating the achievements by wulü (無慮 ) can be compared to calculating the feats roughly. The Correct Meaning of The Book of Changes said that for the construction of castles, consider it if there is no, and calculate the engineering after it is completed, which is not correct. Wulü (無慮 ) may be called lü (慮 ). “A Debate on Military Affairs” of Xunzi says that “Lü is roughly to use the rewards, punishments and sentence and so on” . Yang Liang noted that: “Lü means dafan (大凡 )” . The “Biography of Jia Yi” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty says that “It is lü that they want to hold the emperor’ s etiquette system to be the emperor themselves” . Yan Shigu commented that “Lü means the probable. It is said that, feudal princes all wanted to make their etiquette systems to be the same as those of the emperor and to govern the country”. The lü is interchangeable with doufan. Wu is the transformation of pronunciation; therefore, wulü (無慮 ) is also called wulü (勿慮 ). “Zengzi About the Correct Serving [One’ s Superiors]” of Senior Dai’s Book of Rites says that “君子為小由為大也” (A gentleman in managing his family likes governing a country)[The small one refers to a family and the big one, the country, “由” means “犹” (like) here]. To live at home is as to serve as the official; the principle is not complete, and wulü (勿慮 ) is there. The way to serve for the father can be used to serve for the emperor, and the way to serve for the elder brother can be used to serve for the teacher; and the way to order the son is like to order the minister, and the way to order the younger brother is like to order the descendant” . Note: The wulü (勿慮 ) means wulü (無慮 ), to 2

Guangmao (廣袤) is like the longitudinal and transverse. The east and west direction is called guang (廣), and the north and south direction is called mao (袤). 3 The “meaning” refers to original intention.

Discussion on Meanings of “ 無慮” in “Common Usages” in General Exegeses of the Classics 499

say that, for the way that the filial one serves for the emperor, the younger brother  serve for the elder, and the merciful one to order the crowd; although the principle is not complete, it has probably already been here. It is probable that he does not know the meaning of the two characters wulü (勿慮 ), and it to think that wulü (勿 慮 ) stands for not forgetting the danger, which is so to give strained interpretations and draw far-fetched analogies. The wulü (無慮 ) is also transformed as molüe (摹 略 ). The “Minor Illustrations” of Mozi says that “The molüe (摹略 ) is original appearance of everything, to analyze and compare various views” . The molüe (摹略 ) is the word for summing up, like wulü (無慮 ). It is also transformed into menglang (孟浪 ). The “Discussion of the Equality of Things” of Zhuangzi says that “Confucius thought these remarks were menglang views, but I thought they were the practice and embodiment of essential Tao” . Li Yi said that, “Menglang is a little schematic” . Cui Zhuan said that: “It is an unessential appearance” . “Ode to Capital Wu” by Zuo Si says that “If it is as your saying, menglang words left, to briefly give its outline but not get its essence” . Liu Kui commented  that “The menglang is as moluo (莫絡 ), of which its meaning is not in detail” . Wulü (無慮 ), wulü (勿慮 ), molüe (摹略 ) and menglang are all the transforming of pronunciation. Generally, for Chinese characters of alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds, their function lies in the pronunciation4. If seeking for their pronunciation, you are right; and if seeking for their meaning, you will be confused.

4

The modern Hangzhou dialect says “very much” as “mulaolao (木佬佬)”, “very big” as “mulaolao big” “very good” as “mulaolao good”, so does the Shaoxing dialect, which is also the transforming of pronunciation such as “wulü (無慮), menglang(孟浪)”.

Explanation of the Character “門” RUAN Yuan1

Among the gaps leading to an object2, and open to an endless advance, all their pronunciations are similar to men (門), or are transformed into mian (若免), mei (若 每), min (若敏) and meng (若孟), and they share the same meaning; but different  Chinese characters are borrowed instead, to borrow a Chinese character either of rhyming compounds with the same radical, or of alliterative compounds with tongniu(同紐)3. Try to discuss it as below. Among the gaps leading to to an object, a door is preferred. The ancient people did make the pictographic character of two windows, but failed to display the pronunciation. What is the pronunciation? It is the same as men(虋) that has the pronunciation of xin(釁). Both of them are in the same place of articulation. Therefore, xin(釁 ) transformed into the official script4 as wei(斖), wei(亹) and wen(璺), all of which are not characters in Shuowen Jiezi, but all are actually official script of ancient characters before the Han Dynasty. [In inscriptions on pagodas of Ci Temple and other temples in the Zhenguan period of the Tang Dynasty, there are xin(釁) and she(社) 5 and weiwei(亹亹) 6, both of which are relics of the ancient style of xin(釁)]. “Taibu” of The Rites of Zhou noted that: “wei (舋) is the crack of jade7” . 1 Ruan Yuan was born in Yizheng in the Qing Dynasty, courtesy name Boyuan, and alternative name Yuntai. He wrote The Identification of Jiguzhai Zhongdingand Yiqi, Chouren Biography and  Collections on Confucian Classic Studies, and The Compilation of Explanations on Classics was also compiled under his advocacy. This article is quoted from Volume 1, Collections on Confucian Classic Studies(《研經室集》). 2 “間” (jiàn), an interspace, seam. 3 Tongniu (同紐), i.e., characters with the same pronunciation radical. 4 “transformed into official script” means to become into official script character. 5 She (社) means “xin (釁)”, to apply things with blood. 6 **is “weiwei (亹亹)” in later “weiwei (亹亹) King Wen”, which means advancing endlessly. 7 “Xin (釁) is the crack of jade” is the sentence in Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics, but not the note for The Rites of Zhou.

500

Explanation of the Character “門”

501

Dialect also tells that “If a jade is broken but not separated, it is called wen (璺).” There is a note in the Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics that, “xin (舋) is the original wen (璺)8” , so it is known that xin has the same pronunciation and meaning as wen (璺). All jade will be red in the middle if they crack, so xin (釁 ) is to apply the gap with blood. The pronunciation is transformed to meng (盟), and the one taking an oath also apply the blood9. [In Commentary on the Waterways Classic, meng (falling tone) jin (孟津) is “meng (rising tone) jin” (盟津 ), and in Guliang Biography, “meng (rising tone) jin” is also meng (falling tone) jin]. The pronunciation is also the same. By parity of reasoning, in Erya, xin (釁) is red seedling; [in The Book of Songs, it is men (穈), which can even prove the trace of pronunciation transformation between mei (每) and men (門 )]. In Shuowen Jiezi, men (璊 ) is also red jade, and men (璊) is red animal hair; and in Zhuangzi, men (樠 ) is the door liquid, (in Human World: “If using it to make the window and door, there will be liquid hiding in it” .) All have the same pronunciation and meaning. [Xin (釁) is also read as xing (興) (falling tone). It is transformed into xi (隙) and xia (瑕), both have the meaning that the thing is broken and there is a gap in red. In Shuowen Jiezi, the character xia(瑕 ) is second to the character men(門), and they are close due to being of the same type. In addition, there is a note in “mendong (虋冬)” of Erya that: “Mendong (門冬) is also called mandong (滿冬)” .] If it is the meaning of entering and close, it is mian (勉), and it is said in Shuowen Jiezi that mian (勉 ) is pronounced as mian (免). In classics, mian (免 ) is taken as mian (勉 ). The pronunciation of mian (免) was transformed into mei (每). “Wei wei (亹亹 ) King Wen10” should be read as “mei mei (每每 ) King Wen” , and the character wei (亹) may be as wei (斖 ), and pronounced as wen (文). It was again transformed into min (敏 ). (In Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, minmian (閔勉 ) is as minmian (敏勉 ). As for mian (黽 ), if doubling its pronunciation, it is mianmian (黽勉), and if closing its pronunciation, it is minmei (蠠没). In Erya: “Minmei (蠠没) is mian (勉 )” . It was also transformed as miwu (密勿). In Mao Poems, there is “min(黽 ) and mian (勉 ) are of the same heart” , and in Selected Works, in a quotation from Han Poems, it is “mi(密 ) and wu (勿 ) are of the same heart” . “Criticizing Qin and Beautifying the New”《(《劇秦美新》) by Yang Xiong says that: “Weiwen (亹聞) is full of sweat” , and wei (亹) is also the transformation of pronunciation. Mei (没) is the entering tone of men (門), and mi (密) is the entering tone of min (敏). In Erya: “Meng (孟) is mian (勉 )” . [Meng (猛) follows 8

“Wei (亹) is originally wen (璺)”. This is not the sentence in the Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classic, but wen (璺), previous determined by Xu Jin ( 許 靳 ), and Shen Yi (沈一), according to Nie’s pronunciation “wen (問)”, said that: “The character is also xin (釁)”. For above two quotations, Ruan Yuan was wrong for both. 9 The one taking an oath also apply the blood. The smearing the blood as a sign of the oath in ancient times was to kill the animal to take blood to apply on the mouth. 10 “Wei wei (亹亹) King Wen” is in an article of “King Wen” in Greater Odes of the kingdom of The Book of Songs.

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Appendix

the meaning of meng (孟 ) as such. In Erya: “Shou (獸 ) is xin (釁 ), which is also qi (氣 ) of advancing boldly.) The “Luogao” of The Book of Documents says that: “You are not diligent” , the character mang (蘉 ) is wrong and boorish, which is unable to be written. Qian Daxin, holding the position of Shaozhanshi with the courtesy name of Xinmei, thought that it is the mistake due to the shape of the similar character pattern, which is true. Meng (夢 ) and meng (孟 ) are also the same11. The Book of Songs says that: “Fu yi (鳧鷖 ) is at wei (亹 )” . (There is a note in “Ma Yuan Biography” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty that “wei (亹 ) is the water stream between mountains, and both banks are as deep as the door” . There is an annotation in The Book of Songs: “Wei (亹 ) stands for men (門 )” . The meaning that it has a gap and it is open to entering is even more obvious.) The character wei (亹 ) in “fuyi” (鳧鷖 ), “weiwei (亹亹 )” in “King Wen” and “weiwei (亹亹 )12” in “Xi Ci” of The Book of Changes and “Liqi” of The Book of Rites are all the same character, but today people read it into two-tone13. “Weiwei (亹亹 ) King Wen” is “mianmian wo wang (勉勉我王 )” , mian (勉 ) is the same as wei (亹 ), meaning to advance endlessly. “River streams meimei (浼浼 )14” , meimei (浼浼 ) is the meaning of mianmian (勉勉 ), it means that the advancing of water is endless. Minmian (敏勉 ) is the same as mianmian (勉勉 ). [Min (敏 ) follows the meaning of mei (每 ) just like the way mi(穈 ) follows the meaning of ma (麻 ).] By parity of reasoning, wuwu (勿勿 ) is as weiwei (亹亹 )15. Meng(孟 ) is then transformed to mao (懋 ), mai (勱 ) and xu (勖 ). “Maozai (懋哉 ) maozai” in The Book of Documents is mianzai (勉哉 ) mianzai. Mai (勱 ) has the same pronunciation as mai (邁 ), and the transformed pronunciation of mao (懋 ). Xu (勖 ) follows the character 冂 [pronounced as mi (密 )] in Shuowen Jiezi, then followed by [pronounced as mao (卯 )], followed by 月 , (pronounced as /mào/ (冒 ), then followed by mao(冒 ), all of which are the transformation of pronunciation. Xu (勖 ) in “such a diligent person you are” in The Book of Documents should have the pronunciation the same as that of mu (目 ). [People today read it as xu, which is the transformation of pronunciation after the Han Dynasty, just like reading wei (亹 ) as wei (尾 ) but not mei (每 )]. Mao (冒 ) follows the meaning of mu (目 ) and is pronounced as mu(目 ). In Shuowen Jiezi: “Mao (冒 ) is meng (冡 ) [Meng (冡 ) is the same as meng (蒙 )] meaning in the front” . Meng (冡 ) is the same as men

11

In Shuowen Jiezi, it is said that “ 㝱 ” is to dream, and the “dream” means “unknown”. Later, it borrowed the “dream” as “㝱”. Ruan Yuan said that, “bu (蘉)” means “bu (㝱)”, it is bumeng (不孟), that is, bumian (不勉). 12 In “Xi Ci I” of The Book of Changes, it says that people use grass and turtleback to practice the science of divining, to predict the good and the evil of matters and achieve the great cause. In “Li Qi” of The Book of Rites, it says that gentlemen are diligent. 13 Weiwei(亹亹)in “King Wen”, “Xi Ci” and “Li Qi” is read as weiwei today, and wei (亹) in “fuyi” is read as men. 14 “River streams advance endlessly” is from “Xintai” of “The Northern Wind” of The Book of Songs 15 In “The Principles of Zengzi” of Senior Dai’s Book of Rites, it says that gentlemen should be diligent all through his life. Lu noted that wuwu (勿勿) means mianmian(勉勉).

Explanation of the Character “門”

503

(門 ), so in “fengmen (蠭門 )” of Xunzi and Mengzi, it is “fengmeng (逢蒙 )” 16. Xu (勖 ) follows the meaning of li (力 ) and mao (冒 ), and mao (冒 ) expresses the pronunciation, and the meaning is contained in it, so xuzai ( 勖哉 ) is maozai (懋 哉 ). [瑇瑁 should be read as dumu (毒目 ), which is rhyming compounds.] And Dialect says that: “Moumo (侔莫 ) is strong” , and moumo is the transformation of pronunciation of minmian (黽勉 ). Moumo in Dialect is wenmo in The Analects of Confucius. (The composition of the two characters of wenmo (文莫 ) is the same as that of two characters tingsong (聽訟 ) in “Tingsong (聽訟 ) I am like the other persons” .) Liu Duanlin17 said that: “For wenmo (文莫 ), I am like the other persons. For minmian (黽勉 ), I am like the other persons. Later generations failed to understand the speech of Confucius and read wen(文 ) as a sentence, which is wrong” . Therefore, if the explanation of words is unclear, the speech of the sages must be mistaken. If the speech is even mistaken, let alone the reason behind it? Additional note: The character “卯” is written like two doors “門” open, so it is written as “ ” by seal character, and “ ” and “門” are the transformation of pronunciation. Seeing this, the essence of the ancient pronunciation and text can be seen.

16

“Meng (蒙)” follows the meaning of cao (草) and its pronunciation is zhong (冡). Liu Duanlin, courtesy name Taigong, born in Baoying in the Qing Dynasty, authored The Redundancy for The Analects of Confucius(《論語駢枝》). 17

Preface to Ci Tong (Excerpt) LIU Dabai

(The previous is omitted) Someone said that, named as Ci Tong 《辭通》 ( ), this book is suspected to imitate Ci Yuan; however, it is not. Let’ s first identify the meaning of “tong(通 )” . In the past, Zhang Xuecheng in the Qing Dynasty once divided the “tong(通 )” into two types: “zongtong (縱通 )” and “hengtong(横通 )” . He said in the article “Hengtong(《横通》)” in Wenshi Tongyi that: The meaning of the name “tongren” (通人) is unable to be generalized. Someone is profound in specialized disciplines, and someone is versatile in various disciplines. Each one has something irreplaceable, and if being replaced, it is unable to produce good results; and each one has something unable to be interfered, and there will be no benefit after interfering with each other. However, the name of “tong(通)” is probably a metaphor of “road” , which is extending in all directions, everywhere can be reached, so it is called “tong(通 )” . It’ s also like the insights of people. No matter the insights are superior or inferior, balanced or biased, macro or micro, broad or narrow, they all lead to the truth, so it is called “tong (通 )” . However, there is also something unable to reach all directions, and unable to lead to the truth, but it has to be called “tong(通)” , which is “hengtong(横通)” . For “tongren” , “hengtong” is seemingly similar but different, seemingly close but far away and seemingly in harmony but actually at variance. Senior sellers are good at selling books, notable men are rich in book collection, and a person who likes to be busy actively print books, all of which are liberal arts and celebrities able to get arm in arm to go into the forest. Retrieve lost rites from barbarians, where the things heard and seen could make up for the shortcomings of liberal arts and celebrities, thus the gentleman must visit…. Scholar Zhou often said that, this kind of people can be called “hengtong” , whose speech is strange but true. Therefore, the gentlemen learn from their advantage and ignore their disadvantage, just like craftsman of musical instrument and stele craftsman enough for use…. Can there be no people of “hengtong?” —No. Use the “heng (横 )” that they learned well to assist the “zong(縱)” of the gentleman; and the gentleman still has the “heng (横 )” that he has….

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Preface to Ci Tong (Excerpt)

505

In fact, in addition to three types of “hengtong” he mentioned, there can be two types of new “hengtong” . One is the “hengtong” specializing in translating books, and the other is the one copying books diligently. The “hengtong” specializing in translating books include both the interpretation and translation. They are unable to write their own books or publish achievements based on their study, but can only translate works of foreigners. The translator publishes the result of translation, and the interpreter translates the textbook or handout brought back from foreign countries in the lecture hall, based on the original text. Indeed, their works are also very laborious, and are also needed by people who do not understand foreign language, but this is only “hengtong” , because what they provide are only materials, or tools at most. The “hengtong” who is diligent in copying booksfocuses on collecting materials and listing them, but he fails to know how to do comprehensive analysis and study. This is like a buyer in a kitchen, carrying his load to go to a market, to pile the beef, mutton, pork, chicken, duck, fish, shrimp, and all kinds of seafood, as well as radish, cabbage, potato, lettuce and so on all into his load, to bring back for the use of the cook. Therefore, it can also be regarded as “hengtong” , and after all, it can only be regarded as the “hengtong” . As Ci Yuan, if copying the book in a little better way, supported with translating, there can be both two kinds of “hengtong” . Unexpectedly, it is both incomplete in translating and full of errors in copying. Therefore, it even has no qualification of “hengtong”, how can it be equal to the Ci Tong with both “zongtong (縱通 )” and “hengtong” ? Although the Ci Tong is a kind of copying books, its copying has been made into index-style collation and general ledger-style collation by the method of analysis and synthesis, which has both the expertise and the versatility said by Zhang Xuecheng. Therefore, it is named as the Ci Tong 《辭通》 ( ), there is absolutely no suspicion of imitating the Ci Yuan《(《辭源》). However, I hope that this book has a further Tong, that is, to have both so-called types (A) and (B) mentioned above1, to seek Tong from pronunciation. The so-called connected characters and double characters2 are often transformed from alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds, and there is the transformation of alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds in the same or similar meaning as well as relative or opposite meaning. Now a few examples are given as follows. For example: linglong, lilou, lilu, liuli, linli, liaoli, lingluo and lulu (玲瓏、 離婁、 歷 録、 流離、 淋灕、 嘹唳、 零落、 轆轤 ) are all alliterative disyllabic characters, which are transformed based on alliterative compounds with the same or similar meanings. Example: huangtang, hundun, huitai, huoda, hongdong, gutu and hutu(荒唐、 混沌、 恢臺、 豁達、 澒洞、 鶻突、 糊涂 ), etc., are all rhyming disyllabic characters, 1

Double characters are overlapping characters, such as “guanguan, chichi, chongchong, gaogao(關 關、遲遲、忡忡、杲杲)”. 2 According to the preceding text, Type (A) is to gather connected characters and double characters with the same meanings to give the same explanation; and Type (B) is to gather connected characters and double characters with the same writing or pronunciation, or transformed incorrectly to give the same explanation.

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which are transformed based on alliterative compounds with the same or similar meanings. Example: mohu, manhuan, mingxing, menghong and manyan (模糊、 漫漶、 溟 涬、 濛鴻、 漫衍 ), etc., are all rhyming disyllabic characters, which are transformed based on alliterative compounds with the same or similar meanings. Example: paihuai, panghuang, panhuan, bingying, biyi, and banhuan (徘徊、 徬 徨、 盤桓、 屏營、 辟易、 伴涣 ), etc., are all rhyming disyllabic characters, which are transformed based on alliterative compounds with the same or similar meanings. Example: canghuang and congrong (倉皇、 從容 ), etc., are all rhymingdisyllabic characters, which are transformed based on alliterative compounds with opposite meanings. Example: chouchu, youyu, chichu, daizhu, zhizhu, chichu, xiqu, youyi and yiyou (躊躇、 猶豫、 踟躕、 跢跦、 躑躅、 彳亍、 郤曲、 游移、 夷猶 ), etc., are all alliterative disyllabic characters, which are transformed based on either alliterative compounds or rhyming-compounds with the same or similar meanings. If seeking Tong from this main road of transformation of alliteration and rhythm, the Tong obtained must be very great. Master Zhu strived to write the book because of the problem of shoushu (首 鼠 ) or shoushi (首施 ). He published the origin of this book in the “Self-Preface” without hesitation, which is the greatest part of him. However, from his collection and comments about the shoushu or shoushi that I observed from this book, I think that he was bound by the old opinion of Wang Niansun of the Qing Dynasty. He placed all of the collection of the shoushu and shoushi under the Article Shouwei in the rising tone of five tail rhymes, with Shouwei as the first, followed by Shoushi, and Shoushu as the last. Now it is copied as follows: Shouwei (首尾) [“The 17th Year of Duke Weng” of Commentary of Zuo]. The ancient said that, “Scared ○ Scared ○ , and how could it be not scared with only the body part left” . [Du noted that] It’ s said that when ○○ are scared, few body parts are not scared… [“Dou Rong Biography” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty] The slowness and hastiness take place by turn, and ○○ are complemented. [“Xiqiang Biography” thereof] They ride between east and west, and rush to save ○○ [“Notes on ‘Biographies of Hundred Officials’” of Continuation of Historical records of the Han Dynasty] Forget the moral courage of being honest and daring to speak, and fear the ridicule of ○○ . [“Biography of Sima Rui, etc., who arrogated the Jin Dynasty” of Historical Records of the Wei Dynasty] Curve the back and walk in small steps, scared ○ scared ○ . [“Shuolin” of Huainanzi] Both the head and the tail are scared, what’ s left for the body to be not scared? [Gao noted that] Both the head and the tail are scared, it’ s rare that the body part is not scared. Shoushi (首施) [“Xiqiang Biography” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty] Over a thousand households including the rich families Lu Cong and Renliang were separately left in Yun Street, and couldn’ t decide ○○ minds. [Note] ○○ is also named shoushu (首鼠). [Thereof] The Rouzhi came to surrender, to live mixed with people of Han Nationality. Although being attached to the County official, they could’ t  decide ○○ minds. [“Deng Xun Biography” thereof] Although being indecisive in ○○ minds, Han Dynasty still accepted and used them from time to time. [Note] ○○

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is shoushu (首鼠). [“Wuhan and Xianbei Biographies” thereof] Two enemies ○○ , to clamp our border in the north. Shoushu (首鼠) [“Biography of Ganfu” of Records of the Grand Historian] The Marquis of Wu’ an withdrew from the Court, and went out to stop at the cart door to call Han Changru, the Imperial Censor, to take the cart with him, and he angrily said: “I deal with an old bald man with you, Changru, why you are ○○ two minds” . [Jijie] ○○ is to advance once and retreat once. “Guanfu Biography” of The Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty is the same. [“Biography of Zhuge Ke” , “History of Wu” of Records of the Three Kingdoms] If being less urgent, it is ○○ , and if being urgent, it will look back like the wolf. [“Lu Ji Biography” of History of the Jin Dynasty] ○○ avoiding the enemy, the disaster will be speeded up due to this. [“Yu Ji Biography” of History of the Chen Dynasty] ○○ two minds, to be bent solely on profit.  [“Biography of Zhangsun Sheng” of History of Northern Dynasties] And Ebo ○○ , always in the middle, who is quite afraid of Shetu, and restricted by him. [“Diqiang and Tuyuhun Biography” thereof] Peeking ○○ is his nature. [“Lu Zhi Biography” of History of the Tang Dynasty] ○ when responding to the enemy, hesitating to move forward. [“Biography of Kang Yanxiao in Tang” of Old History of Five Dynasties] He said to Dong Zhang that, I have the merit of pacifying Shu, but you ○○ at the Shizhong Gate to plot to frame me. [“Wang Sitong Biography” thereof] King Lu blamed him that, why you ○○ two minds, to harm me in many things. [“The Inscription of Shen Yueqi on former King An Lu Zhao” of Selected Works] ○○ border, disasters are vast. [Laosheng Lun by Lusidao in Sui Dynasty] Hold his ○○ , do not give the dress and ornamented hat. [Tang Quande and the discussion of the Fall of Two Han Dynasties] Following the stability a moment, ○○ are scared. [Jiang Xingben Monument in Tang Dynasty] Although enjoying benevolent style, the feeling is ○○ . Note: In Records of the Grand Historian and Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, when Tian Fen said shoushu (首鼠 ), he blamed Changru to do the matter of Guanfu, to deal with Dou Ying jointly, why he felt scared and difficult to advance or retreat, and  came to this end. The character shi (施 ) is pronounced as shi(施 ) in “spreading in the valley (施於中谷 )” in “Odes of Zhou and the South” , of which its pronunciation is similar to wei (尾 ), and their meanings are also the same. In The Spring and Autumn Annals, Lu’ s prince named wei (尾 ) has his courtesy name of Shifu (施父 ), which is the proof that shi (施 ) and wei (尾 ) have the same meaning. Commentary of Zuo, marked a person named shi(施 ) in the fourth year of King Ding in “Zhi’ s Surname” of Qianfu Lun, shi (施 ) is quoted as tu (荼 ), which was pronounced as shu (舒 ) in ancient times, and all shoushi (首施 ) are written as shoushu (首鼠 ), just as that shi (施 ) was interchanged as tu (荼 ).

As far as I know, there is also History of the Liang Dynasty Hou Jing Biography and Gao Cheng’ s “The Letter to Hou Jing” mentioning shoushu (首鼠 ): Hold a suspicious mind, and act in an indecisive way. In “Records of the Emperor Xiang of the Qi Dynasty” of History of the North Qi Dynasty, it is the same. In addition, Pi Ya by Lu Dian in the Song Dynasty said that: The mouse is suspicious in nature, so it is mostly hesitate when going out of its cave, so the person holding two minds is called shoushu (首鼠 ).

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There is also “Wen Shi” by Zhang Binglin in modern times-Class Ge Tai-Part Ge of Yin-rhyme, A. Character ye (也 ) mentioning shoushi (首施 ): The original meaning of ye (也 ) is mostly expressed by way of shi (施 ) in ancient times. In “Deng Xun Biography” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, “shoushi (首施 ) two minds” ; and, the prince of Kingdom Lu named Wei has his courtesy name of Shifu (施父 ), so in the name it is used more than the wei (尾 ). Therefore, the ye (也 ) breeds as “革它” , which is horsetail “革它” . It is the character of boat tail, later it is transformed as duo (柁 ). The Explanation of Terms says that: “Duo (柁 ) is 拕 (tuo)”. (In Shuowen Jiezi, there is no duo (柁 ), which was mostly replaced with di (杕 ) in ancient time). It also has the meaning transformed from the wei (尾 ) (In ancient language, the yin (陰 ) is mostly common as wei (尾 ), such as the saying “birds and beasts are mated via tails (鳥獸孳尾 )” ). In addition, xie (灺 ) is zhu (燭㶳 ), which is so-called zhuba (燭 跋 ) in “Qu Li” , also called its bottom, and also the character bred from the ye (也 ).

Moreover, there is also “Shi Xun I” of Xia Weitang’s Explaining on the Supplementary of Shi Ya in the Qing Dynasty mentioning shouwei shouli (首尾 首例 ), Both shouwei and shoushi (首尾首施 ) are shoushu (首鼠 ) (Quoted from the “shouwei (首尾 ) two minds” in Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty. Another note: It is also “shouwei (首尾 ) two minds” quoted from “Xiqiang Biography” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty under the Article Shoushu (首鼠 ) of the Ci Yuan. I have looked up all of my Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty, one of which is the newly published Baina Version of “Twenty-Four Histories” photocopied Shaoxing Edition in the Song Dynasty. In the “Xiqiang Biography” , “shoushi (首施 ) two minds” appears two times in total, both are character shi (施 ), not character wei (尾 ). I do not know what version that they are based on).

In fact, “shoushu (首鼠 ) two minds” and “shouwei (首尾 ) two minds” are about an idiom in the era of the Han, Wei and Six Dynasties. Both shoushu (首 鼠 ) and shoushi (首施 ) are alliterative disyllabic characters, transformed based on alliterative compounds. Therefore, “Shi Xun” of Pian Ya says that: Douliu, shoushi, shoushu, yiyou, youyu, youyu, xuxu, shasui, yiwei, wangyang, wei*, zhenchen, and *chuo (逗遛、首施、首鼠、夷猶、冘豫、猶豫、虚徐、莎隨、依違、 罔養、瀢、斟愖、踔，遲疑也 ) mean indecisive.

It also says that: Chouchu, di* and daizhu mean hesitation(躊躇、蹢 、跢跦，猶豫 ).

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Chouchu (躊躇 )’ s ancient pronunciation is in fixed niu (紐 ), the same as taotu (濤涂 ). In the Spring and Autumn Period, there was an Imperial Censor of Chen named Yuan Taotu, who was probably named from chouchu (躊躇 ). Taotu (濤 涂 ) is transformed based on rhyming compounds as the chouchu (躊躇 ), chouchu (躊躇 ) is transformed based on rhyming compounds as shoushu (首鼠 ), shoushu (首鼠 ) is transformed based on rhyming compounds as youyu (猶豫 ), youyu (猶 與 ) or youyu (游豫 ), all of which are that two characters are transformed at the same time. If the second character is transformed alone, it is that shoushu (首鼠 ) is transformed as shoushi (首施 ) or youyu (游豫 ) is transformed as youyi (游 移 ). Therefore, all shoushu (首鼠 ), shoushi (首施 ), youyu (游豫 ) and youyi (游 移 ) are characters transformed from chouchu (躊躇 ), and their meanings are just hesitating to advance or retreat. “Shoushu (首鼠 ) two minds” or “shoushi (首施 ) two minds” are just “chouchu (躊躇 ) two minds” or “youyu (游豫 ) two minds” , or “youyi (游移 ) two minds” or “qianque (前却 ) two minds” . The saying that “the mouse is suspicious in nature, so the person holding two minds is shoushu (首 鼠 )” in Pi Ya is of course a literal meaning; similarly, the Article “Shoushi (首施 ) Two Minds” in the “Reading Notes of Yubian I” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty by Wang Niansun says that: “Shoushi (首施 ) is as shouwei (首尾 ). “Shouwei (首尾 ) Two Minds” is to be difficult to advance or retreat mentioned by today’ s people” , and he quoted from The Spring and Autumn Annals, that “the prince of Kingdom Lu named Wei (尾 ) has his courtesy name of Shifu (施 父 )” as evidence that the shi (施 ) and wei (尾 ) are of the same meaning; and Zhang Binglin deduced based on his words, both were literal meaning. Under the “disyllabic characters” in Volume 16 of the “Reading Notes of Yubian 1” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, Wang Niansun says that: For all disyllabic characters, both characters are of same meaning, which are unable to be separated; the speaker often draws farfetched analogies but loses its original meaning due to reading literal meaning.

This speech is quite right. He vehemently argued in the Article “Youyu (猶 豫 )” Volume I of the “Empress Gao Record” in the Reading Notes of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty that, you (猶 ) was neither the name of a beast, nor of a dog, he said that: Youyu (猶豫 ) are characters of alliterative compounds, you is yiyou (夷猶 ) in The Verse of Chu; it does not mean that a beast is afraid of human beings and wants to climb the tree, or a dog wants to come near in front of human beings. The opinion of Yan Shigu copied Family Instruction of the Yan and got mistaken, referring to Guangya.

And he has proved under the Article “Chouchu (躊躇 ) is Youyu (猶豫 )” in “Shi Xun” , Volume 6 (1) of Commentary on the Meaning of Terms in Extended Erya even more in detail. The conclusion says that: Characters of alliterative compounds originally express the meaning based on the

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pronunciation, therefore, by not analyzing the pronunciation but the character, he mostly drew farfetched analogies.

And his son, Wang Yinzhi, even quoted it in Article 5 of Volume 31 “Tongshuo I” of Classics Meaning Heard from Father, which is just the tongshuo (通説 ) of tongren (通人 ) to seek tong(通 ) by means of main road of alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds. Unexpectedly, he was so tong (通 ) about youyu (猶豫 , but he was on the contrary overshadowed by shouwei (首尾 ) against shoushu (首 鼠 ) and shoushi (首施 ), thus was unable to seek tong (通 ) by means of main road of alliterative compounds and rhyming compounds. Master Zhu tried to substitute characters of chouchu, youyu and youyi (躊 躇、 猶豫、游移 ), etc., respectively with various characters of shoushi (首施 ) and shoushu (首鼠 ) collected, all of which are able to tong (通 ); however, he is unable to substitute characters of chouchu, youyu and youyi (躊躇、猶豫、游移 ), etc., for shouwei(首尾 ), thus Wang Niansun’ s mistake can be seen evidently. Because of Master Zhu’ s great spirit of not being shy about his mistake, I have proposed this for discussion. Whether it is true or not, it also requires Master Zhu’ s instruction and readers’ comments.

Discussion of “必以情” in “Cao Gui on War ” JIANG Lihong

The article “Cao Gui on War” in Commentary of Zuo has long been reading material in Chinese middle-school textbooks and the selected readings of ancient Chinese literature. In particular, the lines of “小大之獄，雖不能察，必以情” is usually interpreted similarly as follows. According to the notes in the provincial middle-school Chinese textbooks, the lines mean “Though all the legal cases, big or small, cannot always be accurately settled, but the judgments must be reasonable” . The coursebook of Selected Works of Ancient Chinese Literature(abbreviated as Selected Works) used by thirteen institutes of higher education shows that “ ‘察’ means to judge accurately. ‘必以情 ’ means to handle the case truthfully” .

Such notes, however, always fail to convince me. First of all, what is the meaning of “以” ? According to the notes in the textbook of Chinese, it seems to mean “conform” , which is not a possible explanation for this character. In the notes in Selected Works, “以” is interpreted as a preposition rather than a verb, so “以情” is explained as “to conform to the real situations” . Second, the first half  of the line admitted that not all cases can be accurately settled or judged, and then it is impossible to deal with the cases truthfully or conform to the real situations. Such a plain fact cannot be easily denied by sophistry. An alternative explanation could be found in the notes in Selected Works of Chinese Literature of Kaifeng Normal College. “Although the legal cases, big or small, cannot always be thoroughly investigated, they should be handled with honesty and sincerity. ‘察’ means to investigate thoroughly, and ‘情’ means honesty and sincerity” . This is the only explanation that I found convincing. As a prepositional structure, “以情” means “by means of” . In modern Chinese, “以” can be replaced by “拿” or “用” , while “情” means “honesty” in “情

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實” . “Biographies of Gongsun Hong and Zhufu Yan” in Records of the Grand Historian contains a line “齊人多詐而無情實” (People in the State of Qi are usually cunning and dishonest). Here “情實” is opposite to “詐” (cunning), so “情” means honesty. By the same token, “情” in “必以情” means sincerity and honesty. The prepositional structure of “以情” lacks the predicate either in front of it (possible in ancient Chinese) or after it, which could be, in modern Chinese, “處理” (to deal with) or “判決” (to judge), or in ancient Chinese, “聽之” (to judge it) or “斷之” (to decide it). Such an explanation can be both semantically and grammatically satisfactory. Let’ s consult an alternative account of the same event in “Discourse of the State of Lu” in Discourses of the States, a companion book of Commentary of Zuo. 公曰：“余聽獄雖不能察，必以情斷之。”［曹劌］對曰：“是則可矣，知 (智 )夫！ 苟中心圖民，智雖弗及，必將至焉。” Duke Zhuang said that“Even if I cannot fully investigate all cases to the last detail, I must judge in all sincerity.” Cao Gui replied: “That’ s enough. If one can think about people seriously, then the goal will be achieved even if the wisdom at his disposal fail to meet the demand.”

The cited line clearly reveals a few points. First, “以情” is indeed a prepositional structure with the predicate missed, meaning “by means of ” . In the account in Discourses of the States, the predicate (and object), “斷之” , is not omitted. We thus can tell that “以 ” cannot be explained as a verb, and “以 情” does not mean “reasonably or truthfully” . Second, in the line of Discourses of the States, “情” means “中心” rather than “情理” (reason) or “實際情況” (real situations). “中心” can be understood as “fairness and just” , or as the loan character of “衷心” (sincerity) or “忠心” (honesty). In the inscription of Stele of Zhang Qian in the Han Dynasty,“中謇於朝” , the same as “忠謇於 朝” (being honest and loyal to the court), showing that “ 中” could be used as an interchangeable variant for “ 忠” . The meaning of “being fair and impartial” is also compatible with that of “being honest and sincere” . In the line from Discourse of the States, “中心” can be contrasted with “智” (intelligence) and thus suitably interpreted as “honesty or loyalty” . Finally, in Commentary of Zuo, Cao Gui’ s comment on Duke Zhuang of Lu was “忠之屬也，可以一戰” (Since you do your best to benefit the people, this will be our advantage in this war), which  also clarifies the meaning connection between “情” and “忠” . Further evidence can be found in the following line from The Annals of Lü Buwei: 三月嬰兒，軒冕在前弗知欲也，斧鉞在後弗知惡也，慈母之愛諭焉，誠也。 A three-month-old baby does not desire titles and wealth, and does not fear slaughter. He merely follows the instruction of his loving mother. This is honesty.

Another line of Huainanzi is also cited below.

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三月嬰兒未知利害也，而慈母之愛諭焉者，情也。 A three-month-old baby knows nothing about benefits and danger, but his loving mother will instruct him. This is honesty.

The above two examples, I believe, clearly show that “情” and “誠” share the same meaning.

Distinguishing Chinese Word Classes Through the Four Tones MA Jianzhong1

From Ma’s Study of Chinese Grammar, Vol 2: If a same character, as either a character of noun, or a character of classifications2, has different meanings when pronounced as different tones, it is   intentionally imposed by later people. Sourcing ancient books, we can find that when a same character has different meanings, the pronunciation remains the same. Modern books of phonology are more detailed than ancient ones, though,. scholars should delve into the relationship between pronunciations and meanings, especially those in texts of rhythm3. Now I will list some rules for reference4. Character bi (比 ): In gao bi (皋比 ), it means tiger’ s fell, to be a noun5, which should be pronounced as level tone6. As in “The Essay on Learning” : “Compared different things and traced the analogies between them (比物醜類 )” , it is a verb, with the meaning of comparing, which should be pronounced as falling-rising tone. And in “bring big countries closer to small ones” (大國比小國 ) in “Xia Guan” of The Rites of Zhou, it is understood as “being close to” , to be a verb, which should be pronounced as falling tone. 1

Ma Jianzhong, courtesy name Meishu, was born in Dantu in the Qing Dynasty, who is the author of Ma’s Study of Chinese Grammar, which is the first work in China to systematically explain ancient Chinese grammar. 2 For the character of noun and the character of classifications, the character so-called by Ma Jianzhong is the word that we talk about, and the character of noun is the word of noun, and the character of classifications is the word of classifications, similarly hereinafter. 3 Texts of rhythm refer to poems, songs, and verses, etc., all of which must be distinguished by level and oblique tones. 4 則 , criterion and principle. 5 名 , noun. 6 平讀 , to be pronounced as level tone. Similarly, “上讀” (pronounced as rising tone), “去讀” (pronounced as falling tone) and “入讀” (pronounced as entering tone)”.

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Character fen (分 ): In “Things are divided according to their classes (物以 群分 )” in “The Great Treatise” , it means distinguishing, to be a verb, which is pronounced as level tone. In “Thus it is by the universal application of the rules of propriety, that the lot and duty of different classes are fixed (禮達而分定 )” in “Li Yun” , it means the status, to be a noun, which should be pronounced as falling tone. Character wang (王 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone. In “To rule over this great country” (王此大邦 ) in The Book of Songs, it is a verb, which should be pronounced as falling tone. Character ni (尼 ): It means the nun, to be a noun, which is pronounced as level tone. In Mencius: “and the stopping him is, it may be, from the efforts of others (止 或尼之 )7” , it is a verb, to be pronounced as falling tone. Character ling (令 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as falling tone. When being a verb, it is pronounced as level tone. Character yi (衣 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone, and when being a verb, it is pronounced as falling tone. Character qi (妻 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone, and when being a verb, it is pronounced as falling tone. Character kong (空 ): Being a static character (adjective)8, for example, in “Is there in that empty valley (在彼空谷 )” in The Book of Songs, it is pronounced as level tone. In The Rites of Zhou: “Observe the holes drilled in the armor plates (眡 其鑽空 )” , it is a noun, which is pronounced as falling-rising tone. In The Analects of Confucius: “There is Hui! He has nearly attained to perfect virtue. He is often in want. (回也其庶乎 !屢空 )” , it means being poor, to be also a static character (adjective), which is pronounced as falling tone. Character si (思 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as falling tone, and when being a verb, it is pronounced as level tone. Character chu (除 ): It means the royal court, to be a noun, which is pronounced as level tone. In The Book of Documents: “Evils must be pulled up by the roots (除惡務本 )” , and in “Tian Fen Biography” : “Have you appointed the officials you want to appoint (君除吏盡未 )?” , it is a verb, which is pronounced as level tone. Only in The Book of Songs: “If we do not enjoy ourselves now, the days and months will be leaving us. (今我不樂，日月其除 )” , it means leaving, which is pronounced as falling tone. Character lü (慮 ): In Huainanzi: “(The Great Man) placidly has no anxieties (澹 然無慮 )” , it means anxiety, to be a noun, which is pronounced as level tone. In The Book of Documents: “What attainment can be made without anxious thought (弗慮胡獲 )?” , it means worry and doubt, to be a verb, which is pronounced as falling tone. Character guan (冠 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone, and when being a verb, it is pronounced as falling tone. Character yan (咽 ): When it means the throat, to be a noun, it is pronounced as 7 8

Character ni (尼) means hindering him. Static character means an adjective.

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level tone. When it means sobbing, to be a verb, it is pronounced as entering tone. Character ting (庭 ): In The Book of Changes: “He does not quit the courtyard before his door (不出户庭 ), it is a noun, which is pronounced as level tone. In Zhuangzi: “to be widely divergent (大有徑庭 )9”, it is a static character (adjective), which is pronounced as falling tone. Character zhong (衷 ): In The Book of Documents: “The great God has conferred on the inferior people a moral sense (降衷於下民 )”, it means something contained in the mind, to be a noun, which is pronounced as level tone. In Commentary of Zuo: “Resisted Rong’ s army (衷戎師 )” , it means resisting, to be a verb, which is pronounced as falling tone. Only in “A Eulogy Upon Confucius” : “The supremacy of Confucius’ principles is fully and freely admitted (折衷於夫子 )”, the zhong (衷 ) is pronounced both level and oblique tones. Character shan (扇 ): In “Yue Ling” of The Book of Rites: “They repair, however, their gates and doors (乃修闔扇 )10” , to be the same as sha11 (箑 ), to be a noun, which is pronounced as falling tone. In “Filling out the Missing Odes” : “The four seasons follow in succession, and the eight winds replace each other. (四時遞謝 ,八風代扇 )” , to be a verb, which is pronounced as level tone. Character ding (釘 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone. When being a verb, it means to drive in a nail, which is pronounced as falling tone. Character cheng (乘 ): In The Book of Songs: “元戎十乘 12” , it is a noun, to be pronounced as falling tone. In The Book of Changes: “Accordingly they mount the carriage drawn by those six dragons at the proper times, and drive through the sky (時乘六龍以御天 )” , it means riding; in Mencius “Taking advantage of the right opportunity (不如乘勢 )” , it means utilizing; in The Book of Songs “Then get up quickly to repair our roofs (亟其乘屋 )” , it means repair; all of which are verbs, to be pronounced as level tone. Character shu (疏 ): In Yang Xiong’ s “Jiechao” : “All they could do is submit memorials and periodically utter criticism (獨可抗疏時道是非 )” , it means the memorial to the emperor, to be a noun, which is pronounced as level tone. In Mencius, “Yu dredged the nine streams (禹疏九河 )” , it means dredging; and in The Book of Rites: “Sacrifices should not be at distant intervals (祭不欲疏 )” , it means being sparse; of which one is a verb, and the other is an adjective, both of which are pronounced as level tone. Character pei (培 ): It is a noun, to be pronounced as falling tone. In Commentary of Zuo: “Small hill is unable to grow large pines and cypresses (培塿 無松柏 )” , it means small hill, to be a noun, which is pronounced as falling tone. In “The Doctrine of Mean” 13: “Heaven nourishes the growing sprout (栽者培之 )”, it means cultivating, to be a verb, which is pronounced as level tone. 9

Jingting (徑庭) means being excessive. Heshan (闔扇) is a door. 11 The sha (箑) is a fan. 12 元戎十乘 means ten large military chariots. 13 庸 , refers to the passage of “The Doctrines of Means” in The Books of the Rites. 10

Distinguishing Chinese Word Classes Through the Four Tones

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Character qian (牽 ): It means dragging boat rope, interchanging qian (縴 ), to be a noun, which is pronounced as falling tone. In The Book of Changes: “If he could act like a sheep led after its companions, occasion for repentance would disappear (牽羊悔亡 )” , it means leading, to be a verb, which is pronounced as level tone. Character jiao (教 ): In The Book of Changes: “The sages, in accordance with this spirit-like way, laid down their instructions (聖人以神道設教 )” , when referring to the carrier of instructions, it is a noun, which is pronounced as falling tone; when referring to teaching someone, it is a verb, to be pronounced as level tone. Character he (荷 ): It means the lotus, to be a noun, which is pronounced as level tone. In The Analects of Confucius: “A man, carrying a straw basket, passed door of the house where Confucius was (有荷蕢而過孔氏之門者 ), it is a verb, to be pronounced as falling-rising tone. Character cheng (盛 ): The “Great Declaration” : “The victims and the vessels of millet (犧牲粢盛 )” , It means the millet in the sacrificial vessel, to be a noun,  which is pronounced as level tone. In “The Great Treatise” : “The daily renovation which it produces is what is meant by ‘the abundance of its virtue’ (日新之謂盛 德 )” , it is an adjective, to be pronounced as falling tone. Character ping (屏 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone. In The Book of Songs: “Great States are screens (大邦維屏 )” , it is a verb, to be pronounced as falling-rising tone; and in “Royal Regulations” : “They were cast out to a remote region” , it means eliminating. Character chao (鈔 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as falling tone, to be the name of banknote. One Guan (貫 ), two Guan, three Guan, five Guan and ten  Guan are called large banknotes, and one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, five hundred and seven hundred are called small banknotes, see History of the Song Dynasty. When being a verb, it is pronounced as level tone, in “Agreed the time to attack the county (克期會日，攻鈔群縣 )” in “Biography of Gongsun Zan” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty, it means to take by force; and it also has the same meaning as the common character chao (抄 ). Character chuang (創 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone, in “House of Chancellor Xiao” : “seventy wounds (身被七十創 )” , which means the injury. When being a verb, it is pronounced as falling tone, in Mencius: “A prince lays the foundation of the inheritance, and hands down the beginning which he has made (創業垂統 )” , it means beginning and creating; and in “The Book of Documents: “ I took warning from his course. (予創若時 ,when I create that)” , it means taking disciplinary action against. Character tang (湯 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as level tone, in The Verse of Chu: “We have bathed in orchid water and washed our hair with perfumes (浴蘭湯兮沐芳 )” , Also, yin tang (殷湯 ) was the first king of the Shang dynasty  in Chinese history. It is pronounced as falling tone, to be a verb, with the meaning of pouring with hot water. Character liang (量 ): When being a noun, it is pronounced as falling tone, in The Book of Documents: “The measures of length and of capacity, and the steelyards (律

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度量衡 )” . When being a verb, it is pronounced as level tone, with the meaning of measuring and negotiating, in The Rites of Zhou: “Measurer (量人 )” . Character sang (喪 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is a noun. in The Analects of Confucius “Mourning conducted without sorrow (臨喪不哀 )” , to observe mourning for parent is called sang (喪 ). When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, in The Analects of Confucius: “Gentlemen! Why should you be concerned about the sad state of affairs (二三子何患於喪乎 )?” , and: “If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish (天之將喪斯文也 )” . Character kai (楷 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be a noun, it is the tree in Confucian Cemetery. When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is a verb, in “The Conduct of the Scholar” (儒行 ): “Following their principles and example in the present age, he will become a pattern in future ages (今世行之， 後世以爲楷 )14” , it means the example and principle; also, it is mo kai (模楷 ). Character wen (聞 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, which means where the sound reaches, in The Book of Songs: “The subject of praise, the contemplation of hope (令聞令望 )” . It is also pronounced as wen (聞 ), to be pronounced as level tone, as a verb. In The Book of Documents: “Yes, I have heard of him. What have you to say about him? (俞 !予聞 ,如何 ? )” , it means knowing. Character zhuan (傳 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, such as yizhuan (驛傳 ), liezhuan (列傳 ) and the like. When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, with the meaning of continuation and giving instructions, in The Book of Rites: “When he is sixty, we say, ‘He is getting old;’ he gives directions and instructions. (七十曰老 ,而傳 )” . Character hao (號 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, such as hao ling [號令 (order)] and chenghao [稱號 (title)], in The Book of Changes: “Shows its subject amidst the dispersion issuing his great announcements as the perspiration flows from his body (涣汗其大號 )” . In addition, in “Qi Yu” : “Let them travel around the world to invite the wise men (使周游四方 ,以號召天下之 賢士 )” . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in The Book of Songs: “clamor and shouting (式號式呼 )” , with the meaning of calling loudly. Character gao (膏 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, such as zhigao [脂膏 (fat)], in Mencius: “consequently, does not wish for the fat meat and fine millet of me (所以不願人之膏粱之味也 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, in The Book of Songs: “The rain provides moisture (陰雨 膏之 )” . Character cheng (稱 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of balance, which commonly means a scale; and also to measure, used as a verb, in The Book of Changes: “The superior man, in accordance with this, diminishes what is excessive (in himself), and increases where there is any defect (君子以稱物平施 )” , with the meaning of diminishing what is excessive.When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in “Yue Ling” : “When this has been completed, she apportions the cocoons, weighs out (afterwards) the silk, on which they go to work, to supply the robes for the solstitial and other great religious 14

In 後世以爲楷 , the character “kai (楷)” is also a noun rather than a verb.

Distinguishing Chinese Word Classes Through the Four Tones

519

services, and for use in the ancestral temple. (蠶事既登，分繭稱絲效功，以共 宗廟之服 )15” , it means knowing the weight; It also means praising, in the Biaoji: “when he praises a man’ s good qualities, he goes on to confer rank on him (君子 稱人之善，則爵之 )” . It is also said in “Tan Gong” that: “After he said ‘zai’ , he would not say ‘zheng’ again (言在不稱徵 )16” . Character ji (劑 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, which means “質劑券書 (documents)” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, which means “調劑藥劑” (make drugs). Character pu (鋪 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, which means a store. When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in The Preface of The Book of Songs: “賦之言鋪，陳今之政教善惡 (Narratives that faithfully state the positive side and negative side of current politics)” , which means distribution; and jinpu (金鋪 ) is the golden door ring17, which is also a noun. Character fen (墳 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, in “Tan Gong” : “ 古者墓而不墳 (After ancients died, they were only buried in the ground without tombs built)”. When being pronounced as oblique tone, it is an adjective, in “Yu Gong” : “白墳，赤墳 (white and humped, red and humped)” , so the land is fertile. Character lun (論 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, pinglun (評論 )18, lulun (魯論 ) and qilun (齊論 ) and the like. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, in The Book of Documents: “ 論道經邦 (Study the way to govern the state so as to manage the state)” . In “Wangzhi” : “凡官民材，必先論之 (Officials selected from talented common folks must have their morality tested)” .  Character tan (彈 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, which means moving ball, also means the shot. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, meaning 鼓爪 19, in“Biography of Qu Yuan” : “新沐者必彈冠 (The hat must be dusted off after one finishes washing hair)” . It also means impeachment. Character yuan (緣 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of yichun (衣純 )20, in “Biography of Gongsun Hong” : “緣飾以儒 術 (The article is also decorated with Confucian viewpoints)” , note: “猶衣加純緣 也 (It’ s like clothes with embroidering)” . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, with the meaning of following, eg. “緣木求魚 (climb trees to look for fish)” ; and it also means because. Character jian (監 ), when being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun. In “Wangzhi” : “天子使其大夫爲三監 (The Son of the God sent an Imperial Censor to govern people of previous dynasty)” . The Book of Songs: “既立之監 (The post of alcohol supervisor is established)” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, meaning supervise, in The Book of Songs: “監视四方 (supervise the whole 15

gong (共) equals to gong (供, provide). 言在不稱徵 , Confucius’ mother’s was named Zheng Zai (徵在), so Confucius did not say these two characters together, i.e., after he said “zai”, he would not say “zheng” again. 17 The pu (鋪) in jinpu (金鋪) is also pronounced as level tone. 18 The pinglun (評論) is suspected to be regarded as gulun (古論). 19 Guzhao (鼓爪) means to snap things with fingernails. 20 Yichun (衣純), the embroidering of the clothes. 16

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nation)” . In addition, the jian (監 ,supervise) equals to the jian 鑒 (mirror), in the The Book of Documents: “無於水監，當於民監 (Do not just look at yourself with water as a mirror, but with public opinions as a mirror)” . And 官寺爲監 (The Guanshi is a supervising organ)21, when being a noun, it is pronounced as falling tone. Character feng (縫 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, in “Tan Gong” : “古者冠縮縫，今也衡縫 (In ancient times, there are vertical seams in hats, but there are often cross seams in today’ s hats)22” . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, meaning sewing the cloth by needle, in The Book of Songs: “羔羊之縫 (lamb-furred robe)” . Character qin (親 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, it means the relative of in-laws, in Commentary of Zuo: “庶人工商，各有分親 (Common people, farmers and businessmen have different social status)” . When  being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, meaning intimacy and love, eg. “身 親庶務 (Deal with government affairs directly)” ; in addition, in The Analects of Confucius: “因不失其親 (Inheritance also requires commitment to innovation)” . Character rao (橈 ), when being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, in Boya: “楫謂之橈 (Oar)23” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, in The Book of Changes “Dongrao” , it means being vain; in addition, in “Yue Ling” : “令 有司申嚴百刑，毋或枉橈 (ordered officials to impose all laws, but not to abuse  the law to try any case)” . Character shao (燒 ): When is pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, 野火曰 燒 (Field fire is called shao). When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, with the meaning of 爇 (burning) 24. Character cao (操 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, such as 節操 ) and 琴操 . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in “Qu Li” : “必操几杖以從之 (Walking sticks must be brought with)25” . Character mo (磨 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, which means 石磑 26, in The Astronomy Record: “如蟻旋磨 (like ants climbing the millstone)” . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in The Book of Songs: “如琢如磨 ( like zhuo like mo)” . Character xing (興 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of being interesting, such as shixing (詩興 ) and chengxing (乘 興 ); and the Xing in “bixing” (比興 ) has the same pronunciation . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in The Book of Songs: “夙興夜寐 (rise early and rest late)” . In addition, it is also an adjective, with the meaning of being prosperous, The Book of Songs: “天保定爾，以莫不興 (With blessing from the Heaven, all your endeavors are bound to succeed)” . 21

官寺爲監 , 官寺 is a supervising organ, as 國子監 and 司禮監 are. 縮縫 is straight seam; and 衡縫 is cross seam. 23 楫 is called the 橈 , that is, the paddle for rowing. 24 爇 means burning. 25 操几杖 means taking walking sticks. 26 Shi Wei (石磑) means a stone mill for grinding powder. 22

Distinguishing Chinese Word Classes Through the Four Tones

521

Character dan (擔 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun. In Commentary of Zuo: “弛于負擔 (getting rid of redundancy)” . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in “Stratagems of Qin” : “負書擔囊 (Carry a bag of books and luggage)” . Character ji (騎 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, such as cheji (車騎 ) and biaoji (驃騎 ). When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, with the meaning of riding a horse. Character nan (難 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun. In “Quli” : “臨難毋苟免 (Facing the danger, do not drag out an ignoble existence)” , with the meaning of being in misfortune. In addition, if it means 詰辨 (inquiry), it is a verb, to be pronounced as level tone27; and if it means being difficult or easy, it  is an adjective, also to be pronounced as level tone. Character zang (藏 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, in “Zhongyong” : “寶藏興焉” . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, with the meaning of hiding, in The Book of Changes: “陽氣潛藏 (Yangqi hides in it)” . It also means storing, in The Book of Changes: “君子藏器於身 (The gentleman hides his talents)” . Character long (籠 ): Being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of 箱籠 ,藥籠 (box, drug cage). When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in Shihuo Zhi: “籠貨物。籠 鹽鐵 (Control cargoes, and control salt and iron28)” . And the container that contains arrows is called 籠 , which is also a noun. Character guan (觀 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, to be the name of Gongguan and Jingguan宫觀 , 京觀 (palace, enemies’ tomb), and the hexagrams name is also called 觀 . When being pronounced as level tone, it is a verb, in The Book of Documents: “予若觀火 (I see it through as if I am seeing just fire)” . Character yan (鹽 ): when being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun. In The Rites of Zhou: “掌鹽之政令 (In charge of policies regarding salt and all matters concerned” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, in “Neize” : “屑 桂與薑，以灑諸上而鹽之 (scatter cinnamon, ginger and salt on it)” . Selected from Volume 2, Wen Tong

27 The “nan ( 難 )” means jiebian [ 詰辨 ( 辯 )](argument) should be pronounced as falling tone, the “level tone” here is a mistake. 28 籠貨物，籠鹽鐵 (Control cargoes, and control salt and iron) , the “long ( 籠 )” means controlling.

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs MA Jianzhong

The characters with the same character pattern, regardless of being a noun or verb due to different rhymes, have been listed in the chapter of nouns. There are also  characters distinguished as adjectives or verbs due to different tones, as internal  or external verbs, or as passive or external verbs, and even as other classes of characters, scattered in books and difficult to list. Therefore, I write about the major ones as examples. Character zhong (中 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is an adjective, in The Book of Documents “Hold fast the golden mean (允執厥中 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning that the arrows has hit the target, in “Annals of Zhou” : “Yang Youji keeps a distance of a hundred steps from the willow leaves and shoot arrows at the leaves, with unfailing accuracy (養由基去柳葉射之，百發百中 )” . In Mencius: “But that you hit the mark is not owing to your strength (其中非爾力也 )” . Character dong (恫 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of pain, in The Book of Songs: “The god does not feel any pain (神罔時恫 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of being unappreciated, in “The Biography of Su Qin” : “Bluffing and  intimidating threat (恫疑虚喝 )” . Character zong (總 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the seam, in The Book of Songs: “Silk cloth of Qin has five seams  (秦絲五總 )” . When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of gathering, in “The Book of Documents” : “All officials  take their own post (百官總己 )” . Character feng (逢 ): It is the rhyme of dong, to be a character of zhuang (狀 )1, the sound of a drum, in The Book of Songs: “The lizard-skin drums rolled harmonious ( 鼉鼓逢逢 )” . In the two rhymes of dong (冬 ) and jiang (江 ), to be an external verb, with the meaning of catering, in “The 3rd Year of Duke Xuan” 1

Zhuang ( 狀 ), as an adverbial modifier, functions as an adjective and adverb.

522

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs

523

of Commentary of Zuo: “Disobey (不逢不若 )” . If consisting of jiang (夅 ), it is pronounced as pang (龐 ), in Mencius: “Pang Meng learnt shooting arrow from Yi (逄蒙學射於羿 )” . Therefore, The Family Instructions of the Yan says that “The difference between Feng and Pang (逢逄之别 ), how can they be the same!” Character chong (重 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of repetition, in The Book of Changes: “With repeated perseverance, one is unable to get mediocre (重剛而不中 )” . When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of being not light, in “Royal Regulations” : “Light duty is combined, and heavy duty is divided (輕任并，重任分 )” . In addition, when being pronounced as falling tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of attach importance to, in “A Summary Account of Sacrifices” : “Therefore, praise the virtue of Zhou Gong, and attach importance to his state due to this (所以明周公之德，而因以重其國也 )” . Character cong (從 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of listening, in The Book of Documents: “Do not follow me to my face (汝無面從 )” . It also means following, in The Book of Changes: “The cloud follows the loong, and the wind follows the tiger (雲從龍，風從虎 )” . It also means self, in The Book of Songs: “Whom you will follow (伊誰云從 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, in The Book of Documents: “His servants (其侍御僕從 )” . When it has the meaning of indulgence, it is an external verb, to be also pronounced as falling tone, in The Analects of Confucius: “Followed by a pure, clear, long tone (從之，純如也 )” . Character gong (共 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of respect, in “Biography of Wang Bao” : “Only The Spring and Autumn Annals follows the essence of king governing ( 共惟《春秋 》，法王治之要 )” . If being the meaning of public, it is also an external verb, and pronounced as the falling tone, in “Royal Regulations” : “The appointment of official at the court meeting is decided by consultation with everyone (爵人於朝， 與衆共之 )” . While gongji (共給 ) and gongyang (共養 ) 2 have both level and falling tones, with different tones but the same meaning. Character zong (縱 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an adjective. The north-south is zong (縱 ), also is zong (從 ), in “The Faults of Qin” : “Adopt the strategy of integration to make a covenant, to help each other as a whole (合從 締交 )” . If being an external verb, it is also pronounced as level tone, in The Book of Songs: “Make his fields in east - west, north - south directions (衡從其畝 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, in Shuowen Jiezi: “She means slowly (舍也，緩也 )” . In “Yu Pian” : “The fang means indulging oneself ( 放也，恣也 )” . In The Book of Documents: “The indulgence destroys the etiquette (縱敗禮 )” . In addition, caozong (操縱 ,control) is also pronounced as the falling tone. Character xiang (降 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of the subduing, in “The 8th Year of Duke Zhuang” : “Our troop and Qi troops surrounded the Cheng, and the Cheng surrendered to Qi troop 2

“共给” means “供给 (supply)”; “共养” means “供养 (support)”.

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(師及齊師圍 郕，郕 於齊師 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of the rising and falling, eg. in The Analects of Confucius: “Compromise one’ s own will to obey others (降心相從 )” 3. Character wei (爲 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, in Erya: “zuo, or zao, means to act (作、造，爲也 )” . In The Book of Documents: “I want to govern the world with all my strength, you please help me (予欲宣力 四方，汝爲 )” . If being pronounced as falling tone, it is a preposition, with the meaning of “with” “because” , in The Book of Documents: “I help the emperor by virtue, and work for the people (臣爲上爲德，爲下爲民 )” . Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics says that “The Wei (爲 ) in “爲上、爲下” is yuwei qie pronounced (爲上、爲下之 爲，於僞反 )” 4. Character chui (吹 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, in “Yu Pian” : “Breathing rapidly (出氣急也 )” . In “A Happy Excursion” : “Living creatures are blown about amongst each other (生物以息 相吹也 )” . In The Book of Songs: Play lutes and blow pipe instruments (鼓瑟吹笙 )” When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is a noun, in “Yue Ling” : “On the ding day(the first ten-day period of a month in lunar calendar) orders are given to the  chief director of music to enter the college, and to practice (with his pupils) on the wind instruments (上丁，命樂正入學習吹 )” . Character shi (施 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of establishing, using, in The Book of Documents: “Apply five kinds of pigments to make five colors (以五采彰施於五色 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is also a verb, with the meaning of giving kindness, raising, in The Book of Changes: “Clouds float across the sky, and rain falls on  the earth (雲行雨施 )” . In “Qu Li” : “Anyone gives kindness to oneself, he must be reciprocated (其次，務施報 )” . It also means reaching, in The Book of Songs: “Grow in the valley (施於中谷 )” . It also means wicked action, in Mencius: “Followed her husband to go out (施從良人之所之 )” . Only the shi (施 ) in shiyu (施與 ) is pronounced as both level and oblique tones concurrently. Character chi (遲 ): When being pronounced as level tone, such as in Shuowen Jiezi: “Walking slowly (徐行也 )” , it is the character of adverbial modifier; in The Book of Songs: “The road is difficult to walk (行道遲遲 )” , it means being slow, to be an adjective; in “Yu Zao” : “The Gentleman’ s appearance stretches slowly (君子之容舒遲 )” , it means a long time, to be also an adjective, being commonly speaking. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of waiting, in “Annals of Emperor Zhang” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty: “I miss and wait for honest persons to listen to their different  opinions ( 朕思遲直士，側席異聞 )” . Character yi (遺 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a passive verb, in Shuowen Jiezi: “Died (亡也 )” . In The Book of Songs: “Leave me and forget 3

“降心相從” exists in “The 11th Year of Duke Yin”of Commentary of Zuo: “He can compromise his own will to obey others ( 其能降以相從也 )”. Du Yu noted that “Jiang( 降 ) means compromising his own will ( 降，降心也 )”. 4 於僞反 , 僞 is a phoneticized character with falling tone.

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs

525

all (棄予如遺 )5” . It also means being left, in “Yue Ji” : “There was much melody not brought out (有遺音者矣 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of gifting. Character cha (差 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is cha-zi (叉兹 切 ) qie pronounced, to be an adjective, with the meaning of uneven, in Mencius: “This is taken as the difference of his official’ s salary (其禄以是爲差 )” . The Book of Songs: “Uneven in length (參差荇菜 )” . When being chu-jia (初佳 ) qie pronounced, it is an external verb, with the meaning of assigning. When being chu-jia qie pronounced, it can also be an internal verb, in Shuowen Jiezi: “improper and not worthy (貳 也， 不相值也 )” . In Guangyun: “Error (舛也 )” . In “Biography of Dongfang Shuo” : “A minimal error or deviation may result in wide divergence (失之毫釐，差以千里 )” . Character shuai (衰 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is suo-wei qie pronounced, with the meaning of extinction, weakness, Commentary of Gu Liang” says that “In the past, the authority of King Zhou was not as good as before (昔周道衰微 )” . If it is pronounced as cui (崔 ), it is a noun, to be the same as character cui (縗 ), i.e., mourning clothes. Character zhui (追 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is zhong-kui qie pronounced, to be an external verb, with the meaning of the following, capturing and sending, in The Book of Songs: “He has gone to pursue him back (薄言追之 )”.. Shuowen Jiezi says that: “To pursue (逐也 )” . “The 18th Year of Duke Zhuang” : “Chased the Rong in the west of Ji River (追戎於濟西 )” . When being Du-Lei qie pronounced, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of processing jade, in The Book of Songs: “Grind its pattern (追琢其章 )” . There is also wuzhui (毋追 ), to be a noun, interchanging with the character dui (頧 ). Character zhi (治 ): Any zhi (治 ) used as “to govern....” (治之 ) is pronounced as level tone, such as “govern the state” (治國 ) and “govern the people” (治人 ) and so on. And zhi (治 ) used as yi zhi (已治 ) is pronounced as the falling tone, to be the passive verb, such as “state governing” (國治 ) and “county governing” (邑 治 ). Therefore, the zhi (治 ) used at the place where the state and prefecture are stationed is used as the noun. Character tui (推 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, to be chuan-zhui qie pronounced, it is an external verb, with the meaning of forward moving, in The Book of Changes: “The winter and summer exchange, so there is the advance of years (寒暑相推，而歲成焉 )” . It also means the choosing, presenting and rewarding, and advancing, in The Book of Documents: “Give way to the virtuous and able, all officials will be harmonious)” . It also means sending back, with the  meaning of arranging, in “The 14th Year of Duke Xiang” : “Either asking to stay or refusing (或挽之 ,或推之 )” . Note: “Sending back is called tui (推 )” . It also means giving all one’ s things to others, in “The Biography of Duke Huaiying” of Historical Records of the Grand Historian: “Take off the clothes for others to  5

As a passive verb, “Yi ( 遺 )” is quoted from “彼有遺秉”(Here are a few sheaves missing in the field)” in “Da Tian”, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Songs as an example. “遺秉” is the sheaf abandoned.

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wear, and let others eat the food that one is eating (解衣衣我，推食食我 )” . It also means removing, in The Book of Songs: “The drought is already very serious, which is inevitable (旱既太甚，則不可推 )” , that is: “It is unable to be removed” . Character ju (居 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be ju-zhi qie pronounced, it is a character of particle, in “Tan Gong” : “How (何居 )” ? When being jin-yu qie pronounced, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of the residence, sitting, in The Book of Documents: “Settle down here to take as the home (奠厥攸居 )” . “Zengzi Wen” : “Sit down, I tell you (居，吾語女 )” . It also means the savings, in “The Book of Documents” : “Each supplies what the other needs through trade (懋 遷有無化居 )” . Note: “Hua means exchanging the stored goods (化，易也，謂交易其所居積也 )” . Character xi (戲 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is the character of tan (嘆 )6. In addition, in Zhuangzi, “Fu Xi (伏羲 )” is written as “伏戲” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of playing, in “Fang Ji” : “At home, only happy words can be said instead of sad words (閨門之内，戲而不嘆 )” . It also means jokes, in The Book of Songs: “Be good at jokes (善戲謔兮 )” . Character wei (委 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of graceful and self-satisfied appearance, in The Book of Songs: “Take a leisurely stroll (委蛇 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, referring to ren or shu (任也，屬也 )7, in “Zhao Yuan” 8: “Xu Wuzun’ s sister is very beautiful, and Gongsun Hei sent someone by force to send her betrothal gift (徐吾犯 之妹美，公孫黑强委禽 9焉 )” . It also means discarding in Mencius: “Give up and leave (委而去之 )” . Character ji (幾 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an adjective, in Shuowen Jiezi: “Tiny (微也 )” . In The Book of Changes: “Those springs are the slight beginnings of movement, and the earliest indications of good fortune (or ill) (幾者，動之微 )” . When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adverbial modifier, with the meaning of how many. In “The 27th Year of Duke Xi” : “Make  the society be stable inside but fail outside, how much have you gained (靖諸内 而敗諸外，所獲幾何 )?” When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of looking forward. In “The 16th Year of Duke Ai” : “The people look forward to Jing Gong as they look forward to a good harvest age, to look forward from time and time ( 國人望君如望歲焉，日月以幾 )” . Character yu (予 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a pronoun, with the meaning of me. When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of granting, in The Book of Songs: “The princes are coming to court, and what gifts have I to give them? (君子來朝，何錫予之 )?” . Character yu (與 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a character of

6

Tan ( 嘆 ) refers to interjection. “任也，屬也 ” means entrusting, handing over. 8 Zhao Yuan refers to “The 1st Year of Duke Zhao” of Commentary of Zuo. 9 Weiqin ( 委禽 ) refers to sending the gift for marrying a girl. 7

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs

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zhu10 (助字 ). When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun. Shuowen Jiezi says that: “It is gang (黨 )” . In “Ba Guan” of Guanzi: “If the manner of entrusting for handling matters is common in the government, and ganging up to get personal interest will be flooding below. (請謁得於上，則黨與成乎下 )” . It is also an external verb, with the meaning of goodness, in “Liyun” : “Princes associate with each other with etiquette (諸侯以禮相與 ) ” . It also means agree and follow (許也，從也 ). In The Analects of Confucius: “I agree with Zeng Xi’ s idea (吾與點也 )” . It also means handout (施與 ), in “Qu Li” : “When giving someone something, do not ask whether he want it (與人者 ,不問其所欲 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a character of preposition, in The Analects of Confucius: “Can you associate with friends and not believe him (與朋友交而不 信乎 )?” Character chu (躇 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is the character of an adverbial modifier, with the meaning of being hesitant; and when  being pronounced as the falling tone, it is an external verb, in “The 7th Year of Duke Xuan” of Commentary of Gongyang: “Walking on steps(躇階而走 )” . In Pronunciations and Meanings of Words in Classics: “Chu is the same as duo (躇 與踱同 )” . It is also noted that: “Overstep the etiquette in a hurry, cannot attend caring to walk in sequence (超遽不順以次也 )” . Character shu (輸 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of deliver someone something, in “The 12th Year of Duke Xi of Lu” : “Qin then delivered millet to Jin (秦于是乎輸粟于晉 )” . It also means overthrow (隳 ), in The Book of Songs: “Till that the goods carried by you overthrow (載輸爾載 )” . It is also commonly known that winning and losing are called shu and ying (輸贏 ). When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, referring to the gift delivered, Yunhui(《韻會》) says that “The Han Dynasty had Sanfu Weishu Official (漢有三輔委輸官 )” , which refers to the official managing  things delivered. Character wu (汙 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be wang-hu qie pronounced, to be the same as wu (洿 ), it is a noun, in Shuowen Jiezi: “Turbid water does not flow (濁水不流也 )” . Another saying: low-lying (窊下 )” . In The Book of Songs: “The field has been flooded to be deserted (田卒汙萊 )” It is also niao-gua qie pronounced, to be an external verb, with the meaning of digging ground (鑿地 ), in “Liyun” : “Dig the ground for a pit to contain the wine, to hold the wine in hand to drink (汙尊而抔飲 )” . When being pronounced as fallingrising tone, to be niao-gu qie pronounced, also to be an external verb, with the meaning of being contaminated, and another meaning of cleaning, in The Book of Songs: “Wash my clothes (薄汙我私 11)” . Character e (惡 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a character of pronoun for inquiry; it is also a character of adverbial modifier, with the meaning  of what. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the 10

The character of zhu ( 助 ), a modal particle, such as the “yu ( 與 )” in “ 意者其仙與 ” (He is probably a celestial being) in “A Story of Rui Yun” in The Collection of Bizarre Stories. 11 Si ( 私 ), the clothes to wear.

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meaning of hating, in “The 3rd Year of Duke Lu” : “The State of Zhou and Zheng get a bad relationship(周鄭交惡 ).” When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of being not good and ugly. Character ou (嘔 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be xiong-yu qie pronounced, it is a character of adverbial modifier, in “Biography of  Huaiyin” of the Historical Records: “Speak gently (言語嘔嘔 )” . In Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, “嘔嘔” is written as “姁姁”. It can also be niao-hou qie-pronounced, to be an internal verb, which means children’s speech. It also interchanges ou (謳 ), in “Biography of Zhu Maichen” : “His wife followed him, also carrying timber, and stopped him from singing on the way to the market ( 其妻亦負戴相隨，數止 買臣，毋歌嘔道中 )” . Character fan (反 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a passive verb, with the meaning of rehabilitating the criminal case, even referring to the rehabilitating of decided case, in the Records of Economy: “Criminal cases tried by Du Zhou are seldom rehabilitated (杜周治之獄 ,少反者 )” . When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, in “Biography of Chen She” : “The envoy returned for five times (使者五 反 )” . In Mencius, “send back the old and young (反其旄倪 )” , it is used as an external verb. Character yuan (怨 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, in “The Conduct of the Scholar” : “So long as the persons possess the ability, we should appoint them, even they are our enemies (外舉不避怨 )” . When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is an external verb, “Complain about natural conditions and other people (怨天尤人 )” . Character tan (攤 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of opening; another meaning: distributing by hand, in A New Account of Tales of the World: “Wang Rong spread books full of bed (王戎滿 牀攤書 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of pressing. Character huan (還 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be hu-guan qiepronounced, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of returning, in The Book of Songs: “If on your return you entered my house, My heart would be relieved (爾還 而入 ,我心易也 )” . It can also be xun-xuan qie-pronounced, with the meaning of dealing with, to be also an internal verb. Character xian (閒 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be ju-yan qiepronounced, it is a noun, in Shuowen Jiezi: “Interval (隙也 )” . In the Zhuangzi: “Zhou is between the useful and useless (周將處夫材不材之閒 )” . It can also be he-jian qie-pronounced, to be an adjective, with the meaning of being quiet, in “Sima Xiangru Biography” : “He is of calm demeanor, and gentle and generous manner, to be very beautiful (雍容閒雅甚都 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being instead, in The Book of Songs: “The emperor made him be idle (皇以閒之 )” . It means also the toilet, in Yin San: “Shi que said that: “Far toilet is close, and new toilet is old” . It is also meaning ensemble, in The Book of Documents: “The ensemble of Sheng and Yong” . The xian (閒 ) is the ensemble. Character xian (先 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is either noun

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or adjective, in Laozi: “The shape existed earlier than gods (象帝之先 )” . When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being behind but acting first, in The Book of Changes: “Act before the Tao of Heaven, and heaven will not go against human will (先天而天弗違 )” . Character chuan (穿 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, in Shuowen Jiezi: “getting through (穴也 ,通也 )” . In The Book of Songs: “How can it peck through my house (何以穿我屋 )?” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of getting through, connecting, in the “Biography of Sima Qian”: “Learn classical works very well (貫 穿經傳 )” . Character jian (濺 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a character of adverbial modifier, with the meaning of fast water flowing. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of splashing, in the “Biography of Lin Xiangru” : “I, Xiangru, want to splash you the King’ s body with blood from my neck (相如請得以頸血濺大王 ).” Character tiao (挑 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be ta-diao qiepronounced, it is an external verb, commonly known as the meaning of loading on the shoulder; and it also means taking, and picking the person or object today is also called tiao (挑 ). It is also ta-gao qie-pronounced, to be an adjective, with the meaning of being flippant and profligate, the same as tiao (佻 ). In “Qiangguo” of Xunzi: “The clothes there are not flippant and flirtatious (其服不挑 )” . When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of drawing and dialing, in “The Annals of Xiang Yu” : “I would like to challenge the King Han to decide the winner and the loser (願與漢王挑戰 ,決雌雄 )” . Character tiao (調 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be tian-liao qiepronounced, it is an external verb, with the meaning of harmony, in “Yue Ling” : “Make the Yu, Sheng, Ye, Huang be harmonious (調竽、笙、竾、簧 )” . It is also zhang-liu qie-pronounced, to be an adjective, with the meaning of morning, in The Book of Songs “The missing is like thinking about food in the morning with hunge (惄如調饑 )”. The “Mao Biography” says that: “zhou (調 ) is zhao [朝 (morning)].” It is also equal to zhou (輈 ), pronounced as falling tone, to be an external verb, with the meaning of selecting and transferring, in The Record of the Qin Dynasty: “Order the county to transfer grain and hey (下調郡縣，轉輸菽粟刍槀 )” . It is also a noun, with meaning of fu (賦 ), in Zheng Zi Tong(《正字通》): “The people’ s fu is called diao (調 )” . From this, the yindiao (音調 , tone) is called rhythm, and the caidiao (才調 , literary talent) is called natural charm, both are nouns. Character yao (要 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of appointment, in The Analects of Confucius: “Not forget an old agreement however far back it extends (久要不忘平生之言 )” . It also means begging, extortion. When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of importance, in The Classic of Filial Piety: “Previous emperors had their supreme conduct and the most important morality (先王有至德要道 )” . Character piao (漂 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of floating, in The Book of Documents: “Blood flowing floats the pestle up (血流漂杵 )”. It also means blowing, in The Book of Songs: “The

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wind is blowing a girl (風其漂女 )” When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of washing cotton wool in water, in “Biography of Lord Huaiyin” : “Unexpectedly washing over ten days (竟漂數十日 )” . Character jiao (徼 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of requirement, request, in “The 3rd Year of Duke Zhao” : “Pray for good fortune from Taigong (徼福于太公 )” . In “The Doctrines of Means” : “The vulgar person takes to dangerous courses, expecting the uncertain chances of luck. (小人行險以徼幸 )” . It also means copying, in The Analects of Confucius: “I hate those who pry out matters, and ascribe the knowledge to their wisdom (惡徼以爲知者 )” . Note: “Taking others’ wisdom as one’ s own” . When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of following, in Baiguan Gongqing Biao(《百官公卿表》): “Zhongwei is an officer  of the Qin Dynasty, of which duty is to patrol the Capital (“中尉 ,秦官 ,掌徼循京 師 )” . Youjiao (游徼 ) means patrol soldiers. 徼解邊塞 , frontier fortress) and 徼 道綺錯 , staggered pattern” in “Rhapsody on the Western Capital”《西都賦》 ( ) are both nouns. Character liao (料 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of statistics, in “The Hereditary House of Confucius” : “He used to be an official under the Ji Family, to make management and statistics  be accurate (嘗爲季氏史 ,料量平 )” . It also means measurement, principle and counting, in “Discourses of Zhou”: “Investigated and verified permanent residence  in Taiyuan (料民於太原 )” . In “The Biography of Li Si” : “you estimate for yourself (君侯自料 )” . In “Biography of Wang Hui” of History of the Jin Dynasty: “It should be counted (當相料理 )” . When being pronounced as the falling tone, such as cailiao (材料 ), wuliao (物料 ), yiliao (意料 ), shiliao (詩料 ) (material, material, expectation, poems), they are all nouns. Character biao (摽 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of command, in Mencius: “motioned to the messenger to go outside the great door (摽使者出諸大門之外 )” . When being pronounced as both falling-rising and falling tones, to be both external verbs, it has the same meaning, to be hitting, dropping, in The Book of Songs: “Mumes fall to the ground (摽有梅 )” . Character piao (剽 ): when being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, in “Explaining Music” of Erya: “The large one is called yong (鏞 ), and the middle one is called piao (剽 ) (大木謂之鏞 ,其中謂之剽 )” . Note: “The large one is called piao (剽 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of plundering, in “Biographies of Cruel Officials”: “Attack and plunder as thieves (攻剽爲群盜 )” . It is also an adjective, to be urgent, light, in Treatise on Geography(《地理志》): “Since the Jin Dynasty, their agile and brave have becomes a threat (自全晉時 , 已 患其剽悍 )” . Character jiao (教 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is an external verb, to be commonly understood as causing. When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is a noun and the verb, with the meaning of instructing and ordering to be imitated, in The Book of Changes: “The sage used superstition as a means of

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education (聖人以神道設教 ). It also means teaching. Character lao (勞 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of being diligent, in The Book of Changes: “The people forgot their labor (民忘其勞 )” . In addition, achievement is called lao (勞 ), in “The Conduct of the Scholar” : “He must first do the work, and then take the pay” . When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of condoling, in “Qu Li” : “If the ruler condole with them on their toils, they should bow. (君勞之 ,則拜 )” . Character he (和 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, also an adjective, in The Book of Changes: “Maintain and gather harmony (保合太和 )” . In “The Doctorine of Means” : “When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony (發而 皆中節，謂之和 )” . In addition, in The Book of Songs: “(和鸞鏘鏘 )” , the he here means the bell on the shi [軾 (arm rest on the carriage)]. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of sound heard, in The Book of Changes: “shows its subject (like) the crane crying out in her hidden retirement, and her young ones responding to her (鳴鶴在陰 ,某子和 之 )” . It also means harmony, in “Tan Gong” : “Yu and sheng are both there but not to be harmonious (竽笙備而不和 )” . It is said in “Li Yuan” that, “The five flavors,  with the six condiments, and the twelve articles of diet, come each one, in their revolutions, to give its character to the food (五味、六和、十二食 ,還相爲質也 )” , and “Li Qi” says that “Sweet food is easy to be seasoned (甘受和 )” . Although the two “和” are pronounced as the falling tone, they are used as nouns. Character he (荷 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of lotus. When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of loading, in The Analects of Confucius: “The man with a straw basket on his back walked passing the door of Confucius (有荷蕢而過孔氏 之門者 )” . Character guo (過 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of passing. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of spending, getting over, in The Book of Changes: “He comprehends as in a mould or enclosure the transformations of heaven and earth without any error (範圍天地之化而不過 )” .. It also means a mistake, to be a noun. Character chai (瘥 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of illness, in The Book of Songs: “Repeated plagues (天方薦瘥 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of illness cured. Character xiang (相 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a pronoun, with various meanings12, in Mencius: “render all friendly offices to one another in  their going out and coming in (出入相友 )” . It is also a noun, with the meaning of the quality, in The Book of Songs: “He has good quality like gold and jade (金 12 Xiang ( 相 ), is classified as a pronoun by Ma Jianzhong, but we believe that it is a referential ad-  verb. The “with various meanings” refers to mutual relation of two aspects.

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玉其相 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of seeing, in Commentary of Zuo: “Watch the situation before the action (相時而動 )” . It also means helping, in The Book of Changes: “Ministers assisting the emperor in governing must be as harmonious and suitable as the heaven and earth in nature (輔相天地之宜 )” . Character qiang (强 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an adjective, in “Qu Li” : “One in his forty-year-old is strong, to be able to serve as an official (四十 曰强 ,而仕 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, in “The Doctrine of Mean” : “Some people implement reluctantly (或勉强而行之 )” . Character hang (行 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be han-wang qie-pronounced, it is a noun, with the meaning of rank, for which twenty-five people is a hang (行 ). In addition, zhonghang (中行 ) and taihang (太行 ) are both given names13. When being he-geng qie-pronounced, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of steps of people. When being pronounced as falling tone, to be hu-lang qie-pronounced, it is a noun, with the meaning of generation and age ranking; and also “bold and intense (行行如也 )14” , it is a adverbial modifier. When being xiameng qie-pronounced, it is a noun, with the meaning of the virtue, and deeds and so on. Character qing (慶 ): When being pronounced as level tone, to be pronounced as qiang, it is a noun, with the meaning of being good fortune, in The Book of Changes: “Is sure to have superabundant happiness (必有餘慶 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, to be pronounced qiu-jing qie-pronounced, it also means happiness, and can be used as a verb which means “send congratulation” . Character jiang (將 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an adverbial modifier, same as fu (甫 ) and shi (始 )15, in The Book of Changes: “Therefore, the gentleman will be capable of outstanding achievements, and will have action (是 故君子將有爲也，將有行也 )” . It is also an external verb, with the meaning of support, in The Book of Songs: “And I had not leisure to nourish my father (不遑 將父 )” . It also means sending, in The Book of Songs: “Send her with a fleet (百 兩將之 )” . In The Book of Songs: “The gems of her girdle-pendant tinkle (佩玉 將將 )” . Also: “The gate of the enceinte stood high (應門將將 )” . They are all adverbial modifiers. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, meaning  the general and the marshal and so on. Character bang (傍 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an adjective, to interchange pang (旁 ), with the meaning of side. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of lying on. Character dang (當 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being on duty, and assignment, in The Analects of Confucius: “He may not yield the performance of it even to his teacher. (當仁 不讓於師 )” . It also means fighting the enemy, in “Wang Zhi” : “The status of 13

The “given name”, is a proper noun, specialized noun. The “行行如也”, see The Analects of Confucius “Xianjin”, “行行 (xingxing)” means bold and intense. 15 Both fu and shi mean just being about to. 14

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs

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upper minister of a second country is equivalent to that of middle minister of a great country (次國之上卿 ,位當大國之中 )” . It also means encountering, in “Qu Li” : “Do not mourn while eating ( 當食不嘆 )” . In “Xue Ji” : “Choose the most efficacious time for teaching (當其可之謂時 )”. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of being appropriate, in “Yue Ji”: “The world went along the right course and the four seasons came at the appropriate time (天 地順而四時當 )” . And, to exchange the money with things is called dang (當 ). Character rang (攘 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of stealing (竊 ), in The Analects of Confucius: “His father stole a sheep (其父攘羊 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of disturbing, in “Biography of Chen Ping” : “He traveled between Chu and Wei hesitantly (傾側擾攘楚魏之間 )” . Character ying (迎 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of that someone come to greet, in “The Doctrine of Mean”: “Receive and see off guests (送往迎來 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it means to go to greet someone before he comes, in The Book of Songs: “ Greet personally at Wei River ( 親迎於渭 )” . Character ying (應 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an auxiliary verb 16, with the meaning of “should” , also means expectation. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of reply, and responding of object, in The Book of Changes: “Yin and yang sympathetically respond to each other and are in harmony with each other ( 二氣感應以相與 )” . Character sheng (勝 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of assuming, lifting and enduring, in Mencius: “ There is a man here who is even unable to lift a chick ( 有人於此，力不能勝一匹雛 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of winning, in “The House of Wei”: “Emerge victorious in every battle (百戰百勝 )”. Character liu (留 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of stopping and being later, in The Book of Changes: “The superior man exerts his wisdom and caution in the use of punishments and not allowing litigations to continue (君子以明慎用刑而不留獄 )” . In “Chu Yu”《楚 ( 語》): “The whole country stayed (舉國留之 )” . It also means waiting for right moment, in “Ingrained Ideas” : “Hold the shot to wait for right moment to shoot it (執彈而留之 )” . In “The Conduct of the Scholar” : “悉數之乃留 ,更僕未可終 也 17 ” . The “留” here refers to a long time. Liuluo (留落 ) is the same rhyme with zheliu (遮留 )18. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of stopping to wait, in The Annals of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty: “Stay on the sea ( 宿留海上 )” . Character lin (臨 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of visiting, in The Book of Songs: “Shine the land downward 16

Auxiliary verb, here is volitive auxiliary that we said. It is said that it takes a very long time to tell all of them, which are still unable to be finished after  replacing multi shifts of on-duty officials (This is what Confucius said to the Duke Ai of Lu). 18 Liuluo ( 留落 ) is the same rhyme with zheliu ( 遮留 ), I do not know what this sentence means. 17

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(照臨下士 )” . It also means from superiors to inferiors, in “Tan Gong” : “When he visits feudal princes, and sends to make announcement to spirits (臨諸侯，畛 於鬼神 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of crying in mourning, in “The 12th Year of Duke Xuan” : “Results of divination for crying at the Taimiao Temple and driving to the street are auspicious (卜臨于大宫，且巷出車，吉 )” . Character ren (任 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being rich, in “The15th Year of Duke Xi” : “ Difficult  to withstand the outrage from public (重怒難任 )” . It also means carrying, in The Book of Songs: “We carried our burdens (我任我輦 )” . It is also a noun, with the meaning of believing, in The Rites of Zhou: “Provide filial piety to superiors; show  good deeds to elders; get harmonious with family members; dare to be righteous; and do good and accumulate virtue (孝友睦姻任恤 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the thing carried, in The Analects of Confucius: “Take the realization of benevolence as one’ s own responsibility (仁以 爲己任 )” . Character jin (禁 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a passive verb, with the meaning of being restrained, in “Xianxuan Biography” : “It is still unable to be restrained (猶弗能禁 )19” . It also means obstructing. The place where the Son of Heaven lives is called jin, which is also called the forbidden place. Jin here serves as a noun. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of controlling and forbidding, in The Book of Changes: “Prevent people from committing misdeeds through justice (禁民爲非曰義 )” . Character zhan (占 ): When being pronounced as the level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of 視兆問 20. When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of occupying, in “The Annals of Emperor Xuan” of Historical Records of the Grand Historian : “Refugees are over eighty thousand (流民自占八萬餘口 )” . Also, kouzhan (口占 ) means dictating to others by mouth without draft. In “Biography of Chen Zun” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty: “Zun often called officials being good at writing to write  letters for him to thank his relatives and friends. He sat at the desk, dictating to the officials, and hundreds of letters were written (遵常召善書吏于前 ,治私書謝親 故。憑几口占 ,書數百封 ,親疏各有意 )” . It also means having, in “Explanation Upon Entering the Academy” : “Those with a small expertise are inducted into the registry (占小善者率以録 )” . Character jian (漸 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of dipping, dyeing, in “Biography of Dong Zhongshu” : “Influence the people with kindheartedness (漸民以仁 )” . It is also an internal 19

Comment: The “禁 ” in “猶弗能禁” is not a passive verb, and the example should be replaced with “obstructed by condition and prohibited by circumstances ( 形格勢禁 )” in Historical Records of the Grand Historian. Both the “格” and “禁 ” mean to be restricted. 20 It is the divination inquiring. In ancient times, tortoise shell was burned to inquire ghosts and spirits, of which cracks on the tortoise shell were called omen, to watch the omen to de- cide good and bad fortunes.

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verb, with the meaning of the flowing in, in The Book of Documents: “The river flows eastward into the sea (東漸於海 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an adverbial modifier, with the meaning that everything changes slowly. Character yan (厭 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a character of adverbial modifier, with the meaning of comfort. When being pronounced as  falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of satisfaction, in “Biography of Wang Mang” : “To satisfy the desire of the God (克厭上帝之心 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it has the meaning of squelching, in “The 26th Year of Duke Zhao” : “I will squelch the crowd with it (將以厭衆 )21” . Character fan (帆 ): When being pronounced as level tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the thing powered by wind. When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of a ship to use wind power. Character zhong (種 ): When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of seeds, in The Book of Songs: “He gave his people the beautiful grains (誕降嘉種 )” . When being pronounced as the falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of sowing, in The Book of Documents: “Gao Yao with vigorous activity sowing abroad his virtue (皋陶邁種德 )” . Character kong (恐 ): When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of fearing, in “The Doctrine of Mean” : “Apprehensive in the place where he is not heard (恐懼乎其所不聞 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is also an internal verb, with the meaning of suspecting, worrying, and conjecturing.. Character lei (累 ): When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of increasing, in The Collected Biographies of Duke Bi of Kingdom Wu: “To be apprehensive and nervous (脅肩絫足 )” . Lei (絫 ), is ancient lei (累 ). In Lü Li Zhi(《律曆志》): “For weighing something, do not ignore very light weight (權輕重者 ,不失黍絫 )” , “絫” here is a noun. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of involving, in “The 13th Year of Duke Ying” : “Watch for the right time for action, do not involve later generations (相時而動 ,無累後人 )” . In The Book of Documents: “Finally great virtue is accumulated (终累大德 )” . When being pronounced as level tone, it is the same as lei (纍 ), in Mencius: “Imprison their children (繫累其子弟 )” , Zhao noted that22: “Ji lei is the same as fujie (縛結 (binding)” . It is an external verb. Character shi (使 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it has the meaning of ordering, in “Qu Li” : “One in his sixty age is very old, to be able to instruct others (六十曰耆 ,指使 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of envoy, in “Biography of Han Xin” : “Assign an envoy by cart to send one letter (發一乘之使 ,下一詔之書 )” . Character shi (始 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun, to be the original beginning, in The Book of Changes: “It is the origin of all things (萬物資始 )” . In “Wang Bao Biography” : “The Spring and Autumn Period is the 21 22

“厭衆”, 厭 means being calm. Zhao noted, i.e. Zhao Qi noted.

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essential of Five Beginnings 《春秋》五始之要 ( )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb, with the meaning of just beginning, in “Yue Ling” : “The peach begins to blossom, and the cicadas begins to sing (桃始華 ,蟬始鳴 )” . Character bei (被 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the cover for sleep. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of covering, in The Book of Songs: “Heaven covers you with favor (天被爾禄 )” . Character yu (語 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of the speech, in The Book of Songs: “When it is time to speak, just speak (于時語語 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning to tell someone something, in The Analects of Confucius: “Sit down, I will tell you (居 ,吾語女 )” . Character chu (處 ): When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of residing, in The Book of Songs: “Dare not have a rest for a while (莫或遑處 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of place, i.e., the place where to stay. Character nv (女 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of marrying one’ s daughter to someone, in Mencius: “His tears flowed forth while  he gave his daughter to be married to the prince of Wu (涕出而女於吴 )” . In The Book of Documents: “Marry daughters to Shun (女於時 )” Character qu (去 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of removing, in “The Doctrine of Mean” : “Letting go of slander, freeing yourself from lust (去讒遠色 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, same as xiang yuan (相違 )23. Character yu (雨 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of rain. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a verb without a subject, in The Book of Songs: “Rain on my public land (雨我公田 )” . Character tu (吐 ): When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, in The Book of Songs: “Spit it out if there is something hard (剛則 吐之 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of omitting. Character shu (樹 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of planting a tree. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the tree being plant. Character shu (數 ): When being pronounced as the falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of counting, in The Book of Songs: “discriminated by the mind (心焉數之 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of numbering, in The Book of Changes: “The superior man constructs his methods of numbering and measurement, and discusses points of virtue and conduct. (君子以制度數 ,議德行 )” . When being pronounced as the entering tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of frequent number, in “Ji Yi” : “Sacrifices should not be frequently repeated. Such frequency is indicative of 23

Xiangyuan ( 相違 ), means leaving away.

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importunateness (祭不欲數 ,數則煩 )” . Character hui (悔 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb. In Zhengzi Tong: “Where saying someone has hui [悔 (regret)], this hui (悔 ) is pronounced as falling-rising tone; where saying someone can gai hui [改悔 (repent)], this hui (悔 ) is pronounced as falling tone)” . Character cai (采 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, in The Book of Songs: “I was gathering and gathering the mouseear (采采卷耳 )” . It also means choice, in “Hun Yi” : “The proposal with its accompanying gift; the inquiries about the (lady’ s) name (納采問名 )” . It also means colors, to be pronounced as falling-rising tone. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, which means shiyi [食邑 (feud)] of ministers. Character zai ( 載 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of year. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of riding, in The Book of Songs: “Big cart is strong to be able to carry heavy objects (大車以載 )” . In addition, zai in fuzai (覆載 ) and jizai (記載 ) are with the same pronunciation. Character yin (引 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of opening bow, and it also means deduction, in The Book of Changes: “Extend the meaning (引而伸之 )” . In addition, the recommendation is called yin (引 ). When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the fu (綍 ) for leading a cow24. Character zhun (準 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of opening level, in “Establishment of Government” : “officers of justice (準人 )” ; and it also means imitating, in The Book of Changes: “The Yi was made on a principle of accordance with heaven and earth (易與天地準 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of nose, in “Gaozu Benji” : “Prominent nose and loong-like face (隆 準 25而龍顔 )” . Character jin (近 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of being not far away, in The Book of Changes: “For things near and close, we depict them in terms of ourselves (近取諸身 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, to be ju-li qie-pronounced, it has the meaning of farewell, in The Book of Songs: “Go, my uncle (往近王舅 )” . It is also jujin qie-pronounced, with the meaning of being intimate and close, in The Book of Documents: “The people should be cherished, and not looked down upon (民可近 ,不可下 )” . Two falling tones of it are both external verbs but with different meanings. Character yuan (遠 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being far away, in The Analects of Confucius: “Respect ghosts and spirits but stay far away (敬鬼神而遠之 )” . 24 25

Fu ( 綍 ), means thick rope. Long zhun ( 隆準 ), prominent nose.

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Character fan (飯 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of eating, in “Qu Li” : “Do not use chopsticks to eat millet (飯黍 ,毋以箸 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the thing being eaten. Character san (散 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the xiansan [閑 散 (at leisure)] or yaosan [藥散 (powder drug)]. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of leaving, scattering. Character shan (善 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, the meaning of regarding something as goodness, in Mencius: “Your Majesty deems them excellent (王如善之 )” . Character zhuan (轉 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, to be zifan qie-pronounced, it is a verb, in The Book of Songs: “On his side, on his back, he turned, and back again (輾轉反側 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb. Where any object rotates by self, it is pronounced as the falling-rising tone; and where any object is turned by force, it is pronounced as the falling tone. Character xuan (選 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, in “Li Yuan” : “Select and appoint talented people (選賢與 能 )26” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a passive verb, in “Royal Regulations” : “Orders were given that, throughout the districts, the youths who were decided on as of promising ability should have their names passed up to the minister of Instruction, when they were called ‘select scholars’ . (命鄉論秀 士 ,升之司徒 ,曰選士 )” . In addition, in “shao xuan (少選 )27” , it is an adverbial modifier, to be pronounced as falling-rising tone. Character hao (好 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective, in The Book of Songs: “Your lute in your hands, will emits its quiet pleasant tones (琴瑟在御 ,莫不静好 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being fond of and unwilling to part with, loving it. Character zao (造 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of building and constructing, in The Book of Documents: “But I am the servant of Heaven, which has assigned me this great task (予造天役 )” . Note: “What I do is all entrusted by God” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a passive verb, with the meaning of making achievements, in The Book of Songs: “Young men made attainments (小子有 造 )” . In “Royal Regulations” : “Those who were promoted to the (great) school, from all services under his own department, and (by and by) were called ‘complete scholars’ . (升於學者 ,不升於司徒 ,曰造士 )” . It is also an internal verb, with the meaning of visiting and coming, in “The Rites of Zhou” : “Whenever guests come from all over the world, they will report (凡四方之賓客造焉 ,則以告 )” . In 26 27

Yu neng ( 與能 ), “yu ( 與 )” interchanges “ju ( 舉 )”. Shaoxuan ( 少選 ), is the same as “shaoqing ( 少頃 )”, which means “after a short while”

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addition, in The Book of Songs: “Connect boats into a bridge for crossing (造舟爲梁 )” Character dao (倒 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of fu (僕 )28, such as juedao [絶倒 (shake one’ s sides)], qingdao [傾倒 (falling)]. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, the meaning of turning over, in The Book of Songs: “I was putting on my clothes upside down; And there was one from the court calling me. (顛之倒 之 ,自公召之 )” Character zuo (左 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective, such as For the sequence of positioning, the Duke Zhao is on the left and Mu Gong is on the right (左昭右穆 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, in “The 12th Year of Duke Xiang” : “What the Son of Heaven agrees, I also agree; and what the Son of Heaven opposes, I also oppose (天子所左 , 寡君亦左之 ;所右 ,亦右之 )” . Character guo (輠 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, to be huguo qie-pronounced, it is a noun, such as “Like grease can of the cart, the speech is fluent and funny, like that the can contains the grease constantly (車盛膏器 , 炙輠者 ,言言之不盡 ,如輠之常有膏也 ) 29” . It is also of chi-ma (尺馬 ) qiepronounced30, to be an external verb, with the meaning of rotating, in “Za Ji”: “(On one occasion) Shusun Wushu, when going to court, saw a wheelwright put his staff  through the nave of a wheel, and turn it round. After this (it was made a rule that) only men of rank should carry a staff (叔孫武叔朝 ,見輪人以其杖關轂而輠輪 )” . It referred to inserting a rod into the nave to rotate the wheel. Character xia (下 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of descending. Character xie (瀉 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of dredging, in The Rites of Zhou: “Dredge water by way of Hui River (以澮瀉水 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, to be si-ye qie-pronounced, it is an adjective, with the meaning of saline-alkali, in Lun Heng: “If there is no vegetation, it is saline-alkali land (地無毛 ,則爲瀉土 )” . It also means vomiting and diarrhoea, which is an internal verb. Character yang (仰 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of looking up. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of depending on, supporting, in “Ping Zhun Shu” : “Both food and clothing depend on the supply from county government official (衣食仰給縣官 )” . 28

僕 (fù), means falling down. Zhi guo ( 炙輠 ), in the “Bie Lu” by Liu Xiang quoted in “Biographies of Mengzi and Xun Qing” of Records of the Grand Historian: “The Guo is the can to contain grease in a cart. Although being baked exhausted, there is still residue, eg. the wisdom of Chunyu Kun is not exhausted, just like baking the pan ( 輠者 , 車子盛膏器也。炙之雖盡 , 猶有餘流者 , 言淳于髠智不盡 , 如炙輠也 )”. Chunyu Kun was born in Qi in the Warring States Period, who was funny and wise. 30 Chi-ma qie-pronounced, should be “Hu-wa qie-pronounced”, which is is mistaken due to the similar shapes. 29

540

Appendix

Character fang (放 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of arriving, in Mencius: “Flowing onto the four seas (放乎四海 )” “come to Langye (放於琅邪 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of exiling, in The Book of Documents: “Exile Huan Dou at Chongshan (放驩兜於崇山 )” . Character shang (上 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of rising, in The Book of Changes: “The cloud rises to the sky (雲上於天 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an adjective, in The Book of Changes: “Things that draw their origin from heaven move towards what is above (本乎天者親上 )” . Character qing (請 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of begging and calling on, in “Qu Li” : “When asking the teacher for questions in the book, one should stand up (請業則起 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, eg., 春朝秋請 31. Character shou (首 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun, in The Book of Changes: “Qian is the head (乾爲首 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, zishou (自首 ) is an external verb, and shouxiang (首向 ) is an internal verb, in “Yu Zao” : “The regular place for a gentleman was exactly opposite the door. He slept with his head to the east (君子之居恒當户 ,寢恒東首 )” . Character hou (後 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective, and it is also used as a noun, in “The 2nd Year of Duke Huan”: “Zangsun Da shall have posterity in Lu (臧孫達其有後于魯乎 )?” When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being behind, in Laozi: “As for those who put themselves last, others put them first. As for those who put themselves below others, others raise them up. (自後者 ,人先之 )” . In The Analects of Confucius: “In serving your ruler, your devotion to duty should come before any consideration of your salary. (事君敬其事而後其食 )” . Character zou (走 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of moving; in “Biography of Sima Qian”: “Running errands as cattle and horses (太史公牛馬走 )” ; in “Da Bin Xi” by Ban Gu: “I surely am unfit to be extraneously inserted into this list of men (走亦不任廁技於 彼列 )” . The two zous (走 ) meaning pu (僕 ) are nouns. When being pronounced as falling tone, with the meaning of walking fast, it is also an internal verb, in The Book of Songs: “And some, drawn by his rapid success (予曰有奔走 )” . In Mencius: “Throw away their armor and trail their weapons behind them (棄甲曳 兵而走 )” . Character you (右 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an adjective. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb. It is similar as Character zuo [左 (left)]. Character yin (飲 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is an internal verb, in The Rites of Zhou: “Drink six kinds of clear liquids (飲用六 31

春朝秋請 , refers to a system in the Han Dynasty, for princes and ministers meeting the royal in the court, it is called “chao ( 朝 )” in spring and “qing ( 請 )” in autumn. In addition, the yan ( 延 ) is the same as the qing ( 請 ).

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs

541

清 )” . When being pronounced falling-rising tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of giving somebody a drink, in “Tan Gong” : “Pour out a cup and give it to me (酌而飲寡人 )” . Character zhen (枕 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a noun. When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of resting head on, in The Analects of Confucius: “Sleep on a bent arm as the pillow (曲肱而枕之 )” . Character lan (濫 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it is a name of spring, in Erya: “Lan means that water is coming out (濫 ,水正出 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of float,  in “Jiayu” : “Its source can float a wine cup (其源可以濫觴 )” . It also means a high-flown statement inconsistent with the facts. Character shuai (帥 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the general and marshal. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, in The Book of Changes: “Make the eldest son to lead the troop (長子帥師 )” . Character ci (刺 ): Composing of 刀 and 朿 , when being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of hurting straightly; there is also the cishi (刺史 (provincial governor)), referring to an official title; and touci (投 刺 ), referring to card, all of which are nouns. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is also an external verb, with the meaning of sewing, in “Biographies of Merchants” : “Sticking the needle in rich embroideries cannot be compared to getting a favorable place at the market gate (刺綉文 ,不如倚市門 )” . It also means investigating, in “The Biography of Duke Dan” : “Investigated secretly matters of the Court (陰刺候朝廷事 )” It also means driving, in “The Records of Prime Minister Chen Ping” : “Therefore, Ping drove the boat to go (平乃刺船而去 )” . In view of character ci (剌 ): Composing of 朿 , being pronounced as entering tone, lang-da qie-pronounced, it is an adjective, with the meaning of being perverse, in “Du Qin Biography” : “There is no perverse mind (無乘剌之心 )” . It also means the method of posthumous title, i.e., being violent without relatives is called ci. In view of ba ci (拔剌 ), being pronounced from zhanggong (張弓 ); and baci (跋剌 ), being pronounced from yu yue (魚躍 ), both are adverbial modifiers. Character shi (識 ): When being pronounced as falling-rising tone, it means recording, in The Book of Documents: “Writing is used to remember (書用識哉 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it means acquaintance, in “The 29th Year of Duke Xiang” : “like old acquaintance (如舊相識 )” . Both are external verbs. Character shi (食 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, in The Analects of Confucius: “There is wine and food (有酒食 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb. Character ji (積 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of storing and accumulating, in The Book of Songs: “He reared his ricks, and filled his granaries (乃積乃倉 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of gathering, in The Book of Changes: “accumulates the small developments of it till it is high and great (積小以高大 )” . Character chu (出 ): In “Zhengyun” : “Where anything comes out itself, it is of

542

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entering tone; and if it comes out but not by itself, it is of falling tone” . However, there are cases of mutual use, which is the difference between internal and external  verbs. In Erya “A male calls the son of his sister as chu (出 )” , it is of entering tone, to be a noun. Character die (咥 ): Being xu-ji qie-pronounced, when pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of laughing, in The Book of Songs: “My brothers will not know all this, and will only laugh at me. (兄弟不知 ,咥其笑矣 )”. When being pronounced as entering tone, to be tu-jie qie-pronounced, it is an external verb, with the meaning of biting, in The Book of Changes: “One treading on the tail of a tiger, which does not bite him. There will be progress and success. (履虎尾 ,不咥人 ,亨 )” . Character du (度 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of legal system. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of planning, measuring. Character cuo (厝 ): When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of placing, in “Jia Yi Biography” : “put a fire under a pile  of faggots (夫抱火厝之積薪之下 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of gravel, in The Book of Songs: “It can be used to polish gravel (可以攻厝 )” . Character cuo (錯 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of placing, in The Book of Changes: “To place the things on the ground might be considered sufficient (苟錯諸地則可矣 )” . In “The Introduction of the Zhou Dynasty from the Historical Records” : “Criminal codes fell into disuse for more than forty years (刑錯四十餘年不用 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, such as “cuoza, cuoluan, cuozong and cuowu (錯雜、錯亂、錯綜、錯誤 )” ; for cuodao (錯刀 ), in Shuowen Jiezi: “Golden painting” . Character qie (切 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, sounding qi (砌 ), it is a character of pronoun, with the meaning of crowd; there is also yi qie (一切 ), with the meaning of generally speaking. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of cun [刌 (cutting)]32, in “The Pattern of the Family” : “Cutting thin piece of meat is called kuai (膾 ) (聶而切之爲膾 )” . Character hua (畫 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it has the meaning of drawing a picture. When being pronounced as entering tone, it means drawing the line. Both are external verbs. Character sha (殺 ):When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an adjective, in “Li Qi” : “Be neither extravagant nor thrifty (不豐不殺 ) 33” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of killing. Character he (喝 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it means choking, in “The Dou Xian Biography” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty: “Dou Xian was choking, unable to reply (憲陰喝不能對 )” . When being pronounced 32

Cun ( 刌 ) means to cut open with a knife. 不豐不殺 , the “sha ( 殺 )” is the antonym of “feng ( 豐 )”, with the meaning of less, reducing, and saving.

33

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs

543

as entering tone, it means fulminating, in “Discourse of the State” : “Bluffing and  intimidating threat (恫疑虚喝 )” . When being pronounced as falling and entering tones, both are internal verbs. Character sai (塞 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of border, in “Yue Ling” : “In the first month of winter, the fieldboundaries are strengthened; the frontiers are well secured (孟冬備邊界 ,完要塞 )”. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of filling and partition, in “Yue Ling” : “There is no intercommunication of heaven and  earth. All is shut up and winter is completely formed. (天地不通 ,閉塞而成冬 )” . Character yue (約 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of the covenant, in “Treatise on Rites and Music” : “Ming de xiang, zhi ben yue (明德鄉 ,治本約 Express the place of virture, and handle political appointment)34 ” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of binding; and there is also yue ji (約劑 ), with the meaning of text in the agreement; Character le (樂 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of enjoying, in The Analects of Confucius: “The benevolent love mountains (仁者樂山 )” , and: “There are three kinds of joy that lift you up (益者 三樂 )”. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is a noun, which is the general name of sound and voice. Moreover, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of happiness, in Mencius: “have the people’s pleasure as you have yours (與民同樂 )”. Character jiao (較 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of comparing; and it is also an adverbial modifier, being  more obviously; in “Kong Xian Biography” : “It is very obvious (較然甚明 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is a noun, with the meaning of bent copper component in the cart, in The Book of Songs: “There he is in his chariot with its two high sides (猗重較兮 )35” . Character jue ( 覺 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of waking up, in The Book of Songs: “I wish I might sleep and never wake more. (尚寐無覺 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of understanding, in Mencius: “Those who are first informed should instruct those who are later informed (使先知覺後知 )” . Character bei (背 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, to be bu-mei qiepronounced and bu-pronounced cu (促 ), it is a noun, with the meaning of the 34

“明德鄉 , 治本約”, the explanation here “the covenant” is based on the note “the covenant with ministers and people” by Fu Qian in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, and being pronounced as falling tone is based on the note by Yan Shigu, both of which are not appropriate. In The Supplementary Note for Historical Records of the Han Dynasty by Wang Xianqian:“The note by Yang (Yang Liang) in Xunzi: ‘xiang ( 鄉 ) is pronounced as xiang ( 向 )’; In Guangya: ‘Yue( 約), means less’. If the King has good morality, the crowd will support him; the foundation of ruling does not lie in the quantity of governance ( 圖治之本 , 所操不在多也 )”. According to this, the yue “約” in Historical Records of the Han Dynasty is still pronounced as entering tone, but should not be pronounced as falling tone. 35 Yi ( 猗 ), the word of sighing for beauty.

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back. It also means the north of house, in The Book of Songs: “I would plant it on the north of my house.(言樹之背 )” . It is also bo-mei qie-pronounced, and bo-pronounced shu (舒 ), to be external verbs, with the meaning of violating and abandoning. in The Book of Documents: “Heretofore I turned my back on the instructions of you, my tutor and guardian (既往背師保之訓 )” . This is to use differently based on the shu cu (舒促 )36 of the pronunciation. Character bao (暴 ):When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an adjective, “Dared to exercise cruel oppression (敢行暴虐 )37” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of drying by the sun, in Mencius: “expose them to a day of heat (一日暴之 )38” . Character mao (冒 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of covering; and it also means pretending, in “Wei Qing Biography” : “Assume a surname of Wei (冒姓衛氏 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an adjective, with the meaning of being greedy, in “The 31st Year of Duke Zhao” : “Greedy people (貪冒之民 )” . Also there is mao du (冒頓 ), with the same pronunciation. Character ji (藉 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of sacrifice mats, in The Book of Songs: “He places mats made of white weed (藉用白茅 )39”. There are also pingjie [憑藉 (relying on)] and weijie [慰藉 (consoling)], to be external verb; and yunjie [藴藉 (implicit)] is an adjective. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an adverbial modifier, with the meaning of confusion, the appearance of disorder, in Collected Biographies of Dukes of Jiang Du: “Criticism and blame continued unabated in the country, and therefore he decided not to return to Jiangdu again (國中口語藉藉 ,無復至江都 )”. There is also ji tian (藉田 ), with the same pronunciation. Character she (射 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, in Shuowen Jiezi “The crossbow is sent from the body and hit the target far away (弩發於身而中於遠也 )” ; and in “The Meaning of the Ceremony of Archery” : “Therefore, anciently, the son of Heaven chose the feudal lords, the dignitaries who were Great officers, and the officers, from their skill in archery. Archery is  specially the business of male (古者天子以射選諸侯、卿、大夫、士。射者 ,男 子之事 )” . In The Analects of Confucius: “In archery, putting the arrow through the target should not count as points40” . There is also pushe (僕射 ), which is an official title. When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, in The Analects of Confucius: “He shot, but not at birds perching (弋不射宿 )” . In addition, in The Book of Songs: “Unweariedly he maintained his virtue (無射亦 36

Shu cu ( 舒 促 ), the so-called shu cu here, actually refers to fully voiced pronunciation of consonant and compound vowel of the heavy labial sound; and so-called cu refers to the fully unvoiced bang consonant of the heavy labial sound. 37 This is cited from The Book of Documents. 38 一日暴之 , the “pu ( 暴 )” is the ancient version of “pu [ 曝 (exposure)]”. 39 Jie ( 藉 ), the mat with sacrifices placed on, here it is used as a verb. “藉用白茅” is the text in The Book of Changes, but not in The Book of Songs. 40 “射不主皮”, is the text The Analects of Confucius. 主皮 , refers to requiring penetrating the leather.

Distinguishing the Pronunciations of Verbs

545

保 )” , it is an adjective, which means to be tired. Character chu (畜 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun, in “The 19th Year of Duke Xi” : “The six domestic animals were not used at the same sacrifice (古者六畜不相爲用 )” . Comment: “Animals raised are called chu (畜 ), and animal used are called sheng (牲 )” . When being pronounced as entering tone, to be xu-liu qie-pronounced, it is a noun, with the same meaning as the falling tone, in “The 6th Year of Duke Huan” : “It is said that his animals are huge and fertile (謂其畜之碩大蕃滋也 )” . In addition, in “Qu Li” : “When one asks about the wealth of a common man, the reply should be given by telling the number of the animals that he keeps (問庶人之富 ,數畜以對 )” . The two chus (畜 ) are both commented as entering tones. It is also of chou-liu qie-pronounced, to be external verb, with the meaning of accumulating. In “Yue Ling” : “Orders are given to the proper officers to be urgent with the people, and to finish receiving  their contributions and storing them (中秋之月 ,乃命有司 ,趣民收斂 ,務畜菜 )” . In “Nei Ze” : “A son and his wife should have no private goods, nor animals (子 婦無私貨 ,無私畜 )” . It also means stopping, in Mencius: “Is it a fault to restrain one’ s prince? (畜君何尤 )?” It is also xu-liu qie-pronounced, to be an external verb, with the meaning of raising, in The Book of Changes: “The superior man, in accordance with this, nourishes and educates the people (君子以容民畜衆 )” . In “The Conduct of the Scholar” : “It is easy to pay him, but difficult to retain him  (易禄而難畜也 )” . In view of the “da xu (大畜 )” and “xiao xu (小畜 )” , they are names of divinatory symbols, with the meaning of cessation, which are chou-liu qie pronounced. Character fu (伏 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of birds incubating eggs, in “The treatise of the Five Elements” : “A cock in family Shi in Prime Minister’ s office is incubating eggs (丞相府史家 雄鷄伏子 )” . When being pronounced as falling tone, is an internal verb, with the meaning of laying down, in “Qu Li” : “Not laying down when sleeping (寢毋伏 )” . Character dou (讀 ): When being pronounced as falling tone, it is a noun. Where the text of classics works comes to the end, it is called the sentence; before the text is not ended, adding a symbol to it for the convenience of reciter, it is called dou (讀 ). When being pronounced as entering tone, it is an external verb, with the meaning of reading a book. Character yue (越 ): When being wang-fa qie-pronounced, it is an external verb, with the meaning of spending, crossing; and it is also the name of a country. When being hu-kuo qie-pronounced, it is a noun, in The Book of Rites: “ rush mats and coarse cloth are placed underneath (越席疏布 )” . In addition, the hole in the lower part of Chinese zither is called the yue (越 ). Character huo (活 ): When being hu-kuo qie-pronounced, it is an internal verb, with the meaning of living. When being gu-kuo qie-pronounced, it is an adverbial modifier, in The Book of Songs: “Flow northwards in majestic course (北流活活 bei liu guo guo)” . The guo here means the sound of water flowing. Character ba (拔 ): When being pu-ba qie-pronounced, it is an adjective, with the meaning of being fast, in “Smaller Rules of Demeanour” : “Do not pull up seedlings to help them grow (毋拔來 )” . In “Biography of Chen Xiang” : “Rise

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from farm land (拔起隴畝之中 )” . When being pu-ba qie-pronounced, it is an external verb, with the meaning of pulling or drawing, in The Book of Changes: “not to be torn from his root (確乎其不可拔 )” . There is also: “Pull up a plant and the roots follow (拔茅茹 )” . Character bie (别 ): When being bi-lie qie-pronounced, it is a noun, with the meaning of documents, in The Rites of Zhou: “To sign tally-like contract (聽稱責 以傅别 )” . Note: “The bie [别 (tally-like contract)] has two copies, two families have one for each” . There is also da bie (大别 ), the name of a mountain. It is also the same as bian (辨 ), used as a noun. When being pronounced as bian (便 ), it is an external verb, with the meaning of parting. Character he (合 ): Being hou-ge qie-pronounced, it is an external verb, with the meaning of being the same, in The Book of Changes: “Maintain and gather harmony (保合太和 )” . In The Book of Songs: “Happy union with wife and children (妻子好合 )” . It also means meeting, in “Royal Regulations” : “Dukes who could not number 50 li square, were not admitted directly to the audiences of the son of Heaven (不能五十里者 ,不合於天子 )” . It also means gathering, in The Analects of Confucius: “When he began to accumulate some wealth, he said ‘this is truly an ideal fit.’ (始有 ,曰 :‘苟合矣’ )” . It also means replying, in “The 2nd Year of Lord Xuan” : “Reply and come together (既合而來奔 )” . It is an internal verb, with the meaning of being endless; it is also a noun, with the meaning of matching. In The Book of Songs: “A match make by god (天作之 合 )” . In “Biography of Merchants” : “All kinds of combination of tillow, seeding yeast, salt and fermented black bean (蘖麯鹽豉千合 )” Note: “It means that the four light, heavy, much and little factors are matched with each other)” . There are also “liu he (六合 )” and “yu he (宇合 )” , both are nouns. When being ge-he qiepronounced, it is specially a noun, in Lüli Zhi(《律曆志》): “(量者 ,龠、合、升、斗、 斛也 ,所以量多少也 ) Measurement units include yue, ge, sheng, dou and hu, used to measure the amount” .

Modern and Ancient Pronunciations of the Thirty-Six Phonetic Alphabets: A Comparative Chart ZHOU Mengxian

Character

Original pronunciation

Jian (見)

[k]*

Xi (溪)

[k ‘]

Qun (群)

Yi (疑)

[g]

[ŋ]

Current pronunciation

Condition of pronunciation differentiation

g[k]

Open, close

j[tɕ]

Flush, bring together

k[k ‘]

Open, close

q[tɕ ‘]

Flush, bring together

g[k]

Oblique tone, open, close

k[k ‘]

Level tone, open, close

j[tɕ]

Oblique tone, flush, bring  together

j[tɕ]

Level tone, flush, bring together

(o)[o] n[n]

Duan (端)

[t]

d[t]

Tou (透)

[t ‘]

t[t ‘]

Ding (定)

[d]

Ni (泥)

[n]

Minor, flush, bring together

d[t]

Oblique tone

t[t ‘]

Level tone

n[n] r[ʐ]

Minor

* Note: The one with [ ] is the international phonetic alphabet, and the one without is the Chinese pinyin alphabet. (o) [o] is the zero initial.

547

Appendix

548

Continued Character

Original pronunciation

Current pronunciation

Zhi (知)

[ȶ]

zh[tʂ]

Che (徹)

[ȶ ‘]

ch[tʂ ‘]

Cheng (澄)

[ȡ]

Niang (娘)

[ȵ]

Bang (幫)

[p]

b[p]

Pang (滂)

[p ‘]

p[p ‘]

Bing (並)

[b]

Ming (明)

[m]

m[m]

Fei (非)

[f]

f[f]

Fu (敷)

[f ‘]

f[f]

zh[tʂ]

Oblique tone

ch[tʂ ‘]

Level tone

n[n]

Minor

r[ʐ]

b[p]

Oblique tone

p[p ‘]

Level tone

Feng (奉)

[v]

f[f]

Wei (微)

[ɱ]

(o)[o]

Jing (精)

[ts]

Qing (清)

Cong (從)

Xin (心)

Xie (邪)

Niang (娘)

[ts ‘]

[dz]

[s]

[z]

[ȵ]

Condition of pronunciation differentiation

z[ts]

Open, close

j[tɕ]

Flush, bring together

c[ts ‘]

Open, close

q[tɕ]

Flush, bring together

z[ts]

Oblique tone, open, close

c[ts ‘]

Level tone, open, close

j[tɕ]

Oblique tone, flush, bring  together

q[tɕ ‘]

Level tone, flush, bring together

s[s]

Open, close

x[ɕ]

Flush, bring together

s[s]

Open, close

x[tɕ ‘]

Flush, bring together

c[ts ‘]

Level tone, open, close

q[tɕ ‘]

Minor, level tone, flush, bring  together

n[n] zh[tʂ ‘]

Zhao (照)

t[tɕ]

z[ts]

Minor

c[ts ‘]

Minor

Modern and Ancient Pronunciations of the Thirty-Six Phonetic Alphabets: A Comparative Chart 549

Continued Character

Original pronunciation

Current pronunciation

Condition of pronunciation differentiation

ch[tʂ ‘] Chuan (穿)

t[tɕ ‘]

c[ts ‘]

Minor

sh[ʂ]

Minor

sh[ʂ] Chuang (牀)

Shen (審)

[dʑ]

[ɕ]

zh[tʂ]

Oblique tone

ch[ts ‘]

Level tone

z[ts]

Minor

c[ts ‘]

Minor

s[s]

Minor

sh[ʂ] s[s]

Minor

sh[ʂ] Chan (禪)

[ʑ]

Xiao (暁)

[x]

Xia (匣)

[ɣ]

Ying (影)

[o]

Yu (喻)

[j]

Niang (娘)

[ȵ]

Lai (來)

[l]

Ri (日)

[ʑ]

ch[ʂ ‘] zh[ʂ]

Minor

h[x]

Open, close

x[ɕ]

Flush, bring together

h[x]

Open, close

x[ɕ]

Flush, bring together

o[o] o[o] r[ʐ]

Minor

n[n] l[l] r[ʑ] (o)[o]

Minor (er[er])

(Character Reform, February, 1962)

Chart of the Use of Four Tones in Guangyun DAI Zhen

Upper level tone

Falling-rising tone

Falling tone

Entering tone

Dong (東)I Used alone

Dong(董)I Used alone

Song (送)I Used alone

Wu (屋)I Used alone

Song (送)II Used alone

Wo (沃)II Used alone

Dong (冬)II For Dong(湩)and Used commonly with ( )，see the rhyme of Zhong (腫) Zhong (锺) Zhong (锺)III

Zhong (腫) II Used alone

Yong (用)III

Zhu (燭) III

Jiang (江)IV Used alone

Jiang(講)III Used alone

Jiang(绛)IV Used alone

Jue (覺)IV Used alone

Zhi (支)V Zhi(纸)IV Zhi(寘)V Used commonly with Used commonly with Used commonly with Zhi (脂)and Zhi(之) Zhi(旨)and Zhi(止) Zhi (至)and Zhi(志) Zhi (脂)VI

Zhi(旨)V

Zhi (至)VI

Zhi(之)VII

Zhi(止)VI

Zhi(志)VII

Wei(微)VIII

Wei(尾)VII

Wei(未)VIII

Yu (鱼)Ⅸ Used alone

Yu(语)VIII Used for speech

Yu(御)Ⅸ Used alone

Yu(虞)X Yu(麌)Ⅸ Yu(遇)X Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Mu (模) Lao (姥) Mu (暮) Mu (模)XI

Lao (姥)X

Mu (暮)XI

550

Chart of the Use of Four Tones in Guangyun

551

Continued Upper level tone

(齊)XII

Falling-rising tone

(薺)Ⅺ Used alone

Jia (佳)XIII Xie (蟹)XII Commonly used with Commonly used with Jie (皆) Hai (骇) Jie (皆)XIV

Hai (骇)XIII

Falling tone

Entering tone

(霽)Ⅻ Commonly used with Ji(祭) Ji(祭)XIII Tai (泰)XIV Used alone Gua (卦)XV Commonly used with Guai (怪)and Guai(夬) Guai (怪)XVI Guai(夬)XVII

Hui (灰)XV Hui(贿)XIV Dui (隊)XVIII Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Hai (咍) Hai (海) Dai (代) Dai (代)XIX Hai (咍)XVI Zhen (真)XVII Commonly used with Zhun (諄)and Zhen(臻) Zhun (諄)XVIII

Hai (海)XV

Fei (廢)XX Used alone

Zhen(軫)XVI Zhen(震)XXI Zhi (質)V Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Zhun (凖) Zhun (稕) Shu (術)and Zhi(櫛) Zhen(

)XVII

Zhun (稕)XXII

Shu (術)VI

Zhen(臻)XIX

Zhi(齔)refers to Yin (隠) rhyme

Zhi(齔)refers to Xin(焮)rhyme

Zhi(櫛)VII

Wen (文)XX Used alone

Wen(吻)XVIII Used alone

Wen(问)XXIII Used alone

Wu (物)VIII Used alone

Xin (欣)XXI Used alone

Yin (隠)XIX Used alone

Xin(焮)XXIV Used alone

Qi (讫)IX Used alone

Yuan (元)XXII Commonly used with Hun (魂) and Hen (痕)

Ruan (阮) XX Commonly used with Hun (混) and Hen(很)

Hun (魂)XXIII

Hun(混)XXI

Hun(慁)XXVI

Hen (痕)XXIV

Hen(很)XXII

Hen(恨)XXVII

Yuan (願)XXV Yue (月)X Commonly used with Commonly used with Hun (慁) and Mei (没) Hen (恨) Mei (没)XXI

Han (寒)XXV Han(旱)XXIII Han(翰)XXVIII He(曷)XII Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Huan (桓) Huan(緩) Huan(换) Mo (末)

Appendix

552

Continued Upper level tone

Falling-rising tone

Falling tone

Entering tone

Huan (桓)XXVI

Huan(緩)XXIV

Huan(换)XXIX

Mo (末)XIII

Shan (删)XXVII Shan (潸)XXV Jian (諫)XXX Xia (黠)XIV Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Shan (山) Chan (産) Jian (襇) Xia(鎋) Shan (山)XXVIII

Chan (産)XXVI

Jian (襇)XXXI

Xia(鎋)XV

Lower level tone

Falling-rising tone

Falling tone

Entering tone

Xian (先)I Xian(銑)XXVII Xian(霰)XXXII Xie (屑)XVI Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Xian(仙) Xian(獮) Xian(綫) Xue (薛) Xian(仙)II

Xian(獮)XXVIII

Xian(綫)XXXIII

Xue (薛)XVII

Xiao (蕭)III Xiao(筱)XXIX Xiao(嘨)XXXIV Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Xiao(宵) Xiao(小) Xiao(笑) Xiao(宵)IV

Xiao(小)XXX

Xiao(笑)XXXV

Yao (肴)V Used alone

Qiao (巧)XXXI Used alone

Xiao (效)XXXVI Used alone

Hao (豪)VI Used alone

Hao(皓)XXXII Used alone

Hao(號)XXXVII Used alone

Ge (歌)VII Ge (哿)XXXIII Ge(箇)XXXVIII Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Ge (戈) Guo(果) Guo(過) Ge (戈)VIII

Guo(果)XXXIV

Guo(過)XXXIX

Ma (麻)IX Used alone

Ma(馬)XXXV Used alone

Ma(禡)XL Used alone

Yang (陽)X Yang(養)XXXVI Yang(漾)XLI Yao (薬)XVIII Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Tang (唐) Dang (荡) Dang(宕) Duo (鐸) Tang (唐)XI

Dang (荡)XXXVII

Dang(宕)XLII

Duo (鐸)XIX

Geng (庚)XII Geng (梗)XXXVIII Ying (映)XLIII Mo (陌)XX Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Geng (耕)and Geng (耿)and Zheng (諍)and Mai (麥)and Xi (昔) Qing (清) Jing (静) Jin (勁) Geng(耕)XIII

Geng(耿)XXXIX

Zheng (諍)XLIV

Mai (麥)XXI

Qing (清)XIV

Jing (静)XL

Jin (勁)XLV

Xi (昔)XXII

Qing (青)XV Used alone

jiong(迥)XLI Used alone

Jing (徑)XLVI Used alone

Xi(锡)XXIII Used alone

Chart of the Use of Four Tones in Guangyun

553

Continued Lower level tone

Falling-rising tone

Falling tone

Entering tone

Zheng (蒸)XVI Zheng(抍)XLII Zheng(証)XLVII Zhi (職)XXIV Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Deng (登) Deng(等) Deng(嶝) De (德) Deng (登)XVII

Deng(等)XLIII

Deng(嶝)XLVIII

De (德)XXV

You (尤)XVIII You(宥)XLIX You(有)XLIV Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Hou (侯)and Hou (候)and Hou(厚)and You(黝) You (幽) You (幼) Hou (侯)XIX

Hou (厚)XLV

Hou (候)L

You (幽)XX

You(黝)XLVI

You(幼)LI

Qin (侵)XXI Used alone

Qin(寢)XLVII Used alone

Qin(沁)LII Used alone

Ji (缉)XXVI Used alone

Tan (覃)XXII Gan (感)XLVIII Kan (勘)LIII He (合)XXVII Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Tan(談) Gan(敢) Kan(阚) He(盍) Tan(談)XXIII

Gan(敢)XLIX

Kan(阚)LIV

He(盍)XXVIII

Yan (鹽)XXIV Yan(琰)L Yan(艶)LV Ye (葉)XXIX Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Tian (添) Tian(忝) Tian(㮇) Tie (帖) Tian (添)XXV

Tian(忝)LI

Tian(㮇)LVI

Tie (帖)XXX

Xian (咸)XXVI Xian(豏)LII Xian(陷)LVII Qia (洽)XXXI Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Xian(銜) Kan (檻) Jian (鑒) Xia (狎) Xian(銜)XXVII

Kan (檻)LIII

Jian (鑒)LVIII

Xia (狎)XXXII

Yan (嚴)XXVIII Yan(儼)LIV Yan(釅)LVIX Ye (業)XXXIII Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Commonly used with Fan (凡) Fan(範) Fan(梵) Fa (乏) Fan (凡)XXIX

Fan(範)LV

Fan(梵)LX

Fa (乏)XXXIV

(Studies on Consonants and Rhymes, Vol 2)

Peiwen Yunfu

Upper level tone I D o n g ( 東) I I D o n g ( 冬) I I I J i a n g ( 江) I V Z h i ( 支) V We i ( 微) VI Yu(鱼) VII Yu(虞) VIII Qi(齊) IX Jia(佳) X Hui(灰) XI Zhen(真) XII Wen(文) XIII Yuan(元) XIV Han(寒) XV Shan(删) Lower level tone I X i a n ( 先) I I X i a o ( 蕭) I I I Ya o ( 肴) I V H a o ( 豪) V G e ( 歌) VI Ma(麻) VII Yang(陽) VIII Geng(庚) IX Qing(青) X Zheng(蒸) XI You(尤) XII Qin(侵) XIII Tan(覃) XIV Yan(鹽) XV Xian(咸) Falling-rising tone I Dong(董) II Zhong(腫) III Jiang(講) IV Zhi(紙) V Wei(尾) VI Yu(語) VII Yu(麌) VIII Ji(薺) IX Xie(蟹) X Hui(賄) XI Zhen(軫) XII Wen(吻) XIII Ruan(阮) XIV Han(旱) XV Shan(潸) XVI Xian(銑) XVII Xiao(篠) XVIII Qiao(巧) XIX Hao(皓) XX Ge(哿) XXI Ma(馬) X X I I Ya n g ( 養) X X I I I G e n g ( 梗) X X I V J i o n g ( 迥) X X V Yo u ( 有) XXVI Qin(寢) XXVII Gan(感) XXVIII Jian(儉) XXIX Xian(豏) Falling tone I S o n g ( 送) I I S o n g ( 宋) I I I J i a n g ( 绛) I V Z h i ( 寘) V We i ( 未) VI Yu(御) VII Yu(遇) VIII Ji(霽) IX Tai(泰) X Gua(卦) XI Dui(隊) XII Zhen(震) XIII Wen(問) XIV Yuan(願) XV Han(翰) XVI Jian(諫) XVII Xian(霰) XVIII Xiao(嘨) XIX Xiao(效) XX Hao(號) XXI Ge(個) 554

Peiwen Yunfu

X X I I M a ( 禡) XXVI You(宥) Xian(陷)

555

X X I I I Ya n g ( 漾) X X I V J i n g ( 敬) X X V J i n g ( 徑) XXVII Qin(沁) XXVIII Kan(勘) XXIX Yan(艶) XXX

Entering tone I Wu(屋) II Wo(沃) III Jue(覺) IV Zhi(質) V Wu(物) VI Yue(月) VII Ye(曷) VIII Xia(黠) IX Xie(屑) X Yao(藥) XI Mo(陌) XII Xi(锡) XIII Zhi(職) XIV Ji(缉) XV He(合) XVI Ye(葉) XVII Qia(洽)

An Example of Dengyun Charts The First Chart of Finger-and-Plam Charts First division rimes

Level tone

见 (jian)

高 (gao) 交 (jiao) 驕 (xiao) 驍 (xiao)

溪 (xi)

Falling-rising tone 暠 (gao) 絞 (jiao) 矯 (jiao) 皎 (jiao)

Falling tone

Entering tone

告 (gao) 教 (jiao)○ 叫 (jiao)

各 (ge) 覺 (jiao) 脚 (jiao)○

尻 (kao) 考 (kao) 敲 (qiao) 巧 (qiao) 趫 (qiao) 鄡 (qiao) 鱎 (jiao) 䂪 (qiao)

𩝝 (kao) 敲 (qiao) 趬 (qiao) 竅 (qiao)

恪 (ke) 殻 (qiao) 却 (que) ○

群 (qun)

○○喬 (jiao) 翹 (qiao)

○○𨲭 (jiao)○

○○嶠 (jiao) 轎 ○○噱 (xue)○ (jiao)

疑 (yi)

敖 (ao) 聱 (ao) ○ 堯 (yao)

𦽀 (ao) 咬 (yao)○ 傲 (ao) 磽 (qiao) 樂 (le) 𧇠 (yao) 顤 (yao/qiao)

咢 (e) 嶽 (yue) 虐 (nue)○

端 (duan)

刀 (tɑu)○○ 貂 (tieu)

倒 (dao)○○ 鳥 (niao)

到 (dao)○○ 吊 (diao)

○○○○

透 (tou)

饕 (tao)○○ 祧 (tiao)

討 (tao)○○ 朓 (tiao)

韜 (tao)○○ 糶 (tiao)

托 (tuo)○○○

定 (ding)

淘 (tao)○○ 迢 (tiao)

道 (dɑo)○○ 窕 (tiao)

導 (dao)○○ 蓧 (diao)

鐸 (duo)○○○

泥 (ni)

猱 (nao)○○○

惱 (nao)○○ 嬲 (niao)

腝 (nao)○○○ 尿 (niao)

诺 (nuo)○○○

知 (ni)

○嘲 (chao) 朝 (zhao)○

○獠 (liao)○○

○罩 (zhao)○○ ○𣂪 (zhuo) 芍 (shao)○

徹 (che)

○䫸 (chao) 超 (chao)○

○○巐 (chao)○

○趠 (chuo) 朓 (tiao)○

○趧 (ti) 㲋 (chuo)○

澄 (cheng)

○䄻 (tao) 晁 (chao)○

○○肇 (zhao)○

○棹 (zhao) 召 (zhao)○

○濁 (zhuo) 著 (zhu)○

娘 (niang)

○鐃 (nao)○○

○㺒 (xiao)○○

○橈 (rao)○○

○搦 (nuo) 逽 (nuo)○

556

An Example of Dengyun Chart

557

Continued First division rimes

Level tone

Falling-rising tone

Falling tone

Entering tone

帮 (bang)

褒 (bao) 包 (bao) 鑣 (biao) 飆 (biao)

寳 (bao) 飽 (bao) 表 (biao) 褾 (biao)

報 (bao) 豹 (bao) 裱 (biao)○

博 (bo) 剥 (bo)○○

滂 (pang)

彙 (hui) 胞 (bao)○ 熛 (biao)

○○皫 (piao) 縹 (piao)

○炮 (pao) 剽 (piao)○

𩔈 (po) 璞 (pu)○○

并 (bing)

袍 (pao) 庖 (pao)○ 瓢 (piao)

抱 (bao) 鮑 (bao) 藨 (biao) 摽 (biao)

暴 (bao) 靤 (bao) 骠 (biao) ○

泊 (bo) 雹 (bao)○○

明 (ming)

毛 (mao) 茅 (mao) 苗 (miao) 𧌠 (piao)

兒 (er) 卯 (mao)○ 眇 (miao)

帽 (mɑo) 貌 (mao) 廟 (miao) 妙 (miao)

莫 (mo) 邈 (miao)○○

非 (fei)

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

敷 (fu)

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

奉 (feng)

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

微 (wei)

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

精 (jing)

糟 (zao)○○ 焦 (jiao)

早 (zao)○○ 剿 (bo)

龜 (gui)○○ 醮 (jiao)

作 (zuo)○○ 爵 (jue)

清 (qing)

操 (cao)○○ 鍬 (qiao)

草 (cao)○○ 悄 (qiao)

操 (cao)○○ 陗 (qiao)

錯 (cuo)○○ 鹊 (que)

从 (cong)

曹 (cao)○○ 樵 (qiao)

皂 (zao)○○○

漕 (cao)○○ 噍 (jiao)

昨 (zuo)○○ 嚼 (jiao)

心 (cong)

骚 (sao)○○ 萧 (xiao)

嫂 (sao)○○ 𥴽 (xiao)

喿 (zao)○○ 嘯 (xiao)

索 (suo)○○ 削 (xue)

邪 (xie)

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

○○○○

照 (zhao)

○𦗔 (zhao) 昭 (zhao)○

○爪 (zhua) 沼 (zhao) ○

○抓 (zhua) 照 (zhao)○

○捉 (zhuo) 灼 (zhuo)○

穿 (chuan)

○䜈 (zhao/chao) ○煼 (chao) 怊 (chao)○ 𪍑 (chao)○

○鈔 (chao)○○ ○娖 (chuo) 綽 (chuo)○

Appendix

558

Continued First division rimes

Level tone

床 (chuang)

○巢 (chao)○○

○䰫肇 (zhao)○

○巢 (chao)○○ ○浞 (zhuo)○○

审 (shen)

○梢 (shao) 燒 (shao)○

○ 少 (shao)○

○稍 (shao) 少 (shao)○

禅 (chan)

○○韶 (shao)○

○○绍 (shao)○

○○邵 (shao)○ ○○妁 (shuo)○

影 (ying)

䥝 (ao) 䫜 (ao) 妖 (yao) 幺 (yao)

襖 (ao) 拗 (ao) 夭 (yao) 窅 (yao)

奥 (ao) 𩉷 (yao)○ 要 (yao)

晓 (xiao)

蒿 (hao) 虓 (xiao) 嚣 (xiao) 膮 (xiao)

好 (hao)○○ 晓 (xiao)

耗 (hao) 孝 (xiao)○

匣 (xia)

豪 (hao) 肴 (yao)○○

皓 (hao) 泶 (xue)○ 皛 (xiao)

號 (hao) 效 (xiao)○○

涸 (he) 学 (xue)○○

喻 (yu)

○○鴞 (xiao) 遥 (yao)

○○○鷕 (yao)

○○○耀 (yao)

○○○樂 (le)

来 (lai)

勞 (lao) 顟 (lao) 燎 (liao) 聊 (liao)

老 (lao)○○ 瞭 (liao)

嫪 (lao)○ 落 (luo) 尞 (liao) 𩕐 (liao) 犖 (luo) 略 (lue)○

日 (ri)

○○饒 (rao)○

○○擾 (rao)○

○○饒 (rao)○

○○若 (ruo)○

rhyme

豪肴宵宵萧

皓巧小小

效笑笑啸

鐸觉樂樂

(open)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Falling-rising tone

Falling tone

(1)(2)(3)(4) refer to the first, second, third and the fourth division rimes

Entering tone

○朔 (shuo) 爍 (shuo)○

恶 (e) 握 (wo) 约 (yue)○

㕰 (xue) 謔 (xue)○

Author’s Preface to Investigation of Ancient Pronunciation in the Mao Odes Chen Di1

Poetry is used to conduct edification by means of sound. It can be sung, chanted,  signed with long words and even can make people immersive in it without being conscious. Besides, it has its own functions, including reclaiming people, reflecting reality, inspiring people, and criticizing bad politics. All these also work  in governing a family or a country. You also can learn about the names of birds, animals, and plants from it; therefore, this is why the poetry exists. If its meaning is profound but not harmonious with the rhyme, it is nothing but text. Therefore, articles of scholars must have syllables; and slang songs in the field also have harmonic sounds; how can it be that ancient poetry has no rhythm alone? This paragraph says that poetry is a text with musicality. Only musicality can stimulate the emotion of readers, and one of the important factors of musicality is the use of rhyme. Therefore, ancient poems are all texts with a rhythm. This paragraph is organized well based on two old sayings: The one is from “Da Xu” of The Book of Songs: When people have feelings, they have to express them in words, contemplation, singing to express them, and even dance, all of which have a natural rhythm and rhyme. The other is “Yang Huo” of The Analects of Confucius: Inspired by poems, people can feel encouraged. It helps deal with relations between people well and study Chinese, and know something famous. That is the function of poetry.2

1

Chen Di, courtesy name Jili, born in Lianjiang of the Ming Dynasty, authored Investigation of Ancient Pronunciation in the Mao Odes(《毛詩古音考》) and Meaning of Ancient Pronunciation in Works of Qu Yuan and Song Yu(《屈宋古音義》). The study on knowledge of ancient pronunciation started from Gu Yanwu. In fact, Gu Yanwu was also inspired by Chen Di. Two methods of “assertive evidence and collateral evidence” used in Investigation of Ancient Pronunciation in the Mao Odes had been especially used by later scholars. 2 Change and variation.

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As time and space change, it is inevitable that both characters and their pronunciation change. Therefore, reading ancient articles with their modern pronunciation is unavoidably guaila (乖剌 )3 and inconsistent; therefore all of them are classed into ye(叶 )4 If ye is the cause of inconsistency and ridiculousness and works were not written by only one person and were not collected in only one state, why mu (母 ) must be pronounced as mi (米 ), either rhyming qi (杞 ) and rhyming zhi (止 ), or rhyming zhi (祉 ) rhyming xi (喜 )? Ma (馬 ) must be pronounced as mu (姥 ), not the rhymes zu (組 ) and rhyme fu (黼 ), but lü (旅 ) and fu (土 )? Jing (京 ) must be pronounced as jiang (疆 ), not the rhymes tang (堂 ) and jiang (將 ), but chang (常 ) and wang (王 )? Fu (福 ) must be pronounced as bi (偪 ), not the rhymes yi (食 ) and yi (翼 ), but de (德 ) and yi (億 )5? These kinds6 of examples are actually too many to be listed completely7. Its rules and regulations are so strict, and it is exclusive to Tangyun (《唐韻》)8, so why is this? In view of three hundred poems of The Book of Songs, this paragraph said that ancient poems had their own original pronunciation, but no so-called “xieyun (叶 韻 , harmonious rhythm)” . It is the so-called “assertive evidence” later to prove the pronunciation of The Book of Songs by using the materials of The Book of Songs itself. It should be noted here that, the rhyme used in poems and verses is also called xieyun, which is generally called xieyun; but the so-called “xie (“叶” is interchangeable with “协” , meaning harmonious)” , advocated by Zhu Xi and opposed by Chen Di, is xieyun with the special meaning. The two must be clearly distinguished. In addition, in Commentary of Zuo, Discourses of the States “Biography of 3 La ( 剌 ) here is pronounced as the one in “阿剌伯”(the transliteration of Arab), and guaila ( 乖剌 ) is being ridiculous and inconsistent. 4 Ye ( 叶 ) is a saying about the pronunciation of three hundred poems of The Book of Songs in Commentaries on The Book of Songs(《詩集傳》) by Zhu Xi. When seeing that the pronunciation of some characters in the poem at that time was not in the same rhyme section as that of other characters next to them, he changed the pronunciation of these characters to make them be the same rhyme as the characters next to them, which is called “ye ( 叶 )”. 5 Here Chen Di took The Book of Songs as an example to prove that the theory of xieyun is not credible. The opinion of Chen Di is that mu ( 母 ) is pronounced as mi ( 米 ), ma ( 馬 ) as mu ( 姥 ), jing ( 京 ) as jiang ( 疆 ) and fu ( 福 ) as bi ( 偪 ), all of which are not “xieyun” but the original pronunciation of The Book of Songs. “韵某” means that the characters of A and B have the same rhyme. “Mu ( 母 )” rhyming “qi ( 杞 )” is in “Jiangzhongzi” and “Di Du”, rhyming “zhi ( 止 )” in “Si Mu”, rhyming “zhi ( 祉 )” in “Yong ( 雝 )” and rhyming “xi ( 喜 )” in “Bi Gong ( 閟宫 )”. “Ma ( 馬 )” rhyming “zu ( 組 )” is in “Shu Yu Tian”, rhyming “fu ( 黼 )” in “Cai Shu”, rhyming “Lü ( 旅 )” in “You Ke” and rhyming “tu ( 土 )” in “Song Gao”. “Jing ( 京 )” rhyming “tang ( 堂 )” is in “Ding Zhi Fang Zhong”, rhyming “Jiang ( 將 )”in “Zheng Yue”, rhyming “chang ( 常 )” in “Wen Wang” and rhyming “wang ( 王 )” in “Xia Wu”. “Fu ( 福 )” rhyming “yi ( 食 )” is in “Tian Bao”, rhyming “yi ( 翼 )” in “Yuan Yang”, rhyming “de ( 德 )” in “Wen Wang” and “Ji Zui” and rhyming “yi ( 億 )” in “Jia Le”. 6 “Juelei ( 厥類 )” means “its class”. 7 “Dan ( 殚 )” means being complete, and “難以殫舉” “unable to be completely listed”. 8 “Buchi ( 不啻 )” means “not only”. It is said here that not only was the rhyme strict in Tangyun, but the rhyme of ancient poems was stricter than that in Tangyun.

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Xiang” in The Book of Changes, “Li Sao” in The Verse of Chu, Qin tablets, Han Fu, as well as ancient songs, verses, proverbs, inscriptions, eulogies, and chanting, It is found that rhyme in them is in conformity with that in The Book of Songs, which is the proof of ancient pronunciation. Someone said that three hundred poems of The Book of Songs is the source of the poetry, and later authors followed its rhymes9. Ancient pronunciation still existed mostly during the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but they were almost absent during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The famous Confucians of the Tang and Song Dynasties were very knowledgeable and liked to study ancient learning, so there were indeed cases where they occasionally used ancient rhymes and ancient pronunciations to write poetry to show off their knowledge. In view of pronouncing die (垤 ) as zhi (侄 ) to rhyme with ri (日 ), it is in the Yao Jie10; and pronouncing ming (明 ) as mang (芒 ) to rhyme with liang (良 ), it is in the Gao Tao Ge11; both of which were before The Book of Songs, what did they imitate12? Moreover, pronouncing pi (皮 ) as po (婆 )13, it is in the folk song of laborers in the Song State; pronouncing qiu (邱 ) as qi (欺 ), it is the speech of children in the Qi State14; pronouncing hu (户 ) is as fu (甫 ), it is in folk ballad of the Chu State15; pronouncing qiu (裘 ) as ji (基 ), it is in the joke of dwarf of the Lu State16; pronouncing zuo (作 ) as zu (詛 ), it is in the speech of common people of 9 10

It said that the authors of Commentary of Zuo, Discourses of the States, The Verse of Chu, “Qin Steles” and “Han Rhapsodists” imitated the rhyme used in The Book of Songs, so they conformed to that in The Book of Songs, it shall not be considered that the rhyme in these works expresses the pronunciation of eras of those authors. 11 “Yao Jie”(《堯戒》): “顫顫慄栗，日謹一日 , 人莫躓於山 , 而躓於垤” (Be ginger, and be more cautious day by day. One will not trip over the mountain, but he can trip over small mound)”. 12 “Yiji”of The Book of Documents:“皋陶……乃賡載歌曰：元首明哉，股肱良哉，庶事康哉”(Gao Yao... therefore continued to sing that: The King is wise, ministers are worthy, and all things are stable)”. 13 Fang ( 放 ) means to imitate. 14 During the Spring and Autumn Period, when Imperial Censor Hua Yuan lost a battle, laborers of Song State constructing the castle sang to laugh at him, saying that he sent troops out but lost all their armor. Hua Yuan replied to them that “牛则有皮，犀兕尚多，弃甲则那 ?” This means that, there are still more leathers of cattle and rhinoceroses for making armor, so what for abandoned armor? (“那” is “what then”, pronounced as “nuó”) Those laborers sang again: “從 ( 縱 ) 其有皮， 丹漆若何 ?” It means that, even if there is leather, there is a lack of red paint applied on the armor. This matter is seen in the “1st Year of Duke Zhao” of Commentary of Zuo. According to the harmonious rhyme of the two songs, pi ( 皮 ) has the same rhyme as he ( 何 ). 15 After the Chu State was destroyed by the Qin State, a man in the Chu State named Nan Gong said that “ 楚 雖 三 戶， 亡 秦 必 楚”(Although there are only three clans left in the Chu State, Qin State must be destroyed by Chu State). This saying spread among the people. See “Annals of Xiang Yu” in Records of the Grand Historian. 16 Zang He of the Lu State led his troop to invade Zhu, Hu Tai was defeated at Zhu. The people of the Lu State sang that“臧之狐裘，敗我於狐駘。我君小子，朱儒是使，朱儒朱儒，使我敗於邾”(Zang wore fox fur, and defeated us at in Hu Tai. Our King is a child, our envoy is a dwarf and the dwarf

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the Shu State17; pronouncing kou (口 ) as ku (苦 ), it is in the praise for Han Baiqu (Bai Canal in Han Dynasty)18; in addition, pronouncing jia (家 ) as gu (姑 ), it is in the divination of a Madam in the Qin State19; pronouncing huai (懷 ) as hui (回 ) is in the dream of Lu Shengbo20; pronouncing qi (旂 ) as jin (斤 ), it is in the omen that the Jin State destroyed the Guo State21; pronouncing gua (瓜 ) as hu (弧 ), it is

caused us to be defeated at Zhu). The dwarf is a pygmy, referring to Zang He. See “The 4th Year of Duke Xiang” of Commentary of Zuo. 17 In “Biography of Lian Fan” of Historical Records of the Later Han Dynasty, “廉范，字叔度…… 遷蜀郡太守。……成都民物豐盛，邑宇逼側，舊制禁民夜作，以防火災，而更相隱蔽，燒者日屬， 範乃毀削前令，但嚴使儲水而已。百姓為便，乃歌之曰：‘廉叔度，來何暮？不禁火，民安作， 平 生 無 襦 今 五 絝’ ”(Lian Fan, courtesy name Shudu…was appointed as Prefecture Chief of Shu Prefecture…Chengdu is rich in people and property; the city is crowded. The old decree prohibited people from working at night to prevent fire, but it was carried out more secretly, causing the daily  fire more frequently; therefore Lian Fan abolished the previous decree, but strictly order storing  water. Getting the convenience due to this, common people sang: “Uncle Lian Fan helped us, what about the night? Fire is not prohibited, so the people work at ease. I have no short jacket always but today I have five pairs of trousers.” [Ku ( 絝 ) is interchangeable with ku( 褲 ).] 18 During the Warring States Period, Zheng Guo, a hydraulic engineer constructed the Zhengguo Canal for Qin State, and during the Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty, Bai Gong, the Zhaozhong Imperial Censor, constructed the Bai Canal, which had a very large benefit in irrigating farmlands.  The people sang songs to praise these two projects: “田于何所？池阳谷口。郑国在前，白渠起后。 举臿如云，决渠为两。水流灶下，鱼跃入釜。泾水一石，其泥数斗，且溉且粪，长我禾黍。 衣食京师，亿万之口”(Where is the farmland? It is at the mouth of Chiyang Valley. Zheng Guo Canal is the first, followed by Bai Canal. Shovels lifted ( 臿 ) (same as 锸 ) were like the cloud full of the sky, and the canal was like the rain to nourish farmlands. One dan ( 石 ) of water from Jing River contains several dous ( 斗 ) of soil. To irrigate and fertilize (because there is sludge in water, it can also fertilize the farmland with irrigation), make our crops grow. The clothing and foods produced can support the people of hundreds of millions in the Capital”. See Historical Records of the Han Dynasty. 19 When Duke Xian of Jin married his daughter to the Qin State, he performed divination, and the oracle inscription said that “Returned girl is not harmonious, and the enemy will come. The nephew will follow her aunt flee away from her country for six years; and abandon her home; next year she  will die at the Xu (ruin) of Gaoliang”. See “The 15th Year of Duke Xiang” of Commentary of Zuo. 20 In “The 17th Year of Duke Cheng” of Commentary of Zuo: “Sheng Bo dreamed to cross the Huan River, someone gave him fine jade, he ate it, to burst into tears, and tears became fine jade, to be full  of his arms”. Therefore, he sang: “When crossing Huan River, he gave me fine jade. Return, return,  the fine jade full of in my arms”. 21 Xian Gong of the Jin State attacked Guo State, and Guo Yan, the Divination Imperial Censor of the Jin State, said that Jin could conquer the Capital of the Guo State because children’s folk at that time said that “丙之晨，龙尾伏辰，均服振振，取虢之旂。鹑之贲贲，天策炖炖，火中成军， 虢公其奔”[In the morning of the Bingzi days(the thirteenth day of the sexagenary cycle calendar), the Longwei star was hidden due to shining of sunrise. All soldiers wore military uniform with sharp and smart appearance and they are ready for conquering Guo state. Chunhuo star is brilliant while Tiance star is glooming. Organize armies under the Chunhuo star and the governor of the Guo state is doomed to be defeated and escape]. See “The 5th Year of Duke Xi” of Commentary of Zuo.

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in the a clamour of Liangfu in the Wei State22; these cases existed in villages and sages and common people, occurred in the dream and divination, how could they have the time to imitate in a hurry, as if later poets determined the rhyme? These two paragraphs explain the original pronunciations of three hundred pieces of The Book of Songs, which can be proved not only by The Book of Songs itself but also by other ancient works such as Commentary of Zuo and Discourses of the States, which is the so-called “collateral evidence” . The second paragraph refutes the idea of huoren (“Huo” means “someone” , which is called “huoren” (或人 ) in classical Chinese) that, someone believed in Commentary of Zuo and Discourses of the States, etc., later generations imitated the rhyme used in The Book of Songs instead of original pronunciation, and listed 15 pieces of evidence, all of which wants to show that in these sentences, some are oracle inscriptions used for the divination, some are sung by children and some are folk songs. It is impossible to intentionally imitate The Book of Songs, but to express the actual situation of the language at that time. I was taught The Book of Songs by the family in my childhood, and pay attention to this for sake of my interests. In my later years, I lived alone at sea, so I have nothing to do with marriage or funerals. I am neither familiar with regulated verse, quatrains, and modern style poetry; nor far away from the ancient tune and ancient style; I only read the three hundred poems every day and night. although I could not be in totally immersive in poems and figure out the meaning of ancients,  my feeling no matter happy or sad can be expressed by reading The Book of Songs. I was also afraid that my son and nephew would learn The Book of Songs but could not know the ancient pronunciation, so I studied a little to list two pieces of assertive evidence and collateral evidence. The assertive evidence is the selfevidence of The Book of Songs. The collateral evidence is the one taken from other books. If neither method can explain the pronunciation, then the pronunciation of a word is indirectly proved by heterogeneous, homophone, or rhyming words. Whatever method is taken, it is only for the convenience of singing or chanting. For today’ s poems, the ancient rhythm is unnecessary to be used; However, when reading ancient poems, how can one not master the ancient rhythm? Alas! If you think words in ancient times and modern times have the same meaning and pronunciation and try to figure out what ancients said in what you guess, the lessons from ancients will be close to you not to ancients. If you use today’ s knowledge of rhyme to reason ancients’ recognition of rhyme, their recognition will be influenced by today’ s. To harmonize the pronunciation of the ancient with  my pronunciation, its rhythm is not far away. not studied in detail, so I beg the correction with this to wise gentlemen. The most important words in this paragraph are “I am worried about the confusion of ancient and modern pronunciation. sticking to modern pronunciation 22

Hun Liangfu of the Wei State was killed, although he should not be killed. “Duke Zhuang of Wei” dreamed that someone climbed high to make a clamor: “Climb up the Kunwu Mountain, and there are melons growing. I am Hun Liangfu, claiming my innocence to the heaven”. See “The 17th Year of Duke Ai” of Commentary of Zuo.

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without understanding the ancient pronunciation, if this is the case, will widen the gap between modern and ancient words.” “是今非古” means sticking to the meaning and pronunciation in modern times and negating those in ancient. “執” and “泥” mean “be stubborn to do something” and “stick to something.” In general, it says people stick to the pronunciation of modern words and don’ t know how to read poems in ancient pronunciations. Therefore, the gap between modern and ancient words will be wider and wider.

Table of the Correspondence Between the 22 Divisions of Ancient Rhymes and the 206 Divisions in Guangyun

Ancient rhyme section Zhi (之)

Rhyme sections in Guangyun Level

Falling-rising

Falling

Entering

Zhi (之) Hai (咍) Zhi (止) Hai (海) Zhi (志) Dai (代) Ting (職) De (德) Hui (灰) You (尤) Hui (賄) You (有) Dui (隊) You (宥) Wu (屋) (partial) (partial) (partial) (partial)

You (尤)You (幽) You (有)You (黝) You (宥)You (幼) Wo (沃) (half) You (幽) Xiao (蕭) Yao (肴) Xiao (篠) Qiao (巧) Xiao (嘨) Xiao (效) Wu(屋) Jue (覺) Xi Hao (豪)(half) Hao (皓)(half) Hao (號)(half) (錫) (partial) Wo (沃) Yao (薬) Xiao (宵) Xiao (小) Xiao (笑) Duo (鐸) (half) Xiao (宵) Xiao (蕭) Yao (肴) Xiao (篠) Qiao (巧) Xiao (嘨) Xiao (效) Jue (覺) Xi (錫) Hao (豪)(half) Hao (皓)(half) Hao (號)(half) (partial) Hou (侯)

Hou (侯) Yu (虞)(half)

Hou (厚) Yu (虞) (half)

Hou (侯) Yu(遇) (half)

Du (獨) Wu (屋) Jue (覺) (partial)

Yu (鱼)

Yu (鱼) Mu (模) Yu (虞) Ma (麻) (half)

Yu (語) Mu (姥) Yu (麌) Ma (馬) (half)

Yu (御) Mu (暮) Yu (遇) Ma (禡) (half)

Mo (陌) Yao (薬) Duo (鐸) Mai (麥) Xi (昔) (half)

Ge (歌)

Ge (歌) Ge (戈) Ge (哿) Guo (果) Ge (箇) Guo (過) Ma (麻) (half) Zhi Ma (馬) (half) Zhi Ma (禡) (half) Zhi (支) (partial) (紙) (partial) (寘) (partial)

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566

Continued Ancient rhyme section

Rhyme sections in Guangyun Level

Falling-rising

Falling

Entering

Zhi (支)

Jia (佳) Qi (齊) (half) Zhi (支) (partial)

Xie (蟹) Ji (薺) (half) Zhi (紙) (partial)

Gua (卦) Qi (霽) (half) Zhi (寘) (partial)

Mai (麥) Xi (昔) (half) Xi (錫) (partial)

Zhi (脂)

Zhi (脂) Wei (微) Jie (皆) Hui (灰) Qi (齊) (half) Zhi (支) (partial)

Zhi (紙) Wei (尾) Jie (駭) Hui (賄) Ji (薺) (half) Zhi (紙) (partial) Zhi (至) Wei (未) Guai (怪) Dui (隊) Ji (霽) (half) Zhi (寘) (partial)

Xia (黠) (half)

Zhi (至)

Ji (祭)

Yue (月) He (曷) Ji (祭) Tai (泰) Mo (末) Xia (鎋) Guai (夬) Fei (廢) Xue (薛) Xia (黠) (half)

On Heavy Pronunciation of Light Labials in Ancient Times QIAN Daxin1

Q: How do you know that the ancients must pronounce light labials heavily? A: In Guangyun, there are fifty-seven sections of level tone, only nine being light  labials2; if the groups with no characters are removed, there will only be 20-odd groups left, each being read as a heavy labial. For example, fuxi (伏羲 ) is paoxi (庖羲 )3, bofu (伯服 ) is bobei (伯犕 )4, shifang (士魴 ) is shipeng (士彭 )5, fufu 1

Qian Daxin, courtesy name Xiaozheng or Xinmei and art name Zhuting, was a great scholar of Qing Dynasty. As a native of Jiading, Jiangsu, he obtained great achievements in Confucianism, history, philology, phonology, calendar and geography. His works include Studies on Discrepancies in 22 History Books, Records of New Things from Shijia Studio and Collected Writings from the Qianyan Hall. Most phonologists focused on the division and combination of ancient rhymes, but only Qian Daxin paid attention to ancient pronunciation and made his innovation. His comments on ancient pronunciation can be found in “Phonological Questions and Answers” of Collected Writings from the Qianyan Hall and Records of New Things from Shijia Studio. Actually, this paper is excerpted from “Phonological Questions and Answers”. 2 Wang Li argued that this probably refers to the dong (東), zhong (鍾), wei (微), yu (虞), wen (文), yuan (元), yang (陽), you (尤), tan (談), yan (鹽), fan (凡) and other rhymes, and that since light-labial characters of tan (談) and yan (鹽) groups are rarely seen, there are only nine sections are mentioned usually. 3 “Xi Ci II”in The Book of Changes says, “In ancient times, Baoxi ruled the world ( 古者包羲氏之 王天下也 ).” Lu Deming wrote in Textual Explanations of Classics (Textual Explanations for short) in Tang Dynasty, “Bao was originally written as Pao ( 庖 ). Instead, Meng [Xi] and Jing [Fang] wrote Fu ( 伏 ) in their interpretations of The Book of Changes.”[Meng and Jing were both Yijing, i.e. The Book of Changes scholars of the Han Dynasty. The legendary lord should be written as Fuxi ( 伏 戲 ) according to their books.] 4 “The 24th Year of Duke Xi” of Commentary of Zuo says, “The King assigned Bofu and You Sunbo to go to State Zheng to invite Hua ( 王使伯服、游孫伯如鄭請滑 )”. “The House of State Zheng” of Records of the Grand Historian cites it as “bobei ( 伯犕 )”. 5 “The 12th Year of Duke Xiang” of Commentary of Zuo says, “Marquis of Jin sent Shi Fang to

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(扶服 ) is pufu (匍匐 )6, miwu (密勿 ) is minmo (蠠没 )7, fulou (附婁 ) is bulou (部婁 )8, wenshan (汶山 ) is minshan (岷山 )9, wangzhu ( 望諸 ) is mengzhu (孟 諸 )10, fuwei (負尾 ) is fuwei (陪尾 )11, bifen (苾芬 ) is fufen ( 馥芬 )12, youfei (有匪 ) is youbi (有邲 ) 13, fanying (繁纓 ) is panying (鞶纓 ) 14, fangyang (方

come to invite ( 晉士魴來聘 )”. Commentary of Gongyang says: “Marquis of Jin sent Shi Peng to come to invite ( 晉侯使士彭來聘 )”. 6 “Odes of Bei, Gu Feng” of The Book of Songs says, “I tried my best to help him (匍匐救之)”. “Tan Gong I” of The Book of Rites cites it as “fufu (扶服)”. 7 “Explaining Old Words” of Erya says, “The minmo means being diligent (蠠没，勉也 )”. Textual Explanations says, “The min is pronounced as combining the initial of mi and the final of  bi (蠠 彌畢反 ).” Hao Yixing wrote in his commentary of Erya in the Qing Dynasty, “The pronunciation of minmo (蠠没 ) is transformed into minmian (黽勉 ), so Guo [Pu] said in his annotation of Erya, ‘The minmo (蠠没 ) is actually minmian (黽勉 ) or miwu (密勿 ).’ Besides, ‘Odes of Bei, Gu Feng’ of The Book of Songs says, ‘[Husband and wife] should strive to be of the same mind (黽勉同心 ).” When annotating Selections of Refined Literature in Tang Dynasty, Li Shan cited it from the Han Version of The Book of Songs as “miwu (密勿 )”. 8 “The 24th Year of Duke Xiang” of Commentary of Zuo says, “There are no pine and cypress on a bulou ( 部婁無松柏 )”. Shuowen Jiezi cites the term as fulou ( 附婁 ). Actually, fulou ( 附婁 ) or bulou ( 部婁 ) means a small hill or mound. Also, it may be written as “fulou ( 培塿 )” elsewhere. 9 “Yu Gong” of The Book of Documents mentions min ( 岷 ) in quotes like “Min fan ji zhi ( 岷嶓既蓺 ) “M” inshan zhi yang ( 岷山之陽 )” and “Minshan dao jiang ( 岷山導江 )”. However, it is written as wen ( 汶 ) in “Annals of Xia” of Records of the Grand Historian. 10 “Summer Office, Zhifangshi” of The Rites of Zhou says, “The great lake is known as Wangzhu ( 其 澤藪曰望諸 )”. Jia Gongyan wrote in his commentary of The Rites of Zhou in the Tang Dynasty, “It was renamed Mengzhu ( 孟諸 ) of State Song [in Spring and Autumn Period].” 11 “Yu Gong” of The Book of Documents says “to Fuwei Mountain ( 至於陪尾 )”. “Annals of Xia” of Records of the Grand Historian cites this term as “fuwei ( 負 尾)”. 12 “Minor Odes of the Kingdom, Chu Ci” of The Book of Songs, “Fragrant has been your filial sacrifice ( 苾芬孝祀 )”. The Han Version of The Book of Songs cites the term as “fufen ( 馥芬 )”. 13 “Lessons from the States, Qi Yu” of The Book of Songs says, “There is our elegant and accomplished prince (有匪君子)”. The Han Version of The Book of Songs cites the term as “youbi ( 有邲 )”. 14 “Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody” of Selections of Refined Literature says, “Every chariot has its dragon pennons, every horse has its fanying ( 咸龍旗而繁纓 ).” Li Shan noted, “The fan ( 繁 ) is interchangeable with ancient character pan ( 鞶 )”. According to Zheng Xuan’s annotation of The Rites of Zhou, the pan ( 鞶 ) is “the large belt of today’s horses.” Both fan/pan ( 繁 / 鞶 ) and ying ( 纓 ) are leather belts on the horse’s body and their only difference is that the former is fastened to  the belly while the latter is fixed to the neck.

On Heavy Pronunciation of Light Labials in Ancient Times

569

羊 ) is pangyang (旁羊 )15, fengyu (封域 ) is bangyu (邦域 )16, weiwei (亹亹 ) is mianmian (勉勉 )17, wuwu (膴膴 ) is zhenzhen (絼絼 )18, wujing (蕪菁 ) is manjing (蔓菁 )19, feng (封 ) is pronounced as bian (窆 )20, fo (佛 ) is pronounced as bi (弼 )21, fen (紛 ) is pronounced as bin (豳 )22, fan (繁 ) is pronounced as po (婆 )23, wei (亹 ) is pronounced as men (門 )24, fei (妃 ) is pronounced as pei (配 )25, fu 15

“The 11th Year of Duke Ai” of Commentary of Zuo says, “She meanders through rapid torrents and fangyang ( 衡流而方羊 )”. Kong Yingda cited the term as “pangyang ( 彷徉 )” in his commentary of “Lessons from the States, Odes of Zhou and the South” of The Book of Songs. Zheng Zhong noted, “The fangyang ( 方羊 ) refers to wandering.” “Biography of Liu Bi King Wu” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty says, “[He] fangyang around the world ( 方洋天下 ).” Also, it is written as “pangyang ( 彷徉 )” in Records of the Grand Historian. In Tang Dynasty, Yan Shigu said in his annotation of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty, “The term fangyang ( 方洋 ) refers to wandering or flying. The ‘fang ( 方 )’ is pronounced as fang ( 房 ) and also pronounced as pang ( 旁 ) while ‘yang ( 洋 )’ is pronounced the same as yang ( 羊 ). ” Actually, fangyang ( 方羊 ), fangyang ( 方洋 ), pangyang ( 彷徉 ) and pangyang ( 旁羊 ) are different forms of the same word. 16 “Ji Shi” of The Analects says, “Moreover, it is in the midst of bangyu ( 邦域 ).” Textual Explanations explains, “The bang ( 邦 ) may also be written as feng ( 封 ), namely State Lu.” 17 “Greater Odes of the Kingdom, Yu Pu” of The Book of Songs says, “Mianmian was our king, giving law and rules to the four quarters [of the kingdom] ( 勉勉我王 , 綱紀四方 ). The “On Enriching the State” of Xunzi cites the term as “weiwei ( 亹 亹 )”. In Guangyun, “wei ( 亹 )” belongs to the falling-rising wei rhyme and is pronounced the same as wei ( 尾 ). According to fanqie, its pronunciation can be broken down into wu ( 無 ) and fei ( 匪 ). 18 “Greater Odes of the Kingdom, Mian” of The Book of Songs says, “The plain of Zhou looked wuwu ( 周原膴膴 )”. Han Version of The Book of Songs cites the term as “zhenzhen ( 絼絼 )”. 19 “Explaining Herbaceous Plants” of Erya mentions “manjing ( 蔓菁 )”. Textual Explanations explains, “The man ( 蔓 ) is originally known as wu ( 蕪 )”. 20 “Ji Xi” of The Book of Rites and Rituals says, “When it comes to naibian ( 乃窆 ), bian ( 窆 ) is instead written as feng (封) in the present text. Textual Explanations explains, “Its pronunciation is bi-yan according to fanqie.” Actually, bian ( 窆 ) means putting the coffin down into the tomb. 21 “Odes of the Temple and the Altar, Jing Zhi” of The Book of Songs says, “Assist me to bear the burden [of my position] ( 佛時仔肩 )”. Textual Explanations explains, “The fo ( 佛 ) is pronounced bi ( 弼 ) and means assisting according to Zheng [Xuan]”. 22 “Spring Office, Sijiyan”  of The Rites of Zhou says,“A bulrush mat with bin and chun is extended ( 設 莞筵紛純 )” . Zheng Zhong noted:“The character fen ( 紛 ) is pronounced bin ( 豳 ) here” . In fact, bin ( 紛 ) means painted long ribbons while chun ( 純 ) refers to piping or rimming. 23 “The 4th Year of Duke Ding” of Commentary of Zuo says, “Five clans of Yin were allotted to some states, including Fan ( 殷民七族 : 繁氏 )”. Textual Explanations explains, “The fan ( 繁 ) is pronounced bu-he according to fanqie.” “Biographies of Premier Zhang and Others” of Records of the Grand Historian says,“Mr Fan serves as Law Enforcer under the Premier Chengxiang (丞相司直繁君).” In Tang Dynasty, Sima Zhen cited fan ( 繁 ) as po ( 婆 ) in Index for the Records of the Grand Historian. It is pronounced as bu-he in terms of fanqie according to Fan Qin, courtesy name Xiubo, a scholar of Wei of the Three Kingdoms Period or Lü Xiang’s annotation of Selections of Refined Literature. 24 “Greater Odes of the Kingdom, Fu Yi” of The Book of Songs says, “The wild ducks and widgeons are in the men ( 鳧鷖在亹 )”. Textual Explanations explains, “The polyphone men/wei ( 亹 ) is pronounced men ( 門 )”. When pronounced as men, it means a gap or gorge. 25 “Greater Odes of the Kingdom, Huang Yi” of The Book of Songs says, “Heaven raised up a pei for

Appendix

570

(負 ) is pronounced as bei (背 )26, fu (茀 ) is pronounced as bei (孛 )27, fu (艴 ) is pronounced as bo (勃 )28and feng (鳳 ) is pronounced as peng (鵬 )29. Before the Han and Wei Dynasties, all the characters that are pronounced as light labials at present were pronounced heavily. Therefore, it can be known that the light labial does not fall within the ancient pronunciation30. In Forest of Characters, Lü Chen wrote, “According to fanqie, biao (穮 ) should be pronounced as fangyao (方遥 ), bo (襮 ) as fangwo (方沃 ) and bei (邶 ) as fangdai (方代 )31. Indeed, biao (穮 ), bo ( 襮 ) and bei ( 邶 ) are all heavy labials, which suggests that the fang ( 方 ) is a heavy labial. Lü Chen was a native of Wei . In his time, the fanqie pronunciation became initially popular. Back then, he just wanted to popularize it. So, how could he establish “leige ( 類隔 )” examples to confuse others? 32

him ( 天立厥配 ).”Textual Explanations explains,“The pei ( 配 ) is also originally written as fei ( 妃 ) and pronounced accordingly.” 26 “Ming Tang Wei” of The Book of Rites says, “The Son of Heaven fu fuyi ( 天子負斧依 )”. Zheng Xuan noted, “The fu ( 負 ) means standing with his back to somewhere.” Besides, the fuyi ( 斧依 ) is the screen behind the Emperor. 27 “Biography of Gu Yong” of Historical Records of the Han Dynasty says, “Fuxing flashed past  suddenly ( 茀星耀光 ).” Yan Shigu noted, “The fu ( 茀 ) is pronounced the same as the bei ( 孛 ), i.e. bu-nei according to fanqie.” Actually, fuxing ( 茀星 ) refers to a meteor. 28 “Xiang Dang” of The Analects of Confucius says, “[His] countenance appeared to bo (色勃如 也)”. In Shuowen Jiezi, the bo ( 勃 ) is cited as “fu ( 艴 )”, i.e. the original character of bo ( 勃 ) in boxing ( 勃興 ). Besides, it is also cited as bei ( 孛 ). In fact, the bo means [his countenance] changing or being furious. 29 The peng ( 鵬 ) is the later phono-semantic character of peng ( 朋 ) and peng ( 朋 ) is written as in seal script, which refers to the ancient form of feng ( 鳳 ) and seems to be a hieroglyphic character. 30 “Records of Classics and Commentaries” of History of the Sui Dynasty says, “Lü Chen, of Jin Dynasty, composed Forest of Characters in seven volumes.” Unfortunately, it has been lost; however, Ren Dachun compiled Collected Sections of the Forest of Characters in the Qing Dynasty. 31 “Judging from fanqie, a is pronounced as b-c”, which means using the initial and final of b and c  as those of a respectively. 32 For leige ( 類隔 ), please see the note of the same name in the following paper also written by Qian Daxin.

1

On the Unreliability of Distinctions in Dental Sounds QIAN Daxin

In ancient times, there was no difference between tongue tip and tongue top sounds. Therefore, zhi (知 ), che (徹 ) and cheng (澄 ) are pronounced indistinguishable from zhao (照 ), chuan (穿 ) and chuang (牀 ) in modern Chinese. When it comes to ancient pronunciations, they are indistinguishable from duan (端 ), tou (透 ) and ding (定 ) respectively. In Shuowen Jiezi, the “chong (沖 )” is pronounced as “dong (動 )” . The Book of Documents says, “But I, being a child, did not know it (惟予沖人弗及知 )” . Textual Explanations of Classics explains, “It is pronounced as zhi-zhong (直忠 ) according to fanqie.” In ancient times,

1

This paper is excerpted from Records of New Things from Shijia Studio. Accordingly, Lleige (類隔) is a saying used for pronouncing letters in Chinese. Letter researchers divided character pronunciations into throat sounds, molar sounds, tongue sounds, incisor sounds and lip sounds, some of which scan be further divided. Tongue pronunciations, for instance, are divided into tongue tip and tongue top sounds (duan ( 端 ), tou ( 透 ), ding ( 定 ) and ni ( 泥 )” are tongue tip sounds while “zhi ( 知 ), che ( 徹 ), cheng ( 澄 ) and niang ( 娘 )” are tongue top sounds). Incisor sounds are divided into incisor tip and main tip sounds while lip sounds are divided into heavy labials and light labials. Besides, if the upper and lower characters belong to the same sub-class, this case is called“pronunciation harmonization ( 音和 )”. [For example, tong ( 同 ) is “pronounced by combining the initial of tu ( 徒 ) and the final of hong ( 红 ).” Both “tong ( 同 )” and “tu ( 徒 )” are parent characters of “ding ( 定 )”]. If the upper and lower characters belong to the same class but not different sub-classes, this case is  called “leige ( 類隔 )”. For example, fei ( 非 ) is pronounced as buwei ( 補微 ) according to fanqie. Both fei ( 非 ) and bu ( 補 ) belong to the lip sound class, but the former is a light labial and the latter is a heavy labial). The term “leige ( 類隔 )” means that the upper and lower characters don’t belong to the same harmonization, but there is a separation ( 隔 ) between them. Only if the upper character is reassigned into another subclass will such harmonization be achieved. Qian Daxin did not agree with this opinion. Instead, he believed that it should originally have been harmonized in the rhyme book. For example, the “fei ( 非 )” that had been a heavy-labial later became a light labial and thus seemed not “harmonized” according to the buwei ( 補微 ) fanqie breakdown. Judging from the time of or before fanqie formulation, there was no need to reassign the bu ( 補 ) to the light labial class.

571

572

Appendix

the “zhi (直 )” was pronounced as “te (特 )” 2, and the “chongzi (沖子 )” was pronounced like tongzi (童子 )3. Letter researchers were unable to identify ancient pronunciation, to pronounce “chong (沖 )” as “chong (蟲 )” because they did not know that ancient pronunciation of “chong (蟲 )” is akin to “tong (同 )” . “Greater odes of the kingdom, Yun Han” of The Book of Songs says, “Its fervours become more and more chongchong (藴隆蟲蟲 )” 4. Textual Explanations explains, “The chong (蟲 ) is pronounced as zhizhong (直忠 ) or as tudong (徒 冬 ) according to Xu5 according to fanqie.” Erya cites the term as “chongchong ( 爞爞 )” and Guo6 argued that it is pronounced as dudong (都冬 ). In Han Version of The Book of Songs, it is written as “jiong (烔 )” and pronounced as tudong (徒 冬 ) according to fanqie. The pronunciation of “chong (蟲 )” is the same as that of “tong (同 )” 7. The ancient pronunciation of “zhong (中 )” is the same as that of “de (得 )” . In “Shi Shi” of The Rites of Zhou, “[This official] should know well previous ritual  practices and malpractices inside the king (掌王中失之事 )”. Therefore, the “zhong (中 )” in Gushu (故書 ) is de (得 )” 8. Du Zichun said, “It should be ‘de (得 )’ to record merits and demerits of the King, just like The Spring and Autumn Annals.” Sancang9 says, “zhong (中 ) is de (得 )” . In “Imperial Sacrifice” of Records of 2

In ancient time, the “zhi ( 直 )” was pronounced as “te ( 特 )”, see the following paragraphs. The chongzi ( 沖子 ) is pronounced as tongzi ( 童子 ). According to the preceding paragraph, it should be written as“chongren ( 沖人 )”. This term refers to a young person acccording to The Book of Documents and chong ( 沖 ) is the loan character of “tong ( 僮 )”, now commonly written as “tong ( 童 )”. 4 The quote “Its fervours become more and more chongchong ( 藴隆蟲蟲 )” points to the scene of drought. Mao’s Commentary of The Book of Songs says, “Actually, yunyun means mid-summer ( 藴 藴而暑 ), longlong or rumbling refers to thunder ( 隆隆而雷 ) and chongchong points to scorching or fermenting ( 蟲蟲而熱 ).” 5 Xu is Xu Miao, a scholar of Jin Dynasty. 6 Guo is Guo Pu. 7 It is safe to say that chong ( 沖 ), zhi ( 直 ) and chong ( 蟲 ) are all parent characters of cheng ( 澄 ) while “tong ( 童 ), tong ( 同 ), tu ( 徒 ) and jiong ( 烔 ) are all parent characters of ding ( 定 ). Qian Dax- in proved that the first three characters should have been all pronounced as the parent characters of ding ( 定 ) in ancient times. In addition, Qian Daxin himself noted, “The Spring and Autumn Annals says, ‘[In the 5th Year of Duke Cheng], various states formed an alliance at Chonglao ( 同 盟于蟲牢 )”. Du Yu noted, “Tonglao was located north of Fengqiu county, Chenliu commandery.” This note proves that chong ( 蟲 ) and tong ( 桐 ) are pronounced the same in ancient times. 8 The Gushu ( 故書 ) is the ancient version of The Rites of Zhou. In this book, the quote is written as “This official should know well previous ritual practices and malpractices inside the king ( 掌王中 失之事 )”. The “zhong ( 中 )” is the parent character of zhi ( 知 ), and “de ( 得 )” is also the parent character of duan ( 端 ), Qian Daxin believed that the parent character of zhi ( 知 ) should have been pronounced the same as the parent character of duan ( 端 ) in ancient times. Besides, the wang/king ( 王 ) here should point to the kingdom or state. 9 The Sancang is the title of a character book including Li Si’s Cang Jie Primer, Zhao Gao’s Yuan Li Primer and Hu Wujing’s Bo Xue Primer in Qin Dynasty, Yang Xiong’s Xun Zuan Primer in the Western Han Dynasty, Jia Pang’s Pang Xi Primer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. This collection is di3

On the Unreliability of Distinctions in Dental Sounds

573

the Grand Historian, “Queen Kang did not get on well with the King (康后與 王不相中 )” . “Biography of Zhou Bo” of Records of the Grand Historian says, “Zhou Sheng, one of Zhou Bo’ s sons, shang gongzhu (勃子勝之尚公主 )10 and [the couple] did not get on well with each other (不相中 ).” Sima Zhen interpreted both zhongs (中 ) as de ( 得 )11. The Lü Lan, i.e. The Annals of Lü Buwei says, “His heart zhong that of his Sovereign Shun exactly (以中帝心 )” . Gao You said in his annotation12, “The zhong ( 中 ) here mens de (得 ), i.e. ‘came to match [the heart/ that of the sovereign]’ .” In ancient times, “zhi (陟 )” was pronounced as “de (得 )” . “Taibu” of The Rites of Zhou says, “[This official] should master the three dream-interpretation  books:... Third, Xianzhi (掌三夢之法，三曰咸陟 ).” Zheng Xuan noted13, “The character zhi (陟 ) means that something, such as a dream or desire, comes true. It is pronounced as ‘de (德 )’ in “Wangde zhai ren (王德翟人 )14.” “Sacrificial Odes  of Zhou, Ban” of The Book of Songs says, “We zhi the high hills (陟其高山 )” . Zheng Xuan said in his notes (箋 )15 to Mao’s Commentary of The Book of Songs, “The zhi (陟 ) means deng (登 ), i.e. ‘climb’ or ‘ascend’ .” Indeed, both deng (登 ) and de (得 )” are similar in pronunciation16. In ancient times, “zhi (直 )” is pronounced as “te (特 )” . “Lessons from the States, Bo Zhou” of The Book of Songs says, “He was my only te (實惟我特 ).” Textual Explanations explains, “In Han Version of The Book of Songs, “The te (特 ) is written as zhi (直 ) and points to zhi (值 ).17’ ” The Mencius says, “Though they did not zhi a hundred paces (直不百步耳 )” . The zhi (直 ) means dan (但 ), i.e. but/ though. Actually, dan (但 ) and zhi (直 ) are similar in pronunciation. The Annals of Lü Buwei says, “Te Prince Qingji favored me that I was not killed (特王子慶忌 之賜而不殺耳 )” . Noted: “ ‘Te ( 特 )’ you ‘Zhi (直’ ye (The te is as the zhi)18” . In ancient pronunciation, the “Chou ( 抽” is as “Tao (搯 )” . The Book of Songs: “Zuo vided into three volumes and thus named after the number san/three ( 三 ) and the character jie ( 颉 ) in the first section Cang Jie Primer. The Sancang is only a primer and thus the explanatory words are quoted from Sancang Xungu written by Du Lin and Wei Zhangyi in Western Han Dynasty or Sancang Zhu by Guo Pu in Jin Dynasty. 10 The shang gongzhu ( 尚公主 ) means “married the princess”. 11 Xiao Sima is Sima Zhen in Tang Dynasty, who wrote the Shi Ji Suo Yin. The Xun is to explain. 12 Gao You compiled Annotation of The Annals of Lü Buwei in Eastern Han Dynasty. 13 The note refers to the note of Zheng Xuan. 14 For“Wang De Zhai Ren ( 王德翟人 )” , refer to Commentary of Zuo. Xi Gong Ershisi Nian, and the“de ( 德 )” is interchangeable with “de ( 得 )”. 15 The jian ( 箋 ) refers to Zheng Xuan’s Mao Shi Jian. 16 The zhi ( 陟 ) belongs to the parent character of zhi ( 知); deng ( 登) and de ( 得 )” belong to parent characters of Duan ( 母 ). 17 The “Te ( 特 )” here means “dangzhi ( 當值 )”, that is, Xiangdui ( 相對 ) xiangdang ( 相當 ), with the meaning of spouse. 18 The “Zhi, Te ( 直、特 )” in the Meng Zi and Lv Lan are the same meaning, that is, it means “but”, which means“no more than”. The“zhi ( 直)”belongs to the parent character of cheng ( 澄), and “te, dan ( 特、但 )” belong to the parent characters of ding ( 定 ).

574

Appendix

xuan you chou (抽 )” . Textual Explanations explains, “The chou (抽 ) is chi-you qie-pronounced. In Shuowen Jiezi, it is written as ‘tao (搯 )’ and pronounced as talao(他牢 ) according to fanqie19” . At the end of each volume of the Guang Yun, there is “newly added pronunciation and qie updated today for leige (類隔 )20” attached. Eight characters of upper level tone: bei (卑 ) is pronounced as biyi according to fanqie, though originally pronounced as fuyi; pi (陴 ) is pronounced as bing-zhi, though originally fu-zhi qie-pronounced; mei (眉 ) is pronounced as mu-bei, though originally pronounced as wubei; pi (邳 ) is pronounced as bing-bei, though originally pronounced as fubei It is not known who attached it. When ancients formulated the qie- pronunciation, they all took the harmony of pronunciation, such as fang (方 ), fu (府 ), fu (甫 ), wu (武 ) and fu (符 ). and ancients all pronounced as heavy labial. Later generations could not identify ancient pronunciation, to call it as leige (類 隔 ), which was not the meaning of ancients. They were changed with heavy labial characters to make fanqie-breakdown based on today’ s pronunciation, which was intended to facilitate beginners’ understanding; however, pronunciations of leige (類隔 ) in each rhyme are very many21, only these twenty characters more were modified, regardless of the remaining, which not only failed to understand ancient  pronunciation, but also was not appropriate for today’ s situation.

19

In Shuowen Jiezi, the explain of “tao ( 搯 )” was quoted from “Zuo xuan you tao ( 左旋右搯 )” in The Book of Songs. Both “chou, chi ( 抽、敕” belong to parent characters of che ( 徹 ), and both “Tao, Ta ( 搯、他 )” belong to parent characters of tou ( 透 ). 20 Newly added pronunciation and qie updated today for leige ( 類隔 ). “Newly added” means that, it does not exist in original book of Guangyun, to be now added. For the pronunciation and qie updated today for leige ( 類隔 ), it means that some cases of fanqie-breakdown in Guangyun were originally leige ( 類隔 ) cases. For example, for the fu-yi fanqie-breakdown of character “bei ( 卑 )”, the fu-zhi fanqie-breakdown of character“pi ( 陴 )”, the wu-bei fanqie-breakdown of character “mei ( 眉 )” and the fu-bei fanqie-breakdown of character “pi ( 邳 )”, all qie the use the character of heavy labial pronunciation with the character of light labial pronunciation; now they are changed qie method of “bi-yi qie, bing-zhi qie, mu-bei qie and bing-bei qie”, previous characters are all changed as heavy labial pronunciation, to be consistent with that all“bei ( 卑 ), pi ( 陴 ), mei ( 眉 ) and pi ( 邳 )” are heavy labial pronunciation, which is the pronunciation harmony. 21 The “pronunciations of leige ( 類隔 ) in each rhyme are very many”, this is said based on the view of letter researchers, but Qian Daxin did not recognize the existence of leige ( 類隔 ) in rhyme book at all.

Introduction to the Rules of Annotations to the Chinese Classics JIANG Lihong

In order to understand ancient books, especially the works of the Pre-Qin Period and the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties, we need to consult reference books on the meaning of characters, that is, the books of annotations. There are two kinds of annotation books, that is, the specialized works on annotations (训诂专书 ) such as Erya, Xiao Erya, and Guangya; and annotations to classics(傳注 ). The latter first appeared with the interpretative works of the Confucius scholars in the Han  Dynasty, such as Mao’s Annotations to The Book of Songs, Three Annotations on Rites by Zheng Xuan, and later included annotations to philosophical and literary works, such as Gao You’ s annotations to The Annals of Lü Buwei and Huainanzi, and Wang Yi’ s annotations to The Verse of Chu. Although these two kinds of books on annotations followed the same general principles, the methodologies were different. In particular, the specialized works on annotations mostly offer generalized interpretations without referring to specific linguistic items. Such works, therefore, could be relatively sweeping, and may fail to cover certain “unique” usage of a character/word in a particular sentence, a text, or a book. The passage of “Explaining Instructions” in Erya includes some explanations of specific examples, such as the metaphorical meanings, but the amount is still  insignificant. In contrast, the annotations to classics focus on specific words and  sentences, thus offering in-depth interpretations in accordance to various contexts.  Therefore, the annotative works of classics usually contain a greater number of terms, which specify the rules of annotations. Knowledge of these rules can help us better understand ancient classics with reference to the annotations, sometimes also help to evaluate the appropriateness of the annotations. To draw an analogy, if you are to read an ancient book with the translated version in modern Chinese, you need to learn about the principles of translations first; for example, whether  the ancient book adopted a literal translation or a free translation. Whether it used standard Chinese words or dialect words in the translation. Only in this way can you tell whether the translated text is detailed and accurate, or sketchy and general. 575

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Annotative works on Chinese classics are great in number and diverse in their respectively unique features. This introduction only covers some common examples in the annotations to classics, serving as a reference for the reading of ancient books. 1. “曰” “謂之” and “爲” These expressions are used to distinguish nuanced differences between the meanings of synonymous words. The format is usually “A 曰 B” “A 謂之 B” or “A 爲 B” . Examples are given as below. 《論語》：“有朋自遠方來，不亦説乎？” 鄭玄注：“同門曰朋，同志曰友。” In the sentence of The Analects of Confucius: “It is such a delight to have friends coming from afar” , Zheng Xuan’ s annotation is “fellow-students of the same master is called “朋” ;fellow-workers of the same cause is called 友” . ”《毛傳》：“治骨曰切，象曰磋，玉曰琢，石曰磨。” 《詩》：“如切如磋，如琢如磨。 《爾雅·釋器》：“骨謂之切，象謂之磋，玉謂之琢，石謂之磨。” In the two lines of The Book of Songs, “Like ivory finely cut and filed; like a gem,  chiseled and ground” , Mao’s Annotation is “the polishing of bones is called “切” , of ivories is called “磋” , of jade is called 琢 , and of stones is called “磨” ; and the annotations to “Explaining Utensils” of Erya is more or less the same. ” 《楚辭 · 離騷》：“各興心而嫉妬。” 王逸注 ：“害賢爲嫉，害色爲妬。 In the line of “Li Sao” in The Verse of Chu, “They are all cunning and jealous”, Wang Yi’ s annotation is “To be jealous of others’ competence is called 嫉 ; to be jealous of others’ beauty is called 妬” .

In the example from The Analects of Confucius, “朋” and “友” are synonymous characters, and Zheng Xuan used “曰” to distinguish their meanings, indicating that “朋” are friends with similar experience, while “友” are friends with common ideas and thoughts. The same is true for the examples from Mao’s Annotations and “Explaining Utensils” , both of which explained the meaning differences of   “切” “磋” “琢” and “磨” in referring to different materials. All these differences are expressed by means of “爲” “曰” and “謂之” . 2. “謂” The format is usually “A 謂 B 也” , used to explain a word by  specifically or  allusively referring to something particular. In many cases, the word discussed may be a “general term” of a wider scope of usage, while in fact it is used as an alias for something more concrete. Please see the following example. 《離騷》：“衆女嫉余之蛾眉兮。” 王逸注：“衆女謂衆臣。” 又：“恐美人之遲暮。” 王逸注：“美人謂懷王也。” In the line of “Li Sao” , “The ladies are jealous of my delicate eyebrows” , Wang

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Yi’ s annotation is “the ladies actually referto courtiers” . Inanother line “I’ m afraid the beauty will aging” , Wa ng Yi’ s annotation is “the beauty refers to Duke Huai of Chu” .

As shown in the above examples, “衆女” (the ladies) has a specific reference  in the text, that is “衆臣” (the couriers), so it cannot be simply interpreted as “the ladies” . Similarly, “美人” (the beauty) could be a general term, but in this text it refers to Duke Huai of Chu as his alias. 3. “皃 ( 貌 )” The character of “皃” is used after a verb or an adjective to show that the annotated word, which is always an adjective, denotes certain quality or a state of being, as show in the following example. 《離騷》：“老冉冉其將至兮。” 王逸注：“冉冉，行皃。” 又：“時曖曖其將罷兮。” 王逸注：“曖曖，昏昧皃。” In the line of “Li Sao” “The old age is approaching” , Wang Yi’ s annotation is “冉冉 describes the way of walking” . In another line “It is getting dark and the day is about to end” , Wang Yi’ s annotation is “曖曖 means “dim” or “gloomy” .

4. “猶” The format “A 猶 B 也” can be used in two ways. First, it explains the annotated word with a synonymous word, as in the following example. ” 王逸注 ：“溘猶奄也。 ” 《離騷》：“寧溘死以流亡兮。 In the line of “Li Sao” “I’ d rather die immediately or go into exile” , Wang Yi’ s annotation is “溘 is the same as奄 (suddenly)” .

In other words, “溘” and “奄” are synonymous with the meaning of “suddenly”. Second, this expression can offer the extended meaning of a given word, as in  the following example, ” 鄭玄注 ：“體猶分也。” 賈公彦疏 ：“謂若人之手足分爲四體， 《周禮》：“體國經野。 得爲分也。” In the line of The Rites of Zhou, “to divide the country into different areas for official’ s and noblemen’ s dwelling or for common people’ s farming ” , Zheng Xuan’  s annotation is “體 here is like 分 (divide)” ; Jia Gongyan’ s explanation is “it is like to divide a man’ s limbs into arms and legs, which means to divide” .

The character of “體” has no meaning of “division” . As “四體” (limbs) are parts of a whole body, the meaning of “division” can be derived therefrom. Mozi contains many examples of contrasting “體” and “兼” (together), with “體” referring to a part, which suggests that the character can be extended to mean

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“to divide” . “猶” in this expression indicates that “體” and “分” are not originally synonymous, yet in the line “體國經野”, the meaning of “體” is similar to that of “分”. 5. “之言” and “之爲言” The format “A之言 B 也、A 之爲言 B 也” is typically used to explain a given word with another in the same pronunciation, consonant, or rhyme. The annotated word is a noun, and the annotative word is usually a verb or an adjective used to describe the “德” (nature) or “業” (action or role) of the given object. See the following examples. 《論衡 · 卜筮篇》 ：“夫蓍之爲言耆也，龜之爲言舊也。” In a line in “Passage of Bu Shi” in Discourses Weighed in the Balance is, “蓍” (yarrow) is something old, and 龜 (turtle) is also something old” . 《爾雅 · 釋訓》：“鬼之言歸也。” A line in “Explaining Instructions” of Erya is “鬼 (ghost) is something that returns” .

In the above examples, “蓍” and “龜” are the given objects, and “耆” and “舊” are descriptions of their nature. Ancient people used yarrow grass and turtle shells to tell fortunes, believing that both yarrow and turtle lived a long life;therefore they are capable of predicting the future. In the other example, “鬼” is the object and “歸” describes its action. It was believed that in ancient times “鬼” was a ghost who returned to the gloomy and unseen place. So, “鬼” means “归” . In the above examples, the annotative characters of “耆” “舊” and “歸” definitely do not carry the meanings of the given words “蓍” “龜” and “鬼” , but their extended meanings. Such an annotation, however, is different from the  previous case “猶”, which indicates that the character of the extended meaning can be used to replace the annotated word, for example, “體國經野” can be written as “分國經野” . In contrast, in “之言” or “之爲言” , the annotative words cannot be used to replace the annotated word, that is, “命龜” cannot be written as “命舊” , and “鬼神” cannot be written as “歸神” . 6. “讀爲” “讀曰” “讀若” and “讀如” The format is “A 讀爲 B” “A 讀曰 B” “A 讀若 B” or “A讀如 B” . “讀爲” and “讀曰” were sometimes called “破讀” by the teachers of Confucian classics, that is, to use the original character or the original meaning to explain a loan character. The examples are given as below. ” 《詩· 衛風》：“隰則有泮。” 鄭玄箋 ：“泮讀爲畔。 A line in “Odes of Wei” in The Book of Songs is “Swamps have their end” , and Zheng Xuan’ s annotation is “泮 is read as 畔 (river bank)” . ” 《書· 堯典》：“播時百穀。” 鄭玄注 ：“時讀曰蒔。 A line in “In Honor of Yao” in The Book of Documents is “To plant one hundred

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seedlings of crops” , and Zheng Xuan’ s annotation is “時 is read as 蒔” .

In the above examples, the original meaning of “泮” is the cracking of ice, and the original meaning of “時” is time. But they are used to mean, respectively, “river banks” and “planting crops” . Both “泮” and “時” are loan characters, while “畔” and “蒔” are the original characters that are used to explain the loan characters. The expressions containing “讀若” or “讀如” can be used to explain a loan character with the original one, or to explain the original character with a loan character. The example of the first usage is given below. ” 《禮記 · 儒行》 ：“竟信其志。” 鄭玄注 ：“信讀如屈伸之伸，假借也。 A line in “Ru Xing” in The Book of Rites is “He always sticks to his ideals” , and Zheng Xuan’ s annotation is “信 is read as 伸 (stretch), and is a loan character” .

In the above example, “信” is the loan character and “伸” is the original one. The second usage can be illustrated in the following example: ” 《説文》：“勼，聚也。從勹，九聲。讀若鳩。 An entry in Shuowen Jiezi: “勼 means “to gather” . It belongs to the radical of 勹 and the sound division of 九 . It is read as 鳩 .”

A line in “In Honor of Yao” in The Book of Documents is “方鳩僝工” (He gathered them and made the achievements). “鳩” in the expression of “鳩聚” or “鳩合” (gathering) was originally written as “勼” . The entry in Shuowen Jiezi “勼…… 讀若鳩” (勼 is read as 鳩 ) uses the phrase of “方鳩” in “In Honor of Yao” to explain the rarely-seen character “勼” . This is where the distinction between “讀爲、讀曰” and “讀若、讀如” : The former definitely uses the original character to explain the loan character, whereas  the latter allows a more flexible usage. Either it uses the original to explain the  loan character, or it uses the loan to explain the original one. Generally speaking, there are no such expression of “讀曰” and “讀爲” in specific annotations. In “Explaining Old Words” of Erya, the annotation of “體 猶分也” will be expressed as “ 體，分也” , omitting “猶” . It indicates that the annotations to specific works are relatively detailed (“Explaining Instructions” in  Erya could be an exception, which follows the format of general annotations to classics). Without the knowledge of these terms, the works of general annotations to Chinese classics can be difficult or even unintelligible. From Chinese, May 1960

Postscript

As an academic monograph, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese is informative, comprehensive and selective. It was printed and distributed in 1962 by the Correspondence Department of Hangzhou University as the course materials for undergraduate students and correspondence courses in the Department of Chinese. In 1984 it was published by Zhejiang Education Press as a book co-authored by Jiang Lihong and Ren Mingshan, indeed, a book as the token of the close cooperation and steadfast friendship between the two scholars. In particular, Ren Mingshan was responsible for the writing from Chapter 14 to Chapter 17. The current republication of A General Theory of Ancient Chinese as a volume in The Complete Works of Jiang Lihong, therefore, is a tribute to not only Jiang Lihong but also Ren Mingshan. The edition published in 1984 used simplified Chinese characters, but the current edition follows the general format of the book set and uses traditional Chinese characters. As the computerized conversion from simplified to traditional  characters tend to generate a great number of mistakes, the workload of proofreading and collation was formidable. Some of the adjustments are worth noting here. Firstly, some words of different meanings are written as the same simplified characters, which have been corrected and distinguished by means of different traditional characters. For example, “后” in the phrase of “前后” is written as “後” , while “后” in “后妃” cannot be written as “後” ; and “谷” “ 谷梁傳》” should be written as “穀” . Secondly, all the citations have been in 《 checked and proofread, obvious language mistakes have been corrected, but the variant characters remain unchanged. Some of the citations may involve different  book versions, but still remain unchanged out of the respect for the authors’ decisions. Finally, the variant characters used in the authors’ writing are all kept consistent with their writing habits. In case of the lack of evidence due to missing manuscripts, other volumes and passages in the book set are consulted as a reference in order to maintain the consistency in writing. Ren Ping

© Zhejiang University Press 2023 L. Jiang and M. Ren, A General Theory of Ancient Chinese, Qizhen Humanities and Social Sciences Library, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6042-9

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