A Brief History of the Chinese Language IV: Old Chinese Lexicon [1 ed.] 9781003365556

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A Brief History of the Chinese Language IV

As the fourth volume of a multi-volume set on the Chinese language, this book studies the lexical system of Old Chinese and the development of different types of lexicons during the period. Focusing on lexicons in Old Chinese, the early form of the Chinese language used between the 18th century BCE and the 3rd century CE, this volume first introduces the methods of word formation in Old Chinese by analyzing words inscribed in oracle bones of the Shang dynasty. Illustrated with examples, it then examines the lexical features of Old Chinese and explores the progress and evolutionary features of monosyllabic words, polysyllabic words, lexical meanings, synonyms, and idioms and proverbs over the course of the volume. This comprehensive groundwork on Chinese lexical history is a must-read for scholars and students studying ancient Chinese language, linguistics, and especially for beginning learners of the Old Chinese lexicon. Xi Xiang is Professor at Sichuan University (China) and a distinguished linguist. His research interests are focused on Chinese language history and Chinese linguistics. His major works include A Brief History of Chinese, Dictionary of Poetry Classics, Commentary on the Translation of Poetry Classics, Dictionary of Ancient Chinese Knowledge, and Concise Ancient Chinese Dictionary.

Chinese Linguistics

Chinese Linguistics series selects representative and frontier works in linguistic disciplines including lexicology, grammar, phonetics, dialectology, philology and rhetoric. Mostly published in Chinese before, the selection has had far-reaching influence on China’s linguistics and offered inspiration and reference for the world’s linguistics. The aim of this series is to reflect the general level and latest development of Chinese linguistics from an overall and objective view. Titles in this series currently include: A Brief History of the Chinese Language I The Basics of Chinese Phonetics Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language II From Old Chinese to Middle Chinese Phonetic System Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language III From Middle Chinese to Modern Chinese Phonetic System Xi Xiang Modern Chinese Complex Sentences II Coordinate Type XING Fuyi A Brief History of the Chinese Language IV Old Chinese Lexicon Xi Xiang

For more information, please visit www.routledge.com/Chinese-Linguistics/bookseries/CL

A Brief History of the Chinese Language IV

Old Chinese Lexicon

Xi Xiang

This translation is published with financial support from the Chinese Fund for the Humanities and Social Sciences (20WYYB011) First published in English 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Xi Xiang Translated by Hulin Ren, Lifei Wang, Xiaofeng Zhan, Zihui Yang, Gang Dong, Li Xia, Yikun Li and Tanith Booth The right of Xi Xiang to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. English version by permission of The Commercial Press, Ltd. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Xiang, Xi, author. | Ren, Hulin, translator. Title: A brief history of the Chinese language / Xi Xiang ; translated by  Hulin Ren [and 7 others]. Other titles: Jian ming han yu shi. English Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. |  Series: Chinese linguistics | Includes bibliographical references  and index. | Contents: v. 1. The basics of Chinese phonetics—v. 2.  From old Chinese to middle Chinese phonetic system—v. 3.  From middle Chinese to modern Chinese phonetic system. Identifiers: LCCN 2022025941 (print) | LCCN 2022025942 (ebook) |  ISBN 9781032381077 (vol. 1 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381107 (vol. 1 ;  paperback) | ISBN 9781032381084 (vol. 2 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381114  (vol. 2 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781032381091 (vol. 3 ; hardback) |  ISBN 9781032381121 (vol. 3 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781003343516 (vol. 1 ;  ebook) | ISBN 9781003343523 (vol. 2 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781003343530  (vol. 3 ; ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Chinese language—Phonetics—History. |  Chinese language—History. Classification: LCC PL1205 .X5313 2023 (print) | LCC PL1205 (ebook) |  DDC 495.1/15—dc23/eng/20220718 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025941 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025942 ISBN: 978-1-032-43060-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-43065-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-36555-6 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003365556 Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

List of tables

vi

1

Studying words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

1

2

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

42

3

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

88

4

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese

124

5

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese

165

6

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese

205

Bibliography Index

234 236

Tables

1.1 2.1

Attachment of bibliography of oracle bone inscriptions A comparison between some radicals in Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters] and in oracle bone inscriptions

37 43

1

StudyingwordsoftheShang dynastyfromoraclebone inscriptions

1 Introduction Words are very sensitive to social changes. The development of production, the emergence of new things, the changes of system and customs are all quickly reflected in words. Even if there were no great changes in a given society, words themselves would still undergo metabolic changes. Lexicon is a system where different words have their own positions and are closely related to each other. If certain words have changed for some reasons, other words will have corresponding changes, with some developing fast and others dying out. The general trend of change is that from old times to middle, modern, and contemporary times, Chinese words are becoming more and more abundant, and the word-formation methods are becoming increasingly diversified.

2 WordsoftheShangdynastyfromoracleboneinscriptions The formation of Old Chinese words began earlier than that in the Shang dynasty. The language materials at that time available nowadays are oracle bone inscriptions, practically the only source for the lexicon studies of the Shang dynasty. Shāngshū 商書 [Book of the Shang dynasty] of Shàngshū 尚書 [Book of Documents] processed by scholars in the Zhou dynasty can only serve as supplementary evidence for the study of words in the Shang dynasty. Although oracle bone inscriptions may not clearly draw the whole picture of the language of the Shang dynasty due to their limited contents and writing styles, the general situation of the progress of early Chinese words can be understood at least to a certain degree. So far, there are about 4,500 unearthed characters in oracle bone inscriptions, of which only more than 1,000 characters have been identified, fewer than one-third of the total amount. The words of the Shang dynasty in oracle bone inscriptions have the following features. They are extensive in content, but limited in number. Most of them are monosyllables except for only a few polysyllables. The majority of them have only one meaning, while others have different meanings. There are also cases where different words express the same meaning. In terms of parts of speech, nouns rank the highest in number, and verbs come second. There are few adjectives and DOI: 10.4324/9781003365556-1

2

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

even fewer function words. In addition, there is a considerable number of multicategory words. In the following sections, the words are to be discussed respectively, among which noun words are introduced in section 3 below.

3 Nouns Among all the words identified in the oracle bone inscriptions, nouns amount to more than 800 words, whose meaning categories include astronomical phenomena, geography, time, direction, names of animals and plants, material life, weapons and production tools, official hierarchy, sacrifice and superstition, human body, kinship appellation, and so on, which will be discussed separately in the following sections. 3.1 Nounsrelatedtoastronomicalphenomenaandgeography Nouns related to astronomical phenomena include rì 日, yuè 月, xīng 星, huǒ 火, yún 雲, léi 雷, yǔ 雨, líng 霝(lín 霖), qī 霋, xuě 雪, mái 霾, wù (wù 霧), hóng 虹, ní 蜺, fèng 鳳 (fēng 風), yùn 暈, huì 晦, qǐ 晵, and so on. The word huǒ 火, also called dàhuǒ 大火, is the second star of xīnxiù 心宿 [Heart Mansion], one of the seven mansions of qīnglóng 青龍 [Azure Dragon], the eastern part of the èrshíbā xiù 二十八宿 [28 Mansions]. People in the Shang dynasty took the rise of the huǒ 火(fire) star as the beginning of a year, and would make sacrificial ritual to it.1 For example, it reads on bone shell No. 3083 of Jiǎ 《甲》 that “bǐng yín bǔ, què zhēn: qí yòu huǒ? 丙寅卜，𣪊貞：其侑火?” (Divined on the day of Bingyin, diviner Què surmised: should we offer sacrifice for the rise of the huǒ火 star?) As for líng 霝, it reads in Shuōwén 説文, i.e., Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters] that “lín, yǔ sān rì yǐ wǎng. 霖, 雨三日已往.” (Lín 霖 refers to rain continuing for over three days.) Yet in oracle bone inscriptions, 霖 lín is adopted in place names. The word qī 霋 means being cloudy. For example, on bone shell No. 12 on page 20 in volume four of Xù 《續》, it reads that “xīn chǒu bǔ, zhēn: jīn xī qī 辛丑卜, 貞：今夕霋.” (Divined on the day of Xinchou, the diviner surmised: it is going to rain this evening.) The word mái 霾 represents a cloudy image formed by a large number of dust suspended in the air. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 2840 of Jiǎ 《甲》 that “zhēn: zī yǔ bù zhuī mái. 貞：兹雨 不隹霾.” (Diviner surmised: will the rain be mixed with haze?) The word ní 蜺 means the secondary rainbow. As early as in the Shang dynasty, there were legends of giant creatures named Rainbow drinking water. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 426 of Tōng 《通》 that “yì yǒu chū ní zì běi, yǐn yú hé. 亦有出蜺自 北，飲于河.” (A giant creature named ní 蜺 comes from the north, drinking water from the Yellow River.) The word fēng 風 was written as fèng 鳳 in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 398 of Tōng 《通》 that “yú dì shǐ fèng, èr quǎn. 于帝史鳳，二犬.” (Two dogs are needed to offer sacrifice for the messengers of 帝 Dì, the Supreme God.) According to Guo Moruo 郭沫若, “Bǔcí yǐ fèng wéi fēng . . . gǔrén gài yǐ fèng wéi fēngshén.《 huáinánzǐ·běnjīng 》 yún: ‘yáo zhī shí, dàfēng wéi mínhài, yáo nǎishǐ yì jiǎo dàfēng yú qīngqiū zhīzé.’

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

3

Dàfēng yŭ fēngxī, xiūshé děng bìngliè ér yán jiǎo, zé jí dàfēng ruò dàpéng yǐ. Fēng huò wéi shénniǎo, huò wéi zhìniǎo zhě 《 ( wénxuǎn·liúxiàobiāo·biànmìng lùn 》 zhù yǐn gāoyòu zhù yún:‘dàfēng, zhìniǎo.’) nǎi chuánshuō zhī biànyì xìng rúshì. Gài fēng kěyǐ wéi lì, kěyǐ wéi hài yě. Cǐ yán ‘yú dì shǐ fèng’ zhě, gài shì fēng wéi tiāndì zhī shǐ, ér sìzhī yǐ èrquǎn.卜辭以鳳爲風 . . . 古人蓋以鳳爲風神.《淮南 子 • 本經》云： ‘堯之時，大風爲民害，堯乃使羿繳大風于青丘之澤.’大風 與封豨、脩蛇等並列而言繳，則即大風若大鵬矣.風或爲神鳥，或爲鷙鳥者 《文選 ( · 劉孝標 · 辨命論》注引高誘注云： ‘大風，鷙鳥’) 乃傳説之變異性 如是.蓋風可以爲利，可以爲害也.此言 ‘ 于帝史風’ 者，蓋視風爲天帝之使， 而祀之以二犬.” (Fèng 鳳 was written as fēng 風 in oracle bone inscriptions . . . because fèng 鳳 was regarded as the God of Wind by the ancient people. In Běnjīng 本经 [Fundamental Norm] of Huáinázǐ 淮南子 [Great Words of Huainanzi], it reads, “During the Yao 堯 period, dàfēng 大風, strong winds, caused great harm to people. Therefore, Yao commanded Yi 羿, an archer, to shoot them down in the swamps of Qingqiu.” The description that dàfēng 大風 could be shot with an arrow like fēngxī 封豨, a giant pig, and xiū shé 脩蛇, a long snake, revealing that dàfēng 大風 used to be compared to such wild creatures as giant birds. The reference of them into fairy birds or birds of prey are their variants in legends. In the chapter of Liúxiàobiāo 懰孝標 [Liu Xiaobiao] in Wénxuăn 文選 [Document Selection] of Biànmìnglùn 辨命論 [Arguments about Destiny], i.e., Zhāomíng Wénxuăn 昭明文 選 [Anthology Edited by Crown Prince Zhaoming], there are quotations from Gao You’s annotation, “dàfēng 大風 refers to birds of prey.” Hence, they can be both beneficial and harmful. Hereby, fēng 風 is regarded as the messengers of tiāndì 天帝, the Supreme God of Heaven, in yú dì shǐ fèng 于帝史風, so they should be worshipped with two dogs.) The winds from four directions each had their own names in the Shang dynasty. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 520 of Jīng 《京》, “dōng fāng yuē xī, fēng yuē xié; nán fāng yuē jiā, fēng yuē kǎi; xī fāng yuē wéi, fēng yuē yí; běi fāng yuē bāo, fēng yuē yì. 東方曰析，風曰脅；南 方曰夾，風曰凱；西方曰韋，風曰彝；北方曰勹，風曰 ” (The God of the East is named Xī 析, whose messenger is Xié 脅; the God of the South Jiā 夾, whose messenger Kǎi 凱; the God of the West wéi 韋, whose messenger Yí 彝; the God of the north Bāo 勹, whose messenger Yì ). Evidence of these names can also be found from Shānhǎjīng 山海经 [The Classic of Mountains and Seas]. The word 晦 huì was represented by 每 měi in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 641 of Jiǎ 《甲》, “zhì . . . fú měi (huì) bù yǔ. 至 . . . 弗 每(晦) 不雨.” (Until . . . It will not be dark. It is not going to rain.) The word qǐ 晵 means fine days after rain. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 9 on page 23 of volume four of Xù 《续》, “bù qǐ, qí yǔ. 不晵，其雨.” (If it does not clear up, is it going to rain?) Qǐ 晵 is also written as qĭ 𢼄. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 388 of Tōng 《通》, “zhēn: yì xīn chǒu bù qí qǐ, wáng zhān yuē: jīn xī qí yǔ, yì xīn chǒu yǔ, qǐ! zhī xī yǔn yǔ, xīn chǒu qǐ. 貞：翌辛丑不其𢼄，王占 曰：今夕其雨，翌辛丑雨，𢼄！之夕允雨，辛丑𢼄.” (Diviner surmised: will it clear up tomorrow, the day of Xinchou? The Emperor surmised: it is going to rain this evening, and it will be sunny after the rain tomorrow, the day of Xinchou. It is confirmed that it rained that evening and cleared up the next day, the Xinchou

4

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

day.) Wang Guowei wrote in Jiǎnshòutáng yīnxū shūjí kǎoshì 戩壽堂殷虚書籍 考釋 [Study and Interpretation on Books of Oracle Bone Inscriptions at Jianshoutang], “qǐ zì cóngyòu chíhù, yì dāng wéi qǐ, yí jí qǐ zhī jiǎjiè zì. 𢼄字從又持户， 義當爲啓，疑即晵之假借字.” (Qĭ 𢼄 composed of the radicals of yòu 又 and hù 户 should be interpreted as qǐ 啓, so qĭ 𢼄 is probably the loan character of qǐ 晵.) Although tiān 天 existed in oracle bone inscriptions, it did not refer to the Heaven, which is the original concept in the Zhou dynasty. Nouns related to geography include tǔ 土, shān 山, qiū 丘, yán 岩, yuè 嶽, fù阜, líng 陵, lù 陸, gǔ 谷, shí 石, yě 野, chuan 川, zhōu 州, zhǐ 沚, sì 汜, quán 泉, yuan 淵, jiàn 澗, and so on. At that time, characters such as dì 地, hǎi 海, hú 湖, yáng 洋, and pō 泊 had not been existed in oracle bone inscriptions yet. Two special nouns deserve mentioning by passing, namely zāi 𡿧 and zāi 災. According to Shuōwén·Chuānbù 説文川部 [Chuan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zāi, hài yě, cóng yī yōng chuān. Chūnqiūzhuàn yuē: ‘chuān yōng wéi zé, xiōng’. 𡿧，害也，從一雝川.《春秋傳》曰: ‘川雝爲澤, 凶’.” (Zāi 𡿧 is equal to hài 害, harm, and belongs to the radical of yī 一, meaning being surrounded by waters. In Chūnqiūzhuàn 春秋傳 [Spring and Autumn Biography], it reads, “clogged rivers turn into swamps, inauspicious.) In Jùdòu 句讀 [Wang Yun’s Annotations on Shuōwén (Origin of Chinese Characters)] by Wang Yun 王筠, a linguist and litterateur in the Qing dynasty, it reads, “zāi, wèi shuǐhài yě. 𡿧，謂水害也.” (Zāi 𡿧 means floods.) Hence, zāi 𡿧 literally referred to floods, mostly resulted from the abundant rainfall in ancient northern China. The word zāi 𡿧 might be written as on bone shell No. 28434 in Hé 《合》 or on bone shell No. 1651 in Jiǎ 《甲》 in oracle bone inscriptions. The two characters both resemble the shape of massive waves of floods, a commonplace natural disaster in ancient times. In Shuōwén·Huŏbù 説文火部 [Huo Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zāi, tiānhuǒ yuē zāi, cóng huǒ zāi shēng; zāi, huò cóng mián, huǒ; zāi, gǔwén cóng cái; zāi, zhòuwén cóng zāi. 烖，天火 曰烖，從火𢦏聲；災，或從宀、火；𤆎，古文從才；災，籀文從𡿧.” (Zāi 烖, referring to naturally caused fires, has the radical of huǒ 火 and the pronunciation of zāi 𢦏; zāi 災 may be composed of mián 宀, an upper roof and huǒ 火, lower indoor fires; zāi 𤆎 belonged to the final-group of cái 才 in ancient scripts; zāi 災 was pronounced as zāi 𡿧 in zhòuwén, large seal scripts.) Variant characters of zāi 災 related to fires were written as on bone shell No. 959 in Yǐ 《乙》 or on bone shell No. 1 on page 8 in Hòu 《後》. In Xìzhuàn 繫傳 [Xu Kai’s Annotations on Shuōwén (Origin of Chinese Characters)] by Xu Kai 徐鍇, an expert in exegetics in the Southern Tang dynasty, it reads that “mián, shì wū yě. 宀，室屋也.” (Mián 宀 refers to a roof.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 noted, “huǒ qǐ yú xià, fén qí shàng yě. 火起於下，焚其上也.” (Indoor fires burn the roof above.) Zāi 灾 refers to fire accidents. In ancient times, most houses were thatched huts, so it was very common for an indoor wood fire to become a fire accident. The variants of zāi 烖, zāi 𤆎, and zāi 災 appeared later in time. The meaning of zāi 𡿧 and zāi 災 became general terms for disasters, and gradually unified into zāi 災 in writing, and was simplified as zāi 灾 since the founding of the People’s Republic of China.

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

5

3.2 Nounsrelatedtotimeanddirections Nouns related to time in oracle bone inscriptions include rì 日, yuè 月, nián 年, suì 歲, xún 旬, yù 昱 (yì 翌), chén 晨, shí 時, mò 莫, xī 夕, hūn 昏, zhāo 朝, dàn 旦, míng 明, zè 昃, xī 昔, etc., as well as the whole set of the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, a way of numbering years, including jiăzĭ 甲子 (Jiazi), yĭchŏu 乙丑 (Yichou), bĭngyĭn 丙寅 (Bingyin), etc. Nián 年 was written as on bone shell No. 3 on page 24 of Tiě 《鐵》, as in the third graph on bone shell No. 5 on page 1 in volume seven of Qián 《前》, and as on bone shell No. 10 of page 31 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, which has the radical of hé 禾 and the final of rén 人, meaning the ripening of grain.2 Hence, qiúnián 求年 actually means qiúhé 求禾, praying for good harvest. For instance, on bone shell No. 1 on page 30 in volume one of Qián 《前》 or on bone shell No. 2 on page 45 of Tiě 《鐡》, it reads that “zhēn: qiúnián yú gēng 貞：求年于羹.” (Diviner surmised: we should pray to the God of Geng for good harvests.) Meanwhile, the harvest of crops was called shòunián 受年 or shòuhé 受禾. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 16 on page 6 in volume two of Hòu 《後》 that “xīnmǎo zhēn: shòuhé. 辛卯貞： 受禾.” (Diviner surmised on the day of Xingmao: it will expect good harvests.) On bone shell No. 6 on page 28 of volume two of Xù 《續》, it reads that “wǒ shòunián. 我受年.” (The Shang people will receive good harvests.) On bone shell No. 2 on page 40 of volume two of Qián 《前》, it reads that “wǒ shòu shǔ nián. 我受黍年.” (The Shang people will receive good harvests of millet.) As crops in the north were ripe once per year in ancient China, the meaning of nián 年 had been extended to “one year” during the Shang dynasty. For instance, on bone shell No. 5 on page 44 of volume one of Xù 《續》, it reads that “xū bǔ, chū zhēn: zì jīn shí nián yòu wǔ, wáng fēng 戌卜，出貞：自今十年有五，王豐.” (Divined on the day of Xu, diviner Chū surmised: the Emperor will enjoy good harvests for 15 consecutive years from now on.) As for suì 歲, in Shuōwén·Zhĭbù 説文止 部 [Zhi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “suì, mùxīng yě. 歲, 木星也.” (Suì 歲refers to Jupiter.) It was written as on bone shell No. 2961 in Jiǎ 《甲》 and as on bone shell No. 1 on page 1 of Yú 《餘》. They may resemble the shape of a broad axe, that is yuè 鉞 in Chinese character, probably with the radical of bù 步 and the pronunciation of yuè 戉. Guo Moruo explained, “suìxīng zhī yùnxíng yuē shí yòu èr suì ér zhōutiān, gǔrén jí yú huángdào fùjìn shè shí’èr biāozhǔn diǎn yǐ guānchá zhī, yóu zǐ zhì hài zhī shí’èr chén shì yě. Suìxǐ yīchén ér chéng suì, gù suìxīng zhī suì zīrǔ wéi niánsuì zhī suì. 歲星之運行約十有二歲 而周天，古人即于黄道附近設十二標準點以觀察之，由子至亥之十二辰是 也.歲徙一辰而成歲，故歲星之歲孳乳爲年歲之歲.” (Suìxīng 歲星, i.e., Jupiter, spends roughly 12 years completing an orbit period. Accordingly, the ancient Chinese people defined 12 points along the ecliptic to locate it. That is how the 12 hours existed in ancient China, named after earthly branches from zĭ子 to hài 亥. One suì 歲 refers to one such hour, whose meaning was extended to suì 歲 as in niánsuì 年歲 with the meaning of one year. From Jiǎgǔ wénzì yánjiū·Shìsuì 甲骨文 字研究·釋歲 [explaining Suì 歲in Studies on Characters in Oracle Bones Inscriptions].) For example, it reads on bone shell No. 896 of Cuì 《粹》, “guǐchǒu bǔ,

6

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

zhēn: jīnsuì shòuhé, hóngjí. 癸丑卜，貞：今歲受禾，弘吉.” (Divined on the day of Guichou, diviner surmised: there will be good harvests this year, auspicious.) It was also used as names of sacrifices. For instance, it reads on bone shell No. 301 of Cuì 《粹》, “bǐngxū bǔ, yì dīnghài fù dīng suì, qí lì (lí) niú. 丙戌卜，翌丁 亥父丁歲，其 (犁)牛.” (Divined on the day of Bingxu: Offer sacrifices to the deceased emperor named Ding with farm cattle on the succeeding day of Dinghai.) Chūn 春 (spring) was written as on bone shell No. 3 on page 39 of volume six in Qián 《前》, and as on bone shell No. 4 on page 28 of volume seven in Qián 《前》. Chūn tiān 春天 (spring), a season with growing plants and blooming flowers, is also one for farmers to grow crops. On bone shell No. 1151 of Cuì 《 粹》, it reads that “yú chūn chē jīnqiū 于春 今秋” (asking whether this spring or autumn would see what they had divined.) In Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “qiū, hégǔ shú yě. Cóng hé, fù shěngsheng. 秋，禾穀熟 也. 從禾， 省聲.” (Qiū 秋 refers to the ripening of grain, with the radical of hé 禾 and the abbreviated initial of sheng .) It was written as on bone shell No. 3 on page 18 of volume two of Jiǎ 《甲》, as on bone shell No. 592 of Bǔ 《卜》 and so on in oracle bone inscriptions. They resemble the shape of a tortoise (guī 龜) with two horns and were loaned to refer to qiūtiān 秋天 (autumn). Different types of crops ripen in autumn, hereby, the literal meaning of qiū 秋 is more or less the same as that of nián 年. In oracle bone inscriptions, jīn 今 and qiū 秋 were used as a fixed time term. For example, on bone shell No. 226 of Jiǎ 《甲》, it reads that “jīnqiū qí yǒu jiàng qí. 今秋其有降隻.” (Will we be blessed with good luck from gods this autumn.) It seems that there were almost no clear divisions in four seasons during the Shang dynasty. The character of dōng 冬 does exist in oracle bone inscriptions in the form of , yet was only interpreted as zhong 終, with the meaning of end. Hence, dōngrì 冬日 (present winter day) on bone shell No. 3 of Dadong in Tōng 《通》大東) ( equals zhōngrì 終日 (the end of the day), and dōngxī 冬夕 on bone shell No. 431 of Tōng 《通》 equals zhōngxī 終夕 (the end of the night). The character dōng 冬 was never interpreted as dōngtiān 冬天 (winter) at that time. Nouns related to directions in oracle bone inscriptions include dōng 東, nán 南, xī 西, běi 北, zhong 中, wài 外, shàng 上, xià 下, and so on. The character dōng 東 literally means tuó 橐 (a bag opening at both ends), nán 南 (a tile-made musical instrument in ancient China) (see Yīnxū wénzì jì 殷虛文字記 [Characters Recorded in Yinxu Inscriptions]), and 北 běi (two people being back to back, loaned to refer to a direction in the Shang dynasty). Xī 西, written as in oracle bone inscriptions, resembles the shape of a bird’s nest. In Shuōwén·Xībù 説文西 部 [Xi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “rì zài xīfāng ér niǎo qī, gù yīn yǐ wéi dōngxī zhī xī. 日在西方而鳥棲，故因以爲東西之西.” (Birds perch on trees when the sun sets in the west, i.e., xī 西 in Chinese, which is adopted to refer to the west as in dōngxī 東西, east and west.) Directions during the Shang dynasty were not only special concepts, but also gods capable of swallowing cattle and sheep as well as summoning wind and rain. As mentioned earlier, all the four directions have their own specific names (namely xī 析, jiā 夾, wéi 韋, and bāo 勹) as well as their own messengers, i.e., fēng 风 in Chinese (namely xié , kǎi

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

7

凱, yí 彝 and yì ). Fēng 風 are the messengers of the Supreme God (see bone shell No. 2452 and No. 3094 of Yǐ 《乙》, and bone shell No. 398 of Tōng 《通》). Meanwhile, xī 析, jiā 夾, wéi 韋, and bāo 勹 are the Gods of the four directions. 3.3 Plantnames There are not many plant names in oracle inscriptions; they can be divided into two categories that follow here. The first one is tree names, namely mù 木 (wood), lín 林 (woods), sēn 森 (forest), zhú 竹 (bamboo), liǔ 柳 (willow), lì 栗 (chestnut), sāng 桑 (mulberry), méi 枚 (trunk), etc. The second one is crop names, namely hé 禾 (rice plant), mài 麥 (wheat), lái 來 (wheat), shǔ 黍 (glutinous millet), shú 秫 (sorghum), dào 稻 (rice plant), mù 穆 (rice plant), sù 粟 (unhusked millet), etc. Fruit tree names such as táo 桃 (peach), méi 梅 (plum), lǐ 李 (plum), lí 梨 (pears), and so on were not found existing in oracle bone inscriptions, where mù 木, lín 林, sēn 森, liǔ 柳, lì 栗, sāng 桑, and méi 枚 did not have their literal meanings, either. Furthermore, bǎi 柏 (cypress) and zhū 朱 (red-core pine) were adopted in place names, xìng 杏 (apricot) in human names, and qǐ 杞 (Chinese wolfberry) in names of the vassal states. The emergence of sāng 桑 (mulberry) indicates the development of sericulture as early as in the Shang dynasty, which can be proved by the character of cán 蠶 (silkworm). The two characters stood for place names or human names in oracle bone inscriptions. Chinese ancestors had already developed ways to cultivate crops. In 1985, carbonized grains including wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, broomcorn millet, etc. in the Neolithic period were discovered at the Donghuishan ruins in Minle County, Gansu Province, China, whose carbon-14 test results indicated that they had been in existence about 5,000 ± 159 years ago, serving as staple foods for northern people in ancient China. In some sites of ruins in the Yellow River Basin, such as Dadiwan Ruins3 in Qin’an County, Gansu Province, and Yangshao Cultural Ruin,4 Mianchi County, Henan Province, glutinous millet was discovered, but it was not as widespread as millet. Southern China is the first place in the world to plant rice, where planting techniques had already been mastered by prehistoric humans. In the Hemudu Ruins in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, remains of rice grains and rice husks existing about 7,000 years ago had been discovered in great amounts. In some places, they even piled to 1-meter high.5 Artificial rice about 8,000 to 9,000 years ago was also discovered in the region of Dongting Lake of Hunan Province. The character lái 來 refers to wheat. In Shuōwén·Láibù 説文来部 [Lai Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zhōu suǒ shòu ruì mài lái móu yě. 周所受瑞 麥來麰也.” (Wheat with multiple spikes, wheat and barley were harvested in the Zhou dynasty.) It means “to come,” as in wănglái 往來 (come and go) in oracle bone inscriptions. According to Shuōwén·Hébù 説文禾部 [He Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “mù, hé yě 穆, 禾也.” (Mù 穆 refers to the rice plant.) In oracle bone inscriptions, it was written as like the shape of wheat ears with awns and adopted in names of places. After the Zhou dynasty, it was replaced by mù 㣎, meaning xìwén 細文 (fine lines of decorative patterns), with the extended meanings of fineness, harmony, and respectfulness, whose literal

8

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

meaning was no longer in usage nowadays. There were no grass names in oracle bone inscriptions. However, in Shuōwén·Căobù 説文艸部 [Cao Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “chú, yì cǎo yě. 芻, 刈艸也.” (Chú 芻 refers to grass-cutting.) It was written as , like the shape of a hand pulling out grass. In addition, it also reads in the same section that “zhé, duàn yě. 折，斷也.” (Zhé 折 means to break off.) On bone shell No. 1565 of Xīn 《新》, it was written as , like the shape of grass-cutting with an axe, and was adopted in place names in oracle bone inscriptions. According to Shuōwén·Mǎngbù 説文茻部 [Mang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “mù, rì qiě míng yě. 莫，日且冥 也.” (Mù莫 means dusk.) Mù 莫 was written as in oracle bone inscriptions, resembling the shape of the sun hidden in grass. Nouns, such as huan 萑, hāo 蒿, rù 蓐, and so on, were only used in names of places or vassal states, all belonging to the initial group of căo 草. Hence, it can be concluded that there were grass names during the Shang dynasty, but they were not recorded in oracle bone inscriptions. Moreover, carbonized seeds of vegetables such as leaf mustards and Chinese cabbages stored in clay pots excavated in the Original Village Ruins of Banpo Village in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province date back to 6,000 or even 7,000 years ago,6 making it unreasonable to draw the conclusion that people of the Shang dynasty did not have the habit of planting and eating vegetables. However, it is a fact that oracle bone inscriptions fail to record any of them. 3.4 Animalnames Although birds, beasts, insects, and snakes might do harm to ancient people, they could also bring benefits, for their meat could serve as food, their furs as clothing, their bones and horns as instruments and decorations, and the tamed ones as servants. Ancient people and animals had a very close relationship. As a result, there are a large number of animal names in oracle bone inscriptions. Beast names include hǔ 虎, sì 兕, xiàng 象, láng 狼, lù 鹿, yōu 麀, mí 麛, mí 麋, lín 麐 (麟), zhì 廌, zhì 彘, hóu 猴, tù 兔, hú 狐, bèi 狽, and so on. Zhì 廌, i.e., xièzhì 解廌, refers to a Chinese beast. In Shànglínfù 上林赋 [The Imperial Forest] by Sima Xiangru 司馬相如, a litterateur and politician of the Western Han dynasty, it reads, “nòng xièzhì 弄解廌” (to hunt xièzhì 解廌). There is a note quoted from Zhang Yi 張 揖, an expert in exegesis of the Eastern Han dynasty, “xièzhì sì lù ér yījiǎo, rénjūn xíngfá dézhōng zé shēng yú cháotíng, zhǔ chù bùzhí zhě. 解廌似鹿而一角，人 君刑罰得中則生于朝廷，主觸不直者.” (Xièzhì 解廌 looks like a deer but with only one horn on the head. When it was hard for the Emperor to determine who was the criminal, it would be brought to the imperial court to identify the evil one and butt the criminal.) Sì 兕 belongs to the Rhinoceroteridae or is believed to be female rhinoceroses. Currently, Xishuangbanna of Yunnan Province is the only place with elephants in China. However, it is evident that northern China during the Shang dynasty used to be a habitat for elephants. The character xiàng 象 was written as on bone shell No. 3 of page 31 in volume one of Qián 《前》, and as on bone shell No. 11 of page 5 in volume two of Hòu 《後》, the pictographic characters of an elephant. In Shuōwén·Xiàngbù 説文 · 象部 [Xiang Group of Origin

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

9

of Chinese Characters], it reads, “xiàng, nányuè dàshòu. 象，南越大獸.” (Xiàng 象 is a giant beast living in Nanyue, modern parts of Guangdong and Guangxi as well as northern Vietnam.) What it describes is the situation after the Zhou and the Qin dynasties. The character zhì 彘 refers to wild boars, written as in oracle bone inscriptions. According to Luo Zhenyu 羅振玉, an archeologist and paleographist in the late Qing dynasty and the early Republic of China, “zhì dài yěshǐ, fēi shè bù kě dé, yì yóu zhì zhī bù kě shēng dé. 彘殆野豕，非射不可得，亦猶雉之不可 生得” (Zhì 彘 probably refers to wild boars, which can only be hunted by shooting arrows. It is similar to pheasants, which cannot be hunted alive.)7 Bird names include niǎo 鳥, zhuī 隹, guàn 雚, fèng 鳳, yàn 燕, zhì 雉, hàn , què 雀, yīng 鷹, yù 鷸, and so on. The word zhuī 隹 refers to short-tailed birds. In Zhuī 隹 Group of Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “zhuī, niǎo zhī duǎnwěi zǒngmíng yě. 隹, 鳥之短尾總名也.” (Zhuī 隹 is a general term for short-tailed birds.) It was loaned from oracle bone inscriptions as the modal adverb of wéi 惟. According to Niăo 鳥 Group in Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese Characters], “fèng, shénniǎo yě. Tiānlǎo yuē: fèng zhī xiàng yě, hóng qián lín hòu, shé jǐng yú wěi, guàn sǎng yuān sāi, lóng wén hǔ bèi, yàn hàn jī huì, wǔ sè bèi jǔ, chū yú dōngfāng jūnzǐ zhī guó, áoxiáng sìhǎi zhī wài, guò kūnlún, yǐn dǐzhù, zhuó yǔ ruòshuǐ, mù sù fēngxué, jiàn zé tiānxià dà ānníng. 鳳，神鳥也.天老曰：鳳之象也，鴻前麐 後，蛇頸魚尾，鸛顙鴛思，龍文虎背，燕頷雞喙，五色備舉，出於東方君 子之國，翱翔四海之外，過崐崘，飲砥柱，濯羽弱水，莫宿風穴，見則天 下大安寧.” (Fèng 鳳, phoenix, is a kind of divine bird. According to Tianlao, a minister of the Yellow Emperor: The appearance of a phoenix combines the head of a swan, the rump of a female Chinese unicorn, the neck of a snake, the tail of a fish, the forehead of a crane, the beard of a male mandarin duck, the pattern of a dragon, the back of a tiger, the chin of a swallow, and the beak of a chicken, with all the five colors; they come from the kingdom in the East and fly all over the world, passing the Kunlun Mountain, drinking water in the Dizhu Mountain, washing feathers in the Ruo River and roosting in the Feng Cave at night; wherever a phoenix shows up, there will be great peace and tranquility.) It is an imaginary divine bird and was loaned to refer to 風 fēng in oracle bone inscriptions. The word hàn belongs to the pheasant family. In Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “hàn, zhì féi hàn yīn zhě yě. ，雉肥 音者也” (The word hàn refers to fat pheasants with loud voices.) In oracle bone inscriptions, none of què 雀 (sparrow), hàn , or yù 鷸 (snipe) adopted their literal meanings. Insect names include huǐ 虫, tā 它 (shé 蛇), kūn 䖵, cán 蠶, dù 蠹, wàn 萬, shǔ 蜀, zhū 鼄, gǔ蠱, and so on. According to Shuōwén·Chóngbù 説文 · 虫部 [Chong Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “huǐ, yī míng fù, bó sāncùn, shǒu dà rú bò zhǐ, xiàng qí wòxíng 虫，一名蝮，博三寸，首大如擘指，象其卧形.” (Huǐ 虫, also named fù 蝮, is a three-inch-long venomous snake with its head the size of a thumb and its written form resembling a curling snake.) In addition, in Shuōwén·Tābù 説文 · 它部 [Ta Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “tā, chóng yě, cóng chóng ér cháng, xiàng yuān qū chuí wěi xíng. Shàng gǔ cǎo jū huàn tā, gù xiāng wèn wú tā hū. Shé, tā huò cóng chóng. 它，蟲也，從蟲而長， 象冤曲垂尾形.上古草居患它，故相問無它乎.蛇、它或從虫.” (Tā 它 also

10

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

refers to a venomous snake, belonging to serpents but with a long body in curved shape with a straight tail. Snake attacks were so common in ancient grass shelters that people greeted each other by inquiring whether there were snakes or not. Shé 蛇 and tā 它 may both belong to the huĭ 虫 category.) It is probably that huǐ 虫 and tā 它 used to be one character and later were differentiated in pronunciation and meaning, so they were defined as two characters in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters]. The word tā 它 was interpreted as disasters in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 6 on page 16 in volume one of Qián 《前》， it reads, “wáng tā亡它.” (No disasters.) On bone shell No. 2 on page 46 of Tiě 《鐡》, it reads, “wéi tā 隹它.” (Disasters occur.) It was also used as a pronoun, such as tāshì 它示 (Late Shang Emperor without male heirs), deceased collateral rulers. For instance, on bone shell No. 1 on page 1 in volume three of Xù 《續》, it reads, “xīnyǒu bǔ, bīn zhēn: wù yú tāshì dǎo. 辛酉卜，賓貞：勿 于它示禱.” (Divined on the day of Xinyou, diviner Bin surmised: do not pray to deceased collateral rulers.) In Shuōwén·Kūnbù 説文 · 䖵部 [Kun Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “Kūn, chóng zhī zǒng míng yě, cóng èr chóng, dú ruò kūn. 䖵，蟲之總名也，從二虫，讀若昆.” (Kūn 䖵, the generic term of insects, is composed of two chóng 虫 radicals, pronounced as kūn 昆.) However, it was adopted in names of gods or vassal states in oracle bone inscriptions. Cán 蠶 was written as on bone shell No. 1853 of Tiĕ 《鐡》, a pictograph. People during the Shang dynasty attached so great importance to the silkworm cultivation and silk production that annual sacrifices were offered to the Silkworm God. For example, on bone shell No. 6 on page 28 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, it reads, “láo, wǔ láo, cán shì sān láo, bā yuè. ，五 ，蠶示三 ，八月.” (Sheep, five sheep, three sheep were taken as sacrifices to the Silkworm God in the eighth month.) In Shuōwén·Ròubù 説文 · 禸部 [Rou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “wàn, chóng yě. 萬, 蟲也.” (Wàn 萬 refers to insects.) It was written as on bone shell No. 5 on page 30 in volume three of Qián 《前》 and on bone shell No. 1215 of Yǐ 《乙》, a pictograph of a scorpion. It was loaned as a numeral term in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 1171 of Cuì 《粹》, it reads, “guǐ mǎo bǔ zhī (huò) qí sān wàn bù. 癸卯卜隻 (獲), 其三萬不.” (Divined on the day of Guimao: beasts (hunted). Do they amount to 30,000. . .?) The word shǔ 蜀, later written as 蠋 zhú, means caterpillars on sunflowers, 鼄 zhū means spiders, and 蠱 gǔ refers to stomach parasites. The word 蠱 gǔ refers to calamities in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 1926 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads, “zhēn: mǔ bǐng wú gǔ. 貞：母丙亡蠱” (diviner surmised: offering sacrifices on the day of Bing will not bring disasters.) Nouns related to aquatic animals include yú 魚, měng 黽, guī 龜, tuó 鼍, long 龍, and so on. The word měng 黽 refers to frogs, and tuó 鼍 is a kind of Chinese alligator. Turtles were an important kind of animal in the Shang dynasty as their shells were used as divination materials. For example, on bone shell No. 7 of page 54 in volume four of Qián 《前》, it reads, “bǐngwǔ bǔ, qí yòng guī. 丙午卜，其 用龜.” (Turtle shells were used for divination on the day of Bingwu.) The original meaning of long 龍 was a type of reptile that can be domesticated. As early as in the Emperor Shun’s reign of the Yu (虞 Yú) dynasty, there used to be the kingdom

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

11

of Huànlóng 豢龍 (dragon keepers). For example, in Zhāogōng 29 Nián 昭公二 十九年 [29th Year of Duke Zhao’s Reign] from Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals by Zuo Qiuming], it reads, “gǔzhě xùlóng, gù guó yǒu huànlóng shì, yǒu yùlóng shì. 古者畜龍，故國有豢龍氏，有御龍氏.” (In an ancient state, there used to be dragon keepers, complemented with the surnames of Huànlóng 豢龍 and Yùlóng 御龍.) However, long 龍 was turned into an imaginary divine creature combining images of several animals as early as in the Shang dynasty. In oracle bone inscriptions, long 龍 refers to names of gods, lóngjiǎ 龍甲 refers to posthumous titles of the ancestors of people in the Shang dynasty, and 龍 方 lóngfāng refers to names of vassal states. Domestic animals were born from taming wild animals. For example, in Běnjīng of Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Works of Huainanzi], it reads, “jū shòu yǐ wéi chù. 拘獸以 爲畜.” (Wild animals are captured and domesticated.) Livestock names in oracle bone inscriptions include jī 雞, chú 雛, quǎn 犬, gŏu (狗), shǐ 豕, jiā 豭, tún 豚, bīn 豩, yáng 羊, gāo 羔, gǔ 羖, mǎ 馬, niú 牛, láo 牢, láo , and so on. The word shǐ 豕 is the general term of pigs, jiā 豭 refers to male pigs, bīn 豩 means two pigs, and tún 豚 stands for piggies. The word mǎ 馬 (horse) had as many as 15 names, for it was one of the most important livestock during the Shang dynasty. They could serve not only as sacrifices or meat, but also as a labor force pulling carriages. At that time, a carriage was generally pulled by two horses. The character niú 牛 of the time referred to either cattle or buffalo. They were raised not only for sacrifices or meat, but also for pulling carriages or plowing, which can be further concluded that the history of carriages pulled by cattle dates back to an early time from the following description: “Huángdì zuòchē, yǐn zhòng zhì yuan. Shàohào shí jiàniú, yǔ shí xīzhòng jiàmǎ. Zhòng yòu zuòchē, gēngguǎng qí zhìdù yě. 黄帝 作車，引重致遠. 少昊時駕牛，禹時奚仲駕馬. 仲又作車，更廣其制度也.”8 (Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, 2698–2598 BCE, invented the carriage to carry heavy objects and to travel far. During the reign of Shao Hao, 2598–2525 BCE, Huangdi’s son, cattle were then used to pull carriages. During the reign of Yu, Xi Zhong invented horse-drawn carriages and expanded the usage of the new style of carriage.) The word láo 牢 literally refers to a cow pen, loaned in oracle bone inscriptions to refer to penned cattle for sacrifice. The word láo literally means a sheepfold, loaned in oracle bone inscriptions to refer to penned sheep for sacrifice.9 3.5 Namesofweaponsandproductiontools Weapon names in oracle bone inscriptions include bīng 兵, gē 戈, gong 弓, bì 弜, xián 弦, shǐ 矢, fú 箙, hán 圅, yì 医, gān 干, shū 殳, dāo 刀, fǔ 斧, yuè 戉, wǒ 我, and so on. The word bīng 兵 is the generic term for weapons and sometimes interpreted as bīng shì 兵士 (soldiers) in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 729 of Yì 《佚》, it reads, “jiǎzǐ bǔ, zhēn: chū bīng ruò. 甲子 卜，貞：出兵若.” (Divined on the day of Jiazi, diviner surmised: Shall we send troops.) The word bì 弜 means gōng qí 弓檠 (bow adjuster). Wang Guowei wrote, “bì zhě, bì zhī běnzì . . . bì suǒ yǐ fǔ gōng, xíng lüè rú gōng, gù cóng èr gōng, qí yīn dāng dúrú bì.10 弜者，柲之本字 . . . 柲所以輔弓，形略如弓，故從二弓，其音

12

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

當讀如弼.” (The original written form of bì 弜 was bì柲 . . . The latter, faintly in the shape of a bow, is used as a frame to support a bow, and thus the character is composed of two radicals of gong 弓 with bì 弼 as its pronunciation.) Words fú 箙 and hán 圅 both mean arrow quivers, in which arrowheads are placed downward. However, fú 箙 is used during the archery, when arrows exposed half outside are easy holding, so its written forms are and , while hán 圅 is a closed container for arrow storage, written as . The word yì 医 is probably a kind of weapon blocking arrows like a shield. For instance, according to Fāngbù 匚部 [Fang Group] in Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles], a Chinese dictionary compiled by Gu Yewang 顧野 王, in the 6th century CE, “yì, suǒ yǐ bì shǐ yě. 医，所以蔽矢也.” (Yì 医 is used to block arrows.) The word gān 干 is a kind of shield, and shū 殳 is a long pole with a sharp point on top instead of a blade. In Shuōwén·Gēbù 説文 · 戈部 [Ge Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “yuè, fǔ yě. 戉,斧也.” (Yuè 戉 is an axe.) In oracle bone inscriptions, it is written as , like the shape of an axe, and loaned to name vassal states. The word wǒ我 written as , is a single-element pictograph. Wang Guowei wrote, “wǒ zì yí xiàng bīngqì xíng, xùn yú wéi jiè yì. 我字疑象兵器形，訓余爲借義.”11 (Wǒ 我 looks like the shape of a weapon, with a loaned meaning of yú 余, I.) It was mainly used as the plural form of the first personal pronouns for people in the Shang dynasty to address themselves. It was also adopted in the names of vassal states or people. Production tools include jīn 斤, lěi 耒, sì 㭒, chā 臿, huá 㭉, bǐng 柄, and so on. Jīn 斤 is a chopper. Lěi 耒 is a double-tooth-edged tillage implement with a straight handle, which was not used alone in oracle bone inscriptions. Instead, jí 耤, written as on bone shell No. 5 on page 17 in volume five of Qián 《前》, is like a hand holding a lěi 耒 to plow lands. Sì 㭒 (耜) is a spade-like farming tool and was used to indicate names of people in oracle bone inscriptions. Chā 臿 is used for digging, equal to qiāo 鍬 (a spade). Huá 㭉, a shovel with two blades, was later written as huá 鏵. According to Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “huá, liǎng rèn chā yě. 㭉，两刃臿也.” (Huá 㭉 is a shovel with two blades.) As early as in the Neolithic period, nets painted with fishing were used to catch fish, which can be proved by the pottery unearthed in Banpo Ruins, Xi’an, Shanxi Province, China. Names of fishing tackles in oracle bone inscriptions include wǎng 網, bì 畢， jū (罝), liào 䍡 (máo 罞) and so on. Bì 畢 was written as on bone shell No. 45 of Zhōu Yuán Bǔ Jiǎ 《周原卜甲》, meaning a long-handled net for catching birds. Jū (罝) is a net for catching rabbits, which was adopted in names of people or places in oracle bone inscriptions. The word liào 䍡 refers to a net for catching elk. The nouns related to farmland will be discussed here incidentally. There are such nouns as tián 田, chou 疇, jiāng 畺, and so on in oracle bone inscriptions. The word tián 田 is usually interpreted as tiánliè 田獵 (to hunt) in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 7 on page 9 in volume two of Qián 《前》, it reads, “wáng tián yú yóu. 王田于遊.” (The Emperor was hunting while traveling.) Occasionally, it means nóngtián 農田 (farmland). For instance, on bone shell No. 1 of Hé 《合》, it reads, “dà lìng zhòngrén yuē: xié tián, qí shòunián. 大令衆人曰: 劦田，其受年.” (The Emperor called on everyone to farm land with joint efforts

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

13

to ensure a good harvest.) Of 458 records of tián 田 in seven works on oracle bone inscriptions, only five are interpreted as farmland with the rest meaning hunting. The reason for this is probably related to the fact that it was first invented to indicate the square lands with boundaries for hunting or herding. With the development of agriculture, lands were used to plant crops, resulting in the meaning of farmland for 田 tián was eventually adopted. According to Shuōwén·Tiánbù 説文 · 田部 [Tian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “tián, chén yě, shù gǔ yuē tián. 田，陳也，樹穀曰田.” (Tián 田, equal to chén 陳, means planting crops.) This indicates the predominance of its latter meaning. The word chou 疇 refers to tilled farmlands, while jiāng 畺 (疆) is the boundary of a farmland, written as in oracle bone inscriptions, with a semantic constituent of gong 弓 (a measuring instrument of length) and a phonetic constituent of jiāng 畕 (boundaries). In Shuōwén·Tiánbù 説文 · 田部 [Tian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “jiāng, jiè yě, cóng jiāng, sān, qí jiè huà yě. Huò cóng jiāngtǔ zuò jiāng. 畺，界也，從畕，三，其界畫也.或從彊土作疆.” (Jiāng 畺 means boundaries drawn with the aid of a ruler, composed of the radicals of jiāng 畕, boundaries, and 三 sān, three. It may also be written as jiāng 疆, composed of the radicals of jiāng 彊 and tǔ 土.) Jiāng 彊 belongs to gōng 弓 (bow), as in ancient times, gōng 弓 served as a tool to measure length and the boundaries of a farmland were settled only after such measurement. 3.6 Nounsrelatedtomateriallife The so-called material life includes clothing and adornments, food and drinks, palaces and houses, and utensils. Clothing and adornments were inseparable with the development of textile techniques. Ancient Chinese people began to master the textile techniques as early as 7,000 years ago.12 There was further development in textile in the Shang dynasty. Nouns related to clothing include yī 衣, qiú 裘, biàn 弁, jīn 巾, sī 絲, and so on. The word yī 衣 (clothes) was interpreted as names of sacrifice and places rather than its literal meaning. The word qiú 裘 means fur coat. As ancient people wore fur coat with fur on the exterior, on bone shell No. 8 on page 8 in the second volume of Hòu《後》, qiú 裘 is written as , resembling the exposure of fur. The word biàn 弁 refers to a conical cap. As Xu Zhongshu 徐中舒, Chinese historian and scholar in ancient characters, explained, Zheng Xuan 鄭玄, a scholar on Confucianism and ancient classics in the Eastern Han dynasty, noted in Shìguānlǐ 士 冠禮, adulthood ceremony of ancient males, of Yílĭ 儀禮 [The Book of Ritual], “biàn míng chū yú pán 弁名出於槃” (biàn 弁 is originated from pán 槃), so pán 槃 is the ancient version of the later character of pán 盤, and 盤 pán and 弁 pán shared the same pronunciation in ancient times, with the last one referring to the annular crown wound around the hair on top of the head.13 Biàn 弁 was written as on bone shell No. 3 on page 5 in volume five in Xù 《續》, like two hands holding a round cap. Some stone-built men excavated in the tomb of Fu Hao (Fù Hăo 婦好) at Yinxu are wearing round caps on the head to tie their hair.14 The upper part of biàn 弁 is in the shape of square for the convenience of carving. The word

14

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

sī 絲 refers to natural silk, referred to as official titles in oracle bone inscriptions, where there are other nouns related to clothing, including bó 帛 and zhǐ 黹 (fú 黻), with the former adopted in place names and the meaning of the latter unknown. Primitive man already knew how to decorate themselves with jade.15 Nouns related to adornments in oracle bone inscriptions during the Shang dynasty include yù 玉, jué 玨, jué 玦, huang 璜, bèi 貝, péng 朋, and so on. The word yù 玉, written as fēng 丰 on bone shell No. 783 in Yì 《佚》, means three pieces of jade tied together with a rope. The word jué 玦 is an annular jade with notches, while jué玨 refers to a pair of white jades, and huang 璜 is a semi-circular flat jade with a hole in the center. Bèi 貝 are shells used by ancient people as money or ornaments. Péng 朋 means two strings of shells joined together. Wang Guowei wrote, “yīnshí yù yǔ bèi jiē huòbì yě . . . qí yòng wéi huòbì jí fúyù zhě, jiē xiǎoyù xiǎobèi ér yǒu wù yān yǐ jì zhī. suǒ jì zhī bèi yù, yú yù zé wèi zhī jué, yú bèi zé wèi zhī péng, rán èrzhě yú gǔ shí wéi yīzì. 殷時玉與貝皆貨幣也 . . . 其用爲貨幣及服御者，皆 小玉小貝而有物焉以繫之. 所繫之貝玉，於玉則謂之玨，於貝則謂之朋，然 二者於古實爲一字.” (Yù 玉 and bèi 貝 were both used as currency in the Shang dynasty. What served as money or ornaments were all small pieces of tied jade or shells. Although the tied pieces of jade were named 玨 jué and the tied shells péng 朋, the two used to be the same character in ancient times.)16 Nouns related to food and drinks include ròu 肉, zì 胾, gēng 羹, jiǔ 酒, lǐ 醴, chang 鬯, and so on. The word zì 胾 means a big piece of meat, gēng 羹 is broth with five flavors, jiǔ 酒 is ordinary alcohol, lǐ 醴 means sweet alcohol, and chang 鬯 is sacrificial alcohol made from tulip and millet. Nouns related to palaces and houses include gong 宫, shì 室, zōng 宗, xuān 宣, qǐn 寢, guān 官, jiā 家, tíng 庭, hù 户, mén 門, xiàng 向, and so on. The word gong 宫 is the general term for houses. The restoration of the houses of Banpo ruins shows that walls built on a round foundation were topped by a conical roof, with a ventilation hole on the slant of the roof and a door in the intermediate section of walls, both of whom formed the shape of lǚ 吕.17 Such a house resembles the vault, being round and hollow, and hence was named gong 宫. The word shì 室 means houses or dwellings, zōng 宗 is ancestral temples, and xuān 宣 is palaces during the Shang dynasty. According to Mián 宀 Group in Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese Characters], “xuān， tiānzǐ xuānshì yě. 宣，天子宣室也.” (Xuān 宣 refers to the spacious rooms of Chinese emperors’ palaces.) Guo Moruo explained, “yǐ xuān mìng gōngshì, gù qí běnyì.18 以宣名宫室，固其本義.” (A palace room named with xuān 宣 is the adoption of its literal meaning.) The word qǐn 寢 means bedroom, guān 官 is archaic form of guǎn 館 (guest room), and 家 jiā is dwelling place. Pigs were so crucial in ancient times that not only did every house have one, but also human and pigs lived together under the same roof, so jiā 家 has the radical of shǐ 豕 (pig). Currently, in certain areas of southern China, a house has two stories with the lower one for raising pigs and the upper one for residence, keeping the characteristics of ancient buildings.19 The word tíng 庭 means an open space in front of a hall, and hù 户 is a single-leaf door. The word xiàng 向 refers to a window facing north, adopted in place names in oracle bone inscriptions.

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

15

As for implements and utensils, nouns related to means of transportation include chē 車 and zhōu 舟.20 According to Shuōwén·Chēbù 説文 · 車部 [Che Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “chē, yúlún zhī zǒngmíng, xià hòu shí xīzhòng suǒ zào, xiàngxíng. 車，輿輪之總名，夏后時奚仲所造，象形.” (Chē 車 is a general term for carts with wheels invented by Xi Zhong in the late Xia dynasty, a pictograph.) In Shuōwén·Zhōubù 説文 · 舟部 [Zhou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “zhōu, chuán yě. Gǔ zhě gōng gǔ, huòdí kūmù wéizhōu, yǎnmù wéijí, yǐ jì bùtōng, xiàngxíng. 舟，船也.古者共鼓，貨狄刳木 爲舟，剡木爲楫，以濟不通，象形.” (Zhōu 舟 means boat, a pictograph. To cross the river, Gong Gu and Huo Di built boats by hollowing out wood and made oars by sharpening wood.) Hence, it is concluded that carts and boats had already been invented before the Shang dynasty, so characters of their components, such as lún 輪, yú 與, yuan 轅, è 軛, héng 衡, jí 楫, gāo 篙, and so on, must have been in existence as well in the Shang dynasty, yet oracle bone inscriptions did not have any record related to them. Container names include ding 鼎, huò 鑊, lì 鬲, yǎn 甗, guǐ 𣪘 (簋), mǐn 皿, fǒu 缶, yú 盂, pán 槃, dòu 豆, zūn 尊, jiǎ 斝, jué 爵, kǔn 壼, yǒu 卣, yǒu 酉, dǒu 斗, lǐ 豊, sheng 升, and so on. The word ding 鼎 is a three-legged bronze caldron with two loop handles, mainly used for cooking or boiling. The word huò 鑊 is a caldron without legs, adopted in human names in oracle bone inscriptions. Lì 鬲 is a caldron with three hollow legs. Yǎn 甗 is a cooker for steaming. The word guǐ 𣪘, later written as guǐ 簋, is a food vessel for millet. The word mǐn 皿 is the general name for bowls, saucers, cups, and plates. Dòu 豆 is a stem dish, while zūn 尊 is a vessel for alcohol, adopted in names of sacrifice in oracle bone inscriptions. Jiǎ 斝 is a round-mouthed vessel for alcohol with three legs, two pillar-like protrusions on the rim and a loop handle. Jué 爵 is also a vessel for alcohol with three legs. Dǒu 斗 is a vessel for alcohol with a long handle like the Big Dipper, so it is loaned to refer to the Big Dipper in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 174 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads, “gēngwǔ bǔ, xī xīnwèi cóng dǒu. 庚午卜，夕辛未从斗.” (Divined on the day of Gengwu, diviner tested: shall we offer sacrifices to the Big Dipper on the evening of Xinwei?) The word yǒu 酉 is a vessel for alcohol with a small mouth, a big belly and a hoop handle, loaned in oracle bone inscriptions and bronze inscriptions, referring to any alcohol drinks, which is equal to jiǔ 酒 and is also the name of the Tenth Earthly Branch. Lǐ 豊 refers to high standing containers for jade objects and silk fabrics. Names of musical instruments include gǔ 鼓, fén 鼖, qìng 磬, yōng 庸 (鏞), yuè 龠, and so on. Fén 鼖 is a very big drum. Qìng 磬 is a chime stone with the shape of a carpenter’s square, adopted in names of vassal states or places in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 111 on page 2 of Duō《掇》, it reads, “qí yí yú qìngjīng. 其宜于磬京.” (Shall we offer sacrifices to worship the God of Land in Qingjing?) The word yōng 庸 (鏞) is a large bell. Yuè 龠 is a bamboo pan flute, the predecessor for sheng 笙 (a reed pipe wind instrument) is adopted in names of sacrifices in oracle bone inscriptions probably due to the fact that sacrifices were often accompanied by yuè 龠. For instance, on bone shell No. 611 on page 2 of Cún 《存》, it reads, “wùxū bǔ, wáng zhēn: wáng qí bīn zhōng

16

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

dīng róng yuè, wú chī. 戊戌卜，王貞：王其賓中丁肜龠，亡蚩.” (Divined on the day of Wuxu, the Emperor surmised: it will be disaster-free to offer sacrifices on two successive days to the wife of Zhong Ding, a deceased emperor of the Shang dynasty.) 3.7 Nounsrelatedtoofficialrank The Shang dynasty was a slave society with two opposing classes of the slaves and the slave-owners, each of which consisted of various strata. Nouns related to the class of slave-owners include wáng 王, jūn 君, yǐn 尹, hòu 后, gong 公, hóu 侯, bó 伯, zǐ 子, shǐ 史, and so on. Wáng 王 refers to the supreme ruler in the Shang dynasty with the highest rank among all slave-owners. Both jūn 君 and yǐn 尹 mean court officials and tribal chiefs in the Shang dynasty. For example, on bone shell No. 760 of Tōng 《通》, it reads, “Xīnwèi wáng bǔ, yuē yú gào duōjūn yuē bǎn, bǔ yǒu suì. 辛未王卜，曰余告多君曰舨，卜有祟.” (Divined on the day of Xinwei, the Emperor presided over the divination, surmising, “I asked Duō Jūn 多 君, an official, to build a boat.” The result was inauspicious.) On bone shell No. 13 on page 25 of Jiǎn 《戩》, it reads, “Jiǎwǔ zhēn: qí lìng duōyǐn zuò wángqǐn. 甲午貞：其令多尹作王寑.” (Divined on the day of Jiawu, diviner surmised: Should Duō Yǐn 多尹, an official, be appointed to build the bed chamber for the Emperor?) Both Duō Jūn 多君 and Duō Yǐn 多尹 in the two examples share the same meaning. Hòu 后 always shares the same character with yù 育 in oracle bone inscriptions. The chief of a matrilineal clan was the female ancestor for this tribe, who made great contributions to breeding offspring, so was bestowed with the honorary title of yù 育 (to breed offspring), which was adopted by later generations to address the ruler, too. In classics, it was written as hòu 后 to distinguish it from yù 育 as in shēng yù 生育 (giving birth). According to Wang Guowei, the original writing form of hòu 后 was the shape of a person, with being the irregular transformation of , and being the irregular transformation of zĭ 子 upside down.21 The written form of gōng 公 resembles the mouth of an urn, loaned by oracle bone inscriptions to refer to wáng gīng 王公 (princes and dukes). For example, on bone shell No. 405 of Cuì 《粹》, it reads, “xīnhài zhēn: rén zǐ yòu duō gōng suì. 辛亥貞：壬子又多公歲.” (Divined on the day of Xinhai, diviner surmised: offer sacrifices to the Duke of Duo for good harvest.) Both hóu 侯 (second-rank duke) and bó 伯 (third-rank duke) are titles of nobility. In oracle bone inscriptions, there are méng hóu hǔ 蒙侯虎, yōu hóu 攸侯, dīng hóu 丁侯, xiān hóu 先侯, hóu guāng 侯光, zhǐ bó 沚伯 , showing all nobility of the slave-owner class with the titles of hóu 侯 or bó 伯. The word zǐ 子, also a rank of nobility, refers to the sons or grandsons of the emperors of the Shang dynasty. People addressed with zǐ 子, such as zǐ yú 子漁, zǐ yāng 子央, zǐ chūn 子春, zǐ yì 子亦, zǐ měi 子美, zǐ gōng 子弓, zǐ xiào 子效, and bì zǐ qìng 畢子 often appeared in oracle bone inscriptions involving sacrifices or expeditions, probably related to the fact that they were military leaders of the time. Nouns related to slaves include chén 臣, zǎi 宰, zhòng 衆, pú 僕, nú 奴, qiè 妾, bì 婢, bì 嬖, zāng 臧, xī 奚, and so on. Chén 臣 was written as on bone shell No.

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

17

1 of page 1 in Tiě 《鐡》 and on bone shell No. 4 on page 27 in volume four of Qián 《前》， both resembling a vertical eye. Guo Moruo explained, “Rénshǒu fǔ zé mùshù, suǒyǐ ‘xiàng qūfú zhīxíng’ zhě, dài yǐ cǐ yě. Gǔrén zàozì, yú rénxíng zhī xiàngzhēng, mù pō zhòngyào, rú yè zì, shǒu zì děng, jūn yǐ yīmù dàibiǎo yīrén huò yī tóushǒu, cǐ yǐ yīmù wéi yīchén, bùzú wéiyì. 人首俯則目竪，所以 ‘ 象屈 服之形’者，殆以此也. 古人造字，于人形之象徵，目頗重要，如頁字、 首 字等，均以一目代表一人或一頭首，此以一目爲一臣，不足爲異.” (When a person is bowing down, his eyes will look vertical, which resembles the gesture of obedience. When creating characters, ancient people attached great importance to the eyes, mù 目 is to symbolize human being, such as the characters of xié 頁, head, and shǒu 首, head, where an eye represented a person or a head, so it is unsurprising to have an eye represent a minister, chén 臣.)22 It is probably due to the fact that the respectful and submissive attitude of chén 臣 had gained the trust of their owners so that they were risen to soldier status. For instance, on bone shell No. 11 on page 12 of Jiǎn 《戩》, it reads, “zhēn: hū (hū) duōchén fá kŭ fāng. 貞：乎(呼) 多臣伐 方.” (Diviner surmised: summon innumerous soldiers to combat the Ku State.) There are occasions where chén 臣 exercised the rights of their masters to manage other slaves. Xiǎo chén 小臣 was a supervisor in the imperial palace, jí chén 耤臣 is a manager in charge of slaves for agriculture, mù chén 牧臣 is a director in charge of slaves for grazing, and zhōu chén 州臣 is a governor in charge of administrative affairs of a certain area, who were all turned into the slave-owner class. Zǎi 宰 refers to slaves engaged in handicraft industry or housework. According to Shuōwén·Miánbù 説文 · 宀部 [Mian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “zǎi, zuìrén zài wūxià zhíshì zhě. 宰，辠人在屋下 執事者.” (Zǎi 宰 is the guilty doing housework in a house.) Wu Qichang 吳其昌 wrote, “gài zǎi běn shì yú wūxià cāoxīn yǐ túshā qiēgē niúyáng shēngquán zhě, gù yǐnshēn zhī yòu wéi zǎifū, zhí zhǔ pēngpáo yě. 蓋宰本示于屋下操辛以屠殺切割 牛羊牲牷者，故引申之又爲宰夫，職主烹炰也.” (Since zǎi 宰 literally refers to the ones who worked in their owner’s house to slaughter or cut cattle, sheep and other sacrificial offerings, its meaning is extended to zǎi fū 宰夫 in charge of cooking and roasting.)23 The status of zǎi 宰 also rose gradually. For example, zhǒng zǎi 冢宰 and zǎi xiàng 宰相 were the highest official submitting only to the emperor. Zhòng 衆 means slaves or free people engaged in labor, pú 僕 are male slaves serving in their owners’ home, and qiè 妾 are female slaves serving in their owners’ home, who not only were owned by and worked for slave owners, but also might bear and raise children for the rulers of the Shang dynasty. There are three meanings of qiè 妾 from oracle bone inscriptions: (1) the spouse of the emperor of the Shang dynasty, the same as qī 妻 (wife). For example, on bone shell No. 8 on page 1 of Shí 《拾》, it reads, “láo shì guǐ qiè bǐjiǎ . . . 牢示癸妾妣甲” (offer sacrifices of cattle to Bǐ Jiǎ, the wife of Zhǔ Guǐ, a deceased emperor); (2) the same as mǔ 母 (mother). For instance, on bone shell No. 4 on page 29 in volume one of Qián 《前》, it reads, “yú qiè (mǔ) gēng.于妾(母) 庚.” (The mother of Tài Gēng 太庚, the sixth emperor of the Shang dynasty); and (3) human sacrifice consisting of both male and female slaves in the Shang dynasty. For example, on bone shell No. 2729 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads, “zhī (yòu) qiè yú bǐ jǐ. 㞢(侑) 妾于

18

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

妣己.” (Offer human sacrifices to Bǐ Jǐ, the wife of a deceased emperor.) Bì 婢 also means female slaves, who were often killed and buried along with the dead by nobles or used as human sacrifice in the Shang dynasty. Bì 嬖 means the very female slaves for human sacrifice. For instance, on bone shell No. 4 on page 23 in the first volume of Hòu (《後》上), it reads, “dīngsì bǔ, qí liáo yú hé láo, chén bì. 丁巳卜，其尞于河牢，沈嬖.” (Divined on the day of Dingsi: worship the God of River by setting fire, offering sacrificed cattle and sinking female slaves.) According to Shuōwén·Nǚbù 説文 · 女部 [Nu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “bì, pián bì, ài yě. 嬖，便嬖，愛也.” Bì 嬖 means close associate, i.e., favor, which was its later meaning. Zāng 臧, the same as chén 臣 and mín 民, originally means slaves. Xī 奚 was also a kind of slaves in the Shang dynasty , like one braid of a slave and was written as on bone shell No. 783 of Jiǎ 《 甲》 being pulled by a hand. It is believed by several scholars that it represents a slave led by a rope. Luo Zhenyu wrote, “yú yì zuìlì wéi xī zhī běnyì, gù cóngshǒu zhísuǒ yǐ jū zuìrén. 予意罪隸爲奚之本誼，故從手執索以拘罪人.” (I assume that the original meaning of xī 奚 is a guilty slave, so the written form represents a hand restraining him with a rope.)24 Guo Moruo also explained, “àn yǐ zìxíng éryán, nǎi suǒ jū zhě guìdì fǎnjiǎn èrshǒu zhīxíng, shí fēi cóng nǚ, rán wèi dāng yǐ zuìlì wéi běnyì, zé gù míngbái rúhuà yě. 案以字形而言，乃所拘者跪地反剪二手之形， 實非從女，然謂當以罪隸爲本義，則固明白如畫也.” (Judging from the form of the character itself, it looks like a restrained person on his knees with both hands behind his back. Hence, its literal meaning should be a guilty slave instead of a female slave, which is clearly represented like a painting.)25 3.8 Nounsrelatedtosacrificeandsuperstition The rulers of the Shang dynasty were superstitious about ghosts and gods. In addition to divining for almost everything, they would practice innumerous sacrifices every year. In Biǎojì 表記 [Records of Gentlemen’s Good Deeds] of Lǐjì 禮記 [Book of Rites], it reads, “yīnrén zūnshén, xiānguĭ ér hòulĭ. 殷人尊神，先鬼而 後禮.” (People of the Shang dynasty honored spiritual beings; they valued them over etiquette.) What they would usually honor included the forefathers of the emperors and the dukes, deceased emperors, the Supreme God of Heaven, and all other gods. There are such nouns in oracle bone inscriptions as dì 帝, shàngdì 上帝, shì 示, qí 祈, guǐ 鬼, mèi 鬽 (魅), wū 巫, and so on. Dì 帝, also called shàng dì 上帝, refers to the Supreme God of Heaven dominating mankind and the nature. For example, on bone shell No. 1 on page 123 of Tiě 《鐡》, it reads, “jīn èryuè dì lìng yŭ. 今二月帝令雨.” (In the second month of this year, the God summons rains.) In addition, it is also used to address the deceased emperors of the Shang dynasty. For instance, on bone shell No. 62 of Nán Fǔ 《南輔》, it reads, “yĭmăo bŭ, qí yòu suì yú dì dīng yī láo. 乙卯卜，其又歲于帝丁一牢.” (Divined on the day of Yimao: Offer another sacrificed cattle to the deceased emperor of Wu Ding.) Shì 示 was literally a spirit tablet and written as xià 丅 on oracle bone No. 743 of Jiǎ 《甲》, resembling a wooden or stone pillar in the shape of a spirit tablet. According to Ding Shan 丁山, a historian and expert in ancient Chinese

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

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characters, “shì suǒyǐ cóng èr huò yī, shì shàngdì de xiàngzhēng; qí suǒyǐ cóng gǔn, zhèngxiàng jìtiān gān, gān páng zhī bāgài xiàng suǒ guà zhī cǎibó, shì zì běnyì jiùshì shègān jìtiān (túténg jì) de xiàngzhēng.26 示所以從二或一，是上帝 的象徵；其所以從 丨，正象祭天杆，杆旁之八蓋象所掛之彩帛，示字本義 就是設杆祭天(圖騰祭) 的象征.” (The reason why the writing form of shì 示 has an èr 二 (two) or a yī 一 (one), is that they both symbolize the Supreme God. As for the reason why it has a 丨 gǔn, extending from bottom to top, it is because it looks like a pillar used to worship the Heaven. The 八 bā, eight, next to the pillar, resembles the colored silk hung on it. The original meaning of shì 示 symbolizes a sacrifice to Heaven by setting a worshipping pillar, i.e., a totem sacrifice.) Hu Guangwei 胡光偉 maintained, “xià gài xiàng mùbiǎo, suǒyǐ dàishén, yú dì tóngyì. 丅蓋象木表，所以代神，與帝同意.” (Xià 丅 resembles the shape of a wooden pillar. Therefore, just like dì 帝, it represents the Supreme God.)27 Shì 示 in oracle bone inscriptions refers to spirit tablets of the heavenly gods, the earthly gods, the deceased forefathers of the emperors, and the deceased emperors. For example, on bone shell No. 8092 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads, “què zhēn: shì ruò wáng. 𣪊貞：示若 王.” (Diviner Què surmised: The ancestors will bless the Emperor.) On bone shell No. 195 of Cuì 《粹》, it reads, “guǐwèi zhēn: xīnmǎo qí dǎo hé yú shì. 癸未貞:辛 卯其禱禾于示.” (It is divined on the day of Guiwei whether or not we should pray for good harvests in front of the spirit tablet on the day of Xinmao.) Shì 示 also refers to a kind of sacrifice. For instance, on bone shell No. 218 of Níng 《寧》, it reads, “wùxū bǔ, qí shì yú bǐ jǐ wáng bīn. 戊戌卜，其示于妣己王賓.” (Divined on the day of Wuxu: offer sacrifices to Bĭ Jĭ, the spouse of a deceased emperor.) Guǐ 鬼 was written as on bone shell No. 13751 of Hé 《合》 and as on bone shell No. 14292 of Hé 《合》, like a monster with a huge head and a human body, also adopted in names of vassal states in oracle bone inscriptions, such as guǐ fang 鬼方, a tribe in the northwest during the Shang, the Western Zhou, and the Eastern Zhou dynasties. Mèi 鬽 (魅) were monsters that were turned from old creatures, and guǐ mèi 鬼魅 was a fixed term in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 5397 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads, “wáng zhān yuē: zī guĭ mèi, wù zhēn. 王占曰：茲鬼魅，戊貞.” (The Emperor surmised: there are ghosts now. Divine again on the day of Wu.) The word wū 巫 was used in the names of gods in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 5 on page 46 of volume three in Yè 《鄴》, it reads that “xīnhài bŭ, dì bĕiwū. 辛亥卜，帝北巫.” (Divined on the day of Xinhai: offer sacrifices to the God of Beiwu.) On bone shell No. 3221 of Rén 《人》, it reads that “rén wŭ bŭ, wū dì. 壬午卜，巫帝.” (Divined on the day of Renwu: offer sacrifices to the God of Wu.) Wū 巫 also refers to those who were professional in divination, praying and inviting spiritual beings. It is said that Wū Xián 巫咸 was a supernatural wizard during the Shang dynasty. In Lísāo 離 騷 [On Encountering Trouble] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “wūxián jiāng xī jiàng xī. 巫咸將夕降兮.” (Wizard Wū Xián would appeal to God to descend from Heaven this night.) Wang Yi 王逸 annotated that “wūxián, gǔ shénwū yě, dāng yīn zhōng zōng zhī shì. 巫咸，古神巫也，當殷中宗之世.” (Wū Xián was a supernatural wizard in ancient China, living during the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of the Shang dynasty.)

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Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

There are about 100 nouns related to sacrifice in oracle bone inscriptions, such as cí 祠, chái 祡, shěn 沈, dì 諦, fú 福, dīng 丁, fāng 方, gāng 剛, gào 告 (祰), jì 祭, jiǎo 烄, liáo 尞, lǚ 吕, lǔ 魯, mái 薶, róng 肜, sì 祀, shí 祏, xī 熹, yàn 焱, yī 衣, yí 宜, yòu 祐, yú 雩, yù 禦, yuè 礿, zhēng 烝, zhǐ 祉, zhēng , zhù 祝, and so on. The noun cí 祠 refers to sacrifices offering food to deceased male and female ancestors or supernatural beings, written as sī 司 in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 3 on page 14 in volume two of Qián 《前》, it reads that “wáng niàn sī (cí). 王廿司(祠).” (The Emperor offers food sacrifices on the 20th day.) In Shìtiān 釋天 [Explaining the Heaven] in ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], the first Chinese dictionary, it reads that “chūnjì yuē cí. 春祭曰 祠.” (Sacrifices in spring are called cí 祠.) This was the case during the Zhou dynasty rather than that during the Shang dynasty. Chái 祡 means offering sacrifice with wood fire. For instance, on bone shell No. 374 of Yí 《遺》, it reads that “zhēn, wáng bīn chái wú yóu. 貞，王賓祡亡尤.” (Diviner surmised: it is auspicious to offer sacrifice to the Heaven with wood fire.) According to Shuōwén·Shìbù 説文 · 示部 [Shi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “chái, shāochái fénliáo yǐ jì tiānshén. 祡，燒祡焚燎以祭天神.” (Chái 祡 means offering sacrifice to the heavenly gods with wood fire.) Chén 沈 means offering sacrifices by sinking cattle or sheep in the river. In Dàzōngbó 大宗伯 (the head of the officers in charge of spring rites) of Zhōulǐ 周醴 [The Rite of Zhou], it reads, “yǐ lí chén jì shānlín chuānzé. 以貍沈祭山林川澤.” (Offer sacrifices to mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes by sinking lí 貍, a fox-like animal.) Hence, it can be concluded that such sacrifice is inherited from the Shang dynasty. Dì 禘 originally means offering sacrifices to the heaven, the nature or the gods of the four directions in the Shang dynasty and gradually turned into the meaning of offering joint sacrifices to deceased ancestors and emperors, written as dì 帝 in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 15 on page 26 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, it reads that “guǐyǒu zhēn, dì wǔ yù, qí sān xiǎo láo. 癸酉貞， 帝五玉，其三小牢.” (Divined on the day of Guiyou: sacrifice five jade objects and three small cattle to the deceased ancestors and emperors together.) On bone shell No. 1 on page 19 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, it reads, “zhēn: dì yú wáng hài. 貞：帝于王亥.” (Diviner surmised: offer joint sacrifices to the deceased emperor of Wang Gai, seventh king of the Shang dynasty.) In Shuōwénrǎnzhǐ 说 文染指 [Another Interpretation of Origin of Chinese Characters] by Wu Chu 吴 楚, a scholar in the Qing dynasty, it reads that “dì wéi jì dì, jí cóng shì dì wéi huìyì. 禘爲祭帝，即從示帝爲會意.” (Dì 禘 means offering sacrifices to the deceased ancestors and emperors together, with shì 示 as its semantic radical and dì 帝 as its phonetic radical, an ideograph.) Fú 福 means sacrifices to thank for God’s blessing or asking for blessings from God. For example, on bone shell No. 49 of Hé 《合》, it reads, “xīnyǒu bǔ, níng zhēn: wáng bīn xī fú wú yóu. 辛酉卜，寧 貞：王賓夕福亡尤.” (Divined on the day of Xinyou, diviner Níng surmised: it is auspicious for the Emperor to ask for blessings from gods at night.) Luo Zhenyu explained that, “(fú) zài shāngdài zé wéi jìmíng, ‘jì’ xiàng chíròu, ‘fú’ xiàng fèngzūn. (福) 在商代則爲祭名， ‘祭’象持肉， ‘ 福’象奉尊.” (Fú 福 used to be a kind of sacrifice during the Shang dynasty. The writing form of jì 祭 looks like

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

21

a hand holding meat, and fú 福, holding a vessel for alcohol in hand.)28 Dīng 丁 refers to sacrifices displaying sacrificial offerings. For example, on bone shell No. 3 on page 21 in volume one of Qián 《前》, it reads, “bǐngzǐ bǔ zhēn wǔ dīng dīng qí láo zī yòng. 丙子卜貞武丁丁其牢茲用.” (Divined on the day of Bingzi, diviner tested: whether is it auspicious for the Emperor of Wu Ding to offer sacrifices by displaying cattle here.) Fāng 方 is sacrifices to honor the four directions. For instance, on bone shell No. 2639 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “zhēn fāng dì yī qiāng èr quăn yī níu.貞方帝一羌二犬卯一牛.” (Tested: offer sacrifices to the God of directions with a deer, two dogs, and an ox.) Gāng 剛 means cutting off meat for sacrifice, and gào 祰, offering sacrifices to ancestors with words. According to Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “jì, sì yě, cóng shì, yǐ shǒu chíròu. 祭，祀也，從示，以手持肉.” (Jì 祭 means sì 祀, sacrifice, and has shì 示 as its semantic radical, resembling a hand holding meat.) It is one of the five most crucial sacrifices practiced during the Shang dynasty, including róng 肜, yì 翌, jì 祭, and xié 劦. Jiǎo 烄 means sacrifices praying for rain by burning human and animals. For example, on bone shell No. 2 on page 33 in volume five of Qián 《前》, it reads that “zhēn wù jiǎo wú qí yǔ. 貞勿烄亡其雨.” (Diviner tested: no rain if without burning people and animals as sacrifices.) In Xīgōng 21 Nián僖公二十一年 [21st Year of Duke Xi’s Reign] in Zuǒzhuàn 《左 传》 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “xià dàhàn, gōng yù fén wū wāng. 夏大旱，公欲焚巫尫 .” (There was a severe drought in Summer, the Duke of Xi wanted to burn wizards praying for rain to avoid disasters.) This is probably the inherited practice of jiǎo 烄. Liáo 尞 means sacrifices by burning wood. Both lǚ 吕 and lǔ 魯 refer to sacrifices by displaying sacrificial offerings outside the ancestral temples. Mái 薶 means sacrifices by burying animals, and róng 肜, a successive sacrifice on the next day after the first sacrifice, one of the five most crucial sacrifices during the Shang dynasty. In Gāozōngróngrì 高宗肜日 [On Gao Zong’s Second Successive Sacrificial Day] in Shū, Kǒngzhuàn孔傳 [Kong Anguo’s Annotations to Book of Documents] (孔 安國, an official in charge of recording history and expert in ancient classics in the Western Han dynasty) annotated that “jì zhī míng rì yòu jì, yīn yuē róng, zhōu yuē yì.祭之明日又祭，殷曰肜，周曰繹.” (A successive sacrifice on the next day of the first sacrifice is called róng 肜 in the Shang dynasty, and yì繹 in the Zhou dynasty.) It is written as shān 彡 in oracle bone inscriptions. Sì祀 refers to normal sacrifices. Nouns related to sacrifice also include shí 祏, xī 熹, xié 劦 ( ), yàn 焱, yòu 祐, shè 社, zhù 祝, and so on. Yī 衣 means sacrifices to both the heaven and the earth. As Wang Guowei explained, “àn yī sì yí jí yīnsì, yīn běn yī shēng, dú yú yī tóng . . . bǔcí yú dàfēngdūn zhī yī, dài jiē jiè wéi yīn. Wéi bǔcí wéi héjì zhīmíng, dàfēngdūn wéi zhuānjì zhīmíng, cǐ qí yì yě29 案衣祀疑即殷 祀，殷本 聲，讀與衣同 . . . 卜辭與大丰敦之衣，殆皆借爲殷.惟卜辭爲合 祭之名，大丰敦爲專祭之名，此其異也.” (It is noted here that yī sì衣祀 equals yīn sì殷祀. Yīn 殷 was literally pronounced as yī, the same as yī衣 . . . Both oracle bone inscriptions and Dàfēngdūn 大丰敦, bronze inscriptions of the early Western Zhou dynasty, borrowed yīn 殷 to stand for yī 衣. The only difference is that in the former it refers to sacrifices to both the heaven and the earth, while in

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Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

the latter, a special type of sacrifice.) Yí宜 means offering sacrifice to the God of Land. For example, on bone shell No. 10 of Fǔ Diǎn 《簠典》, it reads that “jǐchou bǔ, què zhēn: gēngyín qí yí bù qí? 己丑卜，𣪊貞庚寅其宜不其？” (Divined on the day of Jichou, Diviner Què tested: should we offer sacrifice to the God of Land on the day of Guiyin?) Yú 雩 is a sacrifice for rain by dancing accompanied with music. Yù 禦 refers to sacrifices praying for being disaster-free and was, in most cases, written as yù 御 in oracle bone inscriptions. For instance, on bone shell No. 4 on page 8 in volume four of Qián 《前》, it reads, “zhēn: yù zhuān niú sānbǎi. 貞：御叀牛三百.” (Diviner tested: perform disaster-free invocation rituals with 300 heads of cattle.) Yuè 礿 refers to spring sacrifices in the Xia and Shang dynasties, and summer sacrifices in the Zhou dynasty. In Wángzhì 王制 [Royal Policies] in Lǐjì 《礼记》 [The Book of Rites], it reads, “tiānzǐ zhūhóu zōngmiào zhī jì, chūn yuē yuè, xià yuē dì, qiū yuē cháng, dōng yuē zhēng. 天子諸侯宗廟之祭，春曰礿，夏曰禘，秋曰嘗，冬曰烝 .” (Sacrifices by emperors and nobles conducted in the ancestral temples are named yuè 礿 in spring, dì 禘 in summer, cháng 嘗 in autumn and zhēng 烝 in winter.) It is noted by Zheng Xuan, “cǐ gài xiàyīn zhī jìmíng, zhōu zé gǎi zhī, chūn yuē cí, xià yuē yuè. 此蓋夏殷之祭名，周則改之，春曰祠，夏曰礿.” (Those were sacrificial names during the Xia and the Shang dynasties. The Zhou dynasty changed spring sacrifices into cí 祠 and summer sacrifices into yuè 礿.) Zhēng 烝 refers to sacrifices offering freshly harvested rice to ancestors. In Sìjì 四祭 [Four Sacrifices] of Chūnqiūfánlù 春秋繁露 [Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals] by Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒, a philosopher in the Western Han dynasty, it reads, “zhēng zhě, yǐ shíyuè jìn chūdào yě. 烝者，以十月進初稻也.” (烝 Zhēng sacrifice occurs in the tenth month with an offering of newly harvested rice.) Zhēng refers to sacrifices offering silks to gods. In addition, nouns such as huò 禍, jiù 咎, chī 蚩, suì (祟), bǔ 卜, zhēn 貞 also correlate with sacrifices and other superstitious rituals. When spiritual beings will not grant blessings, it is called huò 禍. When they bring down disasters, it is called jiù 咎. chī 蚩, composed of huǐ 虫 and zhǐ 止 as its radicals, resembles toes bitten by a snake, with the extended meaning of disasters or the falling of disasters. For example, on bone shell No. 10124 of Hé 《合》, it reads, “zhēn: wéi dì chī wǒ nián. 貞：隹帝蚩我年.” (Diviner surmised: the Supreme God will bring disasters to our harvest.) Calamities brought by ghosts or gods are called suì 祟, written as in oracle bone inscriptions. Bǔ 卜 refers to the divination to predict luck by observing the cracks of burned tortoise shells. The rulers in the Shang dynasty were so superstitious that they divined everything. For example, on bone shell No. 6 on page 30 in volume three of Qián 《前》, it reads, “jiǎchén bǔ, shāng shòu nián. 甲辰卜，商受年.” (Divined on the day of Jiachen: will people in the Shang dynasty receive good harvests?) Zhēn 貞 means making divination, used before divined contents. For instance, on bone shell No. 3 on page 30 of volume three of Qián 《前》, it reads, “gēngxīn bǔ， zhēn: wǒ shòu shǔnián sānyuè. 庚辛卜，貞：我受黍年三月.” (Divined on the day of Gengxin, diviner surmised: in third month of the next year, we will have good harvests.)

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

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3.9 Nounsrelatedtohumanbody Of various nouns related to human body in oracle bone inscriptions, such as shǒu 首, xié 頁, tiān 天, méi 眉, mù 目, miàn 面, ěr 耳, shé 舌, chǐ 齒, zì 自, shēn 身, yì 亦 (yè 腋), gōng 肱, zhǎo 㕚(爪), zhǒu 肘, fù 腹, zú 足, shū 疋, zhǐ 止, gǔ 骨, ròu 肉, and so on, a few words deserve further discussions. Shǒu 首 and xié 頁 are synonymous, both indicating a man’s head. According to Shuōwén·Shŏubù 説 文 · 首部 [Shou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “shǒu, gǔwén shǒu yě. Shǒu, tóu yě. 首，古文𦣻也. 𦣻，頭也.” (Shǒu 首 was written as shǒu 𦣻 in ancient times. Shǒu 𦣻 means head.) Moreover, in Shuōwén·Xiébù 説文 · 頁部 [Xie Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “Xié, tóu yě. 頁， 頭也” (xié頁 refers to head). The two characters were both used in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 24956 of Hé 《合》, it reads, “Jiǎchén bǔ, chū zhēn: wáng jí shǒu, wú yán. 甲辰卜，出貞：王疾首，亡延.” (Divined on the day of Jiachen, diviner Chū surmised: the Emperor has a headache; it will last.) On bone shell No. 4786 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “Jǐsì bǔ, què yǐ xié shí èr yuè. 己巳卜，雀以頁十二月.” (Divined on the day of Jǐsì, Que will offer a head on the 12th month.) Tiān 天 is the top of the head. According to Shuōwén·Yībù 説 文一部 [Yi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “tiān, diān yě, zhì gāo wú shàng. 天，顛也，至高無上.” (Tiān 天 refers to the top of the head, the supreme position.) Wang Guowei wrote, “gǔwén tiān zì, běn xiàng rénxíng, yīnxū bǔcí huòzuò tiān,《 mèngdǐng 》,《 dàfēngguǐ》 zuòtiān, qí shǒu dú jù . . . tiān běn wèi rén diān dǐng, gù xiàng rénxíng, bǔcí, 《 mèngdǐng 》 zhī tiān tiān èr zì suǒyǐ dú fén qí shǒu zhě, zhèng tè zhù qí suǒ xiàng zhī chù yě. 古文天字， 本象人形，殷虚卜辭或作 ，《孟鼎》、《大豐簋》作 ，其首獨巨 . . . 天 本謂人顛頂，故象人形，卜辭，《孟鼎》之 二字所以獨墳其首者，正 特著其所象之處也.” (Tiān 天 in Old Chinese resembles the shape of a human. It might be written as in oracle bone inscriptions in Yinxu, and as in Mèng Dǐng, a bronze caldron made by Minister Meng in the Western Zhou dynasty, and Dà Fēng Guǐ, a bronze food vessel to commemorate one good harvest in the early Western Zhou dynasty. The head in the two characters are extraordinarily large . . . As the original meaning of 天 tiān is the top of the head, its writing form looks like the shape of a person. That in oracle bone inscriptions and in Mèng Dǐng boast huge-head in their writing forms is to highlight the image they resemble.)30 Occasionally, tiān 天 adopts its literal meaning in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 9067 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads, “gēngchén wáng fú jí zhèn tiān. 庚辰王弗疒朕天.” (On the day of Gengchen, the Emperor has no headache.) However, it bears the meaning of dà 大 (big), as in dà xiăo 大小 (big and small) in most cases. For instance, on bone shell No. 3916 of Jiǎ 《甲》, it reads that “zhēn xīn tiān (dà) yǔ. 貞辛天(大) 雨.” (Diviner surmised: it is going to rain heavily on the day of Xin.) It is also interpreted as names of vassal states or people, but no single case has been found there that tiān 天 means heaven. The original meaning of zì 自 is nose, and it is interpreted as zì jǐ 自己 (oneself) or used as prepositions such as cóng 從 (from) or yóu 由 (from) in oracle bone inscriptions. Shēn 身, written as on bone shell No. 7797 of Yǐ 《乙》 and as on bone shell

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Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

No. 687 of Yǐ 《乙》, literally means pregnancy. For example, on bone shell No. 6691 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “bǐngshēn bǔ, què zhēn: fùhǎo shēn, fúyǐ fù zàng. 丙申卜，𣪊貞：婦好身，弗以婦葬.” (Divined on the day of Bingshen, diviner Que surmised: The woman is pregnant and she should not be buried together with the dead.) It is extended to mean belly or human body. For instance, on bone shell No. 7797 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “zhēn: wáng jí shēn wéi bǐ jǐ chī. 貞：王疒身 隹妣己蚩.” (Diviner surmised: the Emperor is sick in his belly; is Bi Ji blamed for this?) The word yì 亦 originally means armpit, yet was interpreted as “again” in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 2691 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “xún rényín yǔ, jiǎchén yì yǔ. 旬壬寅雨，甲辰亦雨.” (It will be rainy on the day of Renyin this month, and the day of Jiachen will be rainy, too.) Zhǎo 㕚 literally referred to both fingernails and toenails and was later written as zhăo 爪. For example, according to Shuōwén·Yòubù 説文又部 [You Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zhǎo, shǒuzú jiǎ yě. 㕚, 手足甲也.” (Zhǎo 㕚 refers to both fingernails and toenails.) Duan Yucai annotated that “zhǎo, zhǎo, gǔjīnzì, gǔzuò zhǎo, jīn yòng zhǎo. 㕚, 爪古今字，古作㕚，今用爪.” (Zhǎo 㕚 and zhǎo 爪 represent the same word written in different times. Zhǎo was written as 㕚 in antient times, while written as 爪 today.) Zhǎo 㕚 was adopted in names of places in oracle bone inscriptions. Being the same character, both shū 疋 and zú 足 refer to human foot. These words have such great vitality that they are still used as single words or morphemes nowadays. 3.10 Appellations Appellations in oracle bone inscriptions include zǔ 祖, fù 父, mǔ 母, bǐ 妣, fēi 妃, chóu , qiè 妾, xiōng 兄, dì 弟, fū 夫, qī 妻, fù 婦, zǐ 子, zhí 侄, sūn 孫, yǒu 友, bīn 賓, and so on. The majority of which maintain their original meanings up until now. Some of which are worthy of being discussed. Mǔ 母 (mother) and nǚ 女 (daughter) were initially one word, written as on bone shell No. 1378 of Yǐ 《乙》 and on bone shell No. 237 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, like a person bending knees with hands crossed. The added two dots maybe represent breasts. The graphs were gradually developed into two different characters of mǔ 母 and nǚ 女. Qī 妻, written as on bone shell No. 2995 of Rén 《人》, has 女 nǚ and yòu 又 as its two radicals, representing a female being taken away by force. In the patriarchal society in ancient times, males would always forcibly take away females to make them their wives. However, in Shuōwén·Nǚbù 説文 · 女部 [Nv Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “qī, fù yǔ fū qí zhě yě. 妻，婦 與夫齊者也.” (Qī 妻 is the spouse possessing an equal status with the husband.) This is its later meaning. Qī 妻, instead of being interpreted as the wife of a male, refers to the spouse of a deceased emperor or names of vassal states. Moreover, in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “bǐ, mò mǔ yě. 妣, 殁 母也.” (Bǐ 妣 means a deceased female ancestor.) It is written as in oracle bone inscriptions. The pronunciation of chóu is the same as that of chóu 仇 as in chóupĭ 仇匹 (a spouse) and refers in particular to the spouse of deceased ancestors when offering special sacrifices to female ancestors. Chen Mengjia 陳夢家,

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

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Chinese archeologist, poet, and expert in ancient Chinese characters, mentioned four titles related to spouses of deceased ancestors of the emperors as well as those of the deceased emperors, namely mǔ 母, qiè 妾, qī 妻, and chou . See the following examples. Shì rén mǔ bǐ gēng 示壬母妣庚 (Bi Geng, the spouse of deceased Emperor Shi Ren) Shì rén qiè bǐ gēng 示壬妾妣庚 (Bi Geng, the spouse of deceased Emperor Shi Ren) Shì rén qī bǐ gēng 示壬妻妣庚 (Bi Geng, the spouse of deceased Emperor Shi Ren) (Hòu 《後》) (Bone shell No. 6 on page 1 in volume one of Hòu) Shì rén chóu bǐ gēng 示壬 妣庚 (Bi Geng, the spouse of deceased Emperor Shi Ren) Shì guǐ qiè bǐ jiǎ 示癸妾妣甲 (Bi Jia, the spouse of deceased Emperor Shi Gui) Shì guǐ chóu bǐ jiǎ 示癸 妣甲 (Bi Jia, the spouse of deceased Emperor Shi Gui) (Hòu《後》) (Bone shell No. 8 on page 1 in volume one of Hòu)31 All of the above examples were involved in similar sentence patterns, but in different times. Mǔ 母 was available in various times, yet qī 妻 and qiè 妾 were mostly used in oracle bone inscriptions during the reign of Emperor Wu Ding. Chóu was confined to oracle bone inscriptions in a particular type of sacrifice for all the ancestors during the reigns of Wu Geng and Yi Xin. Niáng 娘 means young girl in oracle bone inscriptions, differing from its present meaning of mother. For example, on bone shell No. 62 of Bǐng 《丙》, it reads, “fù niáng shì sān. 婦娘示 三.” (The young girl checked three pieces of tortoise shells.) Rather than referring to its present-popular meaning of younger sister, mèi 妹 was interpreted as names of places in oracle bone inscriptions or mèi 昧 (being obscure or dark) as in mèi shuǎng 昧爽 (dawn). 3.11 Polysyllabicnouns The majority of words during the Shang dynasty are monosyllabic with a few being polysyllabic. For example, polysyllabic noun phrases related to time include dàcǎi 大采, xiǎocǎi 小采, dàshí 大食, xiǎoshí 小食, shànrì 善日, zhōngrì 中日, zèrì 昃日, méirì 湄日, dànméi 旦湄, and shēngyuè 生月. Dàcǎi 大采 refers to the moment when the sun just rises, while xiǎocǎi 小采 is the moment when the sun is about to set. Shàn rì 善日 is the time of midday. For example, on bone shell No. 12814 of Hé 《合》, it reads, “zhī rì dàcǎi yǔ wáng bù bù. 之日大采雨王不步.” (It rained when the sun rose that day; hence, the Emperor did not walk on foot.) On bone shell No. 276 of Yì 《佚》, it reads, “rénxū bǔ, yǔ? jīnrì xiǎocǎi yǔn dàyǔ, yán fá shànrì wéi qǐ. 壬戌卜，雨？今日小采允大雨，延伐善日隹晵.” (Divined on the day of Renxu: is it going to rain today? It is going to rain at sunset, so let’s

26

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

postpone the logging to tomorrow noon when it clears up.) The usage of dàcǎi 大采 and xiǎocǎi 小采 remained during the Spring and Autumn period. For example, in Lǔyǔ II 魯語下 [The Discourses of Lu] of Guóyǔ 國語 [The Discourses of the States], it reads that “tiānzǐ dàcǎi zhāorì, xiǎocǎi xīyuè. 天子大采朝日，小采 夕月.” (The Emperor should wear a five-colored gown to practice the ritual of welcoming the sun at sunrise, and wear a three-colored gown to practice the ritual of greeting the moon after sunset.) Dàshí 大食 is the time period between nine and ten o’clock in the morning, and xiǎoshí 小食 between four and five o’clock in the afternoon. Zhōng rì 中日 refers to noon. For example, on bone shell No. 78 of Hé 《合》, it reads that “guǐhài bǔ, zhēn: xún jiǎyín dàshí yǔ, yǐmǎo xiǎoshí dàqǐ, zhōngrì dàyǔ zì nán. 癸亥卜，貞：旬甲寅大食雨，乙卯小食大晵，中日大雨 自南.” (Divined on the day of Guihai, diviner surmised: it is going to rain between nine and ten o’clock in the morning on the day of Jiayin this month. On the day of Yimao, it will clear up between four and five o’clock in the afternoon, and heavy rain will come from the south at noon.) Ancient people used to have two meals a day, and dàshí 大食 and xiǎoshí 小食 were their time for breakfast and dinner. Zèrì 昃日 stands for the time when the sun begins to move westward, and both méirì 湄日 and dànméi 旦湄 refer to daybreak. For instance, on bone shell No. 5 on page 45 in volume two of Qián 《前》, it reads that “méirì bùyǔ. 湄日不雨.” (It is not going to rain during the daybreak.) Polysyllabic nouns related to palaces and houses include dōngqǐn 東寝, dōngshì 東室, xīqǐn 西寝, xīshì 西室, dàshì 大室, zhōngshì 中室, xuèshì 血室, and so on. Dōngqǐn 東寝, dōngshì 東室, and xīqǐn 西寝 are names for emperors’ residence palace in the Shang dynasty. For instance, on bone shell No. 34067 of Hé 《合》, it reads that “yú dōngqǐn, xīnchŏu yú xīqǐn. 于東寝，辛丑于西寝.” (Live in the east residence palace, and then move to the west one on the day of Xinchou.) On bone shell No. 4699 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “wùxū bǔ, bīn zhēn: qí yuán dōngshì. 戊戌卜，賓貞：其爰東室.” (Divined on the day of Wuxu, diviner Bin surmised: Move to the east residence palace.) Dàshì 大室, zhōngshì 中室, and xuèshì 血室 all refer to places in an ancestral temple where sacrificial ritual was conducted. For example, on bone shell No. 624 of Jiǎ 《甲》, it reads, “yǐsì bǔ, huì xiǎo chén cì . . . yĭ gài yú zhōngshì. 乙巳卜，惠小臣刺 . . . 以匄於中室.” (Divined on the day of Yisi, diviner surmised: the minor official is allowed to kill . . . to offer them in zhōng shì 中室, the sacrificial chamber.) On bone shell No. 4 on page 176 of Tiě 《鐡》, it reads that “zhēn: yì xīnwèi qí yòu yú xuèshì sān dà láo jiǔyuè. 貞：翌辛未其侑於血室三 大 九月.” (Diviner surmised: we will offer three big sheep for sacrifice in xuè shì 血室, the sacrificial chamber, tomorrow, the day of Xinwei on the ninth month.) Polysyllabic nouns of sacrifices include dìrì 帝日, xiérì 劦日, bīnxī 賓夕, and so on. Dìrì 帝日 and xiérì 劦日 refer to sacrifices worshiping the sun. For example, on bone shell No. 624 of Kù 《庫》, it reads, “yǐsì bǔ, dìrì huì ding. 乙巳卜，帝 日惠丁.” (Divined on the day of Yisi: offer sacrifice to the sun and ask whether it is appropriate to select Ding from the 12 heavenly stems as the name of our deceased emperor?) On bone shell No. 9 on page 1 of volume one in Hòu 《後》, it reads that “guĭhài bŭ, zhēn: wáng bīn shì guĭ xirì wú yóu. 癸亥卜，貞：王賓示 癸劦日亡尤.” (Divined on the day of Guihai, diviner surmised: it auspicious for the

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

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Emperor to offer sacrifice worshipping the sun called xiérì 劦日 on the day of Kuí.) Bīnxī 賓夕 is likely to be sacrifices worshipping the moon. For example, on bone shell No. 211 of Liù 《六》, it reads that “jiǎyín bǔ, shǐ zhēn: wáng bīnxī, wú huò. 甲寅卜，史貞：王賓夕，亡禍.” (Divined on the day of Jiayin, diviner Shi surmised: it is auspicious for the Emperor to offer sacrifices worshiping the moon called bīnxī 賓西.) Polysyllabic nouns adopted in names of gods include shàngdì 上帝, dōngmǔ 東母, xīmǔ 西母, and so on. For instance, on bone shell No. 168 on page 1 of Cún 《存》, it reads, “shàngdì . . . jiàng . . . hàn . . . 上帝 . . . 降 . . . 熯.” (The Supreme God of Heaven . . . brings about . . . drought.) On bone shell No. 5 on page 28 of volume two in Hòu 《後》, it reads that “rénshēn bǔ, zhēn: yòu yú dōngmǔ, xīmǔ ruò. 壬申卜，貞：侑於東母、西母若.” (Divined on the day of Renshen, diviner surmised: offer sacrifices to the God of dōngmǔ 東 母 and xīmǔ 西母.) Polysyllabic nouns standing for official titles include duōlǎo 多老, duōmǎ 多馬, duōzhù 多宁, duōquǎn 多犬, xiǎojíchén 小耤臣, and so on. Duōlǎo 多老 is likely to refer to senior ministers. For example, on bone shell No. 2 on page 35 in volume seven of Qián 《前》, it reads that “zhēn: wù hū duōlǎo wǔ. 貞：勿乎多老舞.” (Diviner surmised: do not let the officer of duōlǎo 多老 perform the rain-praying sacrificial ritual.) Duōmǎ 多馬 should refer to officers in charge of horses. For example, on bone shell No. 4615 of Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “hū duōmǎ zhú lù, huò. 乎多馬逐鹿, 隻.” (Ask the officer of duōmǎ 多馬 to chase deer, and the deer was caught.) Duōzhù 多宁 is probably an officer in charge of stocking supplies. For instance, on bone shell No. 237 of Cuì 《粹》, it reads that “zhēn: yòu duōzhù yǐ chàng zì shàng jiǎ.貞：佑多宁以鬯自上甲.” (Diviner surmised: help the officer of duōzhù 多宁 offer a sacrifice with tulip alcohol since the day of Jiă 甲 during the first ten days of the month.) Xiǎojíchén 小耤臣 may refer to officers in charge of agriculture. For example, on bone shell No. 6 on page 17 of volume six of Qián 《前》, it is written that “jǐhài bǔ zhēn lìng wú xiǎojíchén. 己亥卜貞令 小耤臣.” (Divined on the day of Jihai, diviner surmised: to promote Wú as xiǎojíchén 小耤臣 in charge of agriculture.) Polysyllabic nouns related to directions include dōngfāng 東方, nánfāng 南方, xīfāng 西方 and běi fāng 北方. For example, on bone shell No. 4 on page 26 of Jiǎn 《戩》, it reads that “xīfāng shòu hé, běifāng shòu hé. 西方受禾，北方受禾.” (Both the west and the north receive good harvests); on bone shell No. 14295 of Hé 《合》, it reads that “zhēn: dì yú dōngfāng yuē xī, fēng yuē xié. 貞：帝於東方曰析，風曰恊.” (It is divined that the God of the East is named Xī 析, and it is messenger Xié 恊.) On bone shell No. 30173 of Hé 《合》, it reads that “yú dīngmǎo yìn nánfāng. 于丁卯飲南方.” (Offer alcohol to the south on the day of Dingmao.) Polysyllabic nouns related to appellations include dàshì 大示, xiǎoshì 小示, tāshì 它示, xiàshì 下示, and so on. Dàshì 大示 refers to deceased lineal emperors, while the other three all refer to deceased collateral emperors. For example, on bone shell No. 1261 of Cuì 《粹》, it reads that “zhēn: bù wéi dàshì chī wáng. 貞：不惟大示蚩王.” (Diviner surmised: sacrifices shall not only be offered to the emperor of Chī, a lineal ancestor.) On bone shell No. 6 on page 28 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, it reads, “tāshì sānláo bāyuè . . . 它示三 八月.” (Offer three sheep in the eighth month to sacrifice the deceased collateral ancestors.) There are also other polysyllabic words in oracle

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Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

bone inscriptions, indicating the long changing polysyllabic history of Chinese lexicon, which we will not discuss here.

4 Verbs There are about 300 identified verbs in oracle bone inscriptions, covering a wide range of scope. The meanings and word forms of some verbs reflect certain social conditions of the time. Some examples are given below. Verbs related to agricultural production include nóng 農, yì 埶 (藝), jiè 耤, sè 嗇, rù 蓐, yì 乂, chú 芻, cǎi 采, wéi 爲, and so on. In Nóng 農 Group of Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “nóng, gēng yĕ. Zhòuwén nóng cóng lín. 農, 耕也籀文農從林.” (Nóng 農 means farming, with the radical of lín 林, woods, in the big seal script.) It was written as on bone shell No. 5 on page 47 of volume five in Qián 《前》, and as on bone shell No. 11 on page 7 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, with the radicals of lín 林, woods, or sēn 森, forest, or 辰 chén, time. According to Yang Shuda 楊樹達 (Chinese philologist), “jiăwén nóngzì cóngchén cónglín, cónglín zhĕ, chūmín zhīshì, sēnlín biànbù, yínggēng zhĕ yú bōzhòng zhīxiān, bìxiān zhănfá qí shùmù yĕ. Chén zhĕ shèn yĕ,《 huáinán 》 suŏwèi móchún ér nòu yĕ, jīnwén cóngtián, huòyòu zēng cóngjiù. 甲文農字從 辰從林，從林者，初民之世，森林遍布，營耕者於播種之先，必先斬伐其 樹木也. 辰者蜃也， 《淮南》所謂磨蜃而耨也，金文從田，或又增從臼.” (In oracle bone inscriptions, nóng 農 has the radicals of chén 辰 and lín 林. The reason why it is composed of lín 林 is that in ancient times, forests were everywhere, so cultivators had to chop down trees before planting. Chén 辰 was the literal character of shèn 蜃, a giant clam. In Huáinánzĭ 淮南子 [Works of Huainanzi], there is an expression reading “mó shèn ĕr nòu 磨蜃而耨,” meaning grind the shell of a huge clam to make a weeding hoe, a farming tool, so in bronze inscriptions, nóng 農 had the same meaning as tián 田, farmland, and later as jiù 臼, a mortar.)32 As for jiè 耤, in Shuōwén·Lěibù 説文·耒部 [Lei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “dì jiè qiānmŭ yĕ. Gŭzhĕ shĭmín rú jiè, gù wèi zhī jiè. 帝耤千 畝也.古者使民如借，故謂之耤.” (The Emperor plowed a thousand mu of land, 1/15 hectares, which was referred to as jiè 耤, for in ancient times, having a person work was like jiè 借, borrowing him.) The meaning mentioned here was not the original one, as in the Shang dynasty, it referred to common farming, which was written as on bone shell No. 8151 in Yǐ 《乙》, like a person standing on his side and stepping on a plow. Xiǎojíchén 小耤臣 in the Shang dynasty refers to an officer in charge of agriculture. Yì 埶 (藝) means planting, adopted in sacrificial names in oracle bone inscriptions and might be the sacrificial ceremony before farming. Sè 嗇 means harvesting. For example, on bone shell No. 2 on page 7 in volume seven of Hòu 《後》, it reads that “zhēn: jīn qí yŭ, bù zhuī sè. 貞：今其 雨，不隹嗇.” (Diviner surmised: it is going to rain today and we should not reap grain.) It was written as sè 穡 later. Rù 蓐 was the initial character of hāo 薅, meaning cǎo 艸 (one type of grass), and later meaning holding chén 辰 (a farm tool). It means weeding the field. In oracle bone inscriptions, it is adopted in names of vassal states. Yì 乂 is weeding. In Piě 丿 Group of Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

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Characters], it reads that “yì, shāncăo yĕ. 乂，芟草也” (yì 乂 means mowing). It is adopted in names of places in oracle bone inscriptions. Chú 芻 means mowing grass. For example, on bone shell No. 206 in Jiǎ 《甲》, it reads that “wùxū bǔ, què chú yú jiào. 戊戌卜，雀芻于教.” (Divined on the day of Wuxu, Què mows in Jiao.) Since mowed grass was also used to feed livestock, chú 芻 was extended to mean livestock. For example, on bone shell No. 602 in Yí 《遺》, it reads, “xún yŏu èr rì yĭmăo, yŭn yŏu lái zì guāng, yĭ qiāng chú wŭshí . . . 旬有二日乙卯， 允有來自光，以羌芻五十.” (There are two days of Yinmou in a period of ten days, it was allowed by the Duke Light to pay tribute with 50 livestocks from the Qiang people.) Cǎi 采 means picking, or picking fruits for food, and it was also one of the agricultural activities in ancient times. Wéi 爲 is a very enlightening character, which was written as on bone shell No. 4 on page 30 in volume five of Qián 《前》, like holding an elephant with one hand. In Gŭyuè 古樂 [Ancient Music] of Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Spring and Autumn of Master Lü], it reads that “shāngrén fúxiàng, wéi nüè yú dōngyí, zhōugōng suì yĭ shī zhú zhī, zhì yú jiāngnán. 商人服象，為虐於東夷，周公遂以師逐之，至于江南.” (People of the Shang dynasty tamed elephants and aroused conflicts in Dongyi. Duke Zhou led his army to expel them to the south of the Yangtze River.) It is probably that there used to be many elephants in the Yellow River Basin in the Shang dynasty, so the Shang people used elephants to do labor work for them, similar to the situation in modern Myanmar, India, and Sri Lanka. In Shuōwén·Niúbù 説文牛部 [Niu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “lí, gēng yĕ. 犁，耕 也.” (Lí 犁 means plowing.) Written as in oracle bone inscriptions, it means a broadsword, with the dots like shoveling up the soil. Later it followed the radical of niú 牛, written as . It remains debatable as for whether cattle farming existed in the Shang dynasty,33 but it is an undeniable fact that plows for digging the soil did exist at that time. According to Guo Moruo, “gēngjù, gēngshì, gēngniú zhī hēi zhĕ jūn wèi zhī lí, gēngjù xīruì wèi zhī lì (lì), gēngshì yŏu huò wèi zhī lì, gēngmín miànhēi zé wèi zhī lí, jūn yóu lí zhī yī zì suŏ yĭn shēn zhuăn huà zhĕ yĕ. 耕具、耕 事、耕牛之黑者均謂之 ，耕具犀锐謂之 (利)，耕事有獲謂之利，耕民面 黑則謂之黎，均由 之一字所引申轉化者也.” (The black ones among farming tools, farming activities and farm cattle are all called lí . The sharp farming tools are described as lì , the same as lì 利 [being sharp]. The harvests of the farming activities are called lì 利 [gains]. Farmers with sunburned faces are described as lí 黎 [being black]. All the characters mentioned here are transformed or extended from the character of .)34 Verbs related to animal husbandry, fishing, and hunting include mù 牧, huàn 豢, yú 漁, tián 田, qín 禽, shòu 狩, shòu 獸, zhī 隻 (huò 獲), and so on. Mù 牧 means herding, and huàn 豢 (rearing livestock in pens) are used as sacrificial names in oracle bone inscriptions. Yú 漁 means fishing, with variant forms in oracle bone inscriptions. Some of them belong to the radical of shuĭ 水 (water), some that of yú 魚 (fish); among which some are plural forms and others are singular ones; some may resemble angling, some hand-catching a fish, some casting a fishing net, and some are abbreviated as yú 魚. Qín 禽 was written as on bone shell No. 1167 of Jiǎ 《甲》. Later on, it was written as in the official script of the Han

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Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

dynasty, like a hunting tool with a long handle and a net to catch birds and beasts. It is used in oracle bone inscriptions to refer to the hunting of birds and beasts, and is written as qín 擒 in later generations. Shòu 獸 means hunting. For instance, on bone shell No. 2352 in Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “zhēn: wáng wăng shòu. 貞：王 往獸.” (Diviner: the Emperor is going out for hunting.) It was also used as names of sacrifice. For example, on bone shell No. 3 on page 46 in volume one of Xù 《續》, it reads that “xīnmǎo bǔ, guài zhēn: wǒ shòu xià yǐ fú ruò. 辛卯卜，夬 貞：我獸下乙弗若.” (Divined on the day of Xinmao, diviner Guai surmised: is it auspicious for me to offer sacrifice to Xiayi.) Hereby, shòu 獸 should be a sacrifice offering preys. There used to be no examples of that time when it referred to wild animals. Zhī 隻 (huò 獲) means to hunt animals, such as elephants, tigers, deer, fawns, wolves, female rhinoceroses, pigs, hares, pheasants, fish, and so on. Hence, zhī 隻 is extended to mean being captured. For instance, on bone shell No. 528 of Tōng 《通》, it reads that “guāng bù qí zhī qiāng. 光不其隻羌.” (Guang did not take Qiang people as captures.) It also means to obtain something. For example, on bone shell No. 14 on page 12 of Jiǎn 《戩》, it reads that “zhēn: wǒ qí zhī zhēng tǔ fāng. 貞：我其隻征土方.” (Diviner surmised: will I conquer the state of Tufang?) After the Zhou dynasty, the meaning of zhī 隻 was divided into three different ones. In Shuōwén·Zhuībù 説文隹部 [Zhui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zhī, niăo yīméi yĕ. 隻, 鳥一枚也.” (Zhī 隻 means a bird.) In Shuōwén·Quǎnbù 説文·犬部 [Quan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “huò, liè suŏ huò yĕ. 獲, 獵所獲也.” (Huò 穫 means preys for the hunted.) In Shuōwén·Hébù 説文禾部 [He Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “huò, yìhé yĕ. 穫，刈禾也.” (Huò 穫 means harvesting.) They are also pronounced in different ways. Xù 畜 means to raise birds and beasts obtained from hunting. According to Shuōwén·Tiánbù 説文田部 [Tian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “chù, tián chù yĕ. 《huái nán zǐ》 yuē: “xuán tián wéi chù.’ 畜, 田畜也.《淮南子》曰: “玄田為畜.” (Chù 畜 refers to draft animals. In Huáinánzĭ 淮南子 [Works of Huainanzi], it reads that “chù 畜 is composed of xuán 玄 and 田 tián.) Verbs related to war include zhēng 征, fá 伐, jiān 戔 (zhàn 戰), shā 殺, fú 俘, guó 聝, qīn 侵, dòu 鬥, bài 敗, and so on. The verb fá 伐 is understood as killing, like a person holding a dagger-axe. It refers in particular to killing people as sacrifices in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 246 of Cuì 《粹》 that “jiǎchén zhēn: yòu zǔ yǐ fá shí qiāng. 甲辰貞：又祖乙伐十羌.” (Divined on the day of Jiachen: offer sacrifice to Zuyi again by killing ten Qiang people.) Meanwhile, one 伐 fá equals the killing of one person as sacrifice. For instance, it reads on bone shell No. 12 on page 21 in Hòu 《後》 that “wŭ fá wŭ láo 五伐五 .” (Offer sacrifice with five persons and five sheep.) Furthermore, it is extended to mean expedition. For instance, it reads on bone shell No. 3 on page 31 in volume four of Qián 《前》 that “hū duōchén fá gòngfāng. 呼多臣 伐 方.” (Summon soldiers to attack the state of Gongfang.) The word jiān 戔 also means expedition. Luo Zhenyu explained that “bǔcí yǐ èrgē xiāngxiàng, dāng wéi zhànzhēng zhī zhàn, nǎi zhàn zhī chū zì, bīngrèn xiāngjiē, zhàn zhī yì zhāorán kějiàn. Xùn zéi zhě nǎi yóu zhàn yì yǐnshēn zhī, dúwǔ wúyàn, sī wéi jiān yǐ.

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

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卜辭以二戈相向，當爲戰争之戰，乃戰之初字，兵刃相接，戰之意昭然可 見. 訓賊者乃由戰誼引申之，黷武無厭，斯爲戔矣.” (In oracle inscriptions, it is written as two dagger-axes face-to-face, which should mean zhàn 戰 as in zhàn zhēng 戰爭, war. It is the initial form of zhàn 戰, representing weapons against weapons and thus clearly depicting the meaning of war. Its meaning was extended from the explanation of zhàn 戰 by those who annotated zéi 賊, evildoer, as endless pursuit of war.)35 The word qīn 侵 means to invade. In Shuōwén·Ěrbù 説文·耳部 [Er Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “guó, jūn zhàn duàn ĕr yĕ 聝, 軍戰斷耳也.” (Guó 聝 means cutting off an enemy’s ear in the battle.) It is adopted in human name in oracle bone inscriptions instead of its literal meaning. Verbs related to daily life include sù 宿, guàn 盥, mò 沫, yù 浴, jiān 湔, sǎ 洒, yǐn 飲, shí 食, xiǎng 饗, xiāng 鄉, qīng 卿, sǎo 掃, and so on. The word guàn 盥 means washing hands, mò 沫 means washing face, yù 浴 means having a bath, and jiān 湔 has the meaning of washing feet. The word 洒 sǎ means washing, which is applicable to all parts of body. In Shuōwén·Shuǐbù 説文水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “să, dí yĕ. 洒，涤也.” (Sǎ 洒 means washing.) Duan Yucai annotated that “xiàwén yún: ‘mò, sǎ miàn yě’, ‘yù, sǎshēn yě’, ‘zǎo, sǎshǒu yě’, ‘xǐ, sǎzú yě’. Jīnrén jiǎ xǐ wéi sǎ, fēi gǔzì. 下文云: ‘沫, 洒 面也’，‘浴，洒身也’，‘澡，洒手也’，‘洗，洒足也’. 今人假洗爲洒，非古 字.” (What follows it reads: “mò 沫 means washing face”, “yù 浴 means having a bath”, “澡 zǎo means washing hands”, and “洗 xĭ means washing feet.” People nowadays replace sǎ 洒 with xǐ 洗, which was not the old character.) The word sǎ 洒 is adopted in place names in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, it reads on bone shell No. 8 on page 11 in volume one of Hòu 《後》 that “guǐyǒu bǔ, zài sǎ zhēn: wáng xún wú huò 癸酉卜，在洒貞：王旬亡禍.” (Divined on the day of Guiyou, diviner surmised in Săi: The Emperor’s tour will be auspicious.) The words xiǎng 饗, xiāng 鄉, and qīng 卿 were all written as on bone shell No. 16043 in Hé 《合》, like two people having dinner face-to-face. The oracle bone inscriptions adopt the meanings of yànxiăng 宴饗 (hosting banquet) and xiāngxiàng 相嚮 (face-to-face). Later on, its pronunciation and meaning went through differentiation, with the one meaning hosting banquet into xiǎng 饗, the one meaning being face-to-face into xiāng 鄉 (xiàng 嚮), and the one referring to chancellors accompanying emperors in a banquet into qīng 卿. Verbs related to human actions include lì 立, jì 跽, lái 來, wǎng 往, chū 出, rù 入, chuò 辵, chān 㢟, tú 𨑒 (徒), xíng 行, jìn 進, dēng 登, zhì 陟, jiàng 降, huán 還, guī 歸, gòu 遘, yù 遇, nì 逆, zhuī 追, zhú 逐, cóng 從, and so on. The word jì 跽 means kneeling down with both knees on the ground with the upper body upright. People in the Shang dynasty sat on the ground, so jì 跽 is a sitting posture. There are no characters of zuò 坐 (sit) or guì 跪 (kneel) in oracle bone inscriptions. The verb bù 步 means going on foot. For instance, on bone shell No. 4693 in Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “bǐngwǔ bǔ, què zhēn: yì dīng wèi wáng bù. 丙午卜，𣪊貞：翌丁 未王步.” (It was divined on the day of Bingwu. Diviner Que surmised that the Emperor went on foot on the next day of Dingwei.) The three characters of chuò 辵, chǎn 㢟, and 延 yán all have the meaning of walking from oracle bone inscriptions, but later on, they were turned into words with different meanings. The word

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Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

chuò 辵 means walking for a while and then stop for a while, the word chān 㢟 means walking slowly, and yán 延 means walking for a long time. The word tú 𨑒 with the meaning of going on foot was later transformed into tú 徒 in the official script of the Han dynasty. The character xíng 行 was written as on bone shell No. 21 on page 2 in Hòu 《後》. According to Luo Zhenyu, it reads that “xiàng sìdá zhī dào, rén suǒ xíng yě . . . xǔjūn shì xíng wéi rén zhī bùqū, wèi qí zì cóng chì cóng chù, gài yóu zìxíng chuánxiě shī qí chū zhuàng rán. 象四達之道，人 所行也 . . . 許君釋行爲人之步趨，謂其字從彳從亍，蓋由字形傳寫失其初狀 然.” (It is like a road extending in four directions for people to walk along . . . Xu Shen 許君 interprets it as the direction a person is heading for, saying that it used to have the radicals of chì 彳 and chù 亍, yet lost its initial form during the process of copying.)36 Oracle bone inscriptions adopted the meaning of walking. For instance, it reads on bone shell No. 947 in Yǐ 《乙》 that “jǐchǒu wáng bù xíng zì què. 已 丑王不行自雀.” (The Emperor did not walk from Que on the day of Jichou.) The word nì 逆 means to welcome. For example, it reads that on bone shell No. 896 of Jiǎ 《甲》 that “wáng yú zōngmén nìqiāng. 王于宗門逆羌.” (The Emperor welcomed the Qiang people in the gateway of the ancestral temple.) It is adopted in names of vassal states and people in oracle bone inscriptions. Verbs related to diseases include nè 疒, jí 疾, yì 疫 (役), zhǒu 疛, qǔ 𤘐 (齲), and so on. The original meaning of nè 疒 was being ill in bed. In Shuōwén Nèbù 説 文疒部 [Ne Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “nè, yĭ yĕ.rén yŏu jíbìng, xiàng yĭ zhù zhī xíng. 疒, 倚也. 人有疾病，象倚箸之形.” (Nè 疒 means leaning against the headboard of the bed. When a person is sick, he or she may tend to have the posture like leaning against the bamboo.) In oracle bone inscriptions, it means illness or disease. For example, on bone shell No. 3826 of Jiǎ 《甲》 , it reads that “zhēn: wáng nè bù yù. 貞：王疒不御.” (It is divined that the Emperor is ill and is not coming in person.) The word yì 疫 refers to an epidemic which is loaned as yì 役 from oracle bone inscriptions most of the time. For instance, on bone shell No. 7301 in Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “jiǎzǐ bŭ què zhēn: nè yì bù chān. 甲子卜𣪊貞： 疒役不㢟.” (It is divined on the day of Jiazi that diseases and epidemics will come soon.) The word zhǒu 疛 refers to lower abdominal pain. For example, on bone shell No. 2040 of Jiǎ 《甲》, it reads that “bǐngchén bǔ què zhēn: fùhǎo zhǒu chān. 丙辰卜𣪊貞：婦好疛㢟.” (It is divined on the day of Bingchen by diviner Que, who surmised that the stomachache of Fu Hao will continue.) In Shuōwén Nèbù 説 文疒部 [Ne Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zhǒu, xiăofù bìng, cóng nè, zhóu shěngshēng. 疛, 小腹病, 從疒, 肘省聲.” (Zhǒu 疛 refers to lower abdominal pain, composed of radical nè 疒, with the abbreviated initial of zhǒu 肘.) The word qǔ 𤘐 (齲) refers to odontopathy. According to Shuōwén·Yábù 説文牙部 [Ya Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “qŭ, chĭdù yĕ. Cóng yá, yŭ shēng, qŭ, qŭ huò cóng chĭ. 𤘐, 齒蠹也. 從牙, 禹聲, 齲, 𤘐或從齒.” (Qŭ 𤘐 refers to a decayed tooth. Its radical is yá 牙, tooth, with the initial of yŭ 禹. Words like qŭ 齲 and qŭ 𤘐 may both have the radical of chĭ 齒.) Toothache is a common disease caused by vermin, as ancient Chinese people believed it is the true case. Verbs related to speech include yán 言, yuē 曰, hū 呼 (乎), gào 告, wèn 問, lìng 令 (mìng 命), zhān 占, and so on. In oracle bone inscriptions, hū 呼 and hū 乎

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

33

share the same meaning, lìng 令 and mìng 命 are the same word, and zhào 召 is adopted in accordance with place names. Verbs related to existence or change include zài 在, yǒu 有 (zhī 㞢), wú 亡 (無), tóng 同, shēng 生, sǐ 死, chéng 成, and so on. The character yǒu 有 is written as zhī 㞢 in oracle bone inscriptions. Some scholars believe that this character is a variant of niú 牛 (cow), as in ancient times, those who had more cattle were considered more wealthy than those having less, so niú 牛 was loaned to have the meaning of yǒu 有 as in yǒu wú 有無 (have or not have). In the Zhou dynasty, it began to be written as yǒu 有, resembling a hand holding meat with the radical of yòu 又. The character has three meanings in oracle bone inscriptions: (1) to have, as in yǒu wú 有無 (have or not have). For example, on the back of the bone shell No. 56 of Bǐng 《丙》, it reads that “zhī xī yuè yǒu shí. 之夕月有食.” (There was lunar eclipse that night.) (2) The name of sacrifice as yòu 侑. For instance, on bone shell No. 1 on page 14 in volume one of Qián 《前》, it reads that “yǒu yú nángēng, huì xiǎo láo. 有于南庚，惠小 .” (Offer sacrifice to the deceased emperor of Nangeng with lambs.) And (3) once more or plus as yòu 又. For example, on bone shell No. 3411 in Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “yǒu fá yú shàng jiǎ, shí yǒu wǔ mǎo, shí láo yǒu wǔ. 有伐于上甲，十有五卯，十 有五.” (Offer sacrifice again to the deceased emperor of Shangjia with ten plus five sheep on the day of Mao, in ten plus five days of the month.) As for wú 無 (not have) as in yǒu wú 有無 (have or not have) in oracle bone inscriptions, it is only written as wú 亡, such as the common words of wúzāi 亡𡿧 (災) (no disaster), wúyóu 亡尤 (no fault), and wúhuò 亡祸 (no disaster). Wú 無 was the initial character of wǔ 舞, only turned into wú 無 (have), as in yǒuwú 有無 (have or not have) in the Zhou dynasty. Verbs related to seeing and listening include jiàn 見, wàng 望, xiàng 相, shěng 省, jiān 監, guān 觀 (huán 萑, guàn 雚), wén 聞, tīng 聽, shèng 聖, and so on. The verb jiàn 見 means to look with the sight parallel to the ground, wàng 望 means to look up into the distance, xiàng 相 means to examine carefully, xĭng 省 means to inspect, and jiān 監 means to take care of. The verb guān 觀 means to observe, loaning huán 萑 (a kind of small bird) and guàn 雚 (a kind of small bird) to refer to it in oracle bone inscriptions. Verbs like shèng 聖 and tīng 聽 used to be the same word in oracle bone inscriptions, with the meaning of hearing. For example, on bone shell No. 261 in Hé 《合》, it reads, “yǒushèng. 有聖” (It is heard.) On bone shell No. 3 on page 2 of Tiě 《鐵》, it reads that “guǐhài bŭ, guī qí yǒutīng. 癸亥卜，歸其有聽.” (It is divined on the day of Guihai that the news of returning will be heard.) Later on, they were divided into two words with different meanings. Shèng 聖 refers to a keen sense of hearing, extended to mean being sensible, knowledgeable, and extraordinarily wise. In Shuōwén·Ĕrbù 説文·耳部 [Er Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “shèng, tōng yĕ. 聲, 通 也.” (Shèng 聖 means being learned.) While tīng 聽 means to receive sound with ears. In Shuōwén·Ĕrbù 説文耳部 [Er Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “tīng, líng yĕ. Cóng ĕr dé. Rén sheng. 聽, 聆也. 從耳𢛳.壬聲.” (Tīng 聽 means to listen, composed of ĕr 耳 and dé 𢛳, with the initial of rén 壬.) Duan Yucai annotated that “ĕr dé zhě, ěr yǒu suǒ dé yě. 耳𢛳者, 耳有所得也” (ĕr 耳 and dé 𢛳 refer to what the ears have heard).

34

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

There are many other verbs that can be cited as examples and classified according to their meanings in oracle bone inscriptions, which will not be discussed here.

5 Adjectivesandothers Adjectives indicate the nature or the state of things. There are very few adjectives in oracle bone inscriptions, with only several dozens being discovered. Adjectives related to the nature of things include jí 吉, lì 利, liáng 良, shàn 善, wén 文, wǔ 武, xīn 新, jiù 舊, shī 濕, hàn 熯, ān 安, mì 宓, níng 寧, and so on. In oracle bone inscriptions, lì 利 has the extended meaning of being auspicious. In Shuōwén·Dāobù 説文刀部 [Dao Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “lì, xiān yĕ. Cóng dāo hé, rán hòu lì. 利, 銛也. 从刀和, 然後利.” (Lì 利 means being sharp, and the radicals of dāo 刀 and hé 和 compose it.) Hereby, lì 利 is its literal meaning, and liáng 良 is adopted in place names and human names in oracle bone inscriptions. Adjectives related to taste and smell include gān 甘, zhǐ 旨, xiāng 香, bì 飶, and so on. Both gān 甘 and zhǐ 旨 mean being delicious, and xiāng 香 and bì 飶 have the meaning of being fragrant. However, none of their literal meanings is used in oracle bone inscriptions. Adjectives related to state and appearance include dà 大, xiǎo 小, zhǎng 長, yòu 幼, lǎo 老, dié 耋, hóng 弘, qí 齊, gāo 高, měi 美, mǐn 敏, and so on. The adjective měi 美 is written as on bone shell No. 2854 of Jīng 《京》, resembling ornaments such as feathers or sheep’s heads on the head of a person and meaning being with beautiful appearance. In Shuōwén·Yángbù 説文羊部 [Yang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “mĕi, gān yĕ. Cóng yáng cóng dà, yáng zài liùchù zhŭ gĕishàn yĕ, mĕi yŭ shàn tóngyì. 美, 甘也, 從羊從大, 羊在六畜主給饍也, 美與善同意.” (Měi 美 means being delicious, composed of yáng 羊 and dà 大. Among the six domestic animals, sheep are the main source of meal, that is shàn 饍, meal, in Chinese, so it shares the same meaning with shàn 善, being virtuous.) It is an extended meaning here. Adjectives related to colors include bái 白, chì 赤, huáng 黄, lǜ 緑, and yōu 幽. Yōu 幽 is black. For example, on bone shell No. 7121 in Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “huì yōu niú yǒu (yòu) huáng niú. 幽牛有(又) 黄牛.” (Offer sacrifice with yellow cattle in addition to black ones.) There is a complete set of numerals from one to 10,000 in oracle bone inscriptions, indicating that people in the Shang dynasty had a clear concept of quantity. From the perspective of character form, it can be said that yī 一 (one), èr 二 (two), sān 三 (three), sì 四 (four), shí 十 (ten), niàn 廿 (20), and sà 卅 (30) are ideographic characters; wŭ五 (five), liù 六 (six), qī 七 (seven), bā 八 (eight), jiŭ 九 (nine), and wàn 萬 (1,000) are loaned characters. Wŭ 五 is the initial character of wǔ 午 (noon), like a web weaved by silk. While liù 六 is like a cottage with a board and two eaves on the top of the two walls. Qī 七 is the initial character of qiē 切, with a short vertical across the horizontal to indicate the action of cutting. Bā 八 is the initial character of bié 别. In Shuōwén·Bābù 説文八部 [Ba Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “bā, bié yĕ. Xiàng fēn bié xiāng bèi zhī xíng. 八, 別也.象分別相背之形.” (Bā 八 equals 別 bié, resembling the separation of two people back to back.) Jiŭ 九 is the initial character of gōu 勾, like a hook. Wàn

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

35

萬 is the initial character of chài 蠆, like a scorpion. They were loaned to refer to numbers because they shared the same or similar pronunciations. Bǎi 百 (hundred) and qiān 千 (thousand) are phonograms. Bǎi 百 has the radical of yī 一 with the initial of bái 白. And qiān 千 also has the radical of yī 一 with the initial of rén 人.37 Duō 多 and shăo 少 are also found existing in oracle bone inscriptions, yet not matching their literal meanings. Duō 多 indeed means being large in quantity. For example, on bone shell No. 2 on page 249 of Tiě 《鐵》, it reads that “bǐngxū bǔ, guài zhēn: Jīn sānyuè duōyǔ. 丙戌卜，夬貞：今三月多雨.” (It is divined on the day of Bingxu by diviner Guai, who surmised that there will be a lot of rain in the third month of this year.) However, shǎo 少 does not mean being small in number. Instead, it means being tiny, the same character with xiăo 小. For instance, on bone shell No. 2389 of Rén 《人》, it reads that “rénxū bǔ, jiǎzǐ shǎo (xiǎo) yǔ. 壬戌卜,甲子少(小) 雨.” (It is divined on the day of Renxu that it will be drizzling on the day of Jiazi.) From the perspective of word meaning, some words adopt their literal meanings and others with extended meanings in oracle bone inscriptions. For instance, the original meaning of jīng 京 is man-made mounds. In Shuōwén·Jīngbù 説文京部 [Jing Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “rén suŏ wéi jué gāoqiū yĕ. 人所為絕高丘也.” (It refers to very high mounds made by men.) The literal meaning of the word is adopted in oracle bone inscriptions, which can be found on bone shell No. 1 on page 12 of Yú 《餘》 that “zhēn: yì xīnhài hū fùjìng yí yú qìngjīng. 貞：翌辛亥乎婦妌宜于磬京.” (It is divined on the next day of Xinhai that Fujing was asked to offer sacrifice on the tall stone mound.) The original meaning of huì 彗 is broom. In Shuōwén·Yòubù 説文又部 [You Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “huì, săozhú yĕ. 彗, 掃竹也.” (Huì 彗 means a big broom.) Since huì 彗 is used for sweeping, it is extended to mean removing dirt, which is adopted in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 1245 of Cuì 《粹》, it reads that “gēngxū bǔ, zhēn: huì bù zhà jiān. 庚戌卜，貞：彗不乍 艱.” (It is divined on the day of Gengxu that removing dirt will avoid the occurrence of hardships.) In addition, it also refers to sacrifices washing away evil influence. For example, on bone shell No. 794 of Wén 《文》, it reads that “jǐmǎo bǔ zhēn: jīnxī xiǎozĭ yòuhuì. 己卯卜貞：今夕小子侑彗.” (It is divined on the day of Jimau that Xiaozi, the officer in charge of sacrifice, is asked to offer sacrifice to gods to wash away evil influence tonight.) From the contextual perspective, some characters adopt their phonetic loan characters. For instance, the original meaning of pì 辟 is law. In Shuōwén·Pìbù 説文辟部 [Pi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “pì, fă yĕ. Cóng jié cóng xīn, jiézhì qí zuì yĕ; cóng kŏu, yòngfă zhĕ yĕ. 辟, 法也. 從卩從辛, 節制其辠也; 從口, 用法者也.” (Pì 辟 means law composed of jié 卩, meaning to restrain and xīn 辛, felonies, so it means to check sins; it also has the radical of kŏu 口, so it refers to people implementing laws.) Sometimes the interchangeable meaning is adopted, pronounced as bì 嬖, referring to favored ministers of an emperor. For example, on the bone shell No. 4144 of Jīng 《京》, it reads that “qí bì chén zhuānyà. 其辟臣叀亞.” (His favorite minister is Zhuan Ya.) Some words may have several different meanings in oracle bone inscriptions simultaneously, even up to four or five totally different meanings. Take jiàn 見

36

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

as an example. Its primary meaning is to see. For instance, on bone shell No. 3 on page 31 in Hòu 《後》, it reads that “yǐyǒu bǔ, wáng zhēn: duī bù yú qí jiàn, èryuè. 乙酉卜，王貞：𠂤 不余其見, 二月.” (The Emperor surmised on the divined day of Yiyou that he could see the hill in the second month.) It also means to inspect. For instance, on the bone shell No. 602 of Jīng 《京》, it reads that “jiàn yú hé, yǔn wú lái. 見于河，允亡來.” (Inspection was made along the river and they were allowed not to come.) It may refer to calling on a superior person as well. For example, on bone shell No. 1027 in Hé 《合》, it reads that “jǐwèi bǔ, què zhēn: fǒu qí lái jiàn wáng. 己未卜, 𣪊貞: 缶其來見王.” (It is divined on the day of Jiwei by diviner Que, who surmised that the ruler of the state of Fou should call on to meet the Emperor.) Moreover, it has the meaning of reading. For instance, on bone shell No. 8817 in Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “gēngshēn bǔ, jiàn fén. 庚申卜，見豶.” (It is divined on the day of Gengshen that people read something about castrated pigs.) Take lái 來 as another example, whose literal meaning is wheat. In oracle bone inscriptions, it is interpreted as coming here from other places. For example, on bone shell No. 6 on page 35 in volume two of Qián 《前》, it reads that “rényín bǔ, zhēn: wáng tián yōng, wǎng lái wú zāi. 壬寅卜，貞：王田 ，往來亡災.” (It is divined on the day of Renyin that there will be no disaster to go to and return from the Emperor’s farmland in Yong.) It also refers to future in oracle bone inscriptions. For instance, on bone shell No. 16 on page 23 in volume one of Hòu 《後》, it reads that “jiǎchén bǔ, quèzhēn: lái xīnhài liáo yú wáng hài sà niú, shíèr yuè. 甲辰卜, 𣪊貞：來辛亥尞于王亥卅 牛，十二月.” (It is divined on the day of Jiachen by diviner Que, who surmised that it is necessary to offer sacrifice to the deceased emperor of Hai with 30 cattle in the 12th month on the day of Xinhai in the future.) Neither of them has its literal meaning. As for some other words, oracle bone inscriptions only use them as proper names. For instance, jiǎo 角 literally means horns, but is adopted in human names in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 15 of Yì 《佚》, it reads that “jiǎxū bǔ, wáng yú lìng jiǎofù xié zhèn shì. 甲戌卜，王, 余令角婦 協朕事.” (It is divined on the day of Jiaxu, the Emperor surmised: I order Jiao Fu to assist me in my work.) The original meaning of fǎn 反 is to climb the cliff by hand, but in oracle bone inscriptions it is adopted in place names. For instance, on bone shell No. 7 on page 1 in volume six of Xù 《續》, it reads that “guǐsì wáng bǔ, zhēn: xún wú huò, zài fǎn. 癸巳王卜，貞：旬亡禍，在反.” (It is divined on the day of Guisi, the Emperor surmised: there will be no disaster in Fan in ten days.) Què 雀 literally refers to small birds, yet is adopted in the names of vassal states and people in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, on bone shell No. 8935 in Yǐ 《乙》, it reads that “guǐchǒu bǔ, bīn zhēn: yú quèyōng. 癸丑卜，賓貞：于雀 墉.” (It is divined on the day of Guichou by diviner Bin, who surmised that it was in the place of Queyong.) On bone shell No. 2996 of Jiǎ 《甲》, it reads that “zhēn: què qí zàng. 貞：雀其葬.” (It is divined that the burial will take place in Que.) To sum up, the following points related to lexical progress can be concluded. (1) The lexical scope in the Shang dynasty is very broad, sufficient enough to meet the needs of social communication at that time. There is a considerable

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

37

number of basic words, some are still in use up until now, such as rì 日, yuè 月, shān 山, shuǐ 水, rén 人, kǒu 口, dà 大, xiǎo 小, and so on. Some single-element words have been replaced by other words, but they are served as morphemes in spoken language nowadays with great word-building ability, such characters as shǒu 首, mù 目, zú 足, etc., which all show the tremendous stability in use. (2) The progress of lexicon is manifested in two aspects, namely, the generation of new words and the death of old ones. Many Chinese words in later generations were not produced in the Shang dynasty, and many words in the Shang dynasty gradually disappeared after the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, which is the main reason why more than two-thirds of words in oracle bone inscriptions are not recorded in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters]. (3) Most words in the Shang dynasty are monosyllabic, with only a few polysyllabic ones, such as shàngdì 上帝, xiǎoshí 小食, xiǎoshì 小示, dàshì 大室, xuèshì 血室, and so on, most of them are nouns, indicating that the polyphonic trend of Chinese vocabulary began as early as in the Shang dynasty. (4) There are many polysemous words in oracle bone inscriptions, with some up to five or six meanings. But in general, the meaning system of the Shang dynasty is relatively simple. The meanings of some words can be deduced by analyzing the forms of their characters, while others are very different from the surface meanings of their characters, resulting from the application of loaned words and proper names. Table 1.1 is an attachment of bibliography of oracle bone inscriptions cited in the whole section. Table 1.1 Attachment of bibliography of oracle bone inscriptions Abbreviation

Title

《鐵》

Tiě

《前》

Qián

《後》

Hòu

《殷虚書 契後編》

《續》

Xù

《殷虚書 契續編》

《餘》

Yú

《鐵雲藏 龜之餘》

《戢》

Jí

《戢壽堂所 藏殷虚文 字》

《鐵雲藏 龜》 《殷虚書 契前編》

Author/Editor Tiě Yún Cáng Guī Yīn Xū Shū Qì Qián Biān Yīn Xū Shū Qì Hòu Biān Yīn Xū Shū Qì Xù Biān Tiě yún Cáng Guī Zhī Yú Jí Shòu Táng Suǒ Cáng Yīn Xū Wén Zì

Oracle Bones Collected by Tieyun Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu I Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu II Sequel of Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu Unpublished Oracle Bones Collected by Tieyun Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu Collected in Jishou Hall

劉鶚

Liú È

羅振玉

Luo Zhenyu

羅振玉

Luo Zhenyu

羅振玉

Luo Zhenyu

羅振玉

Luo Zhenyu

王國維

Wang Guowei

(Continued)

38

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

Table 1.1 (Continued) Abbreviation

Title

Author/Editor

《甲》

Jiǎ

《小屯•殷 Xiǎo 虚文字甲 Tún•Yīn 編》 Xū Wén Zì Jiǎ Biān 《小屯•殷 Xiǎo 虚文字乙 Tún•Yīn 編》 Xū Wén Zì Yǐ Biān 《小屯•殷 Xiǎo 虚文字丙 Tún•Yīn 編》 Xū Wén Zì Bǐng Biān 《鐵雲藏 Tiě Yún 龜拾遺》 Cáng Guī Shí Yí 《殷契遺 Yīn Qì Yí 珠》 Zhū

《乙》

Yǐ

《丙》

Bǐng

《拾》

Shí

《遺》

Yí

《佚》

Yì

《殷契佚 Yīn Qì Yì 存》 Cún

《文》

Wén

《存》

Cún

《京》

Jīng

《甲骨文 録》 《甲骨續 存》 《戰後京 津新獲甲 骨集》

《六》

Liù

《甲骨六 Jiǎ Gǔ Liù 録》 Lù

《寧》

Níng

《戰後寧 Zhàn Hòu 滬新獲甲 Níng Hù 骨集》 Xīn Huò Jiǎ Gǔ Jí

《通》

Tōng

《卜辭通 Bǔ Cí 纂》 Tōng Zuǎn

《粹》

Cuì

《合》

Hé

《殷契粹 編》 《甲骨文 合集》

Jiǎ Gǔ Wén Lù Jiǎ Gǔ Xù Cún Zhàn Hòu Jīng Jīn Xīn Huò Jiǎ Gǔ Jí

Yīn Qì Cuì Biān Jiǎ Gǔ Wén Hé Jí

Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu I, Xiaotun

董作賓

Dong Zuobin

Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu II, Xiaotun

董作賓

Dong Zuobin

Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu III, Xiaotun

張秉權

Zhang Bingquan

Omitted Oracle Bone Inscriptions Collected by Tieyun Uninvestigated Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu Retrieved Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu Recording of Oracle Bone Inscriptions Survived Oracle Bone Inscriptions Collection of Newly Discovered Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Beijing and Tianjin After the AntiJapanese War Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Six Sources Collection of Newly Discovered Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Zhejiang and Shanghai After the Anti-Japanese War Comprehensive Collection of Oracle Inscriptions Selected Oracle Bone Inscriptions Collection of Oracle Bone Inscriptions

葉玉森

Ye Yusen

金祖同

Jin Zutong

商承祚

Shang Chengzuo

孫海波

Sun Haibo

胡厚宣

Hu Houxuan

胡厚宣

Hu Houxuan

胡厚宣

Hu Houxuan

胡厚宣

Hu Houxuan

郭沫若

Guo Moruo

郭沫若

Guo Moruo

郭沫若等 Guo Moruo et al.

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions Abbreviation 《卜》

Bǔ

《鄴》

Yè

《掇》

Duō

《人》

Rén

《補》

Bǔ

Title

《京都大 學人文科 學研究所 藏甲骨文 字》

《甲骨文 合集補 編》 《屯南》 Tún Nán《小屯南 地甲骨》

《英》

Yīng

《金》

Jīn

《庫》

Kù

Author/Editor Oracle Inscriptions 容庚 from Yinxu 黃濬 Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yezhong I 郭若愚 Amendment of Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Yinxu Oracle Bone Jīng Dū Inscriptions Dà Xué Rén Wén Collected in the Institute for Research Kē Xué in Humanities, Kyoto Yán Jiū Suŏ Cáng University Jiă Gŭ Wén Zì 郭沫若等 Supplement of Jiǎ Gǔ Wén Hé Jí Collection of Oracle Bone Inscriptions Bǔ Biān Xiǎo Tún Oracle Bones from 中國社科 Nán Dì Jiǎ the South of Xiaotun 院考古所 Gǔ

Yīn Qì Bǔ Cí Yè Zhōng Piàn Yǔ Chū Jí 《殷契拾 Yīn Qì Shí 掇》 Duo

《殷契卜 辭》 《鄴中片 羽初集》

《英國所 藏甲骨 集》 《金璋所 藏甲骨 集》

39

Yīng Guó Suó Cáng Jiǎ Gǔ Jí Jīn Zhāng Suǒ Cáng Jiǎ Gǔ Jí

《庫方二 Kù Fāng 氏藏甲骨 Èr Shì 卜辭》 Cáng Jiǎ Gǔ Bǔ Cí

Oracle Bone Collection in Great Britain The Hopkins Collection of InScribed Oracle Bone Oracle Inscriptions Collected by Mr. Couling and Mr. Chalfant

Rong Geng Huang Jun Guo Ruoyu

Guo Moruo et al The Institute of Archaeology, CASS

方法斂

Frank Chalfant

方法斂

Frank Chalfant

Notes  1 In Yáodiǎn 堯典 [Canon of Yao] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “lì xiàng rì yuè xīng chén, jìng shòu rén shí. 曆象日月星辰，敬授人時.” (Deduce the law of the sun, the moon, and stars to formulate the calendar, which tells people the order and climate of the nature with respect). An astronomical observatory (for the huǒ 火 star) dating back to 4,000 years ago was discovered in the Shangqiu city, Henan Province. Another 3,000-year-old astronomical observatory discovered in the Gaocheng town (originally called Guyang City), Dengfeng county, Henan Province, was said to be built by the Duke of Zhou 周公. People were closely connected with nature in ancient China. They began to attach great importance to the observation of astronomical phenomena even before the Shang dynasty.

40

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

 2 Quotes from Zhang Taiyan 章太炎. According to Shuōwén·Hébù 説文 · 禾部 [He Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “nián, gǔshú yě. Cóng hé, qiān sheng. 年，穀孰也. 從禾，千聲.” (Nián 年 means the ripening of grain, belonging to the radical of hé 禾 and the final of qiān 千.)  3 See Early Neolithic remains of Dadiwan Ruins, Qin’an County, Gansu Province 《甘肅 秦安大地灣新石器時代早期遺存》, China, from Cultural Relics 《文物》, 1981, 4.  4 See Excavation report of Dahe Village Ruins in Zhengzhou 《鄭州大河村遺址發掘報 告》 from Acta Archaeologica Sinica 《考古學報》, 1979, 3.  5 See Phase I excavation report of Hemudu Ruins 《河姆渡遺址第一期發掘報告》, from Acta Archaeologica Sinica, 1978, 1.  6 See Neolithic Site at Banpo Near Xi’an 《西安半坡》, Cultural Relics Publishing House (文物出版社), 1963.  7 See Luo Zhenyu, Supplements and Amendments for “Studies and Interpretation of Yinxu Inscriptions” 《增訂殷虚書契考釋》.  8 See Gǔshǐkǎo 古史考 [Studies of Ancient History] by Qiao Zhou 譙周, a minister and scholar of the Shu Han Kingdom during the Three Kingdoms Period, in volume 73 of Tàipíngyùlǎn 太平御覽 [Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era].  9 Yao Xiaosui 姚孝遂, Study and discrimination of 牢 láo and láo 《牢、 考辩》 in Study on Ancient Chinese Characters 《古文字研究》, volume 9, pp. 25–36. 10 Wang Guowei explained 弼 bì 《釋弼》 in volume 6 of Collections of Wang Guowei’s Works [ 《觀堂集林》 Guāntán gjílín]. 11 Quoted from a secondary source of Collection and Interpretation of Characters in Oracle Bone Inscriptions 《甲骨文字集释》, Jiǎgǔ Wénzì Jíshì, by Li Xiaoding 李孝 定, volume 12, p. 3797. 12 In 1972 and 1973, three carbonized textile fragments dating back to 6,275 ± 205 years ago were discovered in Neolithic relics in Caoxieshan Mountain, Wu County, Jiangsu Province. These are the earliest textiles found in China so far. See Caoxieshan Mountain relics, Wu County, Jiangsu Province 《江蘇吴縣草鞋山遺址》, in Collection of Cultural Relics Documents 《文物資料叢刊》, 1980, 3. 13 Xu Zhongshu, Preface of Oracle Dictionary 《甲骨文字典序》， Sichuan Lexicographical Press (四川辞書出版社), 1990. 14 See Photos of Fu Hao Tomb at Yinxu 《殷墟婦好墓圖版》, p. 29. 15 The first jadeware, a crystal knife, was discovered at Zhiyu Ruins, Shanxi Province, China. See Excavation report of the Paleolithic ruins in Zhiyu of Shanxi 《峙峪舊石 器時代遺址發掘報告》 in Selected Papers on Paleolithic Archaeology in Jialanpo 《賈蘭坡舊石器時代考古論文選》, Cultural Relics Publishing House (文物出版社), 1984. 16 Wang Guowei discussed yuè 玨 and péng 朋 in Collections of Wang Guowei’s Works. 17 See Neolithic Site at Banpo Near Xi’an, Cultural Relics Publishing House, 1963. 18 Guo Moruo, Study and Interpretation of the Photos in the Comprehensive System of the Bronze Inscriptions During the Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasties 《兩周金文辭大 系圖录考釋》. 19 According to Mián 宀 Group in Shuōwén, “jiā, jū yě. Cóng mián, jiā shěng sheng.” 家， 居也. 從宀，豭省聲. (Jiā 家, a dwelling place, has mián 宀 as its semantic radical and jiā 豭, phonetic radical). Duan Yucai annotated, “cǐ zhuàn běn yì nǎi shǐ zhī jū yě, yǐn shēn jiǎ jiè wéi rén zhī jū.” 此篆本意乃豕之居也，引申假借爲人之居. (The original meaning of the script is a pigsty, loaned and extended to mean human residence.) 20 In places such as Xiaotun and Hougang in the Anyang City of Henan Province, traces of chariots with two wheels and one shaft in the Shang dynasty were discovered, suggesting that people of the time had begun to decorate their chariots with bronzeware. See Excavation report of Yinxu Ruins from 1958 to 1959 《1958–1959 年殷墟發掘報 告》 in Archaeology《考古》, 1961, 2.

Words of the Shang dynasty from oracle bone inscriptions

41

21 See Wang Guowei, Study and Interpretation on Books about Oracle Bone Inscriptions at Jianshoutang. Wang, G 王國維. (1956). Guangtanglin ji 觀堂林集. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 22 Guo Moruo, Explaining Chén 臣 and Zǎi 宰《釋臣宰》 in Studies on Characters in Oracle Bones Inscriptions. Guo, M 郭沫若. (1952). Jiagu wenzi yanjiu 甲骨文字研究. Beijing: People’s Publishing House. 23 Wu Qichang, Interpretation of Names and Phenomena in Bronze Inscriptions 《金文 名象疏證》. Wuqichang wenji吳其昌文集. Taiyuan: Sanjin Publishing House. 24 Luo, Z 羅振玉. (1984). Zengding yinxu shuqi kaoshi 增訂殷虛書契考釋. Taipei: Yee Wen Publishing Company, volume 2, p. 23. 25 Guo Moruo’s study and explanation on bone shell No. 458 in Comprehensive Studies on Oracle Bone Inscriptions 《卜辭通篆》. 26 Ding, S 丁山. (1956). Jiaguwen suojian shizu jiqi zhidu 甲骨文所見氏族及其制度. Beijing: Science Press. 27 Hu, G 胡光偉. (1982). Shuowen guwen kao 説文古文考. Huxiaoshi lunwenji sanbian 胡小石論文集三編. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House. 28 Luo, Z 羅振玉. (1984). Zengding yinxu shuqi kaoshi 增訂殷虛書契考釋. Taipei: Yee Wen Publishing Company. 29 Wang Guowei, Records about the Rites of the Shang Dynasty 《殷禮徵文》. Wang, G 王國維. (1956). Guangtanglin ji 觀堂林集. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 30 Wang Guowei, Explaining the Heaven in volume 6 of Collections of Wang Guowei’s Works. Wang, G 王國維. (1956). Guangtanglin ji 觀堂林集. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 31 Chen, M 陳夢家. (1956). Yinxu buci zongshu 殷虛卜辭綜述. Beijing: Science Press. 32 Yang Shuda 楊樹達, Chinese Philologist, Discussions on Oracle Bone Inscriptions Composed in the Jiwei Study (《積微居甲文説》). Yangshuda wenji 楊樹達文集. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House. 33 XU Jinxiong 許進雄, Cattle plowing in the oracle bone inscriptions 《甲骨文所表現 的牛耕》, in Study on Ancient Chinese Characters, volume 9, pp. 53–72. 34 Guo Moruo, Explaining and Wù 勿《釋 、勿》, in Study on Oracle Bone Inscriptions 《甲骨文字研究》. 35 Luo, Z 羅振玉. (1975). Yinxu shuqi kaoshi 殷虛書契考釋. Taipei: Yee Wen Publishing Company. 36 Luo, Z 羅振玉. (1984). Zengding yinxu shuqi kaoshi II 增訂殷虛書契考釋中. Taipei: Yee Wen Publishing Company. 37 In Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “băi, shí shí yĕ, cóng yī bái. Qiān, shí băi yĕ, cóng shí cóng rén.” 百, 十十也, 從一白.” “千, 十百也, 從十從人. (Băi 百, 100, equals ten tens, composed of yī 一 and bái 白. Qiān 千, 1,000, equals ten hundreds, with the radical of shí 十 and the initial of rén 人.) Hence, they are taken as ideographic characters.

2

Theprogressofmonosyllabic wordsofOldChinese

1 Introduction Great changes took place in China during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. Social productivity was greatly enhanced due to the invention of ironware and its widespread application in agricultural production; interpersonal relations were adjusted to a certain extent. Thanks to the collapse of the slave system and the establishment of feudal system, the emergence of philosophers and the upspring of different schools of thoughts created a golden age in Chinese academic history. With the unification of China by Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE) and the rise of the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 AD), the whole society witnessed a long period of stability and new development in politics, economy, culture, and science. In order to meet the needs of social development, Chinese lexicon also underwent rapid evolvement. A large number of new words came into being with much richer meanings, while some old ones became extinct. One of the major features of the progress of Old Chinese words lies in that monosyllabic words took a dominant position. One word tended to have only one syllable, written as one character, usually without difference between the word and the character. In Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters], Xu Shen 許慎 records 9,353 characters, most of which are monosyllabic. In addition to the unrecorded characters in Shuōwén1 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters] and a large number of homographs developed in the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, there were more than 1,000 monosyllabic words in total in ancient Chinese times. A small part of them were inherited from the Shang dynasty, traceable in oracle bone inscriptions, while most of them were created in the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, unavailable in oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang dynasty. A comparison between some radicals in Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters] and those in oracle bone inscriptions are displayed Table 2.1. It can be seen that there are 4,318 recorded characters in Shuōwénjiězì 説文解 字 [Origin of Chinese Characters] from the above 20 radicals. Meanwhile, there are only 222 identified characters in oracle bone inscriptions, fewer than 5% of the number in Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters], even if the 290 unidentified characters are added, which constitute only 12% of the number in Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters]. What’s more, the DOI: 10.4324/9781003365556-2

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 43 Table 2.1 A comparison between some radicals in Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters] and in oracle bone inscriptions Radical

王 艸 口 走 辵 彳 言 鳥 肉 竹 木 邑 人 心 水 手 女 糸 虫 金

wáng cǎo kǒu zǒu chuò chì yán niǎo ròu zhú mù yì rén xīn shuǐ shǒu nǚ mì chóng jīn

Number of Words in Shuōwén

Number of Identified Words in Oracle Bone Inscriptions

Number of Unidentified Words in Oracle Bone Inscriptions

126 445 180 118 85 37 245 116 140 144 421 184 245 263 468 265 238 248 153 197

4 9 18 0 16 9 3 5 4 2 25 5 22 0 44 8 35 9 4 0

5 2 37 0 8 31 5 16 1 1 19 0 37 0 35 0 86 7 0 0

radicals of zǒu 走, xīn 心, and jīn 金 contain 545 words in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], but is nil in oracle bone inscriptions. Although oracle bone inscriptions cannot fully depict the whole picture of lexical progress of the Shang dynasty, as one character might not represent one word, it clearly shows that Chinese words made great progress from the Shang dynasty to the Zhou, the Qin, and the Han dynasties. For the purpose of having a general understanding of this progress, the following section will briefly discuss words from nine aspects, namely astronomical phenomena, crops, food and drinks, textiles and clothing, flags, jade and jade ware, ideology, verbs related to thoughts and emotions, colors, and so on.

2 Theprogressofnounmonosyllabicwords 2.1 Nounsrelatedtoastronomicalphenomena The Zhou dynasty witnessed many new developments in the observation of astronomical phenomena. For instance, ancient Chinese people divided the 28 stellar

44

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

constellations near huángdào 黄道 (the imagined orbit by ancient people of the annual motion of the sun) into four signs, namely cānglóng 蒼龍 (Azure Dragon) in the east, xuánwǔ 玄武 (Black Tortoise) in the north, báihŭ 白虎 (White Tiger) in the West, and zhūquè 朱雀 (Rosefinch) in the South. Each sign has seven mansions, so altogether the four signs add up to 28 constellations. They were not clearly recorded in oracle bone inscriptions and gradually came into form in the Zhou and the Qin dynasties. The 28 constellations known today first appeared in the Qin and the Han dynasties. In Rìshūjiǎzhǒng 《日書甲種》 (The Book of the Sun I) of Shuìhǔdì Qínmù Zhújiǎn 《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》 (Bamboo Slips from the Qin Tomb in Shuihudi) there are recorded star names such as jiǎo 角, kàng 亢, dī 氐, fáng 房, xīn 心, wěi 尾, jī 箕, dŏu 斗, qiānniú 牽牛, xūnǚ 須女, xū 虚, wēi 危, yíngshì 營室, dōngpì 東辟 (bì 壁), kuí 奎, lóu 婁, wèi 胃, mǎo 卯 (昴), bì 畢, cǐ 此 (zī 觜), shēn 參, dōngjǐng 東井, yúguǐ 輿鬼, liŭ 柳, qīxīng 七星, zhāng 張, yì 翼, and zhěn 軫. In Tiānwén 《天文》 (Astronomy) of Huáinánzĭ 淮南子 [Works of Huainanzi], it reads that “xīng fēn dù: jiăo shí èr, kàng jiŭ, dī shí wŭ, fáng wŭ, xīn wŭ, wěi shí bā, jī shí yī sì fēn yī, dŏu èr shí liù, qiānniú bā, xūnǚ shí èr, xū shí, wēi shí qī, yíngshì shí liù, dōngbì jiŭ, kuí shí liù, lóu shí èr, wèi shí sì, mǎo shí yī, bì shí liù, zīxī èr, shēn jiŭ, dōngjǐng sān shí sān, yúguǐ sì, liŭ shí wŭ, xīng qī, zhāng, yì gè shí bā, zhěn shí qī, fán èr shí bā xiù. 星分度：角十二，亢九，氐十五， 房五，心五，尾十八，箕十一四分一，斗二十六，牽牛八，須女十二，虚 十，危十七，營室十六，東壁九，奎十六，婁十二，胃十四，昴十一，畢 十六，觜觹二，參九，東井三十三，輿鬼四，柳十五，星七，張、翼各十 八，軫十七，凡二十八宿也.” (Constellations have angles: jiǎo 角 is 12 degrees; kàng 亢, 9 degrees; dī 氐, 15 degrees; fáng 房, 5 degrees; xīn 心, 5 degrees; wěi 尾, 18 degrees; jī 箕, 11 and a quarter degrees; dŏu 斗, 26 degrees; qiānniú 牽牛, 8 degrees; xūnǚ 須女, 12 degrees; xū 虚, 10 degrees; wēi 危, 17 degrees; yíngshì 營室, 16 degrees; dōngbì 東壁, 9 degrees; kuí 奎, 16 degrees; lóu 婁, 12 degrees; wèi 胃, 14 degrees; mǎo 昴, 11 degrees; bì 畢, 16 degrees; zīxī 觜觹, 2 degrees; cān 參, 9 degrees; dōngjǐng 東井, 33 degrees; yúguǐ 輿鬼, 4 degrees; liǔ 柳, 15 degrees; xīng 星, 7 degrees; zhāng 張 and yì 翼, both 18 degrees; and zhěn 軫, 17 degrees. Altogether there are 28 constellations.) Later on, qiānniú 牽牛 was simplified as niú 牛, xūnǚ 須女 simplified as nǚ 女, yíngshì 營室 simplified as shì 室, dōngbì 東壁 simplified as bì 壁, zīxī 觜觹 simplified as zī 觜, dōngjǐng 東 井 simplified as 井 jǐng, and yúguǐ 輿鬼 simplified as guǐ 鬼; all the monosyllabic words loaned from the original word forms represent new astronomical contents, resulting in the regenerative words. Cānglóng 蒼龍 in the east contains seven constellations, namely, jiǎo 角, kàng 亢, dī 氐, fáng 房, xīn 心, wěi 尾, and jī箕. The character jiǎo 角 refers to the horn of a dragon; kàng 亢 is its neck; dī 氐 is its feet; fáng 房 is its stomach; xīn 心 is its heart; and wěi 尾 is its tail. The above six mansions form a picture of an Azure Dragon energetically leaping forward. Jī 箕 literally means dustpan, as the four stars in it form the shape of a dustpan. Xuánwǔ 玄武 in the north has seven constellations, namely dŏu 斗, niú 牛, nǚ 女, xū 虚, wēi 危, shì 室, and bì 壁. The character dŏu 斗 literally refers to a kind of vessel for alcohol. The six stars in it form the shape of such a vessel, so it is

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 45 also called nándŏu 南斗 (Southern Dipper). Niú 牛 is literally the name of a kind of animal, and qiānniú 牽牛 (to lead an ox) is originated from an ancient romantic legend, so the character is loaned to refer to the second constellation of xuánwŭ 玄武 in the north with six stars. Nǚ 女 refers to the third constellation of xuánwŭ 玄武 in the north with four stars. Xū 虚, wēi 危, shì 室, and bì 壁 resemble the shape of a house or a building. The four stars in xū 虚 form a house foundation; the three stars in wēi 危 form a roof with one star at a higher position and the other two lower; the four stars in shì 室 form a room with two stars in the west and the other two in the east; bì 壁 is also called dìng 定 or yíngshì 營室. In Dingzhīfāngzhōng 定之方中 [When Ding Star Culminated] of Yōngfēng 鄘風 [The Odes of Yong] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “ding zhī fāng zhōng, zuò yú chǔ gōng. 定之方中，作于楚宫.” (When Ding star culminated, he began to build the palace at Chu.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs] by Mao Heng 毛亨 (one scholar in the late Qin and the early Han dynasties), it reads that “dìng, yíngshì yě. 定，營室也.” (Dìng 定 is the constellation called yíngshì 營 室.) The literal meaning of bì 壁 is a wall inside a room, and was later adopted to address an independent wall-shaped constellation. Báihŭ 白虎 in the west consists of seven constellations, namely, kuí 奎, lóu 婁, wèi 胃, mǎo 昴, bì 畢, zī 觜, and shēn 參. According to Dà Group of Shuōwén 説 文·大部 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “kuí, liăng bì zhī jiān. 奎, 两髀之间.” (kuí 奎 is the place between two thighs.) Kuí 奎 literally referred to crotch. As Duan Yucai 段玉裁 noted, “kuí yŭ kuà shuāngshēng, kuí xiù shí liù xīng yĭ xiàngsì démíng. 奎與胯雙聲，奎宿十六星以像似得名.” (Kuí 奎 and kuà 胯, crotch, are alliterations. It is so named because the 16 stars in it form the shape of a crotch.) Lóu 婁 means gathering, which is so named because the three stars in it gather around. Wèi 胃 refers to the stomach of a human or an animal. The three stars in it like three legs of a tripod form a stomach-shaped barn. Mǎo 昴 is a small star cluster, with six or seven stars visible to the naked eye and 600 to 700 or even more than 2,000 stars visible through a large telescope. The characters with the initial of mǎo 卯 tend to possess the meaning of union, so the mǎo 昴 constellation is named due to its shape of gathering. Bì 畢 literally refers to a long-handled net, the shape of which is resembled by the eight stars in it. Zī 觜 literally is the hornlike hair on the head of an owl. The constellation is so named because the three stars in it form an acute angle, like the horn-like hair of a bird. Among the seven stars in the shēn 參 constellation, the three ones in the middle array themselves in a horizontal line and the outer four ones form a rectangular, like the boundary of the line. In ancient times, the shēn 參 constellation had only three stars. In Chóumóu 綢繆 [Binding] of Tángfēng 唐風 [The Odes of Tang] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “sān xīng zài tiān. 三星在天.” (The three stars appear in the sky.) According to Máozhuàn [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “sān xīng, sān yě. 三星, 參也.” (Here, sān 三 in sān xīng 三星, three stars, equals sān 參, three.) Hence, this constellation is so named because of the three stars. Zhūquè 朱雀 in the south comprises seven constellations, namely, jǐng 井, guǐ 鬼, liǔ 柳, xīng 星, zhāng 張, yì 翼, and zhěn 軫. Jǐng 井 literally means well (a place with round walls leading down to the water), and the eight stars in it form the

46

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

shape of a well. The character guǐ 鬼 originally refers to the spirit of a dead person. It is so named because there is a cloud of white gas (countless small stars, called the Crab Nebula by westerners) in the middle of the four stars of this constellation, which was regarded as corpse gas by ancient people. The four constellations of liǔ 柳, xīng 星, zhāng 張, and yì 翼 form the picture of a rosefinch spreading its wings to fly. The eight stars in the liǔ 柳 constellation look like a weeping willow. It is also called zhòu 咮, the beak of a rosefinch. The seven stars of the xīng 星 constellation resemble the neck of a rosefinch, the six stars of the zhāng 張 constellation, its craw, and the 22 stars of the yì 翼 constellation, its wings. Zhěn 軫 literally refers to chēzhěn 車軫, the guards in front and on both sides of a carriage in ancient times. The constellation is so named because the four stars in it resemble such a shape. Such constellation names as huǒ 火 (xīn 心), jī 箕, dŏu 斗, dìng 定 (shì 室, bì 壁), mǎo 昴, bì 畢, shēn 參, qiānniú 牽牛, and zhīnǚ 織女, as well as the Milky Way, are all mentioned in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs]. In Dàdōng 大東 [The Large States of the East] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes], it reads that “wéi tiān yŏu hàn, jiān yì yŏu guāng. 維天有漢，監亦有光.” (The Milky Way hangs in the sky, its light like a bright mirror.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “hàn, tiān hé yě. 漢, 天河也.” (Hàn 漢 refers to the Milky Way.) Ancient people were capable of applying astronomical knowledge to reality, which is recorded in Xīgōngwŭnián 僖公五年 [Fifth Year of Duke Xi’s Reign] in Zuŏzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals] that when Duke Xian of the Jin State 晉獻公 asked Bu Yan 卜偃 the exact time he could break through Shangyang, Bu Yan replied, “tóng yáo yún: ‘bǐng zhī chén, lóngwěi fú chén, jūn fú zhènzhèn, qǔ guó zhī qí. Chún zhī bānbān, tiān cè tūn ūn, huǒ zhōng chéng jūn, guó gōng qí bēn.’ qí jiǔ, shí yuè zhī jiāo hū? bǐng zĭ dàn, rì zài wěi, yuè zài cè, chún huǒ zhōng, bì shì shí yě. 童謡云: ‘丙之晨，龍尾伏辰，均服 振振，取虢之旂. 鶉之賁賁，天策焞焞，火中成軍，虢公其奔.’ 其九、十月 之交乎？丙子旦，日在尾，月在策，鶉火中，必是時也.” (A nursery rhyme reads “in the morning of the day of Bing, the sun and the moon met at the chén 辰 star of the dragon’s tail, whose light was obscured by their brightness. At that time, well-equipped soldiers set out to capture the flag of the Guo State. The chún 鶉, zhūquè 朱雀, constellation resembled the shape of a giant bird. The tiān cè 天 策 star turned dim. Troops were assembled under the middle part of the huŏ 火 constellation, and the Duke of Guo fled away.” Did it happen between the end of the ninth month and the beginning of the tenth? Hence, in the morning of the day of Bing, when the sun reaches the wěi 尾 constellation, the moon reaches the cè 策 star, and the chún huŏ 鶉火 constellation is between the sun and the moon, it will be the time for you to conquer it.) Hereby, lóng wěi 龍尾 refers to the wěi 尾 constellation of the 28 constellations, and chén 辰 is the position where the sun and the moon meet each other. That is to say, on the first day of each lunar month, the sun moves to the wěi 尾 constellation and the stars in it becomes invisible, so the phenomenon is described as “lóngwěi fú chén 龍尾伏辰” (Lóngwěi 龍尾 is at the position where the sun and the moon meet each other.) Both chún 鶉 and huŏ 火 belong to the liŭ 柳 constellation among the 28 constellations. Cè 策, also

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 47 written as tiāncè 天策 or chuánshuō 傳説 (legend), is a star to the east of the second star in the wěi 尾 constellation. People nowadays know very little about these constellations, despite of the fact that ancient people were very familiar to it. 2.2 Cropnames In the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, agriculture had developed to be the most important production sector in the social economy. Productivity had been greatly enhanced due to the improvement of production tools, especially the widespread of iron tools. In Chéngōng 臣工 [Ministers and Officers] of Zhōusòng 周頌 [The Sacrificial Odes of Zhou] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads, “mìng wŏ zhòng rén, zhì năi qián bó, yān guān zhì ài. 命我眾人，庤乃錢镈，奄觀铚艾.” (Orders shall be given to my men to prepare spades and hoes, and soon we will use sickles to reap grains.) The character qián 錢 is a spade, the character bó 镈 is a hoe, and zhì 铚 is an iron reaping tool. The three characters all has the radical of jīn 金, so they all refer to metal farming tools. In Téngwéngōng I 滕文公上 [Duke Wen of the Teng State I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “yǐ tiě gēng hū? 以鐵耕乎?” (Does he use iron tools for farming?) This further proves that people at that time used iron tools for cultivation. With the improvement of planting techniques, the variety of crops had increased greatly. For example, there are only eight crop names recorded in oracle bone inscriptions in the Shang dynasty, namely, hé 禾, mài 麥, lái 來, shǔ 黍, shú 秫, dào 稻, sù 粟, and mù 穆. In the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, crop names have reached the total number of 40, mostly coming into being after the Zhou dynasty. Gǔ 穀 and zī 粢 are general terms for grains; while dá 荅, dòu 豆, and shū 菽 refer to beans. Rice crops include dào 䆃, dào 稻, fèi , jīng 秔 (稉), ní 秜, nuò 稬 (糯), tú 稌, xiān 秈, and xǔ 稰. Glutinous millets contain jù 秬, mí 糜, pī 秠, and jì 穄. Liáng 粱, mén 穈, and qǐ 芑 all refer to millet; early and late maturing crops include zhǒng 種, lù 穋 (稑), zhī 稙, zhì 穉, and zhuō 穛. Some of them are improved seed strains at that time. See the following examples. Jí qí chéng wū, qí shǐ bō bǎi gǔ. 亟其乘屋，其始播百穀. (Hurry up to the roof to repair the house. We will start to plant hundreds of grains in no time.) (Qīyuè 七月 [The Seventh Month] of Bīnfēng 豳風 [The Odes of Bin] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs].) Shǔ jì tónɡ lù, zhī wǔ shū mài. 黍稷重穋，稙穉菽麥. (Glutinous millet, broomcorn millet, cereals planted early, but ripe late, grains planted late, but ripe early, early planted or early ripe grains, young grains, beans, and wheat.) (Bìgōng 閟宫 [The Solemn Temples] of Lǔsòng 魯頌 [PraiseOdes of Lu] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs].) Dàn jiàng jiā zhŏng, wéi jù wéi pī, wéi mén wéi qĭ. 誕降嘉種，維秬維 秠，維穈維芑. (We are blessed with fine seed strains, including black millet, double-grain black millet, red-leaf millet, and white millet.) (Shēngmín 生民 [The First Birth of People] of Dàyă 大雅 [Greater Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs].)

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The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese Wáng shì mí jiān, bù néng yì dào liáng. 王事靡盬，不能藝稻粱. (We shall be serious with the Emperor’s affairs, so we do not have the time to plant rice and glutinous millet.) (Bǎoyǔ 鴇羽 [The Wings of the Wild Geese] of Tángfēng 唐風 [The Odes of Tang] in Shī詩 [The Book of Songs].) Nǎi mìng dà qiú, shú dào bì qí. 乃命大酋，秫稻必齊. (The head officer in charge of alcohol was ordered that glutinous millet and rice be ready.) (Yuèlìng 月令 [Monthly Climate] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites]).

In addition, the crops in the field are called jià 稼, the mature ones are sè 穑, the rice crops with ears but no grains are láng 稂, the grain crops with flowers are xiù 秀, the grains empty inside are bǐ 秕, the husks of grains are fū 稃, the flowergrain clusters on the top of the stem of a rice crop or wheat are suì 穗, grain ears with awns are yĭng 穎, and the millet grains in a rice ear are jĭ 穖. None of them appears in oracle bone inscriptions. There are little vegetable names from oracle bone inscriptions, yet there were dozens of such names related to vegetables in the Zhou and the Qin dynasties. The word cài 菜 is the general term for vegetables and meals. Shū 蔬, rú 茹, and sù 蔌 are general terms for vegetables. Cōng 葱 is a kind of seasoning vegetable. Fēi 菲 or xī cài 蒠菜 is an annual herb whose leaves and stems are edible. Fēng 葑 or mànjīng 蔓菁 (turnip) belongs to cabbage. Fú 菔 is radish. Guā 瓜 refers to fruits of cucurbitaceous plants. Hù 瓠 is gourd. Jì 薺 is shepherd’s purse. Jiè 芥 is mustard green. Jiāng 薑 means fresh ginger. Jīng 菁 is also mànjīng 蔓菁 (turnip). Jiǔ 韭 is fragrant-flowered garlic. Kǔ 苦 or qú 𦼫 and kŭmǎi 苦蕒 is sow thistle. Kuài 蕢 or chìxiàncài 赤莧菜 refers to red amaranth. Kuí 葵 or dōngxiàncài 冬莧 菜 is winter amaranth. Xiè 薤 or jiàotóu 藠頭 is allium; yù 芋 refers to dasheen, and yún 芸 is coriander. According to statistics, there are as many as 50 kinds of vegetables in Shī Jīng詩經 [The Book of Songs].2 Most are edible wild herbs, with quite a few artificial ones. The people of the Zhou dynasty knew not only how to grow vegetables, but also how to make full use of vegetable fields. In Qīyuè 七 月 [The Seventh Month] of Bīnfēng 豳風 [The Odes of Bin] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “jiǔyuè zhù chǎng pǔ, shíyuè nà hé jià. 九月築場圃，十 月納禾稼” (Vegetable gardens are built in the ninth month. Crops are harvested into barns in the tenth month.) According to Zhèngjiān 鄭箋 [Zheng’s Annotations to the Book of Songs] by Zheng Xuan 鄭玄, “chăng pǔ tóng dì, zì wù shēng zhī shí gēng zhì zhī yǐ zhòng cài rú, zhì wù jìn chéng shú, zhù jiān yǐ wéi chǎng. 場 圃同地，自物生之時耕治之以種菜茹，至物盡成熟，築堅以爲場.” (The vegetable garden and the place for drying grains are the same, which have been cultivated and treated to plant vegetables since everything begins to grow. When the crops are mature, it will be built into a hard ground for drying grains.) Vegetables are planted in spring and summer in the same land,; ground for drying grains are built in autumn and winter. Such experience has been handed down to this day. There were also vegetable growers in the Zhou dynasty. In Zĭlù 子路 [Zilu] of Lúnyŭ 論語 [Analects of Confucius], it reads that “fán chí . . . qǐng xué wéi pǔ, zǐ yuē: ‘wú bù rú lǎopǔ. 樊遲 . . . 請學爲圃，子曰： ‘吾不如老圃’” (Fan Chi . . . asked Confucius about growing vegetables, and Confucius replied, “I’m not as

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

49

good as an experienced vegetable grower.”) Lǎopǔ 老圃 here refers to experienced vegetable growers, who had far more experience in growing vegetable than Confucius. As the winter in the north of China is cold, people in the Zhou dynasty had already known how to make various pickles for the winter. In Cǎo 艸 Group of Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zū, zhàcài yě.菹, 醡菜也.” (Zū 菹 refers to pickled vegetables). Xīrén 醯人 [Officers in Charge of Pickling Vegetables] of Tiānguān 天官 [Officials in Charge of Astronomy] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou] records seven pickled vegetables, namely, jiǔ 韭, jīng 菁, máo 茆, kuí 葵, qín 芹, taí (箈), and sǔn 筍. In Gǔ Fēng of Bèi Fēng in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “wǒ yǒu zhǐ xù, yì yǐ yù dōng. 我有旨蓄，亦 以禦冬.” (I have stored yummy pickled vegetables as provisions against winter.) Plenty of pickled vegetables are prepared in summer and autumn, so that people will not suffer from lack of dishes in winter. 2.3 Nounsrelatedtofoodanddrinks There are only a few food names in oracle bone inscriptions. However, in the Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties, higher living standards resulted in more varieties of food and exquisite cooking techniques, so relevant terms became larger in number and more complicated. To begin with, grains were processed in various degrees so that there were differences between fine and coarse grains. For example, zhāng 粻 is a general term for grain and rice; cū 粗 refers to unground or poorly ground husked brown rice; lì 䊪 (糲) is poorly ground brown rice; bài 粺 refers to finely polished rice which yields nine dŏu 斗 (Chinese measuring unit for grain with one dŏu 斗 roughly equaling 6.25 kg in the Qin and the Han dynasties) out of one dàn 石 (a unit of dry measuring unit for grain with one dàn 石 roughly equaling 62.5 kg in the Qin and the Han dynasties) of brown rice; zuò 糳 refers to finely polished rice which yields eight dŏu 斗 out of one dàn 石; Càn 粲 refers to superior white rice; cuì 粹 is impurity-free rice; jīng 精 refers to pure rice with high quality. The names of the meals made from grains and rice are almost unavailable in oracle bone inscriptions, but in the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, there were various such names. For instance, bèi 糒 are solid cereal foods; bò 糪 is half-cooked cereal foods; cí 餈 is cakes made of steamed rice flour; ěr 餌 is pastries. Fàn 飯 is fully cooked cereal foods; Liáng 糧 and hóu 餱 (糇) are solid cereal foods; hú 餬 is cereal porridge; qiǔ 糗 is solid foods made from fried rice or wheat. Shēn 糂 and shēn 糝, rice soup, or foods made of rice mixed with other foods; shàn 膳 is delicate meals; mí 糜 and zhān 饘 are thick porridge; zhōu 粥 is the generic term for gruel; yí 飴 and xíng 餳 are malt sugar; bǐng 餅 is round and flat food made from flour; xī 饎 is food eaten with alcohol. Ancient Chinese people had two meals a day, with yōng 饔 as their breakfast, and sūn 飧 and bū 餔 are supper. In Téngwéngōng I 滕文公上 [Duke Wen of the Teng State I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “yōngsūn ér zhì. 饔飧而治.” (Make breakfast and supper by himself and deal with state affairs.) Zhao Qi 趙岐 noted, “zhāo yuē yōng, xī yuē sūn. 朝曰饔，夕曰飧.” (Dinner in the morning is called yōng 饔 and that in the evening is called xī 飧.) In Shíbù 食部 [Shi Group] of Shuōwén [Origin of

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The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

Chinese Characters], it reads that “bū, rìzhōng shēnshí shí yě. 餔, 日中申時食 也.” (Bū 餔 refers to dinner eaten at Shen hour of a day, i.e., from three p.m. to five p.m. in current time.) People began to eat meat as early as in the primitive society. There are characters of ròu 肉 (meat) and zì 胾 (big piece of meat) in oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang dynasty. In the Zhou dynasty, there were wide varieties of meat products, including braised meat, roasted meat, jerkies, sauced meat, pickled meat, and so on. Nèizé 内則 [Internal Disciplines] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites] lists several dozens of elegant daily foods favored by the Emperor, which are enough to prove the richness of their variety. What deserve special attention are wō 蜗, chí 蚳 and jué爵, yàn 鷃, tiáo 蜩, and fàn 范. Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 noted that “chí, pífú zĭ yě. Tiáo, chán yě; fàn, fēng yě. 蚳, 蚍蜉子也. 蜩, 蟬也; 范, 蜂也.” (Chí 蚳 refers to ant eggs, tiáo 蜩 is cicadas, and fàn 范 is bees.) That is to say, ancient Chinese people had snails, ant eggs, sparrows, cicadas, and bees as their food, which are no longer eaten by modern people. Meat with soup or liquid sauce include gēng 羹, fèn 膹, huò 𦞦, juǎn 臇, etc. Xiāng 膷 is beef broth, while xiāo 膮 is pork broth and biāo 膘 is mutton broth. Jerky names include fǔ 脯, là 臘, xié 膎, xiū 脩, hū 膴 (boneless dried meat), jū 腒 (dried bird meat), pò 膊 (dried meat chops), qú 朐 (curved dried meat), tǐng 脡 (dried meat strips), zhí 膱 (dried meat strips), and so on. Meat sources include hăi 醢, jiàng 醬, ní 腝 (meat source with bones), shān 脠 (uncooked meat source), tǎn 醓 (meat sauce with a lot of liquid sauce), xū 胥 (crab source), etc. There are also other names for meat foods, namely, fán 膰 and fán 燔 (cooked meat for sacrifice), fū 膚 (finely chopped meat), kuài 膾 (finely chopped fish meat), luán 臠 (meat in pieces), yáo 肴 (cooked meat foods), shèn 脤 (uncooked meat for emperors to pray for the country), zhì 炙 (roasted meat), and zhuăn 膞 (meat in pieces). In addition, exquisite meat is called chéng 脭 (tenderloin), méi 脄 and méi 脢 (beef omasum), and pí 膍 and jué 臄 (beef tongue with what adheres to it). With the development of food production, more alcohol drinks were produced. Legend has it that people in the Shang dynasty were indulged in alcohol, and Emperor Zhou of the Shang dynasty is described as “yǐ jiǔ wéi chí, xuán ròu wéi lín, lìng nán nǚ luŏ, xiāngzhú qíjiān, wéi chángyè zhīyǐn. 以酒爲池，縣肉爲林， 令男女倮，相逐其間，爲長夜之飲.” (Filling the pool with alcohol and hanging meat on trees to have naked men and women chase each other and drink all night.) (Yīnběnjì 殷本紀 [Emperors of the Shang dynasty]) in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Historian]. However, there are only three alcohol names in oracle bone inscriptions, namely, jiŭ 酒 (alcohol), lĭ 醴 (sweet alcohol), and chàng 鬯 (sacrificial alcohol made of tulip). In the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, drinking alcohol became the hobby in daily life, so the variety of alcohol drinks greatly increased. While àng 醠 refers to unfiltered alcohol, èr 䣵 is alcohol brewed twice. Gū 酤 is alcohol brewed only one night. Láo 醪 is unfiltered alcohol with sediment (fermented glutinous rice). Lí 醨 is diluted alcohol. Nóng 醲 is strong alcohol. Sōu 醙 is white-colored alcohol, and tí 醍 is clear, pink alcohol. Xǔ 醑 and xǔ 湑 are filtered alcohol without sediment. Yí 酏 is alcohol made by broomcorn millet. Zāo 糟 is alcohol with sediment and zhòu 酎 is pure alcohol fermented several times.

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 51 Moreover, qū 麴 and tú 酴 refer to alcohol yeast. The word is the bacteria of alcohol yeast. Words like and yì 䣧 are colors of alcohol. Chún 醇 and rú 醹 are the mellow taste of alcohol. Yăn 酓 is the bitter taste of alcohol. Hān 酣 means drinking to one’s heart’s content, while zuì 醉 means drinking beyond one’s capacity. The word chéng 酲 means being unconscious after drinking and tuó 酡 means blushing after drinking. The existence of these names is related to the widespread of alcohol brewing and drinking. Alcoholic drinks in ancient Chinese times tended to be undistilled watery alcohol with low degree, so ancient people usually drank up a glass of alcohol in one breath, which is referred to as jiào 釂. In Yǒubù 酉部 [You Group] of Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “jiào, yĭnjiŭ jìn yĕ. 釂, 飲酒盡也.” (Jiào 釂 means exhausting the alcohol in the glass). “Jiǔ guò sān xún 酒過三巡” means each person takes turns to finish three glasses at a banquet. Distilled alcohol has been existed since the Yuan dynasty. 2.4 Nounsrelatedtocloth,silktextiles,andclothes It is said that China developed sericulture and silk reeling as early as in the period of the Yellow Emperor.3 The culture of the Shang dynasty went through a high development, so that people’s clothes become exquisite. However, there are only a few such names in oracle bone inscriptions as sī 絲, mì 糸, xì 系, yī 衣, and qiú 裘. By the time of the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, with the improvement of social material and cultural living standards, the textile industry began to boom. Zhōulĭ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou] records that the Zhou dynasty appointed special officers in charge of silk, textiles made of male nettle-hemp, women’s work with silk, and painting on fabrics, indicating that the organization and division of labor for textile production at that time had gradually been perfected. Meanwhile, the textile industry was dominated by hemp spinning and silk spinning. According to Lĭyùn 禮運 [The Adoption of Rites] in Lĭjì 禮記 [Book of Rites], it reads that “zhì qí má sī, yǐ wéi bù bó. 治其麻絲，以爲布帛.” (The cloth is woven from hemp silk.) A small scale of wool spinning also existed at that time. As a result, from the perspective of language, the names related to cloth and silk textiles as well as clothes had greatly increased. There used to be no cotton or cotton cloth in ancient China, and people mainly wore linen and silk fabrics. There were over ten types of linen: bù 布 is a general term for fabrics made from hemp and grosgrain; bēng 絣 is cloth woven from variegated silk by the ancient Di (氐) people; Chī 絺 (fine ko-hemp cloth); Quán 絟 (percale); Sī 緦 (fine linen cloth for making mourning clothes); suì 𦄑 (white muslin cloth produced in the ancient Shu area); suì 繐 (fine and sparse linen cloth mostly for mourning dress in ancient times); xì 綌 (rough ko-hemp cloth); xī 緆 (fine linen cloth); zhòu 縐 (extremely fine ko-hemp cloth); and zhù 紵 (cloth woven from ramie). Silk fabrics are much more abundant, up to 40 kinds at that time. Zēng 缯 and bó 帛 are general terms for silk fabrics. From the perspective of color, chún 純 refers to silk fabrics of the same color; cōng 繱 (light blue silk); 紡 fǎng (white, thin but tough silk); 缟 găo (white delicate silk); 錦 jǐn (silk fabrics with decorative pattern woven into with colored warp and weft thread); jìn 縉 (light red silk); juàn

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絹 (wheat-blue silk fabrics); juàn 縛 (white fine silk); liàn 練 (white silk made from boiled silk); piǎo 缥 (bluish white silk); qiàn 綪 (red silk fabrics); sù 素 (silk with natural color); tí 緹 (orange-red silk); wán 纨 (white fine silk); xiù 繡 (silk fabrics with colorful patterns); xū or rú 繻 (colorful silk fabrics); yì 繄 (black red silk fabrics); huò 䋭 (silk fabrics woven with cyan warp and white weft); zǎo 缲 (black silk fabrics with a slight reddish color); zī缁 (black silk fabrics); and zōu 緅 (blue-red silk fabrics). From the perspective of texture and craftsmanship, chóu 紬 and fù 紨 are coarse silk fabrics; hú 縠 (crepe); jiān 缣 (fine silk woven with double threads); líng 綾 (thin and fine silk fabrics with patterns); luó 羅 (light and soft gauzes with their warp and weft structure forming wrinkles of an eye corner); màn 縵 (silk fabrics without patterns); qǐ 綺 (plain weaved jacquard silk fabrics); qĭ 綮 (fine silk fabrics); shā 紗 (light thin silk or linen fabrics); shī 䌳 (coarse and loose silk fabrics); xiān 纖 (fine-grained silk fabrics); and xiāo 綃 (light gauzes or silk fabrics woven from raw silk). All in all, there was a great variety of silk fabrics at that time. In particular, the handicraft industry in the Shu area of the Han dynasty (Sichuan and Chongqing Province today) was so developed that Chengdu produced a great variety of silk fabrics called shŭjĭn 蜀锦, tapestries from Sichuan. According to Shŭdūfù 蜀都賦 [Capital of Shu] by Yang Xiong 楊雄 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “ěr nǎi qí rén, zì zào qí jǐn. Qiú xuàn fěi xié, xiāo yuán lú zhōng. 爾乃 其人,自造奇錦.紌繏𦃄䋶, 縿緣盧中.” (Those are the people who can produce splendid brocades, such as qiú 紌, xuàn 繏, fěi 𦃄, xié 䋶, and xiāo 縿 are all from the stove.) Zhang Qiao 章樵 of the Song dynasty annotated that “shŭjĭn míngjiàn bùyī, cĭ qí yóu qí zhě. 蜀錦名件不一，此其尤奇者.” (It is most amazing that the names of the tapestries from Sichuan can be so various). Qiú 紌, xuàn 繏, fěi 𦃄, xié 䋶, and xiāo 縿 are all names of famous Sichuan tapestries with different colors and patterns. How is the quality of the above cloth and silk? According to Zájì I 雜記上 [Miscellaneous Records I], it reads that “cháo fú shí wǔ sheng. 朝服十五升.” (There are 15 shēng 升, Chinese measuring unit, of court dress). One shēng 升 equals 80 strands of cloth (see notes in Sàngfú 喪服 [Mourning Apparel] of Yílǐ 儀禮 [Etiquette and Ceremonial Book] by Zheng Xuan 鄭玄). Fifteen shēng 升 equals 1,200 strands. In ancient times, the width of cloth was 2.2 chĭ 尺 (one chĭ equals one-third meter), which is about 50.6 cm with 1,200 warp threads, amounting to 23 threads per centimeter. In 1973, several types of linen cloth were unearthed at the Han Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui in Changsha, Hunan Province, China. The finest linen contains 28 warps per centimeter, which is about 17 shēng 升, the same fineness as current linen cloth. Another explanation reads the finest cloth is 30 shēng 升. In Zĭhǎn 子罕 [Zihan] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “má miǎn, lǐ yě. 麻冕，禮也.” (The linen cap is prescribed by the rituals.) According to Kŏngānguózhuàn 孔安國傳 [Biography of Kong Anguo] quoted by He Yan 何晏 in Jíjiě 集解 [Comments on “Analects of Confucius”], it reads that “miǎn, zī bù guān yě. gŭ zhě jì má sān shí shēng bù yĭ wéi zhī. 冕，緇布冠也.古 者績麻三十升布以為之.” (Miǎn 冕 refers to a hat made of black cloth, woven with linen cloth of 30 shēng 升 in ancient times.) The 30 shēng 升 cloth contains

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 53 43 warp threads per centimeter, much thinner than modern linen cloth, provoking doubts among scholars.4 As for silk fabrics, a silk blouse unearthed at the Han Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui in Changsha weighs no more than one liăng 兩 (50 g), as thin as one cicada’s wings, being very delicate. The textile technology at that time indeed reached a very high standard, which brought about the booming of variety in people’s clothes, especially among the noble ruling class who tended to be extremely elaborate in clothing. The luxury of costumes and the elegance of silk and linen fabrics of the noble class can be clearly seen from the large number of burial clothes unearthed from the Han Tomb at Mawangdui in Changsha in the 1970s. In ancient Chinese, there were more than 50 clothing names divided in terms of form design, texture, color, and purpose. Following are names concerning upper garments. Chěng 裎 refers to unlined garments with buttons down the front; dān 襌, zhěn 袗 and zuì 䘹 are unlined clothes; zhě 褶, dié 褺, fù 複, jiá 袷, and jiá 裌 are lined clothes; fán 袢 is fine white grosgrain underwear worn in summer. Guī 袿 is a long gown worn by women. Gǔn 衮 and gǔn 裷 are costumes embroidered with dragons worn by the emperor during sacrifices. Hè 褐 is clothes made of animal fur or burlap; while huī 褘 is a costume embroidered with pheasants worn by the queen during sacrifices; jiǎn 襺 is silk cotton-padded clothes; jiǒng 褧 is unlined outer garments made of light gauze; jūn 袀 is a military uniform; páo 袍 is a long robe with its interlayer stuffed with cotton wadding; pí 裨 is the second-class formal attire worn during sacrifices; rán 衻 is splendid attire worn by women when they get married; rú 襦 is short coats; shān 衫 (襂) is short-sleeved, unlined clothes; tuàn 褖 is a queen’s casual clothes; xī 裼 is sleeveless clothes worn over fur coats; xiè 褻 is loungewear; xuàn 袨 is black coats worn by soldiers. Rì 衵, zhōng 衷, and zé 襗 are all underwear; yú 褕 and yúdí 揄狄 are the queen’s sacrificial costume painted with pheasant tails; zhǎn 展 is red-gauze coat and zhū 袾 is bright red clothes. Lower garments include cháng 裳 (today’s skirt), bì 韠 or bìxī 蔽膝 (leather clothes covering the front of the body), kù 袴 (leggings), kūn 褌 (㡓) (unsplit pants), qiān 褰 (leggings) and qún 裙 (skirt), etc. Moreover, clothes connecting the upper and the lower dresses include shēn yī 深衣 (house wears of nobles retiring at home), zhōng yī 中衣 (clothes worn under outer clothing), and cháng yī 長衣 (clothes edged with white silk). Head wearings include miǎn 冕, biàn 弁, and guān 冠. Miǎn 冕 is the most noble headcovering, with jade tassels (twelve strings for the emperor, nine for dukes and princes, seven for Shàngdàfū 上 大夫 [senior officials in feudal China], and five for dàfū 大夫). Biàn 弁 has three types, namely, juébiàn 爵弁 (made of red with slightly black leather), píbiàn 皮弁 (made of the skins of white deer), and xuēbiàn 靴弁 (made of red leather). Guān 冠 used to be daily head wearings of adult males, including báibùguān 白布冠 (made of white cloth, used as mourning wears in later generations), zībùguān 緇 布冠 (made of black fabrics, daily wears for ordinary people), and xuánguān 玄冠 (also known as zhāngfǔ 章甫 or wúzhuī 毋追, commonly used ceremonial crowns made of black silk). Ancient people wore long hair, so both men and women used jī 笄 (zān zi 簪子, hairpins). Women also wore fù 副 (bùyáo 步搖, hats with dangling ornaments on them), biān 編 (wig), cì 次 (also wig), héng 衡 (hairpins used to hang jade ear plugs on crowns). Footwear contains wà 襪 and wà 韤 (襪), lǚ 履, and xì

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The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

舄. In Shuōwén·Wéibù 説文·韋部 [Wei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads, “wà, zú yī yě. 襪, 足衣也.” (Wà 襪 is socks; clothes for feet). Lǚ 履 refers to single-soled shoes and xì 舄 are double-soled shoes. What people wore on the head, the body, and the feet in addition to many other items amounted to hundreds of clothing names. 2.5 Nounsrelatedtoflags Flags are an emblem representing different clans, countries, organizations, ranks, identities, or functions. With various colors, some flags possessed special patterns or shapes derived mostly from the totems of primitive society with different meanings. Qí 旗 (flag) did not exist in oracle bone inscriptions, but there were flags in the Shang dynasty. The original meaning of zhōng 中 is flag. In Yīnū Wénzì Jì 殷虚文字記 [Characters from Yinxu] by Tang Lan 唐蘭, Chinese philologist and historian, it reads that “‘zhōng’ běn wéi shìzú shèhuì zhī huīzhì, gŭshí yŏu dàshì, jùzhòng yú kuàngdì, xiān lìzhōng yān, qúnzhòng wàngjiàn zhōng ér qūfù. Qúnzhòng láizì sìfāng, zé jiànzhōng zhīdì wéi zhòngyāng yĭ. ‘中’本為氏族社會 之徽幟，古時有大事，聚眾於曠地，先立中焉，群眾望見中而趨赴.群眾來 自四方，則建中之地為中央矣.” (Zhōng 中 originally refers to the banners in clan society. In ancient times, when big events happened, people would gather in an open space. A banner would be set up in the middle beforehand so that people would head for it when seeing it. Since people came from all directions, then the place where the banner was set up was taken as the center.) In oracle bone inscriptions, there is such an expression as lìzhōng 立中, meaning setting up a flag to gather crowds or observe wind direction. For example, on bone shell No. 1218 in Cuì 《粹》, it reads that “jǐhài bŭ, guài zhēn: wáng wù lìzhōng. 己亥卜，夬貞： 王勿立中.” (It is divined on the day of Jihai by diviner Guai, who surmised that the Emperor should not set up the banner.) In addition, on bone shell No. 88 on page 2 in Cún 《存》, it reads that “bǐngzĭ, qí lìzhōng. Wú fēng, bāyuè. 丙子， 其立中.亡風，八月.” (It is divined on the day of Bingzi that the banner should be set up. It will not be windy and should be set up in the eighth month.) The original meanings of words like yǎn 㫃, xuán 旋, 旅 lǚ, and 族 zú, etc., are all related to flags from oracle bone inscriptions. While yǎn 㫃 resembles the flying of a flag, xuán 旋 is one person revolving under a banner. In Shuōwén·Yǎnbù 説文㫃部 [Yan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “xuán, zhōuxuán, jīngqí zhī zhĭhuī yě. 旋，周旋，旌旗之指麾也.” (Xuán 旋 means revolving of the commander). Lǚ旅 means to assemble people with a banner, so it has the meaning of crowd. Zú族 is composed of yǎn 㫃 (calling together people) and shĭ矢 (killing the enemy). In ancient times, a family or a clan used to be a fighting collective, and thus written as zú 族 with a yǎn 㫃 and a shĭ 矢. The types and functions of flags became more complicated in the Zhou dynasty. In Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], there are nine types of flags, namely, cháng 常, qí 旂, zhān 旃 (旜), wù 物, qí 旗, yú 旟, zhào 旐, suì 旞, and jīng 旌. The character cháng 常, also dà cháng 大常 or tài cháng 太常, refers to flags established by the emperor with signs of the sun and the moon. Qí 旂, also dà qí 大旂

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 55 or lóng qí 龍旂, refers to flags set up by princes or dukes with signs of two dragons leaning against each other. Zhān 旃 (旜) (red and crook-handled) refers to flags built by independent high officials or army flags with no decorative paintings. Wù 物 made of colored silk refers to flags built by generals or marshals. Qí 旗 painted with bears and tigers symbolizing power and boldness refers to army flags set up by generals. Yú 旟 is painted with hawks and falcons, symbolizing bravery. Zhào 旐, also military flags painted with tortoises and snakes, is set up by military commanders in the army. Suì 旞, tied with complete colorful bird feathers on the flag pole for decoration, is used for clearing the way. Jīng 旌, hanging a yak tail on the flag pole with colorful feather strings at the bottom, is used for commanding or clearing the way. In Sīcháng 司常 [Officials in Charge of State Affairs] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads, “sī cháng zhǎng jiǔ qí zhī wù míng, gè yǒu shǔ, yǐ dài guó shì. Rì yuè wéi cháng, jiāo lóng wéi qí, tōng bó wéi zhān, zá bó wéi wù, xióng hǔ wèi qí, niăo sǔn wéi yú, guī shé wéi zhào, quán yǔ wéi suì, xī yǔ wéi jīng. Jí guó zhī dà yuè, zàn sī mǎ bān qí wù: wáng jiàn dà cháng, zhū hóu jiàn qí, gū qīng jiàn zhān, dà fū shì jiàn wù, shī dū jiàn qí, Zhōulǐ jiàn yú, xiàn bǐ jiàn zhào, dào chē zài suì, yóu chē zài jīng. Jiē huà (shū) qí xiàng yān, guān fǔ gè xiàng qí shì, Zhōulǐ gè xiàng qí míng, jiā gè xiàng qí hào. 司常掌九旗之物名，各有屬，以待國事. 日月爲常，交龍 爲旂， 通帛爲旜，雜帛爲物，熊虎爲旗，鳥隼爲旟，龜蛇爲旐，全羽爲 旞，析羽爲旌.及國之大閲，贊司馬頒旗物：王建大常，諸侯建旂，孤卿建 旜，大夫士建物，師都建旗，州里建旟，縣鄙建旐，道車載旞，斿車載旌. 皆畫(書) 其象焉，官府各象其事，州里各象其名，家各象其號.” (The names of the nine flags administered by sī cháng 司常 fall into different categories to deal with different state affairs. Cháng 常 stands for the sun and the moon; qí 旂 is two dragons leaning against each other; zhān 旜 (single-colored flags); wù 物 (colored flags); qí 旗 (patterns of bears and tigers); yú 旟 (patterns of hawks and falcons); zhào 旐 (patterns of tortoises and snakes); suì 旞 (complete feathers); and jīng 旌 (feather strings). During grand inspections in a state, sī cháng 司常 would help sī mă 司馬 (ministers of war) to bestow the flags. Dà cháng 大常 belongs to the emperor; qí 旂 (princes and dukes); zhān 旜 (independent high officials); wù 物 (generals and marshals); qí 旗 (armies of capitals); yú 旟 (communities of 25 families each in cities); and zhào 旐 (communities of 500 families each in counties). Suì 旞 is carried by imperial carts clearing the way, and jīng 旌 is carried by cruising chariots. All the flags shall bear their own symbols, with local governments engaged in the right administrative affairs, each community of cities entitled the right name, and every family marked the right symbol. However, modern scholars believed that the so-called nine flags recorded in Zhōu Lĭ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou] should be only five flags in reality. In Jiǔqí Gǔyì Shù 九旗古誼述 [Discussions on Ancient Meanings of Nine Kinds of Flags] by Sun Yirang 孫詒 讓, expert in Confucian classics in the late Qing dynasty, it reads that “zōng’ér lùnzhī, qí zhèngqí wéi wǔ: yuē cháng, yuē qí, yuē qí, yuē yú, yuē zhào, wǔlù zhī suǒ jiàn yě. Wǔzhě suízhāng yìwù, qí yuē zhān (zhān), yuē wù, wèi shān yóu zhī yìmíng; yuē suì, yuē jīng, wèi zhù yǔ zhī yìmíng. Sìzhě jí jiù zhèngqí wéi zhī biéyì, nǎi qíwù zhī tōngzhì, fēi yú wǔqí zhī wài bié wéi zhāngwù yě. 綜而論之，其正

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The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

旗唯五：曰常、曰旂、曰旗、曰旟、曰旐，五路之所建也. 五者隨章異物， 其曰旜(旃) 、曰物，爲縿斿之異名；曰旞、曰旌，爲注羽之異名. 四者即就 正旗爲之别異，乃旗物之通制，非於五旗之外别爲章物也.” (All in all, there are only five official flags, namely, cháng 常, qí 旂, qí 旗, yú 旟, and zhào 旐, set up by five different parties, which are divided into different types according to certain rules. Those called zhān 旃, 旜, and wù 物 are variant names based on the difference of the front surface of flags, and those called suì 旞 and jīng 旌, the difference of the attached feathers. To the official five flags, these four are variant names which are named according to general rules of flags instead of being additionally required names with the same status.) Moreover, qí 旗 is also used as the general term for all flags. For example, in Yǐngōng Shíyī Nián 隱公十一年 [11th Year of Duke Yin’s Reign] of Zuǒzhuàn 左传 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “yǐngkǎoshū qǔ zhèngbó zhī qí máo hú yǐ xiāndēng. 潁考叔取鄭伯之旗蝥弧以先登.” (Ying Kaoshu held Zheng Bo’s flag called Maohu to be the first to climb up the city wall.) Chuáng 幢, kuài 旝, máo 旄, fān 旛, and pèi 旆 were also flag names. Chuáng 幢 refers to flags used by honor guards. For example, in Dàtǐ 大體 [On Cardinal Principle] of Hánfēizĭ 翰非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads, “xióngjùn bù chuàng shòu yú qíchuáng. 雄駿不創 壽於旗幢.” (Heroes will not die under ceremonial flags.) Kuài 旝 are flags used for commanding in warfare. For example, in Huángōngwǔnián 桓公五年 [Fifth Year of Duke Huan’s Reign] of Zuǒzhuàn 左传 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “kuài dòng ér gŭ. 旝動而鼓.” (Drum for attack will be beaten as soon as the commanding flag waves.) Du Yu 杜預, Chinese militarist and expert in Confucianism in the Wei and the Jin dynasties, noted, “gài jīn dà jiàng zhī huī yě, zhí yǐ wéi hào lìng. 蓋今大將之麾也，執以爲號令.” (It refers to the general’s flag, holding for commanding the army.) Máo 旄 is a flag decorated with yak tails on the top of the flag pole, also able to be used for commanding. For instance, in Mùshì 牧誓 [Oath Before the Battle at Muye] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents], it reads, “wáng zuǒ zhàng huáng yuè, yòu bǐng bái máo yǐ huī. 王 左仗黄鉞，右秉白旄以麾.” (The Emperor held the long-handled axe with gold decorations in his left hand, and a white flag decorated with yak tails on top in his right hand to command the army.) Fān 旛 is a kind of long narrow drooping flag. In Shìbīng 釋兵 [Explaining the Character of 兵 Bīng] of Shìmíng 釋名 [Explaining Terms], it reads that “fān, fān yĕ, qí máo fān fān rán yĕ. 旛, 幡也, 其旄幡幡 然也.” (Fān 旛 equals fān 幡, referring to the long narrow flag with yak tails waving in wind.) It is also written as fān 幡. For instance, in Sīmǎ Xiāngrú Lièzhuàn 司馬相如列傳 [Biography of Sima Xiangru] of Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Historian], it reads that “chuí jiàng fān zhī sù ní xī, zài yún qì ér shàng fú. 垂絳幡之素 蜺兮，載雲氣而上浮.” (Hold the red flag against the solar halo. Ride on the floating cloud to go up.) Pèi 旆 (斾) literally refers to swallow tail-shaped decorative jade strings at the bottom of the flag of zhào 旐, also serving as a general term for flags. In Shìtiān 釋天 [Defining Seasons] of Ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “jì zhào yuē pèi. 繼旐曰旆.” (Zhào 旐 with additional decorations is called pèi 旆). In Chángfā 長發 [Long Omens] of Shāngsòng 商頌 [The Sacrificial Odes of Shang] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “wǔ

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

57

wáng zài pèi, yǒu qián bǐng yuè. 武王載旆，有虔秉鉞.” (Emperor Wu held his pèi 旆 and the axe with great respect.) Shān 縿 is the front of a flag, and yóu 斿 and liú 旒 are decorations like ribbons drooping at the bottom of a flag. All of them are related to flags. In addition, some monosyllabic flag names with specific meanings are often used together as polysyllabic words, turning into general terms for flags, such as pèijīng 旆旌, jīngqí 旌旗, jīngqí 旌旂, jīngzhào 旌旐, qízhào 旂旐, qíqí 旗旂, qízhì 旗幟, yúzhào 旟旐, and so on, all of which can be seen in ancient Chinese books. For example, in Chēgōng 車攻 [Strong Carriages] of Xiăoyă 小雅 [Minor Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “xiāo xiāo mǎ míng, yōu yōu pèi jīng. 蕭蕭馬鳴, 悠悠旆旌.” (The horses neighed and the banners flew.) In Chūchē 出車 [We Proceeded with Our Chariots], it reads that “bǐ yú zhào sī, hú bù pèi pèi. 彼旟旐斯，胡不旆旆.” (None of the flags did not fly grandly in the mighty wind.) It also reads, “chū chē péngpéng, qí zhào yāng yang. 出車彭彭， 旂旐央央.” (There are numerous chariots and flags.) In Sīcháng 司常 [Officials in Charge of State Affairs] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “fán jūn shì, jiàn jīng qí. 凡軍事，建旌旗.” (Flags shall be set up in all military activities.) In Yuèlìng 月令 [Monthly Climate] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads, “dài jīng zhào, shòu chē yǐ jí. 戴旌旐， 授車以級.” (Different carriages with flags to show their owners’ status will be granted.) In Liúhóushìjiā 留侯世家 [Biography of Zhang Liang, Duke of Liu] of Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Historian], it reads that “yì wéi zhāng qí zhì zhū shān shàng, wéi yí bīng. 益爲張旗幟諸山上, 爲疑兵.” (It is better to set up flags on the hill to pretend to be soldiers.) 2.6 Namesrelatedtojadeandjadewares Jade and stone used to be different objects. With low output, delicate and hard texture, glossy appearance, and warm and smooth feeling, jade was not only regarded as a kind of beautiful stone, but was also bestowed with virtues of gentlemen and passion of great love by Chinese ancestors. In Pìnyì 聘義 [The Rites of Paying Visits among High Ranks], it reads that “fū xīzhě jūnzǐ bǐ dé yú yù yān, wēnrùn ér zé, rén yě; zhěnmì yǐ lì, zhì yě; lián ér bù guì, yì yě; chuí zhī rú zhuì, lǐ yě; kòu zhī qí shēng qīngyuè yǐ cháng, qí zhōng qū rán, lè yě; xiá bù yǎn yú, yú bù yǎn xiá, zhōng yě; fúyǐn (sècǎi) páng dá, xìn yě; qì rú báihóng, tiān yě; jīngshén jiànyú shānchuān, dì yě; guī zhāng tè dá, dé yě; tiānxià mò bù guì zhě, dào yě.《 shī》 yún: ‘yán niàn jūnzǐ, wēn qí rú yù.’ gù jūnzǐ guì zhī yě. 夫昔者君子比德於玉焉， 温潤而澤，仁也；縝密以栗，知也；廉而不劌, 義也；垂之如隊，禮也；叩 之其聲清越以長，其終詘然，樂也；瑕不揜瑜，瑜不揜瑕，忠也；孚尹(色 彩) 旁達，信也；氣如白虹，天也；精神見於山川, 地也；圭璋特達，德 也；天下莫不貴者，道也.《詩》云： ‘ 言念君子，温其如玉.’故君子貴之 也.” (In the past, noble men compared jade to virtues. Its warm and smooth feeling is like benevolence; its high density, wisdom; its unsharp edges, righteousness; its bending gesture as a pendant, etiquette; its long and clear sound with a sudden mute at the end when knocked, delight; its unconcealed flaws, loyalty; its thorough display of its true color, credibility; its air as the solar halo, the heaven;

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its absorption of the best features from mountains and rivers, the earth; its incomparable excellence without having to competing with others, moral integrity; its well acceptance as a valuable stone by all, law-abidingness. As commented in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], “I miss you, a man as gentle as a piece of jade.” Hence, noble men all value it.) According to Yùbù 玉部 [Yu Group] of Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “yù, shí zhī měi [zhě]. Yǒu wǔ dé: rùnzé yǐ wēn, rén zhī fāng yě; sāi lǐ zì wài, kě yǐ zhī zhōng, yì zhī fāng yě; qí shēng shū yang, fū yǐ yuǎn wén, zhì zhī fāng yě; bù náo ér zhé, yǒng zhī fāng yě; ruì lián ér bù zhì, jié zhī fāng yě. 玉，石之美〔者〕.有五德：潤澤以温，仁之方 也；鰓理自外，可以知中，義之方也；其聲舒揚，尃以遠聞，智之方也； 不撓而折，勇之方也；鋭廉而不忮，絜之方也.” (Jade is the exquisite stone bestowed with five virtues. Its smooth and glossy feature resembles benevolence. It can be seen through from outside directly to the heart, resembling righteousness. Its melodious, far-reaching sound stands for wisdom. Difficult to be broken, it represents courage. Sharp with edge as it is, it is not aggressive, which stands for noble purity.) Various jade wares became exceptionally valuable, since it was used as ornaments for people; sacrificial objects for Heaven, the Earth, ghosts, and gods; and authenticating objects for power or certain tasks. For example, in Yùzǎo 玉藻 [Jade Strings on the Crown] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “gǔ zhī jūn zǐ bì pèi yù . . . jūn zǐ wú gù yù bù qù shēn, jūn zǐ yú yù bǐ dé yān. 古之君 子必佩玉 . . . 君子無故玉不去身，君子於玉比德焉.” (In ancient times, noble men would always wear jade . . . He would never take it off except for sufficient reasons. He reminds himself of virtues by wearing it.) Plentiful jade objects have been discovered at the Neolithic cultural ruins in Yangshao, Hemudu, and Sanxingdui, China. From the Tomb of Fuhao (one of the consorts of Emperor Wu Ding of the Shang dynasty) unearthed at Anyang, Henan Province, 755 jade objects were discovered in 1976. However, among these there are only a few names related to jade in oracle bone inscriptions, namely, yù 玉, jué 玦, pú 璞, jué玨, etc. Yet things changed greatly in the Zhou dynasty, when dozens of characters related to jade appeared, including terms for jade names such as yù 玉, guàn 瓘, hóng 玒, jǐng 璥, xi ( ), liáo 璙, lóng5 瓏, lù 璐, náo , qí6琦, qiú7球, qiú8璆, tiǎn 琠, yān 珚, and so on; terms for fine jade such as jǐn 瑾, yú 瑜, yǎn 琰, yáo9 瑶, lín 琳, xuán 璇 (琁, 璿), xúnyúqí10 珣玗琪, yúfán11 璵璠, and so on; terms for red jade such as qióng12 瓊, jùn 㻒, and so on; terms for flawed jade such as xiù 珛; and terms for jade with inferior quality such as wú 璑 and zàn13 瓚. There were also various kinds of jade wares. This section focuses on characters of jade serving as ceremonial utensils. Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] of Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou] records a kind of officers called diǎn ruì 典瑞, “zhǎng yùruì, yùqì zhī cáng, biàn qí míngwù yŭ qí yòngshì, shè qí fúshì. 掌玉瑞，玉器之藏，辨其名物與其用事，設其服 飾.” (They are in charge of jade tokens, storing them up properly, identifying their names and functions, and designing proper jade adornments.) Yùruì 玉瑞 are jade wares used during ceremonial rituals, classified into six categories, namely, guī 圭, bì 璧, zhāng 璋, cóng 琮, hǔ 琥, and huáng 璜, collectively known as liùruì 六瑞 (six jade tokens). Each of them contains various different names.

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 59 The character guī 圭, also written as guī 珪, refers to a strip-shaped tablet with a triangular top and a square bottom serving as ceremonial objects by ancient nobles on occasions such as paying visits to the emperor or other nobles, offering sacrifices, or holding funerals. They are further divided into different types according to their shape, size and purpose, namely, zhènguī 鎮圭 (zhēnguī 珍圭), huánguī 桓圭 (huán 瓛), xìnguī 信圭, gōngguī 躬圭, jièguī 介圭 (玠珪), tǐng 珽 (dàguī 大 圭), gǔguī 穀圭, guànguī 祼圭, chàngguī 瑒圭, yǎnguī 琰圭, wǎnguī 琬圭, and tǔguī土圭. Zhènguī 鎮圭, also zhēnguī14 珍圭, is held by emperors with the length of one chĭ 尺 and two cùn 寸 (23.6 cm), carved with four major mountains, symbolizing peace and stability in all directions. Huánguī 桓圭, also huán15 瓛, is held by princes and first-rank dukes (gōngjué 公爵) with the length of nine cùn 寸 (17.7 cm), carved with two upright wooden pillars, resembling the shape of palaces, indicating the stability for the imperial clan. Xìnguī 信圭 is held by the secondrank dukes (hóujué 侯爵) with the length of seven 寸 cùn (13.8 cm). Xìn 信 and shēn 身 are interchangeable homophones; they are carved with the figure of a human to suggest that one should always play safe and avoid risking life. Gōngguī 躬圭 is held by the third-rank dukes (bójué 伯爵) with the length of seven 寸 cùn (13.8 cm). It is similar with xìnguī 信圭 in carvings and indications, but differs from it in the fine quality of engraved patterns. In Dàzōngbó 大宗伯 [Supervisor of the Officials of Spring] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yǐ yù zuò liùruì, yǐ děng bāng guó. Wáng zhí zhèn guī, gōng zhí huán guī, hóu zhí xìn guī, bó zhí gōng guī. 以玉作六瑞，以等 邦國. 王執鎮圭，公執桓圭，侯執信圭，伯執躬圭.” (The six tokens are made of jade and bestowed in the country and the vassal states according to ranks. Zhèn guī 鎮圭 is held by the emperor, huán guī 桓圭 by princes or first-rank dukes, xìn guī 信圭 by second-rank dukes, and gōng guī 躬圭 by third-rank dukes.) In Yùrén 玉人 [Jade Polisher] of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record], it reads that “Yùrén zhī shì, zhènguī chǐ yòu èr cùn, tiānzǐ shǒu zhī; mìngguī jiǔ cùn, wèi zhī huánguī, gōng shǒu zhī; mìng guī qī cùn, wèi zhī xìnguī, hóu shǒu zhī; mìngguī qī cùn, wèi zhī gōngguī, bó shǒu zhī. 玉人之事，鎮圭尺有二寸，天子守之；命 圭九寸，謂之桓圭，公守之；命圭七寸，謂之信圭，侯守之；命圭七寸， 謂之躬圭，伯守之.” (The duty of a jade polisher is to make sure zhènguī 鎮圭 for the emperor is one chĭ 尺 and two cùn 寸 long (23.6 cm), the emperor-granted guī 圭 for princes and the first-rank dukes called huán guī 桓圭 is nine cùn 寸 long (17.7 cm), and that for the second-rank dukes called xìn guī 信圭 is seven cùn 寸 long (13.8 cm), and that for the third-rank dukes called gōng guī 躬圭 is seven cùn 寸 long (13.8 cm). Jièguī 介圭, also jièguī 玠圭, with the length of one chĭ 尺 and two cùn 寸 (23.6 cm), is probably the variant name of zhènguī 鎮圭. In Gùmìng 顧命 [Imperial Posthumous Edits] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “tài bǎo chéng jièguī. 太保承介圭.” (Assistant Grand Tutor held the jiè guī 介圭 in hand.) According to Kǒngzhuàn 孔傳 [Kong’s Annotations to Book of Documents], it reads that “dàguī chǐ èr cùn, tiānzǐ shǒu zhī. 大圭尺二寸，天子守之.” (Big guī 圭 for the emperor is one chĭ 尺 and two cùn 寸 long). In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Ěryă 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “guī dà chǐ yòu èr cùn wèi zhī jiè. 珪大尺有二寸謂之玠.” (The big guī 圭 with

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the length of one chĭ 尺 and two cùn 寸 long is called jiè 玠). Guo Pu 郭璞 annotated that “xī ěr jièguī. 錫爾玠珪.” (A jièguī 玠珪 is granted to you.) Tǐng 珽, also dàguī 大圭, refers to the jade tablet on the emperor’s waist, with the length of three chĭ 尺 (59.1 cm), as well as a triangular top. In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “tǐng, dàguī, cháng sān chǐ, shū shàng, zhōng kuí shǒu. 珽，大圭，長三尺，抒上，終葵首.” (Tǐng 珽, dàguī 大圭, with the length of three chĭ 尺, is peeled on the top at a slant into the shape of a cone.) In Yùrén 玉人 [Jade Polisher] of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record], it reads that “dàguī cháng sān chǐ, zhù shàng, zhōng kuí shǒu, tiānzǐ fú zhī. 大圭長三尺，杼上，終葵首，天子服之.” (Dàguī 大圭, with the length of three chĭ 尺 and worn by the emperor, is peeled on the top at a slant into the shape of a cone). Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that “wáng suǒ jìn dàguī yě, huò wèi zhī tǐng. 王所搢大圭也，或謂之珽.” (Dàguī 大圭 worn by the emperor may also be called tǐng 珽.) Gǔguī 穀圭 refers to guī 圭 inscribed with millet carvings for princes and dukes to make peace negotiation or betrothing girls. In Diǎnruì 典瑞 [Officers in Charge of Jade Wares] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “gǔguī yǐ hé nàn, yǐ pìn nǚ. 穀圭 以和難，以聘女.” (Gǔguī 穀圭 is used for dispute settlement or betrothing girls.) Guànguī 祼圭 is the jade handle of a ladle to scoop alcohol and pour it on the ground during sacrifices. In Yùrén 玉人 [Jade Polisher] of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record], it reads that “guànguī chǐ yòu èr cùn, yǒu zàn, yǐ sì miào. 祼 圭尺有二寸，有瓚，以祀廟.” (Guànguī 祼圭, one chĭ 尺 and two cùn 寸 long [23.6 cm], is a ceremonial ladle with an impure jade handle used during sacrifices in ancestral temples.) Chàngguī 瑒圭 is the same as guàngui 祼圭 , for in Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “chàng, guī chǐ èr cùn, yǒu zàn, yǐ sì zōngmiào zhě yě. 瑒，圭尺二寸，有瓚， 以祠宗廟者也.” (Chàngguī 瑒圭, one chĭ 尺 and two cùn 寸 long [23.6 cm], is a ceremonial ladle with an impure jade handle used during sacrifices in ancestral temples.) Yǎnguī 琰圭, a nine cùn 寸 [17.7 cm] jade tablet with pointy top, serves as token to punish the unjust. In Diǎnruì 典瑞 [Officers in Charge of Jade Wares] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yǎnguī yǐ yì xíng yǐ chú tè. 琰圭以易行以除慝.” (Yǎnguī 琰圭 is used to correct improper behaviors and punish the evil.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 quoted from Zheng Sinong 鄭司農, expert in Confucianism in the Eastern Han dynasty, “yǎnguī yǒu fēng máng, shānghài, zhēngfá, zhūtǎo zhī xiàng zhě. 琰圭有鋒芒，傷害、 征伐、誅討之象者.” (Yǎnguī 琰圭 has cutting edges, representing hurting, punishing, and killing.) Wǎnguī 琬圭, a nine cùn 寸 (17.7 cm) jade tablet with round top, is bestowed to virtuous princes and dukes or the emperor’s envoys. For example, in Diǎnruì 典瑞 [Officers in Charge of Jade Wares] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “wǎnguī yǐ zhì dé, yǐ jié hǎo. 琬圭以治德，以結好.” (Wǎnguī 琬圭 is used as the rewards bestowed to the virtuous or as a medium for new bonds.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 noted that “wǎnguī yì wáng shǐ zhī ruì jié. zhūhóu yǒu dé, wáng mìng cì zhī. 琬圭亦王 使之瑞節.諸侯有德，王命賜之.” (Wǎnguī 琬圭 also refers to the jade token held by the envoys of the emperor. And if a prince or duke is virtuous, the emperor will

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 61 bestow it to him, too.) Tǔguī 土圭 is a tool used to measure the shadow of the sun to decide the four seasons or to measure land. In Dàsītú 大司徒 [Head Officer of Dì Guān Responsible for State Avenue] of Dìguān 地官 [Officials in Charge of the Earthly Issues] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yǐ tǔguī zhī fǎ, cè tǔ shēn, zhèng rì yǐng, yǐ qiú dì zhōng. 以土圭之法，測土深，正日影，以求 地中.” (The way of using tǔguī 土圭 to measure land is to adjust the shadow of the sun to find out the center of the land.) As Jia Gongyan 賈公彥, expert in Confucianism and linguistic of the Tang dynasty, noted that “tǔguī chǐ yòu wǔ cùn . . . duó tǔ zhī shēn. Shēn, wèi rì yǐng cháng duǎn zhī shēn yě. 土圭尺有五寸 . . . 度 土之深. 深，謂日影長短之深也.” (Tǔguī 土圭 is one chĭ 尺 and five cùn 寸 long [29.6 cm] . . . and used to measure land by way of measuring the length of the shadow of the sun.) Mào 瑁, a square jade with the side length of four cùn 寸 (7.9 cm), has a triangular concave on the top and is held by the emperor to cover the triangular part of various guī 圭 held by dukes or princes. Since it is put on top of other guī 圭, it is called mào 瑁 (with the same pronunciation as mào 帽, cap). In Yùbù 玉部 [Yu Group] of Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “mào, zhūhóu zhí guī yǐ cháo tiānzǐ, tiānzǐ zhí yù yǐ mào zhī, sì lí guān.《 Zhōulǐ》 yuē: ‘tiānzǐ zhí mào, sì cùn.’ 瑁，諸侯執圭以朝天子，天子 執玉以冒之，似犂冠.《周禮》曰：‘天子執瑁, 四寸.” (Mào 瑁 is like the crown part of a plow. When princes and dukes pay tributes to the emperor, they hold guī 圭, and the emperor holds a square jade to cover the top of their guī 圭. Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou] records that the emperor holds a mào 瑁 with four cùn 寸 in length.) The character bì 璧 is a kind of ceremonial jade utensil used to pay tributes to the emperor or other nobles by nobles, offer sacrifices, or hold funerals. It can also serve as ornaments, which is flat with a circular hole in the center. The width of the jade ring is twice the diameter of the hole. In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Ěryă 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “ròu bèi hǎo wèi zhī bì. 肉倍好謂之璧.” (Bì 璧 refers to a flat jade with its length of the jade ring longer than the diameter of the inner round hole). In Dàzōngbó 大宗伯 [Supervisor of the Officials of Spring] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yǐ cāng bì lǐ tiān. 以蒼璧禮天.” (Offer sacrifices to the Heaven with a cyan bì 璧.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 noted that “bì yuán xiàng tiān. 璧圓象天.” (The circular bì 璧 shares similarities with the Heaven.) Jade objects related to bì 璧 contain xuān 瑄, gǔbì 穀璧, púbì 蒲璧, yuàn 瑗, huán 環, and so on. Xuān 瑄 is a giant bì 璧 for heaven worship. In Xiàowǔběnjì 孝武本紀 [Biography of the Emperor of Xiaowu] of Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Historian], it reads that “yǒusī fèng xuān yù jiā shēng jiàn xiǎng. 有司奉瑄玉嘉牲薦饗.” (The officer in charge held 瑄 xuān with great respect and offer animals for God to enjoy.) In Jíjiě集解 [Pei Yin’s Annotations to “Records of the Historian”] by Pei Yin 裴駰, historian of the Northern and the Southern dynasties, quoted from Meng Kang 孟康, famous scholar of the Three Kingdoms Period, “bì dà liù cùn wèi zhī xuān. 璧大六寸謂之瑄.” (Bì 璧 as big as six cùn 寸 [11.8 cm], is called xuān 瑄). Both gǔbì 穀璧 and púbì 蒲璧 are jade objects held by zĭjué 子爵 (fourth-rank dukes) and 男爵 nánjué (fifth-rank dukes), when paying tributes to the emperor or

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during sacrifices. For example, in Dàzōngbó 大宗伯 [Supervisor of the Officials of Spring] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “zǐ zhí gǔbì, nán zhí púbì. 子執穀璧，男執蒲璧.” (Gǔbì 穀 璧 is held by the fourth-rank dukes and púbì 蒲璧, the fifth-rank dukes). Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 noted that “gǔ suǒ yǐ yǎng rén; pú wéi xí, suǒ yǐ ān rén. èr yù gài huò yǐ gǔ wéi shì, huò yǐ pú wéi zhuàn shì, bì jiē jìng wǔ cùn. 穀所以養人；蒲爲席， 所以安人. 二玉蓋或以穀爲飾，或以蒲爲瑑飾，璧皆徑五寸.” (Gǔ 穀, grain, is to feed people. Pú 蒲, mat, is to settle a person down. The former is engraved with grain carvings, and the latter, the figure of mats. The diameter of both is five cùn 寸 [9.9 cm]). Yuàn 瑗 is a kind of bì 璧 with its length of the jade ring part smaller than the diameter of the hole in center, the big-hole jade. According to Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “yuàn, dà kǒng bì, rén jūn shàng chú bì yǐ xiāng yǐn.《Ěryǎ 》 yuē: “hǎo bèi ròu wèi zhī yuàn, ròu bèi hǎo wèi zhī bì. 瑗, 大孔璧，人君上除陛以相引.《爾雅》 曰： ‘ 好倍肉謂之瑗，肉倍好謂之璧.” (Yuàn 瑗 is bì 璧 with a big hole, is held on the one side by the emperor when walking on steps with the other side pulled by another person for fear of getting stumbled. In Ěryă 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “those with the length of the jade ring part shorter than the diameter of the inner round hole are called yuàn 瑗, and those longer than the diameter of the inner round hole, bì 璧.”) In Dàlüè 大略 [Bold Strategies] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “wèn shì yǐ bì, zhào rén yǐ yuan. 問士以璧， 召人以瑗.” (When seeking for suggestions from talents, bì 璧 shall be used as a token. When summoning subordinates, yuàn 瑗 shall be used as a token.) Huán 環 refers to a kind of bì 璧 with the length of jade ring part equal to the diameter of the inner hole, serving as tokens or adornments. In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “ròu hǎo ruò yī wèi zhī huán. 肉好若一謂之環.” (Those with the length of the jade ring part equal to the diameter of the inner hole are called huán 環.) In Dàlüè 大略 [Bold Strategies] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “jué rén yǐ jué, fǎn jué yǐ huán. 絶 人以玦，反絶以環.” (Jué 玦 is used to dismiss a minister by the emperor. Huán 環 is used to recall a dismissed minister). Yang Liang 楊倞, a judicial officer of the Tang dynasty, annotated that “gŭ zhě chén yŏu zuì, dài fàng yú jìng, sān nián bù găn qù. Yŭ zhī huán zé huán, yŭ zhī jué zé jué, jiē suŏ yĭ jiàn yì yě.古者臣有 罪，待放於境，三年不敢去. 與之環則還，與之玦則絶，皆所以見意也.” (In ancient times, if a minister committed a crime, he would be exiled to the boundary and dared not come back in three years’ time. Then if he was bestowed a huán 環, he was recalled by the emperor, for huán 環 and huán 還, to return, share the same pronunciation. If a jué 玦 was sent to him, he was dismissed for good, for jué 玦 pronounces the same as jué 絶, to serve. Both jades indicate their meanings.) Zhāng 璋, a half guī 圭 (jade tablet with pointed top) jade ware, served as tokens or ceremonial utensils for ancient nobles. In Yùpǔ 棫檏 [The Oaks] of Dàyă 大雅 [Greater Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “jì jì bì wáng, zuǒ yòu fèng zhāng. 濟濟辟王，左右奉璋.” (The Emperor of Zhou was very graceful. His ministers on the left and right all held zhāng 璋 with respect.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “bàn guī yuē zhāng.

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 63 半圭曰璋.” (Half of guī 圭 is called zhāng 璋.) There are also other names related to zhāng 璋, namely, dàzhāng 大璋, zhōngzhāng 中璋, biānzhāng 邊璋, yázhāng 牙璋, and so on. In Yùrén 玉人 [Jade Polisher] of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record], it reads that “dàzhāng, zhōngzhāng jiǔ cùn, biānzhāng qī cùn . . . tiānzǐ yǐ xún shòu, zōng zhù yǐ qián mǎ. Dàzhāng yì rú zhī, zhū hóu yǐ pìn nǚ. . . . yá zhāng 牙璋, zhōngzhāng qī cùn, shè èr cùn, hòu cùn, yǐ qǐ jūn lǚ, yǐ zhì bīng shǒu. 大璋、中璋九寸，邊璋七寸 . . . 天子以巡狩，宗祝以前馬. 大璋亦如之，諸 侯以聘女. . . . 牙璋、中璋七寸，射二寸，厚寸，以起軍旅，以治兵守.” (The length of dàzhāng 大璋 and zhōngzhāng 中璋 is nine cùn [ 寸17.7 cm], and that of biānzhāng 邊璋 seven cùn 寸 [13.8 cm] . . . When the emperor offered sacrifices to the Heaven and the Earth, the officials in charge of sacrifices would hold it in front of horses to direct and guard him. The same is true for dàzhāng 大璋, used by princes and dukes for betrothing girls . . . yázhāng 牙璋 and zhōngzhāng 中 璋 are seven cùn 寸 long [13.8cm], with the length of the pointed top two cùn 寸 [3.9 cm] and its thickness one cùn 寸 [2 cm]. They were used to dispatch troops or supervise military defense.) According to Wénzhì 文質 [Language and Nature] of Báihǔtōngyì 白虎通義 [Comprehensive Interpretation of Five Ancient Classics at The Taoist Temple of White Tiger] by Ban Gu 班固, minister, historian and litterateur of the Eastern Han dynasty, it reads that “zhāng yǐ fā bīng hé? zhāng bàn guī, wèi zài nán fāng, yáng jí ér yīn shǐ qǐ, bīng yì yīn yě, gù yǐ fā bīng yě. 璋以發 兵何？璋半珪，位在南方，陽極而陰始起，兵亦陰也，故以發兵也.” (Why does zhāng 璋 refer to the dispatch of troops? zhāng 璋, half of guī 珪, occupies the masculine position of south. When something masculine goes to the extreme, it will start to turn to the feminine side. Army is feminine, so zhāng 璋 is used to symbolize the dispatch of army troops). It is recorded in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou] that dàzhāng 大璋 is no longer than nine cùn (17.7cm). However, among the innumerous jade 璋 zhāng unearthed in Sanxingdui, Guanghan city, Sichuan Province, many jades reach 60 or 70 cm, with the remaining part of one amounting to 159.2 cm long, which is completely different from the records in Zhōulǐ 周 禮 [The Rituals of Zhou]. Cóng 琮 is a kind of square or rectangular ceremonial jade utensil with a round hole in the center, representing round heaven and square earth in the eyes of some people. In Dàzōngbó 大宗伯 [Supervisor of the Officials of Spring] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yǐ yù zuò liù qì, yǐ lǐ tiān dì sì fāng: yǐ cāng bì lǐ tiān, yǐ huáng cóng lǐ dì. 以玉作六器， 以禮天地四方：以蒼璧禮天，以黄琮禮地.” (Jade is made into six utensils to offer sacrifices to the four directions: cyan bì 璧 to the Heaven, and yellow cóng 琮 to the Earth.) In Xiǎoxíngrén 小行人 [Officers in Charge of Receiving Guests] of Qiūguān 秋官 [Officers of Autumn] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads, “cóng yĭ jĭn. 琮以錦.” (Cóng 琮 means offering sacrifices with brocade.) As Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated, “wǔ děng zhī zhū hóu xiǎng tiānzǐ yòng bì, xiǎng hòu yòng cóng. 五等之諸侯享天子用璧，享後用琮.” (Princes and dukes of the five ranks paid tributes to the emperor with bì 璧 and to the queen with cóng 琮.) In Yùrén 玉 人 [Jade Polisher] of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record], it reads that “dàcóng shí yòu èr cùn, shè sì cùn, hòu cùn. 大琮十有二寸，射四寸，厚寸.” (Dàcóng

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大琮 is 12 cùn 寸 long [23.6 cm] with the length of the pointed top four cùn 寸 [7.89 cm] and its thickness one cùn 寸 [2 cm].) Jade cóng 琮 have been unearthed in many places with various size. A yellow jade cóng 琮 unearthed at Sidun ruins, Wujin county, Jiangsu Province, is 36.1 cm high with 13 sections. The height of a cyan jade cóng 琮 unearthed at Jinsha ruins, Chengdu city, Sichuan Province, exceeds 30 cm. A small-sized jade 琮 cóng unearthed in Caoxieshan, Wuxian county, Jiangsu Province, is only 1.8 cm high and 1.2 cm wide, with the diameter of its hole being 0.45 cm. Another type is zǔcóng 駔琮, used as the sliding weight of a steelyard in ancient times. In Yùrén 玉人 [Jade Polisher] of Kǎogōngjì 考工 記 [Artificers’ Record], it reads that “zǔcóng wǔ cùn, zōng hòu yǐ wéi quán . . . zǔcóng qī cùn, bí cùn yǒu bàn cùn, tiānzǐ yǐ wéi quán.駔琮五寸，宗後以爲權 . . . 駔琮七寸，鼻寸有半寸，天子以爲權.” (The five cùn 寸 of zǔcóng 駔琮 [9.9 cm] was used by the decedents of the emperor as a weight . . . The seven cùn 寸 of zǔcóng 駔琮 [13.8 cm] was used by the emperor as a weight. Its weight nose is half cùn 寸 [1 cm].) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that “zǔ dú wéi zǔ, yǐ zǔ xì zhī, yīn míng yān. 駔讀爲組，以組系之，因名焉.” (The pronunciation of zǔ 駔 is zǔ 組, a thin and wide silk band, which is used to fasten the weight, from which the name is derived.) Hǔ 琥, a tiger-shaped ceremonial jade utensil, is also served as a sign to dispatch the army. In Dàzōngbó 大宗伯 [Supervisor of the Officials of Spring] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yǐ bái hǔ lǐ xīfāng. 以白琥禮西方.” (White hǔ琥 is used to offer sacrifices to the west.) According to Zheng Xuan’s 鄭玄 annotation, “hǔ, měng, xiàng qiū yán. 琥，猛，象秋嚴.” (Hǔ 琥 is ferocious, resembling the harshness of autumn.) In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “hǔ, fā bīng ruìyù. Wéi hŭ wén.《 chūnqiūzhuàn 》 yuē: cì zǐ jiā shuāng hǔ. 琥，發兵瑞玉. 爲虎文.《春秋傳》曰：賜子家雙琥.” (Hǔ 琥, a jade token for sending troops, is carved with the figure of a tiger. In Chūn Qiū Zhuàn [The Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “You are granted with two hǔ 琥.”) Sun Yirang 孫詒讓 wrote in Yùbù 玉部 [Yu Group] of Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents] that “《 yù lăn·zhēn băo bù》 yĭn 《 lǚ shì chūn qiū》 yún: ‘zhàndòu yòng hǔ . . . gài jù liùguó shí zhì, yǔ 《 lǐjīng 》 ruì yù zì bù xiāngyìng yě.’《御覧 · 珍寶部》引《呂氏春秋》云： ‘ 戰鬥用琥 . . . 蓋據六國時制，與《禮經》瑞玉自不相應也.’” (Zhēn Băo Bù Of Treasures in Tài Píng Yù Lǎn, Imperial Survey During Taipingxingguo’s Reign, quoted from Lü’s Commentaries of History, “hǔ 琥 is used for warfare . . . It follows the rule of the Six-State Period, and certainly does not apply to Lĭ Jīng, The Book of Rites.”) Huáng 璜, a kind of jade similar to half bì 璧, a round flat jade with a hole in the center, was used for paying tributes to the emperor or other princes and dukes, offering sacrifices, holding funerals, and as adornments. In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文 玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “huáng, bàn bì yě. 璜，半璧也.” (Huáng 璜 is half bì 璧). In Dàzōngbó 大宗伯 [Supervisor of the Officials of Spring] of Chūnguān 春官 [Officials of Spring] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yǐ xuán huáng lǐ běifāng. 以玄璜禮北方.” (Offer sacrifices to the north with black huáng 璜.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated, “bì yuán

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 65 xiàng tiān . . . bàn bì yuē huáng, xiàng dōngbì cáng, dì shàng wú wù, wéi tiān bàn jiàn. 璧圖象天 . . . 半璧曰璜，象冬閉藏，地上無物，唯天半見.” (Bì 璧 is round, like Heaven . . . Half bì 璧 is called huáng 璜, like winter when everything hides with nothing left on the earth except half of the sky.) In Wénzhì 文質 [Language and Nature] of Báihǔtōngyì 白虎通義 [Comprehensive Interpretation of Five Ancient Classics at the Taoist Temple of White Tiger], it reads that “huáng yǐ zhēng zhào. 璜以徵召.” (璜 huáng is used to appoint officials). In Nǚyuējīmíng 女曰雞鳴 [The Wife Says the Rooster Is Crowing] of Zhèngfēng 鄭風 [The Odes of Ch’ing] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “zápèi yǐ zèng zhī. 雜佩 以贈之.” (I will give them strings of mixed jades as presents). Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs] explained that “zápèi zhě, héng, huáng, jū, yǔ, chōng yá zhī lèi. 雜佩者，珩、璜、琚、瑀、衝牙之類.” (Zápèi 雜佩 refers to héng 珩, the top gem of a pendant, huáng 璜, jū 琚, jade fastened between, héng 珩 and huáng 璜, yǔ 瑀, jade-like stone, and chōngyá 衝牙, a jade piece at the bottom of a jade string.) In addition, there is jué 玦, a ring-form jade with notches, used only as the name of diviners in oracle bone inscriptions. In Xiāngjūn 湘 君 [Ode to the God of River Xiang] of Jiǔgē 九歌 [Nine Tunes] in Chǔcí 楚辭 [Elegies of the South], it reads that “juān yú jué xī jiāng zhōng. 捐余玦兮江中.” (I will throw my jué 玦 into the river.) Wang Yi 王逸 annotated that “jué, yù pèi yě. 玦，玉佩也.” (Jué 玦 is a kind of jade pendant). It is also served as the token to show resolution or breaking off relations. In Mǐngōngèrnián 閔公二年 [Second Year of Duke Min’s Reign] of Zuǒzhuàn 左传 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “gōng yǔ shí qí zǐ jué. 公與石祁子玦.” (Lord Yi gave Shi Qizi one jué 玦.) In Dàlüè 大略 [Bold Strategies] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “jué rén yǐ jué. 絶人以玦.” (Jué 玦 is used to break off the relation with a person). All the examples above are closely related to jade names. There are also other jade names, which will not give further discussions here. 2.7 Termsrelatedtoideology With the disintegration of slavery and the establishment of feudal system, great transformation in social ideology took place. The Confucianism at the time opposed the cruelty of slave-owners and represented the interests of the feudal landlord class. Although Confucius and Mencius beliefs were not well accepted at that time, they were honored and respected by later generations. As a result, words reflecting feudal ethics and Confucianism emerged and spread widely. Examples are as follows. Cí 慈 means kindness and benevolence. In Zhōuyǔ II 周語下 [Discourses of Zhou II] of Guóyǔ 國语 [The Discourses of the States], it reads that “huì, wén zhī cí yě. 惠，文之慈也.” (Huì 惠 refers to benevolence among all the virtues.) In Qūlǐ I 曲禮上 [Details of Rites I], it reads that “xiōngdì qīnqī chēng qí cí yě. 兄弟 親戚稱其慈也.” (Brothers and relatives all praise him for being loving.) In Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin] of Hánfēizǐ 韩非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “gù fá bó bù wéi cí, zhū yán bù wéi lì. 故罰薄不爲慈，誅嚴不爲厲.” (Hence, it is no charity to inflict light punishments. Nor is it cruel to enforce severe penalties.)

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Chéng 诚 means being sincere and honest. In Qián 乾 [The Sky] of Yì 易 [The Book of Changes], it reads that “xiū cí lì qí chéng, suǒ yǐ jū yè yě. 修辭立其誠， 所以居業也.” (An article should manifest a person’s virtue of honesty, so as to attain achievements.) In Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean] of Lǐjì 禮 記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “chéng zhě, tiān zhī dào yě. Chéng zhī zhě, rén zhī dào yě. 誠者，天之道也.誠之者，人之道也.” (Sincerity is the way of Heaven. Being sincere is the way of human.) In Jìnxīn I 盡心上 [Complete Heart I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius]. Dào 道 means moral ethics and moral justice. In Huángōngliùnián 桓公六年 [Sixth Year of Duke Huan’s Reign] of Zuǒzhuàn 左传 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “suǒwèi dào, zhōng yú mín ér xìn yú shén yě. 所謂道，忠於民而信於神也.” (Dào 道 means being devoted to people and being honest with gods.) It also refers to one of the political opinions or ideological systems. In Wèilínggōng 衛靈公 [Duke Ling of Wei] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “dào bù tóng, bù xiāng wéi móu. 道不同，不相爲謀.” (Different ideology, different ways.) In Lǐrén里仁 [Neighboring the Benevolent] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “fùzǐ zhī dào, zhōng shù ér yǐ yǐ. 夫子之道，忠恕而已矣.” (The Confucius doctrine is only about loyalty and forgiveness.) It also refers to good political measures. In Chénggōngghíèrnián成 公十二年 [12th Year of Duke Cheng’s Reign], it reads that “tiānxià yǒu dào, zé gōnghóu néng wèi mín gān chéng ér zhì qí fùxīn, luàn zé fǎn zhī. 天下有道，則 公侯能爲民干城而制其腹心，亂則反之.” (When proper political measures are taken in a country, the princes and dukes can protect their people and bring them under control. If a country’s political measures are chaotic, the situation will be the opposite.) Dé 德 means moral ethics, moral conduct, and high moral principle. In Qián 乾 [The Sky] of Yì 易 [The Book of Changes], it reads that “jūnzǐ jìn dé xiū yè. 君子 進德修業.” (Noble men make efforts to enhance their moral standard and make achievements.) In Shùěr 述而 [Only Transmission and Innovation], it reads that “dé zhī bù xiū, xué zhī bù jiǎng, wén yì bù néng xǐ, bù shàn bù néng gǎi, shì wú yōu yě. 德之不修，學之不講，聞義不能徙，不善不能改，是吾憂也.” (What I am concerned is that people do not improve their moral standards, make profound reflections to what they have learned, practice justice after learning about it, or correct their misconducts.) It also refers to good political doctrine. In Mèngchūnjì 孟 春紀 [First Month of Spring] of Lǚshìchūnqiū 吕氏春秋 [Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “mìng xiàng bù dé hé lìng, xíng qìng shī huì, xià jí zhào mín. 命相布德和令，行慶施惠，下及兆民.” (He ordered the prime minister to announce moral doctrines and prohibitions, offer awards and benefits down to all common citizens.) Hé 和 means being moderate and harmonious. In Qián 乾 [The Sky] of Yì 易 [The Book of Changes], it reads that “lǐ zhī yòng, hé wéi guì; xiān wáng zhī dào, sī wéi měi. 礼之用，和爲贵；先王之道，斯爲美.” (The essence of the application of etiquettes is to bring harmony. The deceased emperors’ way is to make perfect connection of the etiquettes and harmony.) In Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “fā ér jiē zhōng jié, wèi

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 67 zhī hé. 发而皆中节，謂之和.” (When all emotions occur with a moderate and restrained manner, it is called hé 和.) Lǐ 禮 stands for hierarchy in ancient slavery and feudal society as well as corresponding code of conduct and moral norms, whose main function is to prevent the exploited class to disobey their superiors and start rebellions, and to some extent regulate the internal relationship within the exploiting class. Lǐ 禮 is most frequently used in Confucian classics, which appears 67 times in Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects] and over 600 times in Chūnqiūsānzhuàn 春秋三傳 [Three Biographies during the Spring and Autumn period]. For instance, in Yányuān 顔淵 [Yan Yuan], it reads that “fēi lǐ wù shì, fēi lǐ wù tīng, fēi lǐ wù yán, fēi lǐ wù dòng. 非禮勿視，非禮勿聽，非禮勿言，非禮勿動.” (Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety.) In Fùguó 富国 [Enriching the Country] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 (The Works of Xunzi), it reads that “lǐ zhě, guìjiàn yǒu děng, zhǎngyòu yǒu chā, pínfù qīngzhòng, jiē yǒu chèn zhě yě. 礼 者，贵贱有等，长幼有差，贫富轻重，皆有称者也.” (Conforming to etiquette means proper ranking among the superior and the inferior, different treatment to the young and the elder, and suitable social status for the poor and the rich.) Tì 弟 (悌), one of the Confucian ethics originated from the Zhou dynasty, refers to the love and respect to elder brothers. In Xué’ér 學而 [On Learning] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “jūnzǐ wù běn, běn lì ér dào sheng. Xiàotì yě zhě, qí wéi rén zhī běn yú? 君子務本，本立而道生.孝弟也者，其爲仁之本 與？” (Noble men care most for the root of things. When the root is set up, ways of dealing with things will naturally come up. So is the respect to elder brothers the root of benevolence?) Rén 仁, an ethical category with broad connotations, holds the love for human beings and the close connection between people as its core. In Lǐyùn 禮運 [The Adoption of Rites] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “rén zhě, yì zhī běn yě. 仁者，義之本也.” (Humanity is the root of right.) In Jìnxīn II 盡心下 [Complete Heart II] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “rén zhě, yǐ qí suǒ ài jí qí suǒ bù ài. 仁者，以其所愛及其所不愛’.” (Benevolence means to treat those you do not love in the same way as those you love.) Shù 恕 means treating others with loving-charity and loving others as yourself. In Lǐrén 里仁 [Neighboring the Benevolent] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “fūzǐ zhī dào, zhōngshù ér yǐ yǐ. 夫子之道，忠恕而已矣.” (Confucian doctrine is only about loyalty and benevolence.) Zhu Xi 朱熹, expert in Confucianism in the Southern Song dynasty, annotated that “tuī jǐ zhī wèi shù. 推 己之謂恕.” (Treating others as yourself is shù 恕.) In Jìnxīn II 盡心下 [Complete Heart II] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “qiáng shù ér xíng, qiú rén mò jìn yān. 强恕而行，求仁莫近焉.” (Trying one’s best to act in accordance with the ethic of loving-charity is the shortest way to benevolence.) Xiào 孝 refers to the fact that children are filial to their parents and take good care of them. In Xué’ér 學而 [On Learning] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “dìzǐ rù zé xiào, chū zé tì. 弟子入則孝，出則弟.” (My disciples should be filial to their parents at home and respectful to their teachers outside.) In

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Nàn’èr.難二 [Reproach II] of Hánfēizǐ 韩非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “xiào zǐ ài qīn, bǎi shù zhī yī yě. 孝子愛親，百數之一也.” (There is only one son among 100 who is really filial to his father.) Xìn 信 means being honest and never cheat. In Xué’ér 學而 [On Learning] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “xìn xìn yú yì, yán kě fù yě. 信近 於義，言可復也.” (Promises complying with social norms can be fulfilled.) In Lǐyùn 禮運 [The Adoption of Rites] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “xuǎn xián yǔ néng, jiǎng xìn xiū mù. 選賢與能，講信修睦.” (They elect virtuous and talented people to work for others, emphasizing integrity and advocating harmony.) Yì 義 refers to righteous and reasonable conduct or issue. In Wéizhèng 爲政 [Seeking Official Position] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads that “jiàn yì bù wéi, wú yǒng yě. 見義不爲，無勇也.” (When something righteous should be done, yet you choose to stand idly by, showing that you are a coward.) In Lílóu I 離婁上 [Li Lou I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “yì, rén zhī zhèng lù yě. 義，人之正路也.” (Rightness is the only right path for a person.) Zhì 知 (智) refers to wisdom and sensibility. In Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “hàoxué jìn hū zhì, lìxíng jìn hū rén, zhīchǐ jìn hū yǒng. 好學近乎知, 力行近乎仁，知耻近乎勇.” (Being eager to learn is close to wisdom. Striving for proper conduct is close to benevolence. Having a sense of shame is close to bravery.) In Gōngsūnchǒu I公 孫丑上 [Gongsun Chou I], it reads that “shìfēi zhī xīn, zhì zhī duān yě. 是非之 心，智之端也.” (Being able to distinguish from right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom.) Zhōng 忠 means full devotion and selfless loyalty to others, especially to superiors. In Xīgōngjiǔnián 僖公九年 [Ninth Year of Duke Xi’s Reign], it reads that “gōngjiā zhī lì, zhī wú bù wéi, zhōng yě. 公家之利，知無不爲，忠也.” (Devoting almighty efforts to whatever is beneficial to the country, no matter how difficult it is can be regarded as being loyal.) In Lǐqì 禮器 [Rites Can Make a Man Useful] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “zhōngxìn, lǐ zhī běn yě. 忠 信，禮之本也.” (Being loyal and faithful is the root of etiquette.) There are also words about the philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Some of the examples are as follows. Xiān 仙 (僊) or shénxiān 神仙 is commonly known as the immortal after selfcultivation. In Tiāndì 天地 [Heaven and Earth] of Zhuāngzĭ 莊子 [Zhuangzi], it reads that “qiān suì yàn shì, qù ér shàng iān, chéng bǐ báiyún, zhì yú dì xiāng. 千歲 厭世，去而上僊，乘彼白雲，至於帝鄉.” (After living for a thousand years, he gets tired of the earthly world and turns into an immortal and leaves the earth. He takes white clouds and heads for the dreamed world.) According to Shìzhǎngyòu 釋長幼 [Explaining the Young and the Elder] in Shìmíng 釋名 [Explaining Terms], “ǎo ér bù sǐ yuē xiān. 老而不死曰仙.” (Xiān 仙 refers to those who are very old but remain alive.) Zhēn 真 refers to those who achieve the Dao or become immortal in Taoism. In Shuōwén·Bĭbù 説文 · 匕部 [Bi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zhēn, xiānrén biànxíng ér dēngtiān yě. 真，仙人變形而登天也.” (Zhēn 真

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means that a person turns into an immortal and ascends to Heaven). There is no character of zhēn 真 in the five Confucian classics. In Lièyùkò 列禦寇 [Lie Yukou] of Zhuāngzĭ 庄子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “ū miǎn hū wài nèi zhī xíng zhě, wéi zhēn rén néng zhī. 夫免乎外内之刑者，唯真人能之.” (Only the immortals in Taoism can avoid both mental and physical hurts.) Although a few of the above words already existed in oracle bone inscriptions, their meanings were completely different. For instance, 弟 tì was interpreted only as younger brothers as in xiōngdì 兄弟 (brothers) and yì 義 only as place names in oracle bone inscriptions. The rest of the characters mentioned above do not appear in oracle bone inscriptions.

3 Verbs There are less than 300 verbs in oracle bone inscriptions, whereas Shuōwén 説 文 [Origin of Chinese Characters] records over 1,600 verbs among all the 9,353 characters. Adding the verbs in the classics of the Zhou, the Qin, the Western Han, and the Eastern Han dynasties, there should be over 3,000 verbs in Old Chinese, ten times more than those in oracle bone inscriptions. For example, 263 characters with the xīn 心 (heart) radical are recorded in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], among which 170 are verbs, whereas not a single character with such a radical is found in oracle bone inscriptions. There are about ten verbs expressing delight, namely cóng 悰, huān 懽, kǎi 愷, kuài 快, xǐ 憙, qiè 愜, tāo 慆, xīn 忻, yí 怡, yì 懌, yú 愉, yuè 悦 (説), and so on. Furthermore, xǐ 喜 and lè 樂 both existed in oracle bone inscriptions, but they did not mean happiness. There are about 30 verbs indicating sorrow and depression, namely, bēi 悲, cǎn 慘, cǎn 憯, cǎo 慅, cǎo 懆, cè 惻, chāo 怊, chóu 怞, chóu 愁, chuàng 愴, chuò 惙, cuì 悴, dá 怛, fú 怫, hài 㤥, huàn 患, hùn 慁, lǐ (kuī) 悝, mèn 悶, mèn 懣, mǐn 愍, nì 惄, qī 悽, gǎn 感, tōng 恫, tòng 慟, xī 悕, xū 𢖳 (吁), yì 悒, yōu 憂, and so on. There are over 20 verbs showing fear or panic, namely, ài 懝, bù 怖, chù 怵, dàn 憚, è 愕, huáng 惶, jì 悸, zhuì 惴, jù 懼, kǒng 恐, kuāng 恇, lì 慄, nǎn 戁, qiè 怯, shè 懾, shè 慴 (zhé 舊), sǒng 悚, and so on. There are more than ten verbs expressing resentment, namely, fèn 憤, duì 憝, hèn 恨, hàn 憾, huì 恚, zēng 憎, jī 惎, jì 忌, yuān 悁, kài 愾, nǎo 惱 (恼), nù 怒, píng 憑, qí 懠, qiǎn 慊, wù 惡, fèn 忿, yuàn 怨, yùn 愠, zhì 懥, and so on. Verbs showing love or pity include ài 愛 (炁), ēn 恩, lián 憐, qí 忯, wǔ , wǔ 憮, xī 惜, yān 㤿, and so on. Verbs indicating shame include cán 慚 (慙), chǐ 恥, kuì 愧 (媿), nǜ 恧, zuò 怍, and so on. Verbs expressing regret include huǐ悔. Verbs mentioned above are abundant enough to express complex emotional activities accurately and vividly.

4 Adjectives There are over 30 adjectives in oracle bone inscriptions. Upon the Zhou dynasty, this number rose to more than 1,000. Some of them are originally used as adjectives, whereas others are derived from other parts of speech. This section will focus only on adjectives of colors. Adjectives in oracle bone inscriptions contain

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only several words indicating basic colors such as bái 白, chì 赤, huáng 黃, lǜ 緑, and yōu 幽. The number reached over 70 in the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, when adjectives of colors are combined with characters of five directions, namely, dōng 東 (east), nán 南 (south), xī 西 (west), běi 北 (north), and zhōng 中 (middle). The adjective bái 白 stands for the west. According to Báibù Group 白部 [Bai Group] of Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “bái, xīfāng sè yě.yīn yòng shì, wù sè bái. 白，西方色也.陰用事，物色白.” (Bái 白 stands for the west. When feminine is dominant, things are white.) It was the only word to denote white in oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang dynasty. By the time of the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, characters representing white amounted to more than ten. Examples are as follows. The adjective dì 的 reads in Shuōguà 説卦 [Introduction to Diagrams for Divination]) of Yì, “qí yú mǎ yě . . . wéi dì sǎng. 其於馬也 . . . 爲的顙.” (For horses, it refers to a white forehead.) According to Yu Fan’s 虞翻 (scholar of the Three States Period) annotation, “dì, bái; sǎng, é yě. 的，白；顙，額也.” (Dì的 means white, and sǎng 顙 is forehead.) In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], it reads that “dì, bái yě. 的，白也.” (Dì 的 means white.) As for the adjective gǎo 縞, in Hǎinèiběijīng 海内北經 [Geography of Inland North to the Sea] of Shānhǎijīng 山海經 [Classic of Mountains and Seas], it reads that “yǒu wén mǎ, gǎo shēn zhū liè. 有文馬，縞身朱鬣.” (There is a kind of horse with different colors, whose body is white and mane is red.) According to Guǎnggǔ 廣詁 [Broad Explanation of Ancient Characters] of Xiǎo ěryǎ 小爾雅 [Minor Erya], it reads that “gǎo, bái yě. 縞, 白也.” (Gǎo 縞 means white.) Regarding the adjective hào 皓, in Běnshēng 本生 [The Initial Birth of Things] of Lǚshìchūnqiū 吕氏春秋 [Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “mí màn hào chǐ. 靡曼皓齒.” (Beauties have white teeth.) According to Shìqì 釋 器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎng Yǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], it reads that “hào, bái yě. 皓, 白也.” (Hào 皓 means white.) The adjective hào 顥 reads in Yǒushǐ 有始 [The Beginning of Things] of Lǚshìchūnqiū 吕氏春秋 [Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals] that “xī fāng yuē hào tiān. 西方曰顥天.” (The west is called white sky.) According to Gao You’s 高誘 annotation, “jīn sè bái, gù yuē hào tiān. 金色白，故曰顥天.” (Metal is white, and hence it is called white sky.) The adjective hé 皬 (㿥) has its meaning. According to Shuōwén·Báibù 説文白 部 [Bai Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “hé, niǎo zhī bái yě. 皬，鳥之白也.” (皬 hé refers to a kind of white bird.) In Nèi 内 [The Internal Law] of Tàixuán 太玄 [The Book of Law], it reads that “hé tóu nèi qí zhì fù. 皬頭 内其稚婦.” (Grizzled heads bring home young wives.) In Sīmǎ Xiāngrú Lièzhuàn 司馬相如列傳 [Biography of Sima Xiangru] of Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Historian], it reads that “wú nǎi jīn rì dǔ xī wáng mǔ hé rán báishǒu. 吾乃今日睹西王母 皬然白首.” (I saw today the hair of the Queen Mother of the West all turn white.) The adjective hè 翯 reads in Língtái 靈臺 [The Marvellous Tower] of Dàyǎ 大 雅 [Greater Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “yōulù zhuózhuó, báiniǎo hèhè. 麀鹿濯濯，白鳥翯翯.” (Female deer are fat and sleek, and white birds, glistening and fat.) According to Jízhuàn 集傳 [Annotations for The Book of Songs] by Zhu Xi 朱熹, it reads that “hè hè, jié bái mào. 翯翯，潔白貌.” (Hèhè 翯翯

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means being white.) In Sīmǎ Xiāngrú Lièzhuàn 司馬相如列傳 [Biography of Sima Xiangru] of Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Historian], it reads that “hè hū hàohào, dōng zhù tàihú. 翯乎滈滈，東注太湖.” (The glistening white waves flow into the Tai Lake in the east.) The adjective jiǎo 皎 is recorded in Báijū 白駒 [White Colt] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “jiǎojiǎo báijū, shí wǒ chǎng miáo. 皎皎白駒，食我場苗.” (The pure white colts are feeding on the newly grown grass in my pasture.) According to Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], it reads that “jiǎo, jiú bái yě. 皎，潔白也.” (Jiǎo 皎 means pure white.) In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], it is explained that “jiǎo, bái yě. 皎，白也.” (Jiǎo 皎 means white.) The adjective pěng 皏 is recorded in Fēnglùn 風論 [The Pathology of Wind] of Sùwèn 素問 [Questions of Organic and Fundamental Nature] that “fèi fēng zhī zhuàng, duō hàn wù fēng, sè pěng rán bái. 肺風之狀，多汗惡風，色皏然白.” (The symptoms of disease in lung are sweaty, fragile to wind and pale-faced.) Wang Bing 王冰, medical scientist of the Tang dynasty, annotated that “pěng, wèi bó báisè yě. 皏，謂薄白色也.” (Pěng 皏 means slight white.) As for the adjective pó 皤, it is recorded in Bì 賁 [The Diagram of Bì 賁 ] of Yì 易 [The Book of Changes] that “bì rú pó rú, báimǎ hàn rú. 賁如皤如，白馬翰如.” (He advanced fast in elegant white as if the white horse had wings.) According to Kong Yingda 孔穎達, expert in Confucianism of the early Tang dynasty, it reads that “pó shì sù bái zhī sè. 皤是素白之色.” (Pó 皤 refers to pure white.) In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], it reads that “pó, bái yě. 皤，白也.” (Pó 皤 is white.) The adjective sù 素 is recorded in Gāoyáng 羔羊 [The Lambs] of Shàonán 召 南 [The Odes of Shao and the North] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “sù sī wǔ tuó. 素絲五紽.” (Five strands of white silk.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it is explained that “sù, bái yě. 素, 白也.” (Sù 素 means white.) Rgarding the adjective xī 皙, it is recorded in Dìnggōngjiǔnián 定公九年 [Ninth Year of Duke Ding’s Reign] of Zuǒzhuàn 左传 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], “xī zé ér yì lí zhì. 晳幘而衣貍製.” (He wore a white turban and a coat made of fox fur.) Du Yu 杜預 explained, “xī, bái yě. 皙，白也.” (Xī 皙 means white.) Chì 赤 is the color of south. In Shuōwén·Chìbù 説文赤部 [Chi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “chì, nánfāng sè yě. 赤，南方色也.” (Chì 赤 is the color of the south.) Only one character, chì 赤, appeared in oracle bone inscriptions. During the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, the characters of this category amounted to nearly 20. Examples are as follows. The adjective chēng 赬 (䞓) is recorded in Rŭfé 汝墳 [Banks of the Ru] of Zhōunán 周南 [The Odes of Zhou and the South] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], “fáng yú chēng wěi. 魴魚赬尾.” (Breams have red tails.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “chēng ， chì yě. 赬，赤也” (chēng 赬 refers to red) and it reads in Shuōwén·Chìbù 説文赤部 [Chi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “chēng ， chì sè yě.《 shī》 yuē: ‘fáng

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yú chēng wěi.’ Chēng, chēng huò cóng zhēn. 䞓，赤色也.《詩》曰： ‘ 魴魚䞓 尾.’ 赬，䞓或從貞.’” (Chēng 䞓 means red.) According to Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it is recorded that “the bream has a red tail. Chēng 赬 and 䞓 chēng may have the radical of zhēn 貞.” The adjective dān 丹 is recorded in Wúyǔ 吴語 [Discourses of Wu] of Guóyǔ 國语 [National Language] that “jiē chì shāng, chì yú, dān jiǎ. 皆赤裳、赤旟、丹 甲.” (They are all equipped with red clothes, red flags and red armors.) Wei Zhao noted that “dān, tóng yě. 丹，彤也.” (Dān 丹 means red). The adjective gàn reads in Shuōwén·Chìbù 説文赤部 [Chi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “gàn, chì sè yě. , 赤色也.” ( gàn means red.) The adjective hè 赫 is recorded in Jiănxī 簡兮 [Easy and Indifferent] of Bèifēng in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “hè rú wò zhě. 赫如渥赭.” (Hè赫 refers to vivid red.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “hè, chì mào. 赫，赤貌.” (Hè 赫 means red.) It reads in Shuōwén Chìbù 説 文赤部 [Chi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “hè, huǒ chì mào.赫， 火赤貌.” (Hè 赫 refers to red like fire.) The adjective hóng 紅 reads in Zhāohún 招魂 (Summons of the Soul) of Chǔcí 《楚辞》 [Poetry of the South] that “hóng bì shā bǎn, xuán yù liáng xiē. 紅壁沙 版，玄玉粱些.” (The walls are red with vermilion wood board. The roof-beams are like black jade.) Wang Yi 王逸 annotated that “hóng, chì bái sè. 紅，赤白色.” (Hóng 紅 means light red.) In Sīmǎ Xiāngrú Lièzhuàn 司馬相如列傳 [Biography of Sima Xiangru] of Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Historian], it reads that “hóng yǎo miǎo yǐ xuàn hūn xī. 紅杳渺以眩湣兮.” (The redness in the distance looks dim.) Index of Records of the Historian by Sima Zhen 司馬貞, historian of the Tang dynasty, quoted from Jìn Zhuó 晉灼, expert in Confucianism and official of the Eastern Han dynasty, “hóng, chì sè mào. 紅，赤色貌.” (Hóng 紅 means being red.) The adjective jiàng 絳 reads in Gōngmèng 公孟 [Gongmeng] of Mòzǐ 墨子 [The Works of Mozi] that “jiàng yī bó páo, yǐ zhì qí guó. 絳衣博袍，以治其國.” (He wore red clothes and a large robe to rule his country.) According to Shuōwén Mìbù 説文糸部 [Mi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “jiàng, dà chì yě. 絳，大赤也.” (Jiàng 絳 means bright red.) It reads in Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎng Yǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya] that “jiàng, chì yě. 絳，赤也.” (Jiàng means red.) With regard to the adjective jìn 縉, it reads in the second chapterof Jíjiùpiān 急 就篇 [Speed-up Teaching of Characters] that “zhēng lì juàn gàn jìn hóng rán. 烝 栗絹紺縉紅繎.” [Zhēng lì 烝栗 (brown), juàn 絹 (white), gàn 紺 (violet), jìn 縉 (light red), hóng 紅 (vivid red), and rán 繎 (deep red like fire).] As Yan Shigu 顏 師古, expert in exegetics, Confucianism, and historian in the Tang dynasty, noted that “jìn, qiǎn hóng sè yě. 縉，淺紅色也.” (Jìn 縉 means light red.) According to Shuōwén·Mìbù 説文 · 糸部 [Mi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “jìn, bó chì sè yě. 縉, 帛赤色也.” (Jìn 縉 refers to red silk fabrics.) The adjective qiàn 綪 is recorded in Dìnggōngsnián 定公四年 [Fourth Year of Duke Ding’s Reign], “fēn kāng shū yǐ dà lù, shǎo bó, qiàn fá. 分康叔以大路、少 帛、綪筏.” (Kang Shu was granted the Emperor’s grand chariot, a Shaobo flag,

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and a bright red raft.) As Jia Kui 賈逵, minister of the late Han dynasty, noted, “qiàn, dà chì yě.綪，大赤也.” (Qiàn 綪 means bright red.) The adjective quán 縓 is recorded in Tángōng I 檀弓上 [Tán Gōng I] of Lǐjì 禮 記 [The Book of Rites] that “liàn yī huáng lǐ, quán yuán. 練衣黄裏，縓緣.” (The clothes made of white cloth have a yellow lining and light red edges.) According to Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], it is written that “quán, qiǎn chì sè, jīn zhī hōng yě. 縓，淺赤色，今之紅也.” (Quán 縓, light red, is today’s red.) As for the adjective tí 緹, it reads in Huájīlièzhuàn 滑稽列傳 [The Biographies of Wits and Humorists] of Shǐjì 史记 [Records of the Historian] that “zhàng tí jiàng wéi. 張緹絳帷.” (Set up orange and red curtain walls.) According to Gu Yewang 顧野王, expert in exegetics and historian, quoted in Zhèngyì 史記正義 [Annotations of “Records of the Historian”], it is “tí, huáng chì sè. 緹，黄赤色.” (Tí緹 means orange.) In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guăngyă 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], it reads that “tí, chì yě. 緹, 赤也.” (Tí 緹 is a kind of red color.) The adjective tóng 彤 reads in Jìngnǚ 静女 [The Retiring Girl] of Bèifēng 邶 風 [The Odes of Bei] of Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “jìng nǚ qí luán, yí wǒ tóng guǎn. 静女其孌，貽我彤管.” (The retiring girl is very beautiful. She gave me a red brush.) According to Zhèngjiān 鄭箋 [Zheng’s Annotations to the Book of Songs], it is recorded that “tóng guǎn, chì bǐ guǎn yě. 彤管，赤筆管也.” (Tóng guǎn 彤管 refers to red brush.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], it reads that “tóng, chì yě. 彤，赤也.” (Tóng 彤 means red.) The adjective tóng 赨 is recorded in Dìyuán 地員 [Categories of Land] of Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi] that “qí zhòng dà miáo, xì miáo tóng jìng. 其種大苗，細 苗赨莖.” (It is suitable for both big or fine seedlings with red stems.) According to Yin Zhizhang 尹知章, minister of the Tang dynasty, who interpreted that “tóng, jí chì yě. 赨, 即赤也.” (Tóng 赨 means red.) According to Shuōwén·Chìbù 説文赤部 [Chi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “tóng, chì sè yě. 赨， 赤色也.” (Tóng 赨 refers to red.) The adjective wěi 煒 is written in Jìngnǚ 静女 [The Retiring Girl] of Bèifēng 邶 風 [The Odes of Bei] of Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “tóng guǎn yǒu wěi. 彤管 有煒.” (The red brush is brilliantly red.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “wěi, chì mào. 煒，赤貌.” (Wěi 煒 means red.) In Shuōwén·Huŏbù 説文火部 [Huo Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “wěi, shèng chì yě. 煒，盛赤也.” (Wěi 煒 means glowing red.) The adjective xīng 騂 is written in Yōngyě 雍也 [Ran Yong] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects] that “lí niú zhī zǐ xīng qiě jiǎo. 犂牛之子騂且角.” (Calves born from farm cattle have red fur and horns.) According to He Yan 何晏, it reads that “xīng, chì sè yě. 騂，赤色也.” (Xīng 騂 means red.) In Xìnnánshān 信南山 [True It Is About the Southern Hill] of Xiǎoyǎ [Minor Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “cóng yǐ xīng mǔ. 從以騂牡.” (We sacrifice with red bull.) Zhu Xi 朱熹 noted in Jízhuàn 集傳 [Annotations for the Book of Songs] that “xīng, chì sè.騂，赤色.” (Xīng 騂 means red.) The adjective zhū 朱 is recorded in Cǎiqǐ 釆芑 [Gathering White Millet] of Xiǎoyǎ [Minor Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “zhū fú sī huáng, yǒu

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qiāng cōng héng.朱芾斯皇，有瑲蔥珩.” (His red knee hide is so splendid. His green top gem of jade pendants is sounding.) In Jìnxīn II 盡心下 [Complete Heart II] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it is recorded, “wù zǐ, kǒng qí luàn zhū yě. 惡紫，恐其亂朱也.” (The reason why I dislike purple is for fear that it might pose as red.) As Zhao Qi 趙岐 annotated, “zhū, chì yě. 朱，赤也.” (Zhū朱 refers to red.) The adjective zǐ 紫 is written in Xiāngdǎng 鄉黨 [Townsmen] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects] that “hóng zǐ bù yǐ wéi xiè fú. 紅紫不以爲褻服.” (Neither red nor purple is suitable for everyday home clothes.) In Wúzǐ 吾子 [My Dear Sirs] of Fǎyán 法言 [On Sages’ Propositions], Yang Xiong 楊雄 of the Han dynasty wrote, “huò wèn cāng yíng hóng zǐ. 或問蒼蠅紅紫.” (Someone asked, “Is the fly red or purple?”) According to Li Gui 李軌, scholar of the Jin dynasty, interpreted that “zǐ, sì zhū ér fēi zhū yě. 紫，似朱而非朱也.” (Zǐ 紫 is very much like red, yet not the same as it.) The adjective huáng 黄 is the color of center. In Shuōwén·Huángbù 説文黄部 [Huang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is recorded that “huáng, dì zhī sè yě.黄，地之色也.” (Huáng is the color of the Earth.) In Lǜyī 緑衣 [The Green Robe] of Bèifēng 邶风 [The Odes of Pei] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “lǜ yī huáng lǐ. 緑衣黃裏.” (The robe is green with a yellow lining.) According to Zhu Xi’s 朱熹 Jízhuàn 集傳 [Commentaries on the Book of Songs], it is written that “huáng, zhōng yāng tǔ zhī zhèng sè. 黄，中央土之正色.” (Huáng 黄 refers to the normal color of soil in the center.) There was only one character of the color in oracle bone inscriptions, i.e., huáng 黄 (yellow). However, the characters of this color rose to over ten during the Zhou and the Qin dynasties. Some of the examples are as follows. The adjective chōng is recorded in Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language] that “chōng, huáng yě. , 黄也.” (Chōng means yellow.) The adjective huá 華 is recorded in Yùzǎo 玉藻 [Pendants on the Crown] that “zá dài: jūn zhū lǜ, dà fū xuán huá. 雜帶：君朱緑, 大夫玄華.” (The belt on the informal dress of a prince or a senior official: that of the Emperor is red and green and that of the senior official is black and yellow.) According to Zheng Xuan 鄭 玄, it reads that “huá, huáng sè yě. 華，黄色也.” (Huá 華 means yellow.) The adjective huáng 皇 is recorded in Dōngshān 東山 [The Hills of the East] of Bīnfēng 豳風 [The Odes of Bin] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “huáng bó qí mǎ. 皇駁其馬.” (White horses variegated with yellow hair.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “huáng bái yuē huáng 黄白曰皇.” (Yellowish white is called huáng 皇.) The adjective huī (huà) 黊 is written in Shuōwén·Huángbù 説文黄部 [Huang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “huà, xiān míng huáng yě. 黊，鮮明 黄也.” (Huī 黊 means bright yellow.) As for the adjective huì , it is recorded in Shuōwén·Huángbù 説文黄部 [Huang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “huì, qīng huáng sè yě. , 青黄色也.” (Huì means greenish yellow.) The adjective jīn 金 is recorded in Chēgōng 車攻 [Strong Carriages] of Xiăoyă 小雅 [Minor Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “chì fú jīn xì, huì tóng yǒu

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 75 yì. 赤芾金舄，會同有繹.” (With red knee hide and golden clogs, the nobles form a long line to pay tributes to the Emperor.) According to Zhèngjiān 鄭箋 [Zheng’s Annotations to the Book of Songs], it reads that “jīn xì, zhū huáng sè yě. 金舄， 朱黄色也.” (Jīn xì 金舄, golden clogs, are reddish yellow.) As for the adjective of 黅 jīn, in Wǔchángzhèngdàlùn 五常政大論 [Rules of Phase Energetics] of Sùwèn 素問 [Questions of Organic and Fundamental Nature], it is recorded that “qí gǔ jīn jù. 其穀黅秬.” (Their grains are yellow and black.) According to Wang Bing, it reads that “jīn, huáng yě. 黅，黄也.” (Jīn 黅 means yellow.) The adjective tiān 黇 is recorded in Shuōwén·Huángbù 説文黄部 [Huang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “tiān, bái huáng sè yě. 黇，白黄色也.” (Tiān 黇 means slight white-yellow.) As for the adjective tǒu 黈, in Zhuānggōngèrshísānnián 莊公二十三年 [23rd Year of Duke Zhuang’s Reign] of Gŭliángzhuàn 穀梁傳 [Guliang’s Explanation of Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “dà fū cāng, shì tǒu. 大夫倉，士黈.” (The senior officials of Dà Fū are in cyan, and those of Shì are in yellow.) Fan Ning 范寧, expert in Confucianism and ancient classics in the Eastern Jin dynasty, annotated, “tǒu, huáng yě. 黈，黄也.” (Tǒu 黈 refers to yellow color.) is recorded in Shuōwén·Huángbù 説文 · 黄部 [Huang The adjective Tuān Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “tuān, hēi huáng sè yě. ，黑黄色 也.” (Tuān means black yellow.) Qīng 青 is the color of the east. In Shuōwén·Căobù 説文 · 艸部 [Cao Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “qīng, dōng fāng sè yě. 青，東方 色也.” (Qīng 青 is the color of the east). There was only one character representing this color in oracle bone inscriptions, namely, lǜ 緑. In the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, the number reached nearly ten. Following are some of these examples. The adjective bì 碧 is recorded in Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya] that “bì, qīng yě. 碧，青也.” (Bì 碧 means cyan.) In chapter five of Bìlǜ 碧緑 [cyan] in Yīqièjīngyīnyì 一切經音義 [Pronunciations and Meanings of Characters from All Classics], Xuan Ying 玄應, a famous monk of the Tang dynasty, quoted from Guăngyă 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], “bì, qīng bái sè yě. 碧，青白色也.” (Bì 碧 is blueish white.) The adjective cāng 蒼 (倉) refers to cyan green. In Shuōwén·Căobù 説文 · 艸部 [Cao Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “cāng, cǎo sè yě. 蒼,艸 色也.” (Cāng 蒼 is the color of grass.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 annotated, “yǐnshēn wéi fán qīng hēi sè zhī chēng, 引申爲凡青黑色之稱.” (It is later extended to refer to greenish black.) In Wècè IV 魏策四 [Intrigues of Wei IV] of Zhànguócè 戰國 策 [Intrigues of the Warring States], it reads, “cāngyīng jī yú diàn shàng. 倉鷹擊 於殿上.” (A blueish black goshawk dived to the palace.) Wu Shidao 吳師道, an official of Láng Zhōng of the Ministry of Rites in the Yuan dynasty) annotated that “cāng jí cāng. 倉即蒼.” (Cāng 倉 here equals cāng 蒼.) The adjective cōng 蔥 is written in Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Ĕryǎ 爾 雅 [Close to Standard Language], “qīng wèi zhī cōng. 青谓之蔥.” (The color of cyan is called 蔥 cōng.) As Guo Pu 郭璞, litterateur and exegetist of the Western and the Eastern Jin dynasties, noted that “qiǎn qīng. 淺青” (light cyan). In Cǎiqǐ

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采芑 [Gathering White Millet] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “yǒu qiāng cōng héng. 有瑲蔥珩.” (His green top gem of jade pendants is sounding.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “cōng, cāng yě. 蔥，蒼也.” (Cōng 蔥 means black green.) The adjective lán 藍 is recorded in Běnxìng 本性 [Nature] of Lùnhéng 論衡 [On Balance] that “zhì è zhī wù, bù shòu lán zhū zhī biàn yě. 至惡之物，不受藍朱 之變也.” (An extremely evil person will not be easily changed like a white cloth dyed into blue or red color.) As for the adjective lǜ 緑, In Lǜyī 録衣 [Green Robe] of Bèifēng 邶風 [The Odes of Bei] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “lǜ xī yī xī, lǜ yī huáng lǐ. 緑兮衣兮，緑衣黄裏.” (The green robe is green outside with a yellow lining.) According to Máozhuà 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “lǜ, jiàn sè; huáng, zhèng sè. 緑，間色；黄，正色.” (Huáng 黄 is one of the pure colors, while lǜ 緑 is not). In Zhōu yì zhèngyì 周易正義 [Annotations of the Book of Changes] by Kong Yingda 孔穎達, it reads that “lǜ, cāng huáng zhī jiàn sè. 緑， 蒼黄之間色.” (Lǜ 緑 is a green color mixed by black green and yellow.) The adjective lǜ 録 is recorded in Shuōwén·Jīnbù 説文金部 [Jin Group of Shuowen] that “lǜ, jīn sè yě. 録，金色也.” (Lǜ 録 refers to the color of a certain metal.) According to Duan Yucai’s 段玉裁 annotation, it reads that “lǜ yú lǜ tóng yīn, jīn sè, zài qīng huáng zhī jiān. 録舆緑同音，金色，在青黄之间.” (Lǜ 録, pronounced the same as lǜ 緑, refers to the color of a certain metal between cyan and yellow.) The adjective qí 綦 is written in Gùmìng 顧命 [Testamentary Charge] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents] that “sì rén qí biàn. 四人綦弁.” (The four men all wore greenish black conical caps.) Kŏngyĭngdáshū 孔穎達疏 [Annotations by Kong Yingda] quoted from Zheng Xuan 鄭玄, “qīng hēi yuē qí. 青黑曰綦.” (Qí 綦 means greenish black.) In Chūqídōngmén 出其東門 [I Went out at the East Gate] of Zhèngfēng 鄭風 [The Odes of Ch’ing] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “gǎo yī qí jīn. 縞衣綦巾.” (She is in white silk, and a greenish black turban.) According to Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons] by Lu Deming 陸德明, expert in Confucian classics and exegetics in the Tang dynasty, it reads that “qí, cāng ài sè. 綦,蒼艾色.” (Qí 綦 is the blackish green as mugwort.) The adjective qí 騏 is recorded in Shījiū 鳲鳩 [The Turtle Dove] of Cáofēng 曹風 [The Odes of Ts’aou] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “qí biàn yī qí. 其 弁伊騏.” (His conical cap is decorated with greenish black patterns.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “qí, qí wén yě. 騏, 騏文也.” (Here 騏 qí refers to greenish black pattern). In Gùmìng 顧命 [Testamentary Charge] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “sì rén qí biàn. 四人騏弁.” (The four men all wore greenish black conical caps.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], Lu Deming quoted from Ma Rong 馬融, expert in Confucianism of the Eastern Han dynasty, “qí, qīng hēi sè. 騏，青 黑色.” (Qí 騏 is greenish black.) The adjective qīng 青 is recorded in Quànxué 勸學 [Encouraging Learning] of Xúnzĭ 荀子 [The Works of Xunzi] that “qīng qǔ zhī yú lán ér qīng yú lán. 青取之

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 77 於藍而青於藍.” (Cyan is extracted from Polygonum tinctorium, yet is darker than Polygonum blue.) In Wángmǎngzhuàn 王莽傳上 [Biography of Wang Mang, Part I] of Hànshū 漢書 [History of the Former Han dynasty], it reads that “jiǔ mìng qīng yù guī èr. 九命青玉珪二.” (The senior official of Jĭu Mìng was bestowed with two dark green jade 珪 guī, appointed tablets held in hands when meeting the Emperor.) Yan Shigu annotated that “qīng zhě, chūn sè. Dōng fāng shēng ér zhǎng yù wàn wù yě. 青者，春色. 東方生而长育萬物也.” (Qīng 青 [the color of spring] was born in the east to make things grow up.) The adjective xiáo 絞 is written in Yùzǎo 玉藻 [The Jade-bead Pendants of the Royal Cap] of Lǐjì 醴記 [Book of Rites] that “xiáo yī yǐ xī zhī. 絞衣以裼之.” (He was granted with bluish yellow clothes.) According to Zheng Xuan 鄭玄’s annotation, it reads that “xiáo, cāng huáng zhī sè yě. 絞,蒼黄之色也.” (Xiáo 絞 stands for bluish yellow.) The adjective heī 黑 is the color of north. In Huàhuì 畵繢 [Painting] of Kăogōngjì 考工記 [The Artificers’ Record] in Zhōulĭ 周醴 [The Rite of Zhou], it reads that “běi fāng wèi zhī hēi. 北方谓之黑.” (The north is regarded as the black color.) There was only one character of this color in oracle bone inscriptions, namely, yōu 幽. Upon the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, the number of the monosyllabic words meaning black turned into over 20 words. These examples are as follows. The adjective àn 黯 is written in Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “àn, shēn hēi yě. 黯，深黑也.” (Àn 黯 refers to dark black.) In Jiǔbiàn 九辯 [Nine Arguments] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “bǐ rì yuè zhī zhào míng xī, shàng àn dàn ér yǒu xiá. 彼日月之 昭明兮，尚黯黮而有瑕.” (Bright and shining as the sun and the moon, they can be clouded into complete black with flaws at times.) According to Chŭcíbŭzhù 楚 辭補註 [Supplementary Annotations of Poetry of the South] by Hong Xingzu 洪 興祖, famous official and scholar of the Song dynasty, it reads that “àn dàn, yún hēi. 黯黮，雲黑” (àn dàn 黯黮 refers to deep black cloud). The adjective cǎn 黪 is written in Shuōwén Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “cǎn, qiǎn qīng hēi yě. 黪，淺青黑也.” (Cǎn 黪 means light greenish black.) In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], it reads that “cǎn, hēi yě. 黪，黑也.” (Cǎn 黪 is black.) As for dǎn 黮, it is written in Zhǔshù 主術 [Political Trickery] of Huaínánzǐ 淮南子 [Works of Huainanzi] that “wèn gǔ shī yu: ‘bái sù hé rú?’ yuē: ‘gǎo rán.’ yuē: ‘hēi hé ruò?’ yuē: ‘dàn rán.’ shòu bái hēi ér shì zhī, zé chǔ yān.” 問瞽師曰： ‘ 白素何如？’曰： ‘ 縞然.’ 曰： ‘ 黑何若?’ 曰： ‘黮然.’ 授白黑而示之，则 不處焉. (A drummer was asked, “What is plain white like?” He answered, “Like unbleached silk.” Then he was asked, “What is black like?” He answered, “Like deep black.” But when he was presented with real black and white, he failed to make a distinction between them.) The adjective gàn 紺 is written in Shuōwén·Mìbù 説文糸部 [Mì Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “bó shēn qīng yang chì sè. 帛深青揚赤色.” (It is interpreted as dark blue silk fabrics displaying a reddish color.) As Duan Yucai 段 玉裁 noted that “àn cǐ jīn zhī tiān qīng, yì wèi zhī hóng qīng. 按此今之天青，亦 谓之紅青.” (It is today’s sky blue, or reddish blue.) In Jiéyòngzhóng 節用中 [On

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Prudence II] of Mòzĭ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads that “dōng fú gàn zōu zhī yī. 冬服紺緅之衣.” (In winter, people wear black or purple clothes.) The adjective hēi 黑 is recorded in Běifēng 北風 [The North Wind] of Bèifēng 邶風 [The Odes of Bei] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “mò chì fēi hú, mò hēi fēi wū.莫赤匪狐，莫黑匪烏.” (All the red animals we see are foxes, and all the black animals, crows.) In Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “hēi, huǒ suǒ xūn zhī sè yě. 黑，火所熏之色 也.” (Hēi 黑 refers to the smoked color.) As for jīn 黔, in Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “jīn, huáng hēi yě. 黔，黄黑也.” (Jīn 黔 means yellowish black.) The adjective lí 黧 is written in Xùyīng 蓄英 [Restoring Energy] of Jiǔhuái 九 懷 [Nine Mournings] that “fēn yùn xī méi lí. 蒶藴兮黴黧.” (Lingering sorrow turned my face into black.) According to Hong Xingzu’s 洪興祖 supplementary annotation, it reads that “lí, hēi huáng.黧，黑黄.” (Lí 黧 means blackish yellow.) As for lí 黎, in Yǔgòng 禹貢 [Tribute of (Great)Yu] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “jué tǔ qīng lí 厥土青黎.” (The earth shoveled out is bluish black.) In Wěikǒngzhuàn 僞孔傳 [Forged Kong Anguo’s Annotations to Book of Documents], it reads that “sè qīng hēi ér wò rang. 色青黑而沃壤.” (It refers to fertile bluish black soil.) Regarding lí 驪, in Shìchù 釋畜 [Explaining Livestock] of Ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it is written that “lí mǎ bái kuà. 驪马白跨.” (Black horses with white crotches.) According to Guo Pu’s annotation, it reads that “lí, hēi sè yě. 驪，黑色也.” (Lí 驪 means black.) In Xiōngnúzhuàn 匈奴傳上 [Biography of the Hun, Part I] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “běi fāng jìn lí. 北 方盡驪.” (The north is all black.) Yan Shigu annotated that “lí, shēn hēi. 驪，深 黑.” (Lí 驪 means dark black.) The adjective lú 盧 (卢) is recorded in Wénhóuzhīmìng 文侯之命 [The Order of Duke Wen] of Shū 書 [Book of Documents] that “lú gōng yī, lú shǐ bǎi. 盧弓一， 盧矢百.” (One black bow and 100 black arrows.) According to Wěikǒngzhuàn, it reads, “lú, hēi yě. 盧，黑也.” (Lú 盧 means black.) The adjective lú 黸, in Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “qí wèi hēi wéi lú. 齊謂黑爲黸.” (The Qi people call black lú 黸). In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya] or [Elegance], it reads that “lú, hēi yě. 黸，黑也.” (Lú 黸 means black). According to Guăngyăshūzhèng 廣雅疏證 [Notes for Annotations of Broadened Erya] by Wang Niansun 王念孫, linguist of the Qing dynasty), it reads that “lú, zì tōng zuò lú, hēi tǔ wèi zhī lú, hēi quǎn wèi zhī lú, mù tóng zǐ wèi zhī lú, hēi gōng wèi zhī lú gōng, hēi shǐ wèi zhī lú shǐ, hēi shuǐ wèi zhī lú shuǐ, hēi jú wèi zhī lú jú, yí bìng tóng yě. 黸，字通作盧，黑土謂之壚, 黑犬謂之盧，目童子謂之盧， 黑弓謂之玈弓，黑矢謂之玈矢，黑水謂之瀘水，黑橘謂之盧橘，義並同也.” (Lú 黸 is interchangeable with lú 盧. Lú 黸 refers to black soil, lú 盧 are black dogs and pupils of the eyes, lú gōng 玈弓 are black bows, lú shǐ 玈矢 are black arrows, lú shuǐ 瀘水 is black water, and lú jú 盧橘 are black oranges, i.e., loquats. Hereby, lú 黸, lú 盧, lú 玈, and lú 瀘 also share the same meaning.)

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 79 The adjective méi 黴 is recorded in Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文 · 黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “méi, zhōng jiǔ yǔ qīng hēi. Cóng hēi, wēi shěng sheng.” 黴，中久雨青黑. 從黑，微省聲. (Méi 黴 refers to the color of long-lasting heavy rain. It belongs to the radical of hēi 黑 with the abbreviated initial of wēi 微.) In Féngfēn 逢紛 [In the Chaotic Era] of Jiǔtàn 九歎 [Nine Laments] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “yán méi lí yǐ zǔ bài xī. 顔黴黧以沮敗兮.” (My face is all black and I feel frustrated.) The adjective mò 墨 is recorded in Xǐgōngsānshíèrniàn 僖公三十二年 [32nd Year of Duke Xi’s Reign] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals] that “suì mò yǐ zàng wén gōng, jìn yū shì shǐ mò. 遂墨以葬文 公，晉於是始墨.” (Then they buried Duke Wen in black garments, so the Jin people began to wear black mourning garments since then.) In Téngwéngōng 滕文 公上 [Duke Wen of the Teng State I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “miàn shēn mò. 面深墨.” (His face is of a deep black.) According to Zhao Qi, it reads that “mò, hēi yě. 墨，黑也.” (Mò 墨 refers to black.) The adjective niè 涅 is written in Shuōshān 説山 [On Mountains] of Huáinánzĭ 淮南子 [Works of Huainanzi] that “liú yán xuě wū, pì yóu yǐ niè shì sù yě. 流 言雪汙，譬猶以涅拭素也.” (Rumors are like dirty snow. Refuting them is like smearing the white with black dye.) According to Gao You’s annotation, it reads that “niè hēi yě. 涅，黑也.” (Niè 涅 means black.) As for qián 黔, in Shuōguà 説卦 [Explanation of the Hexagrams and Trigrams] of Yì 易 [Book of Changes], it reads that “wéi qián huì zhī shǔ. 爲黔喙之屬.” (They belong to animals with black mouths.) As Ma Rong 馬融 annotated, “qián, hēi yě. 黔，黑也.” (Qián 黔 refers to black color.) In Zheng Xuan’s 鄭玄 annotation, it is written as qián 黚 (black). The adjective tún 黗 is recorded in Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “tún, huáng zhuó hēi. 黗，黄濁黑.” (Tún 黗 refers to blended yellow black color.) According to Duan Yucai’s 段玉裁 annotation, it reads that “wèi huáng zhuó zhī hēi yě. 謂黄濁之黑也.” (It refers to the black of muddy yellow.) As for xuán 玄, in Qīyuè 七月 [The Seventh Month] of Bīnfēng 豳風 [The Odes of Pin] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “zài xuán zài huáng, wǒ zhū kǒng yang. 載玄載黄，我朱孔陽.” (They made black and yellow fabrics. While our red ones are splendid.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs] or [Maozhuan], it reads that “xuán, hēi ér yǒu chì yě. 玄，黑而有赤也.” (Xuán 玄 means reddish black). In Shuōwén·Xuánbù 説文玄部 [Xuan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “xuán, hēi ér yǒu chì sè zhě wéi xuán. 玄，黑而有赤色者爲玄.” (Xuán 玄 refers to black displaying some red in it.) Regarding the adjective xuán 玆, it is recorded in Shuōwén·Xuánbù 説文玄 部 [Xuan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “xuán, hēi yě. 玆，黑也.” (Xuán 玆 means black.) The adjective yān 殷 refers to reddish black. In Chénggōngèrniàn 成公二年 [Second Year of Duke Cheng] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “zuǒ lún zhū yān. 左輪朱殷.” (The left wheel was turned into reddish black with blood.) According to Du Yu’s 杜預 annotation, it

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reads that “jīn rén wèi chì hēi wéi yān sè. 今人謂赤黑爲殷色.” (People today refer to reddish black as yān 殷 black.) The adjective yǎn 黤 is recorded in Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文 · 黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “yǎn, qīng hēi yě. 黤，青黑也.” (Yǎn 黤 means greenish black.) Yàng 䵮 is recorded in Shuōwén·Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “yáng, chì hēi yě. 䵮，赤黑也.” (Yàng 䵮 refers to reddish black.) The adjective yŏu 幽 is recorded in Xísāng 隰桑 [The Mulberry Trees in the Low, Wet Grounds] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] that “qí yè yǒu yǒu. 其葉有幽.” (Some of their leaves appear dark.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “yǒu, hēi yě. 幽，黑也.” (Yǒu 幽 means black.) In Yùzǎo 玉藻 [The Jade-bead Pendants of the Royal Cap] of Lǐjì 醴記 [Book of Rites], it reads that “yī mìng yùn fú yǒu héng. 一命緼韍幽衡.” (The official of Yī Mìng is granted with brown knee pads and a black supporter for his girdle pendants.) Zhengxuan annotated that “yǒu, dú wéi yǒu, hēi yě. 幽讀爲黝，黑也.” (Yǒu 幽 is pronounced as yǒu 黝, with the meaning of black.) The adjective yǒu 黝 refers to black with slight green. In Mùrén 牧人 [Officer in Charge of Grazing] of Dìguān 地官 [Magistrate] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “yīn sì yòng yǒu shēng máo zhī. 陰祀用黝牲毛之.” (Offer sacrifice in the northern suburbs with black livestocks.) As Zhengxuan 鄭玄 noted, “yǒu dú wéi yǒu, yǒu, hēi yě. 黝讀爲幽，幽，黑也.” (Yǒu 黝 has the same pronunciation as yǒu 幽, with the meaning of black.) As for zī 緇, in Zīyī 緇衣 [Black Robes] of Zhèngfēng 鄭風 [The Odes of Zheng] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “zī yī zhī yí xī. 緇衣之宜兮.” (The black robes fit you so well.) According to Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “zī, hēi yě. 緇，黑也.” (Zī 緇 means black.) Although the nine categories mentioned above may be far away from depicting the whole picture of monosyllabic words in Old Chinese language, they make a brief review of the general trend about their development in Old Chinese lexicon. In summary, the development of monosyllabic words in Old Chinese fall into the following three circumstances.

5 Threecircumstancesoftheprogressof monosyllabicwordsinOldChinese As can be seen in the above description, there are three circumstances of the progress of monosyllabic words in Old Chinese, which are described below. 5.1 Newlycoinedwords A new phonetic form was used to denote new things or concepts, which was the primary method to form new words at that time, as Wang Guowei 王國維 commented, “zàocí zhī shǐ, “yǒu qǔ zhū qí wù zhī xíng zhě, yǒu qǔ zhū qí wù zhī sè

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 81 zhě, yǒu qǔ zhū qí wù zhī shēng zhě, yǒu qǔ zhū xìngxí zhě, yǒu qǔ zhū gōngyòng zhě, yǒu qǔ zhū xiāngsì zhī tā wù zhě. 造詞之始， ‘ 有取諸其物之形者，有取 諸其物之色者，有取諸其物之聲者，有取諸性習者，有取諸功用者，有取 諸相似之他物者.’”16 (At the beginning, the creation of new words was based on the shape, the color, the sound, the nature, the functions of the thing signified, and/ or its similarities with another one.) Some examples are listed as follows. The word zhì 豸 is, according to Shuōwén·Zhìbù 説文豸部 [Zhi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “shòu chángjǐ, xíng zhìzhì rán, yù yǒu suǒ sī shā xíng. 獸長脊，行豸豸然，欲有所司殺形.” (The character looks like the shape of the long-spine beast zhì豸 in preying position.) The word mián 綿 is recorded in the Mì 糸 Group of the Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters] that “Mián, lián wēi yě. 綿，聯微也.” (The character mián 綿 means subtle connection.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 annotates that “qí xiāng lián zhě shèn wēi miǎo, shì yuē mián. 其相 連者甚微眇，是曰綿.” (Subtle connection is termed as mián 綿.) Words like Zhì 豸 and mián 綿 are coined on the basis of the shape of the signified things. Below are some examples of the creation of words based on the colors of creatures signified. As in the example of lí, tóng yě. 鱺, 鮦也 in Shìyú 釋 魚 [Explaining Fishes] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Broadened Erya], the word lí 鱺 refers to the snake-fish tóng 鮦. Wang Niansun 王念孫 annotates that “Jīnrén wèi zhī wūyú, shǒu yǒu bānwén, lín xì ér hēi, gù míng líyú, lí zhī yán lí yě. 今人謂之 烏魚，首有斑文，鱗細而黑，故名鱺魚，鱺之言驪也.” (What is now called wūyú 鳥魚, black fish, was named líyú 鱺魚, fish with stripes on its head and finely arranged black scales.) While 麗, the sound part of 鱺 lí was borrowed from that of 驪 lì. The word qí 騏 is, according to the Mǎ 馬 Group of the Shuōwén 説 文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], “mǎ qīnglí wén rú bóqí yě. 馬青驪文如博棊 也.” (The character refers to the horse with white-black skin pattern like that of a Chinese chess board.) Below are some examples of the words coined on the basis of the sound of the signified animals. The words wā 鼃 and há 蛤 were annotated by Duan Yucai 段玉裁 that “wā zhě, Zhōulǐ suǒwèi guō, jīn nánrén suǒ wèi shuǐjī, yì yuē tiánjī, wā, há jiē qí shēng yě. 鼃者，《周禮》所謂蟈，今南人所謂水雞，亦曰田雞，鼃、蛤皆其聲也.” (Wā 鼃 [frog], called guō蟈 in Zhōulǐ [The Rituals of Zhou], is now called shuǐjī 水雞 or tián jī 田雞 by the southerners. Wā 鼃 and há 蛤 are both the sound of a frog.) The word méng 虻 is, according to the section Chóngbù 蟲部 [Insects] of Běncǎo gāngmù 本草纲目 [Compendium of Materia Medica] by Li Shizhen 李 時珍, “méng yǐyì míng, qí shēng méng méng, gù míng. 虻以翼名，其聲蝱蝱， 故名.” (Méng 虻 is named by its sound of wing like méng méng 蝱蝱, and gets the name.) Hence, Méng 虻 (horsefly) is named by the sound of it flapping its wings. These examples are the examples named by the sounds of the signified. Below are some examples of the words coined on the basis of the habits of the signified animals. The examples of yuán (yuán), shàn yuán 蝯 (猨) or shànyuán 善援 are from Ěryǎ·Shìshòu 爾雅釋獸 [Explaining Beasts of Close to Standard Language]. The

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word yuán 蝯 (ape), also written as yuán 猨, is good at climbing, and the sound part yuán 爰 is borrowed from yuán 援 with the meaning of climbing. As for zhì 鷙, it is written in Shuōwén Niǎo bù 説文鳥部 [Bird Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “zhì, jī shā niǎo yě 鷙, 擊殺烏也.” (Zhì 鷙 means to prey on and kill the bird.) Hereby, zhì 鷙 means preying on birds. It is written in Lísāo 離騒 [On Encountering Trouble] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of the South] that “zhì niǎo zhī bù qún xī 鷙烏之不群兮.” (Eagles do not flock like birds of lesser species.) Wang Yi 王逸 annotated that “wèi néng zhí fú zhòng niǎo, yīng zhān zhī lèi yě 謂 能執服衆鳥，鷹鸇之類也.” (It is said that zhì 鷙 is capable of subduing birds and belongs to the hawk species.) Below are some examples of the words coined on the basis of the functions of animals signified. The word fù 駙, according to Shuōwén·Mǎbù 説文馬部 [Horse Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], is fùmǎ 副馬, with the meaning of helping horse. In fùmǎ dūwèi Hànshū•Bǎiguān gōngqīngbiǎoshàng 駙馬都尉, 漢書百官公卿表上 (Officers in charge of side-horses used for Emperor’s travel. Ministers and Officers in the Han dynasty of the Book of Former Han.) According to the notes by Yan Shigu 顏師古, it reads that “fēi zhèng jià zhī chē, jiē wéi fù mǎ 非正駕之車，皆 爲副馬.” (Accompanying carriages are named fùmǎ 駙馬.) The word zì 牸 is recorded in Guǎngyǎ·Shìchù 廣雅釋畜 [Explaining Animals of Broadened Erya] that “zì, cí yě 牸，雌也.” (Zì 牸 refers to female animals.) According to Wang Niansun’s 王念孫 explanations on words or characters, it reads that “zì zhī yán zì, shēng zǐzhī míng, niú mǔ wèi zhī zì, yóu má mǔ wèi zhī zì yǐ 牸之言字, 生子之名，牛母謂之牸，猶麻母謂之茡矣.” (Zì 牸, female animals, is pronounced as zì, meaning bearing offspring. Cows giving birth to calves are called zì牸, with the same sound of zì茡 as female animals.) 5.2 Newwordsformedonthebasisofexistingones There are mainly three types of new words formed on the basis of existing ones. The first type is homonyms, such as the names of 28 lunar mansions mentioned earlier. The second type is homophones, and the third type is words with similar but different sounds and written forms from the existing ones. One example of homophones is cái 才 that appeared as early as in oracle bone inscriptions and evolved into three writing forms during the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, as shown below. The first form of cái 才 means talented people. It is recorded in Lièzǐ Zhòngní 列子仲尼 [Master Lie, Confucius of the Liezi] that “dōng lǐ duō cái 東里多才.” (In the eastern quarter of the town, there lived many skilled civil servants and politicians.) It is further illustrated in Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons] by Lu Deming 陸德明 that “cái, yǒu zhì néng ér cān guó zhèng zhě 才，有治能而參國政者.” (Cái 才 refers to those capable and talented people who take the management of the whole country.) The second form of cái 才 is cái 材 (timber). As recorded in Shuōwén·Mùbù 説文木部 [Wood Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is “cái, mù tǐng yě 材，木梃也.” (Cái 材 refers to timber.)

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 83 In Shuōwénjiězì xìzhuàn 説文解字繫傳 [Xu Kai’s Annotations on Shuōwén (Origin of Chinese Characters)] by Xu Kai 徐鍇, it is recorded that “mù zhī jìngzhí kān rù yú yòng zhě. Gù yuē rùshān lúncái, lūn kěwéi cái zhě yě 木之勁直堪入 於用者. 故曰入山掄材，掄可爲材者也.” (Cái 材 refers to upright trees that can be taken as useful building material. Hence, entering mountains to select useful timber material is called lúncái 掄材.) The third form of cái 才 is cái 財 (wealth). As in Shuōwén·Bèibù 説文貝部 [Shell Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is recorded that “cái, rén suǒ bǎo yě 財，人所寶也.” (Cái 財 refers to people’s valuable things.) In Zhōulǐ·Tiānguān·Zǎifū 周禮天官宰夫 [The Rituals of Zhou·Officials in Charge of Astronomy Officers in Charge of Slaughtering Animals], it is recorded that “chèng qí cái yòng zhī chū rù 乘其財用之出入.” (Count possessions or incomes to make consumption or expenditures.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotates that “cái, quán gǔ yě 財，泉穀也.” (Cái 財 means the source of income.) Another example of homophones is gōu 句 that appeared as early as in oracle inscriptions. According to the section of Shuōwén·Gōubù 説文句部 [Gou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “gōu, qū yě 句，曲也.” (Gou refers to curvy staff.) With time going on, it gradually evolved into various written forms with same or differentiated pronunciations, as exemplified below. The first one is gōu 鉤 (hook). It is recorded in Shuōwén·Gōubù 説文句部 [Gou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “gōu, qū yě 鉤，曲也.” (Gōu 鉤 refers to hook.) The second one is gōu 枸 (crooked wood). It is recorded in Xúnzǐ·Xìng’è 荀子性惡 [Evil Human Nature of the Works of Xunzi] that “gù gōu mù bì jiāng dài yǐn guā zhēng jiǎo rán hòu zhí 故枸木必將待櫽栝烝矯然 後直.” (Thus, crooked wood must await steaming and straightening on the shaping frame, and only then can it become straight.) The third one is qú 軥 (the downward-bending yoke). As recorded in Shuōwén·Chēbù 説文車部 [Che Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “qú, è xià qū zhě 軥，軶下曲 者.” (Qú 軥 refers to the downward-bending yoke.) The fourth one is gōu 痀 (a hunchback), which is recorded in Zhuāngzǐ·Dáshēng 莊子達生 [Mastering Life of the Works of Zhuangzi] that “jiàn gōulóu zhě chéngtiáo 見痀僂者承蜩.” (He, Confucius, saw a hunchback catching cicadas.) Cheng Xuanying 成玄英 wrote in his Zhuāngzǐjiě 莊子解 [Annotations to Works of Zhuangzi] that “gōu lóu, láo rén qū yāo zhī mào 痀僂，老人曲腰之貌.” (Gōulóu 痀僂 is used to describes the hunchbacked old people.) The fifth one is qú 朐 (crooked dried meat), which is recorded in Yílǐ·Shìyúlǐ 儀禮士虞禮 [Post Burial Rites for Common Officer of Etiquette and Ceremonial Book] that “qú zài nán 朐在南.” (Crooked dried meat was placed at the south part.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 wrote in his Yílǐzhùshū 儀禮註 疏 [Notes to Yílǐ] that “qú, fǔ jí gān ròu zhī qū yě 朐，脯及乾肉之屈也.” (Qú 朐 means crooked dried meat.) Below are some examples of the third type, that is, monosyllables with new written forms and sounds coined on the basis of existing characters. In oracle inscriptions, both lièhuò 獵獲 and fúhuò 俘獲 were written as zhī 隻, with the meaning of capture. During the Zhou and the Qin dynasties, two words appeared as follows. The first one is huò 獲 (to capture wild animals). As recorded in Shuōwén·Quǎnbù 説文犬部 [Quan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it

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is written that “huò, liè suǒ huò yě 獲，獵所獲也.” (Huò 獲 means to capture wild animals.) According to the rhyme book Guǎngyùn 廣韻 [Various Rhymes], the sound of the word is a blend of hú 胡 and mài 麥. In Old Chinese phonetic system, it is in the initial group xiámǔ 匣母 and the final-group duó 鐸, with a second degree of mouth openness. The second one is huò 穫 (to reap), which is recorded in Shū·Jīnténg 書金縢 [The Story of Golden Casket of Book of Documents] that “qiū, dà shú, wèi huò, tiān dà léi diàn yǐ fēng, hé jìn yǎn 秋，大熟， 未穫，天大雷電以風，禾盡偃.” (In the autumn when it is the harvest time for great ripeness, yet there is no harvest. Heaven made great thunder and rain with wind, all the grain laid itself down.) According to the rhyme book Guǎngyùn 廣 韻 [Various Rhymes], the sound of the word is a blend of hú 胡 and guō 郭, in Old Chinese phonetic system, it is in the initial group xiámǔ 匣母 and the final group duó 鐸, with a first degree of mouth openness. Another example is lǐn 㐭 in oracle bone inscriptions, meaning granary. The word lǐn 㐭 is recorded in Shuōwén·Lǐnbù 説文㐭部 [Lin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “gǔ suǒ zhèn rù, zōng miào zīchéng, cānghuáng lǐn ér qǔ zhī, gù wèi zhī lǐn 穀所振入，宗廟粢盛，倉黄㐭而取之，故謂之㐭.” (Lǐn 㐭 refers to where grains are reserved. In ancestral sacrificial rituals, ripe grains are served in containers. Lǐn 㐭 is coined in the shape of granary.) The word lǐn 㐭 evolved into two written forms. One is lǐn 廩 (the granary), as in Shī·Zhōusòng·Fēngnián 詩周頌豐年 [Fung Neen of Odes of Chow of the Book of Songs], it is written that “yì yǒu gāolǐn 亦有高廩.” (There are high granaries.) In Máozhuàn 毛傅 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs], it reads that “lǐn, suǒ yǐ cáng zī shèng zhī suì yě 廩，所以藏粢盛之穗也.” (lǐn 廩 refers to where grains are placed in sacrificial rituals. According to the rhyme book Guǎngyùn 廣韻 [Various Rhymes], the sound of the word is a blend of lì 力 and rěn 稔; in the Old Chinese phonetic system, it is in the initial group qīn 侵 and the finalgroup lái 來. The other is bǐng 稟 (grain-giving), as in Shuōwén·Lǐnbù 説文㐭 部 [Lin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “bǐng, cì gǔ yě 稟，賜穀也.” (Bǐng 稟 refers to grain-giving.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 annotated that“fán cì gǔ yuē bǐng, shòu cì yì yuē bǐng 凡賜穀曰稟，受賜亦曰稟.” (Bǐng 稟 means both granting and accepting grains.) According to the rhyme book Guǎngyùn 廣韻 [Various Rhymes], the sound of the word is a blend of bǐ 筆 and jǐn 錦, which is in the initial group qīn 侵 and the final-group bāng 幫 in Old Chinese phonetic system. The newly evolved words mentioned above have new extended meanings. 5.3 Newmonosyllabicwordsformedoutofexistingideographs Different from those of the above-mentioned type, words of the following type do not bear resemblance with the existing ones in meaning but only in form. Some examples are given as follows. The word ér 而 originally meant hair on one’s face. As recorded in Shuōwén·Érbù 説文 · 而部 [Er Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “ér, jiá máo yě 而，頰毛也.” (Ér 而 refers to hair on one’s face.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 85 noted that “jiá máo zhě, xū bù suǒ wèi rán xū zhī lèi ěr . . . gài ér wéi kǒushàng kǒuxià zhī zǒng míng, fēn zhī zé kǒushàng wéi zī, kǒuxià wéi xū.Xū běn yíxià zhī zhuānchēng, zī yú chéngjiāng yú jiárán jiē děi chēng xū頰毛者,《須部》所謂髯 須之類耳 . . . 蓋而爲口上口下之總名，分之則口上爲頾，口下爲須.須本頤 下之專稱，頾與承漿與頰髯皆得稱須.” (In Xu Group of Shuōwén, it says that jiámáo 頰毛 means hair on one’s face . . . it is a general term. To be more specific, moustache is named zī 頾, beard, or xū 須. Originally, xū 須 referred in particular to beard on one’s jaw. Zī 頾, moustache, chéngjiāng 承漿, beard, and jiárán 頰髯, whisker, could all be called xū 須.) In Old Chinese, ér 而 also acted as a second-person pronoun, as shown in the following example. Shī·Dàyǎ·Sāngróu 詩大雅桑柔 [Sang Yew of the Greater Odes of the Book of Songs] reads that “jiē ér péng yǒu, yǔ qǐ bù zhī ér zuò 嗟 爾朋友，予豈不知而作.” (All! friends, these lines, I know full well, will only wake your angry thoughts.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 noted in Shī 詩 [Book of Songs] that “ér, yóu rǔ yě而，猶女也.” (Ér 而 could mean you.) In addition, Ér 而 could also be an adverb, as in Mèngzǐ·Gàozǐxià 孟子告子下 [Master Kao II of Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “shùn qí zhì xiào yǐ, wǔ shí ér mù舜其至孝矣，五 十而慕.” (Shun was masterful in honoring his parents: at 50, he was still longing for them.) Zhu Xi 朱熹 annotated in Jí Zhuàn 集傳 [Commentaries on the Book of Songs] that “yán shùn yóu yuàn mù 言舜猶怨慕.” (Shun felt forlorn as he could not see his parents.) The word could also be a conjunction. For example, Mòzǐ·Shàngtóng 墨子 尚同 [Exalting Unity of the Works of Mozi] reads that “wén shàn ér bú shàn, jiē yǐ gào qí shàng 聞善而不善，皆以告其上.” (On hearing of good or evil, all must inform their superior.) The meanings of “ér 而” used as a pronoun, an adverb, or a conjunction are all quite different from the meaning of hair on one’s face. Take the pentatonic scale in Old Chinese music as an example. The first note is called gōng 宫, which is equivalent to the note one in modern music. Gōng 宫 originally meant palace, as noted in Shuōwén Miánbù 説文宀部 [Mian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], and was borrowed to refer to the first note. The second note is shāng 商, which is equivalent to the note two in modern music. Shāng 商 originally meant to assess, evaluate. It is written in Shuōwén·Nèbù 説 文㕯部 [Ne Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “shāng, yóu wài zhī nèi yě 商，由外知内也.” (Shāng 商 originally meant to get to know the inside from the outside.) The third note is jué 角, which is equivalent to the note three in modern music. According to Shuōwén·Juébù 説文角部 [Jue Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], the character meant animal horn. The fourth note is zhĭ 徵, which is equivalent to the note five in modern music. According to Shuōwén·Rénbù 説文壬部 [Ren Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], the character zhĭ 徵 originally meant to summon. The fifth note is yǔ 羽, which is equivalent to the note six in modern music. The character yǔ 羽 originally meant feathers according to Shuōwén·Yǔbù 説文羽部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters]. The above five characters are borrowed to signify the musical notes, with their original meanings irrelevant to the context.

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The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese

Notes  1 In Shuōwénxīnfù 説文新附 [New Added Words to Origin of Chinese Characters] by Xu Xuan 徐鉉 of the early Song dynasty records 402 characters, all the characters were from different versions of classics and in popular use at that time, but the number was far greater than that in reality.  2 See annotations quoted from Cao Shicheng 曹詩成, Study on vegetables and plants in Shījīng (詩經)中蔬菜植物考, in Study on crop names in Annotations to “The Book of Songs” by Mao Heng 毛詩穀名考 by Qi Sihe 齊思和, which was quoted from Exploration and Investigation into Chinese History 中國史探研.  3 In the late 1950s, silk pieces, ribbons, and threads were unearthed at the Qianshanyang site in Wuxing County, Zhejiang Province, China. Their raw materials are all silk from common silkworms, which is the earliest silk fabric in China, dating back to 4,000– 5,000 years ago. See report on the first and second excavation of Qianshanyang site in Wuxing 《吳興錢山漾遺址第一二次發掘報告》 in Acta Archaeologica Sinica, volume 2, 1960.  4 In Miǎnkǎo 《冕考》, Study on Caps of Xiāngdǎngtúkǎo 《鄉黨圖考》 [Studies on Townsmen with Charts] by Jiang Yong 江永 in the Qing dynasty, it reads that “gǔ bù fú èr chǐ èr cùn, dāng jīn yī chǐ sān cùn qī fēn bàn. Ruò róng sān shí shēng zhī lǚ èr qiān sì bǎi, zé jīn chǐ yī fēn zhī dì jī róng yī shí bā lǚ, cǐ bì bù néng wéi zhě yě. 古布幅二尺 二寸，當今一尺三寸七分半. 若容三十升之縷二千四百, 則今尺一分之地幾容一 十八縷, 此必不能爲者也.” (The width of ancient cloth was 2.2 chĭ 尺, approximately 43.3 cm, while that of today is 1.37 chĭ 尺, approximately 27 cm. If 30 shēng 升 cloth had contained 2,400 strands in ancient times, one fēn 分 is approximately 3 mm of cloth and would have 18 strands in accordance with today’s measurement, which is definitely impossible.)  5 In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “lóng, dǎo hàn yù, lóng wén. 瓏，禱旱玉，龍文.” (Lóng 瓏 refers to a piece of jade with the shape or pattern of a dragon on it for praying against drought.)  6 In Zhāohún 招魂 (Summons of the Soul) in Chǔcí 《楚辞》 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “zuǎn zǔ qǐ gǎo, jié qí huáng xiē. 纂組綺縞，結琦璜些.” (Braids and ribbons, brocades, and satins are fastened on precious stones.) Hong Xingzu 洪興祖 added a note for it, saying, “qí, yù míng. 琦，玉名.” (Qí 琦 refers to the name of a kind of jade.)  7 In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “qiú, yù shēng yě. 球，玉聲也.” (Qiú 球 belongs to the initial of yù 玉.) Later on, it was quoted in Xìzhuàn by Xu Kai 徐鍇 as, “qiú, yù yě. 球，玉也.” (Qiú 球 means 玉 yù.) In Chángfā of Shāngsòng 商颂 in Shī 詩 [The Book of Poetry], it reads that “shòu xiǎo qiú dà qiú. 受小球大球.” (He received fine jades, small and big.) As Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Songs] interpreted, “qiú, yù. 球, 玉.” (Qiú 球 refers to yù 玉.)  8 In Shìqì 釋器 (Explaining Utensils) of ěryǎ 爾雅 (Close to Standard Language), it reads that “qiú, yù yě. 璆，玉也.” (Qiú 璆 means yù 玉.) In Yǔgòng 禹貢 (Tributes to Yu) of Shū 書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “jué gòng qiú, tiě, yín, lòu. 厥貢璆、鐡、 銀、鏤.” (The tributes offered include jade, iron, silver, and diamond.) In Kǒngzhuàn, it reads that “qiú, yù míng. 璆，玉名.” (Qiú 璆 refers to the name of a kind of jade.)  9 In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “yáo, yù zhī měi zhě. 瑶，玉之美者.” (Yáo 瑶 refers to fine jade.) It may refers to beautiful stones. For example, in Mùguā 木瓜 [Papaya] of Wèifēng 衛風 [The Odes of Wei] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Poetry], it reads that “bào zhī yǐ qióng yáo. 報之以瓊 瑶.” (And in return I gave him a lovely gem of yáo 瑶.) Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] annotated that “qióng yáo, měi yù. 瓊瑶，美玉.” (Qióng yáo 瓊瑶 refer to beautiful jades.) Lu Deming 陸德明, expert in ancient classics and characters in the Tang dynasty, quoted in Shìwén 釋文/經典釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics

The progress of monosyllabic words of Old Chinese 87

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and Canons] from Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese Characters] that “yáo, měi shí. 瑶，美 石.” (Yáo 瑶 means fine stones.) In Shìdì 釋地 [Explaining the Earth] of ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “dōng fāng zhī měi zhě, yǒu yī wú lǘ zhī xún yú qí yān. 東方之美者，有醫無閭 之珣玗琪焉.” (The most beautiful specialty in the east is a kind of jade called xúnyúqí 珣玗琪 in the mountain of Tiwulv.) In Dìnggōng wǔnián 定公五年 [The Fifth Year of Duke Ding’s Reign] of Zuǒzhuàn 左 傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “yáng hǔ jiīng yǐ yú fán liǎn, zhòng liáng huái fú yŭ. 陽虎將以璵璠斂，仲梁懷弗與.” (Yang Hu intended to adorn the corpse with the jade of yúfán 璵璠, but Zhongliang Huai refused to give it to him.) Du Yu 杜預 annotated that “yúfán, měi yù, jūn suǒ pèi. 璵璠，美 玉，君所佩.” (Yúfán 璵璠 refers to beautiful jade worn by the emperor.) In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “qióng, chì yù yě. 瓊，赤玉也.” (Qióng 瓊 refers red jade.) In Mùguā 木瓜 [Papaya] of Wèifēng 衛風 [The Odes of Wei] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Poetry], it reads that “bào zhī yǐ qióng jū. 報之以瓊琚.” (And in return I gave him a lovely gem of qióng 瓊.) In Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “qióng, yù zhī měi zhě. 瓊，玉之美者.” (Qióng 瓊 is a kind of beautiful jade.) In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zàn, sān yù èr shí yě. 瓚，三玉二石也.” (Zàn 瓚 refers to impure jade with 60 percent jade and 40 percent stone.) Xu Kai 徐鍇 noted in Xìzhuàn 繫傳 [Xu Kai’s Annotations on Shuōwén (Origin of Chinese Characters)], “wèi wǔ fēn zhī zhōng èr fēn shì shí. 謂 五分之中二分是石.” (It means that two-fifth of the jade is stone.) Zàn 瓚 is also served as ceremonial utensils to ladle alcohol and spray it during sacrifice. In Diǎnruì 典瑞 [Officers in Charge of Jade Wares] of Tiānguān 天官 [Officials in Charge of Astronomy] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “Zhēn guī yǐ zhēng shǒu, yǐ xù xiōng huāng. 珍圭以徵守，以恤凶荒.” (Zhēnguī 珍圭 will be carried to vassal sates suffered from severe drought to show the emperor’s condolence.) According to Du Zichun 杜子春, expert in Confucianism in the Eastern Han dynasty, “zhēn dàng wéi zhèn, shū yì huò wéi zhèn. 珍當爲鎮，書亦或爲鎮.” (Zhēn 珍 should be zhèn 鎮, its written form being zhèn 鎮, too.) In Shuōwén·Yùbù 説文玉部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “huán, huánguī, gōng suǒ zhí. 瓛，桓圭，公所執.” (Huán 瓛 or huánguī 桓圭, is held by princes or dukes.) Guowei Wang 王國維. Guāntángjílín 觀堂集林 [Collection of Ancient History and Philology by Wang Guowei, also known as Wang Guantang], volume 5, p. 220.

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Theprogressofpolysyllabic wordsofOldChinese

1 TheprogressofdisyllabicwordsinOldChinese The progress of Chinese lexicon is characterized by a shift from monosyllabic to disyllabic words, which was already present in Old Chinese lexicon. There were few disyllabic nouns in oracle bone inscriptions. During the Zhou and Qin dynasties, Chinese lexicon was dominantly monosyllable, with a considerable proportion of disyllabic words. Take Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects] as an example. Among the total number of more than 1,700 words there are more than 200 disyllables except proper names and function words, making up about 15% of the total numbers. There are about 900 disyllables in Shījīng 詩经 [The Book of Songs], taking up about 25% of the total 3,400 words. In Lǚshìchūnqiū 吕氏春秋 [Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals] Or [Lv Shi Chun Qiu], the number of disyllabic words rose to 2,0171 words. During the Han dynasty, the shift from monosyllables to disyllables was more pronounced; more than 2,300 disyllabic words were found in Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance; translated by Joseph Needham].2 There appeared 1,690 disyllabic words in the dictionary Shuōwén 説文 compiled by Xu Shen 許慎. The majority of new coins were monosyllables with extended meanings. However, the progress of monosyllabic words was limited by the phonologic features; the prevalence of monosyllables gave rise to an excess of homophones or homonyms, creating semantic complexity and inhibiting social communication. Under such circumstances, there happened naturally the shift from monosyllables to disyllables in Old Chinese language. As said in Zhèngmíng 正名 [Rectifying Names] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi] that “dān zúyǐ yù zé dān, dān bù zúyǐ yù zé jiān. Dān yú jiān wúsuǒ xiāngbì zé gòng 單足以喻則單，單不足以 喻則兼.單與兼無所相避則共.” (Where a single name is sufficient to express the meaning, a single name should be used; where a single name is not sufficient to express the meaning, a compound name should be used. Where there is no conflict between the single name and the compound name, they may be used interchangeably to refer to the same thing as occasion demands.) Chinese phonetic rhythm requires pairing; therefore most polysyllabic words are disyllabic. Among them, a very small number are single-morphemed words formed in the repetition of one syllable; the majority are double-morphemed DOI: 10.4324/9781003365556-3

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

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disyllabic compounds formed by certain grammatical rules. The feature could be seen in the following three texts. Text one: Zǐ yuē: “wèi mìng, bìchén cǎochuàng zhī, shìshū tǎolùn zhī, xíngrén zǐyǔ xiūshì zhī, dōnglǐ zǐchǎn rùnsè zhī.” (Lúnyŭ Xiànwèn) 子曰：“爲命，裨諶 草創之，世叔討論之，行人子羽脩飾之，東里子産潤色之.”（論語 憲問）. (The Master said, “In preparing the governmental notifications, Pi Shin first made the rough draft; She-shuh examined and discussed its contents; Tsze-yu, the manager of Foreign intercourse, then improved and polished it; and, finally, Tsze-ch‘an of Tungle gave it the proper softness and finish” [Confucian Analects]). Text two: Qínmùgōng, jiān jué wǒhǎo, fá wǒ bǎo chéng, tiǎnmiè wǒ fèi huá, sànlí wǒ xiōngdì, rǎoluàn wǒ tóngméng, qīngfù wǒ guójiā . . . kānggōng, wǒ zhī zìchū, yòu yù quējiǎn wǒ gōngshì， qīngfù wǒ shèjì, shuài wǒ máozéi, yǐlái dàngyáo wǒ biānjiāng, wǒ shì yǐ yǒu lìnghú zhī yì (Zuǒzhuàn Chénggōng shísānnián) 〔秦 穆公〕奸絶我好，伐我保城，殄滅我費滑，散離我兄弟，撓亂我同盟，傾 覆我國家 . . . 康公，我之自出，又欲缺翦我公室，傾覆我社稷，帥我蝥賊， 以來蕩摇我邊疆，我是以有令狐之役.（左傳 成公十三年）(Lord Mu of Qin cut us off from our allies and friends, attacked our city walls and fortresses, eliminated our domain of Hua, scattered and drove away our brothers, brought about strife and chaos among our covenant partners, and threatened to topple our domain and patrimony . . . Lord Kang was of our Jin extraction, yet he wished to disrupt and ruin our lord’s house and to overturn the altars of our domain. He led noxious vermin from our line to destabilize our borders; that is why we had the Linghu campaign. [“The Year 13 in Lord Cheng’s Reign (578 BCE)” of the Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals]) Text three: Guó zhī jiāngwáng, qí jūn tānmào bìxié yínyì huāngdài, cūhuì bàonüè; qízhèng xīngzào, xīnxiāng bùdēng; qíxíng jiǎowū, bǎixìng xiéèr; míngshén bùjuān, ér mín yǒu yuǎnzhì. Mínshén yuàntòng, wúsuǒ yīhuái, gù shén yì wǎng yān. (Guóyǔ Zhōuyǔshàng) 國之將亡，其君貪冒辟邪淫佚荒怠，麤穢 暴虐；其政腥臊，馨香不登；其刑矯誣，百姓攜貳；明神不蠲，而民有 遠志.民神怨痛，無所依懷，故神亦往焉.（國語周語上）(When the state is about to perish, the king would be greedy in ambition, perfunctory in state affairs, tyrant in governing. The country’s political affairs would be messy, and no talents would stay. Its law would be in injustice, the people would no longer be united. Gods we worship never answer our prayer, but people have great aspirations. Both the mortal and the immortal bear grievances without any comfort in heart, so Divinity would no longer stay. [Discourses of Zhou I, Discourses of the States].) In text one, there are ten disyllabic words among the total 18 words, including 裨諶 bìchén (a person’s name), 草創 cǎochuàng (write a draft), 世叔 shìshū (a person’s name), 討論 tǎolùn (discuss), 行人 xíngrén (travellors), 子羽 zǐyǔ (a person’s name), 修飾 xiūshì (decorate), 東里 dōnglǐ (eastern county), 子産 zǐchǎn (a person’s name), and 潤色 rùnsè (polish). In text two, there are about 20 disyllabic words among the total 45 words, namely, 奸絶 jiānjué (cut off), 保城 bǎochéng (safeguard the city), 殄滅 tiǎnmiè (demolish), 費滑 fèihuá (a place’s name), 散離 sànlí (drive apart), 兄弟 xiōngdì (brothers), 撓亂 rǎoluàn (disrupt), 同盟 tóngméng (allies), 傾覆 qīngfù (topple), 國家 guójiā (state, country), 康公

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kānggōng (Lord Kang), 闕翦 juéjiǎn (remove), 公室 gōngshì (court, offices of governance), 社稷 shèjì (sovereignty, state), 蝥賊 máozéi (spiteful thieves), 蕩 摇 dàngyáo (destabilize), 邊疆 biānjiāng (border), 是以 shìyǐ (therefore), and 令 狐 lìnghú (a surname). However, there are 14 disyllabic words among the total 43 words in text three. Namely, 貪冒 tānmào (be greedy), 辟邪 bìxié (be evil), 淫 佚 yínyì (be corrupted), 荒怠 huāngdài (be lazy and idle), 麤穢 cūhuì (be filthy), 暴虐 bàonüè (be tyrannical), 腥臊 xīngzào (dirty and corrupted), 馨香 xīnxiāng (fragrance), 矯誣 jiǎowū (unjust), 百姓 bǎixìng (common folks), 攜貳 xiéèr (disunited), 明神 míngshén (wise deities), 怨痛 yuàntòng (bear resentment), and 依懷 yīhuái (feel secure and comfortable inside). Although the majority of Old Chinese sentences do not include so many disyllabic words as the above three texts, the polysyllabic tendency of words seems to be the visible case. The disyllabic words in Old Chinese are not only abundant in number but also rich in content with various part of speech. Some examples are given as follows: Examples of nouns are bǎixìng 百姓 (common people), bīngchē 兵車 (military chariot), cānggēng 倉庚 (black-naped oriole), cāngtiān 蒼天 (heaven), chóuchóu 仇 讎 (enemy), dàolù 道路 (path), fūzǐ 夫子 (man, husband, pedant), gùjiù 故舊 (old friends), guójiā 國家 (state), húliǎn 瑚璉 (vessels of grain at ancestral temple), jiāngtǔ 疆土 (territory), límín 黎民 (the multitude), língyǔ 囹圄 (prison), péngyǒu 朋友 (friends), pǐfū 匹夫 (ordinary man), tiānzǐ 天子 (emperor, the son of heaven), yǒusī 有司 (official), and yuānyāng 鴛鴦 (mandarin duck). Examples of verbs are báshè 跋涉 (trek), bǎozhàng 保障 (assure), bēnzǒu 奔走 (rush about), shěnmiǎn 沈湎 (indulge), chíqū 馳驅 (gallop), chūnà 出納 (pay and receive), diānfù 顛覆 (subvert), jiàohuì 教誨 (instruct), jīngyíng 經營 (operate), jùliǎn 聚斂 (amass wealth by heavy taxation), kèlòu 刻鏤 (carve), lùlì 勠力 (pool efforts), qiānyán 遷延 (delay), tǎolùn 討論 (discuss), xiūshì 修飾 (decorate), xuānhuá 喧嘩 (clamor), zhēngfá 征伐(go on a punitive expedition), and zhùlì竚立 (stand for a long time). Examples of adjectives are cōngmíng 聰明 (smart), cùjí 踧踖 (mincing), dānhòu 單厚 (honest-sincere), gōngjìng 恭敬 (revered), huāngtáng 荒唐 (absurd), láokǔ 勞苦(hard work), lìliè 栗烈 (cold), pīxiǎn 丕顯 (wise), qúláo 劬勞 (tired), shuòdà 碩大 (gigantic), nuòruò 懦弱 (cowardly), wǎnyuē 婉約 (graceful and restrained), yāyì 厭浥 (damp), yǎotiǎo 窈窕 (gentle and graceful), yǒuhè 有赫 (radiant), zhāomíng 昭明 (bright), zhèngzhí 正直 (upright), and zìsuī 恣睢 (self-indulged). Morphologically speaking, disyllabic compounds can be divided into three types: mono-morphemic, reduplicates, and synthetic, which are discussed in the following sections.

2 Mono-morphemicdisyllables Mono-morphemic disyllables include the vast majority of the so-called liánmián 聯綿 words,3 those of a single morpheme but with two syllables;neither syllable

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese 91 can be used independently. As earlier scholars explained, “a liánmián 聯綿 word consists of two sounds phonologically, but functions as one unbreakable semantic unit.” In oracle bone inscriptions, fixed mono-morphemic disyllables were barely found. There were several hundreds of them in the pre-Qin classics, and they are of two types: rhyming/alliterated ones and non-rhyming/alliterated ones. Normally one word has several ideographs. 2.1 Alliteratedorrhymingmono-morphemicdisyllables These words contain three types: alliterated, rhyming, or both. Some examples of alliterated disyllables are given as follows. Bìbō/bìfā 觱發 is also written as bì bié 㓖冹. The two characters are alliterated with the initial of bāng 幇, meaning chilly wind. For example, in Shī Bīnfēng Qīyuè 詩豳風七月 [The Seventh Month, the Odes of Pin of the Book of Songs], it is written that “yī zhī rì bìbō. 一之日觱發.” (Our first month’s days, the wind blows cold and shrill.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is written that “bìfā, fēng hán yě. 觱發，風寒也.” (Bìfā觱發 means cold wind.) In Shuōwén Aĭbù 説文 部 [Ai Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “bì, fēng hán yě. Fā, yī zhī rì bìfā. 㓖，風寒也.冹，一之日㓖冹.” (Bì is cold wind. Fā is cold wind in one day.) Chíchú 踟躕, also written as chóu chú 躊躇 or 躑躅, means wandering or hesitation. The finals of the two characters are similar to that of dìng 定. In Hánshī 韓 詩 [The Book of Songs compiled by Master Han], it is written as chóu chú 躊躇. While it is written as chíchú 歭䠧 in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], one line in the poem Jìngnǚ 静女, Bèifēng 邶風 of shī jīng 詩经 [The Book of Songs] reads “ài ér bùjiàn, sāoshǒu chíchú. 愛而不見，搔首踟躕.” (I love her but do not see her; I scratch my head and walk hesitatingly.) Huǎnghū 恍惚 is also written as huānghū 荒忽 or huānghū 慌忽, meaning the scenery in the distance barely visible. The finals of the two characters are similar to that of xiǎo 曉. It is written as huānghū 慌忽 in Wénxuǎn 文選 [Selections of Refined Literature]. In the essay Zhōngxiào 忠孝 [Loyalty and Filial Piety] of the Works of Han Fei, a line reads “huǎnghū zhīyán, tiándàn zhīxué, tiānxià zhī huòshù yě 恍惚之言，恬淡之學，天下之惑術也.” (Wherefore the teaching of vagueness and illusion and the philosophy of peace and quietude are nothing but bewildering crafts in the world.) In the poem Xiāngfūrén 湘夫人 [The Lady of the Xiang] of Jiǔgē 九歌 [Nine Songs] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of Chu], a line reads “huǎng hū xī yuǎn wàng, guān liú xī chán yuán 荒忽兮遠望，觀流兮潺湲.” (As with trembling heart I gaze on the distance, over the swiftly moving waters.) Mímàn 靡曼 has the meaning of glorious, delicate and attractive. The finals of the two characters are similar to that of míng 明. In the essay Běnsè 本色 [Natural Beauty] of Lǚshìchūnqiū 吕氏春秋 [Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals], a line reads “mímàn hàochǐ 靡曼皓齒.” (The beauty with white teeth is attracting.) Gao You 髙誘 commented that “靡曼，細理弱肌美色也 mímàn, xìlǐ ruòjī měisè yě.” (Mímàn 靡曼 means the exquisite beauty with delicate skin.) One sentence in the essay Qīfā 七發 [Seven Conversations] written by the Han scholar Mei Cheng

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The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

枚乘 reads “jīn tàizǐ fūsè mímàn, sìzhī wěisuí, jīngǔ tǐngjiě. 今太子膚色靡曼， 四支委隨，筋骨挺解.” (Now the prince looks delicate and womanish, physically lame, his muscles and bones rather powerless.) As for rhyming disyllables, chóumóu 綢繆 means binding tightly or be sentimentally attached and the two characters are in the group of final yōu 幽. It reads in Shī Tángfēng Chóumóu 詩 唐風 綢繆 [Chow-mow, The Odes of Tang of the Book of Songs) that “chóumóu shùxīn, sānxīng zàitiān 綢繆束薪，三星在天.” (Bound and round the faggots I have bound, and the Heart in heaven shines clear.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “chóumóu, yóu chánmiàn yě. 綢繆，猶纏綿也.” (Chóumóu 綢繆 means be too sentimentally attached to be separated.) Fúshū 扶疏 (踈) means trees growing luxuriant. The finals of the two chracters are in the group yú魚. It is written in Hánfēizǐ Yángquán 韓非子 揚權 [Wielding the Sceptre, The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu] that “wéi rénjūn zhě, shùpī qímù, wúshǐ mùzhī fúshū； mùzhī fúshū, jiāngsāi gōnglǘ. 爲人君者，數披其 木，毋使木枝扶疏；木枝扶疏，將塞公閭.” (The ruler of men should often nourish the tree but never allow its branches to flourish. Luxuriant branches will block the road of sovereign.) In Hànshū Liúxiàngzhuàn 漢書 劉向傳 [The Biographies of Liu Xiang, the Book of Former Han], it reads that “qí zǐzhù shēng zhīyè， fúshū shàng chūwū. 其梓柱生枝葉，扶疏上出屋.” (The pillars of catalpa in the house grow luxuriant leaves and branches that reach out of the house.) Xiāoyáo 消摇, also written as 逍遥, means a leisurely state. The finals of the two characters are in the group xiāo 宵. It reads in Lǐjì Tángōngshàng 禮記 檀弓上 [Than Kung I, The Book of Rites] that “kǒngzǐ zǎozuò, fùshǒu yèzhàng, xiāoyáo yúmén. 孔子蚤作，負手曳杖，消摇於門.” (Confucius rose early [one day], and with his hands behinds him, and trailing his staff, moved slowly about near the door.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Interpretation] by Lu Deming 陸德明, it is written that “xiāoyáo běn yòuzuò xiāoyáo. 消摇本又作逍遥.” (Xiāoyáo 消摇 was originally written as 逍遥.) In Chǔcí Lísāo 楚辭離騒 [On Encountering Trouble, Poetry of the South], it reads that “yù yuànjí ér wú suǒ zhǐ xī， liáo fúyóu yǐ xiāoyáo. 欲遠 集而無所止兮，聊浮遊以逍遥.” (I wanted to go far away, but had nowhere to go to: where could I wander to look for amusement.) Zhūrú 侏儒 or 朱儒 means dwarf. The finals of the two characters are in the group hóu 侯. As in Guóyǔ Jìnyǔsì 國語 晉語四 [Discourses of Jin IV, The Discourses of the States], it reads that “zhūrú bùkě shǐyuán. 侏儒不可使援.” (It is not fit to have a dwarf as an envoy.) In Zuǒzhuàn Xiāng gōng sìnián 左傳襄公四年 [The Year Four in Lord Xiang’s Reign (569 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “wǒjūn xiǎozǐ, zhūrú shì shǐ, zhūrú zhūrú, shǐwǒ bàiyú zhū. 我君小子，朱儒是使，朱儒朱儒，使我敗於邾.” (Our ruler, still a little boy, sends a midget as an envoy, that’s whom he sends. Midget, midget – You have brought about our defeat by Zhu.) Du Yu 杜預 commented that “zānghé duǎnxiǎo, gùyuē zhūrú. 臧紇短小，故曰侏儒.” (Zang He is short in stature and therefore called “a dwarf.”) The initials of the two characters qiǎnquǎn 繾綣 are in the group xī 溪, the finals are in the group hán 寒. The word means rounding tightly or be closely attached.

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese 93 As in the Shī Dàyǎ Mínláo 詩大雅 民勞 [Min Laou, Greater Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it reads that “wúcóng guǐsuí, yǐjǐn qiǎnquǎn. 無縱詭隨， 以謹繾綣.” (Let us give no indulgence to the wily and obsequious, in order to make the parasites careful.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “qiǎnquǎn, fǎn fù yě. 繾綣，反復也.” (Qiǎnquǎn 繾綣 means being closely attached to.) In Zuǒzhuàn Zhāogōng èrshíwǔnián 左傳 昭公二十五年 [The Year 25 of Lord Zhao’s Reign (517 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “qiǎnquǎn cónggōng, wútōng wàinèi. 繾綣從 公，無通外内.” (Follow our lord resolutely, and allow no association between insiders and outsiders.) Xiāoshāo 蠨蛸, also written as xiāoshāo 蠨峭, means long-legged spider. The initials of the two characters xiāoshāo 蠨蛸 are in the group xīn 心, the finals are in the group xiāo 宵. In Ěryǎ Shìchóng 爾雅 釋蟲 [Explaining Insects of Close to Standard Language], it reads that “xiāoshāo, chángqī. 蠨蛸，長踦.” (Xiāoshāo refers to the long-legged spider.) In Shī Bīnfēng Dōngshān 詩豳風東山 [Tung Shan, The Odes of Pin of the Book of Poetry], it reads that “xiāoshāo zàihù. 蠨 蛸在户.” (Their webs on our doors spiders weave.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “xiāoshāo, chángqī yě. 蠨蛸，長踦也.” (Xiāoshāo refers to the spider with long legs.) The initials of the two characters yōuyóu 優游 are in the group yǐng 影, the finals are in the group yōu 幽. The word means be leisurely and carefree. As in Shī Dàyǎ Juǎnē 詩大雅卷阿 [Kuene o, The Greater Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Poetry], it reads that “yōuyóu ěr xiū yǐ. 優游爾休矣.” (Full of satisfaction you rest.) In Lǐjì Rúxìng 禮記儒行 [The Conduct of the Scholar, The Book of Rites], it reads that “zhōngxìn zhīměi ， yōuyóu zhīfǎ. 忠信之美，優游之法.” (In the excellence of his heartedness and good faith, he acts under the law of a benign playfulness.) In Hànshū Dùqīnzhuàn 漢書杜欽傳 [The Biographies of Du Qin of the Book of Former Han], it is written that “yōuyóu bùshì yǐ shòuzhōng. 優游不仕 以壽終.” (Live leisurely without embarking on court career until the end of life.) Zhǎnzhuǎn 輾轉 is also written as zhǎnzhuǎn 展轉. The initials of the characters are in the group duān 端, whose finals are in the group hán 寒. The word means toss and turn in bed. As in Shī Zhōunán Guānjū 詩周南關雎 [Knan-ts’eu, the Odes of Chow and the South, the Book of Poetry], it is written tat “yōuzāi yōuzāi, zhǎnzhuǎn fǎncè. 悠哉悠哉，輾轉反側.” (Of longing thought, as when on restless bed, tossing about, one turns his fevered head.) In Chǔcí Jiǔtàn Xīxián 楚辭九歎惜賢 [Lament for the Worthy, Nine Laments, Poetry of the South], it reads that “yōuxīn zhǎnzhuǎn, chóufú yùxī. 憂心展轉，愁怫鬱兮.” (With careworn heart I toss and turn, afflicted with heavy sadness.) Wang Yi 王逸 commented that “zhǎn zhuǎn, bù wù mào. 展轉，不寤貌.” (Zhǎn zhuǎn 展轉 means being sleepless.) 2.2 Non-alliterated/rhymingmono-morphemicdisyllables Disyllabic words of this type have only one morpheme; the two syllables neither alliterate nor rhyme with each other. Some examples are given as follows.

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The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

Chángchǔ 萇楚 is also known as yángtáo 羊桃, referring to kiwifruit. It is recorded in Shuōwén Cǎobù 説文艸部 [Cao Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “cháng, chángchǔ, tiàoyì. Yī yuē yángtáo. 萇，萇楚，跳弋.一曰羊桃.” (Cháng 萇 or chángchǔ 萇楚 refers to kiwifruit, also called goat-peach.) In Shī Huìfēng Xíyǒuchángchǔ 詩檜風隰有萇楚 [Sih yew ch’ang-ts’oo, the Odes of Hui, the Book of Poetry], it reads that “xíyǒu chángchǔ, yīnuó qí zhī. 隰有萇楚，猗 儺其枝.” (Where the grounds are wet and low, there the trees of goat-peach grow, with their branches small and smooth.) Kēdòu 科斗, also written as 蝌斗, refers to the tadpole. In Ěryǎ Shìyú 爾雅 釋魚 [Explaining Fishes, Close to Standard Language], it reads that “kēdòu, huódōng 科斗，活東.” (Kēdòu 科斗 means tadpole.) Guo Pu 郭璞 noted that it was also called “蝦蟆子 hā má zǐ” (the cubs of the frog). In Zhuāngzǐ Qiūshuǐ 莊子秋水 [Autumn Floods, the Complete Works of Zhuangzi], it is recorded that “xuánhánxiè yú kēdòu, mò wú néngruò yě. 還虷蟹與科斗，莫吾能若也.” (I look around at the mosquito larvae and the crabs and tadpoles, and I see that none of them can match me.) Pāngtuó 滂沱 refers to heavy rain. It is recorded in Shī Xiǎoyǎ Jānjiānzhīshí 詩 小雅漸漸之石 [Tseen-tseen Che Shuh, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, the Book of Poetry] that “yuè lí yū bì, bǐ pāngtuó yǐ. 月離於畢，俾滂沱矣.” (The moon wades through the Hyads bright, foretelling heavier rain.) The word also means full of tears. In Shī Zhènfēng Zébēi 詩陳風澤陂 [Tsih po, the Odes of Ch’in, the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “yòu wéi tìlèi jiāoliú. Wùmèi wúwéi, tìsì pāngtuó. 又爲涕淚交流. 寤寐無爲，涕泗滂沱.” (In waking thought and nightly dreams, from every pore the water streams.） Quányú 權輿 means to begin. It is recorded in Ěryǎ Shìgǔ 爾雅釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words, Close to Standard Language] that“quányú, shǐyě. 權輿，始 也.”（Quányú 權輿 means the beginning.） In Shī Qínfēng Quányú 詩秦風權輿 [K’euen Yu, The Odes of Ts’in, the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “jīn yě měi shí wúyú, yūjiē hū, bùchéng quányú. 今也每食無餘，於嗟乎，不承權輿.” (But now at every frugal meal, there’s not a scrap to spare. Alas! Alas that this good man could not go on as he began!) In Dàdàilǐ Gàozhì 大戴禮誥志 [Decrees and Annals, Records of ritual matters by Dai the Elder], it is recorded that “yúxià zhīlì, zhèng jiànyú mèngchūn, yūshí bīngpàn fāzhé, bǎicǎo quányú. 虞夏之曆，正建 于孟春，於時冰泮發蟄，百草權輿.” (The first month of spring in the Yu-Xia calendar sees melting ice and growing herbs.) Some former scholars might overlook the features of mono-morphemic disyllabic words and understood them in a wrong literal way. Some misunderstandings are listed as follows. The finals of the two characters wàngyáng 望洋 are in the group yáng 陽. The word wàngyáng 望洋 means looking up. Some people misinterpret the word wàngyáng 望洋 as gaze at the ocean, which gives birth to the idiom wàngyáng xīngtàn 望洋興嘆, meaning lament one’s littleness before the vast ocean. In Zhuāngzǐ Qiūshuǐ 莊子秋水 [Autumn Floods, The Complete Works of Zhuangzi], it is recorded that “hébó shǐ xuán qímiànmù wàngyáng xiàngruò értàn. 河伯始旋

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

95

其面目望洋向若而歎.” (The Lord of the River began to wag his head and roll his eyes, peering far off in the direction of Ruo.) The finals of the two characters yóuyù 猶豫 are in the group yú 余. The word yóuyù 猶豫 means hesitate. In Yìfǔ 義府 [Book of Righteousness] written by Huang Sheng 黄生 of the Qing dynasty, it reads that “yóuyù, yóu róngyú yě. Róngyú zhě, xiánshì zhī mào; yóuyù zhě, chíyí zhī qíng. Zìběn wúyì, yǐ shēng qǔ zhī ěr. 猶豫，猶容與也.容與者，閒適之貌；猶豫者，遲疑之情.字本無義， 以聲取之爾.” (Yóuyù 猶豫 [to hesitate] is similar to róngyú 容與, a leisurely state. Either of the two characters does not convey sense but serve as a syllable.) Some scholars interpret the two characters respectively. Yan Zhitui 顔之推 of the Northern Qi dynasty wrote in Shū Zhèng 書證 [Text sources for the Family Instructions] of Yánshìjiāxùn 顔氏家訓 [The Family Instructions of Master Yan] that “《 shī zǐ》 yuē：‘wǔ chǐ quǎn wèi yóu.’《 shuì wén 》 yún，‘lǒng xī wèi quǎn zǐ wèi yóu.‘wú yǐwèi rén jiāng quǎn háng， quǎn hǎo yù zài rén qián， dài rén bú dé， yòu lái yíng hòu ， cǐnǎi yù zhī suǒ yǐwèi wèi dìng yě.gù wèi bú jué yuē yóu yù.huò yǐ 《ěr yǎ》 yuē： yóu rú lù， shàn dēng mù.yóu ， shòu míng yě.jì wén rén shēng， nǎi yù yuán mù， rú cǐshàng xià， gù chēng yóu yù. 《尸 子》曰： ‘ 五尺犬爲猶.’《説文》云， ‘ 隴西謂犬子爲猶.‘吾以爲人將犬行, 犬好豫在人前，待人不得，又來迎候，此乃豫之所以爲未定也.故謂不决曰 猶豫.或以《爾雅》曰：猶如鹿，善登木.猶，獸名也.既聞人聲，乃豫緣木, 如此上下，故稱猶豫.” (In the Works of Master Shi, it says that, “Dogs with the length of five chǐ 尺 [approximately 84.75 cm] are named yóu 猶.” According to Shuōwén, “In the Lǒngxī county, little puppy is called yóu 猶.” I agree that when a person walks his dog, the dog would usually run and wait in front and would run back to its owner if it has been waiting for a while. That’s how yù 豫 came to mean wavering between two sides. 猶豫 means hesitate. According to Ěryǎ, yóu 猶 is a creature similar to deer, good at climbing trees. Yóu 猶 refers to a kind of beast, which would climb the tree up and down at the sound of human – this is the source of yóuyù 猶豫 meaning hesitate or waver.) Literally, the word is taken as a compound. In Chǔcí Lísāo 楚辭離騒 [On Encountering Trouble, Poetry of the South], it is recorded that “xīn yóuyù ér húyí xī. 心猶豫而狐疑兮.” (My mind was irresolute and havering.) Hone Xingzu 洪興祖 quoted the explanation in Yánshìjiāxùn in his supplementary annotation for yóu yù 猶豫. Here is another example in Hànshū Gāohòujì 漢書高后紀 [Annals of Empress Lü Zhi (regent 195–180 BCE), The Book of Former Han], which reads that “jì yóu yù, wèi yǒu jué. 計猶豫，未有决.” (He was still hesitating, without having made any decision.) Yan Shigu 顔師古 also quoted from Yánshìjiāxùn in his annotation. However, certain liánmián words could be separated in use or either of the two characters could be understood separately. Some examples are given as follows. Look at the two words guǒluǒ 果臝 and guǒluǒ 果蠃. The former refers to Mongolian snakegourd, a perennial herb with round drooping orange-yellow fruits; the latter is known as xìyāofēng 細腰蜂 (thread-waisted wasp’ with a round drooping belly). The character guǒ 果 of the two words is in the group Initial gē 歌 and means round and dropping. As noted in Shìcǎo 釋草 [Explaining Grass]

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The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

of Ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language] or [The Literary Expositor], which reads that “guǒluǒ zhīshí guālóu. 果臝之實栝樓. (Guǒluǒ 果臝 bears the fruit guālóu.) While in Shìchóng Ěryǎ 釋蟲爾雅 [Explaining Insects, Close to Standard Language], it is written that “guǒluǒ púlú. 果蠃蒲盧.” (Guǒluǒ 果蠃 is also called púlú.) Wang Guowei 王國維 noted that “guǒluǒ 果臝 and guǒluǒ 果蠃, called guǒluǒ 果蓏 in Záguà 雜卦 [Mingled Hexagrams] of yì 易 [The Book of Changes], had a round and drooping look. Fruits, either on trees or on land, are all round and drooping and are thereby named guǒluǒ 果蓏. Thread-waisted wasp is called guǒluǒ 果蠃 because its belly is round and drooping like the fruit guǒluǒ 果蓏.”4 The meanings of the two liánmián words are associated with the first syllable (character) guǒ 果. Ē nuó 阿儺 (難), also written as 猗儺, means beautiful or flourishing. The finals of the two characters are in the group gē 歌. It is recorded in Shī Xiǎoyǎ Xísāng 詩 小雅隰桑 [Sih Sang, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, the Book of Poetry] that “xísāng yǒuē, qíyè yǒunuó. 隰桑有阿，其葉有難.” (Where lies the ground both wet and low, the mulberry trees in beauty grow.) In Máo Zhuàn [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “ērán měimào, nuórán shèngmào. 阿然美貌，難然盛貌.” (Both ē and nuó refer to attractive, flourishing looks.) In Huìfēng Xíyǒuchángchǔ 檜風隰有萇楚 [Sih yew ch’ang-ts’oo, the Odes of Kewi], it is recorded that “xíyǒu chángchǔ, yīnuó qízhī. 隰有萇楚，猗儺其枝. (Where the grounds are wet and low, there the trees of goat-peach grow, with their branches small and smooth.) In Shī Shāngsòng Nà 詩商頌那 [Nuó Alas!, Sacrificial Odes of Shang, the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “ēyú nuóyú, zhìwǒ táogǔ. 猗與那與，置我鞉鼓.” (O grand! the drums, both large and for the hand, complete in number, here in order stand.) Ma Ruichen 馬瑞辰 noted in Tōngshì 通釋 [General Comments of the Book of Documents] that ē 猗 and nuó 那, usually written as yīnuó 猗儺 or ā nán 阿難, are in the same rhyme group. 猗儺 means beautiful flourishing greens; ē nuó 猗那 means grand or flourishing music. Both words carry the same connotation.” The initial of yǎotiǎo 窈窕 is in the group yōu 幽; the finals are in the group xiāo 宵. The two characters yǎotiǎo 窈窕 could be taken as rhyming with each other, which means good attributes of people or the leisurely state. In Shī Zhōunán Guānjū 詩周南關雎 [Knan-ts’eu, the Odes of Chow and the South of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “yǎotiǎo shūnǚ, jūnzǐ hǎoqiú. 窈窕淑女，君子好逑. (From them our thoughts to that young lady go, modest and virtuous, loth herself to show. Where could be found, to share our prince’s state, so fair, so virtuous, and so fit a mate?) In Máo Zhuàn [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “yǎotiǎo, yōuxián yě. 窈窕，幽閒也.” (Yǎotiǎo 窈窕 refers to be leisurely and carefree.) Yǎotiǎo 窈窕 may be separated as two single independent units by some ancient scholars. For example, in Fāngyán juàn èr 方言卷二 [On Dialects, Book Two], Yang Xiong 揚雄 of the Han dynasty explained that “qínjìn zhī jiān, měixīn wéi yǎo, měizhuàng yuē tiǎo. 秦晉之間，美心爲窈，美狀曰窕.” (In the Qin and Jin dialects, yǎo 窈 meant virtues, and tiǎo 窕 means beautiful looks.) It could be seen that yǎo 窈 and tiǎo 窕 are similar in sense but with subtle differences. It could be seen that the birth of liánmián words mainly comes from the changes of phonetics: the splitting of monosyllabic words into disyllabic words,

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese 97 the combination of disyllables into monosyllables, the transformation of one disyllabic word into another disyllable. Terms concerning sound-shift in the past such as héshēng 合聲, jídú 疾讀, chángyán 長言, yǔzhuǎn 語轉, zhuǎnyǔ 轉語, yīnzhuǎn 音轉, shēngzhuǎn 聲轉, zhuǎnshēng 轉聲 and yīshēng zhīzhuǎn 一聲之轉 may be associated with the formation and transformation of liánmián words. Some examples are given as follows. In Ěryǎ Shìtiān 爾雅釋天 [Explaining Heaven, Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “fúyáo wèizhī biāo. 扶摇謂之猋.” (Fúyáo 扶摇 is blended into biāo 猋.) In Guǎngyǎ Shìgǔsì 廣雅釋詁四 [Explaining the Old Words IV, Broadened Erya], it is recorded that “biāo, fēng yě. 飆，風也.” (Biāo 飆 means wind.) Wang Niansun 王念孫 further explained that “biāo zhě, fú yáo zhī hé shēng yě. 飆 者，扶摇之合聲也.” (The sound biāo 飆 is a blend of fú 扶 and yáo 摇.) In Ěryǎ Shìcǎo 爾雅釋草 [Explaining Plants, Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “guǒluǒ zhī shí guālóu. 果臝之實栝樓.” (Guǒluǒ 果臝, mongolian snakegourd, bears the fruit guālóu 栝樓.) As Cheng Yaotian 程瑶田 noted in Guǒluǒ zhuǎnyǔ jì 果臝轉語記 [The Sound-shift of Guǒluǒ], it reads that “guālóu, guǒluǒ zhuǎn shēng, jídú zhī zé guā yě. 栝樓，果臝轉聲，疾讀之則 瓜也.” (Guālóu 栝樓 is a shift of the sound guǒluǒ 果臝, which shifts to guā 瓜 in fast reading.) In Ěryǎ Shìgǔ 爾雅釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words, Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “quányú, shǐ yě. 權輿，始也.” (Quányú 權輿 means beginning.) Wang Guowei 王國維 noted in Ěryǎ cǎomù chóngyú niǎoshòu míng shìlì xià [Explaining the Names of Grass, Trees, Insects, Fishes, Birds and Beasts in Close to Standard Language Part II] that “fán sèhuáng zhě wèizhī quán, chángyán zhī zé wéi quányú yǐ. 凡色黄者謂之權，長言之則爲權輿矣.” (Things of yellow color are named quán 權; in slow, prolonged reading, the sound shifts to quányú 權輿.) In Volume 12 of Fāngyán 方言 [Regional Dialects], Yang Xiong 揚雄 of the Han dynasty noted that “zhúyú zhě, zhūrú, yǔ zhī zhuǎn yě. 蠾蝓者，侏儒，語 之轉也.” (Zhúyú 蠾蝓 is a shift of the sound zhūrú 侏儒 [midget].) In Shuōwén Zhuībù 説文隹部 [Zhui (Birds) Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that the bird qiān雃could also be called shíniǎo 石鳥, yōngqú 雝𪆫 or jīngliè 精列. Duan Yucai 段玉裁 noted that jīngliè 精列 is a sound shift of jǐ lìng 脊令, which is another name of the bird. In Ěryǎ Shìchóng 爾雅釋蟲 [Close to Standard Language of Explaining Insects], it is recorded that “měng, mièměng yě. 蠓，蠛蠓也.” (Měng 蠓 refers to midge, also called mièměng 蠛蠓.) Wang Guowei 王國維 noted in Ěryǎ cǎomù chóngyú niǎoshòu míng shìlì xià [Explaining the Names of Grass, Trees, Insects, Fishes, Birds and Beasts in Close to Standard Language Part II], that“chóng zhī xiǎozhě yì yuē mièměng, niǎo zhī xiǎozhě yì yuē miánmán, dài jiē wēizì zhī yīnzhuǎn. 蟲 之小者亦曰蠛蠓，鳥之小者亦曰綿蠻，殆皆微字之音轉.”（ Insects of small size are also named mièměng 蠛蠓; small birds are named miánmán 綿蠻, a subtle sound-shift of mièměng 綿蠻.） In Ěryǎ Shìniǎo 爾雅釋鳥 [Explaining Birds, Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “wúshǔ, yíyóu. 鼯鼠，夷由.” (Wúshǔ 鼯鼠, flying squirrel, is also named yí yóu 夷由.)

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The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

In Shìchóng 釋蟲 [Explaining Insects], it is recorded that “yǐnyǎn, rù ěr. 螾𧍢, 入耳.) (Yǐnyǎn 螾𧍢 is the insect which can get into people’s ears.) In Shìyú 釋 魚 [Explaining Fishes], it is recorded that “fùyíng, éxián. 鮒贏，蛾娴.” (Fùyíng 鮒贏 (carp) is also called éxián 蛾娴.) In Ěryǎ Chóngmíng jīnshì 爾雅蟲名今釋 [Explanations of Insects’ Names in Close to Standard Language], Liu Shipei 劉 師培 noted that yíyóu 夷由, yíyú 螾𧍢, and yǐnyǎn 螔蝓 are all sound-shifts; their ideographs resemble the look of the animal petaurist, which looks like a mouse and a bird, flying and walking. Could it also be called yíyóu 夷猶? Yíyóu (wú shǔ), yǐnyǎn, yíyú jiē shēngzhuǎn, jiē zhuàng qíxíng. Yíyóu zhī yán yíyóu, shǔniǎo zhī jiān, fēi ér yòuzǒu, yíyóu zhī wèi yú? 夷由（鼯鼠）、螾𧍢，螔蝓皆聲轉，皆 狀其形.夷由之言夷猶， 鼠鳥之間，飛而又走，夷猶之謂與？” (The flying squirrels, the worms and the slugs, all transformation words and sound like their own shapes. In the words of yíyóu 夷由 called yíyóu 夷猶, they are among mice and birds, flying, and walking. Could it be called yíyóu 夷猶 Yi that has the features?) In Ěryǎ Shìchóng 爾雅釋蟲 [Explaining Insects, Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “guǒluǒ, púlú. 果蠃，蒲盧.” (Guǒluǒ 果蠃 or púlú 蒲 盧 refers to the thread-waisted wasp.) As Cheng Yaotian 程瑶田 noted in Guǒluǒ zhuǎnyǔ jì 果臝轉語記 [The Sound-shift of Guǒluǒ] that “púlú yì guǒluǒuzhī zhuǎnshēng yě. 蒲盧亦果臝之轉聲也.” (Púlú 蒲盧 is also the sound-shift of guǒluǒ 果臝.) In Zuǒzhuàn Wéngōng shíbānián 左傳文公十八年 [Year 18 in Lord Wen’s Reign (609 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is recorded that “wèi zhī tāotiè. 謂之饕餮.” ([The creature] is called tāotiè 饕餮, a legendary best said to have enormous appetite.) Fu Qian 服虔, Jia Kui 賈逵 and Du Yu 杜預 noted that “tāncái wéi tāo, tānshí wéi tiè. 貪財爲饕，貪食爲餮.” (Tāo 饕 means greedy for wealth; tiè 餮 means be avaricious for food.) Wang Niansun 王念孫 wrote in Guǎngyǎ shūzhèng 廣雅疏證 [Explanations on Characters in Broadened Erya] (volume two, Part I) that “tāncái tānshí zǒngwèi tāotiè, tāo, tiè yī shēng zhī zhuǎn ， bùdé fēn tāncái wéi tāo, tānshí wéitiè. 貪財貪食總 謂饕餮, 饕、餮一聲之轉，不得分貪財爲饕，貪食爲餮.” (Tāotiè 饕餮 means be avarious for wealth or food; the two characters are shifts of one sound, not to be used separately. It is wrong to define tāo 饕 as greedy for wealth and tiè 餮 as greedy for food.) In conclusion, liánmián words are formed mainly on a phonetic basis, which is different from the formation of compounds.

3 Reduplicates Reduplicates consist of two identical syllables and were abundant in Old Chinese. There were 145 reduplicative words collected in Shìxùn 釋訓 [Explaining Words] of Ěryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], 359 words in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Poetry]. The number of reduplicates in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Poetry] is larger than that of any other pre-Qin classics. Generally speaking, reduplicates in Old Chinese amount to over 650 words.

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

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There are two types of reduplicates. In the first type, two characters (syllables) are used on the phonetic basis, the original meaning of each being irrelevant to that of the word; the two characters put together convey certain sense. Some examples are given as follows. In Shī Zhóunán Guānjū 詩周南關雎 [Knan-ts’eu, the Odes of Chow and the South, the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “guānguān jūjiū, zàihé zhīzhōu. 關關雎鳩，在河之洲.” (Hark! From the islet in the stream the voice of the fish-hawks that o’er their nest rejoice!) Guānguān 關關 signifies the sound of fish-hawks; the original meaning of guān 關 (to close) as in guānmén 關門 (to close the door) is irrelevant in the line. In Xiǎoyǎ Dàdōng 小雅大東 [Ta Tung, Minor Odes of the Kingdoms, the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “qìqì wùtàn, āi wǒ dànrén. 契契寤歎，哀我憚人.” (Distressed I lie awake and sigh, alas for our exhausted people.) The compound qìqì 契契 signifies one’s distressed looks, the meaning of qì 契 irrelevant to its meaning in qìyuē 契約 (contract, bond). Regarding the second type, one reduplicative word consists of two identical syllables (characters), its meaning basically the same with each character. The word is more expressive and usually functions as an adverbial or a predicate. For example, both huáng 黄 and huánghuáng 黄黄 mean yellow color. In Shī Bèifēng Lǜyī 詩 邶風緑衣 [Luh e, the Odes of P’ei, the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “lǜxī yīxī, lǜyī huángsháng. 緑兮衣兮，緑衣黄裳.” (Colour green the robe displays, lower garment yellow’s haze.) In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Dūrénshì 詩小雅都人士 [Too jin sze, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, The Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “bǐdōu rénshì, húqiú huánghuáng. 彼都人士，狐裘黄黄.” (In the old capital they stood, with yellow fox-furs plain.) Both jiǎo 皎 and jiǎojiǎo 皎皎 mean being white and bright. In Shī Zhènfēng Yuèchū 詩陳風月出 [Yueh Ch’uh, the Odes of Ch’in of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “yuèchū jiǎo xī. 月出皎兮.) (The moon comes forth, bright in the sky.) In Qiánzhītài 乾之泰 [The Permutation of the Hexagram Qian to Tai] of Yìlín 易林 [The Forest of Changes] by Jiao Gan 焦赣 of the Han dynasty, a line reads “bùfēng bùyǔ, báirì jiǎojiǎo. 不風不雨，白日皎皎.” (No wind or rain, the day is bright.) Both qī 萋 and qīqī 萋萋 mean luxuriant foliage. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Duòdù 詩小雅 杕杜 [Te Too, the Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “huìmù qīzhǐ. 卉木萋止.” (The plants and trees in beauty shine, it is spring.) Chen Huan 陳奂 annotates in Zhuànshū 傳 疏 [Master Chen’s Annotations to the Book of Poetry] that “qī, yóu qīqī yě. 萋， 猶萋萋也” (Qī 萋 means the same as qīq 萋萋.) In Shī Qínfēng Jiānjiā 詩秦風兼 葭 [Kēen kēa, the Odes of Ts’in of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “jiānjiā qīqī. 兼葭萋萋.” (Reed and rush luxuriant rise.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “qīqī, màoshèng mào. 萋萋，茂盛貌.” (Qīqī 萋萋 refers to luxuriant look of foliage.) The vast majority of reduplicates in Old Chinese are adjectives, used mainly to signify sight or sound. For example, in Wùsè 物色 [The Physical World] of Wénxīndiāolóng 文心雕龍 [The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons] by Liu Xie 劉勰, it is described that “zhuózhuó zhuàng táohuā zhīxiān, yīyī jìn yángliǔ zhīmào, gǎogǎo wéi rìchū zhīróng, biāobiāo nǐ yǔxuě zhīzhuàng. Jiējiē zhú huángniǎo zhīshēng. Yāoyāo xué cǎochóng zhīyùn. 灼灼狀桃花之鮮，依依盡

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The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

楊柳之貌，杲杲爲日出之容，瀌瀌擬雨雪之狀.喈喈逐黄鳥之聲，喓喓學草 蟲之韻.” (Zhuózhuó 灼灼 is used to describe the blooming peach flower; yīyī依 依, the look of weeping willow; gǎo gǎo 杲杲, the rising sun; biāobiāo 瀌瀌, the falling rain or snow; jiējiē喈喈, the chirping of yellow birds; yāoyāo 喓喓, the whispering of insects in grass.) 灼灼, 依依, 杲杲, and 漉濺 depict the scenery; 喈 喈 and 喓喓 are onomatopoeic words. More examples are listed below. Bìbì 怭怭 is the rude manner. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Bīnzhīchūyán 詩小雅賓之初筵 [Pin Che Tsoo Yen of Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “yuē jì zuì zhǐ, wēi yí bìbì. 曰既醉止，威儀怭怭.” (Anon as still more drunk they grow, on rudeness they are set.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “bìbì, xièmàn yě. 怭怭，媟慢也” (The word bìbì 怭怭 refers to the indecent behavior.) Jiāojiāo 驕驕 is high and luxuriant grass. In Shī Qífēng Fǔtián 詩齊風甫田 [Foo T’een, the Odes of T’se of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “wútián fǔtián, wéiyǒu jiāojiāo. 無田甫田，維莠驕驕.” (The weeds will but the ranker grow, if fields too large you seek to till.) Qiánqián 乾乾 means diligent. In Yì Qián 易乾 [Hexagram Qian (Heaven), the Book of Changes], it is recorded that “jūnzǐ zhōngrì qiánqián, xītì ruòlì, wújiù. 君子終日乾乾，夕惕若厲，無咎.” (All day long the superior man is creatively active. At nightfall his mind is still beset with cares. Danger. No blame.) In Hànshū Wángmǎngzhuànshàng 漢書王莽傳上 [Part I of the Biographies of Wang Mang of the Book of Former Han], it is recorded that “zhōngrì qiánqián. 終日乾乾.” (All day long the mind is creatively active.) Yan Shigu’s 顔師古 annotation to Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Former Han] reads that “qiánqián, zìqiáng zhī yì. 乾乾，自强 之意.” (Qiánqián 乾乾 means being diligent and active.) Wēiwēi 巍巍 means lofty (scenery) or majestic (manner). In Lúnyǔ Tàibó 論語 泰伯 [Book VIII Taibo of the Confucian Analects], it is recorded that “wēiwēi hū shùnyǔ zhī yǒu tiānxià yě ér bùyú yān. 巍巍乎舜禹之有天下也而不與焉.” (How majestic was the manner in which Shun and Yu held possession of the empire, as if it were nothing to them!) He Yan 何晏 annotates that “wēiwēi, gāodà zhī chēng. 巍巍，高大之稱.” (Wēiwēi 巍巍 means being high and lofty.) Dēngdēng 登登 means the loud voice from building a wall. In Shī Dàyǎ Mián 詩大 雅綿 [Mēen of the Greater Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “zhùzhī dēngdēng. 築之登登.” (There with responsive blows the earth they pound.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “dēngdēng, yònglì yě. 登登，用力也.” (Dēngdēng 登登 means putting forth one’s force.) Gūgū呱呱 means weeping sound of a baby. In Shū Gāotáomó 書皐陶謨 [The counsels of Gao Yao of the Book of Documents], it is recorded that “qǐ gūgū érqì. 啓呱呱而泣.” (When (my son) K’I wailed and wept [“Kao Yao Mo”].) In Fǎyán Guǎjiàn 法言寡見 [Things Rarely Seen” of Exemplary Figures], it is recorded that “gūgū zhīzǐ, gèshí qíqìng. 呱呱之子，各識其親.” (But every mewling infant knows his or her own parents.) Cai Chen 蔡忱 annotates that “gūgū, qìshēng yě. 呱呱，泣聲也” (Gūgū 呱呱 means the weeping voice.) Qiāngqiāng 瑲瑲, also known as qiāngqiāng 鏘鏘 or qiāngqiāng 鶬鶬 means tinkling of bells. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Cǎiqǐ 詩小雅采芑 [Ts’ae K’e, the Minor Odes of

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese 101 the Kingdom of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “bāluán qiāngqiāng. 八 鸞瑲瑲.” (Two tinkling bells hung from each horse’s head.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “qiāngqiāng, shēng yě. 瑲瑲，聲 也.” (Qiāngqiāng 瑲瑲 signifies a sound.) In Dàyǎ Zhēngmín 大雅烝民 [Ching Min, the Greater Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “bāluán qiāngqiāng. 八鸞鏘鏘.” (List to the tinkling of his bells!) In Shāngsòng Lièzǔ 商頌烈祖 [The Lëeh tsoo, the Sacrificial Odes of Shang of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “bāluán qiāngqiāng. 八鸞鶬鶬.” (While at the bits the eight bells tinkling sound.) Zheng Xuan 郑玄 annotates that “qí luán qiāngqiāng rán shēnghé. 其鸞鶬鶬然聲和” (The sound of bell sounds clear and melodious.) Yōngyōng 雝雝 or 噰噰 is the sound of wild geese. In Shī Bèifēng Páoyǒukǔyè 詩邶風匏有苦葉 [Peaou yëw k’oo yeh, the Odes of P’ei of the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “yōngyōng míngyàn, xùrì shǐdàn. 雝雝鳴雁，旭日始旦.” (In early morn, when ’gins to dawn the day, presents the goose, whose notes harmonious ring.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “yōngyōng, yànshēng héyě. 雝雝，雁聲和也.” (Yōngyōng 雝雝 refers to the sound of the goose.) In JiǔBiàn 九辯 [Nine Arguments] by Song Yu 宋玉 of the Warring States period, it reads that “yàn yōngyōng ér nányóu xī, kūnjī zhōuzhā ér bēimíng. 雁雝雝而南遊兮，鵾雞啁哳而悲鳴.” (The wild geese call as they travel southwards; the partridge chatters with a mournful cry.) Reduplicates could also be attached with suffix or preceded by other adjectives. Some examples are given as follows. Duànduànxī 斷斷兮 means be devoted and sincere. In Shū Tàishì 書泰誓 [The Great Speech, The Book of Documents], it is recorded that “rú yǒu yī jièchén, duànduànxī wú tājì. 如有一介臣，斷斷兮無他技.” (If only there was an outspoken and an upright man who honestly conveys his opinion.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 quoted Wang Su 王肅 that “duànduàn, shǒushàn zhīmào. Wú tā jìnéng, tú shǒushàn ér yǐ. 斷斷，守善之貌.無他技能，徒守善而已.” (Duànduàn 斷斷 depicts one being virtuous despite having nospecialized skills.) Kǎnkǎnrú 侃侃如 means cheerful, composed (manner). In Lúnyǔ Xiāngdǎng 論語鄉黨 [Book X, In the Village, the Confucian Analects], it is recorded that “cháo, yú xiàdàifū yán, kǎnkǎnrú yě. 朝，與下大夫言，侃侃如也.” (When he was waiting at court, in speaking with the officers of the lower grade, he spake freely, but in a straightforward manner.) He Yan 何晏 quoted Kong Yingda 孔穎達 that “kǎnkǎn, hélè zhīmào. 侃侃，和樂之貌” (Kǎnkǎn 侃侃 means the harmonious and happy atmosphere.) Kēngkēngrán 硜硜然 means being obstinate. In Lúnyǔ Zǐlù 論語子路 [Book XIII “Zilu” [note: a disciple of Confucius] of the Confucian Analects], it is recorded that “yán bì xìn, xíng bì guǒ, kēng kēng rán, xiǎo rén zāi. 言必信，行必果，硜 硜然，小人哉.” (They are determined to be sincere in what they say and to carry out what they do. They are obstinate little men.) Huang Kan 皇侃 annotated that “kēngkēng, jiānzhèng nányí zhīmào yě. 硜硜，堅正難移之貌也.” (Kēngkēng 硜 硜 depicts one being firm and stubborn.) Yùyùhū 郁郁乎 is complete and articulate (regulations, writings). In Lúnyǔ Bāyì 論語八佾 [Book III Eight Pantomimes, The Confucian Analects], it is recorded

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that “zhōu jiānyú èrdài, yùyùhū wén zāi, wú cóng zhōu. 周監於二代，郁郁乎文 哉，吾從周.” (Chow had the advantage of viewing the two past dynasties. How complete and elegant are its regulations! I follow Chow.) Mángmángrán 芒芒然 means exhaustion. In Mèngzǐ Gōngsūnchǒushàng 孟 子公孫丑上 [Kung-Sun Ch’ou I of the Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “sòngrén yǒu mǐn qí miáo zhī bùzhǎng ér yàzhī zhě, mángmángrán guī. 宋人有 閔其苗之不長而揠之者， 芒芒然歸.” (A man from the state Sung was worried that his rice shoots weren’t growing fast enough, and so went around pulling at them. At the end of the day, he returned home exhausted.) Zhao Qi 趙岐 noted that “mángmáng, píjuàn zhī mào. 芒芒，罷倦之貌.” (Mángmáng 芒芒 means one being exhausted.) Xìxìrán 盻盻然 means being worn-out. In Mèngzǐ Téngwéngōngshàng 孟子滕 文公上 [Duke Wen of T’eng I of the Works of Mencius], it is written that “wéi mín fùmǔ, shǐmín xìxìrán. 爲民父母，使民盻盻然.” (When the people’s father and mother wears them out with worry.) Zhao Qi 趙岐 annotated that “xìxìrán, qínkǔ bù xiūxí zhī mào. 盻盻然，勤苦不休息之貌.” (Xìxìrán 盻盻然 is for industrious, restless.) Fāngfēifēi 芳菲菲 means penetrating (perfume, smell). In Chǔcí Lísāo 楚 辭離騒 [On Encountering Trouble of the Songs of the South], it is written that “fāngfēifēi qí nánkuī xī, fēn zhìjīn yóu wèi mò. 芳菲菲其難虧兮，芬至今猶 未沫.” (Its penetrating perfume does not easily desert it, and even to this day its fragrance has not faded.) Fēn zǒng zǒng 紛總總 is very crowded. In Chǔcí Jiǔgē Dàsīmìng 楚辭九歌 大司命 [The Greater Master of Fate, Nine Songs of the Songs of the South], it is written that “fēnzǒngzǒng xī jiǔzhōu, hé shòuyāo xī zài yǔ. 紛總總兮九州， 何壽夭兮在予.” (See, the teeming peoples of the Nine Lands: The span of their lives is in your hand.) Yǎomíngmíng 杳冥冥 means being gloomy. In Chǔcí Jiǔgē Shānguǐ 楚辭九歌 山鬼 [The Mountain Spirit, Nine Songs of the Songs of the South], it is written that “yúnróngróng xī ér zàixià, yǎomíngmíng xī qiāngshū huì. 雲容容兮而在下， 杳冥冥兮羌書晦.” (The clouds’ dense masses begin below her. From a place of gloomy shadow, dark even in the daytime.) It could be seen that reduplicative words are rarely seen in Shījīng 詩经 [The Book of Songs], but there are large numbers of reduplicative words in Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of the South] and other prosaic writings. The rarity of them in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs] is due to the syntactic feature that each line consists of four characters.

4 Syntheticwords Synthetic words of two or several morphemes fall into two types: derivatives and compound words. The former includes roots and affixes; the latter includes only roots. The structures of compound words are similar to those of sentences, covering coordination, subordination, verb-object, and subject-predicate. Each type is to be discussed below.

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

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4.1 Derivatives Derivatives are words with affixes that did not make up large quantity in Old Chinese words and were mainly nouns, adjectives or adverbs. Some common affixes include yǒu 有, rán 然, rú 如, rùo 若, yān 焉, and ěr 爾, etc. Some examples are given as follows. One example of words with yǒu 有 as a prefix is yǒuxià 有夏 (the Xia dynasty). In Shū Tāngshì 書湯誓 [T’ang Shi of the Book of Documents], it is recorded that “yǒuxià duōzuì, tiānmìng jízhī. 有夏多罪，天命殛之.” (The lord of Hia has much guilt, Heaven has charged [me] to kill him.) The other example is yǒuyīn 有殷 (the Yin dynasty). In Shū Zhàogào 書召 誥 [Shao Kao of the Book of Documents], it is written that “wǒ bùkě bùjiàn yú yǒuxià, yì bùkě bùjiàn yú yǒuyīn. 我不可不監于有夏，亦不可不監于有殷.” (We should not fail to mirror ourselves in the lords of Hia; we likewise should not fail to mirror ourselves in the lords of Yin.) Yǒu zhōu 有周 (the Zhou dynasty) is another example. It is reads in Shī Dàyǎ Wénwáng 詩大雅文王 [Lore Wen of Zhou, Greater Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs] that “yǒuzhōu bùxiǎn, dìmìng bùshí. 有周不顯，帝命不時.” (Its [Chow] lords had borne a glorious name; God kinged them when the season came.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “yǒu zhōu, zhōu yě. 有周，周也.” (Yǒuzhōu 有周 means the Zhou dynasty.) In Zhèng Yì 正 義 [Annotations of Five Classics] written by Kong Yingda 孔穎達, it reads that “以‘周’文單，故言‘有’以助之 yǐ ‘zhōu’ wénshàn, gù yán yǐ ‘yǒu’ zhù zhī.” (It is not fit to use the single character zhōu 周 phonologically, so the prefix yǒu 有 is added.) Yǒuméi 有梅 is plums or a fruit of sour flavor. In Shī Zhàonán Biāyǒuméi 詩 召南摽有梅 [Pëaou yëw mei of the Odes of Shaou and the South of the Book of Songs], it reads that “biāo yǒuméi, qíshí qī xī. 摽有梅，其實七兮.” (Ripe, the plums fall from the bough. Only seven tenths left there now!) In Máo Zhuàn 毛 傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “jíshèng zé suíluò zhě méi yě. 極盛则隋落者梅也.” (Enough ripeness will results in the falling plums.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 in Zhèng Yì annotated that “máo yǐwéi duòluò zhě shì yǒuméi 毛 以爲墮落者是有梅.” (In Máo Zhuàn, the plums having fallen on the ground are named yǒuméi 有梅.) Yǒuzhòng 有衆 refers to slaves or soldiers subjected to agricultural labor during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. In Wěi Shū Yìnzhēng 僞 (書胤征) [The punitive Expedition of Lord Yin of the Pseudo Book of Documents], it is recorded that “jīn yǔ yǐ ěr yǒuzhòng fèngjiàng tiānfá. 今予以爾有衆奉將天罰.” (I now lead you slaves to perform the heavenly punishment [on the tyrant].) The above derivatives are nouns, meaning basically the same as their roots used as monosyllables. Below are some examples with suffixes rán 然, rú 如, ruò 若, yān 焉, or ěr 爾. Fǎněr 反而 means (flowers and leaves) fluttering. In Lúnyǔ Zǐhǎn 論語子罕 [Zihan of the Confucian Analects], it reads that “tángdì zhī huā, piānqí fǎnér. 棠 棣之華，偏其反而.” (How the flowers of the aspen-plum flutter and turn!) Zhu

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Xi 朱熹 noted that “fǎn, yì dāng yú fān tóng. 反，亦當與翻同.” (Fǎn 反 means the same as fān 翻 [to flutter and turn].) Wǎněr 莞爾 means smiling. In Lúnyǔ Yánghuò 論語陽貨 [Yanghuo (a person’s name) of the Confucian Analects], it reads that “zǐ zhī wǔchéng, wén xiángē zhīshēng. Fūzǐwǎněr ér xiào yuē: ‘gējī yānyòng niúdāo? 子之武城，聞弦歌之 聲.夫子莞爾而笑曰：‘割雞焉用牛刀？’” (The Master having come to Wooshing, heard there the sound of stringed instruments and singing. Well pleased and smiling, he said, “Why use an oxknife to kill a fowl?) He Yan 何晏 noted that wǎněr 莞爾 refers to the smiling look. Xīrú翕如 means (music) lively, flourishing. In Lúnyǔ Bāyì 論語八佾 [Eight Pantomimes of the Confucian Analects], it reads that “qí yuè shǐzuò, xī rú yě. 〔其 樂〕始作，翕如也.” (At the commencement of the piece, all the parts should sound together.) Xing Bing 邢昺 annotated that xī 翕 describes the flourish and liveliness of music. Wòruò 沃若 means (plants, leaves) glossy and booming. In Shī Wèifēng Méng 詩衛風氓 [Mang (common folks), the Odes of Wei of the Book of Poetry], it reads “sāngzhī wèiluò, qíyè wòruò. 桑之未落，其葉沃若.” (When on the mulberry tree the leaves all hang in glossy state.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “wò ruò, yóu wò wò rán. 沃若，猶沃沃然.” (Wòruò 沃若 means the same as wòwòrán 沃沃然, the look of leaves growing well.) Bórán 勃然 means sudden, abrupt. In Mèngzǐ Liánghuìwángshàng 孟子梁惠 王上 [Lord Hui of Liang, the Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “tiān yóurán zuòyún, pèirán xiàyǔ, zé miáo bórán xīngzhī yǐ. 天油然作雲，沛然下雨，則苗 勃然興之矣.” (But if the Heavens then fill with clouds, and rain falls in sheets, the shoots burst into life again.) Hūyān 忽焉 means suddenly. In Lúnyǔ Zǐhǎn 論語子罕 [Zihan (a disciple of Confucius) of the Confucian Analects], it reads that “zhānzhī zàiqián, hūyān zàihòu. 瞻之在前，忽焉在後.” (I looked at them before me, and suddenly they seemed to be behind.) He Yan 何晏 noted that “yán huǎnghū bùkě wéi xíngxiàng. 言恍惚不可爲形象.” (The word huǎnghū 恍惚 refers to the blurry, vague state.) The above examples of derivatives are examples of adjectives or adverbs. 4.2 Coordinatingcompounds Coordinating compounds, also called parallel compounds, made up of two root morphemes, abound in Ancient Chinese. Among the 900 compounds included in Shījīng 詩经 [The Book of Songs], more than 200 compounds are coordinating compounds; among the over 2,000 compounds in Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance], 1400 words are coordinating compounds, making up over 60% of the total amount. These compounds are of various class, nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. Compounds of other types were formed to signify ever-changing subjects and concepts, the emergence of parallel compounds was intended for better clarity and accuracy of language expression. Each separate morpheme could be a monosyllabic word to signify a certain concept or function as a grammatical unit. Coordinating compounds, with the meanings of two more phemes combined

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese 105 in one common unit, intensify one singular sense, specific or general. The two morphemes explain each other as well. Coordinating compounds fall into the following three types. 4.2.1 Coordinating compounds with two synonymous morphemes The majority of synonymous morphemes, with common basic meanings, are not identical but with subtle differences in denotation, shades of meaning, modes of behavior signified, or emotional meaning. The compounds only convey the common senses of the synonymous morphemes, overlooking the slight differences. Some examples are given as follows: Cáihuì 財賄 means valuables. In Zuǒzhuàn Yìngōngshíyīnián 左傳隱公十一 年 [The Year 11 in the Reign of Lord Yin (712 BCE), the Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is recorded that “fánér qìyòng cáihuì wú zhì yú xǔ. 凡而器用財賄無寘於許.” (Do not put any of your ritual vessels or valuables in Xǔ.) It is also recorded in Zhōulǐ Tiānguān Tàizǎi 周禮天官太宰 [Grand Steward, Offices of the Heaven of the Rites of Zhou] that “yǐ jiǔfù liǎn cáihuì. 以九賦斂 財賄.” (The Grand Steward collects valuable things from nine taxations imposed on the common people.) Páochú 庖廚 means kitchen. In Mèngzǐ Liánghuìwángshàng 孟子梁惠王上 [Lord Hui of Liang of the Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “shìyǐjūnzǐyuǎn páochú yě. 是以君子遠庖廚也.” (That’s why the noble-minded stay clear of their kitchens.) Gōngjǐ 供給 means supply one with necessities. In Guóyǔ Zhōuyǔzhōng 國語周語中 [The Discourses of Zhou II, the Discourses of the States], it is recorded that “zú yǐ gōngjǐ shénqí éryǐ. 足以供給神祇而已.” (These are barely enough for the sacrifices for the deities.) In Shǐjì Fēngshànshū 史記封禪書 [The Treatise on the Feng and Shan Sacrifices, the Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “shǐzhě cúnwèn gōngjǐ, xiāngzhǔ yúdào. 使者存問 供給，相屬於道.” (The envoys were sent in streams to ask about the necessities and offer him.) Xiūxī 休息 means a break or rest from work. In Hánshīwàizhuàn juànyī 韓詩 外傳卷一 [Volume One of Outer commentary on the Book of Songs by Master Han], it is recorded that “yúshì shīrén jiàn zhàobó zhī suǒ xiūxī shùxià. 於是詩人 見召伯之所休息樹下.” (The poet saw Zhao Bo having a rest under the tree.) In Huáinánzǐ Rénjiān 淮南子人間 [Among Others, the Works of Master Huainan, also known as Prince Liu An 劉安 of the Han dynasty], it is recorded that “shì yòngmín bùdé xiūxī yě. 是用民不得休息也.” (Refuse the people rest [but keep them under constant labor].) Biàn lì 便利 means being nimble. In Shǐjì Fànjūcàizélièzhuàn 史記范雎蔡澤 列傳 [The Biographies of Fan Ju and Cai Ze, the Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “fū rén shēng bǎitǐ jiānqiáng, shǒuzú biànlì, ěrmù cōngmíng ér xīn shèngzhì, qǐfēi shì zhī yuàn yú？夫人生百體堅强，手足便利，耳目聰明 而心聖智，豈非士之願與？” (Doesn’t every scholar wish to have sturdy limbs, nimble hands and feet, sharp ears and eyes, and a sage mind?)

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Hémù 和睦 means harmonious, in good terms. It is recorded in Zuǒzhuàn Chénggōng shíliùnián 左傳成公十六年 [The Year 16 in the Reign of Lord Cheng (575 BCE), the Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals] that “shàngxià hémù, zhōuxuán búnì. 上下和睦，周旋不逆.” (When those in positions above and below are in harmony, they maneuver in all situations without going against the proper course.) 4.2.2 Coordinating compounds with two semantically different morphemes The two morphemes have different meanings, but the objects signified are of the same category. The two morphemes become one morpheme by means of combination, signifying a more general sense, sometimes conveying a figurative sense. Some examples are given as follows. Gāngē 干戈 means shield-spear (fig.), arms or conflicts. It is recorded in Lǐjì Tángōngxià 禮記檀弓下 [Than Kung II, the Book of Rites] that “néngzhí gāngē, yǐèi shèjì. 能執干戈，以衛社稷.” (As he was able to bear his shield and spear in the defence of our altars.) In Lúnyǔ Jìshì 論語季氏 [The House of Ji, the Analects of Confucians], it is recorded that “ér móu dòng gāngē yú bāngnèi. 而謀動干戈 於邦内.” (And now you propose to resort to armed conflict within the state itself.) Shèjì 社稷 is the gods of soil and grain, (fig.) sovereignty, regime. In Mèngzǐ Jìnxīnxià 孟子盡心下 [To Fathom the Mind II, the Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “mín wéi guì, shèjì cì zhī, jūn wéi qīng. 民爲貴，社稷次之，君爲 輕.”（ The people are the most precious of all things. Next come the gods of soil and grain. The sovereign matters least.） Wēi wǔ 威武 is military might ， power. In Mèngzǐ Téngwéngōngxià 孟子滕 文公下 [Duke Wen of T’eng II, the Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “fùguì bùnéng yín, pínjiàn bùnéng yí, wēiwǔ bùnéng qū. 富貴不能淫，貧賤不能移，威 武不能屈.” (Wealth and renown never mean much to him, poverty and obscurity never sway him, and imposing force never awes him.) In Ěryǎ Shìtiān 爾雅釋天 [Explaining Heaven, Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “chū wéi zhìbīng, shàng wēiwǔ yě. 出爲治兵，尚威武也.” (Out governing soldiers, the phenomenon is mighty.) Jiàsè 稼穡 is agricultural activities. It is recorded in Shū Wúyì 書無逸 [Against Luxurious Ease of the Book of Documents] that “jué fùmǔ qínláo jiàsè, jué zǐ nǎi bùzhī jiàsè zhī jiānnán. 厥父母勤勞稼穡，厥子乃不知稼穡之艱難.” (When their fathers and mothers have toiled with husbandry, their sons do not know the hardships of husbandry.) In Shǐjì Zhōuběnjì 史記周本紀 [The Basic Annals of Zhou, the Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “xiāngdì zhī yí, yí gǔzhě jiàsè yān. 相地之宜，宜穀者稼穡焉.” (Lands suitable for grain that is searching will be toiled with plants.) Kèbó 刻薄 is unkind or cruel. It is written in Shǐjì Shāngjūn lièzhuànzàn 史記商 君列傳贊 [Author’s Commentary in the Biography of Lord Shang, the Records of the Grand Historian] that “shāngjūn, qí tiānzī kèbó rén yě. 商君，其天資刻薄人也.” (Lord Shang was a man endowed by heaven with a cruel and unscrupulous nature.)

The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese 107 Shuāilǎo 衰老 is old and frail. In Shǐjì Huòzhí lièzhuàn 史記貨殖列傳 [The Biographies of Profiteers, the Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “hòunián shuāilǎo, értīng zǐsūn. 後年衰老，而聽子孫.” (Later, when he became old and frail, he turned over his affairs to his sons and grandsons.) In some of the compound words of this type, one morpheme conveys the meaning while the other serves as a secondary, accompanying syllable. They are called attributive compounds.5 Some examples are given as follows: Shìjǐng 市井 is marketplace. The word takes on the meaning of shì 市, referring to markets or streets for business transactions in ancient counties. Jǐng 井 means water well and does not convey meaning in the word. In Shī Zhènfēng Dōngménzhīfén Xù 詩陳風東門之枌序 [Preface to Tung Mun Che Fun, the Odes of Ch’in of the Book of Songs], it is written that “nánnǚ qìqí jiuyè, jíhuì yú dàolù, gēwǔ yú shìjǐng ěr. 男女棄其舊業，亟會于道路，歌舞於市井爾.” (Men and women abandoned their old occupations, gathered at roads, singing and dancing at marketplaces.) In Wèiliáozǐ Gōngquán 尉繚子攻權 [Tactical Balance of Power in Attacks, the Works of Master Wei Liao], it is written that “bīng yǒu shèngyú cháotíng, yǒu shèngyú yuányě, yǒu shèngyú shìjǐng. 兵有勝於朝廷，有勝於原 野，有勝於市井.” (The victory of battles may depend on the tactics formulated by the imperial court, stratagems decided by generals, as well as support from people in the marketplaces at home.) As for chēmǎ 車馬, both chē 車 (chariot) and mǎ 馬 （ horse ） were crucial means of transportation in ancient times. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Shíyuèzhījiāo 詩小雅十 月之交 [At the Conjunction in the Tenth Month, the Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is recorded that “zhái yǒu chēmǎ, yǐ jū cú xiàng. 擇有 車馬，以居徂向.” (He selected those who had chariots and horses, to go and reside in Hëang.) Zhu Xi 朱熹 annotates that “yǒu chēmǎ zhě, yì fùmín yě. 有 車馬者，亦富民也.” (Those who own chariots and horses are wealthy people.) Ocassionally, the word 車馬 means chariot, as recorded in Lǐjì Yùzǎo 禮記玉藻 [The Jade-bead Pendants of the Royal Caps, the Book of Rites] that “dàfū bùdé zào chēmǎ. 大夫不得造車馬.” (Great Officers did not make (any new) carriages for themselves.) A chē 車 (chariot) could be made, yet a mǎ 馬 (horse) cannot; the character mǎ 馬 is a function syllable in the compound word chēmǎ 車馬. 4.2.3 Coordinating compounds with two antonymous morphemes This type of coordinating compound features as more than a combination of two antonyms, yet signifies a new, summative meaning. They are of limited numbers in Old Chinese. Some examples are given as follows. The compound word chūrù 出入 means entrance and exit; coming in and out, where chū 出 means going out, rù 入 means coming in. In Shī xiǎoyǎ Běishān 詩 小雅北山 [Pih Shan (the Northern Hill), the Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is recorded that “huò chūrù fēngyì, huò míshì bùwéi. 或出 入風議，或靡事不爲.” (Some, at home and abroad, pass critical remarks, and some have everything to do.) The compound word chūrù 出入 could also mean daily activities, come-and-go. In Zuǒzhuàn Zhāogōngyuánnián 左傳昭公元年

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The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

[The First Year of Lord Zhao’s Reign (541 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is recorded that “ruò jūnshēn, zé yì chūrù, yǐnshí, āilè zhī shì yě. 若君身，則亦出入、飲食、哀樂之事也.” ([The health] of the ruler is related to his regular conducts, his diet, and his sorrows and delights.) Ocassionally, the compound word chūrù 出入 means almost. In Lúnyǔ Zǐzhāng 論語子張 [Zizhang (A disciple of Confucius), the Confucian Analects], it is recorded that “dàdé bù yúxián, xiǎodé chūrù kě yě. 大德不逾閑， 小德出入可也.” (When a person does not transgress the boundary-line in the great virtues, he may pass and repass it in the small virtues.) In Hánfēizǐ Shíguò 韓非子十過 [Ten Faults, the Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu], it is recorded that “xiàngōng búxìng lí qúnchén, chūrù shínián yǐ. 獻公不幸離群臣，出入十年矣.” (Unfortunately, Duke Hsien passed away from the body of officials. It is nearly ten years since.) Shìfēi 是非 means gossips or disputes, where shì 是 means correct or affirmation, fēi 非 means fault or reprobation. In Zhuāngzǐ Dàozhí 莊子盜跖 [Zhi the Robber, the Complete Works of Zhuangzi], it is recorded that “yáochún gǔshé, shànshēng shìfēi, yǐmí tiānxià zhīzhǔ. 摇唇鼓舌，擅生是非，以迷天下之主.” (Your wagging tongue incites so much trouble that the princes are confused and the scholars abstain from returning to nature.) In Shǐjì Tàishǐgōngzìxù 史記太史公自 序 [Autobiography of Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “shìfēi èrbǎi sìshíèr nián zhīzhōng, yǐwéi tiānxià yíbiǎo. 是非二百四十二年 之中，以爲天下儀表.” (Disputes unsolved during the past 242 years are set to be treated as references to act sensibly in the future.) The compound word fǔyǎng 俯仰 means a person’s every move or gesture, where fǔ 俯 means lower one’s head, yǎng 仰 means raise one’s head. In Shǐjì Fànjū càizé lièzhuàn 史記范雎蔡澤列傳 [The Biographies of Fan Ju and Cai Ze, Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “fànjū kǒng, wèigǎn yánnèi, xiānyán wàishì, yǐguān qínwáng zhī fǔyǎng. 范雎恐，未敢言内，先言外事， 以觀秦王之俯仰.” (Afraid of speaking of internal matters, Fan Ju first spoke of foreign affairs to observe what the king of Qin’s responses would be.) The compound word fǔyǎng 俯仰 also means handle or deal with. It is written in Shǐjì Huòzhílièzhuàn 史記貨殖列傳 [The Biographies of Money-Makers of Records of the Grand Historian] that “yúshí fǔyǎng, huòqí yínglì. 與時俯仰，獲其贏利.” (Keep a sharp eye out for the opportunities of the times, and so were able to capture a fat profit.) Another meaning of the compound word fǔyǎng 俯仰 is in meditation. In Mòzǐ Lǔwèn 墨子魯問 [Lu’s Questions, the Works of Master Mo], it is recorded that “dàwáng fǔyǎng ér sī zhī. 大王俯仰而思之.” (The great King looked up and down and pondered the matter.) The compound word yīwéi 依違 means hesitate or be indecisive, where yī 依 means to follow and wéi 違 means to go against. In Jiǔtàn Líshì 九歎離世 [Leaving the World, Nine Laments by Liu Xiang 劉向 ], it is recorded that “yúsī guībāng, xīn yīwéi xī. 余思歸邦，心依違兮.” (When I think of my native land, my heart uncertain falters.) In Hànshū Wéixuánchéngzhuàn 漢書韋玄成傳 [The Biographies of Wei Xuancheng, the Book of Former Han], it is recorded that“yúshì shàng zhòng qíshì, yīwéi zhě yìnián. 於是上重其事，依違者一年.” (Hence, the

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rulers attached great importance to the matter (of temple names), and it took one year to make decisions.) Yan Shigu 顔師古 noted that “yīwéi zhě, bù jué yě. 依違 者，不决也.” (Yīwéi 依違 means to hesitate.) Some of the compounds of this type are attributive compounds, meaning the same as one character (syllable/morpheme) in the compound. Some examples are given as follows. The compound word huǎnjí 緩急 means priorities, where huǎn 緩 means slowing down and jí 急 means pressing or emergency. It is recorded in Hànshū Shíhuòzhìxià 漢書食貨志下 [Records of Agriculture and Treasury, the Book of Former Han] that “suì yǒu xiōngráng, gù gǔyǒu guìjiàn; lìng yǒu huǎnjí, gù wùyǒu qīngzhòng. 歲有凶穰，故穀有貴賤；令有緩急，故物有輕重.” (Years of lean and harvest lead to the corresponding high and low prices of grain; the priorities of events depend on the emergency of command.) In Shǐjì Zhōubóshìjiā 史記周勃 世家 [The Hereditary House of Chou P’o, the Marquis of Chiang, Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “jí yǒu huǎnjí, zhōu yàfū zhēnkě rèn jiàngbīng. 即有緩急，周亞夫真可任將兵.” (If there is ever any trouble, Chou Ya-fu is the man best fitted to lead the troops!) Yāoxiáng 妖祥 means ill omen and a sign of blessing. In Zhōulǐ Chūnguān Shìjìn 周禮春官眡祲 [Astronomical Observation Officer, Spring Offices of the Rites of Zhou], it is recorded that “zhǎng shíhuī zhīfǎ, yǐguān yāoxiáng, biàn jíxiōng. 掌十 煇之法，以觀妖祥，辨吉凶.” (Mastering the principles behind the ten kinds of phosphenes, the astronomical observation officer prophesies fortune or ill-luck.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that “yāoxiáng, shàn’è zhī zhēng. 妖祥，善惡之徵.” (Yāoxiáng 妖祥 indicates the omen of good luck or ill-fortune.) Jia Gongyan 賈 公彥 noted that “xiáng shì shàn zhī zhēng, yāo shì è zhī zhēng. 祥是善之徵，妖 是惡之徵.” (Xiáng 祥 means auspicious omen and yāo 妖 means ill-luck omen.) In Huáinánzǐ Móuchēng 淮南子繆稱 [Profound Precepts of the Works of Huainanzi], it is recorded that “guóyǒu yāoxiáng, bùshèng shànzhèng. 國有妖祥，不勝善政.” (It has not yet mastered good government if a state witnesses unlucky omens.) In Hànshū Wǔwǔzǐzhuàn 漢書武五子傳 [The Biographies of the Five Princes of Emperor Wu, the Book of Former Han], it is recorded that “móushì bùchéng, yāoxiáng shù xiàn. 謀 事不成，妖祥數見.” (Men’s proposals failed and there appeared frequent ill omens.) Déshī 得失 means gains and losses, success or failure, merits or demerits. It is recorded in Guǎnzǐ Qīchénqīzhǔ 管子七臣七主 [Seven Ministers and Seven Rulers, the Works of Guanzi] that “tiānxià déshī, dào yī rén chū. 天下得失， 道一人出.” (Whether the empire is to be won or lost stems from one person.) Occasionally, the word déshī 得失 only means losses. In Shǐjì Cìkè lièzhuàn 史記 刺客列傳 [The Biographies of Assassins of Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “duōrén bùnéng wúshēng déshī, shēng déshī zé yǔxiè. 多人不能無 生得失，生得失則語泄.” (Too many people’s involvement would lead to errors, which would then cause the leakage of secrets.) In Old Chinese, the formation of coordinating compounds went through a shift from a combination of two morphemes to one single sense. Quite often, the order of the two morphemes could be reversed so that a different word or phrase could be formed. Some examples are given as follows.

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The progress of polysyllabic words of Old Chinese

Qióngkùn 窮困 and kùnqióng 困窮 both meant a dead end in life. In Chǔcí Lísāo 楚辭離騒 [Poetry of the South, On Encountering Trouble], it is written that “wú dú qióngkùn hū cǐshí yě. 吾獨窮困乎此時也.” (Alone, and at a dead end in these times.) In Yì Xū 易需 [Hexagram Xu (Waiting), the Book of Changes], it is recorded that “gāngjiàn ér bùxiàn, qí yí bù kùnqióng yǐ. 剛健而不陷，其義不困 窮矣.” (Being firm and strong, one does not fall into it. The meaning is that one does not trap in a dead end.) Rénmín 人民 and mínrén 民人 both meant the common people. In Mèngzǐ Jìnxīnxià 孟子盡心下 [To Fathom the Mind II, the Works of Mencius], it reads that “zhūhóu zhībǎo sān: tǔdì, rénmín, zhèngshì. 諸侯之寶三：土地、人民、 政事.” (An august lord has three treasures: land, people, and government.) In Shī Dàyǎ Zhānyǎng 詩大雅瞻卬 [Looking up to Heaven, the Greater Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it reads that “rényǒu mínrén, rǔ fù duózhī. 人有 民人，女覆奪之.” (Men had their people and followers, but you have violently taken them from them.) Lísàn 離散 meant being scattered. It is recorded in Mèngzǐ Liánghuìwángshàng 孟子梁惠王上 [Lord Hui of Liang I, the Works of Mencius] that “xiōngdì qīzǐlísàn. 兄弟妻子離散.” (Brothers, wives and husbands, parents and children are separated.) Sànlí 散離 meant estrange. In Zuǒzhuàn Chénggōng shísānnián左傳成公十 三年 [The Year 13 in the Reign of Lord Cheng (578 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is recorded that “tiǎnmiè wǒ fèihuá, sànlí wǒ xiōngdì. 殄滅我費滑，散離我兄弟.” (Eliminated our domain of Hua, and sow dissension among our brothers.) Tǔrǎng 土壤 meant soil. In Jiàn zhúkè shū 諫逐客書 [Petition Regarding Admonition Against Expelling the Guests] written by Li Si 李斯, it is recorded that “shìyǐ tàishān bùràng tǔrǎng, gùnéng chéng qídà. 是以太山不讓土壤，故能成其大.” (Mountain Tai accommodates every grain of sand and is therefore magnanimous.) Rǎngtǔ 壤土 is territory of a country. It is recorded in Zhànguócè Qíncèsì 戰國 策秦策四 [Strategies of Qin, Book Four, the Strategies of the Warring States] that “fū yǐ rǎngtǔ zhī bó, réntú zhī zhòng, bīnggé zhī qiáng, yī jǔ zhòng ér zhùyuàn yú chǔ. 夫以壤土之博，人徒之衆，兵革之强，一舉從而注怨於楚.” (Your Majesty possess vast territory, large population, and military might, but now you want to raise arms, which would bring forth resentments in Chu.) Two compounds made up of the same morphemes, yet could mean the same in reverse orders, such as qióngkùn 窮困 and kùnqióng 困窮, rénmín 人民 and mínrén 民人. Some compounds may mean differently, such as lísàn 離散 and sànlí 散離, rǎngtǔ 壤土 and tǔrǎng 土壤. Among which, some senses have survived, while others have gone extinct in history.

5 Attributivecompounds Attributive compounds, also called subordinate or endocentric compounds, with one morpheme modifying the other, signify a new concept different from either of the two morphemes and abound in Old Chinese. There are 400 attributive

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compounds in Shījīng 詩经 [The Book of Songs], twice as much as parallel compounds. In Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance], there are more than 500 compounds, making up 22% of the total number of compounds. Morphologically, morphemes in attributive compounds range widely, falling into the following 11 types. 5.1 Themodifyingmorphemesignifyingquantity See the following examples. Jiǔtiān 九天 (lit. nineheavens) is the highest reaches of the heavens. In Sūnzǐ Xíng 孫子形 [Strategic Positions, the Works of Sun-Tzu], it is recorded that “shàngōng zhě, dòng yú jiǔtiān zhī shàng. 善攻者，動於九 天之上.” (The expert on the attack strikes from out of the highest reaches of the heavens.) Sìhǎi 四海 (lit. four seas) means everywhere in the country. It is recorded in Shǐjì gāozǔběnjì 史記高祖本紀 [The Basic Annals of Emperor Kao-tsu, Records of the Grand Historian] that “dàwáng qǐ xìwēi, zhū bàonì, píngding sìhǎi, yǒugōng zhě zhé lièdì ér fēngwéi wánghóu. 大王起細微，誅暴逆，平定四海，有功者輒裂 地而封爲王侯.” (Our great king has risen from the humblest beginnings to punish the wicked and violent and bring peace to all within the four seas. To those who have achieved great merit he has accordingly parceled out and enfeoffed them as kings and marquises.) Wànjǐ 萬幾 is an emperor’s numerous and complicated affairs. It is recorded in Shū Gāotáomó 書臯陶謨 [Kao Yao Mo (the counsels of Gao Yao), the Book of Documents] that “jīngjīng yèyè, yírì èrrì wànjǐ. 兢兢業業，一日二日萬幾.” (It is fearsome, it is awe-inspiring, in one day, in two days, there are 10,000 (minutiae) first signs of happenings.) 5.2 Themodifyingmorphemesignifyingspaceorlocation See the following examples. Dōngfēng 東風 (lit. east wind) means east wind in spring. It is written in Lǐjì Yuèlìng 禮記月令 [Proceedings of Government in the Different Months, the Book of Rites] that “[mèngchūn zhī yuè] dōngfēng jiědòng, zhézhòng shǐzhèn. 〔孟春之月〕東風解凍，蟄蟲始振.” ([In the first month of spring] the east wind resolves the cold. Creatures that have been torpid during the winter begin to move.) Nèizǐ 内子 is wife of an official. In Zuǒzhuàn Zhāogōng èrshísì nián 左傳昭公 二十四年 [The Year 24 in the Reign of Lord Zhao (518 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is recorded that “[zhàojī] yǐ shūkuí wéi nèizǐ, ér jǐ xià zhī. 〔趙姬〕以叔隗爲内子，而己下之.”（ [The maid Zhao requested that] Shu Wei be the wife [of the lord] and herself [a concubine] inferior to Shu Wei.） Yúnhàn 雲漢 means the Milky Way. In Shī Dàyǎ Yúnhàn 詩大雅雲漢 [Yun Han, the Greater Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is recorded that “zhuōbǐ yúnhàn, zhāohuí yútiān. 倬彼雲漢，昭回於天.” (Grand shone the Milky Way on high, with brilliant span athwart the sky.)

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5.3 Themodifyingmorphemesignifyingtime See the following examples. Chénfēng 晨風 (lit. morning wind) means falcon. It is recorded in Shī Qínfēng Chénfēng 詩秦風晨風 [Shin Fung, the Odes of Ts’in of the Book of Songs] that “zhān bǐ chénfēng, yùbǐ běilín. 鸇彼晨風，鬱彼北林.” (The falcon swiftly seeks the north, and forest gloom that sent it forth.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “chén fēng, zhān yě. 晨風，鸇也.” (Chénfēng 晨風 refers to the bird falcon.) Hòushēng 後生 means successors or the young generation. It is recorded in Lúnyǔ zǐhǎn 論語子罕 [Zihan (a disciple of Confucius), the Confucian Analects] that “hòushēng kěwèi, yānzhī láizhě zhī bùrú jīn yě. 後生可畏，焉知來者之不 如今也.” (A youth is to be regarded with respect. How do we know that his future will not be equal to our present?) Cháoyáng 朝陽 is (lit. facing the sun) the eastern side of a hill. In Ěryǎ shìshān 爾雅釋山 [Explaining Hills, Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “shānxī yuē xīyáng, shāndōng yuē cháoyáng. 山西 曰夕陽，山東曰朝陽.” (The western hillside is called xīyáng, the eastern hillside called cháoyáng 朝陽.) In Shī Dàyǎ Juǎn’ā 詩大雅卷阿 [K’euen O, the Greater Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is recorded that “wútóng shēng yǐ, yúbǐcháoyáng. 梧桐 生矣，於彼朝陽.” (There the dryandras grow, and on its eastern slope they rise.) 5.4 Thetwomorphemesbeingcorrelated,themodifierreferring toagenusandthemodifiedreferringtoaspecies Look at the following examples. Dīyáng 羝羊 is (lit. ram goat) ram. It is recorded in Yì Dàzhuàng 易大壯 [The Power of the Great, the Book of Changes] that “shàngliù, dīyáng chùfān, bù néng tuì, bù néng suì, wú yōu lì, jiān zé jí. 上六， 羝羊觸藩，不能退，不能遂，无攸利，艱則吉.” (Six at the top means: A goat butts against a hedge. It cannot go backward, it cannot go forward. Nothing serves to further. If one notes the difficulty, this brings good fortune.) Fùyú 鮒魚 is (lit. perch fish) perch. It is written in Zhuāngzǐ Wàiwù 莊子外物 [External Things, the Works of Zhuangzi] that “zhōu zuólái, gùshì chēzhé zhōng yǒu fùyú yān. 周昨來，顧視車轍中有鮒魚焉.” (As I was coming here yesterday, I saw there was a perch on the carriage rut.) Piāofēng 飄風 is (lit. whirling wind) whirlwinds, it is written in Chǔcí Lísāo 楚辭離騒 [On Encountering Trouble, the Songs of the South] that “piāo fēng tún qí xiāng lí xī, shuài yún ní ér lái yù. 飄風屯其相離兮，帥雲霓而來御.” (The Whirlwinds gathered and came out to meet me, leading clouds and rainbows, to give me welcome.) It should be noted that some modifiers of compounds refer to a species, and the modified referring to a genus. For example, cǎojiè 草芥 is a wisp of grass. As in Mèngzǐ Lílóushàng 孟子離婁上 [Li Lou I, the Works of Mencius], it is written that “shì tiānxià yuè ér guī jǐ yóu cǎojiè yě, wéi shùn wéi rán. 視天下悦而歸己猶草芥 也，惟舜爲然.” (Imagine all beneath Heaven turning to you with great delight. Now imagine seeing that happen and knowing it means nothing more than a wisp

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of straw: only Shun was capable of that.) Cǎomáo 草茅, also known as máocǎo 茅 草, means (lit. weed-herb) weeds. In Chǔcí Bǔjū 楚辭卜居 [The Diviner, Poetry of the South], it is written that “nìng zhūchú cǎomáo yǐ lìgēng hū, jiāng yóu dàrén yǐ chéngmíng hū? 寧誅鋤草茅以力耕乎，將遊大人以成名乎?” (Should I remove the grass with a hoe and vigorously plow the field, or should I make the rounds visiting the important people in order to establish my name?) Chóngmíng 蟲螟, also known as míngchóng 螟蟲, means (lit. insect larva) insects. In Lǐjì Yuèlìng 禮記月令 [Proceedings of Government in the Different Months, the Book of Rites], it is written that “[zhòngchūn zhīyuè] xíng xiàlìng, zé guó nǎi dàhàn, nuǎnqì zǎolái, chóngmíng wéihài. 〔仲春之月〕行夏令，則 國乃大旱，煖氣早來，蟲螟爲害.” ([In the second month of spring] If those of summer were observed, there would be great droughts among the people; the hot airs would come too early; and caterpillars and other insects would harm the grain.) Niǎowū 鳥烏 is (lit. bird crow) the crow. In Zuǒzhuàn Xiānggōng shíbānián 左 傳襄公十八年 [The Year 18 in the Reign of Lord Xiang (555 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “niǎowū zhī shēng yuè, qí shī qí dùn. 鳥烏之聲樂，齊師其遁.” (The cawing of crows is joyful. The Qi army has probably fled.) Qíndú 禽犢 is (lit. beast calf) the calf. In Xúnzǐ Quànxué 荀子勸學 [An Exhortation to Learning, the Works of Xunzi], it is written that “jūnzǐ zhīxué yě, yǐ měi qí shēn; xiǎorén zhī xué yě, yǐ wéi qíndú. 君子之學也，以美其身；小人之學 也，以爲禽犢.” (Thus, the learning of the gentleman is used to improve himself, while the learning of the petty man is to be a calf [so as to please others].) Yang Ji 楊倞 noted that “qíndú, kuìxiàn zhī wù yě. 禽犢，餽獻之物也.” (Qíndú 禽犢 refers to a gift to please others.) Yúwěi 魚鮪， also known as wěiyú 鮪魚, lǐyú鯉魚 is (lit. fish carp) the carp. In Lǐjì Lǐyùn 禮記禮運 [Ceremonial Usages: their Origin, Development, and Intention, the Book of Rites], it is written that “gù lóng yǐwéi chù, gù yúwěi bù shěn. 故龍以爲畜,故魚鮪不淰.” (When the dragon becomes a domestical animal, (all other) fishes and the sturgeon do not lie hidden from men [in the mud].) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 annotated that “shěn, shuǐzhōng jīngzǒu yě. 淰，水中驚走也.” (淰 means fish get started and flee.) 5.5 Themodifiedmorphemesubordinatetothe modifyingmorpheme Some examples are given as follows. Dìlǐ 地理 is (lit. earth appearances) lines of the earth. In Yì Xìcíshàng 易繫辭 上 [Commentary on the Appended Judgments I of Book of Changes], it is written that “yǎng yǐ guānyú tiānwén, fǔ yǐ cháyú dìlǐ. 仰以觀於天文，俯以察於地理.” (Looking upward, we contemplate with its help the signs in the heavens; looking down, we examine the lines of the earth.) Gǔjié 骨節 is (lit. bone and articulus) bone joints. In Zhuāngzǐ Dáshēng 莊子 達生 [Mastering Life, the Works of Zhuangzi], it is written that “fū zuìzhě zhī zhuìchē, suī jí bùsǐ. Gǔjié yú rén tóng, ér fànhài yú rén yì. 夫醉者之墜車，雖疾

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不死.骨節與人同，而犯害與人異.” (When a drunk man falls from a carriage, though the carriage may be going very fast, he won’t be killed. He has bones and joints the same as other men, and yet he is not injured as they would be.) Tiānzǐ 天子 is the son of Heaven, sovereign or the ruler of the world in ancient times. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Yǔwúzhèng 詩小雅雨無正 [Yu woo Ching, the Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is written that “yún bù kě shǐ, dé zuì yú tiānzǐ. 云不可使，得罪于天子.” (By advice that cannot be followed, you offend against the Son of Heaven.) In Lǐjì Dàxué 禮記大學 [The Great Learning, the Book of Rites], it is written that “zì tiānzǐ yǐ zhì yú shùrén, yī shì jiēyǐ xiūshēn wéiběn. 自天子以至於庶人，壹是皆以修身爲本.” (From the Son of Heaven down to multitudes of the people, all considered the cultivation of the person to be the root [of everything besides].) 5.6 Themodifyingmorphemesignifiestherawmaterial ofthethingssignifiedbythemodifiedmorpheme See the example of bùyī 布衣, it is (lit. cotton garment) the common people. In Zhànguócè Zhàocèèr 戰國策趙策二 [The Strategies of Zhao II, Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “tiānxià zhī qīngxiāng rénchén, nǎizhì bùyī zhī shì, mò bù gāoxián dàwáng zhī xíngyí. 天下之卿相人臣，乃至布衣之士，莫 不高賢大王之行義.” (Everyone in the word, either aminister or a commoner, commends our king’s virtuous conducts.) In Lǚshì chūnqiū Xínglún 吕氏春秋行 論 [Being Cautious in One’s Conducts, Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it it written that “rénzhǔ zhīxíng yú bùyī yì. 人主之行與布衣異.” (The conducts of a ruler are different from those of the common people.) Mùyuān 木鳶 is (lit. wood eagle) wooden flying objects like eagles. In Hánfēizǐ Wàichǔshuō zuǒshàng 韓非子外儲説左上 [Outer Congeries of Sayings, the Upper Left Series, the Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu], it is written that “mòzǐ wéi mùyuān, sānnián érchéng, fěi yírì érbài. 墨子爲木鳶，三年而成，蜚一日 而敗.” (Mo Tzu once constructed a wooden kite, which took him three years to complete. The day he flew it, it fell.) Yùbǎn 玉版 is (lit. jade board) white plates for inscription. In Hánfēizǐ Yùlǎo 韓非子喻老 [Illustrations of Lao Tzu’s Teachings, The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu], it is written that “zhōuyǒu yùbǎn, zhòu lìng jiāogé suǒzhī, wénwáng bùyǔ. 周有玉版，紂令膠鬲索之，文王不予.” (There were carved jade plates in Chou. Once King Chow sent Chiao Li to get them, but King Wen would not give them away.) 5.7 Themodifyingpartsignifyingtheattributesofcolor,nature, orsizeofwhatthemodifiedmorphemesignifying See the following examples. Huángjīn 黄金 is (lit. yellow gold) gold. It is written in Ěryǎ Shìqì 爾雅釋器 [Explaining Utensils of Close to Standard Language] that “huángjīn wèi zhī dàng,

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qí měi zhě wèi zhī liú. 黄金謂之璗，其美者謂之鏐.” (Gold is named dàng 璗, fine gold liú鏐.) In Zhànguócè Qíncèyī 戰國策秦策一 [The Strategies of Qin I, the Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “hēidiāo zhī qiú bì, huángjīn bǎi yì jìn. 黑貂之裘敝，黄金百鎰盡.” (Now his sable fur coat is worn out, 100 liang (monetary unit) of gold run out as well.) Nǚluó 女蘿 (lit. female liches), or written as 女羅, means lichens. In Chǔcí Jiǔgē Shānguǐ 楚辭九歌山鬼 [Mountain Spirit, Nine Songs of Poetry of the South], it is written that “ruò yǒurén xī shān zhī ā, bèi bìlì xī dài nǚluó. 若有人兮 山之阿，被薜荔兮帶女羅.” (There seems to be someone in the mountain hollow, draped in creeping fig with pine-gauze sash.) Qīngyíng 青蠅 is a kind of fly or (fig.) slanderer. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Qīngying 詩 小雅青蠅 [Ts’ing Ying (blue flies), Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is written that “yíngyíng qīngyíng, zhǐ yú fán, qǐ dì jūn zǐ, wú xìn chányán. 營營青蠅，止于樊，豈弟君子，無信讒言.” (They buzz about, the blue flies, lighting on the fences. O happy and courteous sovereign, do not believe slauderous speeches.) In Lúnhéng Shāngchóng 論衡商蟲 [Remarks on insects, Discourses Weighed in the Balance, the Book of Songs], it is written that “chányán shāngshàn, qīngyíng yúbái, tóngyī huòbài, shīyǐ wéixīng. 讒言傷善，青蠅汙白， 同一禍敗，詩以爲興.” (Slanderous talk damage virtuous men; blue flies stain white cloth. Misfortunes and failures are covered in the atmospheric introductions [xīng 興 ].) 5.8 Themodifyingpartssignifyingtheshapesor appearancesofwhattherootmorphemessignifying See the following examples. Fēipéng 飛蓬 is (lit. flying weed) messy or fluttering weeds. In Shī Wèifēng Bóxī 詩衛風伯兮 [Po Hi, the Odes of Wei of the Book of Songs], it is written that “zì bó zhī dōng, shǒu rú fēi péng. 自伯之東，首如飛蓬.” (Since you, my lord, went to the East, my hair is like the flying Artemisia.) Jiǎogōng 角弓 is horn-adorned bow. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Jiǎogōng 詩小雅角弓 [Küe kung, Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is written that “xīngxīng jiǎogōng, piān qí fǎn yǐ. 騂騂角弓，翩其反矣.” (Well-adjusted is the horn [– adorned) bow, but [oblique is its warping] awry it does when warping.) Zhu Xi 朱熹 annotated that “jiǎogōng, yǐ jiǎo shì gōng yě. 角弓，以角飾弓也.” (Jiǎogōng 角弓 means the bow decorated with horns.) Lóngqí 龍旂 is flags that feature dragon. It is written in Shī Shāngsòng Xuánniǎo 詩商頌玄鳥 [Heuen Nëaou, Sacrificial Odes of Shang of the Book of Songs] that “lóngqí shíchéng, dàchì shì chéng. 龍旂十乘，大糦是承.” (Ten princes, with their dragon-emblazoned banners, bear the large dishes of millet.) In Shǐjì Lǐshū 史記禮書 [The Treatise of Propriety, Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “lóngqí jiǔyóu, suǒyǐ yǎngxìn yě. 龍旂九斿，所以養 信也.” (The flag that features dragon and has nine tassels is intended to build authority.)

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5.9 Themodifyingpartsignifiesthestatusandprofession ofthepersonsignifiedbytherootmorpheme See the following examples. Fǎguān 法官 are officials in charge of law and execution. In Shāngjūnshū Dìngfēn 商君書定分 [The Fixing of Rights and Duties, the Book of Lord Shang], it is written that “lìmín[yù]zhī fǎlìng zhě, jiē wèn fǎguān. 吏民〔欲〕知法令者， 皆問法官.” (Officials and civilians could ask the officials in the justice departments about laws and regulations.) Nóngfū 農夫 is serf or husbandmen. It is written in Shī Bīnfēng Qīyuè 詩豳風 七月 [Ts’ih yueh (The Seventh Month), the Odes of Pin of the Book of Songs] that “cǎichá xīnchū, shíwǒ nóngfū. 采茶薪樗，食我農夫.” (They gather the sowthistle and make firewood of the Fetid tree to feed our husbandmen.) In Zuǒzhuàn Yǐngōng liùnián 左傳隱公六年 [The sixth Year in the Reign of Lord Yin (717 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “wèi guójiā zhě, jiànwù rú nóngfū zhī wù qù cǎo yān. 爲國家者，見惡如農夫之務去 草焉.” (Those who rule domains and patrimonies look upon iniquity in the same way a farmer exerts efforts to remove weeds.) Zhōuzǐ 舟子 means boatman. It is written in Shī Bèifēng Páoyǒukǔyè 詩邶風 匏有苦葉 [P’aou-yew-koo-yeh of the Goard With Bitter Leaves, the Odes of P’ei of the Book of Songs] that “zhāozhāo zhōuzǐ, rénshè yǎng fǒu. 招招舟子，人涉 卬否.” (The boatman keeps beckoning; and others cross with him, but I do not.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “zhōuzǐ, zhōu rén, zhǔ jì dù zhě. 舟子，舟人，主濟渡者.” (Zhōuzǐ 舟子 refers to those who carry people across a river by a boat.) 5.10 Themodifyingmorphemesignifyingthefunctions ofthethingsrootmorpheme See the following examples. Hùjí 户籍 is household register. It is written in Guǎnzǐ Jìncáng 管子禁藏 [On Maintaining Restraint, the Works of Guanzi] that “hùjítián jié zhě, suǒyǐ zhī pínfù zhī bùzǐ yě. 户籍田結者，所以知貧富之不訾也.” (Household registers and land records are means to know gradations of wealth.) Shíyì 食邑 is (lit. food fief) fief of officials living on taxation, so their fiefs are called shíyì 食邑 (food). In Shǐjì Fánkuàilièzhuàn 史記樊噲列傳 [The Biographies of Fan Kuai, Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “cì shíyì dù zhī fán xiāng. 賜食邑杜之樊鄉.” (The county Fanxiang of the state Du was granted to him [Fan Kuai] as fief.) In Hànshū Gāodìjìxià 漢書•高帝紀下 [The Annals of Emperor Gaozu, the Book of Former Han], it is recorded that “qí yǒugōng zhě, shàng zhìzhī wáng, cì wéi lièhóu, xià nǎi shíyì. 其有功者，上致之王，次爲列 侯，下乃食邑.” (Those who gained merit obtained various awards from the titles of princes or lords to fiefs.) Tiánchē 田車 is hunting carriages. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Jírì 詩小雅吉日 [Keih jih (a lucky day), Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is recorded that

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“tiánchē jìhǎo, sìmǔ kǒngfù. 田車既好，四牡孔阜.” (Our hunting carriages were good; the team for each was in fine condition.) In Zhōulǐ Kǎogōngjì 周禮考工記 [Artificers’ Record, The Rituals of Zhou], it is recorded that “tiánchē zhīlún liùchǐ yǒu sāncùn. 田車之輪六尺有三寸.” [The diameter of wheels of hunting carriage is six chi and three cun (approximately 1.16 meters)]. 5.11 Themodifyingmorphemesignifyingthemode ofconductsignifiedbytherootmorpheme Some examples are given as follows. Jiǎmèi 假寐 (fake-sleep) means take a nap with clothes on. In Zuǒzhuàn Xuāngōng èrnián 左傳宣公二年 [The second Year in the Reign of Lord Xuan (607 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is recorded that “shèngfú jiāngcháo, shàngzǎo, zuòér jiǎmèi. 盛服將朝，尚早，坐而假寐.” ([Zhao Dun was] fully dressed in official robes and was about to go to court. It was still early, and he was sitting with closed eyes.) Du Yu 杜預 annotated that “bùjiě yīguān ér shuì. 不解衣冠而睡.” (Jiǎmèi 假寐 means to doze off with clothes on.) Máopào 毛炮 is roast meat without removing hair. In Zhōulǐ Dìguān Fēngrén 周 禮地官封人 [Minister of Public Works, Offices of the Earth, the Rituals of Zhou], it is reorded that “fán jìsì, shì qí niúshēng, shè qí bīhéng . . . gēwǔ shēng jí máopào zhī tún. 凡祭祀，飾其牛牲，設其楅衡 . . . 歌舞牲及毛炮之豚.” (In any sacrificial ceremonies, sacrificial animals such as oxen are decorated and controlled with a beam placed beneath the horns . . . there were also oxen dance and roasted pigs without hair removal.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that “máopào zhě, yàn qù qí máo ér páo zhī. 毛炮者，爓去其毛而炰之.” (Máopào 毛炮 refers to roast meat without hair removal.) Wǎhé 瓦合 means compromise or accept with reluctance. In Hànshū Li Yijizhuàn 漢書酈食其傳 [The Biographies of Li Yiji, the Book of Han], it is recorded that “zúxià qǐ wǎhé zhī zú, shōu sànluàn zhī bīng, bùmǎn wànrén, yù yǐ jìngrù jiāngqín, cǐ suǒwèi tàn hǔkǒu zhě yě. 足下起瓦合之卒，收散亂之兵，不滿萬人，欲以 徑入彊秦，此所謂探虎口者也.” (You have only raised an army of less than 10,000 unqualified, scattered soldiers but ventured into the territory of Qin. You are putting yourself to the mouth of tiger.) Attributive compounds in Old Chinese are mostly nouns with few verbs. Compounds of adjectives and adverbs are seldom found.

6 Verb-objectcompounds There are a few numbers of verb-object compounds, of which nouns and verbs take the majority. Some examples of nouns are given as follows. Jiāngjūn 將軍 is general or commander. During the Spring and Autumn period, the ministers in the states commanded the army are addressed as this term which literally means to command army. In Shǐjì Huáiyīnhóu lièzhuàn 史記淮陰侯列 傳 [The Biography of the Marquis Huai-yin, Records of the Grand Historian], it

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is recorded that “chéngxiàng shùyán jiāngjūn, jiāngjūn héyǐ jiào guǎrén? 丞相數 言將軍，將軍何以教寡人？” (Prime Minister Hsiao Ho has often spoken to me about you, General. What sort of strategy is it that you would teach me?) Píngfēng 屏風 is indoor screen to block wind or sight. In Shìmíng Shìchuángzhàng 釋名釋床帳 [Explaning Bedsheet, Explaining Terms of Close to Standard Language], it is recorded that “píngfēng, yán kěyǐ píngzhàng fēng yě. 屏風，言 可以屏障風也.” (Pingfeng’s function is to block wind.) In Shǐjì Mèngchángjūn lièzhuàn 史記孟嘗君列傳 [The Biographies of Lord Mengchang, Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “mèngchángjūn dàikè zuòyǔ, ér píngfēng hòu chángyǒu shìshǐ. 孟嘗君待客坐語，而屏風後常有侍史.” (When Lord Mengchang sat and chatted with his guests, behind the screen often sat a scribe.) Sīnán 司南 is (lit. direct south) an early form of compass or a tool made of magnetized iron used for identifying direction. In Hánfēizǐ Yǒudù 韓非子有度 [Having Regulations, the Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu], it is recorded that “fū rénchén zhī qīn qí zhǔ yě, rú dìxíng yān, jí jiàn yǐ wǎng, shǐ rénzhǔ shīduān, dōngxī yìmiàn ér bù zìzhī, gù xiānwáng lì sīnán yǐ duān zhāoxī. 夫人臣之侵其 主也，如地形焉，即漸以往，使人主失端，東西易面而不自知，故先王立 司南以端朝夕.”（ Indeed, some ministers offended their king. It is like walking near afar, one could see the shape of land different. He would forget his starting point and get confused about the east and west directions. To guard against such misleadings, the early kings had the sinan compass erected to ascertain the directions of sunrise and sunset.） Sīkòu 司寇 are officials in charge of prison and picket in ancient times. In Zuǒzhuàn Zhuānggōngèrshínián 左傳莊公二十年 [The Year 20 in the Reign of Lord Zhuang (674 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is recorded that “fū sīkòu xínglù, jūn wéi zhī bùjǔ. 夫司寇行戮，君爲之不举.” (When the supervisor of corrections carries out executions, a ruler does not dine with full ceremony.) In Mèngzǐ Gàozǐxià 孟子告子下 [Master Kao II, the Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “kǒngzǐ wéi lǔ sīkòu. 孔子爲魯司寇.” (Confucius was the justice minister in Lu.) Zhǔshū 主書 is the official in charge of documents of ancient times. In Lǚshìchūnqiū Yuèchéng 吕氏春秋樂成 [Pleasure in Success, Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “wénhóu zhī zhī, mìng zhǔshū yuē: ‘qúnchén bīnkè suǒ xiàn shū zhě, cāo yǐ jìn zhī！’文侯知之，命主書曰：“群臣賓客 所獻書者，操以進之！” (Marquis Wen noticed . . . and so commanded the office in charge of official documents, saying, ‘Bring forth to me all the documents that have been submitted by our ministers and retainers.’) Some examples of verbs are given as follows. Cóngshì 從事 means conduct (business). In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Shíyuè zhījiāo 詩小雅 十月之交 [At the conjunction in the tenth month, Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is recorded that “mǐnmiǎn cóngshì, bùgǎn gàoláo. 黽 勉從事，不敢告勞.” (I strive to perform my services; I dare not report fatigue.) In Lúnyǔ Tàibó 論語泰伯 [Taibo of the Confucian Analects], it is recorded that “xīzhě wúyǒu cháng cóngshì yú sī yǐ. 昔者吾友嘗從事於斯矣.” (In the past I had a friend who always tried to be like that.)

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Dānglù 當路 means hold power. In Mèngzǐ Gōngsūnchǒushàng 孟子公孫丑 上 [Kung-Sun Ch’ou I, the Works of Mencius], it is recorded that “fūzǐ dānglù yú qí, guǎnzhòng yànzǐ zhīgōng kě fùxǔōhū? 夫子當路于齊，管仲晏子之功可復 許乎?” (Sir, if you took charge in Ch’i, could you re-create the success of Kuan Chung and Lord Yen?) Zhézhōng 折中 means being impartial. In Shǐjì Kǒngzǐshìjiāzàn 史記孔子世 家贊 [Author’s Comment on the Hereditary House of Confucius, Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “zì tiānzǐwánghóu, zhōngguó yán liùyì zhě, zhézhōng yú fūzǐ, kěwèi zhìshèng yǐ. 自天子王侯，中國言六藝者，折中于夫 子，可謂至聖矣.” (From kings to lords who advocate six arts, all of them admire Confucius, who deserves the title of saint.) Zhǔmíng 主名 means name something or build an identity. In Shū Lǚxíng 書吕 刑 [Lü Hing of the Book of Documents], it is written that “yǔ píng shuǐtǔ, zhǔmíng shānchuān. 禹平水土，主名山川.”（ Yü regulated waters and land, presided over the naming of mountains and rivers.） In Lǐjì Dàzhuàn 禮記大傳 [The Great Treatise, the Boook of Rites], it is written that “yìxìng zhǔmíng, zhì jìhuì. 異姓主 名，治際會.” (Those of a different surname had their identities regulated principally by the names assigned to them.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 annotated that “yìxìng, wèi tāxìng zhī nǚ lái wéi jǐxìng zhīqī, xì fū zhī qīn, zhǔ wéi mǔfù zhīmíng. Fū ruò wèi fùxíng, zé zhǔ mǔmíng; fū ruò zǐxíng, zé zhǔ fùmíng. 異姓，謂他姓之女 來爲己姓之妻，繫夫之親，主爲母婦之名.夫若爲父行，則主母名；夫若子 行，則主婦名.” (A girl of a different surname will take that of her husband after being married and is considered a member of her parents-in-law’s rather than her own parents’ surname. She will be addressed as “XX mǔ” [Mother XX] [XX: her husband’s surname] after she becomes a mother or “XX fù” [Lady XX] before she becomes a mother.)

7 Subject-predicatecompounds Subject-predicate compounds were of even smaller numbers in Old Chinese. Some examples are given as follows. Gōngzhǔ 公主 refers to daughters of emperors or lords or princess. Gōngzhǔ 公主 was called wāngjī王姬 during the Zhou dynasty and gōngzhǔ 公主 during the Warring States period. During the Han dynasty, daughters of the emperor were called gōngzhǔ 公主， a younger sister of the emperor called zhǎnggōngzhǔ 長 公主, an aunt of an emperor called dàzhǎnggōngzhǔ 大長公主 (lit. great first princess). In Lǐjì Dàzhuàn 禮記大傳 [The Great Treatise, the Book of Rites], it is written that “gōngshū wéi xiāng, shàng wèi gōngzhǔ. 公叔爲相，尚魏公主.” (Your uncle is the Prime Minister who married the daughter of Emperor Wei.) In Hànshū Wángjízhuàn 漢書王吉傳 [The Biographies of Wang Ji, the Book of Former Han], it is written that “yòu hànjiā lièhóu shàng gōngzhǔ. 又漢家列侯尚 公主.” (The lords of Han would feel honored to marry the royal princesses.) Regarding wūlòu 屋漏, the northwest corner of a house is named wūlòu 屋 漏 (lit. leakage of a house). Skylight comes through the window in the northwest corner of the house. In Shī Dàyǎ Yì 詩大雅抑 [Yih (Be Cautious), Greater Odes of

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the Kingdom of the Book of Odes], it is written tha “xiāng zài ěr shì, shàng bú kuì yú wūlòu. 相在爾室，尚不愧於屋漏.” (Looked at in your chamber, you ought to be equally free from shame before the light which shines in.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 annotated in Zhèng Yì 正義 [Annotations of Five Classics] that “wūlòu zhě, shìnèi chùsuǒ zhī míng, kěyǐ shī xiǎozhàng ér lòu yǐn zhī chù, zhèngwèi xīběiyú yě. 屋 漏者，室内處所之名，可以施小帳而漏隠之處，正謂西北隅也.” (Wūlòu 屋 漏 refers to an opening in the northwest corner of a house where some light could come in.) Zhījiě 肢解 or 支解 is a punitive torture of ancient times that one’s four limbs are asundered by carts. In Hánshīwàizhuàn Juànbā 韓詩外傳 卷八 [Outer Commentary on the Book of Songs by Master Han Volume Eight], it is written that “qí yǒu dézuì yú jǐnggōng zhě, jǐnggōng dànù, fù zhìzhī diànxià, zhào zuǒyòu zhījiě zhī. 齊有得罪于景公者，景公大怒，縛置之殿下，召左右肢解之.” (Greatly offended, Duke Jing flew into such a rage that he ordered to tie the offender and had himdismembered.) In Zhànguócè Qíncèsān 戰國策秦策三 [The Strategies of Qin III, Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “[Wu Qi] gōng yǐ chéng yǐ, zú zhījiě. 〔吴起〕功已成矣，卒支解.” (Wu Qi accomplished great achievement yet he was dismembered in the end.) Xīnyí 心儀 means admire (lit. one’s heart turning to). In Hànshū Wàiqīzhuàn Xiàoxuānxǔhuánghòu 漢書外戚傳孝宣許皇后 [Empress Xiaoxuan, the Biographies of Imperial Relatives of the Book of Former Han], it is written that “gōngqīng yì gēnglì huánghòu, jiē xīnyí huò jiāngjūn nǚ. 公卿議更立皇后， 皆心儀霍將軍 女.” (Officials were talking about crowning a new empress, and they all favored the daughter of General Huo.) Chǐshuāi 齒衰 is (lit. teeth fail) ageing. In Hànshū Zhàochōngguózhuàn 漢書 趙充國傳 [The Biographies of Zhao Chongguo, the Book of former Han], it is written that “chén chōngguó cáixià, quǎnmǎ chǐshuāi. 臣充國材下，犬馬齒衰.” (I, Chen Chong, am so old that I am declined in ability and have decayed teeth.) Zìshā 自殺 means commit suicide. In Zuǒzhuàn Zhuānggōngshíjiǔnián 左傳莊 公十九年 [The Year 19 in the Reign of Lord Zhuang, Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “yùquán zàngzhū xīshì, yì zìshā yě. 鬻拳葬諸夕室，亦自殺也.” (Yu Quan buried him at the Evening Chamber. For his part, he committed suicide.) In Shǐjì Wèikāngshūshìjiā 史記•衛康叔世家 [The Hereditary House of Wei Kangshu of Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “gòngbó rù, líhóuxiàn zìshā. 共伯入，釐侯羨自殺.” (Li Houxian committed suicide when Gongbo entered.) Monosyllabic words were turned into morphemes on the base of whose compound words formed. In Old Chinese, many compound words were formed with one common monosyllabic morpheme. For example, in Old Chinese the morpheme míng 明 was used to form many compound words, such as míngbái 明 白 (understand), míngfā 明發 (dawn), mínghuǒ 明火 (fire used for sacrifice and prophesizing), míngmíng 明明 (eagle-eyed, perceptive), míngshàng 明上 (Your Majesty), míngshén 明神 (an honorific title for deity), míngxíng 明星 (Venus, the morning star), míngzhāo 明昭 (bright, prominent), míngzhé 明哲 (insightful), cōngmíng 聰明 (be sharp in hearing and sight; smart), guāngmíng 光明 (bright,

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shining), gāomíng 高明 (the heaven; bright; wise man), jīngmíng 精明 (careful), qīngmíng 清明 (clean, politically sound), wénmíng 文明 (bright, colorful), zhāomíng 昭, and 明 (bright), etc. Besides, polysemous monosyllables of large numbers in Old Chinese contributed greatly to the development of compounds. The multiple meanings of a morpheme contributed to the formation of various compounds. For example, the polysemous morpheme bù 布 had a range of meanings: mázhù 麻苧 (coarse cloth), gémián zhīwù 葛棉織物 (fabric of hemp), huòbì 貨幣 (money), shīyǔ 施予 (give), xuānbù 宣布 (declare), and chuányáng 傳揚 (spread by word of mouth). Compounds with bù 布 thereby convey different meanings. Some examples are given as follows. Bùbó 布帛 is fabric cloth, where bù 布 means coarse cloth, fabric of hemp. In Mèngzǐ Téngwéngōngshàng 孟子滕文公上 [Duke Wen of T’eng I, the Works of Mencius], it is written that “bùbó chángduǎn tóng, zé jiǎ xiāngruò. 布帛長短同， 則賈相若.” (Cloth of the same length would bring the same price.) Bùhuò 布貨 is coins, where bù 布 means money. In Hànshū Shíhuòzhìxià 漢 書食貨志下 [Records of Agriculture and Treasury of the Book of Former Han], it is recorded that “dàbù . . . cháng èrcùn sìfēn, zhòng yīliǎng, ér zhí qiānqián yǐ. Shì wéi bùhuò shípǐn. 大布 . . . 長二寸四分，重一兩，而直千錢矣.是爲 布貨十品.” (The large metal money was 2.4 cun (about 8–9 cm) long, one liang (about 16 g) of weight, worthy of 1,000. There were altogether ten units of currency.) Bùshī 布施 means distribute, where bù 布 means give. In Hánfēizǐ Xiǎnxué 韓非子顯學 [Learned Celebrities of the Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu], it is written that “jīn shàng zhēngliǎn yú fùrén, yǐ bùshī yú pínjiā. 今上徵斂於富人， 以布施於貧家.” (Nowadays, the superior levies money from the rich in order to distribute alms among the poor.) Bùgào 布告 means declare, and bù 布 means declare. In Shǐjì Lǚhòuběnjì 史 記吕後本紀 [The Basic Annals of Empress Lü, Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “liúshì suǒlì jiǔwáng, lǚshì suǒlì sānwáng, jiē dàchén zhī yì, shì yǐ bùgào zhūhóu. 劉氏所立九王，吕氏所立三王，皆大臣之議，事已布告諸 侯.” (Nine of the Liu family and three of the Lü family were crowned as lords. All was done after with the counsel of the high officials and already announced to the lords across the country.) Bùyáng 布揚 means spread. Bù 布 means to spread. In Shǐjì Huòzhílièzhuàn 史記貨殖列傳 [The Biographies of Money-Makers, Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “fū shǐ kǒngzǐ míng bùyáng yú tiānxià zhě, zǐgòng xiānhòu zhī yě. 夫使孔子名布揚於天下者，子貢先後之也.” (It was due to Zigong’s efforts that Confucius’ fame was spread over the states.) The morpheme fú 服 covers many meanings, such as fúzhuāng 服裝 (garments), cóngshì 從事 (engage in), sīniàn 思念 (keep . . . in heart), shùncóng 順從 (obey), xíguàn 習慣 (get accustomed to). Compounds with fú 服 thereby convey different meanings. Some examples are given as follows: Yīfú 衣服 is clothes, where fú 服 means garments. In Shī Xiǎoyǎ Dàdōng 詩 小雅大東 [Ta Tung, the Minor Odes of the Kingdom of the Book of Songs], it is

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written that “xīrén zhīzǐ, càncàn yīfú. 西人之子，粲粲衣服.” (There in the west, sons of each noble line live idle and in splendid dresses shine.) Fúyì 服役 means serve or follow. Fú 服 means engage in. In Hánfēizǐ Wǔdù 韓 非子五蠹 [Five Vermin, the Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu], it is written that “gù yǐ tiānxià zhīdà, ér wéi fúyì zhě qīshí rén. 故以天下之大，而爲服役者七十 人.” (Notwithstanding the vastness of All-under-Heaven, those who could become his avowed disciples were only 70.) Fúyīng 服膺 means keep in mind. Fú 服 means keep . . . in one’s heart. In Lǐjì Zhōngyōng 禮記中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean, the Book of Rites], it is written that “dé yīshàn zé quánquán fúyīng ér fúshī zhī yǐ. 得一善則拳拳服膺而弗失之 矣.” (When he found any one thing that was good, he kept it firmly in his mind and would not let it go.) Fúcóng 服從 means obey. Fú 服 means to follow or obey. In Lǐjì Nèizé 禮記 内則 [The Book of Rites], it is written that “sìshí shǐshì, fāngwù chūmóu fālǜ, dàohé zé fúcóng, bùkě zé qù. 四十始仕，方物出謀發慮，道合則服從，不可 則去.” (At 40, he was first appointed to office, making sound judgments and offering counsels. If his proposals were accepted, he would serve the king; if not, he would leave.) Fúxí 服習 means get accustomed to. Fú 服 means to observe. In Zuǒzhuàn Xīgōng shíwǔnián 左傳僖公十五年 [The Year 15 in the Reign of Lord Xi (645 BCE), Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “ānqí jiàoxùn, ér fúxí qí dào. 安其教訓，而服習其道.” (Comfortable with their instructions and commands, they were familiar with local roads.) In Hànshū Cháocuòzhuàn 漢書晁錯傳 [The Biography of Chao Cu, The Book of Han], it is recorded that “shì bù xuànliàn, zú bù fúxí. 士不選練，卒不服習.” (The commanders do not organize training; the soldiers do not get familiar with skills.)

8 Conclusion In conclusion, the evolution of disyllabic compounds in Old Chinese has three features. Disyllabic compounds were clearly growing in number, especially in the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, in spite of the dominance of monosyllables. The disyllabic compounds in Old Chinese are of various structures, mainly coordinative and attributive, which is consistent with the general progress of Chinese lexicon. A large number of monosyllabic morphemes were frequently used in compound formation; the multiple meanings of morphemes brought forth the multiple meanings of compounds.

Notes 1 Shuangdi Zhang 張雙棣 Lǚshìchūnqiū cíhuìyánjiū《吕氏春秋》辭滙研究 [Lexical Studies of Master Lu’s Spring and Autumn Annals], Shāngdōng jiàoyù chūbǎnshè 山東 教育出版社, Shandong Education Press, 1989. 2 Cheng, Xiangxing 程湘清. Lùnhéng fùyīncíyánjiū 《論衡》複音詞研究 [A Study of Multisyllabic Words in Lunheng, Discourses Weighed in the Balance], Shāngdōng jiàoyù chūbǎnshè 山東教育出版社, Shandong Education Press, 1992.

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3 Most scholars argued that liánmián words are fixed mono-morphemic disyllables. For instance, Wang Li 王力 wrote in his Zhōngguóyǔfǎlǐlùn 中國語法理論 [Theory of Chinese Grammar] that “The so-called liámmián words refer to those with two characters alliterated or rhyming put together.” In L ü Shuxiang’s 吕叔湘 Zhōngguó wénfǎ yàolüè 中國文法要略 [Essential Chinese Grammar], it reads that “fixed Mono-morphemic disyllables, termed liánmián words by previous scholars, refers to the those composed of two phonemes used as a single word.” 4 Guowei Wang 王國維. Guāntángjílín 觀堂集林 [Collection of Ancient History and Philology by Wang Guowei, also known as Wang Guantang], volume 4, p. 222. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 5 Gu Yanwu 顧炎武, scholar of the Qing dynasty, once discussed this type of compounds. In volume 27 of Rìzhīlù 日知録 [Records of Classics], it reads that “gǔrén zhī cí, kuānhuǎn bú pò. Rú déshī, shī yě; huǎnjí, jí yě; chéngbài, bài yě; yìtóng, yì yě; yíngsuō, suō yě; huòfú, huò yě. Jiēcǐlèi. 古人之辭，寬緩不迫.如得失，失也；緩急，急也；成敗，敗 也；異同，異也；赢縮，縮也；禍福，祸也.皆此纇.” [Ancient people tended to use disyllabic compounds so as not to sound abrupt. For instance, déshī (gain and loss) means the same as shī (loss); huǎnjí (easy and hurried) means the same as jí (pressing, hurried); chéngbài (victory and failure) means the same as bài (failure); yìtóng (differences and similarities), the same as yì (differences); yíngsuō (winning and reduction), the same as suō (reduction); huòfú (misfortune and blessing), the same as huò (misfortune), etc.]

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Theprogressoflexical meaningsofOldChinese

1 Introduction Semantic development is one major lexical progress of the Old Chinese. A complex semantic system had evolved by the time of the dynasties of Zhou (1046–256 BCE), Qin (221–207 BCE), and Han (202 BCE–220 CE). The majority of the common monosyllabic words became polysemous words with original and derivative meanings; certain words are also interchangeable (tōngjiǎ 通假)1 in written texts. A complicated semantic relationship is shown in one word with several different meanings.

2 Monosemyandpolysemy In the Old Chinese language, some words are monosyllabic and monosemous, while other words are polysemeous. A monosemy has just the one meaning, which can be seen in the following examples: hù 䨼 (the pigment of azurite); méng 虻 (an insect of gray-black color, slightly larger than a fly, the females suck the blood of humans and animals); suì 旞 (an ornament made of complete feathers of varied colors and tied on the flag poles of carriages in ancient times); xí 覡 (male wizard in the profession of serving tributes to gods and ghosts); kào 犒 (holding a banquet for army soldiers); wǎng 誷 (to deceive or to frame somebody); fěi 斐 (colorful; brilliant in writing style); gàn 盰 (bulging eyes); juǎn 錈 (blunting a blade’s edge of a knife or sword); and yáo 烑 (light, bright), etc. These monosemes have singular meanings without any extended meanings, among which nouns denoting names of things equate for the largest proportion. In the process of the development of the Chinese language, some nouns became extinct along with the extinction of those things, while others were replaced by newly coined words. Some words denote singular sense in certain books, which may not necessarily be referred to as monosemes. For example, the word ràng 讓 in Shījīng 詩經 [the Book of Songs] means politely decline or humility. As said in the poem Jiǎogōng 角弓 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] of the Shījīng 詩經 [the Book of Songs] that “Shòujué búràng, zhìyú yǐsīwáng. 受爵不讓，至於已斯亡.” (One gets a place, and shows no humility – till they all come to ruin.) In Old Chinese, the word was a polysemy which has a similar meaning of to blame or reject, etc. The word gōng DOI: 10.4324/9781003365556-4

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 125 功 only meant accomplishment in the Lúnyǔ 論語 [the Confucian Analects]. As said in Yánghuò 陽貨 [a person’s name], “Mǐn zé yǒugōng, huì zé zúyǐ shǐrén. 敏則有功，惠則足以使人.” (If one is earnest, one will accomplish something in the end. If one is wise, one will be able to enjoy the services of others.) In the sentence, the word gōng 功 is a monosemy. However, in Old Chinese, the word gōng 功 was a polysemy which means affair, accomplishment, effort, and solid. There were numerous such examples in the Chinese language. The majority of common words are polysemies. Both the original and extended meanings, the original character and the interchangeable character, were in use; multiple meanings were expressed in just one word. One word could express two or three, six or seven, and even as many as a dozen meanings. The related examples are given as follows. The word gǔ瞽 had three meanings in Old Chinese: (1) Blindness in sight. As written in Xiāoyáoyóu 逍遙遊 [Enjoyment in Untroubled Ease] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it is recorded that “gǔzhě wúyǐ yǔhū wénzhāng zhī guān. 瞽者無以與乎文章之觀.” (The blind have no perception of the beauty of elegant figures.) Chéng Xuányīng 成玄英 notes that “gǔzhě, wèi yǎnwú zhēnfèng, míngmíng rú gǔpí yě. 瞽者，謂眼無眹縫，冥冥如鼓皮也.” (The word gǔ 瞽 means that the pupil of an eye is closed and looks like a drumhead.) (2) A musician. In ancient times, a musician was usually a blind person and therefore were called gǔ 瞽. In Yìnzhēng胤征 [Punitive Expedition of Yìn] of Shàngshū 尚書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “gǔ zòugǔ, sèfū chí, shùrén zǒu. 瞽奏鼓，嗇 夫馳，庶人走.” (The blind musicians beat their drums; the inferior officers galloped, and the commoners ran about.) In Wěi Kǒng Zhuàn 偽孔傳, it is written that “gǔ, yuèyuān. 瞽，樂官.” (Gǔ 瞽 refers to musicians.) (3) Lacking common sense, being narrow-minded. It is written in the essay Quànxué 勸學 [Encouraging Learning] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi] that “gù wèikě yǔyán ér yán wèizhī ào, kě yǔyán ér bùyán wèizhī yǐn, bùguān qìsè ér yán wèizhī gǔ. 故未可與言而言 謂之傲，可與言而不言謂之隱，不觀氣色而言謂之瞽.” (To speak to someone who ought not to is called officiousness; to fail to speak to someone who ought to is called secretiveness; to speak to someone without first observing their temper and looks is called blindness.) The word gǔ 股 had six meanings in Old Chinese. (1) Thigh, the part from the crotch to the knee. As written in the chapter Shuō 説 of yì jīng 易經 [The Books of Changes], it is recorded that “qián wéi shǒu, Kūn wéi fù, zhèn wéi zú, xùn wéi gǔ. 乾為首，坤為腹，震為足，巽為股.” (Qián 乾 suggests the idea of the head; Kūn 坤, that of the belly; zhèn 震, that of the feet; xùn 巽, that of the thighs) Kǒng Yǐngdá 孔穎達 notes that “gǔ suí yú zú, zé xùn shùn zhī wèi, gù wéi gǔ yě. 股隨 於足，則巽順之謂，故為股也.” (Thighs are connected to feet, with a suggestion of obedience. Thus, xùn 巽 (the symbol of wind) is compared to thighs.) (2) Feet; the part from the crotch to the heel. As recorded in Dìxíng 地形 [Geography] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], “Fán hǎiwài sān shí liù guó, zì xīběi zhì xīnán fāng, yǒu xiūgǔ mín. 凡海外三十六國，自西北至西 南方，有修股民.” (There always lived people of long legs in 36 foreign nations from the northwest to southwest directions.) Gāo Yòu 高誘 notes that gǔ 股 refers

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to foot. (3) The part of a rung near the spoke of a tire. In Lúnrén 輪人 [Tire Maker] in Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record] of the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu], it is written that “sānfēn qī gǔwéi, qùyī yǐwéi qiāowéi. 參分其股圍， 去一以為骹圍.” (Divide the circumference of gǔ 股 by three parts; the length of the two-thirds part is the circumference of the part called qiāo 骹.) It is written in Shìchē 釋車 [An Illustration of Cart] of the Kǎogōngjìtú 考工記圖 [Artificers’ Record] by Dai Zhen 戴震 that “fú jìn gǔ wèizhīgǔ, jìn yá wèizhī qiāo. 輻近轂 謂之股，近牙謂之骹.” (The part of a rung near the spoke is called gu 股; the part near the out rim is called qiao 骹.) (4) The wide, short end of a chimestone. In Qìngshì 磬氏 [Chimestone Maker], the chapter Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record] of the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu] reads that “gǔ wéi èr, gǔ wéi sān. 股為二，鼓為三.” (The second piece is gǔ 股; the third piece is the drum.) Zhèng Sīnóng 鄭司農 quoted Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 that “gǔ, qìng zhī shàng dà zhě; gǔ, qī xià xiǎo zhě. 股，磬之上大者；鼓，其下小者.” (The upper large end of a chimestone is called gǔ 股, the lower small part called gǔ 鼓.) (5) Branches of things. It is written in Gōuqúzhì 溝洫志 [Treatise on Rivers and Canals] of the Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han] that “qīxī yīn shānzú gāodì, zhūqú jiē wǎngwǎng gǔyǐn qǔzhī. 其西因山足高地，諸渠皆往往股引取之.” (The west is a piedmont region where the canals take in water separately.) The note by Rú Chún 如淳 quoted by Yán Shīgǔ 顏師古 is that “gǔ, zhībié yě. 股，支別也.” (Gu 股 means branches.) (6) The long side of the straight angle of a triangle. As written in Zhōubì Suànjīng 周髀算經 (one of the oldest Chinese mathematical texts), it is recorded that “gù zhé jǔ, yǐwéigōu guǎng sān, gǔ xiū sì, jìng yú (xián) wǔ. 故折矩，以為 句（勾）廣三，股脩四，徑隅（弦）五.” (Fold an oblong; if the two shortest sides of a right-angled triangle are three and four, the hypotenuse is five. Three is one side called gōu勾; four is another side called gǔ 股.) Lì 力 had at least nine meanings: (1) Physical strength. In the song Jiǎnxī 簡 兮 of Bèifēng 邶風 [Odes of Bèi] in Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Songs], one sentence reads “yǒulì rúhǔ, zhípèi rúzǔ. 有力如虎，執轡如組.” (I am as strong as a tiger; the reins are in my grasp like ribbons.) (2) Capability. In the chapter Yǐngōng shíyī nián 隱公十一年 [The 11th year of the reign of Lord Yin] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “dùdé ér chǔ zhī, liànglì ér xíngzhī. 度德而處之，量力而行之.” (Conduct oneself by the codes of virtues; act according to one’s capabilities.) (3) Force; puissance. As written in Gōngsūn chǒu shàng 公孫丑上 [Gōngsūn chǒu (a person’s name) I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], “Yǐ lì fúrén zhě, fēi xīnfú yě. 以力服人者， 非心服也.” (When a person subdues others by force, he does not win their genuine trust.) (4) Effort; commitment. In Zhēngmín 烝民 [The People] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “gǔxùn shì shì, wēiyí shìlì. 古訓是式，威儀是力.” (The lessons of antiquity are his law; he is strenuously attentive to his deportment.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “lì, yóuqín yě. 力，猶勤也.” (Li 力 means efforts.) (5) Try one’s best. In Wèi jiāngjūn lièzhuàn 衛將軍列傳 [Biography of General Wèi] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “jūn dàjié, jiē zhū xiàowèi lìzhàn zhī gōng yě. 軍大捷，皆諸校尉力戰之功也.” (We owe the victory of the battle to the great

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 127 contribution of every officer.) (6) Achievement. As noted in Yùpiān Lìbù 玉篇力 部 [Li Group of Jade Article], “Lì, dòngyě. 力，動也.” (Achievement means making efforts.) In Sīdòng 司動 of the chapter Xiàguān 夏官 [Offices of Summer] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu], it is written that “zhìgōng yuē lì, zhàngōng yuē duō. 治功曰力，戰功曰多.” (Lì 力 means the achievements in administration; duō 多 means military victories.) (7) Forced labor. In Lǔyǔxià 魯語下 [Discourses of the State Lu II] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “rènlì yǐ fū, ér yìqī lǎoyòu. 任力以夫，而議其老幼.” (In conscription, the government should consider the age of the man and the number of males in a family. Both the elderly and the underage should not be conscripted.) Wěi Zhāo 韋昭 notes that “lì wèi yáoyì. 力謂繇役.” (Lì 力 means forced labor.) (8) Work, labor. In Wǔdù 五 蠹 [Five Vermin] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it is written that “bú shìlì ér yīshí zé wèi zhī néng. 不事力而衣食則謂之能.” (It is now considered an ability to have food and clothes without doing any work.) (9) (Gravely) sick, ill. In Jí An Zhuàn 汲黯傳 [Biography of Ji An] of Hànshū 漢書 [the Book of Han], it is written that “jīn bìnglì, bùnéng rèn jùnshì. 今病力，不能任郡事.” (Now I am gravely sick, unable to manage the affairs of the county.) The semantic development of Old Chinese took place in a natural way. During the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770–256 BCE), the Chinese society underwent great political, ideological, and cultural transformation where social communication became increasingly frequent. Out of the need of social interaction, large quantities of new words appeared in the Chinese lexicon. As the Old Chinese words were mainly monosyllabic with a limited number of syllables, if a word had only one sense, the number of words would increase greatly, which was against the language principle of brevity and concision. Consequently, polysemies came into being during this period. The multiple meanings of one word are usually connected with one sense extended into several senses. In communication, governed by the written and spoken context, a polysemy is always used with one meaning so that communication could take place without any difficulties. As a result, it is an economical and effective practice that one word expresses several related meanings.

3 ThreeoriginalmeaningsofOldChinesewords The original meaning of a word was the word signified at its birth, which is also the source of other extended meanings. The study of the original meaning could help with a more accurate command of word meaning and a better understanding of the rules of semantic changes. Most of the original meanings were present in ancient texts. The original meaning of a word was not identical to that of a character. A word is a linguistic unit, a combination of sound and sense whereas a character is a graphic unit, a combination of graph, sound, and sense. Most of the Old Chinese words were monosyllabic, with one character representing one word. Hence, the original meaning of a character was that of a word. Shuōwén Jiězì 説文解字 [The Origin of Chinese Characters] compiled by Xu Shen 許慎 encompasses explanations of the original meanings of more than 9,000 characters with systematic analyses on graphs. On the basis of Xu’s analyses and a comprehensive study of

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pre-Qin discourses, a thorough study on the original meanings in the Old Chinese semantic system could be conducted with cross-references of texts. Such examples are given as follows. The original meaning of the word biǎo 表 was overcoat. According to Shuōwén Jiězì Yībù 説文解字衣部 [Yi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Biǎo, shàngyī yě. Cóng yī, cóng máo, gǔzhě yìqiú, yǐ máo wéi biǎo. 表， 上衣也.從衣，從毛，古者衣裘，以毛為表.” (Biǎo 表 refers to an overcoat. The graph is a combination of yī 衣 (clothes) and máo 毛 (fur). Ancient people wore fur and used it as an overcoat.) In the essay Ràng Wáng 讓王 [Kings Who Wish to Resign the Throne] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it is written that “zǐgòng chéng dàmǎ, zhōnggàn ér biǎosù, xuānchē bù róngxiàng, wǎng jiàn Yuán Xiàn. 子貢乘大馬，中紺而表素，軒車不容巷，往見原憲.” (Zigong, in an inner robe of purple and an outer one of pure white, riding in a carriage drawn by two strong horses, the hood of which was too high to get into the lane [leading to the house], paid a visit to Yuan Xian.) According to the exegetical dictionary Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons] by Lu Deming 陸德明 (one scholar of the Tang dynasty, 556–627), “Gàn wéi zhōngyī, jiāsù wéibiǎo. 紺為中衣，加素為表.” (The inner robe is purple; the outer robe is white.) The original meaning of gū 姑 (aunt) is the mother of the husband. As written in Shìqīn 釋親 [Explaining Relatives] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor], it is recorded that “fù chēng fū zhī fù yuē jiù, chēng fū zhī mǔ yuē gū. Gūjiù zài zé yuē jūnjiù jūngū, mò zé yuē xiānjiù xiān’gū. 婦稱夫之父曰舅，稱夫之母曰姑.姑 舅在則曰君舅君姑，沒則曰先舅先姑.” (A wife addresses her father-in-law as jiù 舅 and her mother-in-law as gū姑. The living parents-in-law are addressed as jūnjiù jūngū 君舅君姑, while the late ones are xiānjiù xiān’gū 先舅先姑.) As written in Tán’gōng xià 檀弓下 [Tan’gong (a person’s name) II] of the Lǐjì禮記 [The Book of Rites], it is recorded that “fùrén búshì, bùgǎn jiàn jiùgū. 婦人不飾，不 敢見舅姑.” (A wife does not dare to see her husband’s parents without wearing ornaments [of her upper robes].) The original meaning of huì 賄 (bribe) was belongings. According to Shuōwén Jiězì Bèibù説文解字貝部 [Bei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Huì, cái yě. 賄，財也.” (Huì means money.) In the poem Méng 氓 [Common People] of Wèifēng 衛風 [the Odes of Wei] in the Shījīng 詩經 [The Books of Songs], it reads that “yǐ ěr chē lái, yǐwǒ huì qiǎn. 以爾車來，以我賄遷.” (Then came with your carriage, and I will remove with my possessions.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “huì, cái. 賄，財.” (Huì 賄 means possessions or money.) The original meaning of yǔ 宇 was roof, which was recorded in Shuōwén Miánbù (i.e., Shuōwén Jiězì 説文解字宀部) [Mian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “yǔ, wūbiān yě. 宇，屋邊也.” (Yǔ 宇 means the roof of a house.) As written in Xì Cí Xià 繫辭下 [The Great Treatise II] of Ching I 易經 [The Book of Changes], it is recorded that “hòushì shèngrén yìzhī yì gōngshì, shàngdòng xiàyǔ, yǐdài fēngyǔ. 後世聖人易之以宮室，上棟下宇，以待風雨.” (In the subsequent ages, the sages brought some changes to house, with the ridge-beam above

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and the projecting roof below, as a provision against wind and rain.) Yu Fan 虞翻 notes that yǔ 宇 means roof. The original meaning of zhì 質 was mortgage. According to Shuōwén Jiězì Bèibù 説文解字貝部 [Bei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “zhì, yǐwù xiāng zhuì. 質，以物相贅.” (Zhì 質 means to use something as a pawn.) As written in Shuōwén tōngxùn dìngshēng 説文通訓定聲 [A Phonetic Study of Shuōwén] by Zhū Jùnshēng 朱駿聲, it is recorded that “yǐ qián shòuwù yuē zhuì, yǐ wù shòu qián yuē zhì. 以錢受物曰贅，以物受錢曰質.” (To take an item out of pawn is called zhuì 贅; to leave an item in pawn for some money is called zhì 質.) In Zhàocè sì 趙策四 [Strategies of Zhào IV] of the Zhànguócè 戰 國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it is read that “bì yǐ cháng’ān jūn wéi zhì, bīng nǎi chū. 必以長安君為質，兵乃出.” (The army is to be dispatched only on the condition that Lord Chang’an be the hostage.) Old Chinese words were mostly monosyllabic with a character functioning as a word. In Shuōwén Jiězì 説文解字 [The Origin of Chinese Characters] compiled by Xu Shen 許慎, the original meanings of characters (words) were explained. However, some explanations in Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters] were not the original meanings of these words. Some misread meanings could be corrected with a study on ancient classics. Some of the related examples are given as follows. The original meaning of rǔ 乳 was breast feeding. Its graph in Oracle Bone Script is (Héjí 合集 [Collection of Oracle Bone Script] 22246), an image of a mother breast feeding her baby. According to Xuāngōng sìnián 宣公四年 [The Fourth Year of the reign of Lord Xuan) of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it is recorded that “yún fūrén shǐqì zhū mèng zhōng, hǔ rǔ zhī. 䢵夫人使棄諸夢 中，虎乳之.” (Lady Yún had a servant desert the baby at Mèng 夢 [name of a place] where a tiger fed the baby.) In Dàwǎn Lièzhuàn 大宛列傳 [Records of the Region Dàwǎn] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “Kūn Mòshēng, qì yú yě, wū xiánròu fēi qī shàng, láng wǎng rǔ zhi. 昆莫生，棄 於野，烏嗛肉蜚其上，狼往乳之.” (Upon his birth, Kun Mo was deserted in the wild; a bird brought him meat, and a wolf breast fed him.) According to Shuōwén Yǐbù 説文乙部 [Yi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Rǔ, rén jí wū shēngzǐ yuē rǔ, shòu yuē chǎn. 乳，人及烏生子曰乳，獸曰產.” (Rǔ 乳 means humans or birds giving birth; chǎn 產 means beasts giving birth.) Taking giving birth as the original meaning of rǔ 乳 is not consistent with the meaning depicted in the Oracle Bone Script. The original meaning of wù 物 was a colored ox. As written in the poem Wúyáng 無羊 in Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] of the Shījīng詩 經 [Book of Songs], “Sānshí wéiwù, ěrshēng zé jù. 三十維物，爾牲則具.” (In thirties are the creatures arranged according to their color; for victims there is abundant provision.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “yì máosè zhě sānshí yě. 異毛色者三十也.” (There are 30 colored oxen.) As Wáng Guówéi 王國維 commented, “Gǔzhě wèi zábó wéi wù, gàiyóu wù běn zásèniú zhī míng, hòu tuī zhī yǐ míng zábó . . . . ‘Sānshí wéi wù’ yǔ ‘sānbǎi wéi qún’, ‘jiǔshí qī chún’ jùfǎ zhèng tóng, wéi zásèniú sānshī

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yě. 古者謂雜帛為物，蓋由物本雜色牛之名，後推之以名雜帛. . . . ‘三十維 物’與‘三百為群’、‘九十其犉’句法正同，謂雜色牛三十也.” (Ancient people called colored silk ornaments wù物. It was an extension of the original meaning of wù物, colored ox. . . .”Sānshí wéi wù” 三十維物 is syntactically similar to “sānbǎi wéi qún” 三百為群 [There is quite a large herd of oxen. “Sānbǎi” 三百 means a large number, not an exact number.], and “jiǔshí qī chún” 九十為犉 [There are also plenty of large oxen. “Jiǔshí” 九十 also means a large number, not an exact number.] “Sānshí wéi wù” 三十維物 means “there are 30 colored oxen.”) (Guāntáng jílín 觀堂集林 [Collection of Works on History and Philosophy], volume six, p. 287.) According to Shuōwén Niúbù 説文牛部 [Niu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Wù, wànwù yě. Niú wéi dàwù, tiāndì zhī shù qǐyú qiānniú, gù cóng niú, wùshēng. 物，萬物也.牛為大物，天地之數起於牽牛，故從牛，勿聲.” (Wù 物 means everything. Niú 牛 [ox] is of great importance; humans began their livelihood by herding oxen. Therefore, the character wù 物 uses the radical 牛 [niú, ox) and the sound of wù 勿.) Everything is one extended meaning.

4 ExtendedmeaningsofOldChinesewords Extended meanings may stem from the original meanings. Semantic extension is an important tool to improve the expressiveness of lexicon. By the tool, more senses could be conveyed and more information could be delivered in one word. In the semantic system of Old Chinese, there were close connections between original and extended meanings. In the process of meaning extension, the class of some words remained unchanged, while others changed greatly. 4.1 Wordmeaningextendedwhilewordclassunchanged The word class remained unchanged either with the original or extended meaning in use. For instance, the word is a noun when its original meaning is used and remains a noun with its extended meaning when being used. A word remains a verb either of its original or extended meaning; a word remains to be an adjective with whatever meaning in use, either the original or extended meaning. The connections between the original and extended meanings vary to a large degree, making the complexity of semantic extension more known. Occasionally, the items signified in one word with multiple meanings are similar in shape and feature, which are exemplified as follows. The word jù 距 is classified as a noun, whose original meaning was the toe-like projection out of a chicken or pheasant leg. According to Shuōwén Zúbù 説文足部 [Zu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is recorded that “jù, jījù yě. 距，雞 距也.” (The word jù 距 means the toe-like projection of a chicken leg.) It is written in Zhāogōng èrshíwǔ nián 昭公二十五年 (The 25th year of the reign of Lord Zhāo 昭) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary] that “Jìshì jiè qī jī, hòushì wèizhī jīnjù. 季氏介期雞，郈氏為之金距.” (Ji’s chicken wears a protection pad; Hou’s chicken has a metal projection on its leg.) Later on, the original meaning was extended to the barb of a fishing hook. As written in Yuándào 原道 [Searing out

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 131 Dao] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “fū línjiāng ér diào, kuàngrì ér bùnéng yíngluó, suīyǒu gōuzhēn mángjù, wēilún fāng’ěr, jiā zhī yǐ zhānhé, juānhuán zhīshù, yóu bùnéng yǔ wǎnggǔ zhēngdé yě. 夫臨江而釣，曠日而不能盈羅，雖有鈎箴芒距，微綸芳餌，加之以詹何、 娟嬛之數，猶不能與綱罟爭得也.” (I have been fishing by the river for a whole day, yet cannot even get a basketful, even if I have sharp hooks and barbs, fine fishing lines, and delicious baits, and I am as able as the fishing masters Zhanhe 詹何 and Juanhuan 娟嬛. With a fishing rod, I could not get as much as I could with a fishing net.) The word kòu 叩 is classified as a verb, whose original meaning was to strike or to knock. As written in Xuéjì 學記 [Records on the subject of education] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “shàndài wènzhě rú zhuàngzhōng, kòuzhī yǐxiǎo zhě zé xiǎomíng, kòuzhī yǐdà zhě zé dàmíng. 善待問者如撞鐘， 叩之以小者則小嗚，叩之以大者則大嗚.” (A master who skillfully responds to questions may be compared to a stricken bell. Stricken by a small hammer, the bell gives off a small sound; stricken by a big hammer, it gives off a great sound.) The original meaning was extended to kowtow; touch the ground with one’s forehead in a submissive manner. As written in Tiánshū lièzhuàn 田叔列傳 [Biography of Tianshu] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “shū kòutóu duì yuē: ‘shì nǎi mèngshū suǒyǐ wéi zhǎng zhě yě.” 叔叩頭對曰：‘是乃孟舒所 以為長者也.’” (Shū 叔 kowtowed and replied, “that’s why Mèng Shū 孟舒 was honored as a respectable senior.”) The word yōng 墉 is classified as a noun, whose original meaning was city wall or city. According to Shuōwén Tǔbù 説文土部 [Tu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is recorded that “yōng, chéng yuán yě. 墉，城垣也.” (Yōng 墉 refers to city walls.) In the poem Huáng Yǐ 皇矣 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes of the Kingdom] in Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Songs], it is written that “yǐ’ěr gōuyuán, yǔ’ěr línchōng, yǐfá chóngyōng. 以爾鈎援，與爾臨衝，以伐崇墉.” (Get the scaling ladders and engines of onfall and assault ready to attack chóng 崇.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it reads that “yōng, chéng yě. 墉，城也.” (Yōng 墉 means city.) The original meaning is extended to high walls. In Xínglù 行露 [Dew on the path] of Zhāonán 召南 [Odes of Zhao and the South] in shī jīng 詩经 [Book of Songs], it reads that “shuí wèi shǔ wúyá, héyǐ chuān wǒ yōng. 誰謂鼠無牙，何以穿我墉.” (Who said that rat has no molar teeth? How else could it go through my wall?) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], Yōng 墉 means wall. Occasionally, the items signified in a polysemy are similar in both quality and function, which are exemplified as follows. The word bào 報 is classified as a verb, whose original meaning was being convicted in a court of law. Shuōwén Dǎbù 説文羍部 [Da Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] reads that “bào, dāng zuì (zuì) rén yě. 報，當辠（罪）人也.” (Bào 報 means criminal.) As written in Kùlì lièzhuàn 酷吏列傳 [Biographies of Harsh Officials] of Shǐjì史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “shìrì jiē bào, shā sìbǎi yúrén. 是日皆報，殺四百餘人.” (On that day, all the suspects were convicted, and more than 400 people were killed.) The original meaning was

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extended to the meaning of repay or to pay back. In the poem Yì 抑 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes of the Kingdom] in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “tóu wǒ yǐtáo, bào zhīyǐ lǐ. 投我以桃，報之以李.” (When one throws to me a peach, I return to him a plum.) The word is classified as a verb, whose original meaning was break or damage. According to Shuōwén Tǔbù 説文土部 [Tu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], huǐ 毁 means to break. Duan Yucai 段玉裁 notes that “quēzhě, qìpò yě. Yīn wéi fán pò zhī chēng. 缺者，器破也.因為凡破之稱.” (The word quē 缺 means a utensil was broken. Later on, the word huǐ 毁 means all kinds of breaking.) As written in Xì Cí Xià 繫辭下 [The Great Treatise II] of yì jīng 易經 [The Book of Changes], “Qiánkūn huǐ, zé wú yǐ jiàn Yì. 乾坤毀，則無以見《易》.” (If Heaven and Earth had been broken, the Book of Changes would not have existed.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of slander; to speak ill behind one’s back. To slander someone is to bring damage to the person. As written in Dàozhí 盜跖 [Robber Zhi] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], “Hào miàn yù rén zhě, yì hào bèi ér huǐ zhī. 好面譽人者，亦好背而毀之.” (Those who talk sweet to one’s face would speak ill behind his back.) In Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it is written that “yù fǔ qí shǎng, huǐ suí qí zuì. 譽輔其賞，毀隨其罪.” (Have praise accompany the reward and censure follow on the heels of punishment.) The word of jí 瘠 is classified as an adjective whose original meaning was slim or thin. In the Nè 疒 Group of Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles], it reads that “jí, shòu yě. 瘠，瘦也.” (The word jí 瘠 means thin.) In Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “jūsāng zhī lǐ, huǐjí bùxíng, shìtīng bùshuāi. 居喪之禮，毀瘠不形，視聽不衰.” (According to the rules for the period of mourning [for a father], [a son] should not emaciate himself until the bones appear, nor let his seeing and hearing be affected [by his privations].) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 noted that “jí, shòu yě. 瘠，瘦也.” (The word jí 瘠 means slim or thin.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of infertile land. As written in Lǔyǔxià 魯語下 [Discourses of the State Lǔ II] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “xī shèngwáng zhīchù mín yě, zé jítǔ ér chùzhī. 昔聖王之處民也，擇瘠土而處之.” (The wise kings in ancient times would have the people settled on the infertile land [so that they would cultivate the land].) Wěi Zhāo 韋昭 notes that “qiāoquè wéi jí. 磽確為瘠.” (The word qiāoquè 磽確 means hard, barren land). Ocassionally, the things signified are related in a certain way; thereby, the signifiers have new extended meanings which are exemplified as follows. The word dú 牘 is classified as a noun, whose original meaning was the piece of wood or wooden plate for writing in ancient times. According to Shuōwén Piànbù 説文片部 [Pian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “dú, shūbǎn yě. 牘，書版也.” (Dú 牘 means reading board.) It is recorded in Wǔ wú zǐ zhuàn 武五子傳 [Stories of the Five Sons of Emperor Wu] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Hàn] that “pèi yùhuán, zānbǐ chídú qūyè. 佩玉環，簪筆持牘趨 謁.” (Wearing a jade ring pendant, putting a brush on my hat [a custom to show

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respect] and holding a writing board, I went asking for an audience with the king.) Yan Shigu 顔師古 notes that “dú, mùjiǎn yě. 牘，木簡也.” (Dú 牘 refers to the wooden board.) A wooden plate could be used in writing letters or books, hence, the extended meaning is letter or book of the word dú 牘. As written in Xún Yuè zhuàn 荀悅傳 [Biography of Xún Yuè] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The Book of the Late Han], it reads that “suǒjiàn piāndú, yìlǎn duō néng sòngjì. 所見篇牘，一覽 多能誦記.” (He was able to recite the texts after merely one reading.) The word gě 葛 is classified as a noun, whose original meaning was a trailing bean plant. According to Shuōwén Cǎobù 説文艸部 [Cao Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “gě, chīxīcǎo yě. 葛，絺綌草也.” (Gě 葛 refers to the plant of kudzu.) The plant can be woven into cloth, hence, the extended meanings is coarse grass linen and clothes of hemp. As written in Ràng Wáng 讓王 [Kings who Wish to Resign the Thrones] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “yú lìyú yǔzhòu zhī zhōng, dōngrìyì píyī, xiàrì yì gěchī. 余立於宇宙之中，冬日衣皮衣，夏日衣葛絺.” (A mortal being in the universe, I clothe myself in leather in winter and hemp in summer.) The word jī 躋 is classified as a verb, whose original meaning was to ascend or climb. The paradigm of Zhèn 震 in the Yì 易 [Book of Changes] reads that “jīyú jiǔlíng. 躋於九陵.” (Ascend to a very lofty height.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “jī, shēng yě. 躋，升也.” (Jī 躋 means to ascend.) An ascension too drastic could easily lead to a downfall. Hence, the extended meaning is to fall down or to crash. Sòng Wēizǐ shìjiā 宋微子世家 [The Hereditary House of Lord Wei of the State Song] in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian] reads that “jīn nǚ wúgù gàoyú, diānjī, rúzhī hé jī? 今女無故告予，顛躋，如之何其？” (Now the woman has charged me falsely. I am about to suffer a downfall. What am I going to do?) In Jíjiě 集解 [Collection of Notes], Pei Yin 裴駰 quoted Ma Rong 馬融 that “jī, yóu zhuì yě. 躋，猶墜也.” (Jī 躋 roughly means to fall down.) Words have a wider range of meanings by means of their semantic extension. Some related examples are given as follows. The word jī 積 is classified as a verb, whose original meaning was to amass grains. As written in the poem Zàishān 載芟 of Zhōusòng 周頌 [Sacrificial Odes of Zhou] in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “yǒu shí qī jī, wàn yì jí zǐ. 有實其積，萬億及秭.” (The grain is piled up in the fields, myriads, and hundreds of thousands, and millions of stacks.) According to JíZhuàn 集傳 [Annotations to the Book of Songs] by Zhu Xi 朱熹, “Jí, lùjī yě. 積，露積 也.” (Jī 積 means things piling up.) The original meaning was extended to things accumulated and piled up. As the annotation (Xiàngcí 象辭) in the section of Shēng 升 [Hexagram] of yì jīng 易經 [The Book of Changes] reads that “jūnzǐ yǐ shùn dé, jī xiǎo yǐ gāodà. 君子以順德，積小以高大.” (The superior man pays careful attention to his virtue, and accumulates the small developments until it is high and great.) One sentence in the essay Quànxué 勸學 [Encouraging Learning] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ] reads “Jītǔ chéngshān, fēngyǔ xīngyān; jīshuǐ chéngyuān, jiāolóng shēngyān; jīshàn chéngdé, ér shénmíng zìdé, shèngxīn bèiyān. 積土成山，風雨興焉；積水成淵，蛟龍生焉；積善成德，而神明自 得，聖心備焉.” (Pile up earth to make a mountain, and wind and rain will rise

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from it. Gather water to make a deep pool, and dragons will appear. Pile up good deeds to create virtue, and god-like understanding will emerge by itself; there the mind of sage will find completion.) The word jiàng 匠 is classified as a noun, whose original meaning was carpenter. In the chapter Jìnxīnshàng 盡心上 [Exhausting all his heart I] of the Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “dàjiàng búwèi zhuógōng gǎifèi shéngmò. 大匠不為拙工改廢繩墨.” (A great artificer does not alter or do away with the marking-line for a stupid workman.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of craftsman; workman with a certain skill. As written in the chapter Liàngzhī 量知 [Assessement on Knowledge] of the Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance], it reads that “néng duànxuē zhùliáng, wèi zhī mùjiàng; néng chuānzáo xuékǎn, wèizhī tǔjiàng. 能斷削柱梁，謂之木匠；能穿鑿穴埳， 謂之土匠.” (Those who can build beams and columns are called mùjiàng 木匠 [a man working with wood], while those who can dig holes and caves are called tǔjiàng 土匠 [a man working with earth].) The word jīng 驚 is classified as a verb, whose original meaning was a startled horse runs wildly, no longer under control. According to Shuōwén Mǎbù 説文馬 部 [Ma Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “jīng, mǎhài yě.驚， 馬駭也.” (Jīng 驚 means a horse is startled.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of an animal that is startled or terrified. Chénggōng shí’èr nián 成公十二年 (The 12th year of the reign of Lord Chéng 成) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals] reads that “jīn zòu zuò yúxià, jīng ér chūzǒu. 金奏作於下，驚而出走.” (On hearing the chime, he got startled and left.) In Xiàng Yǔ běnjì 項羽本紀 [Annals of Xiang Yu] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “pèigōng dàjīng, yuē, ‘wéizhī nàihé?’ “沛公大驚，曰：‘為之奈何？’” (Startled, Lord Pei said, “what can we do about it?”) Disyllabic words may be diverted into monosyllabic words under some circumstances. In the course of the diverted process, new meanings may emerge. The Chinese language values neat sentence structure and prosody, and one morpheme in a compound word is often used in place of the word. The morpheme then stands as a word and carries the original meaning of the compound, as exemplified below. In Old Chinese, xiān shēng 先生 was already a compound. In the chapter Wéizhèng 為政 [The Practice of Government] of the Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “yǒu jiǔshí, xiānshēng zhuàn. 有酒食，先生饌.” (When the young have wine and food, they set them before their elders.) He Yan 何晏 quoted Ma Rong 馬融 that “Xiānshēng, wèi fùxiōng. 先生，謂父兄.” (The word xiānshēng 先生 mean father and brother.) In Yùzǎo 玉藻 of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “jiàn xiānshēng, cóngrén ér rù. 見先生，從人而入.” (When going to see a teacher, he followed in suit of the others, and entered his apartment.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “xiānshēng, shī yě. 先生，師也.” (The word xiānshēng 先生 means teacher.) In Gàozǐ xià 告子下 of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “xiānshēng jiāng hé zhī? 先生將何 之？” (Where are you going, Sir?) Zhao Qi 趙岐 notes that “xuéshì niánzhǎng zhě, gù wèizhī xiānshēng. 學士年長者，故謂之先生.” (The scholars of age are

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 135 addressed as xiānshēng 先生.) The word xiānshēng 先生 was shortened as xiān 先 or sheng 生. Hence, both xiān 先 and shēng 生 mean sir or teacher. In Cháo Cuò lièzhuàn 晁錯列傳 [Biography of Chao Cuo] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “xué shēnshāng xíngmíng yú zhǐ Zhāng Huī xiān suǒ. 學申商刑名於軹張恢先所.” (Chao Cuo studied Performance and Title, thoughts of the legalists Shen Buyí 申不遺 and Shang Yang 商鞅 from Zhang Hui 張恢 of the county Zhǐ 軹.) In his notes on Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], Pei Yin 裴駰 quoted Xu Guang 徐廣 that “xiān jí xiān shēng 先即先生.” (Xiān 先 means sir or teacher.) In Méifú zhuàn 梅福傳 [The Story of Méi Fú] of Hànshū 漢書 [the Book of Han], it reads that “fū shū sūnxiān fēi bùzhōng yě. 夫叔孫先非不忠也.” (It’s not that Sir Sun is disloyal.) Yán Shīgǔ 顏師古 notes that “Xiān, yóu xiānshēng yě. 先，猶先生也.” (Xiān 先 means sir or teacher.) In Rúlín lièzhuàn 儒林列傳 [Biographies of Scholars] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “Yán Shàngshū zì jǐnán Fúshēng, yán Lǐ zì lǔ Gāo Tángshēng. 言《尚書》自濟南伏生，言《禮》自魯高堂生.” (Fúshēng 伏生 of Jǐnán 濟南 is the master scholar of the Classic of History; Gao Tangsheng 高堂生 is the master scholar of the Classic of Rites.) The historian Sima Zhen 司馬貞 notes that “yún ‘shēng’ zhě, zì hàn yǐlái rúshēng jiē hào ‘shēng’, yì ‘xiānshēng’, shěngzì hūzhī ěr.” “云‘生’者，自漢以來儒生皆號‘生’，亦‘先 生’，省字呼之耳.” (Since the Han dynasty, Confucian disciples are called shēng 生 or xiānshēng 先生; shēng 生 is an abbreviation of xiānshēng先生.) In Gāodì jì 高帝紀 [Annals of Emperor Gaozu] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “yǐ wèidì wànhù fēngshēng. 以魏地萬戶封生.” (You will be rewarded with thousands of acres of land in the State of Wèi 魏.) Yan Shigu 顏師古 notes that “Shēng, yóu yán xiānshēng. 生，猶言先生.” (Shēng 生 means Sir or teacher.) Zhao Yi 趙翼, a scholar of the Qing dynasty, wrote in Xiānshēng huò zhǐchēng yízì 先生或只稱一字 (One-character abbreviation of the word “Xiānshēng”) of Ershí’èr shǐ zhájì 二十二史剳記 [Reading Notes on 22 Books of History], that “gǔshí ‘xiānshēng’ èrzì, huòchēng ‘xiān’, huò chēng ‘shēng’.” 古時‘先生’二字， 或稱‘先’，或稱‘生’. (In ancient times, the word xiānshēng 先生 could be abbreviated as xiān 先 or shēng 生.) Xiàng 象 is elephant, and yá 牙 is tooth. Xiàngyá 象牙 refers to the front teeth on the upper jaw of an elephant. As written in Dòngxiāofù 洞簫賦 [Ode to Tunghsiao (vertical flute)] by Wáng Bāo 王藵 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “dàiyǐ xiàngyá, hùnqī huìhé. 帶以象牙，掍其會合.” (Put ivory at the joints as an ornament.) Xiàngyá 象牙 was shortened to Xiàng 象 or yá 牙. Hence, both xiàng 象 and yá 牙 could mean ivory. As in the poem Lísāo 離騷 [Leaving my Troubles] of the Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], a line goes, “Zá yáo xiàng yǐ wéi chē.” 雜 瑤象以為車. (Make a chariot of gem and ivory.) Wang Yi 王逸 notes that “Xiàng, xiàngyá yě. 象，象牙也.” (The word xiàng 象 means the same as xiàng yá 象 牙 [ivory].) In Yuándào 原道 [Originating in the Way] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “fù Máoxiàng. 傅旄象.” (Decorate [the horse] with a flag of ivory.) Gao You 高誘 notes that “xiàng, yǐ xiàngyá wéi shì yě. 象，以象牙為飾也.” (The word xiàng 象 means to decorate something with ivory. The word yá 牙 did not mean ivory until much later; the meaning

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appeared in the classics of the Six Dynasties. In the poem Dài Huáinán wáng 代 淮南王 [A Poem for Prince Huainan] by Bao Zhao 鮑照 of the Liu Song in the Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589 CE), it is written that “liúlí zuòwǎn yázuòpán, jīndǐng yùbǐ hé shéndān. 琉璃作盌牙作盤，金鼎玉匕合神丹.” (The bowl is of colored glaze and the plate is of ivory; a gold cauldron and jade spoon is used in making and serving the elixir.) The extended meaning of one word will emerge when the word is used as a metaphor, as exemplified below. The original meaning of jīn 金 was metal or gold in particular. As written in Shuōwén Jīnbù 説文金部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “jīn, wǔsèjīn yě. Huángwéi zhī zhǎng, jiǔwō bù shēngyī, bǎiliàn bùqīng, cónggé bùwěi. 金，五色金也.黃為之長，久薶不生衣，百錬不輕，從革不違.” (Jīn 金 means metals of various colors. The most valuable of which is gold that does not rust in heavy dust or lose measure in moulding. It can be made into various shapes.) Gold is an invaluable hard metal, hence the extended meaning precious, solid of the word Jīn 金. In Jùqínměixīn 劇秦美新 [Degrading the Qin Regime and Praising the Xin Regime] written by Yang Xiong 揚雄 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “yìn yīnzhōu zhī shīyè, shào tángyú zhī juéfēng, yílǜ jiāliáng, jīnkē yùtiáo. 胤殷周之失業，紹唐虞之絕風，懿律嘉量，金科玉條.” (The legacies of Yīnzhōu 殷周 and Tángyú 唐虞 are preserved and followed; the righteous and wise laws of Xīn 新 are to be the measure for the future generations.) Li Shan 李 善 notes that “jīnkē yùtiáo, wèi fǎlìng yě. Yán jīnyù, guì zhī yě. 金科玉條，謂法 令也.言金玉，貴之也.” (Jīnkē yùtiáo 金科玉條 means infallabile laws. Jīn 金 means gold and yù 玉 means jade; both metaphors mean to praise the laws.) In Kuǎi Tōng zhuàn 蒯通傳 [Biography of Kuai Tong] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “jiē wéi jīnchéng tāngchí, bùkěgōng yě. 皆為金城湯池，不可 攻也.” (Both are impregnable fortified cities.) Yan Shigu 顔師古 notes that “Jīn yǐ yù jiān, tāng yù fèirè bùkějìn. 金以喻堅，湯喻沸熱不可近.” (The metaphorical meaning of gold refers to something solid; the hot soup metaphorical meaning of gold refers to something inaccessible.) Zhuǎ 爪 means toe nail or feet with nails of birds or beasts. Yá 牙 is tooth. As written in Dǒngwù sānshí’èr 動物三十二 [Animal 32] of the Liùshūgù 六書故 [On the Origins of the Six Types of Chinese Characters] by Dai Dong 戴侗 of the Yuan dynasty, it reads that “zhuǎ, niǎozhuǎ yě, shòu yìyǒu zhuǎ. 爪，烏爪也，獸 亦有爪.” (The word zhuǎ 爪 means the claw of bird or beast.) It reads in Shuōwén Yábù 説文牙部 [Ya Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “yá, mǔchǐ yě. 牙，牡齒也.” (Yá 牙 means cow’s teeth.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 notes that “yá, tǒngyánzhī, jiē chēng chǐ, chēng yá. 牙，統言之，皆稱齒，稱牙.” (Yá 牙 is a general term with the meaning of teeth.) In the essay Quànxué 勸學 [Encouraging Learning] in Xúnzǐ 荀子 [The Book of Xunzi], it reads that “yǐn wú zhuǎyá zhīlì, jīngǔ zhīqiáng, shàngshí āitǔ, xiàyǐn huángquán, yòngxīn yī yě. 螾無爪牙 之利，筋骨之強，上食埃土，下飮黃泉，用心一也.” (With no claws or bones, the earthworm has no other mind but struggles to live and survive on earth and water.) Both zhuǎ 爪 (claw) and yá 牙 (tooth) are foraging tools and weapons of attack or self-defense. As a result, both words are used as metaphors for guards

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and military men. In the chapter Qīhuàn 七患 [The Seven Causes of Anxiety] of Mòzǐ 墨子 [The Book of Mòzǐ], it reads that “shízhě, guó zhī bǎo yě; bīngzhě, guó zhīzhǎoyá yě. 食者，國之寶也；兵者，國之爪牙也.” (Grain is the treasure of a country, armed forces are claws and teeth of a country.) In the poem Qífù 祈父 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] in Shījīng 詩經 [the Book of Songs], a line reads “qífù, yǔwáng zhī zhǎoyá. 祈父，予王之爪牙.” (Minister of War, we are the claws and teeth of the king.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes in Zhèngyì 正 義 [Correct Meanings of the Five Classics] that “niǎo yòng zhuǎ, shòu yòng yá, yǐfángwèi jǐshēn. Cǐrén zì wèi wáng zhī zhǎoyá, yǐ niǎoshòu wéi yù yě. 烏用爪, 獸用牙，以防衛已身.此人自謂王之爪牙，以鳥獸為喻也.” (Both birds’ claws and beasts’ teeth are for self-defense. He called himself the claw and teeth of the king; he is comparing himself to a bird or beast.) Both dǒu 斗 and shāo 筲 are household containers of small volume, where dǒu 斗 could contain ten shēng 升 (unit of measurement); shāo 筲 could 12 shēng (Chinese measuring unit). Dǒushāo 斗筲 means both dǒu 斗 and shāo 筲. In the chapter Tōngyǒu 通有 [Circulation of Goods] of Yántiělùn 鹽鐵論 [Discourses on Salt and Iron] by Huan Kuan 桓寬 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “jiāwú dǒushāo, míngqín zàishì. 家無斗筲，嗚琴在室.” (Without a peck of reserve in the house, the lute thrums in the hall.) Metaphorically, the word refers to a narrow-minded, short-sighted person. In Zǐlù 子路 [A disciple of Confucius] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [the Confucian Analects], it reads that “zǐyuē: ‘Yì! Dǒushāo zhī rén, hézú suàn yě! 子曰：‘噫！斗筲之人，何足算也！’” (Confucius said, “Ha! What a narrowminded short-sighted person! No need to take him seriously!’”) In the chapter Gōngsūn liú tián yáng wáng cài chén zhèng zhuàn zàn 公孫劉田楊王蔡陳鄭傳 贊 [Praises to Eight Top Officials of the Han dynasty] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “dǒushāo zhīrén, hézú xuǎn yě! 斗筲之人，何足選也！” (Those narrow-minded short-sighted men do not deserve a record.) There is a case where some words signify a particular subject in a general concept. In such a case, one word could signify several particular subjects, as exemplified below. The original meaning of xué 穴 was a room of earth or a cave. As written in Xì Cí Xià 繫辭下 [The Great Treatise II] of yì jīng 易經 [The Book of Changes], it reads that “shànggǔ xuéjū ér yěchù. 上古穴居而野處.” [In the highest antiquity they made their homes (in winter) in caves, and (in summer) dwelt in the open country.] In the chapter Téngwéngōng shàng 滕文公上 [Lord Wén of Teng I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “zuàn xuéxì xiāngkuī. 鑽穴隙 相窺.” (Dig a hole to steal a sight.) In Chinese medicine, xué 穴 particularly refers to the body parts receiving the needle of acupuncture, mostly where nerve endings meet or thicker nerve fibres pass. In the chapter Qìxué lùn 氣穴論 [On Acupoints] of the Sùwèn 素問 [Basic Questions], it reads that “fán sānbǎi liùshíwǔ xué, zhēn zhī suǒyóuxíng yě. 凡三百六十五穴，針之所由行也.” (There are 365 points where the acupuncture needle is injected.) In the same chapter, it reads that “zú tàiyáng mài qì suǒfā zhě qīshíbā xué. 足太陽脈氣所發者七十八穴.” (The meridian Foot Greater Yang goes through 78 acupuncture points.) In Shānghán lì dìsān 傷寒例第三 [Cases of Cold Damage III] of the Shānghánlùn 傷寒論 [Treatise on

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Cold Damage Diseases] by Zhang Ji 張機 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “fán zhì wēnbìng, kěcì wǔshíjiǔ xué. 凡治溫病，可刺五十九穴.” [In the treatment of hot damages, inject a needle at these 59 acupoints.] In Old Chinese, the word xié 邪 meant disrespectable or unrighteous. In Dàoshù 道術 [The Art of Dao] of the Xīnshū 新書 [New Book] by the essayist Jia Yi 賈誼 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “fāngzhí bùqū wèi zhī zhèng, fǎnzhèng wéi xié. 方 直不曲謂之正，反正為邪.” (Righteousness means being honest and unbending; the contrary is being dishonorable.) As written in Wéizhèng 為政 [The Practice of Government] of Lunyu 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “shī sānbǎi, yìyán yǐ bìzhī, yuē: ‘sī wúxié.’ 《詩》三百，一言以蔽之，曰：‘思無邪.’” (In the Book of Songs there are 300 pieces, but the design of them all may be embraced in one sentence – having no depraved thoughts.) In Chinese medicine, Xié 邪 refers to all the causes of illness, including a chilly wind, coldness, humidity, hunger, overeating, exhaustion, and laziness. In the chapter Yīnyáng yìngxiàng dàlùn 陰陽應象大論 [Discussions of the Theory and Phenomena of Yin and Yang] of Sùwèn 素問 [Basic Questions], it reads that “qī yǒuxié zhě zìxíng yǐwéi hàn. 其有 邪者漬形以為汗.” (When there is a sign of illness, steaming therapy is practiced so that the patient will perspire.) Wang Bing 王冰 notes that “xié, wèi fēngxié zhī qì. 邪，謂風邪之氣.” (xié 邪 means wind nefarious, an attack upon the body.) In the Jíjiùpiān 急就篇 [Quick Access (to Character)] by Shi You 史遊, it reads that “jiǔcì hé yào zhú qù xié. 灸刺和藥逐去邪.” (Moxibustion and acupuncture are applied to rid the causes of illness.) The original meaning of mò 墨 was the ink for writing and drawing. As written in Shuōwén Tǔbù 説文土部 [Tu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “mò, shūmò yě. 墨，書墨也.” (Mò 墨 refers to writing ink.) The word also refers to qíng 黥, one of the five penalties in the Qin and Han dynasties – the criminal was tattooed on the face with black ink. As recorded in Sīxíng 司刑 [Execution of Penalties] in Zhōuguān 周官 [Officers of Zhōu] of Zhōulǐ周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu], it reads that “mòzuì wǔbǎi. 墨罪五百.” (There are 500 articles on the penalty of Mò 墨.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “mò, qíng yě, xiān kè qī miàn, yǐ mò zhì zhī. 墨，黥也，先刻其面，以墨窒之.” (The penalty of mò 墨 is also called qíng 黥. The criminals were tattooed on the face first; the tattoo was then hardened with ink.) In Xíngfǎzhì 刑法志 [Treatise on Punishment and Law] of Hànshū 漢 書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “Mòzhě shǐ shǒumén. 墨者使守門.” (Those who received the tattooing punishment would be made to be gatekeepers.) The word might refer to the philosopher Mo Di 墨翟 of the state Lǔ 魯 in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods as well as the school of Mohism which he founded. In the chapter Téngwéngōng shàng 滕文公上 [Lord Wen of Teng I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “mò zhī zhìsāng yě, yǐ bó wéi qīdào yě. 墨之治喪也，以薄為其道也.” (Mo considers that in the regulation of funeral matters a spare simplicity should be the rule.) In Xiǎnxué 顯學 [The Learned Celebrities] of the Hànfeizi韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “gù kǒngmò zhīhòu, rú fēnwéi bā, mò líwéi sān.故孔墨之后，儒分為八，墨離為 三.” (After Confucius and Mozi, Confucianism was divided into eight schools, and Mohism was divided into three schools.)

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 139 4.2 Extensionofwordmeaningandthechangeofwordclass Along with the extension of the original meaning, the word class might experience changes as well. Changes of thousands of the examples could be found in the classics of the pre-Qin until the Han dynasties, falling into the following types described below. (1) The word is a noun with its extended meaning as a verb, adjective, or another word class. The change of the part of speech from a noun to a verb with the semantic extension makes up the largest proportion. Occasionally, the original meaning is the object of an action; while in extension, whose meaning is the action itself, as shown in the following examples. The original meaning of fú 俘 was the prisoner of war; enemies captured on the battlefield. The word is taken as a noun. According to Shuōwén Rénbù 说文 人部 [Ren Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “fú, jūn suǒhuò yě. 俘，軍所獲也.” (The word fú 俘 refers to prisoners captured during the war.) The meaning was extended to capture or disarm and became a verb. As written in the chapter of Chénggōng shí’èr nián 成公十二年 (The 12th year of the reign of Lord Chéng) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “fúwǒ wángguān, jiǎnwǒ jīmǎ. 俘我王官，翦我羈馬.” (The enemies occupied the place of Wángguān and controlled the place of Jīmǎ.) In Tāngshì 湯誓 [Speech of Tang] of the Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads that “suì fá sān zōng, fújué bǎoyù. 遂伐三朡，俘厥寶玉.” (Then the army attacked the State of San-zong and captured quantities of treasure.) The word liáng 梁 is classified as a noun with the original meaning of bridge. As written in Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “liáng, shuǐqiáo yě. 梁，水橋也.” (Liáng 梁 means water bridge.) In Lí Lóu Xià 離婁下 of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “Shí’èr yuè yúliáng chéng. 十二月與梁成.” (The carriage-bridges are completed in the 12th month.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of building bridges and became a verb. As one line in the poem Lísāo 離騷 [On Encountering Trouble] of the Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South] reads “huī jiāolóng shǐ liángjīn xī, zhào xīhuáng shǐ shèyǔ. 麾蛟龍使梁津兮，詔西皇使涉予.” (I order the dragon to be a bridge and the Western Emperor to take me over the river.) In addition, the original meaning is the agent of an action, while the extended meaning is the action proper, as shown in the following examples. The original meaning of mù 牧 was a noun with the meaning of shepherd. As written in Shuōwén Niúbù 説文牛部 [Niu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “mù, yǎngniúrén yě. 牧，養牛人也.” (The word mù 牧 means cattle keeper.) In the poem Wúyáng 無羊 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] of the Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Songs], a line reads “er mù láisī, hésuō hélì, huòfù qīhóu. 爾牧來思，何蓑何笠，或負其餱.” (Your herdsmen come, bearing their raincoats and bamboo hats, or carrying on their backs their provisions.) The word

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might be used as a verb as well. In Gōngsūn Chǒu xià 公孫丑下 [Gōngsūn Chǒu II] of the mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “Jīn yǒu shòurén zhī niúyáng ér wèizhī mùzhīzhě. 今有受人之牛羊而為之牧之者.” (Here is a man who receives charge of the cattle and sheep of another, and undertakes to feed them for him.) In Sū Wǔ Zhuàn 蘇武傳 [Biography of Sū Wǔ] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “Nǎi xǐ wǔ běihǎi shàng wúrén chù, shǐ mù dī. 乃 徙武北海上無人處，使牧羝.” (Wu [Su Wu 蘇武 ] was dispatched to a desolute place near the north sea and ordered to shepherd rams.) The original meaning of yī 醫 was someone who treats illnesses or a doctor. As written in Shuōwén Yǒubù 説文酉部 [You Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Yī, zhìbìng gōng yě. 醫，治病工也.” (The word yī 醫 means someone who treats illnesses.) As written in Gōngsūn chǒu xià 公孫丑下 [Gongsun Chou II] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], “Wáng shǐrén wènjí, yīlái. 王使人 問疾，醫來.” (The king sent a servant to ask about his health; there came a doctor.) The original meaning of yī 醫 was extended to the meaning of treat, offer medical treatment and became a verb. As recorded in Hàolìng 號令 [Commands and Orders] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads that “shāngshènzhě lìng guīzhì, bìngjiā shànyǎng, yǔyī gěi yào. 傷甚者令歸治，病家善養，予醫給藥.” (Those seriously injured are taken home to be taken good care of and receive good treatment; doctors will give them good treatment, and medicines are provided in due time.) Occasionally, the original meaning is the tool for an action, and the extended meaning is the action, as exemplified below. The original meaning of bèi 被 was quilt. As written in Shuōwén Yībù 説文衣 部 [Yi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Bèi, qǐnyī. 被，寢衣.” (The word bèi 被 means quilt.) One sentence in the poem Zhāohún 招魂 [Requiem] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South] reads “fěicuì zhūbèi, lànqí guāngxiē. 翡翠珠被，爛 齊光些.” (Quilt covers, dotted with jadeite and pearls, wonderful hues displayed.) Another sentence in the poem reads “gāolán Bèijìng xī sī lù jiàn. 皋蘭被徑兮斯 路漸.” (The brook-side path, now damp, is covered with an o’ergrowth of grass!) The word bèi 被 in Wang Yi’s 王逸 notes means to cover. The original meaning of shāng 觴 was a cup full of wine or wine. In the chapter Shíguò 十過 [Ten Faults] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “pínggōng tíshāng ér qǐ, wèi shīkuàng shòu. 平公提觴而起，為師曠壽.” (Lord Ping raised the cup and congratulated Shi Kuang, the musician, for the wonderful music.) The original meaning of shāng 觴 was extended to propose a toast or drink by oneself and thus became a verb. As written in Xiānggōng èrshísān nián 襄公二 十三年 [The 23rd year in the reign of Lord Xiang] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], “[Xùwǔ] xǔnuò, fúzhī ér shāng qǔwòrén. [ 胥午 ] 許諾，伏之而觴 曲沃人.” (Xùwǔ agreed, hid him, and had a drink with the folks of Quwo.) In addition, in Dá yù 達鬱 [Removing Blockage] of the Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “guǎnzhòng shāng huángōng. 管仲 觴桓公.” (Guan Zhong received Lord Huan with a banquet.) Occasionally, the original meaning of one word was the place where an action takes place, while the extended meaning became the action, as exemplified below.

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 141 The original meaning of bīn 瀕 was river side and was a noun. As written in Shuōwén Shuǐbù 説文水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Bīn, shuǐyá, rén suǒ bīnfù, píncù bùqián ér zhǐ. 瀕，水厓，人所賓附，頻蹙不前而 止.” (Bīn 瀕 means a cliff by the water; it is inaccessible to humans; a man would frown and dare not approach.) The original meaning of bīn 瀕 was extended to the meaning of approach or come near and thus became a verb. As written in Dìlǐzhì xià 地理志下 [Treatise of Geography II] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], “Gù qíndìyú yǔ-gòng shí kuà yōng liáng èr zhōu . . . bīn nánshān, jìn xiàyáng. 故秦 地于《禹貢》時跨雍涼二州 . . . 瀕南山，近夏陽.” [Recorded in the book Yǔ Gòng 禹貢 (Tribute of Yu), Qin covered the area of Yōng 雍 and Liáng 涼 . . .; Qin was adjacent to the South Mountain and near the region Xiàyáng 夏陽.] The original meaning of jìng 徑 was lane or path and was a noun. As written in Yōngyě 雍也 of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], “Yǒu Tántái Mièmíng zhě, xíng bùyóu jìng. 有澹台滅明者，行不由徑.” (Tantai Mieming would never take a shortcut.) The original meaning of jìng 徑 was extended to the meaning of take the lane, take the shortcut, and became a verb. As written in chapter 53 of Lǎozǐ 老子 [the Works of Laozi], “Dàdào shènyí, érmín hàojìng. 大道甚夷，而民 好徑.” (The great way is very level and easy, yet people love the by-ways.) In Jìyì 祭義 [The Meaning of Sacrifices] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “yì jǔzú ér bùgǎn wàng fùmǔ, shì gù dào ér bùjìng. 壹舉足而不敢忘父母，是故 道而不徑，是故道而不徑.” (He should not forget his parents in a single lifting up of his feet, and therefore he will walk in the highway and not take a by-path.) A note by Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 was that “Jìng, bùxié qūjíyě. 徑，步邪趨疾也.” (Jìng 徑 means rashly taking the dishonorable way.) With regards to semantic extension, some noun words might be turned into adjectives. The original meaning was one certain thing; and the extended meaning was its attribute or feature, as shown in the following examples. The original meaning of guì 匱 was the furniture for storing clothes and other items and was a noun. In Jīnténg 金縢 [The Tale of Ark with a Golden Belt] of Shàngshū 尚書 [the Classic of History], it reads that “[Zhōu] Gōngguī, nǎi nà cè yú jīnténg zhī guì zhōng. [ 周 ] 公歸，乃納冊于金縢之匱中.” (Lord Zhōu returned and put the document into the case secured with a golden belt.) The word was later turned into an adjective and read as kuì with the meaning of short of or lacking. Duan Yucai 段玉裁 notes on Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters] that “fánwù shēncáng zhī zé yǒu ruò wú, shí ruò xū, gù guì yǐnshēn wéi jié wéi fá. 凡物深藏之則有若無，實若虛，故匱引申為竭為乏.” (Things seem to have not existed if hidden deeply; which looks like a void. Consequently, the original meaning of guì 匱(cupboard) is extended to exhaustion, shortage. In the poem Jìzuì 既醉 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [The Greater Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], a line reads “xiàozǐ búkuì, yǒngxī ěrlèi. 孝子不匱，永錫爾類.” (For such filial piety, there will ever be conferred blessing on you without ceasing.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that kuì 匱 means jié 竭 (exhaustion). Additionally, the word means pretense, as in Jìnyǔ wǔ 晉語五 [The Fifth Discourses of Jin State] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it is written that “Jīn Yángzǐ zhī màojì, qī yánkuì, fēi qīshí yě. 今陽子之

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貌濟，其言匱，非其實也.” (Yangzi is presentable in looks, but empty in talks; he is not the one to learn from.) The word nǔ 駑 was a noun with the original meaning of a horse of inferior race, a horse of a shabby look and poor performance. In Miùjiàn 謬諫 [Reckless Remonstrance] of Qījiàn 七諫 [Seven Remonstrances] written by Dongfang Shuo 東方朔 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “nǔjùn zá ér bùfēn xī, fú bà’niú ér cānjì. 駑駿雜而不分兮，服罷牛而驂驥.” (Horses of inferior and superior races are mixed together; a worn-out cattle drives the cart while the steeds only follow by the sides.) Wang Yi 王逸 notes that “nǔ, dùn mǎ yě. 駑，鈍馬也.” (The word nǔ 駑 refers to slow horses of inferior races.) The original meaning of nǔ 駑 was extended to the meaning of incapable, meritless and became an adjective. As written in Lián Pō Lìn Xiàngrú lièzhuàn 廉頗藺相如列傳 [Biographies of Lián Pō and Lìn Xiàngrú] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], “Fū yǐ qínwáng zhī wēi ér xiàngrú tíng chì zhī, bǐng qī qúnchén. Xiàngrú suī nǔ, dú wèi lián jiāngjūn zāi! 夫以秦王之威而相如廷叱之，屏其群臣.相如雖駑，獨畏廉 將軍哉！” (Despite the might of King Qin, Xiangru dare criticize him harshly and reprimand his subjects in his court. Even if Xiangru is incapable, it is true that he fears General Lian from the heart!) The original meaning of sù 素 was white silk and was a noun. As written in Zájì xià 雜記下 [Miscellaneous records II] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], “Chún yǐ sù. 純以素.” ([The robe] was made of white silk.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “Sù, shēng bó sī yě. 素，生帛絲也.” (Sù 素 refers to raw silk.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of white color. The word became an adjective. As written in Xīgōng sānshísān nián 僖公三十三年 [33rd year of the Reign of Lord Xī] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], “Qínbó sùfú jiāocì.” 秦 伯素服郊次. (Clothed in white, Lord Mu of Qin went to the outskirts to meet the defeated army.) (2) Verbs with original meaning are extended to meandings with different word class. One word is a verb with its original meaning in use but becomes a noun with an extended meaning in use. The original meaning of one word is an action; the extended meaning of the word is the object of the action, as illustrated in the following examples. The original meaning of gòng 貢 was to offer tributes to the emperor. In Shìyán 釋言 [Explaining Words] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “gòng, xiànyě. 貢，獻也.” (Gòng 貢 means tribute or gift.) In Wǔdì běnjì 五 帝本紀 [Annals of the Five Emperors] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “gè yǐ qīzhí lái gòng, bùshī juéyí. 各以其職來貢， 不失厥宜.” (Each one would pay tribute by his post; none failed on their rightful dues.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of articles of tribute, the gifts served to the emperors or the royal court. The word is used as a noun. As written in Yǔgòng 禹貢 [Tribute of Yu] of the Shàngshū 尚書 [the Classic of History], “Yǔ bié jiǔzhōu, suíshān jùnchuān, rèntǔ zuògòng. 禹別九州，隨山濬

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 143 川，任土作貢.” (August Yu set the boundaries of the nine states, harnessed the rivers by the mountains, and decided the amount of tribute by the quality of land.) Kong Chuan 孔傳 notes that “rèn qī tǔdì suǒyǒu, dìng qī gòngfù zhī chā. 任其土 地所有，定其貢賦之差.” (The amount of the tribute was decided by the area and quality of land possessed.) The original meaning of jì 洎 is to pour water into a cooker, which is used as a verb. As written in Shuōwén Shuǐbù 説文水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Jì, guànfǔ yě. 洎，灌釜也.” (Jì 洎 means to pour water into a cooker.) In Yìngyán 應言 [Responding to Words] of the Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “shìqiù zhī dǐng yǐ pēngjī, duō jì zhī zé dàn ér bùkě shí, shǎo jì zhī zé jiāo ér bùshú. 市邱之鼎以烹雞，多 洎之則淡而不可食，少洎之則焦而不熟.” (Someone cooked chicken in a giant wok. If he pours too much water, the chicken will be overcooked but tasteless; if he pours little water, the chicken will be burnt yet still raw.) The original meaning is extended to the meaning of soup, which is used as a noun. As written in Xiānggōng èrshíbā nián 襄公二十八年 of the Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], “Gōng shàn rì shuāng jī, yōngrén qiè gēng zhī yǐ wù, yùzhě zhīzhī, zéqù qīròu, ér yǐqījìkuì. 公膳日雙雞，饔人竊更之以鶩，御者知之，則去其肉，而以其洎饋.” (Every day, two chickens are supposed to be served in business meals; the cook changed chickens for ducks; the server cuts the meat and serves only the soup.) In some cases, the original meaning of one word was the action; while the extended meaning of the word became the theme of the action. See the following examples. The original meaning of chōng 舂 was to pound off grain chaff with a pestle, which was used as a verb. As in the poem Shēngmín 生民, Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], a line reads “huòchōng huòyú, huòbò huòróu. 或舂或揄，或簸或蹂.” (Some hull the grain; some take it from the mortar; some sift it; some tread it.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of slaves who husk grains. The word was used as a noun, as written in Tiānzhì xià天志下 [Will of Heaven III] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], “Zhàngfū yǐwéi púyǔ, xūmí, fùrén yǐwéi chōngqiú.” 丈夫以为僕圉，胥靡，婦人 以为舂酋. (The men were made servants, grooms and prisoners; the women were made waitresses serving wine.) The original meaning of yìng 媵 was be sent with the bride to serve in the groom’s household. In Shìyán 釋言 [Explaining Words] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it reads that “yìng, sòng yě. 媵，送也.” (The word yìng 媵 means to accompany.) In Xīgōng wǔnián 僖公五年 [The Fifth Year of the Reign of Lord Xi] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “zhíyúgōng jíqí dàfū jǐngbó, yǐ yìng qínmùjī. 執虞公及其大夫井伯，以媵秦穆姬.” (Lord Yu was taken captive along with the Minister Jing Bo, who were made slaves accompanying Lady Muji to be married to Lord Qin.) The original meaning of e 堊 was to whitewash a wall. As written in Shuōwén Tǔbù 説文土部 [Tu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “E, báitú yě. 堊， 白塗也.” (E means to paint something white.) In the chapter Shuōlín xià 説林下 [Collection of Persuasions II] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads

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that “gōng yǒu è, qì yǒu qī, zé jié yǐ. 宮有堊，器有漆，則潔矣.” (The palace walls are whitewashed; the utensils are lacquered. Then it could be said the code of cleanliness has been observed.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of earth which is white or of other colors and is used in whitewashing.) In Xúwúguǐ 徐無鬼 of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “jiàngshí yùnjīn chéngfēng, tīng ér zhuózhī, jìn è ér bí bùshāng. 匠石運斤成風，聽而斲之，盡 堊而鼻不傷.” (The artisan Shi whirled his axe as rapidly as a gust of wind, immediately removing the mud spot cleanly while leaving the nose uninjured.) Cheng Xuanying 成玄英 notes that “E zhě, bái shàn tǔ yě. 堊者，白善土也.” (The word E 堊 refers to white earth.) [E 堊 is pronounced the same as E 惡 (evil, vice). To avoid the negative connotation, the antonym of E 惡-shàn 善 is employed. Hence, white earth (bái è tǔ 白堊土) is called bái shàn tǔ 白善土.] The original meaning of zhuó 斫 was hack or cut with a knife or an axe. It is written in Shuōwén Jīnbù 説文斤部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “zhuó, jī yě. 斫，擊也.” (The word zhuó 斫 means to strike.) In the essay Qīfā 七發 [Seven Stimuli] written by Mei Cheng 枚乘 of the Han dynasty, it is read that “lóngmén zhī tóng, gāo bǎichǐ ér wúzhī . . . shǐ qínzhì zhuó zhǎn yǐ wéi qín. 龍門之桐，高百尺而無枝 . . . 使琴摯斫斬以為琴.” (A sycamore tree at the place of Longmen stands as tall as a hundred chi 尺 [about 25 meters], branchless. The musician Qínzhì 琴摯 could make a gǔqín 古琴 [a musical instrument] out of it.) Later on, the word became a general term for axes or knives, as in the chapter Bèixué 備穴 [Preparation against Tunnelling] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi 墨 子 ], it reads that “yǐ fǔjīn wéi zhuó. 以斧斤為斫.” (Chop with an axe or knife.) In Shuōwén jùdòu 説文句讀 [Notes on Shuōwén] written by a linguist named Wang Yun 王筠, it is read that “zhuó wéi dāofǔ zhī tōngmíng. 斫為刀斧之通名.” (Zhuó 斫 is a general term used for knives and axes.) One word was a verb with its original meaning in use, yet the word was taken as an adjective with its extended meaning. See the following examples. The original meaning of the word cè 测 was to measure the depth of something, which was used as a verb. As written in Dà sī tú 大司徒 [Minister over the Masses] of the chapter Dìguān 地官 [Offices of Earth] of Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], “Yǐ tǔguī zhīfǎ cè tǔshēn. 以土圭之法測土深.” (Decide the geological centre with the measuring tablet tugui 土圭.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “cè yóu dù yě. 測猶度也.” (Cè 測 means to measure, similar to dù 度.) Its original meaning was extended to the meaning of deep and was used as an adjective. As written in Gōng rén 弓人 [Bow Maker] of the chapter Kǎogōngjì 考工 記 [Artificers’ Record] of the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], “Qī yù cè, sī yù chén. 漆欲測，絲欲沈.” ([In bow making] The paint needs to be clean and the chords need to be tough.) (3) An adjective with its original meaning is extended to meanings with a different word class. One word was an adjective with its original meaning when in use. The word became a noun with the extended meaning in use. The original meaning of the

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 145 word was with a specific feature or color; yet the extended meaning of the word referred to one person or thing with such a feature or color. See the following examples. The original meaning of ai 隘 was narrow, of limited space, which was an adjective. As one line in the poem Shēngmín 生民 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Songs], it reads that “dàn zhìzhī ài xiàng, niú yáng féi zì zhī. 誕寘之隘巷，牛羊腓字之.” (After birth, he was deserted in a narrow lane, being sheltered and reared by oxen and sheep.) Kong Yingda 孔穎 達 notes that “zhì zhī yú xiá’ài xiàng zhōng. 置之於狹隘巷中.” (He was left on a narrow lane.) The word ai 隘 was used as a noun in the above example. In Xīgōng èrshí’èr nián 僖公二十二年 [22nd Year of the Reign of Lord Xi] of Zuǒzhuàn 左 傳 [The Zuo Commentary], a sentence goes, “Qíng dí zhī rén, ài ér bú liè, tiān zàn wǒ yě. 勍敵之人，隘而不列，天贊我也.” (The enemy force is strong, yet could not line up their formation due to the space limitation. Divinity is helping us.) Du Yu 杜預 notes that “Chǔ zài xiǎn’ài, bù dé chénliè. 楚在險隘，不得陳列.” (The difficulty in conquering Chu lies in its strategic vantage in landform; the army cannot line up formations.) The original meaning of wàng 枉 was curvy or bendy, which was an adjective. It is noted in Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “wàng, xiéqū yě.” 枉，衺曲也. (Wàng 枉 means curvy; not upright.) In Wáng bà 王霸 of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “Pì zhī shì yóu lì zhímù ér qiú qī jǐng zhī wàng yě. 辟之是猶立直木而求其景 之枉也.” (It is like that erecting a straight rod with an expectation for a curvy shadow.) In the chapter Téngwéngōng xià 滕文公下 [Lord Wén of Teng II] of Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “wàng chǐ ér zhí xún, yì ruò kě wéi yě. 枉尺而直尋，宜若可為也.” ([lit.] Endure the small sacrifice of chǐ 尺, but have the large benefit of xún 尋 – this might be worth doing. [fig.] If one small sacrifice could bring greater benefits, one might as well endure it). The original meaning is extended to the meaning of an evil person and was used as a noun. In the chapter Wéizhèng 為政 [The Practice of Government] of the Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “Jǔzhí cuò zhū wàng, zé mín fú; jǔ wàng cuò zhū zhí, zé mín bù fú. 舉直錯諸枉，則民服；舉枉錯 諸直，則民不服 .” (Advance the upright and set aside the crooked, then the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit.) The word was an adjective with its original meaning when in use, yet the word became a verb with its extended meanings in the actual use. In most cases, the original meaning was a certain feature, while the extended meaning was the behavior with the feature. See the following examples. The original meaning of qīng 青 was dark green or blue. As written in Shuōwén Qīngbù 说文青部 [Qing Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Qīng, dōngfáng cè yě. 青，東方色也.” (The word Qīng 青 refers to the color of the east.) In the chapter Tián zǐ fāng 田子方 of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “fū zhìrén zhě, shàng kuī qīngtián, xià qián huángquán. 夫至人者，上闚青 田，下潛黃泉.” (A perfect man looks up to the azure sky above or dives down

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to the yellow springs beneath.) In Mèng chūn 孟春 [First Month of Spring] of the Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “zài qīngqí, yī qīngyī, fú qīngyù. 載青旂，衣青衣，服青玉.” (He rides in a chariot bearing green streamers; he is clothed in green robes and wears green jade ornaments.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of something of green color. In the poem Zhù 著 [The space between the door and the screen] of Qífēng 齊風 [The Song of Qi], Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “chōng ěr yǐ qīng hū ěr. 充耳以青乎而.” (The strings of his ear-stoppers were of green silk.) (Qīng 青 refers to green jade) In the essay Quànxué 勸學 [Encouraging Learning] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ], it reads that “qīng qǔ zhī yú lán ér qīng yú lán.青取之于藍而青于藍.” [Blue comes from the indigo plant but is bluer than the plant itself.] (Qīng 青 refers to the indigo color.) It is written in Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites] that “Qián yǒu shuǐ, zé zài qīng jīng.” 前有水，則載青旌.[If there is water ahead, the flag with a green bird is to be raised.] (Qīng 青 refers to a flag with a green bird.) In the essay Jiěcháo 解嘲 [Self-Deprecation] by Yang Xiong 揚雄 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “yūqīng tuōzǐ, zhūdān qīlún. 紆青 拖紫，朱丹其轂.” (He bears the official seal with green-purple tape and rides in chariots with crimson-painted wheels.) (Qīng 青 refers to green-colored tape tied to an official seal.) The original meaning of sù 肅 was respectful or solemn and was used as an adjective, as noted in Shuōwén Yùbù 説文聿部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Sù, chíshì zhènjìng yě. Cóng yù zài yuān shàng, zhànzhàn jīngjīng yě. 肅，持事振敬也.從聿在𣶒上，戰戰兢兢也.” (The word Sù 肅 means to work actively and behave respectfully towards others. The upper part yù 聿 means holding one’s headcloth; the lower part yuan 𣶒 means abyss; Sù 肅 means being on high alert or on the jig.) In Xīgōng èrshísān nián 僖公二十三年 [23rd year of the Reign of Lord Xī] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “qī cōngzhě sù ér kuān, zhōng ér néng lì. 其從者肅而寬，忠而能 力.” (His subordinates are respectful and lenient, loyal, and capable.) Du Yu 杜 預 interprets sù 肅 as being respectful, whose original meaning was extended to usher in or solute respectfully, and was used as a verb. It is read in Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites] that “zhǔrén sùkè ér rù. 主人肅客而入.” (The host invites the guests in respectfully.) In this context, Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 interpretes sù 肅 as lead in or usher in. The original meaning of zhěng 整 was neat and orderly. In Yǐngōng jiǔ nián 隱公九年 [Year 9 of the Reign of Lord Yǐn] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “róng qīng ér bùzhěng, tān ér wúqīn. 戎輕而不整，貪而無 親.” (The tribe Rong are reckless and unruly, avaricious and dividing.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of sort or rectify, and was used as a verb, as in the poem Chángwǔ 常武 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes of the Kingdom] in Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Songs], a line reads “zhěng wǒ liùshī, yǐ xiū wǒ róng. 整 我六師，以脩我戎.” (Make my six armies in order, and get all my apparatus of war ready.)

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5 Multiplewaysofsemanticextension In the old semantic system, many Chinese words had two or more extended meanings to establish a complicated relationship of semantic extension, which may be divided into three major types from the perspective of the manner of semantic extension: interconnecting, radiant, and synthetical form. 5.1 Interconnectingsemanticextension Interconnecting semantic extension involves different interconnecting levels of semantic extension, say, meanings A, B, C, and D. The meaning B comes out of the extension of meaning A, the meaning C comes out of the meaning B, and the meaning D comes out of the meaning C. One meaning (sense) is an extension of the following sense. As such, an interconnecting semantic relationship is formed by means of semantic extension. There were many cases of this interconnecting extension in the Old Chinese semantic system to be exemplified as follows. The original meaning of bǐng 秉 was grain seedling. It is written in Shuōwén Yòubù 说文又部 [You Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “bǐng, hé shù yě. 秉，禾束也.” (The word bǐng means grain seedling.) In the poem Dàtián 大田 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] in the Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Songs], it reads that “bǐ yǒu yí bǐng, cǐ yǒu zhì suì. 彼有遺秉，此有滯穗.” (Over there, some seedlings are left; in here, some grains are littered.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “Bǐng, bǎ yě. 秉，把也.” (The word bǐng 秉 means to hold.) The original meaning of bǐng 秉 was extended to the meaning of hold or to take. As written in Shìgū 釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], “Bǐng, zhí yě. 秉，執也.” (The word bǐng 秉 means to hold.) In Tiānwè 天問 [Inquiries into the Universe] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], one sentence reads “bó chāng háo shuāi, bǐng biān zuò mù. 伯昌號衰，秉鞭作牧.” (The state of Zhōu rose to prominence at the decline of the Shang, Lord Zhou took the lead among the states.) The meaning was extended to mean to govern or to take charge. In the poem Dìng zhī fāng zhōng 定之方中 of Yōngfēng 鄘風 [Odes of Yōng] in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “bǐ zhí yě rén, bǐng xīn sāi yuān. 彼直也人，秉 心塞淵.” (He showed what he was maintaining in his heart, a profound devotion to his duties.) It is recorded in the Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “bǐng, cāo yě. 秉，操也.” (The word bǐng 秉 means to maintain.) The meaning was extended to mean power or authority. In Zhōu yǎfū zhuàn 周亞 夫傳 [Biography of Zhou Yafu] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it is written that “jūn hòu sān suì ér hóu, hóu bāsuì wéi jiàngxiàng, chí guóbǐng. 君後三歲而 侯，侯八歲為將相，持國秉.” (The nobleman is conferred marquess after three years, and becomes the governer of the commandery and prime minister in charge of the state affairs after eight years.) The above relationship of extended meanings of bǐng 秉 can be illustrated as follows. Grain seedling (original meaning A) → to hold (extended meaning B) → to govern, take charge (extended meaning C) → power, authority (extended meaning D).

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The original meaning of guò 過 was pass by. In the chapter of Liánghuìwáng shàng 梁惠王上 [Lord Hui of the State Liang I] of the Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “yǒu qiānniú ér guò tángxià zhě. 有牽牛而過堂下者.” (Someone passes by the hall, leading a cow.) The original meaning was extended to the meaning of exceed or win. In the chapter of yǐngōng yuán nián 隱公元 年 [The First Year of the Reign of Lord Yin] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “dàdū búguò sānguó zhīyī. 大都不過參國之一.” (The area of a major city should not be over one third of that of the capital.) The meaning was extended to go beyond the normal degree. In the chapter of Xiūshēn 修身 [Self-Cultivation] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ], it reads that “nù bú guò duó, xǐ bù guò yǔ. 恕不過奪，喜不過予.” (However angry a ruler might be, he should not punish others excessively; neither should he award others excessively no matter how happy he was.) The meaning was extended to misconduct or error. In the chapter of Xuāngōng èr nián 宣公二年 [The Second Year of the Reign of Lord Xuān] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “guò ér néng gǎi, shàn mò dà yān. 過而能改，善莫大焉.” (Even if one commits an error, it will be highly appreciated that he mends his way.) The meaning was extended to blame. In Xī wǎngrì 惜往日 [A Eulogy for the Bygones] of Jiǔzhāng 九章 [The Nine Hymns] of Chúcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], one sentence reads “xìn chǎnyú zhī hùnzhuó xī, shèng qìzhì ér guòzhī. 信讒諛之溷濁兮，盛氣志而過之.” (His Majesty enjoyed the bog of flattery of the hypocrites; full of rage, he cannot help criticizing them.) Jiang Ji 蔣驥 notes that “guò, dūzé yě. 過，督責也.” (The word guò 過 means supervise or criticize.) The above relationship of semantic extension of the word guò 過 could be illustrated as follows: Pass by (original meaning A) → exceed (extended meaning B) → excessively (extended meaning C) → errors (extended meaning D) → criticise (extended meaning E). The original meaning of yuē 約 was restrain or bind. It is written in Shuōwén Sībù 説文糸部 [Si Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “yuē, chán shù yě. 約，纏束也.” (The word yuē 約 means to bind or restrain.) In Sīgān 斯干 of Xiǎoyǎo 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “yuē zhī gégé, zhuó zhītuótuó. 約之閣閣，椓之橐橐.” (They bound the frames for the earth, exactly over one another; tuo-tuo went on the pounding.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is written that “yuē, shù yě. 約，束也.” (The word yuē 約 means to bind or restrain.) The meaning was extended to mean restrict or discipline. In Zǐhǎn 子罕 of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “bó wǒ yǐ wén, yuē wǒ yǐ lǐ. 博我以文，約我以禮.” (Enrich my mind with the classics, and discipline me with the codes of rites.) The meaning was extended to reach a mutual agreement. In Xiàngyǔ běnjì 項羽本紀 [Basic Annals of Xiang Yu] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “huáiwáng yǔ zhūhóu yuē, yuē: ‘xiān pòqín rù xiányáng zhě wāng zhī. 懷王與諸侯約，曰：‘先破秦入咸陽者王之.’” (Lord Huai made a pledge with the lords that the one who defeated King Qin and entered the capital Xianyang first would be the ruler.) The meaning was extended to something promised or a

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 149 treaty. In Qíncè’èr 秦策二 [Strategies of Qin II] of Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “qí yǔ dàguó jiùwèi ér bèiyuē. 齊與大國 救魏而背約.” (Against the earlier agreement, the state of Qi rescued the state of Wei along with other major states.) The interconnecting semantic extension of the word yuē 約 could be illustrated as follows: Bind, wrap (original meaning A) → limit, restrict (extended meaning B) → agreement (extended meaning C) → something agreed, a pledge (extended meaning D). 5.2 Radiantsemanticextension Radiant semantic extension involves radiating several different meanings out of the original meaning. Each extended meaning from its original meaning is paratactic to one another, just like the rung of a wheel. There are many cases of such wheel-like extension in the Old Chinese semantic system. See the following examples. The original meaning of chǐ 齒 was tooth, which was written in Shuōwén Chǐbù 説文齒部 [Chi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “chǐ, kǒu yín gǔ yě. 齒，口龂骨也.” (Chǐ 齒 refers to the bones of gums.) In Xiàngshǔ 相鼠 [Rat] of Yōngfēng 鄘風 [Odes of the Region of Yōng] in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “xiàngshǔ yǒuchǐ, rén ér wú zhǐ. 相鼠有齒，人而無 止.” (Look at a rat, it has its teeth; but a man shall be without any right deportment.) The word could also mean ivory. In the chapter of Wángzhì 王制 [The Regulations of a King] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “nánhǎi zé yǒu yǔhé, chǐgé, céngqīng, dāngān yān. 南海則有羽翮、齒革、曾青、丹干 焉.” (The South Sea produces feather, ivory, rhino skin, metal, drug, cinnabar, etc.) The meaning was extended to mean one’s age. In the chapter of Zhāogōng èrshí’èr nián 昭公二十二年 [The 33nd year of the reign of Lord Zhāo] of Zuǒzhuàn 左 傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it is recorded that “zǐ zhīchǐ cháng yǐ. 子之齒長矣.” (You are older than me.) In the chapter of Yǐngōng shíyī nián 隱公十一年 [The 11th year of the reign of Lord Yin] of the book, it is written that “guǎrén ruò cháo yú xuē, bùgǎn yǔ zhū rèn chǐ. 寡人若朝于薛，不敢與諸任齒.” (If I pay an audience to Lord Xue 薛, how can I be senior to other lords?) The word chǐ 齒 also means appointment. In Càizhòng zhī mìng 蔡仲之命 [The Life of Cài Zhòng] of the pseudo Shàngshū 尚書 [the Classic of History], it reads that “jiàng huòshū yú shùrén, sān nián bù chǐ. 降霍叔于庶人，三年不齒.” (Huoshu was demoted to be a commoner without any appointment for three years.) In Wěi Kǒng Zhuàn 偽孔傳 [Commentary attributed to Kong Anguo 孔安國 on Shàngshū 尚書 (The Classic of History)], it is written that “sān nián zhīhòu nǎi chǐlù. 三年之後乃齒 録.” (He was appointed again three years later.) The meanings of chǐ 齒 could be illustrated as follows: Teeth (original meaning)

ivory age adjacent, parallel appointment

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The original meaning of jìn 禁 was taboo. It is written in Shuōwén Shìbù 説文 示部 [Shi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “jìn, jíxiōng zhī jì yě. 禁， 吉凶之忌也.” (Jìn 禁 means taboo.) It is written in Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites] that “rù jìng ér wèn jìn, rù guó ér wèn sú. 入竟而問禁，入國而問俗.” (When one comes to a new place, he needs to know something about the taboo of the place; when one comes to a foreign country, he needs to learn something about the local customs.) The meaning of jìn 禁 was extended to prohibit. In the chapter of Wángzhì 王制 [The Regulations of a King] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “línlù chuānzé yǐ shí rù ér bújìn. 林麓川澤以時入而不禁.” (During proper seasons, accessing the mountains, woods, rivers and marshes is not prohibited.) The meaning of jìn 禁 was extended to restriction. In Zīyī 緇衣 [Black Robes] of Lǐjì 禮記, it reads that “jūnzǐ dàorén yǐyán ér jìn rén yǐ xíng. 君子道人以言而禁人以行.” (A gentleman guides others with words, yet dissuades others with actions.) The word also means prohibition. In Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin] of the Hànfeizi 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “rú yǐwén luàn fǎ, ér xiá yǐ wǔ fàn jìn. 儒以文亂 法，而俠以武犯禁.” (The Confucianists distort law with their writings, whereas the swordsmen violate prohibitions with fighting.) The word also means “palace, where emperors dwelled.” In Qínshǐhuáng běnjì 秦始皇本紀 [Basic Annals of the First Emperor of Qin] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “Ershì chángjū jìnzhōng, yǔ gāo jué zhūshì. 二世常居禁中，與高決諸事.” (The Second Emperor of Qin often stayed in the court and decided everything with Zhao Gao.) The word also refers to where livestock is kept. In Yòurén 囿人 [Game Keepers] of the chapter Dìguān 地官 [Offices of Earth] or [Magistrate] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu], it reads that “yòurén zhǎng yòu yóu zhī shòujìn. 囿人 掌囿遊之獸禁.” (Game keepers are in charge of the zoo of the royal resort.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “jìnzhě, qī fān wèi yě. 禁者，其蕃衛也.” (Jìn 禁 refers to guards.) The semantic extension of the word jìn 禁 could be illustrated as follows:

Original meaning: taboo

prohibit restriction prohibition palaces where emperors lived where animals are kept

The original meaning of shōu 收 was arrest. In Shuōwén Pūbù 説文攴部 [Pu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads that “Shōu, bǔ yě. 收，捕也.” (The word shōu 收 means to arrest.) In the poem Zhānyǎng 瞻卬 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [The Greater Odes of the Kingdom] in Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “cǐyì wúzuì, rǔ fǎn shōu zhī. 此宜無罪，女反收之.” (Here is one who ought to be held guiltless, yet you snare him [in the net of crime].) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], a note is made that “shōu, jūshōu yě. 收， 拘收也.” (Shōu 收 means arrest, captivate.) The meaning was extended to gather or collect. In the chapter of Fēng shàn shū 封禪書 [The Treatise of the Feng and Shan Sacrifices] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 151 “yǔ shōu jiǔmù zhī jīn, zhù jiǔdǐng. 禹收九牧之金，鑄九鼎.” (The Sage Yu collected the metals across the country and made nine cauldrons.) The word shōu 收 also means to take something into possession. In the chapter of Yǐngōng yuán nián 隱公元年 [The First Year of the Reign of Lord Yin] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “tàishū yòu shōu èr yǐwéi jǐ yì. 太叔又收貳以為已 邑.” (Tàishū took the territories of the two subordinates into his own possession.) In addition, the word shōu 收 means harvest. In Qīhuàn 七患 [Seven Misfortunes] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads that “yìgǔ bùshōu wèi zhī jǐn.一谷不收 謂之饉.” [Not a single grain was collected – there happened a famine.] The word also means to take somebody in or to accommodate someone. In Xīgōng sì nián 僖公四年 [The Fourth Year of the Reign of Lord Xi] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “rǔ shōu guǎjūn, guǎjūn zhī yuàn yě. 辱收寡君，寡君 之願也.” (Please take in our lord; that’s his will.) The word also means to refrain or forebear. In the chapter of Bìmìng 畢命 [Charge to the Lord of Bi] of the pseudo Shàngshū 尚書 [the Classic of History], it reads that “suī shōu fàng xīn, xián zhī wéi jiān. 雖收放心，閑之惟艱.” (Although laziness could be restrained, it’s still challenging to resist indulgence.) The word also means “to encoffin or bury. In Xīgōng sānshí’èr nián 僖公三十二年 [The 32nd year of the Reign of Lord Xī] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “bìsǐ shì jiān, yú shōu ér gǔ yān. 必死是間，余收爾骨焉.” (You are to die between [the two mountains], and I will come to collect your body.) The semantic extension of shōu 收 could be illustrated as follows:

Arrest (original meaning)

Gather, collect Take hold of harvest Take somebody in Restrain, refrain Encoffin, bury

5.3 Syntheticalsemanticextension The interconnecting and radiant semantic extensions were the two basic forms of semantic extension in the Old Chinese language. Quite frequently, the semantic extension of one word appeared to be in the two basic forms and/or on multiple forms, demonstrating a rather complex synthetical picture of semantic extension. See the following examples. The original meaning was to confront. In Shuōwén Shǒubù 説文手部 [Shou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that kàng 抗 means hàn 扞 (holding a shield). In the chapter of Chéndào 臣道 [The Way of Ministers] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it is read that “yǒu néng kàngjūn zhīmìng, qièjūn zhī zhòng, fǎnjūn zhī shì, yǐ ān guó zhī wēi, chú jūn zhī rǔ, gōngfá zúyǐ chéng guó zhī dàlì, wèi zhīfú. 有能抗君之命，竊君之重，反君之事，以安國之危， 除君之辱，功伐足以成國之大利，謂之拂.” (To have the ability to obstruct the mandate of the lord, to act without permission in matters of importance to the lord, and to overturn the undertakings of the lord in order to secure the state

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against danger and to deliver the lord from disgrace, resulting in accomplishments and military achievements sufficient to consummate the greatest benefits for the state, is called “opposition.”) Yang Liang 楊倞 notes kàng 抗 means reject or obstruct. The meaning was extended to match or being equal. In the essay Guòqínlùn 過秦論 [Disquisition of Finding Fault with Qin] written by Jia Yi 賈 誼 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “díshù zhī zhòng, fēi kàngyú jiǔguó zhī shī yě. 謫戍之眾，非抗於九國之師也.” (The stationed army was belittled and not considered as a match against the joint force of nine states.) The word also means strong or robust. In Zōu Yáng lièzhuàn 鄒陽列傳 [Biography of Zōu Yáng] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “yì kě wèi kàngzhí bù náo yǐ. 亦可謂抗直不撓矣.” (He could be regarded as a tough man with an unbending will.) The original meaning is extended to the meaning of to lift or raise. In Bīn zhī chū yàn 賓之初筵 [Banquet ready for the Guests] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “dàhóu jì kàng, gōngshǐ sīzhāng. 大侯既抗，弓矢 斯張.” (The targets have been raised; the arrows are already on bows.) A note is made in the Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “kàng, jǔ yě. 抗，舉也.” (Kàng 抗 means to raise.) The word can also mean high or noble. In the essay Shuōshān 説山 [A mountain of persuasions] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南 子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “shēn Túdí fùshí zìchén yú yuān, ér nìzhě bùkě yǐwéi kàng. 申徒狄負石自沈於淵，而溺者不可以為抗.” (The Grand Master Shen Tudi 申徒狄 drowned himself with a boulder; however, suicide should not be considered a noble act.) Gao You 高誘 notes that “kàng, gāo yě. 抗，高也.” (Kàng 抗 means high.) The semantic extension of the word kàng 抗 could be illustrated as follows: confront (original meaning)

Match, parallel tough, robust Raise  high, noble

The original meaning of liú 流 was the flow of water. It is noted in Shuōwén Shuǐbù 説文水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “liú, shuǐ xíng yě. 流，水行也.” (The word liú 流 means water flowing.) As written in the chapter of Qián 乾 [Heaven] of the yì 易 [Book of Changes], “Shuǐ liú shī, huǒ jiù zào. 水流濕，火就燥.” (Water flows in wet places; fire bursts in dry places.) In the poem Xiǎobiàn 小弁 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “pì bǐ zhōuliú, bùzhī suǒjiè. 譬彼舟流，不知所届.” (My life is like the flowing water; I do not know where it goes.) The meaning was extended to move. In the chapter of Chǐmí 侈靡 [On Extravagance in Spending] of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guǎnzǐ], it reads that “Xiāng shū sú, guó yì lǐ, zé mín bù liú yǐ. 鄉殊俗，國異禮，則民不流矣.” (As the customs vary from town to town, country to country, people’s mobility is decreased.) The meaning of the word liú 流 was further extended to remote places. In Yǔ Gòng 禹貢 [Tribute of Yu] of Shàngshū 尚書 [the Classic of History], it reads that “wǔbǎilǐ huāngfú, sānbǎilǐ mán, èrbǎilǐ liú. 五百里荒服，

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese

153

三百里蠻，二百里流.” (The area of 500 li 里 (measuring unit of distance) are the area of huāngfú 荒服, 300 li 里 of mán 蠻 and 200 li 里 of liú 流 are remote and desolute places.) Kong Chuan 孔傳 notes that “liú, yí yě, yán zhèngjiào suí qīsú. 流，移也，言政教隨其俗.” (The word liú 流 means to move, i.e., practice politics and education in accordance with the local custom.) The meaning of liú 流 (flow) was extended to exile prisoners or send a criminal to remote places. In Zhōuyǔ zhōng 周语中 [Discourses of the State of Zhōu] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “sān nián, nǎi liú wáng yú zhì. 三年，乃流王 於彘.” (Three years later, the king was exiled to the remote county Zhì 彘.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 notes that “liú, fàng yě. 流，放也.” (The word liú 流 means exile.) The word liú 流 also means to spread, or disseminate. In the chapter of Gōngsūn chǒu shàng 公孫丑上 (Gōngsūn Chǒu, a person’s name) of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “dé zhī liúxíng, sù yú zhì yóu ér chuánmìng. 德之流行，速於置郵而傳命.” (The dissemination of virtues is faster than the delivery of mandates.) The meaning of dissemination was extended to vane or groundless. In Zhìshì 致仕 [On Attracting Scholars] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “fán liúyán, liúshuō, liúshì, liúmóu, liúyù, liúsù, bùguān ér héngzhì zhě, jūnzǐ shèn zhī. 凡流言、流説、流事、流謀、流譽、流愬，不官 而衡至者，君子慎之.” (An intellectual ought to be perceptive of the groundless remarks, opinions, conducts, stratagems, compliments and accusations – those spread widely but not in an open, honorable manner.) Yáng Liàng 楊倞 notes that “liúzhě, wú gēnyuán zhīwèi. 流者，無根源之謂.” (The word liú 流 means groundless.) The meaning of drift was extended to mean indulge, or yield to. In Jìnyǔ yī 晉語一 [Discourses of Jin] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “sìchǐ bù wéi, liùzhì ér xíng, wú suǒ bù jiù, shì yǐ jí wáng ér bù huò zhuī jiàn. 肆侈不違，流志而行，無所不疚，是以及亡而不獲追鑒 .” (They [three tyrants] shamelessly indulged themselves in all sorts of sinful pleasures; never did they learn from the ancient sages even on the day of their demise.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 notes that liú 流 means fàng 放 (indulge). The original meaning of liú 流 was extended to rivers. In Yúfù漁父 [The Hermit Yúfù] of Chǔcí 楚 辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “níng fù xiāngliú, zàngshēn yú jiāngyú zhī fù zhōng. 寧赴湘流，葬身于江魚之腹中.” (I would rather flow along Xiang River and be buried, myself, in the belly of the river fish.) The word particularly refers to the lower reach of the river. In Zǐzhāng 子張 (A disciple of Confucius) of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “Shì yǐ jūnzǐ wù jū xiàliú, tiānxià zhī è jiē guī yān. 是以君子惡居下流，天下之惡皆歸焉.” (A gentleman would detest being in a low position, as all the disagreeable would be dumped upon him.) The meaning extended to part or segment. In Zēngzǐ lìshì 曾子立事 [Zengzi’s thoughts about serving one’s superiors correctly] of the Dàdài lǐjì 大戴 禮記 [The Book of Rites by Dai De], it reads that “guān shuō zhī liú, kěyǐ zhī qī shù yě. 觀説之流，可以知其術也.” (One could know a person’s mind from the person’s remarks.) Yu Bian 盧辯 notes that liú 流 means one part. The meaning of river was then extended to branches or types. In Yìwénzhì 藝文志 [Treatise on Literature] of the Hànshū 漢書 [Book of Han], it reads that “rújiā zhě liú, gài chū yú sītú zhī guān. 儒家者流，蓋出於司徒之官.” (The school of Confucianism

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originated from the post of Minister over the masses.) The semantic extension of the word liú 流 could be illustrated as follows:

groundless

drift

move ˆ remote places exile, exile a prisoner to a remote place spread, disseminate ˆ superfluous, indulge oneself

flow of water (Original meaning)

the lower reaches of a riverˆpart, segment rivers

schools, types, branches

The original meaning of cháng 長 was the big distance between the two ends. In Guóshāng 國殤 [Eulogy on the Martyrs of the State] of Jiǔgē 九歌 [The Nine Hymns] in Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], one sentence reads “dài chángjiàn xī xié qíngōng, shǒu suī lí xī xīn bù chéng. 帶長劍兮挾秦弓，首雖 離兮心不懲.” (With the saber and bows in our hands, we would remain faithful to our state even if we were to be beheaded.) The word cháng 長 also means length. In Xiāngdǎng 鄉黨 of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “bì yǒu qǐn yī, cháng yìshēn yǒu bàn. 必有寢衣，長一身有半.” (Have a light quilt for a nap; the quilt is one and a half length of one’s height.) The word cháng 長 also means long-standing or lasting. In chapter seven of the Lǎozǐ 老 子 [Works of Laozi], it reads that “tiān cháng dì jiǔ. 天長地久.” (Heaven and Earth is ever-lasting.) The word cháng 長 was also used as a verb meaning to elongate. In Xuāngōng shí’èr nián 宣公十二年 [The 12th Year of the Reign of Lord Xuān] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “shí qī yán, bì zhǎng jìnguó. 實其言，必長晉國.” (If his words were to be followed, the state of Jin would thrive.) The meaning extended from elongate to grow or rear, and the word reads zhǎng 長 in this context. In Gōngsūn chǒu shàng 公孫丑上 [Gōngsūn Chǒu (person’s name) I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “sòng rén yǒu mǐn qī miáo zhī bùzhǎng ér yà zhī zhě. 宋人有憫其苗 之不長而揠之者.” (A man of the state of Song was so anxious for the growth of grass that he pulled them up.) In Zhāogōng shí’sì nián 昭公十四年 [The 14th Year of the Reign of Lord Zhāo] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “zhǎng gūyòu, yǎng lǎojí. 長孤幼，養老疾.” (Bring up orphans and take care of the elderly and the sick.) The word also means increase, which is pronounced as zhǎng. In the chapter Tài 泰 of the yì 易 [Book of Changes], it reads that “jūnzǐ dào zhǎng, xiǎorén dào xiāo yě. 君子道長，小人道消也.” (The way of greater minds would thrive; the way of smaller minds would decline.) The word also means to excel at something. In Qízhèng 奇正 [Unorthodox and Orthodox] of Sūnbìn bīngfǎ 孫臏兵法 [Sūn Bìn’s Art of War], it reads that “gù shàn zhàn zhě, jiàn dí zhī suǒcháng, zé zhī qī suǒ duǎn. 故善戰者，見敵之所 長，則知其所短.” (A skillful fighter saw the strength of his enemies and then

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 155 would know their weaknesses.) The meaning was extended to one’s strength or merits. In Nèipiān wènshàng èr shí sì 内篇問上二十四 [Talks with his Majesty, Inner Chapter 24] of Yànzǐ chūnqiū 晏子春秋 [Annals of Master Yan], it reads that “rèn rén zhī cháng, bù qiáng qī duǎn; rèn rén zhī gōng, bù qiáng qī zhuó. 任 人之長，不強其短；任人之工，不強其拙.” (Appoint one by his strength with no judgment upon his weaknesses; appoint one by his capability rather than forcing upon his incapabilities.) In this context, the original meaning was extended to elderly or of senior position and the word was pronounced as zhǎng 長. In Xiānjìn 先進 [Men of former times] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “yǐ wǔ yírì zhǎng hū ěr, wù wǔ yǐ yě. 以吾一日長乎爾，毋吾以也.” (Do not be afraid to speak up simply because I am older than you.) The meaning was extended to adulthood and the word was pronounced as zhǎng 長 in this context. In Kǒngzǐ shìjiā 孔子世家 [The Hereditary House of Confucius] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian] ， it reads that “kǒngzǐ pín qiě jiàn, jí zhǎng, cháng wéi jìshì shǐ. 孔子貧且賤，及長，嘗為季氏史.” (Confucius was of poor and humble origin; after he grew up, he was a scribe for Lord Ji.) The word also meant an elderly person or one of seniority in the family, and is pronounced as zhǎng 長. In Wàngzhāng xià萬章下 [Wàng Zhāng II] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “bù xié zhǎng, bù xié guì, bù xié xiōngdì ér yǒu. 不挾長，不挾貴，不挾兄弟而友.” (Do not befriend only those of senior age, noble rank, or wealthy family.) The meaning was extended to respect or honor and the word pronounced as zhǎng 長. In Dàxué 大學 [Great Learning] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “shàng lǎolǎo ér mín xīng xiào, shàng zhǎngzhǎng ér mín xīng dì. 上老老而民興孝，上長長而民 興弟.” (If the lords are filial to their parents, the masses will be filial to their parents as well; if the lords are respectful to their elders, the masses will also be respectful to their elders.) The word also meant ranking first and was pronounced as zhǎng 長. In the chapter of Dàozhí 盜跖 [Robber Zhi] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “yáo shā zhǎngzǐ, shùn liú mǔdì. 堯殺長子， 舜流母弟.” (Yao killed his first-born; Shun exiled his mother’s younger brother.) The word also meant of first position and was pronounced as zhǎng 長. In the chapter of Qián 乾 [Heaven] of the yì 易 [Book of Changes], it reads that “yuán zhě, shàn zhī zhǎng yě. 元者，善之長也.” (Yuán 元 means of primal value, the first virtue.) The meaning was extended to chief or supervisor; the word was pronounced as zhǎng 長. In Liáng huìwáng xià 梁惠王下 [Lord Huì of Liáng II] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “jūn xíng rén zhèng, sī mín qīn qīshàng, sǐ qī zhǎng yǐ. 君行仁政，斯民親其上，死其長矣.” (If your Majesty practices benevolence, the masses would be closer to their superiors and willing to sacrifice for their elders.) The word also meant supervisor or someone in charge and was pronounced as zhǎng 長. In Chǔcè yī 楚策一 [Strategies of Chu I] of the Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “tiāndì shǐ wǒ zhǎng bǎishòu, jīn zǐ shí wǒ, shì nì tiāndìmìng yě. 天帝使我 長百獸，今子食我，是逆天帝命也.” (The Heavenly Deity made me the King of Animals; if you eat me now, you are violating the Deity’s command.)

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The semantic extension of the word chǎng/zhǎng 長 are illustrated as follows:

a large (zh ng) distance between two ends (original meaning) someone of

Length Long, lasting Prolong grow, give birth (zh ng)  rear, bring up Increase (zh ng) Excel  strength, merit Older, of seniority (zh ng)

Adulthood An elderly person, seniority  respect, honor Ranking first Be of the first position  supervisor  be a supervisor

6

Interchangeable words

The meanings of interchangeable words or characters arise from words or characters that are interchangable with one another. The new meanings of interchangeable characters are not related with their original meanings. For instance, character A is being used as character B, and thus has the meaning of character B. In this situation, character A is the interchangeable character; while character B is the original character. The interchangeable meaning is the deep meaning of the character rather than that of the surface word form. Interchangeability of characters is not very often covered in the works of modern Chinese semantics. Old Chinese was a written language in which a monosyllabic character was a word; and the meanings of characters and words that were blended with each other. Interchangeability occurred in a common way. As Wang Yinzhi 王引之 of the Qing dynasty remarks, “some words in ancient classics were similar in sound and therefore were often interchanged. Very often the original character is being used but the loan character with the same sound was used in ancient writings. A scholar understood the loan characters in ancient writings as the original characters and had no difficulty understanding the texts; however, if he took on the new meanings of the loan words, he only focused on individual characters but failed to understand the whole text.”2 Hence, a neglect of interchangeability in the semantic study of ancient Chinese might be a neglect of Old Chinese proper. Interchangeability happens on the condition that the two characters are phonetically identical or similar. Phonetic similarity means that the two characters with similar finals rhyme with each other, or the two characters with similar initials alliterate, or the two characters have similar initials and finals, in despite of the fact that they neither rhyme nor alliterate. Ideographically, interchangeable characters and the original forms of characters could be in the following relationship.

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 157 6.1 Theoriginalcharacterisonepictophonetic character;theloanedcharacteristhephonetic componentoftheoriginalcharacter See the following examples. Fāng 方 is interchangeable with bàng 謗, meaning judge and criticize others’ faults. In Xiànwèn 憲問 of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “Zǐgòng fāng rén. 子貢方人.” (Zigong criticized others’ faults.) In the exegetical dictionary Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 notes that “Zhèng běn zuò bàng, wèi yán rén zhī guòshī. 鄭本作謗，謂 言人之過失.” (In the version annotated by Zheng Xuan 鄭玄, the character bàng 謗 was used with the meaning of criticizing others’ faults.) Nì 匿 is interchangeable with tè 慝, meaning evil. In the chapter of Wǔquán 五 權 [Five Rights] of the Yìzhōushū 逸周書 [Lost Book of Zhou], it reads that “rén shù zé kuì, kuì zé nì. 人庶則匱，匱則匿.” (A commoner would suffer poverty and then could become evil.) In Zhūzǐ píngyì 諸子平議 [A critical study on the philosophers of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods] written by Yu Yue 俞樾, it reads that “nìdāng dú wéi tè, yán rén zhòng zé bì kuìfá, kuìfá zé bì wéi jiāntè yǐ. 匿當讀為慝，言人眾則必匱乏，匱乏則必為姦慝矣.”（The word nì 匿 should be read as tè 慝, meaning that a boom of population would lead to shortages and poverty which would then lead to evil conducts.） In Yuèlùn 樂 論 [Discourse on Music] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “qī wénzhāng tè ér cǎi. 其文章匿而采.” (The writings are evil thematically but beautiful stylistically.) Wáng Xiānqiān 王先謙 annotates that the word 匿 should be read as tè 慝 with the meaning of evil. 6.2 Theloanedcharacterisonepictophonetic character;theoriginalcharacteristhephonetic componentoftheloanedcharacter See the following examples. Wàng 忘 is interchangeable with wáng 亡, meaning lose. In Xiàyuè 假樂 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [The Greater Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “bù qiān bù wàng, shuài yóu jiùzhāng. 不愆不忘， 率由舊章.” (Erring in nothing, forgetful of nothing, observing and following the old statutes.) Liú Xiàng 劉向 of the Han dynasty quoted the line in Jiànběn 建 本 [Establishing Roots] of Shuōyuàn 説苑 [Gardens of Stories] that “bù qiān bù wàng. 不愆不亡.” (Commit no errors, not neglecting one’s duties.) In the poem Lǜyī 綠衣 of Zhèngfēng 鄭風 [Odes of Zheng], one sentence writes that “xīn zhī yōu yǐ, hé wéi qīwàng. 心之憂矣，曷維其亡.” (My heart is in deep sorrow. How could I ever forget you?) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that wáng 亡 and wàng 忘 are the same meaning. In Chōusī 抽思 [Sad Thoughts Outpoured] of Jiǔzhāng 九章 [Nine Elegies] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], one sentence writes that “qǐ bù zhì jīn ér yōng wàng. 豈不至今而庸亡.” (How can you forget what

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I have said before?) Jiang Ji 蔣驥 notes that wáng 亡 and wàng 忘 are the same meaning. Zhōng 衷 is interchangeable with zhōng 中, meaning middle. In Jìnyǔxià 晉語 下 [Discourses of the State Jìn II] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “Móu ér wú zhèng, zhōng ér sī shǐ. 謀而無正，衷而思始.” (The counselors do not correct the wrongdoings; now that the state is well established, people start to miss the early good days.) The word also meant “break off or.” In the chapter of Yǐngōng jiǔnián 隱公九年 [Year 9 in the Reign of Lord Yǐn] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “róngrén zhīqián yù fù zhě bēn, zhù dān zhú zhī, zhōng róng shī. 戎人之前遇覆者奔，祝聃逐之，衷戎師.” (The herald army of Rong [tribe] was ambushed and fled; Zhu Dan chased them and stopped the marching army of Rong.) The word also meant appropriate in this context. In the chapter of Xīgōng èr shí sì nián 僖公二十四年 [24th Year in the Reign of Lord Xi] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “fú zhī bùzhōng, shēn zhīzāi yě. 服之不衷，身之災也.” (One should dress appropriately, or some troubles might be incurred.) 6.3 Theoriginalandtheloanedcharactersarebothpictophonetic characters,havingthesamephoneticcomponents See the following examples. Gāng 剛 is interchangeable with gāng 犅, meaning bull. In Bìgōng 閟宮 of Lǔsòng 魯頌 [Odes of Lu] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “bái mǔ xīng gāng. 白牡騂剛.” (White bull on red hard earth (for sacrifice)) Wang Xianqian 王先謙 notes that gāng 剛 is interchangeable with gāng 犅. In the chapter of Míng táng wèi 明堂位 [The Positions in the Hall of Distinction] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “zhōu xīnggāng. 周騂剛.” (Red earth is used for a sacrificial ceremony in the Zhou dynasty.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that gāng 剛 means mǔ 牡 (bull). Mò 墨 is interchangeable with mò 默. In the chapter Jiěbì 解蔽 [Dispelling Blindless] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ 荀子 ], it reads that “gù kǒu kě jié ér shǐ mò yún. 故口可劫而使墨雲.” (One can refrain himself from speaking.) Wang Xianqian 王先謙 quoted Hao Yixing 郝懿行 that “mò yǔ mò tóng. 墨與默 同.” (The two characters mò 墨 and mò 默 have the same meaning.) In the chapter of Shāngjūn lièzhuàn 商君列傳 [Biography of Lord Shāng] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “wǔwáng è è yǐ chāng, yīnshǒu mòmò yǐwáng. 武王諤諤以昌，殷紂墨墨以亡.” (Lord Wu thrived because he embraced different opinions of his subordinates, whereas Tyrant Zhou came to his demise because he silenced his subordinates.) In the chapter of Shìnán 釋難 [Clearing Puzzles] of Qiánfūlùn 潛夫論 [Comments of a Recluse] by Wang Fu 王符, it reads that “qǐ néng mò hū zāi? 豈能墨乎哉？” (How could one remain silent?) Wang Jipei 汪繼培 notes that “mò, dú zuò mò. 墨，讀作默.” (Both 墨 and 默 are pronounced as mò with the same meaning.)

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 159 6.4 Theoriginalandtheloanedarenotsimilar graphologicalcharacters,yettheyaresimilar oridenticalinphoneticcompounds See the following examples. Bō 播 is interchangeable with bō 簸, meaning to shake something. In Wēizǐ 微 子 of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “bō táo wǔ, rù yú hàn. 播 鼗武，入於漢.” (The drum player went to the area of Han region.) In Rénjiānshì 人間世 [The Human World] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “gǔ cè bō jīng, zú yǐ shí shí rén. 鼓筴播精，足以食十人.” (Sifting the crop and shaking off the chaff, ten people could be fed up.) As noted in the section Qián 乾 of Shuōwén tōngxùn dìngshēng 説文通訓定聲 [A Phonetic Study of Shuōwén] by Zhu Junsheng 朱駿聲 that “bō, jiǎjiè wéi bō. 播，假借為簸.” (The two characters bō 播 and bō 簸 are interchangeable with each other.) Méng 萌 is interchangeable with máng 氓, meaning the masses or people. In Shānguóguǐ 山國軌 [Using statistics to control state finances] of the Guǎnzǐ 管 子 [Works of Guǎnzǐ], it reads that “wèi gāotián zhīméng yuē: ‘wǔ suǒ jì bì yú zǐ zhě ruògān. 謂高田之萌曰：‘吾所寄幣於子者若干.’” (The court would say to the farmers in possession of quality lands, ‘Now you have been granted a loan.’) Yin Zhizhang 尹知章 notes that “méng, tián mín yě. 萌，田民也.” (The character méng 萌 means farmers.) In Shàngxián 尚賢 [Reward the Worthies] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mòzǐ], it reads that “guózhōng zhī zhòng, sìbǐ zhī méngrén, wén zhī jiē jìng wéi yì. 國中之眾，四鄙之萌人，聞之皆競為義.” (The residents of the capital and the farmers in the countryside all strive to be righteous.) In Yàncè èr 燕策二 [Strategies of Yan II] of the Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “shī jí méng lì. 施及萌隸.” (Apply the codes among the common masses.) Bao Zhao 鮑照 notes that “méng, yǔ máng tóng. 萌，與氓 同.” (Méng 萌 and máng 氓 have the same meaning.) One character could be interchangeable with several different characters, having more than one interchangeable meaning, as can be seen in the following examples. Cuò 厝 is noted in Shuōwén Chǎngbù 説文厂部 [Chang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that has the meaning of lìshí 厲石 (whetstone), having two new meanings from the interchangeable characters: (1) Interchangeable with cuò 措, meaning to place. In Zǐrén 梓人 [Carpenter] of the chapter of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record] of the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it is written that “zé bì rú jiāng fèi cuò. 則必如將 廢厝.” ([The old books] will be deserted and set aside.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 quoted Du Zichun’s 杜子春 note that “Cuò, dāng wéi cuò. 厝，當為措.” (The word 厝 cuò should be spelt as 措 cuò.) In the essay Zhì ān cè 治安 策 [Plans for Reigning in Peace] by Jia Yi 賈誼 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “bào huǒ cuò zhī jīxīn zhīxià ér qǐn qīshàng. 抱火厝之積薪之下而寢 其上.” (Place fire under the woodpile and sleep upon the pile.) In the chapter

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of Tāngwèn 湯問 [Questions of Tang] of the Lièzǐ 列子 [Works of Liezi 列 子 ], it reads that “mìng kuā é shì èr zǐ fù èr shān, yī cuò shuòdōng, yī cuò yōngnán. 命誇娥氏二子負二山，一厝朔東，一厝雍南.” (The two sons of the titan Kua-E were ordered to carry the two mountains and place one at the east of Shuo and another at the south of Yong.) (2) Interchangeable with cuò 錯, meaning mixed. It is written in Dìlǐzhì xià 地理志下 [Treatise on Geography II] of the Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han] that “shì gù wǔfāng zácuò, fēngsú bùchún. 是故五方雜厝，風俗不 純.” (That is the reason for a mixed population and diverse customs of the town.) Yan Shigu 顏師古 quoted the note of Jin Zhuo 晉灼 that “cuò, gǔ cuòzì. 厝，古錯字.” (In ancient texts, the character cuò 厝 was written as cuò 錯 rather than cuò 厝.) In the sixth volume of Mù tiānzǐzhuàn 穆 天子傳 [Tale of King Mù, Son of Heaven], it reads that “Nèishǐ bīn hóu, běi xiàng ér lì, dàkū jiǔ, xínghóu cuòyǒng, sān ér zhǐ. 內史賓侯，北向 而立，大哭九，邢侯厝踴，三而止.” (The accompanying minister-marquis stood northward, crying loudly in agony and for quite a while. Marquis Xing followed the princess a few steps behind and bid farewell three times before he left.) Dǎn 亶 is written in Shuōwén Lǐnbù 説文㐭部 [Lin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “Dǎn, duōgǔ yě. 亶，多榖也.” (The character dǎn 亶 means plenty of grain). The character has at least four meanings from the interchangeable characters: (1) Interchangeable with dàn 𤺺, meaning exhaustion or illness. In the poem Bǎn 板 [Abnormalcy] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “Shàngdì bǎnbǎn, xiàmín cù dàn. 上帝板板，下民卒癉.” (God has reversed His usual course of procedure, and the lower people are full of distress.) In the exegetical dictionary Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 annotates that “chénběn zuò dàn. 沈本作𤺺.” (In the old version, the character was dàn 𤺺.) Xiàmín cù dàn 下民卒癉 [The lower people are full of distress] was quoted in Zīyī 緇衣 [The black robes] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites]. In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 annotates that “dǎn, běn yìzuò dàn. 亶，本亦作𤺺.” (The word dǎn 亶 was dàn 𤺺 in the old version.) (2) Interchangeable with tǎn 袒, meaning expose or without a cover. In the chapter Yìbīng 議兵 [Debate on Military Affairs] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ], it reads that “bǐ kě zhà zhě, dài màn zhě yě, lù tǎn zhě yě. 彼可 詐者，怠慢者也，路亶者也.” (Deception works on the army without discipline, those on the loose, and those in disheveled clothes.) Yang Liang 楊 倞 notes that “lù, bàolùyě. Tǎn, dú wéi tǎn. Lùtǎn, wèi shàngxià bùxiāng fùgài. 路，暴露也.亶，讀為袒.露袒，謂上下不相覆蓋.” (Lù 路 means expose. 亶 is pronounced as tǎn. Lùtǎn 露袒 means not in the full cover; in disheveled clothes.)

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese 161 (3) Interchangeable with dàn 殫, meaning exhaust or end. In Fēi yuè shàng 非 樂上 [Condemning Music I] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads that “Shìjūnzǐ jié gǔgōng zhī lì, dàn qī sīlǜ zhī zhì. 士君子竭股肱之力， 亶其思慮之智.” (The intellectual officials serve the state with all their wits.) (4) Interchangeable with dàn 但, meaning only or merely. In the essay Zhì ān cè 治安策 [Plans for Reigning in Peace] by Jia Yi 賈誼 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “fēi dàn dàoxuán ér yǐ, yòu lèipì, quě bìng féi. 非亶倒懸 而已，又類辟，且病痱.” (Not only is the state in reverse order, yet paralyzed.) It is recorded in Wǔ wú zǐ zhuàn 武五子傳 [Stories of the Five Sons of Emperor Wu] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han] that “Wǔdì shǐ zhōnglángjiàng sūwǔ shǐ xiōngnú, jiànliú èrshí nián bùxiáng, huán dàn wéi diǎnshǔguó. 武帝使中郎將蘇武使匈奴，見留二十年不降，還亶為典屬 國.” (Emperor Wu appointed Su Wu emissary to the Xiongnu Tribe. Su was kept there for 20 years but refused to submit. Upon his returning home, he was appointed the Secretary of External Affairs.) Cháng 常 is recorded in Shuōwén Jīnbù 説文巾部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “cháng, xiàqún yě. 常，下帬也.” (Cháng 常 refers to lower clothing.), which has at least four new meanings from the interchangeable characters. (1) Interchangeable with cháng 長, meaning lasting or long-standing. In the essay Qīfā 七發 [Seven Stimuli] of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “guān wú cháng, xià yuàn shàng, ér qìxiè bù gōng. 官無常，下 怨上，而器械不功.” (The whimsy of the superior would induce complaints of the subordinate; mighty weapons will not function.) Ding Shihan 丁士 涵 notes that 常 is pronounced as cháng. In the chapter of Qūyuán jiǎshēng lièzhuàn 屈原賈生列傳 [Biographies of Qū Yuán and Jiǎ Yì] of Shǐjì 史記 [The Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “níng fù chángliú ér zànghū jiāngyú fùzhōng ěr. 寧赴常流而葬乎江魚腹中耳.” (I would rather plunge myself in the river and bury myself in the belly of a fish.) In Suǒyǐn 索隱 [Seeking the Obscure in the Records of the Grand Historian] by Sima Zhen 司馬貞, it reads that “chángliú, yóu chángliú yě. 常流，猶長流也.” (Chángliú 常流 and 長流 chángliú have the same meaning of rivers.) (2) Interchangeable with cháng 嘗, meaning once or used to. In the chapter of Tiānlùn 天論 [Discourse on Nature] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ], it reads that “fū rìyuè zhī yǒu shí, fēngyǔ zhī bùshí, guàixīng zhī chángjiàn, shì wúshì ér bù chángyǒu zhī. 夫日月之有蝕，風雨之不時，怪星之嘗 見，是無世而不常有之.” (There were solar and lunar eclipses in each era, whimsical wind and rain, and an irregular appearance of stars.) Wang Xianqian 王先謙 annotates that “Qúnshū zhì yào cháng zuò cháng, shì yě. 《群 書治要》常作長，是也.” (In the book The Governing Principles of Ancient China, the character cháng 嘗 was written as cháng 長 rather than cháng 常.) In Záshì sì 雜事四 [Miscellaneous Affairs IV] of Xīnxù 新序 [New Orders] by Liu Xiang 劉向 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “liáng dàfū yǒu

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Sòng Jiù zhě, cháng wéi biān xiànlìng. 梁大夫有宋就者，常為邊縣令.” (The scholar-official named Song Jiu of the Liang dynasty used to be the governor of a border county.) (3) Interchangeable with shàng 尚, meaning bless, hobby, favor. In Fēimìng xià 非命下 [Against Fatalism II] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads that “shàngdì búshàng, jiǔyǒu yǐwáng. 上帝不常，九有以亡.” (If Heaven reversed the order, the whole world would fall into ruins.) In Xiángǔ 閒詁 [Annotations to Mozi], Sun Yirang 孫詒讓 noted that the character cháng 常 should be read as shàng 尚. In Qīchén qīzhǔ 七臣七主 [Seven Ministers and Seven Rulers] of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “wáng zhǔ mù shēn wǔsè, ěr shàng wǔshēng. 芒主目伸五色，耳常五聲.” (An unwise ruler is addicted to physical pleasure; who judges beauty only by its looks, not taking any good advice.) Xu Weiyu 許維遹 noted that the character cháng 常 should be pronounced as 尚. In “Jìnyǔ 晉語 [Discourses of Jìn] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], Wei Zhao 韋昭 noted that “shàng, hòoyě. 尚，好也.” (The word shàng 尚 means like or favor.) (4) Interchangeable with xiáng 祥, a sacrificial ceremony of ancient times. The sacrifice at the 13th month after a parent’s funeral was called xiǎoxiáng 小 祥 (minor sacrifice), and that at the 25th month called dàxiáng 大祥 (major sacrifice). In Shìyúlǐ 士虞禮 [Post-burial rites for a common officer] of Yílǐ 儀禮 [The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial], it reads that “qī ér xiǎoxiáng, yuē jiàn cǐ chángshì. Yòu qī ér dà xiáng, yuē jiàn cǐ xiáng shì. 朞而小祥， 曰藨此常事.又朞而大祥，曰藨此祥事.” (The minor and major sacrificial ceremonies are to be held on due dates.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that the word xiáng 常 means the sacrificial ceremony as scheduled by the custom. In old texts, the word xiáng 常 was often used in place of xiáng 祥; both characters are pronounced as xiáng. Wang Yinzhi 王引之 noted in Jīngyì shùwén 經義述聞 [Records of the Meaning of Canons] that the character xiáng 常 should be understood as xiáng 祥 in old texts. Jiàn 踐 is written in Shuōwén Zúbù 説文足部 [Zu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “jiàn, lǚ yě. 踐，履也.” (The word jiàn 踐 means walk or practice. The word has at least six new meanings with the interchangeable characters: (1) Interchangeable with jiǎn 翦, meaning reduce or cut. In Càizhòng zhī mìng 蔡仲之命 [The Life of Cai Zhong] of the pseudo Shàngshū 尚書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “chéngwáng dōngfá huáiyí, suì jiàn yān. 成王東 伐淮夷，遂踐奄.” (King Cheng attacked Huáiyí in the east and conquered the State of Yān along the way.) In Wěi Kǒng Zhuàn 偽孔傳 [Commentary Attributed to Kong Anguo 孔安國 on Shàngshū 尚書 (The Classic of History)], it is written that “suì miè yān ér xǐ zhī. 遂滅奄而徙之.” (The kingdom of Yan was conquered and forced to migrate.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 quotes Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 that jiàn 踐 has the same meaning as jiǎn 翦 (conquer). Both characters are pronounced as jiǎn. In the chapter of Gǔyuè 古樂 [Music of the Ancients] of the Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “chéngwáng lì, yīnmín fǎn, wáng mìng

The progress of lexical meanings of Old Chinese

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

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zhōugōng jiǎnfá zhī. 成王立，殷民反，王命周公踐伐之.” (When King Cheng came to throne, the populace of Yin revolted. The king commanded Lord Zhou to repress the insurrection.) Interchangeable with qiǎn 淺, meaning shallow. In Dōngmén zhī shàn 東 門之墠 [The Level Ground at the East Gate] of Zhèngfēng 鄭風 [Odes of Zhèng] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “dōngmén zhī lì, yǒujiàn jiāshì. 東門之栗，有踐家室.” (By the chestnut trees at the east gate is a row of houses.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “Jiàn, Qiǎn yě. 踐，淺也.” [The word jiàn 踐 means shallow.] Chen Huan 陳奐 annotates that qiǎn 淺 means shallow. Interchangeable with jiàn 餞, meaning sacrificial ceremony for ancestors. In Sīzūnyí 司尊彝 [Keeper of Ritual Vessel] of Chūnguān 春官 [Offices of Spring] of Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu], it reads that “qī cháo jiàn yòng liǎng xiànzūn, qī zàixiàn yòng liǎng xiàngzūn. 其朝踐用兩獻尊，其 再獻用兩象尊.” (In the blood sacrifice termed cháojiàn, two phoenix-shaped wine containers are used; in the second libation ceremony, two elephantshaped wine containers are used.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that in old texts, the word jiàn was not written as 踐, but as 餞. Interchangeable with xiǎn 跣, meaning barefoot. In Xiàowén běnjì 孝文 本纪 [Annals of Emperor Xiàowén] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “wùjìn qǔfù, jià’nǚ, císì yínjiǔ shíròu zhě, zì dāng jǐ sāngshì fúlín zhě, jiē wú xiǎn. 毋禁取婦、嫁女、祠祀飲酒食肉者，自 當給喪事服臨者，皆無踐.” (Do not forbid wedding, sacrificial ritual, drinking, meat eating. The undertaker and the mourners are not required to be barefoot.) Pei Yan 裴駰 quoted Jin Zhuo’s 晉灼 note that “hànshū zuò xiǎn. Xiǎn, tú zú yě. 《漢書》作跣.跣，徒足也.” (In the Book of Han, the word xiǎn was written as 跣 with the meaning of barefoot.) Interchangeable with shàn 善, meaning nice or beautiful. It is written in Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Classic of Rites] that “Yí ér shì zhī, zé fú fēi yě. Rì ér xíngshì, zé bì xiàn zhī. 疑而筮之，則弗非也.日而行事，則必踐之.” (When puzzled, entreat divinity, then one will not commit errors; in daily activities, conduct oneself appropriately.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that 踐 is pronounced as shàn, an alternation of sound. Kong Yingda 孔穎達 annotated that the word jiàn 踐 means nice. Interchangeable with zuǎn 纘, meaning to continue. In the chapter of Wéngōng èr nián 文公二年 (The Second Year of the Reign of Lord Wén) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it is written that “jiàn xiū jiùhǎo, yào jié wàiyuán. 踐修舊好，要結外援.” (Continue to befriend the old friends and develop an alliance with foreign forces.) In Qúnjīng píngyì 群 經平議 [Commentary on the Confucian Classics], Yu Yue 俞樾 annotates that the word jiàn 踐 should be pronounced as zuǎn 纘. In the chapter of Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean] of Lǐjì 禮記 [Classics of Rites], it reads that “jiàn qíwèi, xíng qí lǐ. 踐其位，行其禮.” (Position oneself at the appropriate place; practice the ritual of the late king.) Zheng Xuan 鄭 玄 notes that jiàn 踐 is likely to have the meaning of zuǎn 纘.

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It should be pointed out that some of the above-mentioned interchangeable examples were commonly used and have received wide recognition, while others may be less common and went extinct completely after medieval times. There is no consensus about the meaning type of one word in a specific context, either the original or the interchangeable words. For example, in Xiǎo biàn 小弁 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “wǒxīn yōushāng, nì yān rú dǎo. 我心憂傷，惄焉如擣.” (My heart is wounded with sorrow, and I think till I feel as if pounded all over.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that the word dǎo 擣 means pain in heart. According to the exegetical dictionary Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons] by Lu Deming 陸德明 (scholar of the Tang dynasty, 556–627), the word dǎo 擣 was originally written as dǎo 㿒; in Hánshī 韓詩 [The Book of Songs compiled by Hàn Yīng 韓嬰 ], which was written as zhǒu 疛. In Tōngshì 通釋 [Annotations on the The Mao Tradition of the Book of Songs], Ma Ruichen 馬瑞辰 annotated that zhǒu 疛 and dǎo 㿒 had the same meaning and were interchangeable with 擣 (dǎo). In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] and the three versions of Book of Songs, the word dǎo 擣 was used with its interchangeable meaning. However, Kong Yingda 孔穎達 noted that “wǒxīn wèizhī yōushāng, nì yān bēimǐn, yǒurú wù zhī dǎoxīn yě. 我心為之 憂傷，惄焉悲閔，有如物之擣心也.” (My heart is filled with sadness and sorrow as if pounded by something.) Kong thought that in the text the word dǎo 擣 was used with its original meaning of pounding something with a rod. Cases of interchangeability abound and should be given special attention in the semantic study of Old Chinese language.

7 Conclusion A few cases of semantic development of the Old Chinese language were mentioned above. In fact, it was quite common that one word (or character) had several different meanings, namely, original, extended, and interchangeable meanings; whose meanings in usage were rather complicated. So far, Chinese scholars have made considerable achievements in the semantic study of the Old Chinese language, yet there still needs to be a more comprehensive study of the semantics and related development of the Old Chinese language.

Notes 1 Technically, interchangeable (tōngjiǎ 通假) means that one word is used to substitute several words rather than to express several meanings. Interchangeable of character was common in ancient written language. It is necessary to discuss the phenomenon as written language is an integral part of the study of Chinese lexical development. 2 Yǐnzhī Wáng 王引之 Jīngyìshùwén 經義述聞 [Records of the Meaning of Canons], volume 30. Siku quanshu 四庫全書. (1924). Beijing: The Commercial Press.

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Theprogressofsynonyms ofOldChinese

1 Introduction Synonyms refer to a set of words with one or several similar meanings. One lexical development of Old Chinese lies in the abundance of synonyms. It is estimated that there were roughly 1,000 sets of synonyms in Old Chinese. The three sections in Eryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor] or [Close to Standard Language], i.e., Shìgū 釋 詁 [Explaining the Old Words], Shìyán 釋言 [Explaining Words] and Shìxùn 釋訓 [Explaining Instructions], are the synonyms used before the Han dynasty, with one word being used as an explanation. The three sections include 625 sets of words, the majority of which are synonyms. Each set includes at least two or three characters; some sets include tens or even dozens of characters.1 See the following examples.

2 Setsofsynonyms The characters of chū 初, zāi 哉, shǒu 首, jī 基, zhào 肇, zǔ 祖, yuán 元, tāi 胎, chù 俶, luò 落, and quányú 權與 are synonyms from Shìgū 釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words], with the meaning of shǐ始 (beginning). Huán 還 and fù 愎 are synonymous with fǎn 返 holding the meaning of return, which are from Shìyán 釋言 [Explaining Words]. Míngmíng 明明 and jīnjīn 斤斤 are synonyms, with the meaning of chá 察 (check, inspect), which are from Shìxùn 釋訓 [Explaining Instructions]. 2.1 SynonymsinShuōwén In Shuōwén Jiězì 説文解字 [The Origin of Chinese Characters] compiled by Xu Shen 許慎 of the Han dynasty, there are 354 pairs of words in which the two characters of each pair are synonyms and are defined by each other, as exemplified below. (1) Noun examples are as follows: Diān 顛 means dǐng 頂 (Yè 頁 Group) dǐng 頂 means diān 顛 (Yè 頁 Group) – tóudǐng 頭頂 (top of the head) Dùn 盾 means fá 瞂 (Dùn 盾 Group) Dá 瞂 means dùn 盾 (Dùn 盾 Group) – dùnpái 盾牌 (shield) Fēi 菲 means wù 芴 (Cǎo 艸 Group) Wù 芴 means 菲 (Cǎo 艸 Group) –xīcài 蒠菜 (Chinese violet cress) DOI: 10.4324/9781003365556-5

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The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese Gǔ 榖 means chǔ 楮 (Mù 木 Group) 木 Group) – gòushù 构樹 (paper mulberry) Huáng 蝗 means zhōng 螽 (Chóng 虫 Group) (Kūn 䖵 Group) – huángchóng 蝗蟲 (locust) Jiān 櫼 means xiē 楔 (Mù木 Group) (Mù木 Group)-xiēzi 楔子 (wedge) Dào 稻 means tú 稌 (Hé 禾 Group) 禾 Group) – dàozi 稻子 (unhulled rice) Zhōu 舟 means chuán 船 (Zhōu 舟 Group) (Zhōu 舟 Group) – chuán 船 (boat, ship)

Chǔ 楮 means gǔ 榖 (Mù Zhōng 螽 means Huáng 蝗 Xiē 楔 means jiān 櫼 Tú 稌 means dào 稻 (Hé Chuán 船 means zhōu 舟

(2) Verb examples are as follows: Chuī 吹 means xū 噓 (Kǒu 口 Group) Xū 噓 means chuī 吹 (Kǒu 口 Group) – blow air out of one’s mouth Jù 踞 means dūn 蹲 (Zú 足 Dūn 蹲 means jù 踞 (Zú 足 Group) Group) – sit, squat Yù 遇 means féng 逢 (Chuò Féng 逢 means yù 遇 (Chuò 辵 Group) 辵 Group) – encounter, meet by chance Gǎi 改 means gēng 更 (Pū Gēng 更 means gǎi 改 (Pū 攴 Group) 攴 Group) – change Huà 譁 means huān 讙 Huān 讙 means huà 譁 (Yán 言 Group) (Yán 言 Group) – noise, full of sound Jì 寄 means tuō 託 (Mián Tuō 託 means jì 寄 (Yán 言 Group) 宀 Group) – entrust, have someone to look after someone or something Táo 逃 means Wáng 亡 (Chuò 辵 Group) Wáng 亡 means Táo 逃 (Wáng 亡 Group) – flee, escape Yī 依 means yǐ 倚 (Rén 人 Group) Yǐ 倚 means yī 依 (Rén 人 Group) –rely, lean against (3) Adjective examples are as follows: Chéng 誠 means xìn 信 (Yán 言 Group) (Yán 言 Group) – true, authentic Chuò 綽 means huǎn 緩 (Mì 糸 Group) (Mì 糸 Group) – ample, well-to-do Jí 吉 means shàn 善 (Kǒu 口 Group) 羊 Group) – auspicious, beautiful Lǎo 老 means kǎo 考 (Lǎo 老 Group) 老 Group) – longevity Liáo 遼 means yuǎn 遠 (Chuò 辵 Group) (Chuò 辵 Group) – distant, vast Měi 美 means gān 甘 (Yáng 羊 Group) 甘 Group) – tasty, delicious Wú 蕪 means huì 薉 (Cǎo 艸 Group) 艸 Group) – full of weed Xuān 儇 means huì 慧 (Rén 人 Group) 心 Group) – clever

Xìn 信 means chéng 誠 Huǎn 緩 means chuò 綽 Shàn 善 means jí 吉 (Yáng Kǎo 考 means lǎo 老 (Lǎo Yuǎn 遠 means liáo 遼 Gān 甘 means měi 美 (Gān Huì 薉 means wú 蕪 (Cǎo Huì 慧 means xuān 儇 (Xīn

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese

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In Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], there are five sets of synonyms, and each word in a set defines another word. Thus, a chain of explanation is formed. For example, in the Xīn 心 Group, huì 恚 means hèn 恨; hèn 恨 means yuàn 怨; yuàn 怨 means huì 恚 (resentment). Méi 楣 means eave, which was called wūmiánlián 屋𣝼聯 in the Qín dynasty. In the State of Qí, it was called yán 檐. In the State of Chǔ, it was called lǚ 梠 according to Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters]. Yán 檐 means bì 㮰; bì 㮰 means lǚ 梠; lǚ 梠 means méi 楣 (eaves). 2.2 SynonymsinShījīng Shījīng詩經 [The Book of Songs] includes 250 sets of synonyms.2 The nouns like “àn 岸, bīn 濱, bīn 頻 (瀕), chún 漘, fén 濆, gān 干, hǔ 滸, méi 湄, mí 麋, pàn 泮 （畔）, pǔ 浦, and sì 涘” all mean river bank. In Máng 氓 [Common folks] of Wèifēng 衛風 [Odes of Wèi], it is written that “Qízé yǒu àn, xīzé yǒu pàn.” 淇則 有岸，隰則有泮. (The river Qi has its banks, and the marsh has its shores.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotates that “pàn, dú wéi pàn, pàn, yá yě.” 泮，讀為畔，畔，涯也. (The word pàn 泮 should be read as pàn 畔; pàn 畔 means yá 涯, shores). In Fátán 伐檀 [Blows on the Sandal Trees] of Wèifēng 魏風 [Odes of Wèi], it is recorded that“zhì zhī hé zhī gān xī.” 寘之河之干兮 (Place it at the river’s bank), “zhì zhī hé zhī chún xī.” 寘之河之漘兮. (Place it at the lip of the river.) In Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], a note states that “gān, yá yě. Yá, du y ně.” 干， 厓也.厓，耑也. (The word gān 干 means yá 厓 [bank], and the word yá 厓 means duān 耑 [edge, end]). In Zhuànshū 傳疏 [Annotations on the Book of Songs], Chen Huan 陳奐 explained that “kǒuduān wèi zhī chún, shuǐ yá wèi zhī chún, qī yì yī yě.” 口耑謂之唇，水厓謂之漘，其義一也. (The edge of the mouth is called chún 唇 (lip); the bank of waters is called chún 漘 [bank]; the two words duān 耑 and yá 厓 have the same meaning.) In Jiānjiā 兼葭 [Reeds and Rushes] of Qínféng 秦風 [Odes of Qin], it is written that “zài shuǐ zhī méi.” 在水之湄 (At the river’s bank). The word méi 湄 in Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] means a river’s bank (shuǐyǎn 水隒). In Qiǎoyán 巧言 [The Words of the Slanderers] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom], it is written that “jūhé zhī mí. 居河 之麋.” (They dwell on the banks of the rivers.) It is written in Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “shuǐcǎo jiāo wèi zhī mí.” 水草交謂之麋. (The area where water and grass meet is called mí 麋.) In Gělěi 葛藟 [Dolichos] of Wángfēng 王風 [Odes of the Royal Domain], it is written that “zài hé zhī hǔ. 在河 之滸.” (On the borders of rivers.) It is recorded in Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “Shuǐhuat àneǔ.” 水厓曰滸. (The bank over water was called hǔ滸.) In Zhāomín 召旻 [A Call to Heaven] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes of the Kingdom], it is written that “chí zhī jié yǐ, bù yún zì bīn.” 池之竭矣，不云自 頻. (The exhaustion of a pool starts from its edge.) The word bīn 頻, annotated in Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], means yá 厓 (bank, edge). Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that “pín dāng zuò bīn.” 頻當作濱. (bīn 頻 should be understood as bī n 濱 [riverside]). In Běishān 北山 [The Northern Hill] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom], it reads that “shuàitǔ zhī bīn, mò fēi wángchén.”

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率土之濱，莫非王臣. (Within the sea-boundaries of the land, all are King’s subjects.) In Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is written that “bīn yáye” 濱，涯也. (The word bīn 濱 means yá 涯 [boundary]). In Zhèngyì 正義 [Correct Meanings of the Five Classics], Kǒng Yǐngdá 孔穎達 annotated that “Hǔ, bīn, yá, pǔ, jiē shuǐpàn zhīdì, tóngwù ér yìjù yě.” 滸，濱，涯，浦，皆水畔之 地，同物而異句也. (Hǔ 滸, bīn 濱, yá 涯, and pǔ 浦 all mean ‘land by rivers’”; the names are different, but they signify the same thing.) The verbs like bì 畀, bǔ 卜, lài 賫, lí 釐, yǔ 予 and yú 與 all mean to give. In Gānmáo 干旄 [Staffs with ox-tails] of Yōngfēng 鄘風 [Odes of Yōng], one sentence reads “bǐ shū zhě zǐ, hé yǐ bì zhī?” 彼姝者子，何以畀之？(That admirable gentleman, what will he give them for this?”) In Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “bì yǔ yě.” 畀，與也. (The word bì 畀 means to give.) In Chǔcí 楚茨 [Thick Tribulus] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom], it is recorded that “bǔ ěr bǎifú, rújī rúshì. 卜爾百福，如幾如式.” (They confer upon you a hundred blessings; each as it is desired, each as sure as law.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that “bǔ yǔ yě. 卜，予 也.” (The word bǔ 卜 means to confer.) In Jìzuì 既醉 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Great Odes of the Kingdom], it is recorded that “qībǔ wéihé? Lí ěr nǚ shì.其卜維何？釐爾女士.” (How will it be attached? There is a heroic wife given to you.) In Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “Lí, yǔ yě.” 釐，予也. (The word lí 釐 means to give.) In Chǔcí 楚茨 [Thick Tribulus] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom], it is also recorded that “gōngzhù zhìgào, cú lài xiào sūn. 工 祝致告，徂賫孝孫.” (The able priest announces the will of the Spirits, and goes to the filial descendant to convey it.) In Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “Lài, yǔ yě.” 賫，予也. (The word lài 賫 means to give.) In Huángyǐ 皇矣 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [The Greater Odes of the Kingdom], it is recorded that “nǎi juàn xīgù, cǐ wéi yǔ zhái. 乃眷西顧，此維與宅.” (He turned His kind regards on the west, and there gave a settlement.) In Jízhuàn 集傳 [Annotations to the Book of Songs] by Zhū Xī 朱熹, it is noted that “yǐcǐ qízhōu zhīdì yǔ dàwáng wéi jūzhái yě. 以此岐周之地與大王為居宅也.” (The land of Qizhou was granted to the king to get settled.) In Gānmáo 干旄 [Staffs with ox-tails] of Yōngfēng 鄘風 [Odes of Yong], it is recored that “bǐ shū zhě zǐ, hé yǐ yǔ zhī? 彼姝者子，何以予 之？” (That admirable gentleman, what will he give them for this?”) The word jíyǔ 給予 is a common use of yǔ 予. It is noted in Shuōwén Yǔbù 説文予部 [Yu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “yǔ， tuīyǔ ye.” 予, 推予也. (The word yǔ 予 means tuīyǔ 推予 [to give]). Duan Yucai 段玉裁 annotates that “ynnotateǔjīn zì. 予、與古今字. (The two characters yǔ 予 and yǔ 與 are the same character both in the old and the current form.) The adjectives like fū 膚, hǎo 好, hóu 侯, huáng 皇, huánghuáng 皇皇, huī 徽, jiā 嘉, jiāng 將, jiǎo 佼, liáo 僚, luán 孌, mào 茂, měi 美, mù 穆, mùmù 穆穆, shū 姝, shuò 鑠, xiū 休, yàn 豔, yì 懿, yì 抑, yìyì 抑抑, zhēng 烝, and zhǐ 旨 all have the meaning of beautiful. In the poem Lángbá 狼跋 [Old Wolf Tredding] of Bīnfēng 豳風 [Odes of Bin], one sentence reads “gōngsūn shuòfū. 公孫碩膚.” (The offspring of Lord Bin was rather stout.) In Máozhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “fū, mě mxeg. 膚，美也.” (The character fū 膚 means good-looking.) In Gějù 葛屨 [Coarse Grass Shoes] of Wèifēng 魏風 [Odes of Wei], it is recorded that “yāozhī jízhī, hǎorén fúzhī. 要之襋之，好

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese 169 人服之.” (A beautiful lass wears a well-suited dress with a delicate waistline and a lapel.) In Shījīngtōnglùn 詩經通論 [A General Introduction to the Book of Songs], Yao Jiheng 姚際恒 annotates that “hǎorén, yóu měi rén, zhǐ fū rén yě.” 好人，猶美人，指夫人也. (The word hǎorén 好人 means beauty, referring to Madame or a wife). In Gāoqiú 羔裘 [Fur Clothing] of Zhèngfēng 鄭風 [Odes of Zheng], it is recorded that “gāoqiú rú rú, xúnzhí qiě hóu. 羔裘如濡，洵直且 侯.” (The state scholars are honorable and presentable in delicate and shining fur clothing.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 quoted from Hánshī 韓詩 [Book of Songs complied by Han Yiing 韓嬰 ] that “hóu, měi yě. 侯，美也.” (The character Hóu 侯 means presentable with a decent look.) In Wénwáng 文王 [King Wen] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [The Greater Odes], it reads that “sīhuáng duōshì. 思皇多士.” (Admirable are the many officers.) Zhu Xi 朱熹 annotated in Jízhuàn 集傳 [Annotations to the Classics] that “huáng, měi. 皇，美.” (Huáng 皇 means admirable.) In Pànshuǐ 泮水 [Semi-circular Water] of Lǔsòng 鲁颂 [Odes of Lu], it reads that “zhēngzhēng huánghuáng, bùwú bùyáng. 烝烝皇皇，不吴不揚.” (Vigorous and grand, without noise or display.) It is written in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “huánghuáng, měi yě.” 皇皇，美也. (Huánghuáng 皇皇 means grand or beautiful.) In Jiǎogōng 角弓 [Horn Bow] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes], it reads that “jūnzǐ yǒu huīyóu. 君子有徽猷.” (The sovereign have good ways.) It is written in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “huī, měi yě. 徽，美也.” (Huī 徽 means good or virtuous.) In Zhēngmín 烝民 of Dàyǎ 大 雅 [The Greater Odes], it is recorded that “zhòngshānfǔ zhīdé, róujiā wéizé. 仲 山甫之德，柔嘉維則.” (The virtue of Zhong Shanfu is mild and admirable, as it ought to be.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotates that “jiā, měi yě.” 嘉，美. (Jiā 嘉 means virtuous.) In Pòfǔ 破斧 [Breaking oxes] of Bīnfēng 豳風 [Odes of Bin], it reads that “yìkǒng zhī jiāng. 亦孔之將.” (The compassion for us people is very great.). In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “Jiāng, měi yě.” 將，美也. (Jiāng 將 means great.) In Yuèchū 月出 [Moon Rise] of Chénfēng 陳風 [Odes of Chen], it reads that “yuèchū jiǎo xī, jiāo rén liáo xī. 月出皎兮，佼人僚兮.” (The moon comes forth in her brightness; how lovely is that beautiful lady!) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “liáo, hǎomào.” 僚，好貌. (Liáo 僚 means good-looking.) In Jízhuàn 集傳 [Annotations to the Classics], Zhū Xī 朱熹 annotated that “jiāorén, měi rén yě. 佼人，美人也.” (Jiāorén 佼人 means beautiful ladies.) In Chēxiá 車舝 [Axle Ends of Carriage] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [The Minor Odes], it reads that “sīluán jìnǚ shì xī. 思孌季女逝兮.” (I thought of the young beauty and went to [ask her lover].) It is written in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “luán, měimào. 孌，美貌.” (Luán 孌 means beautiful looks.) In Xuán 還 [Agility] of Qífēng 齊風 [Odes of Qi], it reads that “zǐ zhī mào xī. 子之茂兮.” (How admirable your skill is.) A note in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] takes that “mào, měi yě. 茂，美也.” (Mào 茂 means admirable.) In Jìngnǚ 靜 女 [The Retiring Girl] of Bèifēng 邶風 [Odes of Bèi], it is recorded that “fěinǚ zhī wéi měi, měirén zhī yí. 匪女之為美，美人之貽.” (It is not you, O grass, that are elegant; you are the gift of the elegant girl.) It is recorded in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “fēiwèi qí tú yuè měisè éryǐ, měi

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qī rén néng yí wǒ fǎ zé. 非為其徒悅美色而已，美其人能貽我法則.” (What delights me is not her beauty but her kindness to give me the gift.) In Qīngmiào 清廟 [Solemn Temple] of Zhōusòng 周頌 [Odes of Zhōu], it reads that “wūmù qīngmiào. 於穆清廟.” (Ah! Solemn is the ancestral temple in its pure stillness.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is written that “Mù, měi yě.” 穆，美也. (Mù 穆 means sublime.) In Wénwáng 文王 [King Wen] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [The Greater Odes], it reads that “mùmù wénwáng. 穆穆文王.” (Profound is King Wen.) “Mùmù, měi yě.” 穆穆，美也. (Mùmù 穆穆 means solemn or profound.) (Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry]). In Jìngnǚ 靜 女 [The Retiring Girl] of Bèifēng 邶風 [Odes of Bèi], it reads that “jìngnǚ qī shū. 靜女其姝.” (How lovely is the retiring girl!) In Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “Shū, měi yě.” 姝，美也. (Shū 姝 means beautiful looks.) In Zhuó 酌 (Deliberate Consideration) of Zhōusòng 周 頌 [Odes of Zhou], it reads that “wū shuò wángshī. 於鑠王師.” (Oh! Powerful was the king’s army.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “shuò, měi yě.” 鑠，美也. (Shuò 鑠 means powerful.) In Pòfǔ 破斧 [Breaking oxes] of Bīnfēng 豳風 [Odes of Bin], it reads that “yìkǒng zhī xiū. 亦 孔之休.” (The compassion for us people is very excellent.) In Máo Zhuàn 毛 傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], it is noted that “Xiū, měi yě.” 休，美也. (Xiū 休 means excellent.) In Shíyuè zhījiāo 十月之交 [At the Conjunction of the Tenth Month] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes], it reads that “yànqī shàn fāng chù. 豔妻煽方處.” (The beautiful wife blazes, now in possession of her place.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], Yànqī 豔妻 (a bewitching wife) refers to the beauty Bāosì 褒姒； yàn 豔 means beautiful women. In Zhēngmín 烝民 [The People] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [The Greater Odes], it reads that “hào shì yídé. 好是懿德.” (People love the virtue of heaven.) It is written in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “yí, měi yě.” 懿，美也. (Yí 懿 means beautiful.) In Yījiē 猗嗟 [Alas!] of Qífēng 齊風 [Odes of Qi], it reads that “yíruò yáng xī. 抑若揚兮.” (With what elegance in his high forehead!) As annotated in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “yì, měi sè. 抑，美色.” (Yì 抑 means beautiful looks.) In Jiǎlè 假樂 [The King Favored by Heaven] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes], it reads that “wēiyí yìyì. 威 儀抑抑.” (May they manifest all self-restraint in deportment.) According to Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “Yìyì, měi yě. 抑抑，美也.” (Yìyì 抑抑 means admirable.) In Wénwáng yǒu shēng 文王有聲 [King Wen is popular.] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes], it reads that “wénwáng zhēng zāi. 文王 烝哉.” (King Wén was a true sovereign.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 quoted from Hánshī 韓詩 [Book of Songs compiled by Han Ying 韓嬰 ] that “zhēng, měiyě.烝，美也.” (Zhēng 烝 means honorable.) In Gǔfēng 谷風 [The East Wind] of Bèifēng 邶風 [Odes of Bèi], it reads that “wǒ yǒu zhǐxù, yì yǐ yùdōng. 我有旨蓄，亦以御冬.” (My fine collection of vegetables is but a provision against the winter.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “zhǐ, měi yě. 旨，美也.” （Zhǐ 旨 means fine or sufficient.) Basically, all these words have the meaning of beauty, yet with varied focuses on qualities, colors, or form.

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3 CategoriesofsynonymsofOldChinese 3.1 Absolutesynonyms Semantically speaking, the synonyms of Old Chinese fall into two categories. One type is absolute synonyms, referring to those having the different names of one object and semantically identical, as can be seen in the following examples. Fú葍andfú䔰 Both words refer to bindweed, a perennial herbal plant, with tiny flowers like those of water spinach. The plant grows in the wild and has winding vines and starchy roots and is often taken as food in times of famine. In Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “fú, fú ye.葍, 䔰也.”（ Fú 葍 and fú 䔰 define each other and are interchangeable ）. In Wǒxíng qīyě 我行其野 [Travel through the Country] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [The Minor Odes], it reads that “yáncǎi qīfú. 言采其葍.” (Gather the bindweed for food.) As annotated in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “fú, è cài ye. 葍，惡菜也.” [Fú 葍 refers to è cài 惡菜, a weed which self-seeds easily, therefore is called è cài 恶菜 (lit. an annoying plant).] In Shuōwén tōngxùn dìngshēng 説文通訓定聲 [A Phonetic Study of Shuōwén], Zhu Junsheng 朱駿聲 annotates that “An, fú jí, fú zhīhuò tǐ fāngyán chēngwèi huò yì ěr. 按，䔰即葍之或體，方言稱謂或異耳.” (The character 䔰 is a variant of 葍 and a word of a different dialect.) Shū殳andduì祋 Both words refer to a weapon made of bamboo and with an arris end. In the chapter Shìbīng 釋兵 [Explaining Weaponry] of Shìmíng 釋名 [Explaining Names], it is written that “shū, shūyě, cháng zhàng èr chǐ ér wú rèn, yǒu suǒ zhuàng zhì yú chē shàng, shǐ shū lí yě. 殳，殊也，長丈二尺而無刃，有所撞挃於車上，使 殊離也.” (Shū 殳 is a pole to break things, about four meters long and bladeless. It is powerful enough to break a carriage.) It is written in the Shū 殳 Group of the Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters] that “duì, shū yě. 祋，殳也.” (Duì 祋 and Shū 殳 are used to define each other and are interchangeable.) In the poem Bóxī 伯兮 [My husband] of Wèifēng 衛風 [Odes of Wèi], it is recorded that “bó yě zhí shū, wèiwáng qiánqū. 伯也執殳，為王前驅.” (My husband, lance in hand, was the herald for the king.) In Hóurén 候人 [Officers of Escort] of Cáofēng 曹風 [Odes of Cáo], it reads that “bǐ hóurén xī, hè gē yǔ duì. 彼候人兮，何戈與祋.” (Those officers of escort have their lances and halberds.) As annotated in Máo Zhuàn 毛 傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “duì, shū yě. 祋，殳也.” (Duì 祋 means shū 殳 [the weapon of lance]). It is written in Ma Rong zhuàn 馬融傳 [Biography of Ma Rong] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The Book of the Later Han] that “Duì shū kuáng jī, tóu xiàn lú suì. 祋殳狂擊，頭陷顱碎.” ([The soldiers] waged their lances and halberds violently, smashing the enemies’ heads.) Li Xian 李賢 annotates that “duì, yì shū yě. 祋，亦殳也.” (Duì 祋 and shū 殳 have the same meaning.)

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Yàn燕-yànyàn燕燕-xuánniǎo玄鳥-yǐ鳦 All these above words refer to swallows. In Shuōwén Yànbù 説文燕部 [Yan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is recorded that “yàn, xuánniǎo yě. 燕，玄鳥也.” (燕 refers to 玄鳥, black birds.) As noted in Shìniǎo 釋鳥 [Explaining Birds] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], “Yànyàn, yǐ. 燕燕, 鳦.” (燕燕 and 鳦 are the same.) Guō Pǔ 郭璞 notes that “Yī míng xuánniǎo, qírén hū yǐ. 一名玄鳥，齊人呼鳦.” (The bird is called Xuánniǎo 玄鳥 or yǐ 鳦 by the people of Qí 齊.) Xing Bing 邢昺 annotates that “cǐ yànyàn jí jīn zhī yàn, gǔrén chóngyán zhī, yǐqī xuánsè, gù wèizhī xuánniǎo. 此燕燕即今之燕，古人 重言之，以其玄色，故謂之玄鳥.” (The so-called yànyàn 燕燕 refers to the bird yàn 燕 [swallow]. The ancient people used double characters and called it xuánniǎo 玄鳥 [black birds] as its color is black.) In the poem Yànyàn 燕 燕 of Bèifēng 邶風 [Odes of Bei], one sentence reads “yànyàn yú fēi, chāchí qī yǔ. 燕燕于飛，差池其羽.” (The swallows go flying about, with their wings unevenly displayed.) As annotated in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “Yànyàn, yǐ yě. 燕燕，鳦也.” (Yànyàn 燕燕 means yǐ 鳦, swallows). In the poem Xuánniǎo 玄鳥 [Black birds] of Shāngsòng 商頌 [Sacrificial Odes of Shang], one sentence reads “tiānmìng xuánniǎo, jiàng ěr shēng shāng. 天命玄 鳥，降而生商.” (Heaven sends the black bird down to Earth; under this blessing the State of Shang was born.) As noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “Xuánniǎo, yǐ yě. Chūnfēn xuánniǎo zhì. 玄鳥，鳦也.春 分玄鳥至.” (Xuánniǎo 玄鳥 refers to yǐ 鳦 and flies to the north at around the time of the spring equinox.) In Xùshīzhuàn niǎomíng 續詩傳鳥名 [Birds in the Mao Tradition of the Book of Songs], Mao Qiling 毛奇齡 (scholar of the Qing dynasty) explains that “Xuánniǎo, yàn míng, yǐ xuányǔ jiàn chēng, yǔ huángniǎo tóng. Huò yuē: ‘Yàn míng xuánniǎo, yàn míng zhūniǎo, yǐ láiqù zhī hóu míng fēn yīnyáng, yàn yǐ cóng yīn chēng xuánniǎo, yóu zhī yàn yǐ cóng yáng chēng zhūniǎo, bù wéi sè yě.’” 玄鳥，燕名，以玄羽見稱，與黃鳥同.或曰： ‘ 燕名 玄鳥，雁名朱鳥，以來去之候名分陰陽，燕以從陰稱玄鳥，猶之雁以從陽 稱朱鳥，不惟色也.” (The bird yàn 燕, swallow, is also called xuánniǎo 玄鳥, and the bird yàn 㕍 [wild goose], is called zhūniǎo 朱鳥. This naming is on the ground of the separation of yin 阴 and yang 阳. Swallows are called xuánniǎo 玄 鳥 [black birds], with the attributes of yin 阴; wild geese are called zhūniǎo 朱鳥 [red birds], with the attributes of yang 阳. The naming is not simply on account of the colors of the birds.) 3.2 Relativesynonyms Another category is the relative synonyms. That is, the words have the same basic meaning, yet with subtle semantic or stylistic differences. The words have the same denotive meaning and signify the commonality of one type of thing; the semantic or stylistic differences show the individualities of these things. In Old Chinese, this type of synonym makes up the largest proportion and is the most important type. The different types of synonyms are exemplified below.

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3.2.1 Differences in the shapes of the signified things. See the following examples. Dēng鐙anddìng錠 Both of the words dēng 鐙 and dìng 錠 could refer to oil lamps, copper-made lighting equipment in the ancient times. According to Shuōwén Jīnbù 説文金部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Dēng, dìng yě. 鐙，錠也.” (Dēng 鐙 and dìng 錠 have the same meaning.) However, dēng 鐙 has legs, while dìng 錠 does not. In chapter 12, the ancient Chinese dictionary Jíjiùpiān 急就篇 [Quick Access (to Character)], it reads that “duànzhù qiānxī dēng dìng jiāo. 鍛鑄鉛錫鐙錠鐎.” (Forge or cast the lighting equipment dēng 鐙 and dìng 錠 and the cooker jiāo 鐎 of lead or tin.) Yan Shigu 顏師古 notes that “dēng, suǒyǐ chéng gāo yè rán liáo zhě yě. Qī xíng ruò gān ér zhōng shī gāng. Yǒu fūzhě yuē dēng, wú fū zhě yuē dìng. Fū, wèi xià shī zú yě. 鐙，所以盛膏夜然燎者也.其形若杆而中施釭.有柎者曰鐙， 無柎者曰錠.柎，謂下施足也.” (Dēng 鐙 is a utensil for illumination with some burning paste inside. It is in the shape of a pole with a container inside. One with a base is called dēng 鐙, the one without a base is called dīng錠. Fū 柎 refers to the base.) Another reading reads dēng 鐙 has no legs while dīng does. In Shìdēng 釋鐙 [Introduction to Lighting Equipment], Ye Changzhi 葉昌熾 (scholar of the Song dynasty) explains that “Rángāo zhī qì suǒyǐ míng wéi dēng zhě, yǐ qī xíng shì lǐqì zhī dòu . . . . Ruò fū dēng dìng zhī fēn, Xuan Ying 《 Zhòng jīng yīn yì》 yǐn 《 Shēng lèi 》: ‘yǒuzú yuē dìng, wúzú yuē dēng.’然膏之器所以名為鐙者，以其形 似禮器之豆. . . . 若夫鐙、錠之分，玄應《眾經音義》引《聲類》： ‘ 有足曰 錠，無足曰鐙.’” (A utensil with some burning paste is used for lighting. It is called dēng 鐙 as it resembles the sacrificial utensil dòu 豆. The quotes of Xuan Ying 玄 應 from Shēnglè i聲類 [Book of Sounds] in Zhòngjīng yīnyì 眾經意義 [Sound and Meaning of Sutras] say that dìng 錠 is one with legs; dēng 鐙 is one without legs.) Náng囊andtuó橐 The two words náng 囊 and tuó 橐 could both refer to bags in a broad sense. In Shuōwén Gǔnbù 説文㯻部 [Gun Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Náng, tuó yě. 囊，橐也.”“Tuó, náng yě. 囊，橐也.” (Náng 囊 and tuó 橐 are used interchangeably with each other and Náng 囊 is tuó 橐, tuó 橐 is náng 囊.) As Duan Yucai 段玉裁 noted, “Náng zhě, yán shí qízhōng rú guāráng yě; tuó zhě, yán xū qí zhōng yǐ dài rú mùtuò yě. 囊者，言實其中如瓜瓤也；橐者，言虛其中以待 如木𣝔也.” (Náng 囊 refers to something with an inside like that of a melon; tuó 橐 refers to something that is empty inside and looks like a wooden container.) More specifically, bags are of various size; some have a bottom but others do not. There are different opinions in this regard. In Gōngliú 公劉 [Lord Liú] of Dàyǎ 大 雅 [Greater Odes], it reads that “nǎiguǒ hóuliáng, yútuó yúnáng. 迺裏餱糧，于橐 于囊.” (Pack some solid food in bags and packages.) As noted in Máo Zhuàn毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “Xiǎo yuē tuó, dà yuē náng.” 小曰橐，大曰囊. (Smaller bags are called tuó 橐, larger ones called náng 囊.) In Lùjiǎ lièzhuàn 陸

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賈列傳 [Biography of Lù Jiǎ] of Shǐjì 史記 [The Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “cì lùshēng tuózhōng zhuāngzhì qiānjīn. 賜陸生橐中裝置千金.” (The lord granted Lu Jia a bag with thousands of gold.) In Suǒyǐn 索隱 [Seeking the Obscure in the Records of the Grand Historian], Sima Zhen 司馬貞 quoted from Shīchuán 詩傳 [Notes on the Book of Songs] that “dà yuē tuó, xiǎo yuē náng. 大曰 橐，小曰囊.” (Larger bags are called tuó 橐 and smaller bags are called náng 囊.) It is recorded in Xíngfǎzhì 刑法志 of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han] that “haoáojié shànsī, wèizhī tuónáng. 豪傑擅私，為之橐囊.” (The powerful warlords would dare and offer him protection.) Yán Shīgǔ 顏師古 noted that “yǒu dǐ yuē náng, wú dǐ yuē tuó. 有底曰囊，無底曰橐.” (The bags with a bottom are called náng 囊 and those without a bottom are called tuó 橐.) In Qín cè yī 秦策一 [Strategies of Qin I] of the Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], one sentence writes that “fù shū dàn tuó. 負書擔橐.” (Carry books and baggages.) Gao You 高誘 notes that “náng, tuó yě. Wú dǐ yuē náng, yǒu dǐ yuē tuó. 囊，橐也.無底曰囊，有底曰 橐.” (Tuó 橐 means náng 囊, the former having a bottom, while the latter did not.) 3.2.2 Differences in the size of things. Look at the following examples. Bāng邦andguó國 The two words bāng 邦 and guó 國 could both refer to the warring states or their territory. According to Yì 邑 Group of the Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], “Bāng, guó yě” 邦, 國也. (Bāng 邦 means guó 國, state.) In the section Kǒu 口, it is noted that “Guó, bāng yě” 國,邦也. (Guó 國 is defined by bāng 邦.) In Wǔzǐ zhīgē 五子之歌 [Songs of the Five Sons] of the pseudo shū 書 [Book of Documents], it reads that “mín wéi bāng běn, běn gù bāng níng. 民惟邦本，本固邦寧.” (The people are the base of a state; only on a solid base could a state stand secure.) In Xué’ěr 學而 [On Learning] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Analects], it reads that “dào qiānshèng zhī guó, jìngshì ér xìn, jiéyòng ér ài’rén, shǐ mín yǐ shí. 導千乘之國，敬事而信，節用而愛人，使 民以時.” (Guiding a state of a thousand chariots, be attentive to affairs and trustworthy, frugal in expeditions, and sparing of the others. Employ the common people only at proper times.) The difference between the two words is that bāng 邦 is larger than guó 國 in terms of area scope. In Dàzǎi 大宰 [Minister] of Tiānguān 天官 [Offices of the Heaven] Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu], it reads that “zhǎng jiànbāng zhī liùdiǎn, yǐzuǒ wángzhìbāngguó. 掌建邦之六典，以佐王治邦國.” (The minister is in charge of the six codes the state is built upon and assists the sovereign in governance.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “dà yuē bāng, xiǎo yuē guó, bāng zhī suǒ jū yì yuē guó.” 大曰 邦，小曰國，邦之所居亦曰國. (A larger state is called bāng 邦, a smaller state is called guó 國, and the land of a state is also called guó 國.) In Shuōwén jiězì zhù 説文解 字注 [Notes on Shuōwén], Duan Yucai 段玉裁 quotes from Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu] that “dà yuē bāng, xiǎo yuē guó. 大曰邦，小曰國. (A larger state is called bāng 邦 and a smaller state is called guó 國.) Duan explains that “xǔ yún ‘bāng, guó yě’, ‘guó, bāng yě’, tǒng yán zhī yě.” 許云 ‘ 邦，國也’， ‘ 國，邦也’，統言之也. (Bāng 邦 and guó 國 could be taken as the same word, and generally have the same meaning.)

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Quǎn犬andgǒu狗 The two words quǎn 犬 and gǒu 狗 refer to a dog, one of the earliest domesticated animals. It is written in Wéizhèng 為政 [The Practice of Governance] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects] that “zhìyú quǎnmǎ, jiē néng yǒu yǎng. 至於犬馬，皆能有養.” (Dogs and horses are also kept by their masters.) In the chapter Liánghuìwáng shàng 梁 惠王上 [Lord Hui of the State Liang I] of the Mèng zǐ孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “jītún gǒuzhì zhī chù, wúshī qī shí. 雞豚狗彘之畜，無失其時.” (Feed chickens, piglets, dogs, and pigs timely so that they could grow naturally.) In Tiānxià 天下 [The World] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [the Works of Zhuangzi], it is recorded that “Gǒu fēi quǎn.” 狗非犬. (Gǒu 狗 is not quǎn 犬.) In the exegetical dictionary Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 quoted Sima Yun 司馬云 that “gǒu, quǎn tóngshí yìmíng.” 狗、犬同實異名. (Gǒu 狗 and quǎn 犬 are just different names for one object.) Specifically, larger dogs are called quǎn 犬, and smaller dogs are called gǒu狗. It is recorded in Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Classic of Rites] that “xiào quǎn zhě zuǒ qiān zhī.效犬者左牽之.” (The one serving dogs leads the animals on the left.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 annotates that “rán tōng ér yán zhī, gǒu quǎn tōngmíng; ruò fēn ér yán zhī, zé dàzhě wéi quǎn, xiǎo zhě wéi gǒu.” 然通而言之，狗犬通名；若分而言之，則大 者為犬，小者為狗. (Gǒu 狗 and quǎn 犬 have the same meaning in general terms. To be more specific, larger dogs are called quǎn 犬, and smaller dogs are called gǒu 狗.) According to Shìchù 釋畜 [Explaining Livestocks] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor] or [Close to Standard Language], “wèi chéng háo, gǒu” 未成豪，狗. (Dogs that are not fully grown are called gǒu 狗.) Hao Yixing 郝懿行 notes that “gǒu, quǎn tōng mtqu thatge not fullé dàzhě míng quǎn, xiǎozhě wéi gǒu.” 狗，犬通名.若時文，則大 者名犬，小者為狗. (Gǒu 狗 is the general term for dogs; larger dogs are called quǎn 犬 in formal writing, and smaller dogs are called gǒu 狗.) There is another note that gǒu 狗 and quǎn 犬 have different toes. According to the Quǎn 犬 Group of the Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], “Quǎn, gǒu zhī yǒu xuán tí zhě yě.” 犬，狗 之有縣蹄者也. (Quǎn 犬 refers to the dogs with a toe-like projection (xuán tí 縣蹄). In Shuōwén duànzhù jiān 説文段注箋 [Commentary on Shuōwén annotated by Duan Yucai 段玉裁 ], Xu Hao 徐灝, a scholar of the Qing dynasty, explains that “Quǎn wéi fán quǎn, lièquǎn zhī tōngmíng, xiǎozhě wèi zhī gǒu. Húnyán zé gǒu yì wéi tōngmíng yǐ. Xuántí, gài zhǐ lièquǎn yán, wéi lièquǎn zú shàng yǒu yìzhǐbù lǚ dì.” 犬為凡犬、 獵犬之通名，小者謂之狗.渾言則狗亦為通名矣.縣蹄，蓋指獵犬言，惟獵犬足 上有一趾不履地. (Quǎn 犬 is the general term for dogs; smaller dogs are called gǒu 狗. Xuántí 縣蹄 refers to a toe which does not touch the ground. 3.2.3 Difference in the material of things signified. See the following examples. Chǔ楮andgǔ榖 The two words chǔ 楮 and gǔ 榖 could refer to mulberry trees whose bark could be made into paper. In Shuōwén Mùbù 说文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese

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Characters], chǔ 楮 and gǔ 榖 are interchangeblely used and have the same basic meaning. In the poem Hèmíng 鹤鸣 [The Crying of Cranes] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes], Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “yuán yǒu shù tán, qīxià wéi gǔ. 爰有樹檀，其下維榖.” (In the garden stands the sandal trees; beneath them is a paper-mulberry tree.) In Yùlǎo 喻老 [A Metaphorical Reading of Laozi] of Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it is written that “Sòngrén yǒu wèi qījūn yǐ xiàng wéi chǔ yè zhě, sān nián ér chéng.” 宋人有為其君以象為楮 葉者，三年而成. (Someone in the state of Song 宋 spent three years carving a piece of mulberry leaf with ivory for his lord.) It is written in “Xīshānjīng” 西山 經 [Classic of the Mountains: West] of Shānhǎijīng 山海經 [The Classic of Mountains and Seas] that “(Niǎowēi zhī shān) qī yīn duō tán chǔ.” [ 鳥危之山 ] 其陰多 檀楮. (There are many sandal trees and paper mulberry trees in the south of Mt. Niǎowēi 鳥危.) Guo Pu 郭璞 notes that “chǔ, jí gǔmù.” 楮，即榖木. (Both chǔ 楮 and gǔ 榖 are paper mulberry trees.) The trees are slightly different. In Shuōwén duànzhù jiān 説文段注箋 [Commentary on Shuōwén annotated by Duan Yucai 段玉裁 ], Xu Hao 徐灝 contrasts the two: “Chǔ, gǔ liǎngzhǒng: yìzhǒng gāodà, píbó, shí rú fēng, shíshú zé hóng. 《 Shū》 suǒ wèi sānggǔ bìngshēng zhě shì yě. Yìzhǒng píbái yècháng, shíxiǎo rú fùpénzǐ. Qímù bùnéng gāodà, súwèi biǎngǔ, suǒ wèi chǔ yě. Chǔpí òuzhīzyì wéi zhǐ, gǔpícū, yì wéi yīnzhàng.” 楮，榖兩種：一 種高大，皮駁，實如楓，實熟則紅.《書》所謂桑榖并生者是也.一種皮白葉 長，實小如覆盆子.其木不能高大，俗謂扁榖，所謂楮也.楮皮漚之宜為紙， 榖皮粗，宜為茵帳. (Gǔ 榖 is tall, with rough bark; its fruits are like those of the mulberry tree and turn red when mature. It is written in Shàngshū 尚書 [the Classic of History] that the trees sāng 桑 and gǔ 榖 grow together. Chǔ 楮 has white bark, long leaves, its fruits small like a raspberry; and the tree does not grow tall and is normally called biǎnchǔ 扁楮 (biǎn 扁 means low). The bark of chǔ 楮 could be boiled and is fit for paper making, whereas the bark of gǔ 榖 is rough and is fit to be made into a net.) Zhā劄-dié牒-jiǎn簡-dú牘 All the four words above could refer to bamboo or wood tablets for writing. In Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “zhā, dié yě.” 劄，牒也. (Zhā 劄 and dié 牒 are interchangeable and have the same meaning.) In Shuōwén Zhúbù 説文竹部 [Zhu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “jiǎn, dié yě.” 簡, 牒也. (Dié 牒 is jiǎn 簡.) In Sīmǎ xiàngrú lièzhuàn 司馬相如列傳 [Biography of Sīmǎ Xiàngrú] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “Shàngxǔ, lìng shàngshū gěi bǐ zhā. 上許，令尚書給筆劄.” (The emperor agreed and told the Minister of Personnel to offer him a brush and writing tablets.) Yan Shigu 顏師古 notes that “zhā, mùjiǎn zhī bóxiǎo zhě.” 劄，木簡之薄小者. (zhā 劄 refers to small thin wooden plates.) It is written in Zhāogōng èrshíwǔ nián 昭公二十五年 [The Year 25 of the reign of Lord Zhāo 昭 ] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary] that “yòushī bùgǎn duì, shòu dié ér tuì. 右師不敢對，受牒而退.” (The Assistant Supervisor dared not answer and retreated with the tablets.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “sòng

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zhī suǒ chū rù sù zhī shù， shū zhī yú dié， shòu dié ér tuì， yán fú cóng yě. 宋 之所出入粟之數，書之於牒，受牒而退，言服從也.” (The amount of grains in transaction was recorded on tablets in the Song dynasty, to retreat with the tablet means “to follow orders.” In the poem Chūchē 出車 [Proceed with Carriages] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes], one sentence reads “qǐbù huáiguī, wèi cǐ jiǎnshū. 豈不懷歸，畏此簡書.” (Did we not long to return? But we were in awe of the order in the tablets.) As Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes, “Gǔzhě wúzhǐ, yǒushì shū zhī yú jiǎn, wèi zhī jiǎnshū.” 古者無紙，有事書之於簡，謂之簡書. (There was no paper in ancient times, so records were kept on tablets called jiǎnshū 簡書.) In the essay Yùbēi 玉杯 [Jade Cup] of Chūnqiū fánlù 春秋繁露 [The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals], Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒, a statesman of the Han dynasty, wrote that “jīn zhàodùn shìjūn, sì nián zhī hòu bié dú fùjiàn, fēi chūnqiū zhī chángcí yě. 今趙盾弒君，四年之後別牘復見，非《春秋》之 常辭也.” (Zhāo Dùn’s killing of the king was recorded, and his doings after four years were recorded again on another tablet. This is not common in the Spring and Autumn Annals in that usually a murderer’s name would not appear twice.) In more specific terms, the four things are different in material, size, or thickness. Jiǎn 簡 and dié 牒 are made of bamboo; dú 牘 and zhā 劄 are made of wood. Jiǎn 簡 and dú 牘 are large and thick; zhā 劄 and dié 牒 are small and thin. Those made of wood could also be called jiǎn 簡 or dié 牒. In “Yàncèyī” 燕策一 [Strategies of Yan I] of the Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “shēn zì xuē jiǎ zhā.” 身自削甲札. (The king himself made armour.) Bao Biao 鮑彪 notes that “zhā, mùjiǎn, dié zhīzhózzhě.” 札，木簡，牒之薄者.[Zhā 札 means mùjiǎn 木簡, wooden tablet, thinner than dié 牒, tablet].) In Wǔ wú zǐ zhuàn 武五子傳 [Stories of the Five Sons of Emperor Wu] of Hànshū 漢書 (The Book of Han), It reads that “pèi yùhuán, zānbǐ chídú qūyè. 佩玉環，簪筆持牘趨 謁.” (Wearing a jade ring pendant, putting a brush on my hat [a custom to show respect] and holding a writing tablet, I went asking for an audience with the king.). Yan Shigu 顏師古 notes that “dú, mùjiǎn yě.” 牘，木簡也. (Dú 牘 means mùjiǎn 木簡 [wooden tablet]). As written in the chapter Liàngzhī 量知 [Assessement on Knowledge] of the Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance], “Jiézhú wéi jiǎn, pò yǐ wéi dié, jiā bǐmò zhī zújì, nǎi chéng wénzì, dà zhé wéi jīng, xiǎo zhě wéi zhuàn. 截竹為簡，破以為牒，加筆墨之足跡，乃成文字，大者為經，小 者為傳.” (Cut bamboo to make jiǎn 簡, writing tablet; break bamboo to make the tablet dié 牒; write on it with ink and a brush, then a piece of writing is done; longer writings are called jīng 经 [sutras], short ones called zhuàn 传 [essays]). Huang Hui 黄晖 made a revision and annotated that “dié, xiǎojiǎn yě.”牒，小简 也. (Dié 牒 refers to smaller jiǎn 简 [tablet]). As recorded in Shuōwén tōngxùn dìngshēng 説文通訓定聲 [A Phonetic Study of Shuōwén] by Zhu Junsheng 朱駿 聲, “Zhú wèi zhī jiǎn, mù wèi zhī dú.” 竹謂之簡，木謂之牘. (Tablets of bamboo are called jiǎn 簡, and tablets of wood are called dú 牘.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 notes in Shuōwén jiězì zhù 説文解字注 [Annotations on Shuōwén jiězì] that “hòu zhě wéi dú, bó zhě wéi dié. Dié zhī yán yè yě, yè yě.” 厚者為牘，薄者為牒.牒之言 枼也、葉也. (Thick tablets are called dú 牘, thin tablets are called dié 牒. Dié 牒 rhymes with yè枼 and yè 葉 [leaves]).

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3.2.4 Differences in the range of things signified. Some examples are given below. The two words bì 髀 and gǔ 股 refer to the thigh, the part from the hipbone to the knee. In Shuōwén Gǔbù 説文骨部 [Gu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “bì, gǔ yě.” 髀，股也. (Bì 髀 means gǔ 股.) In Shuōwén Ròubù 説文 肉部 [Gu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “gǔ, bì yě.” 股， 髀也. (Gǔ 股 means bì 髀.) In Jiànzhúgèshū 諫逐客書 [Petition against Expelling Foreign Advisors], Li Si 李斯 argued that “fū jīwòng kòufǒu, tánzhēng bóbì, ér gēhū wūwū, kuài ěrmù zhě, zhēn qín zhī shēng yě. 夫擊甕叩缶，彈箏搏髀，而 歌呼烏烏，快耳目者，真秦之聲也.” (Striking urns and potteries, playing the zither, clapping thighs, and singing loudly would all delight the audiences. These are the genuine music of Qín 秦.) In Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓 非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “gǔ wú bá, jìng bù shēng máo. 股無胈，脛 不生毛.” (One works so hard that his thighs are fat free and his calfs are hairless.) Gǔ 股 could also refer to the part from the thigh to the toe. As written in Shìqīn 釋親 [Explaining Relatives] of the dictionary Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Expanded Erya, the Literary Expositor], gǔ 股 means jìng 脛, the part from the thigh to the foot. Wang Niansun 王念孫 made a revision and noted that “fán duìwén zé xīyǐshàng wéi gǔ, xī yǐxià wéi jìng; 《 Xiǎo yǎ Cǎishū》 jiàn yún ‘Jìng běn yuē gǔ’ shì yě. Sǎnwén zé tōng wèi zhī jìng, jīngyán gǔgōng shìyě.” 凡對文則膝以上為股，膝 以下為脛；《小雅•采菽》箋云 ‘ 脛本曰股’是也.散文則通謂這脛， . . . 或通 謂之股，經言股肱是也. (Gǔ 股 refers to the part from the thigh to the knee, and jìng 脛 refers to the part from the knee to the foot in poetic writings, as written in Cǎishū 采菽 [Collecting Beans] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅, jìng 脛 originally means gǔ 股, lower leg. In prosaic writings, gǔ 股 and jìng 脛 are both general terms, having the same meaning as gǔgōng 股肱 in the Confucian classics.) Zhù柱-yíng楹 The two words refer to columns, straight wood supporting the roof. In Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “Zhù, yíng yě.” 柱，楹也. (Zhù 柱 means yíng 楹.) Yíng, zhù yě.” 楹，柱也. (Yíng 楹 means zhù 柱.) In Rénjiānshì 人間世 [The Realm of Human Interactions] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “yǐwéi zhù zé dù, shì bùcái zhī mù yě.以為柱則蠹， 是不材之木也.” (Made into a column, it could be eaten by a moth. The wood will not make a strong column.) In Cìkè lièzhuàn 刺客列傳 [Biographies of Assassins] of Shǐjì 史記 [the Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “Jīngkē zhú qínwáng, qínwáng huánzhù ér zǒu. 荊軻逐秦王，秦王還柱而走.” (Chased by Jingke, King Qin fled around the palace column.) In Zhuānggōng èr shí sān nián 莊公二十三年 of Chūnqiū 春秋 [The Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “qiū, dān huán gōng yíng. 秋，丹桓宮楹.” (In autumn, the palace columns are covered in red colors.) Du Yu 杜 預 notes that “yíng, zhù yě.” 楹，柱也. (Yíng 楹 means zhù 柱 [columns]). In Záxià 雜下 [Miscellaneous Matters] of YànzǐChūnqiū 晏子春秋 [Annals of Master Yan], it reads that “yànzǐ bìng, jiāngsǐ, záoyíng nàshū yān. 晏子病，將死，鑿楹納書焉.”

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(Master Yan is terminally ill. He strikes open the column and put his will in there.) Yíng 楹 refers to the big columns of halls, of a smaller scale than that of zhù 柱. In Shuōwén xìzhuàn 説文繫傳 [Annotations on the Shuōwén 説文 ], Xu Kai 徐鍇 explains that “yíng zhī yán yíng, yíngyíng duìlì zhī zhuàng.” 楹之言盈，盈盈對立之狀. (Yíng 楹 is pronounced as yíng 盈 with the meaning of the elegant looks.) 4.2.5 Differences in actions signified. Some examples are given as follows. Pái排andjǐ擠 The two words pái 排 and jǐ 擠 mean to push. In Shuōwén Shǒubù 説文手部 [Shou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], the two words are used interchangeably. “pái, jǐ yě.” 排，擠也. (Pái 排 means jǐ擠.) In Shàoyí 少儀 [Minor Rules of Conduct] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “pái hé tuō (tuō) lǚ yú hùnèi zhě, yìrén ér yǐyǐ. 排闔説（脫）屨於戶內者，一人而已矣.” (After the host pushes open the door, only senior visitors could take off his shoes inside.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 annotates that “hé wèi ménshàn, wèi páijǐ ménshàn tuōlǚ yú hùnèizhě yì rén éryǐ yǐ.” 闔 謂門扇，謂排擠門扇脫屨於戶內者一人而已矣. (Hé 闔 means door; páihé 排闔 means to push open the door.) In Xiàng Yǔ běnjì 項羽本紀 [Annals of Xiàng Yǔ] of the Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “hànjūn què, wéi chǔ suǒ jǐ. 漢軍卻，為楚所擠.” (The Han army retreated and were pushed around by the Chu army.) In Jíjiě 集解 [Collection of Notes on Shǐjì史記, the Records of the Grand Historian], Pei Yin 裴駰 quotes Zan 瓚 (a scholar of West Jin, whose surname was unknown) that “zan yuē: ‘pái, jǐ yě.’” 瓚曰： ‘ 排，擠也.’” (Zan said that pái 排 means jǐ 擠 [to push].) More specifically, pái 排 means to push something apart to two sides. In Fánkuài zhuàn 樊噲傳 [Biography of General Fán Kuài] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “Kuài nǎi pái tà zhí rù. 噲乃排闥直入.” (Fán Kuài pushed open the door and walked straight in.) Páità 排闥 means to push open the door. Jǐ 擠 means to walk up and push something downward. According to Shǒu 手 Group of the dictionary Zhèngzìtōng 正字通 [Correct Character Mastery], “Jǐ, tuī zhī shǐ zhuì yě.” 擠，推之使墜也. (Jǐ 擠 means to push something to make it fall down.) In the chapter Zhāogōng shí sān nián 昭公十三年 [The 13th Year of the reign of Lord Zhāo] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it is recorded that “xiǎorén lǎo ér wúzǐ, zhī jǐ yú gōuhè yǐ. 小人老而無子，知擠於溝壑矣.” (Old and childless, I know well that I have been pushed down in the valley of life.) Du Yu 杜預 notes that “jǐ, zhuì yě.” 擠，隊（墜）也. (Jǐ 擠 means to push down.) Yǒng踴-yuè躍-tiào跳 The above three words mean to jump. In Shuōwén Zúbù 説文足部 [Zu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], yǒng 踴 and tiào 跳 are used interchangeably. It is written that “yǒng, tiào yě.” 踴, 跳也. (Yǒng 踴 means tiào 跳.) “Tiào, yuè yě.” 跳，躍也. (Tiào 跳 means yuè 躍.) According to Shìgū 釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Expanded Erya, the Literary Expositor], “yuè, tiào yě.”

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躍, 跳也. (Yuè 躍 means tiào 跳, to jump). In Xiānggōng èrshíwǔ nián 襄公二十 五年 [The 25th Year in the reign of Lord Xiāng] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “ménqǐ ér rù, zhěn shīgǔ ér kū, xīng, sān yǒng ér chū. 門啓 而入，枕屍股而哭，興，三踴而出.” (With the door open, he entered, cried out loud on the dead body, rose to his feet, jumped thrice in remorse, and then walked out.) It is written in Qián 乾 [Heaven] of the yì 易 [Book of Changes] that “Jiǔ sì yuē, huò yuè zài yuān, wú jiù. 九四曰，或躍在淵，無咎. (Nine in the fourth place means: wavering flight over the depths. No blame.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “yuè, tiàoyuè yě.” 躍, 跳躍也. (Yuè 躍 means tiàoyuè 跳躍, to jump). In Biànwù 辨物 [Disputing Things] of Shuōyuàn 説苑 [Garden of Eloquence] by Liu Xiang 劉向, it reads that “qīhòu, qíyǒu fēiniǎo yìzú láixià, zhǐ yú diàn qián, shūchì ér tiào. 其後，齊有飛鳥一足來下，止於殿前，舒翅而跳.” (Later on, a bird with one leg flew down, landed in front of the hall, and jumped with its wings spread.) To be more specific, yǒng 踴 means to jump upward from where one stands, without a shifting of place on the ground; yuè 躍 means to jump forward, with a shifting of place on the ground. In Rénjiǔ 人九 [Section Human, Part Nine] of Liùshūgù 六書故 [Rationale of the Six Types of Script], Dai Dong 戴侗, one scholar of the Yuan dynasty, explained that “yuè, tiào yě, dà wéi yuè, xiǎo wéi yǒng; yuè qù qí suǒ, yǒng bùlígqí suǒ.” 躍，跳也，大為躍，小為踴；躍去其 所，踴不離其所. (Yuè 躍 means tiào 跳, to jump; a great leap is called yuè 躍, a small jump called yǒng 踴. Yuè 躍 means leaving the original spot, but yǒng 踴 means staying at the original spot.) In Xī gōng èrshíbā nián 僖公二十八年 [The 28th Year in the reign of Lord Xī] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “jùyuè sānbǎi, qǔyǒng sānbǎi. 距躍三百，曲踴三百.” (Ecstatic, one jumps around.) Du Yu 杜預 notes that “jùyuè, chāoyuè yě; qǔyǒng, tiào yǒng yě.” 距躍，超越也；曲踴，跳踴也. (Jùyuè 距躍 means to leap and qǔyǒng 曲踴 means to jump.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “Yuè yǐ jí shēng míng, gù yǐ jùyuè wéi chāoyuè, yán jùdì xiàng qián tiào ér yuèwù guò yě. Qǔyǒng yǐ qǔ wéi yán, zéwèi xiàngshàng tiào ér zhé fù xià, gù yǐ qǔyǒng wéi tiàoyǒng ěr, yán zhíshàng érxià ér yǐ.” 躍以疾生名，故以距躍為超越，言距地向前跳而越物過也.曲踴 以曲為言，則謂向上跳而折復下，故以曲踴為跳踴耳，言直上向下而已. (Yuè 躍 conveys a sense of swiftness; therefore jùyuè 距躍 means to leap, i.e., to jump forward over a block. Qǔ 曲 means a turn; therefore qǔyǒng 曲踴 means to jump upward and then come downward, a straight vertical move.) Tiào 跳 was originally a word in the Qin-Jin dialect (refer to the book Fāngyán 方言 [Dialects II]); it replaced yǒng 踴 and yuè 躍 after the Han dynasty. 3.2.6 Differences in the functions of the objects signified. Some examples are given as follows. Cāng倉-lǐn廩 The two characters cāng 倉 and lǐn 廩 have the same meaning, both referring to granary. According to Shuōwén Cāngbù 説文倉部 [Cang Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Cāng, ggng Grouě. Cāng huáng qǔ ér cáng zhī, gù wèizhī

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese 181 cāng.” 倉，榖藏也.倉黃取而藏之，故謂之倉.” (Cāng 倉 means grain reserve. The sound cāng is a blend of huáng 黃 and cáng 藏.) In Zhōuyǔ xià 周語下 [Discourses of the State Zhōu II] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “fǔcāng shí 府倉實.” (The government granary is full.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 notes that “mǐ sù yuē cāng.” 米粟曰倉. (Cāng 倉 means grain.) In Book Two of Xīlín Yīnyì 希麟音義 [Dictionary of Buddhist Studies compiled by Xilin, a monk of the Tang dynasty], it is noted on chuán 篅 by Qièyùn 切韻 that “cāng, lǐn yě.” 倉, 廩也. (Cāng 倉 means lǐn 廩 [granary]). In Fēngnián 豐年 [Good Year] of Zhousong 周頌 [Sacrificial Odes of Zhou] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “yì yǒu gāo lǐn. 亦有高廩.” (There is also quite high granary.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 notes that “lǐn, cāng yě.” 廩，倉也. (Lǐn 廩 means cāng 倉.) In contrast, cāng 倉 is for grain reserve; lǐn 廩 is for rice reserve. In Fùguó 富國 [The Wealth of a State] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “yuánjiǎo cānglǐn zhě, cái zhī mò yě. 垣窌倉廩者，財之末也.” (Granaries and reserves are only minor fortunes. Fields and lands are major fortunes.) Yang Liang 楊倞 notes that “gǔ cáng yuē cáng, mǐ cáng yuē lǐn.” 榖藏曰倉，米藏曰廩. (Cāng 倉 is for grain reserve; lǐn 廩 is for rice reserve.) In Jítiánfù 藉田賦 [Rhapsody on Returning to the Fields] written by Pan Anren 潘安仁, collected in Wénxuǎn 文選 [Selection of Refined Literature by Prince Zhaoming 昭明 of South-Liang dynasty], it says that “zhì cānglǐn yú yíng yì.致倉廩於盈溢.” (Fill the granaries to their fullest.) Li Shan 李善 quoted from Yuèlìngzhāngjù 月令章句 [a book on astrology by Cai Yong 蔡邕, a scholar in Easter Han period, 132–192] and noted that “gǔ cáng yuē cáng, mǐ cáng yuē lǐn.” 榖藏曰倉，米藏曰廩. (Cāng 倉 is for grain reserve; lǐn 廩 is for rice reserve.) Fǔ府-kù庫 The two words fǔ 府 and kù 庫 refer to the places for storing things. The word jiǔfǔ 九府 (nine warehouses) appeared in the section Shìdì 釋地 [Explaining Earth] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor], in Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 explains that “fǔ, yóu kùcáng yě.” 府，猶庫藏也. (Fǔ 府 means reserves or stocks.) In Xùguān 序官 [Introduction] of Tiānguān 天官 [Office of Heaven] of Zhōulǐ 周礼 [Rites of Zhōu], it reads that “fǔ liù rén. 府六人.” (Six officials are in charge of the warehouse.) In Zhèngyì 正义 [Commentary on the The Rituals of Zhōu], Sun Yirang 孙詒 讓 notes that “fǔ yǔ kù, yì tōngchēng.” 府與庫，亦通稱. (Fǔ 府 and kù 庫 are interchangeable.) In specific context, the two words are slightly different. Fǔ 府 is the place for storing documents and properties; while kù 庫 is the place for storing weaponry. In Tán’gōng xià 檀弓下 [Tan Gong (a person’s name) II] of the Lǐjì禮記 [The Classic of Rites], it is written that “zài fǔ yán fǔ, zài kù yán kù. 在府言府，有庫言庫.” (At fǔ 府, talk about something related to fǔ 府; while at kù 庫, talk about something related to kù 庫) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “fǔ, wèi báocáng huòhuì zhī chù yě; kù, wèi chēmǎ bīngjiǎ cáng yě.” 府， 謂寶藏貨賄之處也；庫，謂車馬兵甲藏也. (Fǔ 府 is where treasure and goods are stored; and kù 庫 is where weaponry and armour are stored.) In Qíncè yī 秦

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策一 [Strategies of Qin I] of the Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads that “jīn tiānxià fǔkù bùyíng. 今天下府庫不盈.” (Now the state is suffering from a shortage of stocks.) Bao Zhao 鮑照 notes that “fǔ, wénshū cáng yě, kù, bīngchē cāng yě, jīn fán yǒucáng zhě jiē dé chēng yě.” 府，文書藏 也，庫，兵車藏也，今凡有藏者皆得稱也. (Fǔ 府 was the place for keeping documents, that kù 庫 was for keeping weaponry, and that both of them could refer to the places for storing things.) Fù父-kǎo考mǔ母-bǐ妣 Fù 父 and kǎo 考 both mean father; mǔ 母 and bǐ 妣 both mean mother. Kǎo 考 means one’s father is alive; bǐ 妣 means one’s mother is alive. As defined in Shìqīn 釋親 [Explaining Relatives] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [Literary Expositor], “Fù wéi kǎo, mǔ wéi bǐ.” 父為考，母為妣. (Father is addressed as kǎo 考, while mother is addressed as bǐ 妣.) In Jīnténg 金縢 [The Case fastened with a golden belt] of Shàngshū 尚書 [the Classic of History], it reads that “yǔ rén ruò kǎo. 予仁若考.” (I am smart, able to serve father.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “kǎo shì fù yě.” 考是父也. (Kǎo 考 means father.) It is written in Shùndiǎn 舜典 [Canon of August Shùn] that “Bǎixìng rú sàng kǎobǐ. 百姓如喪考妣.” (People are in great sorrow as if losing their own father and mother.) Lu Deming 陸德明 explains in Shìwén 釋文 [Interpretation] that “fù yuē kǎo, mǔ yuē bǐ.” 父曰考，母早妣. (Father is addressed as kǎo 考 and mother is addressed as bǐ 妣.) In the essay Yōutōngfù 幽 通賦 [Communicating with the Hidden], Ban Gu 班固 said “Bǐ línggū ér hé shí xī.妣耹呱而劾石兮.” (Judging from the child’s cries, the mother knew that he would be a black sheep of the family.) Lü Yanji 呂延濟 notes that “bǐ, mǔ yě.” 妣，母也. (Bǐ 妣 means mother.) However, in most cases, fù 父 and mǔ 母 refer to fathers and mothers that are alive, and kǎo 考 and bǐ 妣 refer to late fathers and mothers; the words are used in different contexts. In Yǐngōng yuán nián 隱公元年 [The First Year of the Reign of Lord Yǐn] of Gōngyángzhuàn 公羊傳 [Gongyang’s Commentary], it is written that “huì gōng zhě hé? Yǐn zhī kǎo yě. 惠公者何？ 隱之考也.” (Who is Lord Hui? He is the father of Lord Yin.) He Xiu 何休 notes that “shēng chēng fù, sǐ chēng kǎo,” 生稱父，死稱考. (A father who is alive is addressed as fù 父, and a late father is addressed as kǎo 考.) In the same text, it is noted that “Zhòngzǐ zhě hé? Huán zhīmǔ yě. 仲子者何？桓之母也.” (Who is Zhongzi? She is the mother of Huan.) He Xiu 何休 notes that “shēng chēng mǔ, sǐ chēng bǐ.” 生稱母，死稱妣. (The mother who is alive is addressed as mǔ 母, and the late mother is addressed as bǐ 妣.) In Qǔlǐ xià 曲禮下 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part II] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Classic of Rites], it is noted that “shēng yuē fù, yuē mǔ, yuē qī; sǐ yuē kǎo, yuē bǐ, yuē pín.” 生曰父，曰母，曰妻；死曰 考，曰妣，曰嬪. (Fù 父, mǔ 母, and qī 妻 refer to one’s father, mother, and wife who are alive; kǎo 考, bǐ 妣, and pín 嬪 refer to one’s late father, mother, and wife.) 3.2.7 Differences in the object of actions. Some examples are given as follows.

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese 183 Sǎ洒-dí滌-zhuó濯-xǐ洗 The above four characters all mean to wash off dirty stuff with water. In Shuōwén Shuǐbù 说文水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], sǎ 洒 and dí 滌 are used interchangeably with each other. “Sǎ, dí yě.” 洒, 滌也. (Sǎ 洒 means dí 滌.) “Dí, sǎ yě.” 滌, 洒也. (Dí 滌 means sǎ 洒.) According to Shìgū èr 釋詁 二 [Explaining the Old Words II] of the dictionary Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Expanded Erya, the Literary Expositor], “zhuó, sǎ yě.” 濯，洒也. (Zhuó 濯 means sǎ 洒 [to wash]). As noted in the Shuǐ 水 Group of Yùpiān 玉篇, “Xǐ, jīn yǐ wéi sǎ zì.” 洗，今以為洒字. (Xǐ 洗 and sǎ 洒 have the same meaning.) Specifically, sǎ 洒 means to wash one’s face. As written in Xiānggōng èrshíyī nián 襄公二十一年 [The 21st Year in the reign of Lord Xiāng] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], “Zài shàngwèi zhě sǎzhuó qī xīn . . . ér hòu kěyǐ zhìrén. 在上位者洒 濯其心 . . . 而後可以治人.” (Those in superior positions should have a clear conscience . . . then they can hold the position of management.) Dí 滌 means to wash objects. In Shàoláo kuìshí lǐ 少牢饋食禮 [Lesser Lot of Ritual Gravitas] of Yílǐ 儀禮 [The Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial], it is written that “nǎi guānjiè zōng rén mìng dí, zǎi mìng wéi jiǔ, nǎi tuì. 乃官戒宗人命滌，宰命為 酒，乃退.” (By the royal decree, the royal members wash the utensils and the Grand Chancellor serves the sacrificial wine. Before the end of the rite, no one could retreat.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “dí, gài zhuó jìqì.” 滌，溉濯祭器. (Dí 滌 means to wash sacrificial utensils.) Zhuó 濯 could mean to wash objects, yet not body part. In Jiǒngzhuó 泂酌 of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes], it reads that “yíbǐ zhùzī, kěyǐzhuóléi. 挹彼注茲，可以濯罍.” (Draw the pool-water into one vessel and let it flow to another, and it may be used to wash a [spirit-]vase.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “Zhuó, dí yě.” 濯，滌也. (Zhuó 濯 means dí 滌, to wash.) In the chapter Téngwéngōng shàng 滕文公上 [Lord Wen of the State Teng I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “jiānghàn yǐ zhuó zhī, qiū yáng yǐ pù zhī. 江漢以濯之， 秋陽以暴之.” (Confucius is as clean as what has been washed by the great rivers and bathed in the sun of autumn.) Xǐ 洗 originally means to wash one’s feet, later replaces sǎ 洒 and means to wash something or somebody. In the poem Xíngwěi 行葦 [Springing of Rushes] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes], it reads, “Huòxiàn huòzuò, xǐjué diànjiǎ. 或獻或酢，洗爵奠斝.” (The guests are pledged, and they pledge the host in return; he rinses the cup, and the guests put theirs down.) In Gāozǔ běnjì 高祖本記 [Annals of Emperor Gaozu of Han], it reads, “Pèigōng fāng jùchuáng, shǐ liǎng nǚzi xǐzú. 沛公方踞床，使兩女子洗足.” (Lord Pei has just sat on the bed and ordered two female servants to wash his feet.) In Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “mò, sǎmiàn yě.” 沫， 洒面也. (Mò 沫 means to wash one’s face.) “Yù, sǎshēn yě.” 浴，洒身也. (Yù 浴 means to wash one’s body.) “Zǎo, sǎshǒu yě.” 澡，洒手也.（Zǎo 澡 means to wash one’s hands.） “Xǐ, sǎzú yě.” 洗，洒足也. (Xǐ 洗 means to wash one’s feet.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 notes that “Jīnrén jiǎ xǐ wéi sǎ, fēi gǔ yě.” 今人假洗為 洒，非古也. (It was not in ancient times that xǐ 洗 became the interchangeable word for sǎ 洒, but during the present times.)

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Yǐn㱃(飲)-chuò歠 The two words mean to drink. In Shuōwén Qiànbù 説文欠部 [Qian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], the two words are used to define each other. “Yǐn, chuò yě.” 㱃, 歠也. (Yǐn 㱃 means chuò 歠.) “Chuò, yǐn yě.” 歠，㱃也. (Chuò 歠 means yǐn 㱃.” It is written in Zhāogōng èrshí nián 昭公二十年 (The 20th year of the reign of Lord Zhāo 昭) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary] that “Qíhóu jiāng yǐnjiǔ. 齊侯將飲酒.” (Marquis Qi is about to drink.) In Gàozǐ shàng 告子上 [Master Gào I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads, “Dōngrì zé yǐntāng, xiàrì zé yǐnshuǐ. 冬日則飲湯，夏日則飲水.” (One drinks soup in winter and water in summer.) In Yúfù 漁父 [The Hermit Yúfù] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads, “Zhòng rén jiē zuì, hé bù bū qī zāo ér chuò qī lí? 眾人皆醉，何不餔其糟而歠其 醨？” (As everyone is drunk, why don’t I get myself drunk either?) Zhu Xi 朱熹 notes that “chuò, yǐn yě.” 歠，飲也. (Chuò 歠 means yǐn 飲, to drink.) Both words could mean to offer someone a drink. In Miánmán 緜蠻 [Little Oriole] of Xiǎoyǎ 小 雅 [Minor Odes], one sentence reads “yìnzhī shízhī, jiàozhī huìzhī. 飲之食之，教 之誨之.” (Give me some drink and food; inform me and teach me.) In Dàzhāo 大 招 [The Great Summons] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “qīng xīn dòng yǐn, bù chuò yì zhǐ. 清馨凍㱃（飲），不歠役只.” (The cool tasty drinks are not for servants.) Zhu Xi 朱熹 notes that “jiùzhù wèi bùyǐyǐn jiànyì zhīrén, yán jiǔ chúnměi, yìrén yǐn zhī, yì zuì pú shīlǐ, gù bùyǐ yǐn zhī yě.” 舊注謂不以飲賤 役之人，言酒醇美，役人飲之,易醉僕失禮，故不以飲之也. (It was recorded in the old books that the servants could not have drinks for fear of behaving inappropriately under the power of the drinks.) The two words are slightly different. It is more natural to say chuòzhōu 歠粥 (to have porridge) rather than yǐnzhōu 飲粥. In Zhāogōng shí jiǔ nián 昭公十九年 [The 19th Year of the reign of Lord Zhāo 昭] of Gǔliángzhuàn 榖梁傳 [A Commentary of Gǔliáng on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “Kūqì, chuò zhānzhōu, yì bù róng lì. 哭泣，歠飦粥，嗌不容 粒.” (Crying, he had some thick porridge, yet was choked.) As written in “Tán’gōng xià 檀弓下” [Tan Gong (a person’s name) II] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Classic of Rites], “Chuò zhǔrén, zhǔfù, shìlǎo, wèi qī bìng yě. 歠主人，主婦，室老，為其病也.” (Serve the master, the lady, and the butler some porridge in case they fall ill from grief.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “Chuò, chuòzhōu yě.”歠，歠粥也. (Chuò 歠 means chuòzhōu 歠粥, to have some porridge.) 3.2.8 Differences in degree. Some examples are given as follows. Jī飢-è餓 In essays, the two words jī飢 and è 餓 both mean be hungry. In Shuōwén Shíbù 説 文食部 [Shi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], the two words are used interchangeably with each other. “Jī, è yě.” 飢，餓也. (Jī 飢 means è 餓.) “è, jī yě.” 餓，飢也. (Jī 飢 means è 餓.) In Lí Lóu Xià 離婁下 (Li Lou [a person’s name]) of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius], it reads that “Jìsī tiānxià yǒujīzhě yóu jǐ

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jī zhī yě. 稷思天下有飢者由已飢之也.” (On the thought that someone is starving in the world, Ji could feel that it is himself who causes the starvation.) In Xùzhuàn 敘傳 [Autobiography] of the Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “Hán Xìn wéi è lì, qíng bù shí qíng tú. 韓信惟餓隸，黥布實黥徒.” (Han Xin used to be a servant enduring hunger; Qingbu was a criminal bearing a punitive tattoo on the face.) To be more specific, the two words are different in degree. Jī 飢 means being hungry in an ordinary sense. In the poem Héngmén 衡門 [Cross Pieces of Wood] of Chénfēng 陳風 [Odes of Chén], one sentence reads “bì zhī yángyáng, kěyǐ yuèjī.泌之洋洋，可以樂飢.” (By the wimpling stream from my fountain, I can be joyous amid my hunger.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “jīzhě, bùzú yú shí yě.” 飢者，不足於食也. (Jī 飢 means lacking food.) E 餓 means severe hunger. In Shìxié 飾邪 [On Pretensions and Heresies] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “Jiāyǒu cháng yè, suījī bú è; guó yǒu cháng fǎ, suī wēi bù wáng. 家有常業，雖飢不餓；國有常法，雖危不亡.” (With a trade, a family would not suffer severe hunger; with laws, a state would survive despite great misfortune.) In Shuōshān 説山 [Discourses on Mountains] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南 子 [The Works of Master Huainan of the Han dynasty], it reads that “níng yīyuè jī, wú yìxún è. 寧一月飢，無一旬餓.” (One-month hunger is more endurable than a ten-day famine.) Gao You 高誘 notes that “jī, shí bùzú; è, kùnfá yě.” 飢，食 不足；餓，困乏也. (Jī 飢 means lacking food and è 餓 means exhaustion.) The difference between jī 飢 and è 餓 could be seen in comparison. Jí疾-bìng病 The two words jí 疾 and bìng 病 mean fall ill or illness. In Shuōwén Nèbù 説文 疒部 [Ne Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], jí 疾 is defined as bìng 病. “Jí, bìng yě.” 疾，病也. (Ji 疾 means bìng 病.) In Tiānlùn 天論 [Discourse on Nature] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “hánshǔ bùnéng shǐ zhījí. 寒暑不 能使之疾.” (Neither cold nor heat could get Heaven ill.) In Jíyī 疾醫 [Treatment of Illnesses] of Tiānguān 天官 [Office of Heaven] of Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “Yǐwǔwèi, wǔgǔ, wǔyào yǎng qíbìng. 以五味、五榖、五 藥養其病.” (Treat illnesses with five flavors, five grains, and five medicines.) In contrast, jí 疾 refers to mild illnesses while bìng 病 refers to severe illnesses. In Zǐhǎn 子罕 (a disciple of Confucius) of the Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “Zǐ jíbìng, Zǐlù shǐ ménrén wéi chén. 子疾病，子路使門人為臣.” (When Confucius is seriously ill, Zilu sent one of his servants to be a courtier in Confucius’ house.) He Yan 何晏 quoted Bao Xian 包咸 that “jí shèn yuē bìng.” 疾 甚曰病. (Bìng 病 means being seriously ill.) In the Nè 疒 Group of the Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “bìng, jí jiā yě.” 病，疾 加也. (Bìng 病 is defined as graver illness.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 notes that “Xīyán zhī zé bìng wéi jí jiā, húnyán zhī zé jí yì bìng yě.” 析言之則病為疾加，渾言之 則疾亦病也. (In contrast, bìng 病 means more serious illness, and that in general jí 疾 and bìng 病 mean the same.) However, the contrast is not absolute since jí 疾 could also mean serious illness, as written in Yìbǎo 異寶 [Rare Treasure] of Lǚshìchūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn’s Annals], “Sūn Shū’áo

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jí, jiāngsǐ. 孫叔敖疾，將死.” (Sun Shu’ao is seriously ill and near to death.) In Biànwù 辨物 [Disputing Things] of Shuōyuàn 説苑 [Garden of Eloquence], Liu Xiang 劉向 writes that “Wáng tàizǐ bàojí ér sǐ. 王太子暴疾而死.” (The prince died of acute illness.) Jí 疾 means severe illness. 3.2.9 Differences in shades of meaning. See the following examples. Cì賜-yǔ予 The two words cì 賜 and yǔ 予 mean to give something to someone. In Shuōwén Bèibù 説文貝部 [Bei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “cì, yǔ yě.” 賜，予也. (Cì 賜 is equivalent to yǔ 予.) In Shìgū 釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor], it is recorded that “yǔ, cì yě” 予，賜 也. (Yǔ 予 means cì 賜.) Hao Yixing 郝懿行 notes that “ruò dān wén, zé cìcyì yǔ, yǔ yì wéi cì, cì, yǔ hù xùn, qí yì jù tōng. 若單文，則賜亦予，予亦為賜，賜、予互 訓，其義俱通. (In general, cì 賜 and yǔ 予 have the same meaning that can be used interchangeably.) As written in Hàolìng 號令 [Commands and Orders] of the Mòzǐ 墨 子 [Works of Mòzǐ], “Shāngshènzhě lìng guīzhì, bìngjiā shànyǎng, yǔyī gěi yào, cì jiǔ rì èr shēng, ròu èr jīn. 傷甚者令歸治，病家善養，予醫給藥，賜酒日二升， 肉二斤.” (Those seriously injured are taken home to be taken good care of and get good treatment; they will be in good service by doctors and be given medicines, being provided with two liters of liquor and two jīn [Chinese measuring unit] of meat every day.) There will be no meaning difference for the word yǔ 予 when cì 賜 and yǔ 予 are used separately. In Guìyì 貴義 [Valuing Morality] of the Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads that “Yǔ zǐ guànlǚ ér duàn zǐ zhī shǒuzú, zǐ wèi zhī hū? 予子冠履而斷子之 手足，子為之乎？” (Offer you hats and shoes, and then cut your hands and feet. Would you like to be treated in this way?) In Lián Pō Lìn Xiàngrú lièzhuàn 廉頗藺相 如列傳 [Biographies of Lián Pō and Lìn Xiàngrú] of Shǐjì 史记 [The Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “Qín yì bù yǐ chéng yǔ zhào, zhào yì zhōng bù yǔ qín bì. 秦亦不以城予趙，趙亦終不予秦璧.” (The state of Qin does not give some cities to the state of Zhao; neither does the state of Zhao give the jade to the state of Qin.) Cì 賜 refers to those superior in status, seniority, or elder age offering something to those inferior. It is written in Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety Part 1] of the Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites] that “zhǎngzhě cì, shàozhě jiànzhě bùgǎn cí. 長 者賜，少者賤者不敢辭.” (The inferior dare not reject the gifts from the superior.) Tīng聽-líng聆 The two words tīng 聽 and líng 聆 mean to take in sounds and voices with one’s ears. In the section Er 耳, tīng 聽, and líng 聆 are used interchangeably. It is written that “tīng, líng yě.” 聽，聆也. (Tīng 聽 means líng 聆.) “Líng, tīng yě. 聆，聽也. (Líng 聆 means tīng 聽.) Tīng 聽 is a more general word. In Gōng yě cháng 公冶長 (person’s name) of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “shǐ wǔ yú rén yě, tīng qī yán ér xìn qī xíng; jīn wǔ yú rén yě, tīng qī yán ér guān qī xíng. 始吾於人

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也，聽其言而信其行；今吾於人也，聽其言而觀其行.” (At first, when it came to people, I listen to their words and trusted their conduct. Now, when it comes to people, I listen to their words and observe their conduct.) Tīng 聽 means to listen attentively. In the essay Jùqínměixīn 劇秦美新 [Degrading the Qin Regime and Praising the Xin Regime], Yang Xiong 揚雄 wrote that “jìng jīngcuì zhī zhìjīng, líng qīnghé zhī zhèng shēng. 鏡精粹之至精，聆清和之正聲.” (Display the most pure and listen to clear, harmonious sounds.) In Sīxuán fù 思玄賦 [Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery] by Zhang Heng 張衡 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “líng guǎngyuè zhī jiǔzòu xī, zhǎn yìyì yǐ róngróng. 聆廣樂之九奏兮，展洩洩以肜肜.” (Listening to the heavenly music again and again, one is totally relaxed and fully satisfied.) It should be noted that synonyms do not include all meanings of the given words. In addition to synonyms, there is a polysemous word that is a synonym of another word in one sense, but not in every sense. See the following examples. Chí池-zhāo沼 The two words chí 池 and zhāo 沼 are synonyms in the sense of pools. In Wúyáng 無羊 [Having no sheep] in Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] of the Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Songs], it reads that “huò jiàng yú ē, huò yǐn yú chí. 或降于 阿，或飲于池.” (Some are descending among the mounds; some are drinking at the pools.) In Zhòng jǐ 重己 [Valuing oneself] of Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “Xī xiān shèng wáng zhī wéi yuànyǒu yuánchí yě, zú yǐ guānwàng láoxíng éryǐ yǐ. 昔先聖王之為苑囿園池也，足以觀 望勞形而已矣.” (The previous sages built large and beautiful gardens, pools and resorts only for the purpose of sightseeing to have a good relaxation.) Gao You 高 誘 notes that “yǒu shuǐ yuē chí.” 有水曰池. (Chí 池 means a place with water.) In Cǎifán 采蘩 [Gather or collect the white southernwood] of Shàonán 召南 [Airs South of Shao] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “yú yǐ cǎi fán, yú zhāo yú zhǐ. 于以采蘩，于沼于沚.” ([She] gathers the white southernwood in a ponds of the islet.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “zhāo, chí.” 沼，池. (Zhāo 沼 means chí 池, pond.) In the chapter Liánghuìwáng shàng 梁惠王上 [Lord Hui of the State Liang I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟 子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “Wáng lì yú zhāoshàng, gù hóngyàn mílù. 王立於沼上，顧鴻雁麋鹿.” (The king stood by the pond, casting a look at the swan, geese, and elks.) Zhao Qi 趙岐 notes that “Zhāo, chí yě.”沼，池也. (Zhāo 沼 means chí 池.) Chí 池 also means a barrier river protecting a city. As written in Xīgōng sì nián 僖公四年 [Year 4 of the Reign of Lord Xī] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], “Chǔguó fāngchéng yǐwéi chéng, hànshuǐ yǐwéi chí. 楚國方 城以為城，漢水以為池.” (The state of Chu takes Mt. Fangcheng as its wall and River Han as its protection.) Zhāo 沼 does not have the meaning of barrier river. Gǔn緄-téng縢 The two words gǔn 緄 and téng 縢 are synonyms in the sense of rope. In Shuōwén Sībù 説文糸部 [Si Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], both gǔn 緄 and téng

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縢 are interchangeably used as shéng 繩 (rope). “Gǔn, shéng yě.” 緄，繩也. (Gǔn 緄 means shéng 繩.) “Téng, shéng yě.” 縢，繩也. (Téng 縢 means shéng 繩.) In Xiǎoróng 小戎 [War Carriage] of Qínfēng 秦風 [Odes of Qin], Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “jiāochàng èrgōng, zhúbì gǔnténg. 交韔二弓，竹閉緄 縢.” (The two bows are placed in the case, bound with string to the bamboo frames.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that gǔn 緄 means shéng 繩 (rope) and téng 縢 means yuē 約 (bind). Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “yǐ zhú wéi bì， zhì yú gōng wēi ， rán hòu yǐ shéng yuē zhī. 以竹寪閉，置於弓隈，然後以縄 約之.” (A support piece made of bamboo is set at the curved bow string, bound with rope.) In Bìgōng 閟宮 [Solemn Temple] of Lǔsòng 魯頌 [Praise Odes of Lu], it reads, “Gōngchē qiānshèng, zhūyīng lǜténg. 公車千乘，朱英綠縢.” (There are thousands of the prince’s chariots, each with the vermillion tassels and the green bands.) In the Sī 糸 Group of Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], “Gǔn, zhīdài yě.” 緄，織帶也. (Gǔn 緄 means braided band/tape.) The original meaning of téng 縢 was to close or restrict. In Jīn téng xù 金縢序 [Prologue of the Story of Golden Case] of Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads, “Wǔwáng yǒují, zhōugōng zuò Jīnténg. 武王有疾，周公作《金縢》.” (King Wu was ill; Lord Zhou wrote Jīnténg [a prayer to heaven that he was willing to die for the king; the prayer was put in a golden case fastened with a belt].) In Wěi Kǒng Zhuàn 偽孔傳, it is written that “wéi qǐng mìng zhī shū， cáng zhī yú kuì， jiān zhī yǐ jīn ， bú yù rén kāi zhī. 為請命 之書，藏之於匱，緘之以金，不欲人開之.” (For the sake of people’s lives, the prayer hides the book of life in a metal box, sealing it firmly not to let it open for anyone.) The two words gǔn 緄 and téng 縢 have different meaning in this context.

4 ThesourcesofsynonymsinOldChinese The sources of synonyms in Old Chinese are rich based on the following reasons. 4.1 Wideusageofdialectwordsandtheir entryintocommonlexicon During the pre-Qin period, there existed an elegant lexicon and the distinctions among dialects were still large. In Wángzhì 王制 [Royal Regulations] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it is recorded that “wǔfāng zhī mín, yányǔ bùtōng, shìyù bùtóng.” 五方之 民，言語不通，嗜欲不同. (People of different regions speak different languages and have different interests and demands.) In Shuōwén jiězì xù 説文解字序 [Prologue of Shuōwén], Xu Shen 許慎 of the Han dynasty also pointed out that “yányǔ yìshēng, wénzì yìxíng.” 言語異聲，文字異形. (There were different spoken and written languages in the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, and the sounds and written forms of these languages were quite different.) The intellectual masters wrote principally in elegant language, yet not totally excluding local dialect words. In Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], there are plenty of Chu dialect words, such as yù 汨, qiān 搴, mǎng 莽, féng 馮, qiāng 羌, zhuó 諑, chàchì 侘傺, chānghé 閶闔, pò 蒪, yì 軼, zhān 邅, líng 靈, tán 壇, dié 褋, hāi 咍, dào 悼, nú 笯, chà 詫, wá 娃, hàn 閈, shuǎng 爽, bì 蔽, yíng 灜, and mèng 夢.3 The various names of one object are usually resulted from the blend of dialect and elegant lexicon. See the following examples.

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Cuī榱-jué桷-chuán椽 The above three words are synonyms in terms of the meaning rafter, the wooden beam poised on purlin, bearing roof deck and tile, which are from three dialects. According to Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Cuī, qínmíng wé wūchuán, zhōu wèi zhī cuī, qílǔ wèi zhī jué.” 榱，秦名 為屋椽，周謂之榱，齊魯謂之桷. (Rafter is called wūchuán 屋椽 in the dialect of the Qin dynasty, while in the dialect of the Zhou dynasty, it is called cuī 榱, and in dialects of the Qi and Lu dynasties, it is called jué 桷.) The three words all appear in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary]. In Xiānggōng sānshíyīnián 襄 公三十一年 [The 31st Year in the reign of Lord Xiāng], it reads that “Dòngzhé cuībēng, qiáo jiāng yā yān. 棟折榱崩，僑將壓焉.” (If the beam and rafter collapse, I will be buried underneath.) In Zhuānggōng èrshísì nián 莊公二十四年 [The 24th Year in the reign of Lord Zhuang], it reads that “chūn, kè qī jué, jiēfēi lǐ yě. 春，刻其桷，皆非禮也.” (In spring, the king had the rafters of the temple carved, which was also a violation of rites.) In Huángōng shísìnián 桓公十四年 [The 14th Year in the reign of Lord Huan], it reads that “yǐdàgōng zhī chuán guī, wéi lúmén zhī chuán. 以大宮之椽歸，為廬門之椽.” (The rafters of the Imperial Ancestral Temple were taken to be the ones in ordinary houses [as a humiliation].) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], Lu Deming 陸德 明 explains that “Chuán, cuī yě. Yuán yuē chuán, fāng yuē jué.” 椽，榱也.圓曰 椽，方曰桷. (Chuán 椽 means cuī 榱. Chuán 椽 is round in shape, and jué 桷 is square in shape.) It could be seen that the three words became components of elegant lexicon and were synonyms in the pre-Qin period. Hǔ虎-wūtú於菟 The two words hǔ 虎 and wūtú 於菟 have the same meaning of tiger. Wūtú 於菟 is a dialect word. As written in Xuāngōng sìnián 宣公四年 [The Fourth Year in the reign of Lord Xuan] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], “Chǔrén wèi rǔ gǔ, wèi hǔ wūtú.” 楚人謂乳榖，謂虎於菟. (Breastmilk is called gǔ 榖 and tiger is called wūtú 於菟 in the Chu dialect.) In the book Fāngyán 方言 [Dialects], (Book Eight) Yang Xiong 揚雄 of the Han dynasty wrote that “hǔ, chénchǔ sòngwèi zhījiān huò wèi zhī lǐfù, jiānghuái nánchǔ zhījiān wèizhī lǐ’ěr, huò wèi zhī wūtú.” 虎，陳楚宋衛之間或謂之李父，江 淮南楚之間謂之李耳，或謂之於䖘 . (Tiger is called lǐfù 李父 in the States of Chen, Chu, Song and Wei; tiger might also be called Lǐ’ěr 李耳 or wūtú 於䖘 in the regions of Jiānghuái 江淮 and Southern Chǔ 楚.) Wūtú 於䖘 in Fāngyán 方言 has the same meaning as wūtú 於菟 in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary]. Huǒ火-huǐ燬-huǐ𤈦 The three words (huǒ 火, huǐ 燬, and huǐ 𤈦) mean the light and heat of things burning. Huǐ 燬 and huǐ 𤈦 are the dialect words. In Shuōwén Huǒbù 説文火 部 [Huo Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], huǒ 火 and huǐ 燬 are used

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interchangeably with each other. “Huǒ, huǐ yě.” 火，燬也. (Huǒ 火 means huǐ 燬.) “Huǐ, huǒ yě.” 燬，火也. (Huǐ 燬 means huǒ 火.) In Rǔfén 汝墳 [The Raised Banks of Joo] of Zhōunán 周南 [The Odes of Zhōu and South] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “fángyú chēngwěi, wángshì rúhuǐ. 魴魚赬尾， 王室如燬.” (The bream is showing its tail all red; the royal house is like a blazing fire.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “huǐ, huǒ yě.” 燬，火也. (Huǐ 燬 means fire.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 notes that “huǐ, yīn huǐ. Qírén wèi huǒ yuē huǐ, zìshū zuò huǐ, yīn huǐ. 《 Shuōwén 》 tóng. Yī yīn huǒ wěi fǎn. Huò yún: chǔrén míng yuē zào, qírén yuē huǐ, wúrén yuē huǐ, cǐ fāngsú é yǔ yě.” 燬，音 毀.齊人謂火曰燬，字書作𤈦，音毀.《說文》同.一音火尾反.或云：楚人名 曰燥，齊人曰燬，吳人曰𤈦，此方俗訛語也. (Huǐ 燬 is called fire by people of the state of Qí, which is also written as huǐ 𤈦 in dictionaries and is written as huǐ 毀. The sound huǐ 燬 is the blend of huǒ 火 and wěi 尾. Fire is called zào 燥 in the Chu dialect, huǐ 燬 in the Qi dialect, huǐ 𤈦 in the Wu dialect; all these words are local dialect words.) In Zhèngyì 正義 [Correct Meanings of the Five Classics], Kong Yingda 孔穎達 quotes Sun Yan 孫炎 that “fāngyán yǒu qīngzhòng, gù wèi huǒ wéi huǐ yě.” 方言有輕重，故謂火為燬也. (Dialect words have different weights in meaning, and fire is called huǐ 燬.) Pān潘-gān泔 The two words pān 潘 and gān 泔 refer to the water from rinsed rice, which ancient people used to wash their hair. Gān 泔 is a dialect word. It is noted in Shuōwén Shuǐbù 説文水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “pān, xī mǐ zhī yě.” 潘，淅米汁也. (Pān 潘 means water from rinsed rice.) “Gān, zhōu wèi pān yuē gān.” 泔，周謂潘曰泔. (Gān 泔 is a word in Zhou dialect for pān 潘.) In Aigōng shísìnián 哀公十四年 (The 14th Year of the reign of Lord Ai) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “chénshì fāngmù, shǐ jí ér qiǎn zhī pān mù, bèi jiǔròu yān. 陳氏方睦，使疾，而遺之潘沐，備酒肉焉.” (The family of Chen lived happily at that time and told him to pretend to be ill, sending him rinse water and rich food.) Du Yu 杜預 notes that “pān, mǐzhī, kěyǐ mùtóu.” 潘， 米汁，可以沐頭. (Pān 潘 means rinse water which can be used to wash hair.) In Shuǐdì 水地 [Water and Earth] of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “qín zhī shuǐ gān jù ér jī, yū zhì ér zá. 秦之水泔冣（聚）而稽，淤滯而雜.” (The water of Qin is congealed, stagnant, and muddy.) In Zhūzǐ píngyì 諸子平議 [A critical study on the philosophers of Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods], Yu Yue 俞樾 notes that “cǐ ěr jù zhī yì, gài wèi gānzhī huìjù é tíngliú, yūní chénzhì ér húnzá yě.” 此二句之義，蓋謂泔汁會聚而停留，淤泥沈滯而混雜 也. (Rinse water is condensed and therefore will become stagnant; the impurities in water stay there and so the water gets muddy.) The dissemination of the classics of Confucius and other masters promotes the blend of local dialect words into the common language. Some dialect words gradually become components of common lexicon, making it difficult to tell the dialect words apart from elegant words as time moves on.

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese 191 4.2 Coexistenceofarchaicandmodernwords The new words did not replace all of the old words. Certain archaic words were replaced in speaking, yet were still used in writing. New words used in writing became synonyms of the old words. The so-called archaic and/or modern words are relative in terms of meaning definitions. Concerning the ancient times, the Western Zhou was ancient, and the Eastern Zhou was modern. The Shang and Zhou dynasties were ancient times, and the Western and Eastern Han dynasties were modern times. The major parts of Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History] and Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs] and the line texts (yáo cí 爻辭) of Yìjīng 易經 [The Book of Changes I-Ching] were written earlier; Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects] and Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary] were written later; Mèngzǐ 孟子, Xúnzǐ 荀 子, Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 and Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 were written at a much later time. Writing goes thousands of years back to the Han dynasty. Taking Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs] alone, Zhōusòng 周頌 [The Odes of Zhōu] was composed during the Western Zhou dynasty; the majority of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes] and Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes] were composed during the later Western Zhou dynasty; the majority of Guófēng 國風 [Odes of the State], Lǔsòng 魯頌 [Odes of Lu] and Shāngsòng 商頌 [Odes of Shang] were works of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. In these songs, it is obvious that the appeared words were used in different periods. Certain archaic words remained and became modern dialect words. See the following examples. Jiǎ甲-kǎi鎧 The two words jiǎ 甲 and kǎi 鎧 refer to the armour made of leather or metal that ancient soldiers wore for protection. Jiǎ 甲 is an archaic word; while kǎi 鎧 is a modern word. It is noted in Shìbīng 釋兵 [Explaining Weaponry] of Shìmíng 釋 名 [Explaining Names] that “jiǎ, sì wù yǒu fú jiǎ yǐ zìyù yě . . . yì yuē kǎi, jiē jiānzhòng zhī míng yě.” 甲，似物有孚甲以自御也 . . . 亦曰鎧，皆堅重之名 也. (Jiǎ 甲 means something covered with a pallet for physical protection, which is also called kǎi 鎧, the two words jiǎ 甲 and kǎi 鎧 have the sense of being heavy and solid.) In Shuōwén Jīnbù 説文金部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], jiǎ 甲 is used interchangeably with kǎi 鎧. “Kǎi, jiǎ yě.” 鎧，甲也. (Kǎi 鎧 means jiǎ 甲.) In Yuè mìng zhōng 説命中 [Charge to Yue II] of the pseudo Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads that “wéi jiǎzhòu qǐ róng. 惟甲 胄起戎.” (The coat of mail and helmet give occasion to war.) In Wěi Kǒng Zhuàn 偽孔傳, it is noted that “jiǎ, kǎi; zhòu, dōumóu yě.” 甲，鎧；胄，兜鍪也. (Jiǎ 甲 is kǎi 鎧 and zhòu 胄 means dōumóu 兜鍪, helmet.) In Kǒngchuán 孔傳, Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “Jīngzhuànwén wú kǎi yǔ dōumóu, gài qínhàn yǐlái shǐ yǒu cǐmíng, chuán yǐ jīn xiǎogǔ yě.” 經傳文無鎧與兜鍪，蓋秦漢以來始有此 名，傳以今曉古也. (In the pre-Qin classics there did not exist kǎi 鎧 or dōumóu 兜鍪, and that the words came into use after the Qin and Han dynasties, and that a modern word was considered archaic.). In Sījiǎ 司甲 [Supervising Armour] of Xiàguān 夏官 [Office of Summer] of Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou], it reads that “Sījiǎ xià dàfū èr rén. 司甲下大夫二人.” (Two Lower Grandees were

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in charge of armoury.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “Jio, jīn zhī kǎi yě.” 甲，今 之鎧也. (Jiǎ 甲 is kǎi 鎧 nowadays.) Jia Gongyan 賈公彥 notes that “Gǔ yòng pí, wèi zhī jiǎ; jīn yòng jīn, wèi zhī kǎi.” 古用皮，謂之甲；今用金，謂之鎧. (In ancient times armour was made of leather and was called jiǎ 甲; in modern times armour is made of jīn 金 (metal) and was called kǎi 鎧.) Kǎi 鎧 and jiǎ 甲 could make one word. In Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “kǎijiǎ bùjiān zhě shāng hū tǐ. 鎧甲不堅者傷乎體.” (Those without solid armour are physically injured.) Tì涕-lèi淚 The two words tì 涕 and lèi 淚 mean tears. Tì 涕 is an archaic word, and lèi 淚 is a modern word. In the Shuǐ 水 Group of Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles], it is noted that “tì, mù zhī chū yuē tì. Lèi, tìlèi yě.” 涕，目汁出曰涕.淚，涕淚也. (Tì 涕 means water out of eyes and lèi 淚 means tì 涕, tears.) In Zébèi 澤陂 [Shore of Marsh] of Chénfēng 陳風 [Odes of Chen] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], one sentence reads “wùmèi wúwéi, tìsì pángtuó. 寤寐無為，涕泗滂沱.” (Waking or sleeping, I do nothing; while the water streams from my eyes and nose.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛 傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “zì mù yuē tì, zì bí yuē sì.” 自目曰涕，自鼻 曰泗. (Tì 涕 is water out of the eyes and sì 泗 is water out of the nose.) The word lèi 淚 came into being during the Warring States period. In Yàncè sān 燕策三 [Strategies of Yàn III] of the Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it is written that “Gāo Jiànlí jīzhù, jīngkē hè ér gē, wéi biàn zhǐ zhī shēng, shìjiē chuílèi tìqì. 高漸 離擊築，荊軻和而歌，為變徵之聲，士皆垂淚涕泣.” (Gao Jianli struck zhù 筑 [a musical instrument similar to the zither]), and Jingke sang along with the note of sadness and solemnity putting everyone to tears.) In Gāotángfù 高唐賦 [Rhapsody on Gaotang] by Song Yu 宋玉 of the Warring States period, a line reads “chóusī wúyǐ, tànxī chuílèi.” 愁思無已，嘆息垂淚. (Unable to free myself from melancholy and anxiety, I cannot help sighing and weeping.) Ever since the medieval times, lèi 淚 gradually replaced tì 涕. In spoken language, tì 涕 only means snot. 4.3 Coexistenceofwordsfromthesamesource A pair of words stem from one source and were pronounced similarly or identically during the ancient times. A number of words from one source are synonyms, which are exemplified as follows. Chóu愁-sāo慅,sāo騷 The above three words are from one source and have the same meaning. In the Old Chinese language, the three words were in the rhyme group yōu 幽; chóu 愁 is in the final-group mǔ 母, sāo 慅, and sāo 騷 in the final-group qīng 清, all of them have the meaning of melancholy. In Shuōwén Xīnbù 説文心部 [Xin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “chóu, yōu yě.” 愁，憂也. (Chóu 愁 means worry.) In Xiānggōng èrshíjiǔnián 襄公二十九年 [The 29th Year in the reign of Lord Xiāng]

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of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “ai ér bù chóu, lè ér bù huāng. 哀而不愁，樂而不荒.” (Though in sadness, one still entertains hope; though in joy, one does not get succumbed to pleasure.) In Yuèchū 月出 [Moon Rise] of Chénfēng 陳風 [Odes of Chén], Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it is recorded that “láo xīn sāo xī. 勞心慅兮.” (How agitated is my toiled heart!) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 notes that “sāo, yōu yě.”慅，憂 也. (Sāo 慅 means yōu 憂, worry.) In Chǔyǔshàng 楚語上 [Discourses of the State Chǔ I] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “er zhě sāolí. 邇者 騷離.” (Those nearby would feel sad and worried.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 notes that “sāo, chóu yě.” 騷，愁也. (Sāo 騷 means chóu 愁 [feeling sad].) Mín民-máng氓,méng甿,méng萌 The above four words are from one source with the same meaning. Mín 民 is in the rhyme group zhēn 真, the final-group míng 明, máng 氓, méng 甿, and méng 萌 are in the rhyme group yáng 陽, the final-group míng 明. The four words have similar finals and rhymed with each other, all having the meaning of commoners or peasants. In Shuōwén Mínbù 説文民部 [Min Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “Mín, zhòngméng yě.” 民，眾萌也. (Mín 民 means zhòngméng 眾萌.) In Tián 田 Group, it is noted that “Méng, tiánmín yě. 甿，田 民也.” (Méng 甿 means tiánmín 田民 [peasants].) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 notes that “méng, gǔběn jiē bú wù, máoběn zuò máng, fēi. Gǔ wèi mín yuē méng, hànrén suǒyòng bùkě méishù.” 萌，古本皆不誤，毛本作氓，非.古謂民曰萌，漢人 所用不可枚數. (Méng 萌 was used in ancient texts and had the same meaning as máng 氓 in the Máoshī 毛詩 [Mao Tradition of the Book of Songs].) The common people were called méng 萌 in ancient times, which had become a common word among people in the Han dynasty. It is noted in volume three of Fāngyán方言 [Dialects] that “máng, mín yě.” 氓，民也. (Máng 氓 and mín 民 have the same meaning.) Guo Pu 郭璞 notes that “Máng, mín zhīzzǒngmíng.” 氓，民之總名. (Máng 氓 is a general term for people.) In Pángēng shàng 盤庚上 [Pan Geng, Part I] of Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads that “mín bú shì yǒu jū. 民不適有居.” (The people were reluctant to move to that place.) In Máng 氓 of Wèifēng 衛風 [Odes of Wei] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “máng zhī chīchī, bàobù màosī. 氓之蚩蚩，抱布貿絲.” (A simple-looking lad you were, carrying cloth to exchange it for silk.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn毛 傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “máng, mín yě.” 氓，民也. (Máng 氓 means mín 民, common folks). In Héshì 和氏 [He, who found the precious jade] of Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “guān xíngfǎ, zé fú méng qū yú gēng nóng.官行法，則浮萌趨於耕農.” (The court instituted the law, whereby the common peasants were forced to work in the fields.) In “Chénshèng Xiàngjí zhuàn” 陳勝項籍傳 [The Biographies of Chen Sheng and Xiang Ji] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “máng lì zhī rén. 甿隸之人.” (a common peasant) Wang Xianqian 王先謙 quotes Ruchun 如淳 that “máng, gǔwén méng zì. Méng, mín yě.” 甿，古文萌字.萌，民也. (In the ancient texts the word méng 萌 was used in place of máng 甿, meaning the common masses.

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4.4 Synonymsderivedfromsemanticextension Some words were not synonyms originally, yet later turned into synonyms as a result of semantic extension. Ocassionally, the original meaning of one word is the same as the extended meaning of another word. The extended meanings of both words have the same sense. See the following examples. Bì辟-lì戾 The original meaning of bì 辟 was law or code. In the Bì 辟 Group of the Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], bì 辟 was interchangeable with fǎ 法 (law; code). “Bì, fǎ yě. 辟，法也.” (Bì 辟 means law, code.) In “Yǔ wú zhèng” 雨無正 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes], it is recorded that “bìyán búxìn, rúbǐ xíngmài, zémí suǒzhēn. 辟言不信，如彼行邁，則靡所臻.” (He will not listen to the just words. He is like a man going astray. Who knows where he will proceed to.) The original meaning of lì 戾 was “bent, or curvy. In Shuōwén Quǎnbù 説文犬部 [Quan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], lì 戾 was interchangeable with qǔ 曲 (bent). In Jìnshù 盡數 [Fulfill the Number] of Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “yǐn bì xiǎoyàn, duān zhí wúlì. 飲必小咽，端直無 戾.” (While drinking, take small sips and sit straight.) Both words have the extended meaning of crime or vice. As written in Shìgū 釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], “Bì, lì, zuì yě.” 辟、戾、辠也. (Bì 辟 and lì 戾 have the same meaning zuì 辠, crime.) In Zhōuyǔshàng 周語上 [Discourses of the State Zhōu I] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “tǔ bù bèikěn, bì zài sīkòu. 土不備墾，辟在司寇.” (The land is not cultivated. That’s the error of judges.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 defines bì 辟 as zuì 辠. “Bì, zuì yě.” 辟，辠也. (Bì 辟 means zuì 辠.) In Wéngōng sìnián 文公四年 (The Fourth Year of the reign of Lord Wén) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “Jūn rǔkuàng zhī, qí gǎn gàn dàlǐ yǐ zì qǔ lì? 君辱貺之，其敢干大禮以自取戾？” (Now that Your Lordship grant him such a huge reward, how dare he behave dishonorably and invite punishment?) Du Yu 杜預 notes that “lì, zuì yě.” 戾，罪也. (Lì 戾 means zuì 罪, crime.) Hence, bì 辟 and lì 戾 have the same sense and become synonyms. Dào道-shuō説 The original meaning of shuō 説 was to comment or narrate. In Shuōwén Yánbù 説文 言部 [Yan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “Shuō, shuōshì yě. Yī yuē tánshuō. 說，說釋也.一曰談說. (Shuō 説 is defined as to explain or interpret and could also be used as tánshuō 談説, comment.)According to Shìyányǔ 釋言語 [Reporting Verbs] of Shìmíng 釋名 [Explaining Names], “Shuō, shù yě, xuān shù rényì yě. 說，述也， 宣述人意也. (Shuō 説 means to tell or voice one’s opinions.) In “Shìshuō” 釋説 [Explaining Speech], Yang Shuda 楊樹達 explains that “tán shuō zhě, shuō zhī shǐ yì yě. 談說者，說之始義也.” (Shuō 説 was originally used as tánshuō 談説, comment.) In the chapter of the Hexagram Xián 咸 of Yi Ching 易經 [The Book of Changes], it reads that “xián qī fǔjiáshé, téng kǒu shuō yě. 咸其輔頰舌，滕口説也.” (The influence shows itself in the jaws, cheeks, and tongue. The most superficial way of trying

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to influence others is by means of comment that has nothing real behind it.) In Bāyì 八佾 [Eight Rows of Dancers] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “chéngshì bù shuō, suíshì bú jiàn, jìwǎng bù jiū. 成事不説，遂事不諫，既往不咎.” (Completed affairs one does not comment on; things done one does not carp over; what is past one does not criticize.) The original meaning of dào 道 was road or way. In Chén Shē shìjiā 陳涉世家 [A Hereditary Biography of Chen She] of Shǐjì 史記 [The Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “huìtiān dàyǔ, dào bùtōng. 會天大雨， 道不通.” (By accident, it rained on that day and the road was blocked.) One extended meaning of dào 道 was to talk about or comment. In the poem Qiáng yǒu cí 墻有茨 of Yōngfēng 鄘風 [Odes of Yong] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “qiáng yǒu cí, bù kě dào yě. 墻有茨 . . . 不可道也.” (The wall is covered with thorns . . . what happened is unspeakable.) In Bào rèn ān shū 報任安書 [Letter to Ren An], Sima Qian 司馬遷, historian of the Han dynasty, wrote that “rán cǐ kěwéi zhìzhě dào, nánwéi súrén yán yě. 然此可為智者道，難為俗人言也.” (However, these are the remarks of the intellectuals rather than those of the commoners.) Dào 道 and shuō 説 are synonyms in the sense of comment or narrate. 4.5 Separation,combinationandchangeofpronunciations A word was pronounced as one syllable in rapid speech and was written as one character. However, the same word was pronounced as two syllables in slow speech and was written as two characters. The change of sound gave rise to the birth of some synonyms. Some examples are given as follows. Biāo猋-fúyáo扶搖 The two words biāo 猋 and fúyáo 扶搖 mean tornado or tempest. Biāo 猋 has one syllable and could also be written as 飆 or 飇. Fúyáo 扶搖 has two syllables. In Shìtiān 釋天 [Explaining Heaven] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [Close to Standard Language], it is noted that “fúyáo wèizhī biāo 扶搖謂之猋.” (Fúyáo 扶搖 means biāo 猋.) In the section Fēng 風 of the Shuōwén 説文 [The Origin of Chinese Characters], biāo 飆 is defined as fúyáo 扶搖 (wind). In Yuèlìng 月令 [Proceedings of government in the different months] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “[Mèngchūn sānyuè] biāofēng bàoyǔ zǒngzhì. 孟春三月猋風暴雨總至.” (March often sees violent winds and torrential rains.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “huífēng wéi biāo 回風為猋.” (Biāo 猋 means huífēng 回風 [tornado].) In Shàng lín fù 上林賦 [Rhapsody of Imperial Park], Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 of the Han dynasty wrote that “Líng jīngfēng, lìhàibiāo. 陵驚風，曆駭飇.” (Ride the violent wind and beat the tornado.) In Hédōng fù 河東賦 [Hedong Rhapsody] by Yang Xiong 揚雄 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “fēngfā biāofú, shénténg guǐcuǐ. 風發飆拂，神騰 鬼趡.” (The carriages pass by as rapidly as a tornado, without leaving a single trace like the spirits.) In Xiāoyáo yóu 逍遙游 [Enjoyment in untroubled ease] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “péng zhī xǐ yú nán míng yě, shuǐ jī sān qiān lǐ, bó fúyáo érshàng zhě jiǔwàn lǐ. 鵬之徙于南冥也，水擊三千 里，搏扶搖而上者九萬里.” (When the bird péng 鵬 is moving to the Southern

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Ocean it flaps (its wings) on the water for 3,000 li. Then, it ascends on a whirlwind 90,000 li.) In Yuándào 原道 [Searing out Dao] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “fúyáo zhěn bào yángjiǎo ér shàng. 扶 搖抮抱羊角而上.” (The Great Rider ascends on the whirlwind.) Zhēng鉦-dīngníng丁寧 The word zhēng 鉦 is a monosyllabic word; while dīng níng 丁寧 is a disyllabic word. The two words both refer to a military musical instrument of the ancient times with a long and narrow handle in the shape of a bell, which could make a sound when struck. In Cǎiyǐ 采芑 [Gather the White Millet] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “zhēngrén fágǔ, chénshī jūlǚ. 鉦人伐鼓，陳師鞠 旅.” (With his jinglers and drummers, he marshalled his hosts and addressed them.) As noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry], “Fá, jī yě. Zhēng yǐ jìng zhī, gǔ yǐ dòng zhī.” 伐，擊也.鉦以靜之，鼓以動之. (Fá 伐 means strike; zhēng 鉦 means to still something, while gǔ 鼓 means to stir.) In Xuāngōng sìnián 宣公四年 [The Fourth Year of the reign of Lord Xuān) of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “bófén shè wáng, tàizhōu jí gǔfù, zháo yú dīng níng. 伯棼 射王，汰輈及鼓跗，著於丁寧.” (Bofen shot an arrow at the king; the arrow flew over the carriage and the drum stand and straight at the instrument dīngníng.) In Wúyǔ 吳語 [Discourses of the State Wú] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “mèimíng, wáng nǎi bǐng fú, qīn jiùmíng zhōnggǔ, dīngníng, chúnyú zhènduó, yǒng què jìn yìng. 昧明，王乃秉枹，親就嗚鐘鼓，丁寧、錞于振鐸， 勇怯盡應.” (At dawn, the king himself held the beater and struck the bells, drums, dīngníng 丁寧 and chúnyú 錞于, at which all the soldiers, bold or timid, roared in response.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 notes that “Dīngníng, wèi zhēng yě. Xíngjūn míngzhī, yǔ gǔ xiāngyìng.” 丁寧，謂鉦也.行軍鳴之，與鼓相應. (Dīngníng 丁寧 is the instrument zhēng 鉦, which is struck along with the drum in military campaigns.) Zhuī椎-zhōngkuí終葵 The word zhuī 椎 is a monosyllabic word; while zhōngkuí 終葵 is a disyllabic word. Zhuījī 椎擊 also has the meaning. In Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “Zhuī, jī yě. Qí wèi zhī zhōngkuí.” 椎，擊也.齊謂之終葵. (Zhuī 椎 means jī 擊; zhōngkuí 終葵 is a word of the Qí齊 dialect and has the same meaning as zhuī 椎.) Xu Hao 徐灝 notes that “zhōngkuí zhī héshēng wéi zhuī, zhǔ shàng jiànshā ér shàng yě. 終葵之合聲為椎，杼上漸殺而 上也. (The sound zhuī 椎 is the blend of zhōng 終 and kuí 葵, referring to the sharpened end of the jade tablet which emperors hold.) In Qícèliù 齊策六 [Strategies of Qí, Part VI] of the Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads that “jūnwánghòu yǐnzhuī, zhuī pò zhī. 君王後引椎，椎破之.” (The queen took the mallet and struck [the jade chain] broken.) In Yùrén 玉人 [Jade worker] of the chapter of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [Artificers’ Record], the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhōu], it reads that “dàguī cháng sānchǐ, zhù shàng zhōngkuíshǒu, tiānzǐ fú zhī. 大 圭長三尺，杼上終葵首，天子服之.” (The jade tablet, three inches long with the

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head end narrower, sharp and pointed, is held by the emperor in his hand.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “Zhōngkuí, zhuī yě; wéi zhuī yú qí zhǔ shàng.” 終葵，椎 也；為椎於其杼上. (Zhōngkuí 終葵 means zhuī 椎 [the pointed end of a mallet].) This phonological feature in Chinese lexicon was noticed by ancient scholars. In volume 15 of Mèngxībǐtán 夢溪筆談 [Dream Pool Essays] by Shen Kuo 沈括 of the Song dynasty, it is noted that “rán gǔyǔ yǐyǒu èrshēng hé wéi yī zì zhě, rú ‘bùkě’wéi ‘pǒ’, ‘hébù’ wéi ‘hé’, ‘rúshì’ wéi ‘ěr’, ‘ér yǐ’ wéi ‘ěr’, ‘zhīhū’ wéi ‘zhū’zhī lèi, rú xīyù èrhé zhī yīn, gài qiēzì zhī yuán yě. 然古語已有二聲合為一字者，如 ‘ 不可’為 ‘ 叵’， ‘ 何不’為 ‘ 盍’， ‘ 如是’為 ‘ 爾’， ‘而已’為 ‘ 耳’, ‘ 之乎’為 ‘ 諸’之類， 如西域二合之音.蓋切字之源也. (Two sounds could be blended into one sound in Old Chinese. For example, bù ké 不可 was blended into pǒ 叵, and hé bù 何不 was blended into hé 盍, and rú shì 如是 was blended into ěr 爾, and ér yǐ 而已 was blended into ěr 耳, and zhī hū 之乎 into zhū 諸. It is similar to the Xīyù 西域, the West Region language and is the beginning of qiè 切, the word forming method of blending.) Shen’s observation was on phonological blending and division. Based on his theory, some scholars of the Qing dynasty could explain certain complicated words in ancient texts. Qian Daxin 錢大昕 of the Qing dynasty claimed that King Shèng 乘 of the State Wú 吳 in Xiānggōng èrshí nián 襄公二十年 [The 20th Year in the reign of Lord Xiāng] of Chūnqiūjīng 春秋經 [Spring and Autumn Annals] was King Shòumèng 壽夢 (Shíjià zhāiyǎng xīnlù 十駕齋養新録 [Records of New Things from Shíjià Studio], volume six). Wang Niansun 王念孫 of the Qing dynasty claimed that “dān yán zhī zé wéi hǔ, chóng yán zhī zé wéi wūtú 單言之則為虎，重言之則為於䖘.” “Xùnhóu zhī zhuǎnshēng wéi xùnhú, qī héshēng zé wéi xiū yǐ訓侯之轉聲為訓狐，其合聲則為鵂 矣.” (Tiger is called in one sound hǔ 虎 with two sounds wūtú 於䖘; the bird xùnhóu 訓 侯 was pronounced as xùnhú 訓狐 or xiū 鵂 in one sound (Guǎngyǎ shūzhèng 廣雅疏 證 [Annotations to the Dictionary of Guǎngyǎ], volume ten, Part II). The observations are inspiring for the study of Chinese lexical history and exegetic studies. 4.6 Synonymsformedbypolysyllabicwords There were large numbers of polysyllabic words in Old Chinese. Monosyllabic words which function as morphemes and are semantically similar or identical form compounds; the compounds and monosyllabic words become synonyms. There are two common cases as follows. 4.6.1 Synonyms of monosyllabic and polysyllable words Some examples are given as follows. càn粲（燦）-làn爛-càncàn粲粲-lànlàn爛爛-cànlàn粲爛 All of the words above could mean bright or clear. According to Shìgū sì 釋詁 四 [Explaining the Old Words Part IV] of Guǎngyǎ 廣雅 [Expanded Eryǎ 爾雅, the Literary Expositor], “Càn, míng yě. 燦，明也. (Càn 燦 means míng 明.) In Hànyùn 翰韻 [The Rime Group Han] of the rime dictionary Guǎngyùn 廣韻, it is noted that “Làn, míng yě.” 爛，明也. (Làn 爛 is defined as míng 明.) In Shuōwén

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xīnfù Huǒbù 説文新附火部 [Huo Group of Appendix to the Shuowen], it is noted that “Càn, cànlàn yě.” 燦，燦爛也. (Càn 燦 means cànlàn 燦爛.) In Gěshēng 葛 生 [The Growth of Dolichos] of Tángfēng 唐風 [the Odes of Táng] of Shījīng 詩 經 [The Books of Songs], it is written that “jiǎozhěn càn xī, jǐnqīn làn xī. 角枕粲 兮，錦衾爛兮.” (How beautiful was the pillow of horn! How splendid was the embroidered coverlet!) According to JíZhuàn 集傳 [Annotations to the Book of Songs] by Zhū Xī 朱熹, “Càn, làn, huáměi xiaānmíng zhī mào.” 粲，爛，華美鮮 明之貌. (Càn 粲 and làn 爛 have the meaning of splendid poignant looks.) In the poem Zèng Xúgān 贈徐幹 [To Xu Gan] by Cao Zhi 曹植, it reads that “yuǎnjǐng guāng wèi mǎn, zhòngxīng càn yǐ fán. 圓景光未滿，眾星粲以繁.” (The moon is not full yet, the stars bright and shining.) In Lǐyuèzhì 禮樂志 [Treatise on Ritual Music] of the Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “líng yīn yīn, làn yáng guāng, yán shòumìng, yǒng wèiyāng. 靈殷殷，爛揚光，延壽命，永未 央.” (Spirit will shine splendidly and bless everyone a long life.) In Dàdōng 大東 [The Large State of the East] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it is recorded that “xīrén zhī zǐ, càncàn yīfú. 西人之子，粲粲 衣服.” (The sons of the West shine in splendid clothes.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “Càncàn, xiānshèng mào.” 粲粲，鮮 盛貌. (Càncàn 粲粲 means splendid looks.) In Shàng lín fù 上林賦 [Rhapsody of Imperial Park], Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 of the Han dynasty wrote that “línlín lànlàn, cǎisè hàogàn. 磷磷爛爛，彩色澔旰.” (The stones are of multiple colors, splendid and shining.) In Fēngfù 風賦 [Rhapsody of Wind] by Song Yu 宋玉 of the Warring States period, it reads that “xuànhuàn cànlàn, lísàn zhuǎnyí. 眴煥粲 爛，離散轉移.” ([In the wake of the wind, the world] looks bright and splendid, and breeze flows around.) In Shàng lín fù 上林賦, it reads that “hàochǐ cànlàn, yíxiào dìlì. 皓齒粲爛，宜笑的皪.” ([The maid] has pretty white teeth, all smiling and cheerful.) Jiān艱-nán難-jiānnán艱難 The above words could mean difficult or not easy. In Shìgū 釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words] of the dictionary Eryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor], “Jiān, nán yě.” 艱，難也. (Jiān 艱 is explained as nán 難.) In Yuè mìng 説命 [Charge to Yue] of the pseudo Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads that “fēi zhī zhī jiān, xíng zhī wéi jiān. 非知之艱，行之惟艱.” (The difficulty is not to know but to observe them.) As noted in the Zhuī 隹 Group of Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles], “Nán, búyì zhīchēng.” 難, 不易之稱. (Nán 難 means búyì 不易, not easy.) In Shuōjiàn 説劍 [Discoursing on Swords] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “chēnmù ér yǔnán. 瞋目而語難.” (Aghast, he was unable to speak.) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual explanations of classics and canons], Lu Deming 陸德明 notes that “Nán, rú zì, jiānnán yě.” 難，如字，艱難也. (Nán 難 means jiānnán 艱難 [difficult].) In Zhōnggǔ yǒu tuī 中谷有蓷 [In the valleys grow the motherwort] of Wángfēng 王風 [Odes of the Royal Domain], Shījíng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “yù rén zhī jiānnán yǐ. 遇人之艱難矣.” (She suffers from his hardness a lot.) In Xīgōng èrshíbā nián 僖公二十八年 [Year

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28 of the Reign of Lord Xī] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “xiǎnzǔ jiānnán, bèicháng zhī yǐ. 險阻艱難，備嘗之矣.” (He experienced different types of hardships.) 4.6.2 Synonyms of disyllabic words Lánglì狼戾-lángjí狼藉 The words lánglì 狼戾 and lángjí 狼藉 mean in great mess. In the chapter of Téngwéngōng shàng 滕文公上 [Lord Wen of Teng I] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “lèsuì lìmǐ lánglì, duō qǔ zhī ér bù wéi nuè, zé guǎ qǔ zhī. 樂歲粒米狼戾，多取之而不為虐，則寡取之.” (In the years of good harvest, the fields are littered with grains, yet the state will not charge more even if it it is not considered abuse.) Zhao Qi 趙岐 notes that “lánglì, yóu lángjí yě.” 狼戾，猶狼藉 也. (Lánglì 狼戾 means lángjí 狼藉.) In Gǔjī lièzhuàn 滑稽列傳 [The Biographies of Jesters] of Shǐjì 史記 [The Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “lǚxì jiāocuò, bēipán lángjí. 履舄交錯，杯盤狼藉.” (The shoes are littered all over the floor and the dinner tables are in quite a mess.) Yōngsè壅塞-yōngè壅遏 The two words yōngsè 壅塞 and yōngè 壅遏 both have the meaning of block. In Zhāogōng yuán nián 昭公元年 [The First Year of the reign of Lord Zhao 昭 ] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [The Zuo Commentary], it reads that “jù wéi jūnmìng, ér yǒu suǒ yōngsè bùxíng shì jù. 距違君命，而有所壅塞不行是懼.” (The lord’s commands, as blocked [by resentment], will not be carried out.) In Yuèlìng 月令 [Proceedings of Government in the Different Months] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “[Mèngqiū zhī yuè] wán dīfáng, jǐn yōngsè, yǐ bèi shuǐlǎo. [ 孟秋之月 ] 完 堤防，謹壅塞，以備水潦.” (In the seventh month (of the lunar calendar), dams are checked and repaired in case of a flood.) In Lìzhèng jiǔbài jiě 立政九敗解 [On Overseeing Government and Explanation to Nine Ways of Failure] of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “qiě jiānrén zàishàng, zé yōng è xiánzhě ér bújìn yě. 且奸人在上，則壅遏賢者而不進也.” (The evildoers are in power, blocking the promotion of the virtuous men.) In Chénggōng wǔ nián 成公五年 (The Fifth Year of the reign of Lord Zhao 昭) of Gǔliángzhuàn 榖梁傳 [A Commentary of Gǔliáng on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “liángshān bēng, yōng è hé sānrì bùliú. 梁山崩，壅遏河三日不流.” (Mt. Liang collapsed, blocking the flow of the Yellow River for three days.) To sum up, the initial morphemes of the above disyllabic synonyms are the same. Bàihuài敗壞-huǐhuài毀壞 The two words bàihuài 敗壞 and huǐhuài 毀壞 mean to damage or to break. In Kùlì lièzhuàn 酷吏列傳 [Biographies of Harsh Officials] of Shǐjì 史記

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[Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “zòng bì yǐqì líng zhī, bàihuài qī gōng. 縱必以氣凌之，敗壞其功.” (Zong [a person’s name] would get furious and bully him, sabotaging his work.) In Gōuqúzhì 溝洫志 [Treatise on Rivers and Canals] of the Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “bàihuài chéngguō, tiánhù, zhǒngmù yǐ wànshù. 敗壞城郭、田廬、塚墓以 萬數.” (Thousands of counties, cottages, and graveyards were damaged.) In Sòng shìjiā 宋世家 [The Hereditary House of Sòng] in Shǐ Jì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “gǎn gōngshì huǐhuài, shēng héshǔ. 感宮 室毀壞，生禾黍.” (It is saddening to see the palaces ruined and turned into farmlands.) In Jìngshèn 敬慎 [Be Reverent and Cautious] of Shuōyuàn 説 苑 [Gardens of Stories] by Liu Xiang 劉向 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “huǐhuài bìfǎ. 毀壞辟法.” (Violate the [natural] laws.) In Xiàochéng huánghòu zhuàn 孝成皇后傳 [Biography of Emperess Xiaocheng] of the Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “huǐhuài kǎnwū. 毀壞檻屋.” (Even the houses with fences were destroyed.) Dōngfēng東風-gǔfēng榖風 The two words dōngfēng 東風 and gǔfēng 榖風 refer to the east wind. In Shìtiān 釋天 [Explaining Heaven] of Eryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor], it is noted that “dōngfēng wèi zhī gǔfēng 東風謂之榖風. (Dōngfēng 東風 is also called gǔfēng 榖風.) In Yuèlìng 月令 [Proceedings of Government in the Different Months] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “dōngfēng jiědòng, zhéchóng shǐzhèn. 東風解凍，蟄蟲始振.” (With the advent of the east wind, the frozen lands begin to thaw and the insects in hibernation wake up.) In Gǔfēng 榖風 [East Wind] of Bèifēng 邶風 [Odes of Bei] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “xíxí gǔfēng, yǐ yīn yǐ yǔ. 習習榖風，以陰以雨.” (The east wind gently blows, bringing cloud and rain.) It is noted in Máo Zhuàn 毛傳 [Exegesis on the Book of Poetry] that “dōngfēng wèi zhī gǔfēng 東風謂之榖風. (Dōngfēng 東風 means gǔfēng 榖風.) In this context, the second morphemes of the above disyllabic synonyms are the same. Jìnguàn浸灌-guàngài灌溉 The two words jìnguàn 浸灌 and guàngài 灌溉 mean to transport water to fields. As written in Xiāoyáoyóu 逍遙遊 [Enjoyment in Untroubled Ease] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], “Shíyǔ jiàng yǐ, ér yóu jìnguàn, qī yú zé yě, bù yì láo hū? 時雨降矣，而猶浸灌，其於澤也，不亦勞乎？” (The rain comes timely. However, one is still watering the fields. Isn’t this unnecessary labor?) In Gōuqúzhì 溝洫志 [Treatise on Rivers and Canals] of the Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it is written that “kě gè shùncóng qī xìng, wù fù guàngài. 可各順從其 性，毋復灌溉.” (Let the rivers run on their natural courses rather than divert them for irrigation.)

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese 201 Xièdài解怠-dàiduò怠惰 The two words xièdài 解怠 and dàiduò 怠惰 mean lazy or indolent. In “Dìtú” 地圖 [On Maps] of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “shǐ bǎilì sùjìng, bùgǎn xièdài xíngxié. 使百吏肅敬，不敢解怠行邪.” (All the officials are required to observe the codes of honor rather than be insolent and error.) In Yuándì jì元帝紀 [Annals of Emperor Yuándì] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “jīngjīng yèyè, fěigǎn xièdài. 兢兢業業，匪敢解怠.” (Be fully committed to one’s work without any insolence.) Yan Shigu 顏師古 notes that “xiè dú wéi xiè.” 解讀為懈. (Xiè 解 is read as xiè 懈.) In Lǐlùn 禮論 [Ritual Principles] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ], it reads that “gǒu dàiduò tōurú zhī wéi ān, ruò zhě bì wēi. 茍怠惰偷儒之為安，若者必危.” (If one succumbs himself to indolence and pleasure, he will be in peril.) In Hánxìn zhuàn 韓信傳 [Biography of Han Xin] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “zhòngshù mò bù chuòzuò dàiduò. 眾庶莫不輟作怠惰.” (The peasants would stop laboring and become insolent, working no further than for present needs.) In the above synonyms, the second morpheme of the first word is the same as the first morpheme of the second word. Shēngmíng聲名-míngshēng名聲 The two words shēngmíng 聲名 and míngshēng 名聲 means remarks or comment in public. In Tiāndào 天道 [The Way of Heaven] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “shìrén yǐ xíngsè míngshēng wéi zúyǐ dé bǐ zhīqíng. 世人 以形色名聲為足以得彼之情.” (Men always assume they could approach truth via phenomenons or others’ comments.) In volume eight of Hánshī wàizhuàn 韓 詩外傳 [Exoteric Traditions of the Hán Versions of the Book of Songs], it reads that “rán qī míngshēng chíyú hòushì. 然其名聲馳于後世.” (However, he leaves a name behind.) In Tiānyùn 天運 [The Revolution of Heaven] of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊 子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “fū sānwáng wǔdì zhī zhì tiānxià bùtóng, qī xì shēngmíng yī yě. 夫三王五帝之治天下不同，其係聲名一也.” (The Three Augusts and Five Emperors governed the world in different ways, yet all earned a high level of fame.) In Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “shì yǐ shēngmíng yángyì hū zhōngguó. 是以聲 名洋溢乎中國.” (They enjoy a high reputation across the state.) Wēiquán威權-quánwēi權威 The two words wēiquán 威權 and quánwēi 權威 mean the strength and prestige which win the trust and obedience of others. In Jìnyǔba 晉語八 [Discourses of the State Jin Part VIII] of the Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “tú zài míngxùn, míngxùn zài wēiquán, wēiquán zài jūn. 圖在明訓，明訓 在威權，威權在君.” (The key to make a good plan lies in the clear instruction of authority that the sovereign holds.) In Yìwénzhì 藝文志 [Treatise on Literature] of the Hànshū 漢書 [Book of Han], it reads that “dāngshì jūnchén, yǒu

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wēiquán shìlì. 當世君臣，有威權勢力.” (The contemporary lords and officials have authority and power.) In Shěnfēn 審分 [Examining Responsibility Division] of the Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “wànxié bìngqǐ, quánwēi fēnyí. 萬邪并起，權威分移.” (The state is fraud with evils; power and authorities are dislocated.) In the above two pairs of synonyms, the two words in each pair have the same morphemes which are in reverse order. Límín黎民-qiánshǒu黔首 The two words límín 黎民 and qiánshǒu 黔首 mean people or common folks. In Yáodiǎn 堯典 [The Canon of August Yao] of Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads that “límín yú biànshí yōng. 黎民於變時雍.” (At the changing of the times, people are warm to each other.) In Zuǒ Xióng Zhuàn 左雄傳 [The Biography of Zuǒ Xióng] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “an mín zé huì, límín huái zhī. 安民則惠，黎民懷之.” (Keep people safe with mercy; they will follow the sovereign.) In Shuōwén Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “Qián, lí yě. Cóng hēi jīn shēng, qín wèi mín wéi qiánshǒu, wèi hēisè. Zhōu wèi zhī límín.” 黔，黎也.從黑今聲，秦謂民為黔 首，謂黑色.周謂之黎民. (Qián 黔 means lí 黎. People are called qiánshǒu 黔首 in the Qín dialect, while people are called límín 黎民 in the Zhōu dynasty.) In Jìyì 祭義 [The Meaning of Sacrifices] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “míng mìng guǐshén, yǐwéi qiánshǒu. 明命鬼神，以為黔首.” (Honor the dead as spirits and gods, which common people should observe.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “Qiánshǒu, wèi mín yě.” 黔首，謂民也. (Qiánshǒu 黔首 means common people.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 notes that “Qián wèi hēi yě. Fán rén yǐ hēijīn fùtóu, gù wèizhī qiánshǒu.” 黔謂黑也.凡人以黑巾覆頭，故謂之黔首. (Qián 黔 means black. Common people wear a black headpiece and are therefore called qiánshǒu 黔首 [black head].) In Dàyuè 大樂 [Supreme Music] of the Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春 秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “lè jūnchén, hé yuǎnjìn, yuè qiánshǒu, hé zōngqīn. 樂君臣，和遠近，悅黔首，合宗親.” (Delight both the lord and his subordinates, befriend those nearby and farther away, make the common people happy, and solidify the imperial and noble clans.) Gao You 高誘 notes that “Qín wèi mín wéi qiánshǒu.” 秦謂民為黔首. (Mín 民, people, is called qiánshǒu 黔首 in the Qín dynasty.) Zàocì造次-cāngcù倉卒 The two words zàocì 造次 and cāngcù 倉卒 mean hurried or hasty. In Lǐrén 里 仁 [Virtuous Manners in Neighborhood] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “zàocì bì yú shì, diānpèi bì yú shì. 造次必於是，顛沛必 於是.” (One holds fast to humanness in confusion and distress.) Ma Rong 馬 融 notes that “Zàocì, jíjù.” 造次，急遽. (Zàocì 造次 means hurry or suddenness.) In Héjiān xiànwáng dé 河間獻王德 [Liu De 刘德, Prince Xian of Hejian County] of Wǔzōng shìjiā 五宗世家 [House of the Five Clans] of Shǐjì 史記

The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese

203

[The Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “hào rúxué, bèifú zàocì bì yú rúzhě. 好儒學，被服造次必於儒者.” (The prince is keen on Confucianism and would always model the Confucianists both on solemn occasions and in pressing times.) In Wángjiā zhuàn 王嘉傳 [Biography of Wáng Jiā] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “línshì cāngcù nǎi qiú, fēi suǒyǐ míng cháotíng yě. 臨事倉卒迺求，非所以明朝廷也.” (It is not a wise court to seek elites only at the time of crisis.) In Féngyù 逢遇 [Relation between Officers and Sovereign] of the Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance], it reads that “cāngcù zhī yè, xūyú zhī míng. 倉猝之業，須臾之名.” (Works done in a hurry would not be remembered for a long time.) In the above synonyms, the morphemes are different to some degree.

5 Conclusion Due to the rich synonyms of Old Chinese, people could make appropriate choices to describe objects and express thoughts accurately and specifically. For example, in Xué ěr 學而 [On Learning] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “xué ěr shí xí zhī, bú yì yuè hū? Yǒu péng zì yuǎn fāng lái, bú yì lè hū? 學而時 習之，不亦説乎？有朋自遠方來，不亦樂乎?” (Study and go over what you’ve learned from time to time – that’s enjoyable, isn’t it? To have a friend come from a long way off – that’s a pleasure, isn’t it?) Yuè 説（悅） and lè 樂 both mean joy or happy, yet with subtle differences. Kong Yingda 孔穎達 quotes Qiao Zhou 譙 周 that “yuè shēn ér lè qiǎn yě.’yī yuē: zài nèi yuē yuè, zài wài yuē lè.” 悅深而 樂淺.一曰：在內曰悅，在外曰樂. (Yuè 悅 means greater happiness while lè 樂 means milder happiness. Another explanation is that yuè 悅 means inner happiness, while lè 樂 means outer happiness.) One acquires more via consistent study and review, and would therefore feel content; thereby yuè 悅 is a more proper word. During a happy reunion after a long separation, the friends shake hands and feel elated. In such a context, lè 樂 seems to be one suitable word. Péng 朋 and yǒu 友 both refer to friends. In the Old Chinese language, the two words were slightly different. Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes on Dà Sī Tú 大司徒 [Grand Administrator of Land] that “tóng shī yuē péng, tóng zhì yuē yǒu.” 同師曰朋，同志曰友. (Péng 朋 refers to those who learn from one master and yǒu 友 refers to those with the same aspiration.) Kong Yingda 孔穎達 further notes that “rán zé tóngmén zhě, tóng zài shīmén yǐ shòuxué zhě yě . . . tóngzhì, wèi tóng qī xīnyì suǒ qūxiàng yě. Péngshū ér yǒuqīn, pénglái jìlè yǒují kězhī.” 然則同門者，同在師門以授 學者也 . . . 同志，謂同其心意所趨向也.朋疏而友親，朋來既樂，友即可知. (“Those who learn from one master” are called tóngmén 同門 and “those with the same aspiration” are called tóngzhì 同志. The word yǒu 友 is more intimate than péng 朋, referring to someone with a deeper understanding. It is lè 樂 [delight] to receive friends.) As a result, yuè 説（悅） and lè 樂, péng 朋, and yǒu 友 cannot be replaced with each other casually. In poetic writings, the selection of synonyms make the writing varied and rhythmic yet not repetitive. Take Zhōnggǔ yǒu tuī 中谷有蓷 [In the valleys grow the motherwort] of Wángfēng 王風 [Odes of the Royal Domain] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs] as examples below.

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The progress of synonyms of Old Chinese

Zhōnggǔ yǒu tuī, hàn qī gān yǐ. Yǒu nǚ pǐlí, kǎi qí tàn yǐ. Kǎi qí tàn yǐ, yùrén zhī jiānnán yǐ. 中穀有蓷，暵其乾矣.有女仳離，嘅其歎矣.嘅其歎矣，遇人之艱 難矣. (In the valleys grows the mother-wort, but scorched is it in the drier places. There is a woman forced to leave her husband; sadly she sighs! Sadly she sighs! She suffers from his hard lot.) Zhōnggǔ yǒu tuī, hàn qī xiū yǐ. Yǒu nǚ pǐlí, tiáo qí xiào yǐ. Tiáo qí xiào yǐ, yùrén zhī bùshū yǐ. 中穀有蓷，暵其脩矣.有女仳離，條其歗矣.條其歗矣，遇 人之不淑矣！ (In the valleys grow the mother-wort, but scorched is it where it had become long. There is a woman forced to leave her husband, long-drawn are her groanings! Long-drawn are her groanings! She suffers from his misfortune.) Zhōnggǔ yǒu tuī, hàn qī shī yǐ. Yǒu nǚ pǐlí, chuò qí qìyǐ. Chuò qí qì yǐ, hé jiē jí yǐ. 中穀有蓷，暵其濕矣.有女仳離，啜其泣矣.啜其泣矣，何嗟及矣！ (In the valleys grows the mother-wort, but scorched is it even in the moist places. There is a woman forced to leave her husband; ever flow her tears! Ever flow her tears! But of what avail is her lament?) The word xiū 脩 in the second stanza and shī 濕 in the third stanza, both have the meaning of qiěgān 且乾, which is synonymous with gān 乾 in the first stanza.4 The use of the synonyms enhances the meaning of the song. In the first stanza, the rhyme group hán 寒 is used, including: gān 乾, tàn 歎, tàn 歎, and nán 難. In the second stanza, xiū 脩, xiào 歗, xiào 歗, and shū 淑 are words in the rhyme groups yōu 幽 and jué 覺. In the third stanza, shī 濕, qì 泣, qì 泣, and jí 及 are in the rhyme group jí 緝. By means of the use of synonyms and a varied rhyme scheme, the poem became lively and delightful.

Notes 1 Sometimes, one or more characters are added in the definition. For example, in Shǒu 手 Group, Shí 拾 means duō 掇; duō 掇 means shíqǔ 拾取 (pick). In Mén 門 Group, Kuī 闚 means shǎn; shǎn 閃 means kuītóu mén zhōng 闚頭門中 (poke one’s head inside a door). 2 Refer to Máoshīzhuànyìlèi 毛詩傳義類 and Shīmáoshìzhuànshū 詩毛氏傳疏 by Chen Huan 陳奐 of the Qing dynasty, both annotations to the Máoshī 毛詩 [The Mao Tradition of the Book of Songs]. 3 Guo Moruo 郭沫若, Qūyuán yánjiū 屈原研究 [A Study on Qu Yuan], Guō Mòruò wénjí 郭沫若文集 [Collective Works of Guo Moruo], volume 12. 4 Wang, Yinzhi 王引之, Jīngyìshùwén 經義述聞 [Records of the Meaning of Canons], volume 5, note “暵其濕矣 hàn qī shī yǐ.”

6

Theprogressofidiomsand proverbsofOldChinese

1 Introduction Idioms, or fixed phrases with condensed information, came into being during the development of language. One idiom includes two or more words which are linked together to express one fixed meaning; it functions as an element in a sentence which is similar to a phrase. With a compact form and rich connotation, an idiom could be a summary of a moral, a vivid description, or an analogy of one thing. Idioms could be regarded as the soul of wits; its richness and development are significant symbols of semantic and lexical development of a language. Chéngyǔ 成語 are Chinese idioms, usually consisting of four characters. The basis of this form was already laid during the pre-Qin period. The internal structures are varied. Some are compounds with two components in coordinate relation; some include a modifier and a modified; some are in subject-predicate structure; some are in verbobject structure; others are compact clauses of reason, condition, or contrast; and so on. In general, idioms have two common features: structurally fixed and semantically complete. The elements of an idiom cannot be changed randomly. One idiom expresses one particular, summative meaning and cannot be understood only in a literal sense.

2 Sourcesofidioms 2.1 Idiomsfromthevernacular Four-character idioms were not found in the oracle inscriptions of the Shang dynasty (16th–11th centuries BCE). The number of idioms increased during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods and the East and West Han dynasties. There are two types of idioms in terms of source. One is vernacular, which was already widely used in ancient classic texts. See the following examples. The idiom chúnwáng chǐhán 唇亡齒寒 is also known as “fǔchē xiāngyī, chúnwáng chǐhán 輔車相依, 唇亡齒寒.” (The cheekbones and the jaws are mutually dependent; when the lips are gone the teeth will be exposed to the cold.) Fǔ 輔 (the straight wood next to a wheel; or cheekbone) and chē 車 (carriage; or gum), chún 唇 (lips) and chí 齒 (teeth) are interdependent. The metaphors are used to address the interdependence between things. Chúnwáng 唇亡 (lips are gone) and chǐhán 齒 寒 (teeth feel cold) form a conditional relation. In Xīgōng wǔnián 僖公五年 [The DOI: 10.4324/9781003365556-6

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Fifth Year of the Reign of Lord Xī] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “jìnhóu fù jiǎdào yú yú yǐ fá guó. Gōng zhīqí jiàn yuē: ‘Guó, yú zhī biǎo yě. Guówáng, yú bì cóng zhī. Jìn bù kě qǐ, kòu bùkě wán, yī zhī wèi shèn, qī kě zài hū? Yàn suǒwèi fǔchē xiāngyī, chúnwáng chǐhán zhě, qī yú guó zhī wèi yě’. 晉侯復假道于虞以伐虢.宮之奇諫曰：“虢，虞之表也.虢 亡，虞必從之.晉不可啟，寇不可翫，一之謂甚，其可再乎？諺所謂輔車相 依，唇亡齒寒者，其虞虢之謂也.” (Lord Jin again asked to go through the state of Yu to attack the state of Guo. Gong Zhiqi argued that Guo was the shelter of Yu; if Guo is gone, Yu will not be able to survive. It is not wise to arouse the aggressive Jin and ignore the entry of enemies. It has happened once. How can it happen again? Yu and Guo are dependent on each other just like cheekbones and jaws, lips and teeth.) In Aigōng bānián 哀公八年 [The Eighth Year of the Reign of Lord Ai], it reads, “fū lǔ, qíjìn zhī chún, chúnwáng chǐhán, jūn suǒzhī yě.夫魯，齊晉之唇，唇亡齒 寒，君所知也.” (Lǔ 魯 is the lips of Qí 齊 and Jìn 晉. Your Lordship knows that if lips are gone, teeth will be exposed to the cold.) In Cúnhán 存韓 [Preserving Hán] of Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads, “qiě chén wén zhī, chúnwáng zé chǐhán, fū qín hán bù dé wú tóng yōu, qī xíng ké jiàn. 且臣聞之，唇亡則齒寒，夫 秦韓不得無同憂，其形可見.” (If lips are gone, teeth would be exposed to the cold. I would say that the states of Qin and Han share the same worries – this is obvious.) The idiom of duōqián shàngǔ 多錢善賈 means that just as great wealth makes it easier to do business; sufficient condiction makes it easier to accomplish a task. In Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin] of Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it is written, “bǐyán yuē: ‘chángxiù shànwǔ, duōqián shàngǔ.’ Cǐ yán duōzī zhī yì wéigōng yě. 鄙諺曰：’長袖善舞，多錢善賈.’ 此言多資之易為工也.” (As the saying goes, just as long sleeves enhance a good dancer, so great wealth makes it easier to do business or get ahead.) The remark was shortened to the idiom duōcái shàngǔ 多 財善賈. In Zhūzǐ yǔlèi 朱子語類 [A Collection of Conversations of Master Zhū], it reads, “duōcái shàngǔ, xū duō xùdé zài zhèlǐ, kàn wǒ yàomǎi yě dé, yàomài yě dé; ruò zhǐyǒu shí wén qián zài zhèlǐ, rúhé chùzhì de qù. 多財善賈，須多蓄得 在這裏，看我要買也得，要賣也得；若只有十文錢在這里，如何處置得去.” (Great wealth makes it easier to do business. Keep some savings for transactions. If only 10 yuan, Chinese currency, is available, how can business be conducted?) The idiom lángzǐyěxīn 狼子野心 is the description of wolves and the wolfish nature of a person; greedy, cruel, and full of wild ambitions. Lángzǐ 狼子 (wolves) and yěxīn 野心 (wild ambitions) form a conditional relation. Any wolf would have a wild ambition. An evil person definitely has an evil heart. The idiom is used to express the feeling of hatred against evil and atrocity. In Xuāngōng sìnián 宣公四年 [The Fourth Year of the reign of Lord Xuān] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “chū, chǔ sīmǎ zǐliáng shēng zǐ yuèjiāo, zǐwén yuē: ‘bì shā zhī, shì zǐ yě, xiónghǔ zhī zhuàng, ér cháiláng zhī shēng, fú shā, bì miè ruò’áo shì yǐ. Yàn yuē: lángzǐ yěxīn. Shì nǎi láng yě, qī kě chù hū! 初，楚司馬子良生子越椒，子文曰：’必殺之，是子也，熊 虎之狀，而豺狼之聲，弗殺，必滅若敖氏矣.諺曰：狼子野心.是乃狼也，其 可畜乎！” (Zǐliáng 子良, the Minister of War of Chu, had a son named Yuejiao. Ziwen said the boy, as ferocious as a tiger, with a voice like a howling wolf, must

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 207 be got rid of, otherwise he would bring ruin to the House of Ruò Ao 若敖. As the saying goes, design of wolves and wolfish nature. The son was a wolf and must not be kept.) In Zhāogōng èrshíbānián 昭公二十八年 (The 28th Year of the reign of Lord Zhāo) in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “Bóshí shĭ sheng, Zĭróng zhīmŭ zŏuyè zhūgū, yuē: ‘Zhǎngshū sì shēngnán.’ Gū shìzhī, jítáng, wén qíshēng ĕrhuán. Yuē: ‘Shì cháiláng zhīshēng yĕ. Lángzĭ yĕxīn, fēishì, mòsàng yángshéshì yĭ.’ Suì fúshì.” 伯石始生,子容之母 走謁諸姑, 曰: “長叔姒生男.” 姑視之, 及堂, 聞其聲而還.曰: “是豺狼之聲也.狼 子野心, 非是, 莫喪羊舌氏矣.” 遂弗視. (When Bóshí 伯石 was born, Zǐróng’s 子 容 mother paid a visit to her mother-in-law, saying, “The wife of our first younger brother just gave birth to a boy.” The mother-in-law wanted to have a look at the boy, but upon arriving at the hall, she heard the baby crying and returned, saying, “This is the cry of a wolf. He must have a wolfish nature. Too bad. Hope he won’t ruin the family of Yángshé 羊舌.” So she refused to see the boy.) The idiom lìlìng zhìhūn 利令智昏 means that one would lose his sense if blinded by the lust for gain, which is in the internal verb-object structure, having the sense of vigilance. In Píngyuán jūn yúqīng lièzhuàn 平原君虞卿列傳 [Biographies of Lord Píngyuán and Yú Qīng] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads, “Bĭyŭ yuē, ‘lìlìng zhìhūn.’ Píngyuánjūn tān Féngtíng xiéshuō, shĭzhào xiàn Chángpíng bīng sìshí yúwàn zhòng, Hándān jīwáng.” 鄙語曰: “利令智昏.”平原君貪馮 亭邪説,使趙陷長平兵四十餘萬眾,邯鄲幾亡. (As a proverb goes, “Avarice blinds the eye of judgement.” Lord Pingyuan was blinded by the heretical ideas of Feng Ting, which caused the demise of more than 400,000 soldiers of the Zhao State in the battle of Changping, and the capital Handan wellnigh fell to the enemies.) Pulling the wisdom of the masses together, one would have a solution rather than feeling lost, which is the meaning of the idiom mòzhòng érmí 莫眾而迷. Zhòng 眾 and mí 迷 have a contrasting form in the idiom. In Nèichǔshuō shàng 內儲説上 [Inner Congeries of Sayings] of Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads, “Lǔ’āigōng wènyú Kǒngzǐ yuē: “Bǐyàn yuē: ‘mòzhòng érmí.’ Jīn guǎrén jǔshì yǔ qúnchén lǜzhī, é r guó yùluàn, qí gùhé yě?” 魯哀公問於孔子曰:“鄙諺 曰: “莫眾而迷.” 今寡人舉事與群臣慮之, 而國愈亂, 其故何也? (Lord Ai of Lu asked Confucius, “It is said that pulling the wisdom of the masses together, one would have a solution rather than feeling lost. I discuss everything with the officials, yet the state is becoming increasingly chaotic. Why is that?”) The idiom wèishǒu wèiwěi 畏首畏尾 is a compound idiom, consisting of two verb-object phrases wèishǒu 畏首 and wèiwěi 畏尾, meaning being timid, overcautious, with much hesitation in action. In Wéngōng shíqī nián 文公十七年 [The 17th Year of the reign of Lord Wén] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads, “‘Wèishǒu wèiwěi, shēn qīyú jǐ?’ Yòu yuē: ‘Lùsǐ bú zé yīn.’ Xiǎoguó zhīshì dàguó yě, dé, zé qírén yě; búdé, zé qílù yě. Tĭng’ér zǒuxiǎn, jí hénéng zé?” 畏首畏尾，身其餘幾.又曰: “鹿死不擇音.” 小國 之事大國也, 德, 則其人也; 不德, 則其鹿也.鋌而走險, 急何能擇? (What could he do if one fears the beginning and the end? Another idiom goes, “a deer could not pick a shade at its last moment.” If a large, powerful state is merciful, the small state depending on it would be grateful to it; if the large state is merciless,

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the small state would be like a deer struggling for life. He would run risks and could not make wise choices in pressing times.) In Shuōlín 説林 [Collection of Persuasions] of Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads, “Wèishǒu wèiwěi, shēn fán yǒu jǐ? 畏首畏尾，身凡有幾？” (If one is frightened all the time, how could he act?), which was explained by Gao You 高誘, “Wèish ǐ wèizhōng, zhōngshēn búwèi, fány ǒ u j ǐ hé, yán chángwèi yě.” 畏始畏終，中身 不畏，凡有幾何，言常畏也. (If one fears the beginning and the end, then how much is left that he has no fear for? The idiom means constant fear in this context.) The idiom yǐguǎn kuītiān 以管（筦）窺天 includes a verb-object phrase and a prepositional phrase, meaning watch sky through a (narrow) bamboo tube, which is a metaphor for near-sightedness. The idiom was originally a written expression and later became a vernacular. In Qiūshuǐ 秋水 [Autumn Water] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊 子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads, “shìzhí yòng guǎn kuītiān, yòng zhuī zhǐ dì yě, bú yì xiǎo hū? 是直用管窺天，用錐指地也，不亦小乎？” (Isn’t it as narrow as watching the sky through a tube and as shallow as probing the earth with a stabber?) In Biǎnquè cānggōng lièzhuàn 扁鵲倉公列傳 [Biographies of Bianque and Canggong] of Shĭjì 史記 [Records of the Historian], it reads, “Biǎnquè yǎngtiān tànyuē: “Fūzǐ zhī wéifāng yě, ruò yǐguǎn kuītiān, yǐqiè shìwén.” 扁鵲仰天歎曰:“夫子之 為方也,若以管窺天,以郄視文.” (The way you made prescriptions is like watching the sky from a pipehole and reading words from a crack.) In Dákènàn 答客難 [Response to a Guest’s Objections] by Dongfang Shuo 東方朔 of the Han dynasty, it is written, “Yŭ yuē: ‘Yǐguǎn kuītiān, yǐlí cèhǎi, yǐtíng zhuàngzhōng.’ Qǐnéng tóngqí zōngguàn ， kǎoqí wénlǐ， fèiqí yīnshēng zāi ？” 語曰: “以管窺天, 以蠡 測海, 以筳撞鐘.”豈能同其條貫, 考其文理，發其音聲哉？” (There are idioms meaning to watch the sky through a tube, probe the ocean with a shell, and strike a bell with a stem of a plant. If one acts that way, how can he know things thoroughly with breadth and depth and let them be known to the world?) The idiom zhòngkǒu shuòjīn 眾口鑠金 means that public opinions may make metals melt, which is a metaphor for the power of public opinion or rumor able to confuse the right with the wrong. The idiom was in subject-verb structure and was widely used in the pre-Qin classic texts. In Zhōuyǔ xià 周語下 [Discourses of the State Zhōu II] of Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads, “gù yàn yuē: Zhòngxīn chéngchéng, zhòngkǒu shuòjīn. 故諺曰：眾心成城，眾口鑠金.” (As the proverb goes, unity of will is an impregnable stronghold, and public opinion will fuse metals.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 made an explanation, “Shuò, xiāo yě. Zhòngkǒu suǒhuǐ, suī jīnshí yóukě xiāo yě. 鑠, 銷也, 眾口所毀, 雖金石猶可銷也.” (Shuò 鑠 means xiāo 銷, to destroy, and that public opinion is powerful enough to destroy metals and stones.) In Quánpiān 權篇 [On Weighing] of Guǐgǔzǐ 鬼谷子 [Works of Guǐgǔzǐ] (Master of the Ghost Valley), it reads, “gǔrén yǒuyán yuē: kǒu kěyǐ shí, bù kěyǐ yán, yán zhě yǒu huìjì yě. Zhòngkǒu shuòjīn, yányǒuqǔ gù yě. 古人 有言曰：口可以食，不可以言，言者有諱忌也.眾口鑠金，言有曲故也.” (As the proverb goes, one’s mouth is not for speaking, but for eating. There are certain taboos in speaking. Public opinion could fuse metals as truth and could be distorted in the course of airing opinion.) In Nèipiān jiànshàng 内篇諫上 [Dissuasion with his Majesty, Inner Chapter] of Yànzǐ chūnqiū 晏子春秋 [Annals of Master Yan], it is written, “Zhòngkǒu shuòjīn. Jīnzì liáoshè yǐdōng, gūyóu yǐxī zhě, cǐqí rén

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 209 mínzhòng yǐ. Bǎixìng zhījiù yuàn fěibàng, zǔjūn yú shàngdì zhě duō yǐ. Yīguó zǔ, liǎngrén zhù, suī shànzhùzhě búnéng shèng yě.” 眾口鑠金.今自聊攝以東,姑尤 以西者,此其人民眾矣.百姓之咎怨誹謗, 詛君於上帝者多矣.一國詛,兩人祝,雖 善祝者不能勝也. (Public opinion can make metals melt. Nowadays, the regions in the east of Liáo 聊 and Shè 攝 and the west of the Rivers of Gū 姑 and Yóu 尤 are quite populous. People there harbor strong resentment, cursing the lord in front of Heaven. Articulate as the two prayers are, how could they beat the cursers of a state?) In Zhuǎncí 轉辭 [Change of Rhetoric] of Dèngxīzǐ 鄧析子 [Master Deng Xi, Legalist], it reads, “gǔrén yǒuyán: zhòngkǒu shuòjīn, sānrén chénghǔ, bùkě bùchá yě. 古人有言，眾口鑠金，三人成虎，不可不察也.” (As the proverb goes, public opinions could make metals melt. If three people say there is a tiger, it will become accepted as the truth [the figurative meaning is that rumors that are repeated many times will be taken as true]. Hence, public opinions should not be negelected and go unwatched.) In Wèicèyī 魏策一 [Strategies of Wei I] of Zhànguócè 戰國 策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads, “chén wén jīyǔ chénzhōu, qúnqīng zhézhóu, zhòngkǒu shuòjīn. Gù yuàn dàwáng zhī shú jì zhī yě. 臣聞積羽沈舟，群 輕折軸，眾口鑠金.故願大王之熟計之也.” (So I have heard that enough feathers could sink a boat, enough light stuff could break a wheel shaft, and public opinions could fuse metals. Your Lordship needs to consider the matter more seriously.) The above idioms are referred to as yàn 諺, bǐyàn 鄙諺, or gǔrén yǒuyán 古人有 言, indicating that they are venaculars. In general terms, these idioms are called yàn 諺, since chéngyǔ 成語 was not a word recognized in Old Chinese. The expressions of idioms were used in written texts, became fixed in form, and were spread widely over time. 2.2 Idiomsfromwrittentexts 2.2.1 Idioms widely used before the pre-Qin era Another type of idiom arises from written texts, which is of larger quantities in terms of the total amount. Yìjīng 易經 [The Book of Changes], Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History] and Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs] became widespread Confucian canons after the Warring States period; the works of the masters of various schools were also extensively disseminated. In these texts, some expressions with compact form, vivid imagery, and rich connotation are largely employed as literary language, and gradually became chéngyǔ 成語 (idioms). Judged from the era in which they came into being, these idioms fall into three categories. The first category was those which had been used as chéngyǔ during the pre-Qin era and became more widespread after the Han dynasties. See the following examples. The idiom bǎizhàn bǎishèng 百戰百勝 includes two subordinate phrases, meaning to win every battle, have no match. It arises from Móugōng 謀攻 [Attack by Stratagem] of Sūnzǐ 孫子 [Works of Sunzi], “bǎizhàn bǎishèng, fēi shàn zhī shàn zhě yě; búzhàn ér qū rén zhī bīng, shàn zhī shàn zhě yě. 百戰百勝，非善之善者 也；不戰而屈人之兵，善之善者也.” (Hence, to fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy’s resistance without fighting.) In Wúhòu 無厚 [Inhumanness of Heaven and Earth] of Dèngxīzǐ 鄧析子 [Works of Dèngxīzǐ], it reads, “miàosuàn qiānlǐ,

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wéiwò zhīqí, bǎizhàn bǎishèng, huángdì zhīshī. 廟算千里，帷幄之奇，百戰百 勝，黃帝之師.” (The army of August Huangdi has no matching enemies, with the stratagems decided in the court and successful in the field.) In Wèishìjiā 魏世家 [The Hereditary House of Wei] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads, “chén yǒu bǎizhàn bǎishèng zhī shù . . . cǐ chén bǎizhàn bǎishèng zhī shù yě. 臣有百戰百勝之術 . . . 此臣百戰百勝之術也.” (I have got a stratagem beyond match . . . it goes like this. . . .) The idiom bàohǔ pínghé 暴虎馮河 includes two verb-subject phrases, which is from Xiǎomín 小旻 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], “bùgǎn bàohǔ, bùgǎn pínghé. Rénzhī qīyī, mòzhī qītā. 不敢暴虎，不敢 馮河.人知其一，莫知其他.” (They dare not attack a tiger without weapons; they dare not cross the Yellow River without a boat. They know one thing, but they only know that one.) Bàohǔ 暴虎 means to attack a tiger without weapons (or walk up and attack a tiger without a weapon); pínghé 馮河 means across the Yellow River. The idiom means be brave, but not resourceful; run risks irrationally. In Shù ěr 述 而 [Transmitting Teachings] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “bàohǔ pínghé, sǐ ér wú huǐ zhě, wǔ bù yǔ yě. Bì yě línshì ér jù, hào móu ér chéng zhě yě. 暴虎馮河，死而無悔者，吾不與也.必也臨事而懼，好謀而成者也.” (Someone who faces a tiger bare-handed or wades the Yellow River, going to his death with no regrets – I would not take anyone like that. If I must give an answer, then I’d take someone who directs affairs in a mood of apprehension, who plans carefully and thereby succeeds.) Bùjiào 不教 and zhū 誅 are two consecutive actions. The idiom bùjiào’érzhū 不教而誅 means to kill without teaching first with the sense of criticizing and underlining someone. In Yáo yuē 堯曰 [Remarks of Sage Yao] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads, “bùjiào’érshā wèi zhī nüè, bújiè shì chéng wèizhī bào. 不教而杀謂之虐，不戒視成謂之暴.” (To execute people without first instructing them – this is called tyranny. To demand to see results without first giving warning –this is called unreasonableness.) Later on, the remarks became the idiom bùjiào érzhū不教而誅. In Fùguó 富国 [Enriching the State] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads, “gù bùjiào érzhū, zé xíngfán ér xié bùshèng. 故不教 而誅，則刑繁而邪不勝.” (If people are executed without being instructed first, however severe the penalties are, evils would not be curbed.) In volume five of Hánshī wàizhuàn韓詩外傳 [Exoteric Traditions of the Han Versions of the Book of Songs], it reads, “bùjiào’érzhū, zé mín bù shíquàn yě. 不教而誅，則民不識 勸也.” (Executed without being instructed first, people would not be obedient.) In Dǒng Zhòngshū Zhuàn 董仲舒傳 [Biography of Dong Zhongshu] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads, “kǒngzǐ yuē: ‘Bùjiào érzhū, wèi zhī nüè.’ 孔 子曰：不教而誅，謂之虐.” (As Confucius said, to execute people without first instructing them – this is called tyranny.) The idiom bùyuǎn qiānlǐ 不遠千里 is constructed in a negative form, meaning spare no effort doing something or travel thousands of miles voluntarily for an endeavour. The idiom arises from Liánghuìwáng shàng 梁惠王上 [Lord Huì of the State Liang I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius]. It is written in the text, “wángyuē: ‘Sǒu, bùyuǎn qiānlǐér lái, yì jiāng yǒu yǐ lì wǔguó hū?’ 王曰：叟，不遠

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千里而來，亦將有以利吾國乎？” (The lord asked, Sir, you have travelled thousands of miles to be here. Are you bringing any benefit to us?) In Xiǎowèn 小問 [Minor Queries] of Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads, “Gōng yuē: ‘láigōng ruòhé?’ Guǎnzǐ duìyuē: ‘sānbèi, búyuǎn qiānlǐ.’” 公曰：“來工若何？” 管子對曰：“三倍，不遠千里.” (The lord asked, ‘how can elites be attracted to our state?’ Guanzi answered, ‘Offer treats three times more, then they will travel thousands of miles to be here.’) In Cìkè lièzhuàn 刺客列傳 [Biographies of Assassins] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “niè zhèng yuē: ‘jiēhū! zhèngnǎi shìjǐng zhīrén, gǔdāo yǐtú, ér yánzhòngzǐ nǎi zhūhóu zhīqīng xiàng yě, bùyuǎn qiānlǐ, wǎng chēqí ér jiāochén.” 聶政曰: “嗟乎, 政乃市井之 人, 鼓刀以屠, 而嚴仲子乃諸侯之卿相也, 不遠千里, 枉車騎而交臣. (Nie Zheng sighed, “I am only a common butcher, yet Master Yan Zhong, a Grand Minister, travelled thousands of miles to befriend me.”) The idiom cōngmíng ruìzhì 聰明睿智 includes two compound phrases, being used to describe someone with pre-eminent knowledge and experiences and very perceptive. In Xì Cí Shàng 繫辭上 [The Great Treatise I] of Yìjīng 易經 [The Book of Changes], it reads that “gǔ zhī cōngmíng ruìzhì, shénwǔ ér bùshā zhě fū. 古之 聰明睿智, 神武而不殺者夫.” (The sages of ancient times were divine and mighty but they did not kill.) In Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean] of Lǐjì 禮 記 [Book of Rites], it reads that “wéi tiānxià zhìshèng wèi néng cōngmíng ruìzhī, zúyǐ yǒu lín yě. 唯天下至聖為能聰明睿知，足以有臨也.” (Only the sages could be the sovereigns of the world with pre-eminent knowledge and experiences.) In volume eight of Hánshí wàizhuàn 韓詩外傳 [Exoteric Traditions of the Hán Versions of the Book of Songs], it reads, “cōng míng ruìzhì ér shǒuzhīyǐyú zhě zhé. 聰明睿智而守之以愚者哲.” (Those who have pre-eminent knowledge and experiences while still maintaining humility are truly wise.) The idiom dàobùshíyí 道不拾遺 describes an ideal world with sound politics and an orderly social environment, where no one pockets what he found on the road. Despite being only an ideal vision, it reflects people’s good will towards a beautiful life. In Nèichǔshuō xià 內儲説下 [Inner Congeries of Sayings II] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “zhòngní wéizhèng yú lǔ, dàobùshíyí, qíjǐnggōng huànzhī. 仲尼為政於魯，道不拾遺， 齊景公患之.” (Under Confucius’s adminstration, the state Lu was in good order, people were honest. No one would pick up anything found on the road. On seeing this, Lord Jing of Qi was greatly worried about the growth of Lǔ.) In Qíncè yī 秦策一 [Strategies of Qín I] of Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads that “dàobùshíyí, mínbú wàngqǔ, bīngé dàqiáng, zhūhóu wèijù. 道不拾遺，民不妄取，兵革大強，諸侯畏懼.” (No one picks up anything found on the road. Neither takes possession wantonly. The state is powerful in military forces. Every state feels in awe of such a state.) In Xiànglǔ 相魯 [Administering Lu] of Kǒngzǐ jiāyǔ 孔子家語 [Confucius’s teachings] by Wang Su 王肅 of the State of Wei 魏, the Three-Kingdom Period, it reads, “nánnǚ xíngzhě bié qī tú, dàobùshíyí. 男女行者別其途，道不拾遺.” (The male and female do not walk on the road side by side, and no one pockets that which is found on the road.)

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The idiom gāoshān yǎngzhǐ 高山仰止 is a subject-predicate pattern, the subject being the object of an action. The idiom means to look up to high mountains, which is used to express one’s admiration for the reverent. The source is from Chēxiá 車舝 [Axle Ends of Carriage] of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], “gāoshān yǎngzhǐ, jǐngháng xíngzhǐ. 高山仰止, 景 行行止.” (One looks up to the high mountain and takes the virtuous way.) In Jiǔshǒu 九守 [Nine Thoughts to be Preserved] of the Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “gāoshān yǎngzhǐ, bù kě jí yě. 高山仰之（止），不可極也.” (High mountains are inaccessible for people to look up to, yet not climbing to the top.) In Kǒngzǐ shìjiā 孔子世家 [The Hereditary House of Confucius] of Shǐjì 史 記 [Records of the Grand Historian]， it reads that “tài shǐ gōng yuē: ‘Gāoshān yǎngzhǐ, jǐngháng xíngzhǐ. Suī bùnéng zhì, ér xīn xiàngwǎng zhī.’ 太史公曰：高 山仰止，景行行止.雖不能至，而心嚮往之.” (As the Grand Historian said, one looks up to the high mountain and takes the virtuous path. Although he could not climb to the top position, he still admires it in his heart.) The idiom guàngài xiāngwàng 冠蓋相望 is of subject-predicate pattern, which is used to describe the scenario that officials (or envoys) come and go in an endless stream. In Wèicè sì 魏策四 [Strategies of Wei IV] of Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads that “qí, chǔ yuē ér yù gōngwèi, wèi shǐrén qiú jiù yú qín, guàngài xiāngwàng, qín jiù bùchù. 齊、楚約而欲攻魏，魏使人 求救于秦，冠蓋相望，秦救不出.” (Qi and Chu made an agreement to launch an attack against Wei. Lord Wei requested aid from Qin, the envoys filing into the Palace of Qin, yet Qin refused to send rescue.) In Shíguò 十過 [Ten Errors] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “yìyáng yì jí, hánjūn lìng shǐ cù zú yú chǔ, guàngài xiāngwàng, ér zú wú zhì zhě. 宜陽益急，韓君令使 趣卒於楚，冠蓋相望，而卒無至者.” (As the county of Yiyang was in graver danger, Lord Han sent envoys to Chu for help. The envoys came in files, yet no rescue army arrived.) In Píngzhǔn shū 平準書 [Equalizing agronomical matters] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “shǐzhě fēnbù hù zhī, guàngài xiāngwàng. 使者分部護之，冠蓋相望.” (Divisions of officials came in an endless stream, protecting the masses who were victimized.) Also in Hánshìjiā 韓世家 [The Hereditary House of Han] of Shǐjì 史記, it reads that “fū Guàngài xiāngwàng, gào bìyí shènjí, gōng yán wèijí, hé yě? 夫冠蓋相望，告敝邑甚急， 公言未急，何也？” (The officers come in streams, announcing the danger of the county, yet you claim that there is no need to panic. Why is it?) In Lùnguìsùshū 論貴粟疏 [A Proposal on Promoting Agriculture] by Chao Cuo 晁錯 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “qiān lǐ yóu áo, guàngài xiāngwàng. 千里游敖，冠蓋相望.” (They travel from place to place, their carriages moving in streams.) Huá 華 and bù shí 不實 form a contrast in terms of the internal structure. The idiom huá ér bù shí 華而不實 means showy but substantial, conveying strong criticism which was widely used in the pre-Qin literary texts. In Wéngōng wǔ nián 文公五年 [The Fifth Year of the reign of Lord Wén] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “qiě Huá ér bù shí, yuàn zhī suǒ jù yě. 且華而不實，怨之所聚也.” (Showy but not substantial, one would be criticized sharply.) In Jìnyǔ shíyī 晉語十一 [Discourses of

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 213 Jin XI] of Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “yángzǐ huá ér bù shí, zhǔyán ér wúmóu, shì yǐ nán jí qīshēn. 陽子華而不實，主言而無謀，是 以難及其身.” (Yangzi, showy and not substantial, talks too much yet lacks wit. That’s why troubles befall him.) In Chuyǔ xià 楚語下 [Discourses of Chǔ II], it reads that “qī wéirén yě, zhǎn ér búxìn, ài ér bù rén, zhà ér búzhì, yì ér bù yǒng, zhí ér bùzhōng, zhōu ér bùshū, . . . shì liùdé zhě, jiē yǒu qī huá ér bùshí zhě yě. 其為人也，展而不信，愛而不仁，詐而不智，毅而不勇，直而不衷，周而 不淑， . . . 是六德者，皆有其華而不實者也.” (He plays genuinely, but is actually not trustworthy, benevolent seemingly yet indifferent inside; he is shrewd yet not wise, quick in action yet not truly courageous, a man of integrity, but not of moderation, thorough in thinking, yet not kind-hearted . . . His six virtues are pretentious, but not substantial.) In Nányán 難言 [On the Difficulty in Speaking] of Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads, “suǒyǐ nányán zhě, yánshùn bǐ huázé, yángyáng lìlì rán, zé xiàn yǐwéi huá ér bù shí. 所以難言者，言順 比滑澤，洋洋纚纚然，則見以為華而不實.” (Speaking could be tricky. If one speaks fluently and sweetly, rich in content and clear in logic, he could be considered showy and not substantial.) The idiom jīngjīng yèyè 兢兢業業 consists of two reduplicate words, widely used in ancient texts to describe someone who is timid and dare not behave wantonly. In Gāoyáomó 皋陶謨 [Counsel of Gāo Yáo] of Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads, “jīngjīng yèyè, yīrì èr rì wànsuì. 兢兢業業，一日二日萬歲.” (Be cautious and attentive, not for one day or two days but for good.) In Yúnhàn 雲漢 [Milky Way] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “hànjì tàishèn, zé bùkě tuī. Jīngjīng yèyè, rútíng rúléi. 旱既 太甚，則不可推.兢兢業業，如霆如雷.” (The drought is excessive, and I may not try to excuse myself. I am full of terror and feel the peril, like the clap of thunder or the roll.) In Yuándì jì 元帝紀 [Annals of Emperor Yuándì] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “jīn zhèn huòbǎo zōngmiào, jīngjīng yèyè, fěigǎn xièdài.今朕獲保宗廟，兢兢業業，匪敢解怠.” (Now I, Emperor, succeed the throne and guard the ancestors’ temple, I will be cautious and committed to my duties without any insolence.) The idiom kùnshòu yóudòu 困獸猶鬥 is formed in subject-predicate pattern, meaning even a trapped beast struggles – one fights to the death in desperation. In Xuāngōng shíèr nián 宣公十二年 [The 12th Year of the reign of Lord Xuān] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “kùnshòu yóudòu, kuàng guó xiàng hū? 困獸猶鬥，況國相乎？” (Even a trapped beast would struggle, not to say the Prime Minister of a state.) In Dìnggōng sìnián 定公四年 [The Fourth Year of the reign of Lord Ding], it reads that “fūgàiwáng yuē: kùnshòu yóudòu, kuàng rén hū? 夫㮣王曰：困獸猶鬥， 況人乎？” (Lord Fugai said, even a trapped beast struggles, not to say a human being.) The idiom has been widely used for its vividness. In Zhāng Xiàozhōng Zhuàn 張孝忠傳 [Tale of Zhang Xiaozhong] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of Tang], it reads, “rán héngzhōu sùjiàng shàngduō, pòzhī zé kùnshòu yóudòu, huǎn zhī bì fānrán gǎitú. 然恒州宿將尚多，迫之則困獸猶鬥,緩之必翻然改圖.” (In the county of Hengzhou, there are still quite a number of experienced generals;

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if under the pressure of force, they would struggle like trapped beasts; if given time, they would change their course of action.) In the idiom of lián ér bú guì 廉而不劌, lián 廉 and bú guì 不劌 form a contrast in terms of the internal structure. Lián 廉 means being sharp, while bú guì 不劌 means not hurting. Despite being sharp, one does not hurt others (figurative meaning). Though an upright and decent person sticks to his principles, yet he or she handles affairs appropriately without hurting others. The idiom was already in wide use during the pre-Qin periods. In chapter 58 of the Lǎozǐ 老子 [Works of Lǎozǐ], it reads, “shì yǐ shèngrén yǒu fāng ér bù gē, lián ér bú guì. 是以聖人有 方而不割，廉而不劌.” (A wise man would not smooth the square or hurt others with his integrity.) In Bùgǒu 不茍 of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ], it reads that “jūnzǐ kuān ér bù mán, lián ér bú guì. 君子寬而不僈，廉而不劌.” (A noble man is open-minded, but not careless in manner; they do not hurt others with their integrity.) In Pìnyì 聘義 [The meaning of the interchange of missions between different courts] of Lǐjì 禮記 [Book of Rites], it reads that “Jūnzǐ bǐ dé yú yù yān . . . Lián ér bú guì, yì yě. 君子比德于玉焉 . . . 廉而不劌，義也.” (A gentleman compares virtue to jade . . . hard yet not hurting. This is what righteousness means.) In the idiom of láo ér wú gōng 勞而無功, láo 勞 and wú gōng 無功 form a contrast in terms of the internal structure, meaning work hard but to no avail. In Xíngshì 形勢 [On Conditions and Circumstances] of Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guǎnzǐ], it reads, “yǔ bùkě, qiáng bùnéng, gào bùzhī, wèi zhī láo ér wú gōng. 與 不可，強不能，告不知，謂之勞而無功.” (Make friends with those who will never be friends, labor on the impossible, and communicate what will never be understood – all the labor bears no fruit.) In Hàolìng 號令 [Orders and Commands] of Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads, “dì bùdé qī rèn, zé láo ér wú gōng. 地不得 其任，則勞而無功.” (If the environment is not properly exploited, any labor will be done to no avail.) In Tiānyùn 天運 [The Revolution of Heaven] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊 子, it reads that “jīn qí xíng zhōu yú lǔ, shì yóu tuīzhōu yúlù yě! Láo ér wú gōng, shēn bì yǒu yāng. 今蘄行周於魯，是猶推舟於陸也！勞而無功，身必有殃.” (The hope to govern the state of Lu in the fashion of Zhou is like pushing a boat on land – a fruitless labor, which will cause some misfortune.) In Míngyì zhīgé 明易之革 of Yìlín易林 [The Forest of Changes] by Jiao Gan 焦贛, it reads that “juéjǐng déshí, láo ér wú gōng. 掘井得石，勞而無功.” (Dig a well, but only get stones – the work has gone to no avail.) Lìngxíng 令行 and jìnzhǐ 禁止 are two compounds of conditional relation. The idiom lìngxíng jìnzhǐ 令行禁止 means that every order, once issued, will be carried out; every ban, once released, will be observed. Orders and prohibitions are strictly enforced. In Míngfǎ 明法 [On making the law clear] of Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “gù míngzhǔ cāo bìshèng zhī shù, yǐzhì bìyòng zhī mín; chù bìzūn zhī shì, yǐ zhì bìfú zhīchén, gù lìngxíng jìnzhǐ, zhǔzūn ér chénbēi.故明主操 必勝之數，以治必用之民；處必尊之勢，以制必服之臣，故令行禁止，主 尊而臣卑.” (A wise ruler knows the essence of success and applies it in the governance of the masses; he maintains authority in the management of his subordinates, having orders and prohibitions strictly enforced. Therefore, it should be made clear that the rulers are superior while their subordinates are inferior.) In Wángzhì

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 215 王制 [The Regulations of a King] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xúnzǐ], it reads that “lìngxíng jìnzhǐ, wángzhě zhī shì bì yǐ. 令行禁止，王者之事畢矣.” (A king’s duty is all but having orders and prohibitions strictly enforced.) In Wénzhuàn 文 傳 of Yìzhōushū 逸周書 [Superfluous Chapters of the Book of Zhou], it reads that “lìngxíng jìnzhǐ, wáng zhī shǐ yě. 令行禁止，王之始也.” (One becomes a real ruler by having orders and prohibitions strictly enforced.) In Bājīng 八經 [Eight Canons] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “jūn zhíbǐng yǐ chùshì, gù lìngxíng jìnzhǐ. 君執柄以處勢，故令行禁止.” (A ruler, making laws and possessing authority, releases orders and prohibitions to be observed.) In Zhǔshù 主術 [The Rulers’ Technique] of Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “bàozhì xiàochéng, gǎndòng tiāndì, shényù fāngwài, lìngxíng jìnzhǐ, qǐ zú wéi zāi? 抱質效誠，感動天地，神諭方外，令行禁止， 豈足為哉？” (The August’s reverence and sincerity moves Heaven and Earth; his spirit spread to foreign lands. How could those rulers who could only have orders and prohibitions observed strictly achieve these?) The idiom pǐfū zhīyǒng 匹夫之勇 is an attributive phrase, meaning reckless courage. In Yuèyǔ shàng 越語上 [Discourses of the State Yue I] of Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “wǔ búyù pǐfū zhīyǒng yě, yù qī lǚjìn lǚtuì yě. 吾不欲匹夫之勇也，欲其旅進旅退也.” (I do not want my soldiers to possess reckless courage but to charge or retreat under commands.) In Liánghuìwáng xià 梁惠王下 [Lord Hui of the State Liang II] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads, “cǐ pǐfū zhīyǒng, dí yìrén zhě yě. 此匹夫之勇，敵一人者也.” (It is reckless courage and could only beat one enemy.) In Huáiyīnhóu lièzhuàn 淮陰侯列傳 [Biography of Marquis Huáiyīn] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “xiàngwáng yīn’è chìzhà, qiānrén jiēfèi, rán bùnéng rènshǔ xiánjiàng, cǐ tè pǐfū zhīyǒng ěr. 項王喑噁叱咤，千人皆廢，然不能任屬賢將，此特匹夫之 勇耳.” (When furious, King Xiang Yu howled and roared, paralyzing thousands of people. However, he lacked abilities in appointing brilliant generals – he only had reckless courage.) The idiom qiǎo yán lìng sè 巧言令色 includes two attributive phrases, meaning to please others with favorable words and a smooth manner, which is used to portray those good at flattering. In Gāoyáomó 皋陶謨 [Counsel of Gao Yao] of Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads that “hé yōu hū huāndōu, . . . Hé wèi hū qiǎo yán lìng sè kǒng rèn? 何憂乎驩兜， . . . 何畏乎巧言令色孔壬？” (Is there any reason to be worried of the might of Huandou . . . or fear the sinister guys with pleasing words and a smooth manner?) In Yáng Huò 陽貨 (a person’s name) of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “qiǎo yán lìng sè, xiǎn yǐ rén. 巧言令色，鮮矣仁.” (Those with pleasing words and a smooth manner are seldom benevolent.) In Gōngyě Cháng 公冶長, it reads, “qiǎo yán lìng sè, zúgōng, zuǒ qiūmíng chǐ zhī, qiū yì chǐzhī. 巧言令色，足恭，左丘明恥之，丘 亦恥之.” (Zuo Qiuming despised those who were good at buttering up and had pleasing words and smooth manners; so do Qiu [the given name of Confucius].) The idiom rènzhòng dàoyuǎn 任重道遠 includes two subject-predicate phrases, meaning the burden is heavy and the road is long. Its figurative meaning is that it takes enduring efforts to accomplish a heavy task. The idiom is from Tàibó 泰伯

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[The Grand Earl] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], “zēngzǐ yuē: Shì bù kěyǐ bù hóngyì, rènzhòng ér dàoyuǎn. Rén yǐwéi jǐrèn, bú yì zhòng hū? Sǐ ér hòu yǐ, bú yì yuǎn hū? 曾子曰：士不可以不弘毅，任重而道遠.仁以為已任，不 亦重乎？死而後已，不亦遠乎？” (Master Zeng said, the man of station must be both broad-minded and resolute. His burden is heavy, and the road is long. Humaneness is the burden he is charged with – heavy, is it not? The road ends only with death – long, is it not?) In Ruòmín 弱民 [Weakening the People] of Shāngjūnshū 商君書 [The Book of Lord Shāng], it reads, “bèifǎ ér zhì, cǐ rènzhòng dàoyuǎn ér wú niúmǎ, jì dàchuān ér wú gāng jíyě. 背法而治，此任重道遠而無 馬牛，濟大川而無舡楫也.” (To rule a state without law is like embarking on a journey without a cart or crossing a great river without a boat.) In the first volume of Hánshí wàizhuàn 韓詩外傳 [Exoteric Traditions of the Han Versions of the Book of Songs], it reads that “rènzhòng dàoyuǎn zhě, bù zédì ér xī. 任重道遠者， 不擇地而息.” (Those shouldering a heavy burden and travelling a long road could not spare time to choose a spot to rest.) The idiom xiǎoxīn yìyì 小心翼翼 is formed in a verb-complement pattern, meaning “be cautious and respectful, taking great care not to error.” The idiom is from Dàmíng 大明 [Virtue of Heaven] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], it reads that “wéicǐ wénwáng, xiǎoxīn yìyì. Zhāoshì shàngdì, yùhuái duōfú. 維此文王，小心翼翼.昭事上帝，聿懷多福.” (This King Wan, watchfully and reverently, with entire intelligence served God, and so secured the great blessing.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 notes that “xiǎo xīn yì yì, gōng shèn mào.” 小心翼翼,恭慎貌. (xiǎoxīn yìyì 小心翼翼 means being watchful and reverent.) In Zhēngmín 烝民 [The People] of Dàyǎ 大雅 [Greater Odes], it reads that “lìngyí lìngsè, xiǎoxīn yìyì. Gǔxùn shì shì, wēiyí shì lì. 令儀令色，小心翼 翼.古訓是式，威儀是力.” (Good is his deportment; good are his looks; the lessons of antiquity are his laws; he is strenuously attentive to his deportment.) In Dìzǐzhí 弟子職 [Duties of Students] of Guǎnzǐ 管子 [Works of Guanzi], it reads that “xiānshēng shī jiào, dìzǐ shì zé . . . zhāoyì mùxí, xiǎoxīn yìyì. 先生施教，弟 子是則 . . . 朝益暮習，小心翼翼.” (A student follows his teacher’s instructions . . . keeps learning, and is always attentive.) The idiom xúnmíng zéshí 循名責實 means that the name or reputation and/or concrete benefit should correspond to actual condition or reality. In Wúhòu 無厚 [Inhumanness of Heaven and Earth] of Dèngxīzǐ 鄧析子 [Works of Dengxizi], it reads that “xúnmíng zéshí, cháfǎ lìwēi, shì míngzhǔ yě. 循名責實，察法立 威，是明主也.” (A wise ruler checks the reality by the name, enacts laws, and establishes his authority.) In Shàngrén 上仁 [Superior Good] of Shīzǐ 尸子 [Works of Shizi], it reads that “xúnmíng zéshí, shǐ yǒusī rèn ér fú zhì, zé ér fú jiào. 循名 責實，使有司任而弗治，責而弗教.” (Assign the officials tasks corresponding to their posts; institute offices, yet do not command blindly; designate duties and interests, yet do not issue orders more than necessary.) The idiom yèyǐ jìrì 夜以繼日 includes one verb-object phrase and one prepositional adverbial phrase, meaning that one works hard day and night. In Lí Lóu Xià 離婁下 (Li Lou, a person’s name) of the Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “zhōugōng sī jiān sānwáng, yǐshī sìshì, qī yǒu bùhé zhě, yǎng ér

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 217 sīzhī, yèyǐ jìrì. 周公思兼三王，以施四事，其有不合者，仰而思之，夜以繼 日.” (Lord Zhou wishes to be as wise as the Three Sages and accomplishes the causes of the four augusts. If an ancient practice is not fit for the present, he would think about it day and night.) In Zhìlè 至樂 [Perfect Enjoyment] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊 子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads, “fū guìzhě, yèyǐ jìrì, sīlǜ shànfǒu. 夫貴者， 夜以繼日，思慮善否.” (A noble person spends day and night thinking over the good and the evil.) In Wúwáng Bì lièzhuàn 吴王濞列傳 [Biography of King Bì of the State of Wú] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads, “bǐguó suīpín, guǎrén jié yīshí zhīyòng, jī jīnqián, xiū bīng gé, jù gǔshí, yèyǐ jìrì, sān shí yú nián yǐ. 敝國雖貧，寡人節衣食之用，積金錢，脩兵革，聚榖食，夜以繼 日，三十餘年矣.” (Although my state is poor, I have been thrift in expenditure, saving money, improving military power and amassing provisions day and night for over 30 years.) The idiom yífēng yìsú 移風易俗 includes two verb-object phrases, meaning to transform traditional social customs and negative habits. In Yuèjì樂記 [Records of Music] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “yífēng yìsú, tiānxià jiēníng. 移風易俗，天下皆寧.” (With the traditional customs and habits transformed, the world would be peaceful.) In Guǎng yào dào zhāng 廣要道章 [Amplification of ‘the All-embracing Rule of Conduct’ in Chapter I] of Xiàojīng孝經 [The Book on Filial Piety], it reads, “yífēng yìsú, mò shàn yú yuè. 移風易俗，莫善於樂.” (To change people’s manners and alter their customs, nothing works better than music.) In Yuèlùn 樂論 [Discourse on Music] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “yuèzhě, shèngrén zhī suǒ yuè yě, ér kěyǐ shàn mínxīn, qī gǎnrén shēn, qī yífēng yìsú. Gù xiānwáng dǎo zhī yǐ lǐyuè, ér mín hémù. 樂者，聖人 之所樂也，而可以善民心，其感人深，其移風易俗.故先王導之以禮樂，而 民和睦.” (The sages are pleased at music. Music could enlighten the people and transform customs and habits. Hence, the late kings governed with music and the people lived harmoniously.) In Yuándào 原道 [Searing out Dào] of Huáinánzǐ 淮 南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads, “wèi fāhào shīlìng ér yífēng yìsú zhě, qī wéi xīn xíng zhě hū. 未發號施令而移風易俗者，其唯心行者乎.” (Those able to transform traditional customs and habits without issuing orders are willing to conduct themselves properly.) And in Zhǔshù 主術 [The Rulers’ Techniques] of Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads, “xuánfǎ shèshǎng, ér bùnéng yífēng yìsú zhě, qī chéngxīn fú shī yě. 縣法設賞， 而不能移風易俗者，其誠心弗施也.” (Making laws and granting awards will not transform the customs and habits, if the rulers lack sincerity.) In Lǐ Sī lièzhuàn 李斯列傳 [Biography of Lǐ Sī] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads, “xiàogōng yòng Shāng Yāng zhī fǎ, yífēng yìsú, mín yǐ yīnshèng. 孝公用 商鞅之法，移風易俗，民以殷盛.” (When Lord Xiao enacted the law of Shang Yang and transformed the customs and habits, people lived a wealthier life.) The idiom yǐluǎn tóushí 以卵投石 includes a verb-object phrase and a prepositional adverbial phrase, meaning to throw an egg against a rock – court defeat for overestimating one’s abilities. The idiom is vivid and strong in persuasion. In Guìyì 貴義 [Valuing Morality] of Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads, “yǐ qīyán fēi wǔyán zhě, shì ruò yǐluǎn tóushí yě. Jìn tiānxià zhīluǎn, qī bùyóu shì yě? Bù

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kě huǐ yě. 以其言非吾言者，是若以卵投石也.盡天下之卵，其不猶是也？不 可毀也.” (Refuting my arguments with his idea is like throwing an egg against a stone. Even with all the eggs in the world, the stone would remain intact.) In Yìbīng 議兵 [Debate on Military Affairs] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “yǐjié zhà yáo, pìzhīruò yǐluǎn tóushí, yǐzhǐ náo tāng, ruò fù shuǐhuǒ, rù yān jiāomò ěr. 以桀詐堯，譬之若以卵投石，以指撓湯，若赴水火，入焉 焦沒耳.” (Attacking the army of August Yáo 堯 with that of Tyrant Jié 桀 is like throwing an egg against a stone, stirring boiling soup with a finger. Throwing oneself into fire and water, one would be destroyed instantly.) In Zhǔshù 主術 [The Rulers’ Techniques] of Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “shǐ rén zhǔ zhízhèng chípíng, rú cóng shéng zhǔn gāo xià, zé qúnchén yǐ xié lái zhě, yóu yǐluǎn tóushí, yǐhuǒ tóushuǐ. 使人主執正持平，如從繩準高 下，則群臣以邪來者，猶以卵投石，以火投水.” (Having a ruler who is just and upright is like having a straight measuring wire. The officials who were playing viciously would be like eggs against stones, fire against water.) The idiom zhànzhàn jīngjīng 戰戰兢兢 is from Xiǎomín 小旻 of Xiǎoyǎ 小 雅 [Minor Odes] of Shījīng 詩經 [The Book of Songs], “zhànzhàn jīngjīng, rúlín shēnyuān, rúlǚ bóbīng. 戰戰兢兢，如臨深淵，如履薄冰.” (We should be apprehensive and careful, as if we were on the brink of a deep gulf, as if we were treading on thin ice.) In Xiǎowǎn 小宛 of Xiǎoyǎ 小雅, it reads that “zhuìzhuì xiǎoxīn, rúlín yúgǔ. Zhànzhàn jīngjīng, rúlǚ bóbīng. 惴惴小心，如臨於榖.戰戰兢兢，如履薄冰.” (We are anxious and careful, as if on the brink of a valley. We are apprehensive and cautious, as if treading upon thin ice.) The idiom is a vivid description of someone with fear and trepidation, which is widely used in ancient texts such as Xīgōng èr shí èr nián 僖 公二十二年 [22nd Year of the Reign of Lord Xī] and Xuāngōng shí liù nián 宣公十 六年 [16th Year of the Reign of Lord Xuān] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], which were written that Bāyì 八佾 [Eight Rows of Dancers], Tàibó 泰伯 [The Grand Earl] of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects]; Zhūhóu 諸侯 [The Princes of States] of Xiàojīng 孝經 [The Book on Filial Piety] and Chéndào 臣道 [The Way of Ministers] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xnzi]. The idiom is used widely to express one’s state of mind. In Lǐ Xún Zhuàn 李尋傳 [Biography of Li Xun] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “zhèn shèn jù yān, zhànzhàn jīngjīng, wéikǒng língyí. 朕甚懼焉，戰戰兢兢，唯恐陵夷.” (I [the emperor] am quite fearful, like standing on thin ice, that the country might decline.) 2.2.2 Idioms existing in the pre-Qin classics but becoming fixed in the Han dynasty Another group of idioms are those that were already in use in the pre-Qin classics and became common fixed expressions during the Han dynasty. See the following examples. The idiom bàoxīn jiùhuǒ 抱薪救火 means carrying firewood to put out a fire, but only to boost the fire. Its figurative meaning is that a wrong approach would aggravate the disaster. The idiom is from Wèicè sān 魏策三 [Strategies of Wei III] of Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], “yǐdì shì qín, pìyóu

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bàoxīn ér jiùhuǒ yě, xīn bújìn zé huǒ bù zhǐ. 以地事秦，譬猶抱薪而救火也， 薪不盡則火不止.” (Ceding a county to please the State of Qin is like carrying firewood to put out a fire, only to make things worse.) The idiom is used in Wèi shìjiā 魏世家 [The Hereditary House of Wèi] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian]. In Dǒng Zhòngshū Zhuàn 董仲舒傳 [Biography of Dong Zhongshu] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “rú yǐtāng zhǐfèi, bàoxīn jiùhuǒ, yù shèn wú yì yě. 如以湯止沸，抱薪救火，愈甚亡益也.” (It’s like trying to stop water boiling by adding boiling water, trying to put out fire by adding firewood, only to worsen the situation.) The idiom could also be used as fùxīn jiùhuǒ 負薪救 火, as written in Yǒudù 有度 [Having Regulations] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi] that “qī guó luàn ruò yǐ, yòu jiē shì guófǎ ér sī qīwài, zé shì fùxīn ér jiùhuǒ yě, luànruò shèn yǐ. 其國亂弱矣，又皆釋國法而私其外，則是負薪而救 火也，亂弱甚矣.” (The current state is already chaotic and in a weak situation, but the officials ignored the law for personal gains. This is like putting out a fire with firewood only to further weaken the state.) The idiom chuīmáo qiúcī 吹毛求疵 includes two verb-object phrases, covering two consecutive actions, meaning to find fault or to be picky. It is from Dàtǐ 大體 [The Principal Features of Legalism] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi], “gǔ zhīquán dàtǐ zhě, bù chuīmáo ér qiú xiǎo cī, bù xǐgòu ér chá nán zhī. 古之全 大體者， . . . 不吹毛而求小疵，不洗垢而察難知.” (The ancient sages with an open mind and a broad horizon . . . do not blow aside the fur to find a blemish or wash off dirt to seek invisible errors.) In the Han dynasty, the remark became an idiom. In Zhōngshān jìngwáng liúshèng zhuàn 中山靖王劉勝傳 [Biography of Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhōngshān] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “yǒusī chuīmáo qiúcī, chìfú qīchén, shǐ zhèng qī jūn. 有司吹毛求疵，笞服其 臣，使證其君.” (The court found fault with him and flogged his subordinates to have some false witness against him.) In Sìzǐ jiǎng dé lùn 四子講德論 [Disquisition of four masters discussing virtue] by Wang Bao 王褒 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “qīsuǒ lìlín, mò bù jīlì shèfú, chuīmáo qiúcī. 其所蒞臨，莫不肌栗慴 服，吹毛求疵.” (When he comes, everyone feels frightened and trembles, worrying about being found at fault.) The idiom dàotīng túshuō 道聼途説 is from Yánghuò 陽貨 (a person’s name) of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], “dàotīng ér túshuō, dé zhī qì yě. 道聼 而塗説，德之棄也.” (Gossiping is not considered a virtue.) In the Han dynasty, the remark became an idiom which means groundless rumor. In Yìwénzhì 藝文志 [Treatise on Literature] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “xiǎoshuō jiā zhě liú, gài chū yú bàiguān, jiētán xiàngyǔ, dàotīng túshuō zhě zhī suǒzào yě. 小説家者流，蓋出於稗官，街談巷語，道聼塗説者之所造也.” (Folklores are travellers’ tale told by storytellers.) The idiom fāhào shīlìng 發號施令 includes two verb-object phrases, meaning to issue orders or release instructions. It is from Jiǒngmìng 冏命 [The Charge to Jiong] of the pseudo Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], it reads that “fāhào shīlìng, wǎng yǒu bú zàng. 發號施令，罔有不臧.” (Once orders are issued, any violation will not be permitted.) The expression became an idiom in the Han dynasty. In Yuándào 原道 [Searing out Dào] of Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words

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From Prince Huainan], it reads that “fū wèi fāhào shīlìng ér yífēng yìsú zhě, qī wéi xīn xíng zhě hū.夫未發號施令而移風易俗者，其唯心行者乎.” (Those able to transform traditional customs and habits without being issued orders conduct themselves from their hearts) and in Běnjīng 本經 [The Basic Warp] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “fāhào shīlìng, tiānxià mò bù cóngfēng.” 發號施令，天下莫不從風. (Any order issued is followed around the world.) The idiom fùguó qiángbīng 富國強兵 includes two phrases of transitive verbs, meaning to make one’s country rich and build up its military power, which was an ideal for ancient statesmen. In Yìyán 壹言 [The Unification of Words] of Shāngjūnshū 商君書 [The Book of Lord Shāng], it reads that “gù guó zhě, qī tuánlì yě, yǐ fùguó qiángbīng yě. 故國者，其搏力也，以富國強兵也.” (A state should be united to be strong economically and militarily.) In Mèngzǐ xúnqīng lièzhuàn 孟子荀卿列傳 [Biographies of Mencius and Xún Qīng] of Shǐjì 史 記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “dāng shì zhī shí qín yòng shāngjūn, fùguó qiángbīng. 當是之時，秦用商君，富國強兵.” (At that time, Lord Qin had Sir Shang as Counsellor, making the country rich and building up its military power.) The idiom guānguǎ gūdú 鰥寡孤獨 is from Liáng huìwáng xià 梁惠王下 [Lord Huì of the State of Liáng II] of the Works of Mencius. The word Guān 鰥 means a widower; guǎ 寡 means a widow; dú 獨 means a childless person; gū 孤 means a fatherless orphan. These four groups (widowers, widows, orphans, and childless couples) are the poor unable to support themselves. In the Han dynasty, the four characters were put together and used as an idiom, referring to the old people in poverty and unable to support themselves. In Zhènglǐ 政理 [The Principles of Government] of the Shuōyuàn 説苑 [Gardens of Stories], it reads that “Shì rì yě, fā qī cāngfǔ, yǐ zhèn guānguǎ gūdú. 是日也，發其倉府，以賑鰥寡孤獨.” (On that day, the government’s granary was opened to help those who could not support themselves.) In Huáng Bà Zhuàn 黃霸傳 [Biography of Huáng Bà] of Hànshū 漢 書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “guānguǎ gūdú yǒu sǐ wú yǐ zàng zhě, xiāng bù shūyán, bà jù wèi qūchǔ. 鰥寡孤獨有死無以葬者，鄉部書言，霸具為區處.” (If those who could not support themselves died, but had no one to bury them properly, the local officials could report the cases to Huang Ba, who would then make an arrangement to handle the affairs.) The idiom húsǐ shǒuqiū 狐死首丘 is from Ai Yǐng 哀郢 [A lament for Yǐng (capital of Chǔ 楚)], Jiǔzhāng 九章 [Nine Elegies], Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “niǎo fēi fǎn gùxiāng xī, húsǐ bì shǒuqiū. 鳥飛反故鄉兮， 狐死必首丘.” (Birds would fly back to their hometown; a dying fox would turn its head towards the hill where it grew up.) It is said that foxes have such a habit. Its figurative meaning is that one would miss his hometown for ever. The saying became an idiom during the Han dynasty. In Shuōlín 説林 [Collection of Persuasions] of Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “niǎofēi fǎnxiāng, tùzǒu guīkū, húsǐ shǒuqiū, hánjiāng xiángshuǐ, gè āi qī suǒ shēng. 鳥飛反鄉，兔走歸窟，狐死首丘，寒將翔水，各哀其所生.” (A bird would fly back to its birthplace; a rabbit would retreat to his den; a dying fox

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would turn its head to where he grew up; a cicada in cold weather would fly near water. Everyone would miss his hometown.) The idiom qǐn bù ā n xí 寢不安席 refers to one who is too agitated to sleep soundly at night, which is from Qícè wǔ 齊策五 [The Fifth Part of Strategies of Qi of Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads that “qínwáng kǒngzhī, qǐn bù ā n xí, shí bù gān wèi. 秦王恐之，寢不安席，食不甘味.” (Too fearful, Lord Qin could not sleep soundly or enjoy meals.) The expression became an idiom in the Han dynasty. In Sīmǎ Rǎngjū lièzhuàn 司馬穰苴列傳 [Biography of Rǎngjū, the Minister of War] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “jīn díguó shēnqīn, bāng nèi sāodòng, shìzú bàolù yú jìng, jūn qǐn bù ā n xí, shí bù gān wèi, bǎixìng zhī mìng jiē xuán yú jūn. 今敵國深侵，邦內騷動， 士卒暴露於境，君寢不安席，食不甘味，百姓之命皆懸於君.” (Now that the invaders are approaching, the state is in disorder, our soldiers are fighting inside the territory, Your Lordship could not sleep soundly, or enjoy your meals. The fate of the people is in your hands.) In Gāozǔ jì yī 高祖紀一 [Reign of Emperor Gaozu I] of Hànjì 漢紀 [Annals of Hàn] by Xún Yuè 荀悅 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “guóbīng xīnbài, wáng qǐn bù ān xí. 國兵新破，王寢不安席.” (As the state army was defeated, the lord could not sleep soundly.) The idiom shànshǐ shànzhōng 善始善終 means that a good beginning makes a good ending, that is, something goes well from the beginning to the end. The idiom is from Dà Zōng Shī 大宗師 [The great and most honored master] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuāngzǐ], “gù shèngrén jiāng yóu yú wù zhī suǒ bù dé dùn ér jiē cún, shànyāo shànlǎo, shànshǐ shànzhōng. 故聖人將遊於物之所不得遯而皆 存，善夭善老，善始善終.” (Hence, the sages live in the environment encompassing everything, valuing the young and the old from the beginning to the end.) The idiom was widely used in the Han dynasty. In Fēng shàn wén 封禪文 [On the Feng and Shan Sacrifices] by Sima Xiangru 司馬相如, it reads that “wénwáng gǎizhì, ài zhōu zhì lóng, dàxíng yuèchéng, érhòu língchí shuāiwēi, qiānzǎi wángshēng, qǐbù shànshǐ shànzhōng zāi? 文王改制，愛周郅隆，大行越成， 而後陵遲衰微，千載亡聲，豈不善始善終哉？” (Through the reform of King Wen, the Zhou dynasty was established by King Wu and came into prominence under the reign of King Cheng, but declined gradually afterwards. However, for thousands of years, the dynasty has been maintained with a good reputation. Didn’t the regime begin well and end well?) In Chén chéngxiàng shìjiā 陳丞相世家 [The Hereditary House of the Prime Minister Chen Ping 陳平 ] in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “yǐ róngmíng zhōng, chēng xiánxiàng, qǐ bù shànshǐ shànzhōng zāi. 以榮名終，稱賢相，豈不善始善終哉.” (Chen Ping was retired with honor and was regarded as a wise prime minister, whose career began well and ended well.) The idiom shǒuzhū dàitù 守株待兔 means that standing by a stump waiting for more hares to dash themselves against it – wait for gains without pains, which is from the legend of Wǔdù 五蠹 [Five Vermin] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi]. While a farmer of the State of Song was working in the field, a hare dashed itself against a stump and broke its neck and died. The farmer laid down his hoe and waited by the stump, expecting for more hares. No more hares came,

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and he was ridiculed throughout the state. The fable was a sharp irony and was summed up as the idiom which figuratively means blindly follow the experience lacking flexibility. In Xuān Hàn 宣漢 [Praise of the Han dynasty] of Lùnhéng 論 衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance] by Wang Chong 王充 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “yǐ yǐ zhì zhī ruì, xiào fāng lái zhī yìng, yóu shǒuzhū dàitù zhī xī, cángshēn pòjū zhī lù yě. 以已至之瑞，效方來之應，猶守株待兔之蹊，藏身破 罝之路也.” (To expect the past fortune to be repeated in the future is like standing by a stump waiting for more hares to dash themselves against it or to hide in a catching net for more hares.) The idiom sìshìérfēi 似是而非 means seemly right but actually wrong, which is from Jìnxīnxià 盡心下 [Thorough Research of the Mind II] of the Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads that “kǒngzǐ yuē: wù sì’érfēi zhě; wù yǒu, kǒng qī luàn miáo yě. 孔子曰：惡似而非者；惡莠，恐其亂苗也.” (Confucius remarked that he loathed what appeared as it was not; he loathed weeds for fear that they undermined the growth of plants.) The remarks became the idiom in the Han dynasty. In Sǐwěi 死偽 [False reports about the death] of Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance] by Wang Chong 王充 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “shì duō sìshì érfēi, xūwěi lèizhēn, gù dùbó, zhuāngzǐyì zhī yǔ, wǎngwǎng ér cún. 世多似是而非，虛偽類真，故杜伯、莊子義之語，往往而存.” (In the world, plenty of things often seem to be what they are not, and pretence is taken as real. Therefore, the tales of Du Bo and Zhuang Ziyi were passed down [note that the ghosts of the officials who were wronged sought revenge in the tales].) Later on, the idiom also means something looks real but is actually false. In Wúshī 吴失 [The Failings of the State of Wu] of Bàopǔzǐ 抱樸子 [Master embracing simplicity] by Ge Hong 葛洪 of the Jin dynasty, it reads that “fū yúzhì lóngwén, sìshì érfēi, zāoshuǐ ér xǐ, jiàn tǎ jí bēi. 夫魚質龍文，似是而非，遭水而喜，見獺即 悲.” (Otters are fish inside and dragon outside, which seems to be what they are not, fond of water yet sad at the sight of their fellows.) The idiom shǔmǐérchuī 數米而炊 figuratively means giving excessive attention to trivialities in handling affairs, toiling with little gains. The idiom is from Gēng sāng chǔ 庚桑楚 (Geng Sangchu) of the Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads that “jiǎn fà ér zhì, shǔmǐ érchuī, qièqiè hū yòu hé zúyǐ jìshì zāi? 簡髮而 櫛，數米而炊，竊竊乎又何足以濟世哉？” (How could the trivial acts such as choosing hair for combing or counting rice grains in cooking benefit the world?) As Cheng Xuanying 成玄英 notes, those trivial actions such as dressing one’s hair in an elaborate and complicated style or counting rice grains in cooking might do little good, yet do far greater harm. The idiom had already been in use during the Han dynasty, as written in Tàizú 泰族 [The Exalted Lineage] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮 南子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan] that “chēng xīn ér cuàn, shǔmǐ érchuī, kěyǐ zhìxiǎo ér wèi kěyǐ zhìdà yě.” 稱薪而爨，數米而炊，可以治小而未可以 治大也. (Count firewood and rice grain in cooking – one could manage trivialities, yet would fail in significant matters.) The idioms yǐtāng zhǐfèi 以湯止沸 figuratively means that the inappropriate handling of affairs not only results in the failure to inhibit the worsening situation, but also boosts the burgeoning negative force. The idiom is from Jìnshù 盡數

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[Fulfill the Number] of Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lǚ’s Spring and Autumn Annals], which is recorded that “fū yǐtāng zhǐfèi, fèi yù bǔ zhǐ, qù qī huǒ zé zhǐ yǐ. 夫以湯止沸，沸愈不止，去其火則止矣.” (To stop water from boiling by pouring boiling water would only boost the boiling. For the purpose of stopping it, one should put out the fire.) The idiom became a household expression during the Han dynasty. In Jīngshén 精神 [Quintessential spirit] of the Huáinánzǐ 淮南 子 [Great Words From Prince Huainan], it reads that “gù yǐtāng zhǐfèi nǎi bùzhǐ, chéngzhī qīběn, zé qùhuǒ éryǐ yǐ. 故以湯止沸乃不止，誠知其本，則去火而已 矣.” (Adding boiling water to stop water boiling would not work; the fundamental way is to reduce the heat.) In Dǒng Zhòngshū Zhuàn 董仲舒傳 [Biography of Dǒng Zhòngshū] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “fǎchū ér jiānshēng, lìngxià ér zhàqǐ, rú yǐtāng zhǐfèi, bàoxīn jiùhuǒ, yù shèn wú yì yě. 法出 而奸生，令下而詐起，如以湯止沸，抱薪救火，愈甚亡益也.” (Lawmaking is always accompanied by evil doings; the issue of orders is always accompanied by misconducts. It’s like trying to stop water boiling by adding boiling water, trying to put out a fire by adding firewood, only to worsen the situation.) The figurative meaning of zuòwēi zuòfú 作威作福 is to tyrannically abuse one’s power. The idiom is from the sentence of Hóngfàn 洪范 [The Great Plan] of Shàngshū 尚書 [The Classic of History], “wéi bì zuòfú, wéi bì zuòwēi. 惟辟作 福，惟辟作威.” (Only the sovereigns have the power to decide on penalties and awards) which was shortened to the idiom, emphasizing on the sense of a tyrannical abuse of power by the rulers. In Wángshāngzhuàn 王商傳 [Biography of Wang Shang] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “qièjiàn chéngxiàng shāng, zuòwēi zuòfú, cóngwài zhìzhōng, qǔ bìyú shàng. 竊見丞相商，作威作福，從 外制中，取必於上.” (I have known in secret that the Counsellor-in-Chief Wang Shang abused his power, wielded more power over the court, and embezzled public funds for private purpose.) 2.2.3 Idioms existing in the Han dynasty The third category of idioms is those which appeared in the Han dynasty. Certain segments of the idioms are from pre-Qin classics. See the following examples. The idiom Gǎiguò zìxīn 改過自新 consists of the verb-object phrase gǎiguò 改過 and the subject-predicate phrase zìxīn 自新, meaning to mend one’s way. Xiàowén běnjì 孝文本紀 [Annals of Emperor Xiàowén] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian] reads that “qiè shāng fū sǐzhě bùkě fùshēng, xíngzhě bùkě fùshǔ, suīfù yù gǎiguò zìxīn, qī dào wú yóu yě. 妾傷夫死者不可復生，刑者不可 復屬，雖復欲改過自新，其道無由也.” (I am sad that the dead could not come back to life and the executed could not grow a new body part. Even if one wishes to mend his way, there is no new way available.) In Wúwáng Bì lièzhuàn 吴王 濞列傳 [Biography of King Bì of the State of Wú] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “yú gǔfǎ dāngzhū, wéndì fú rěn, yìn cì jǐ zhàng. Dé zhì hòu, dāng gǎiguò zìxīn. 于古法當誅，文帝弗忍，因賜幾杖.德至厚，當改 過自新.” (By the ancient law, he should be hanged. Upon Emperor Wen’s mercy, he was staffed. Thus, he ought to mend his way.)

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The idiom gǒuhé qǔróng 苟合取容 consists of the attributive phrase gǒuhé 苟 合 and the verb-object phrase qǔróng 取容, meaning drag out an ignoble existence. In Lìshēng Lùjiǎ lièzhuàn 酈生陸賈列傳 [Biographies of Li Sheng and Lu Jia] of Shǐjì 史記 [The Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “xíng bù gǒuhé, yì bù qǔróng. 行不茍合，義不取容.” (Do not succumb oneself to might; do not bend to be sheltered.) In Bào rèn ān shū 報任安書 [Letter to Ren An] by Sima Qian 司馬遷 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “sìzhě wúyī suì, gǒuhé qǔróng, wúsuǒ duǎncháng zhī xiào, kějiàn yú cǐ yǐ. 四者無一遂，苟合取容，無所短 長之效，可見於此矣.” (I have made no achievement in any of the above four aspects; I could only make efforts to please the emperor. As can be seen, I have made little contribution.) In Zhūgě Fēng Zhuàn 諸葛豐傳 [Biography of Zhuge Feng] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “shuài jìn gǒuhé qǔróng, ē dǎng xiāng wéi, niàn sīmén zhī lì, wàng guójiā zhī zhèng. 率盡苟合取容，阿黨相 為，念私門之利，忘國家之政.” (All the officials comply to please the emperor, form pacts of interest to grabble personal gains, yet ignoring the state affairs.) The idiom jīmíng gǒudào 雞鳴狗盜 means that crow like a cock and snatch like a dog – small tricks, which is from Mèngchángjūn lièzhuàn 孟嘗君列傳 [Biography of Lord Mengchang] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian]. Lord Mengchang 孟嘗君 was sent to Qin as an envoy and was imprisoned by Lord Zhao of Qin. One of Mengchang’s aides disguised himself as a dog, stole a snowy fox fur coat and gave it to Lord Zhao’s favorite concubine. With the lady’s help, Lord Mengchang was released. When he arrived at Hangu Pass, the pass was closed and the chasers were approaching. Another aide imitated the crow of a rooster, which woke up all the other roosters. With the trick, the guards let the entourage pass. The tale was taken into the idiom which means small tricks or those playing the tricks and has been used ever since. In Yóu xiá zhuàn 遊俠傳 [Biographies of Wandering Knights] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “jiē jiè wánggōng zhī shì, jìng wéi yóuxiá, jīmíng gǒudào, mò bù bīnlǐ. 皆借王公之勢，竟為遊俠，雞鳴狗盜，莫不賓禮.” (By the power of the lords, they became wandering knights, to whom those with small tricks bowed and paid tributes.) In Dú Mèngchángjūn zhuàn 讀孟嘗君傳 [Reading the Biography of Lord Mengchang] by Wang Anshi 王安石 of the Song dynasty, it reads, “Mèngchángjūn tè jīmíng gǒudào zhī xióng ěr, qǐ zúyǐ yán dé shì? 孟嘗君特雞鳴 狗盜之雄耳，豈足以言得士？” (Lord Mengchang was the chief of thieves and tricksters. How could one say he was assisted by elites?) The idiom shīwèi sùcān 尸位素餐 is made up of two attributive phrases shīwèi 尸 位 and sùcān 素餐, meaning the aristocrats hold down jobs without doing a stroke of work. Zhūyún Zhuàn 朱雲傳 [Biography of Zhū Yún] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han] wrote, “jīn cháotíng dàchén, shàng bùneng kuàngzhǔ, xià wúyǐ yìmín, jiē shīwèi sùcān. 今朝廷大臣，上不能匡主，下亡以益民，皆尸位素餐.” (Now the court officials are incapable of assisting the emperor or serving the people, all holding down jobs without doing a stroke of work.) Liàngzhī 量知 [Assessment on Knowledge] of Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance] by Wang Chong 王充 of the Han dynasty: the officials know nothing of benevolence, holding down jobs and taking pay yet accomplishing nothing in the end. They are those holding sinecures (Shīwèi sùcān 尸位素餐). Sù 素 means empty, and sùcān 素餐 means doing nothing but eating, referring to an empty, virtueless official taking pay without doing any work is like one

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doing nothing but eating. With no knowledge, unable to govern, mute in court without any contribution of ideas, such an official is like a dead body, and therefore is called shīwèi 尸位 (dead body). In Shàngqīnqīnbiǎo 上親親表 [A Proposal to Communicate with Relatives] by Cao Zhi 曹植 of the State of Wei 魏, Three Kingdom period, it reads that “shīwèi sùcān, nányǐ chéngmíng. 尸位素餐，難以成名.” (One holding a sinecure job would not earn fame.) The idiom could be changed to qièwèi sùcān 竊位 素餐. In Yáng Chǎng Zhuàn fù Yáng Yùn 楊敞傳附楊惲 [Biographies of Yang Chang and Yang Yun] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “I have failed to make any achievement and promote virtues at the post; nor could I work together with the fellow officials and assist the court. I have long been holding a position without doing a stroke of work (qièwèi sùcān 竊位素餐).” Yan Shigu 顏師古 notes that sù 素 means empty, showing that one does not perform his duty but gets paid. The idiom shǐyáng jiàngláng 使羊將狼 consists of two transitive verbs, the first object shǐyáng 使羊 being the subject of the second transitive verb jiàngláng 將狼. Have a sheep command a pack of wolves – put a weakling in the position of leadership, which could not win the trust of the crowd. Liúhóu shìjiā 留侯世 家 [The Hereditary House of Marquis Liu] in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian] reads that “qiě tàizǐ suǒ yǔ jù zhūjiàng, jiē cháng yǔ shàng dìng tiānxià xiāojiàng yě, jīn shǐ tàizǐ jiàngzhī, cǐ wúyì shǐyáng jiàngláng yě. 且太子所與俱 諸將，皆嘗與上定天下梟將也，今使太子將之，此無異使羊將狼也.” (The generals with whom the crown prince associates are the founders of the empire; they are fierce and powerful. Having him command them is like having a sheep in charge of wolves.) Zhāng Liáng zhuàn 張良傳 [Biography of Zhang Liang] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Han] wrote that “jīn qiúshǐ tàizǐ jiàngzhī, cǐ wúyì shǐyáng jiàngláng, jiē bùkěn wéiyòng.” 今逎使太子將之，此無異使羊將狼， 皆不肯為用. (Now the crown prince is under pressure to command them; it is like having a sheep leading a pack of wolves. None would listen to him.) In Chú xiá 除狹 [On Escaping Narrow-mindedness] of Yántiělùn 鹽鐵論 [Discussion on Salt and Iron] by Huan Kuan 桓寬 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “ruòzhě, yóu shǐyáng jiàngláng yě, qī luàn bì yǐ; qiángzhě, zé shì wàngyǔ kuángfū lìjiàn yě, bì wàng shāshēng yě. 弱者，猶使羊將狼也，其亂必矣；強者，則是妄予狂 夫利劍也，必妄殺生也.” (Putting a weak person in a commanding position is like having a sheep leading a pack of wolves, which will definitely cause chaos. Appointing a mighty or powerful man is like offering an arrogant man a sharp sword, which will cause reckless killing.)

3 Rulesofformingidioms 3.1 Idiomswithmorethanfourcharacters It should be noted that two points need to be observed in terms of the forms of old idioms. Firstly, most of the idioms consist of four characters, but some idioms include more than four characters. See the following examples. The idiom lùsǐ bù zéyīn 鹿死不擇音 is a subject-predicate phrase of five characters. In Wéngōng shíqī nián 文公十七年 [The 17th Year of the reign of Lord Wen] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals],

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it reads that “yòu yuē: Lùsǐ bù zéyīn. Xiǎoguó zhīshì dàguó yě, dé, zé qī rén yě; bùdé, zé qī lù yě. Tǐng ér zǒuxiǎn, jí hé néng zé! 又曰：鹿死不擇音.小國之事 大國也，德，則其人也；不德，則其鹿也.鋌而走險，急何能擇！” (A deer would not pick a shade at its dying moment. If a large powerful state is merciful, the small state depending on it would be grateful; if the large state is merciless, the small state would be like a deer struggling for life. He would run risks and could not make wise choices at times of urgency.) The idiom wú zhìzhuī zhīdì 無置錐之地 is a verb-object phrase of five characters, meaning “extreme poverty or having no space even for a stabber. Fēi shí èr zǐ非十二子 [Contra 12 philosophers] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi] reads that “wú zhìzhuī zhīdì, ér wánggōng bùnéng yǔ zhī zhēngmíng. 無置錐之地， 而王公不能與之爭名.” (Though they live in extreme poverty, their fame is well above the aristocrats.) In Rúxiào 儒效 [The teachings of the Confucians] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “bǐ dàrú zhě, suī yǐn yú qióngyán lòuwū, wú zhìzhuī zhīdì, ér wánggōng bùnéng yǔ zhī zhēngmíng. 彼大儒者，雖隱於 窮閻漏屋，無置錐之地，而王公不能與之爭名.” (Though the great Confucian masters live in poor lanes and shabby houses in dire poverty, they enjoy prestige far above the aristocrats.) It is written in Anwēi 安危 [Safety and Danger] of the Hánfēizǐ韓非子 [Works of Hanfeizi] that “Yáo wú jiāoqī zhīyuē yú dāngshì ér dàoxíng, shùn wú zhìzhuī zhīdì yú hòushì ér déjié. 堯無膠漆之約於當世而道 行，舜無置錐之地于後世而德結.” (August Yao had no bosom friends in his time yet his way was passed down. August Shun lived in poverty, yet his virtues were extolled over the later generations.) 3.2 Fixedformofidioms Secondly, the form of idioms are usually fixed, but certain flexibility is allowed. Over the extensive use in speaking, some idioms are used with certain characters being changed, but the basic meaning and original form are retained. See the following examples. Bówénqiángzhì博聞強志,bówénqiángzhì博聞強識, orbówénqiángjì博聞強記 The above idioms mean having both wide learning and a powerful memory, made up of two attributive phrases. In Jiěbì 解蔽 [Dispelling Blindness] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “bówén qiángzhì, bùhé wángzhì, jūnzǐ jiànzhī. 博聞強志，不合王制，君子賤之.” (Despite wide learning and a powerful memory, one going against the sovereign will be despised by gentlemen.) In Qūyuán jiǎshēng lièzhuàn 屈原賈生列傳 [Biographies of Qu Yuan and Jia Yi] of Shǐjì 史記 [The Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “bówén qiángzhì, míng yú zhìluàn, xián yú cílìng. 博聞強志，明於治亂，嫻於辭令.” (He has great learning and a retentive memory, capable of resolving disorder, and is good at expressing himself.) In Qǔlǐ shàng 曲禮上 [Summary of the Rules of Propriety I] of Lǐjì禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads that “bówén qiángzhì ér ràng, dūn

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 227 shànxíng ér búdài, wèi zhī jūnzǐ. 博聞強識而讓，敦善行而不怠，謂之君子.” (A gentleman has wide learning and a retentive memory and always does good deeds.) Juéchángbǔduǎn絕長補短,juéchángxùduǎn絕長續短, orjuéchángjìduǎn絕長繼短 The above idioms are made up of two verb-object phrases, Juécháng 絕長 and bǔduǎn 補短, and originally meant the method of calculating the land area in old times: cut off the long to make up the short. Later on, its meaning is extended to make up a deficiency by the surplus. Téngwéngōng shàng 滕文公上 [Lord Wen of Teng I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Book of Mencius] reads that “jīn téng, juécháng bǔduǎn, jiāng wǔshí lǐ yě, yóu kěyǐ wéi shànguó. 今滕，絕長補短，將五十里也，猶 可以為善國.” (The State of Teng, calculated thoroughly, has an area of about 50 li [Chinese measuring unit] squared and could still make a state.) Chǔ shìjiā 楚 世家 [The Hereditary House of Chu] in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian] reads that “Xīzhōu zhīdì, juécháng bǔduǎn, búguò wànlǐ. 西周之地，絕長 補短，不過萬里.” (The West Zhou, making allowance for its irregular boundaries, has an area of less than ten thousands of li, Chinese measuring unit, squared.) In Lǐlùn 禮論 [Ritual Principles] of Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “Lǐzhě, juécháng bǔduǎn, sǔn yǒu yú, bǔ bù zú. 禮者，絕長補短, 損有餘, 補不 足.” (Ritual means to make up a deficiency by the surplus.) In Qíncè yī 秦策一 [Strategies of Qin I] of Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads that “jīn Qín dìxíng juécháng xùduǎn, fāng shù qiānlǐ. 今秦地形絕長續短, 方數千里.” (Geographically, the State of Qin, making allowance for its irregular boundaries, has an area of thousands of li squared.) In Chǔcè 楚策 [Strategies of Chu], it reads that “jīn chǔ suī xiǎo, juécháng xùduǎn, yóu yǐ shù qiānlǐ. 今楚雖 小, 絕長續短, 猶以數千里.” (Although Chu is small in area, it was still thousands of li squared, making allowance for its irregular boundaries.) In Fēimìng shàng 非命上 [Against fate I] of Mòzǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads that “gǔzhě tāng fēng yú bó, juécháng jìduǎn, fāng dì bǎilǐ. 古者湯封於亳，絕長繼短, 方地百里.” (In ancient times, Tang was enfeoffed with Bo which, making allowance for its irregular boundaries, was 100 li [Chinese measuring unit] squared.)

4 Proverbs Proverbs are words or expressions which become widespread in communication. Similar to idioms, proverbs are summative and rich in connotation. Some proverbs with vivid imagery symbolize the maturity of a language. There are some differences between idioms and proverbs. Some idioms originate from written texts. In contrast, proverbs are from folk talk. Idioms consist of four (or more) characters, functioning as one word or phrase, whereas proverbs are usually sentences, signifying a fixed, complete meaning. Regarding their usage, proverbs seem to be more flexible in form than that of idioms. See the following examples of old proverbs.

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The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese

Bùyīnbùlóng,bùchénggūgōng不瘖不聾，不成姑公 The proverb bùyīn bùlóng, bùchéng gūgōng 不瘖不聾，不成姑公 means that if one does not pretend to be deaf and dumb, they can not be a good parent-inlaw. In Shì shǒushì 釋首飾 [Explaining Jewellery] of Shìmíng 釋名 [Explaining Names] by Liu Xi 劉熙 of the Han dynasty, it reads that “huòyuē: Chōng ěr, sè ěr yě. Sè ěr yì suǒyǐ zhǐtīng yě. Gù lǐyǔ yuē: bùyīn bùlóng, bùchéng gūgōng. 或曰：充耳，塞耳也.塞耳亦所以止聽也.故里語曰：不瘖不聾，不成姑公.” (Someone says that filling one’s ear is to block one’s ears to stop listening. As the proverb goes, if one can not pretend to be deaf and dumb, they will not be a good parent-in-law.) In volume 496 of Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平御覽 [Imperially Inspected Anthology of the Taiping Era], there is a quote of Shenzi 慎子 that “bù cōng bù míng, bùnéng wéiwáng; bùgǔ bùlóng, bùnéng wéigōng. 不聰不 明，不能為王；不瞽不聾，不能為公 .” (A person not smart enough cannot be a king; a person who cannot play blind and deaf cannot be an elder.) Some changes happened to the proverb after the Six Dynasties. In Zhǎngsūn Sōng Zhuàn fù Zhǎngsūn Píng 長孫嵩附長孫平 [Biographies of Zhangsun Song and Zhangsun Ping] of Běishǐ 北史 [History of Northern Dynasties], it reads that “Píng jìnjiàn yuē: yàn yún ‘bùchī bùlóng, búzuò dàjiāwōng.’ Cǐyán suīxiǎo, kěyǐ yùdà. 平進諫曰：諺云’不癡不聾，不作大家翁.’ 此言雖小，可以喻大.” (Zhangsun Ping advised that as the saying goes, who could not pretend to be silly and deaf could not be an elder; the saying, insignificant as it sounds, yet means a lot.) In volume one of Yīn huà lù 因話録 [Records Prompted by Conversations] by Zhao Lin 趙璘 of the Tang dynasty, it reads that “Guō’ài cháng yǔ shēngpíng gōngzhǔ qínsè búhé . . . shàngfù jū’ài, zìyì cháotáng dàizuì. Shàng zhào’ér wèizhī yuē: ‘yànyún: “bùchī bùlóng, búzuò ājiā āwēng. Xiǎo’ér nǚzǐ guīwéi zhīyán, dàchén ānyòng tīng ?’” 郭曖嘗與升平公主琴瑟不和 . . . 尚父 拘曖, 自詣朝堂待罪.上召而慰之曰:“諺雲:‘不癡不聾, 不作阿家阿翁.小兒女 子閨幃之言,大臣安用聽? (Guo Ai 郭曖 and his wife, Princess Shengping, had quarrels with each other. Ai’s father, Guo Ziyi 郭子儀, honored as Shàngfù 尚 父, a senior minister to be treated like a father by the emperor, imprisoned Ai and asked the Emperor for punishment in court. The Emperor comforted him, saying, “If one could not pretend to be silly and deaf, he could not be a parentin-law. When the son and daughter have words with each other, it is better to be fair or pretend to be deaf as a minister.) Búzhìyúshān,érzhìyúdié不躓於山，而躓於垤 When one climbs a mountain, he will not fall down; when he walks up a small hill, he could fall easily, which is the meaning of bú zhì yú shān, ér zhì yú dié 不 躓於山，而躓於垤. The proverb is meant to remind people of being cautious all the time, not to be careless. In Liùfǎn 六反 [Six Contrarities] of the Hánfēizǐ 韓非 子 [Works of Hanfeizi], it reads that “gù xiānshèng yǒu yàn yuē: ‘Bú zhì yú shān, ér zhì yú dié.’ Shān zhě dà, gù rén shùn zhī; dié wēixiǎo, gù rén yì zhī yě. 故先聖 有諺曰：’不躓於山，而躓於垤.’山者大，故人順之；垤微小，故人易之也.”

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 229 (The ancient sages said that when one climbs a mountain, he won’t fall down, as a mountain is high and dangerous, one is watchful over the course of climbing; when he walks up a small hill, he could fall down easily, as the hill is small and easy, one does not take it seriously.) Chájiànyuānyúzhěbùxiáng察見淵魚者不祥 The proverb chájiàn yuānyú zhě bùxiáng 察見淵魚者不祥 means that one who sees the fish in the deep valley would suffer misfortune. In Shuōfú 説符 [Explaining Omina] of Lièzǐ 列子 [Works of Liezi], it is recorded as a proverb of Zhou that “chájiàn yuānyú zhě bùxiáng, zhīliào yǐnnìzhě yǒu yāng. 察見淵 魚者不祥，知料隱匿者有殃.” (It can be predicted that the hidden ones are in trouble when observing the fish being in trouble or danger in the ponds.) The proverb is meant to tell people that being excessively perceptive or probing too much into the privacy of other people will bring one danger rather than benefit. Chǐyǒusuǒduǎn,cùnyǒusuǒcháng尺有所短，寸有所長 Ocassionally, one chi 尺 (Chinese measuring unit) may prove short while one cun 寸 (Chinese measuring unit) may prove long – everyone has his advantages and disadvantages, which is the meaning of the proverb chǐyǒu suǒduǎn, cùnyǒu suǒcháng 尺有所短，寸有所長 (Both chi 尺 and cun 寸 are Chinese measuring units; one chi 尺 = ten cun 寸). In Bǔjū 卜居 [Divination] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [Poetry of the South], it reads that “fū chǐyǒu suǒduǎn, cùnyǒu suǒcháng, wù yǒusuǒ bùzú, zhì yǒusuǒ bùmíng, shù yǒusuǒ búdài, shén yǒusuǒ bùtōng. Yòng jūn zhī xīn, xíng jūn zhī yì, guīcè chéng bùnéng zhīshì. 夫尺有所短，寸有所 長，物有所不足，智不所不明，數有所不逮，神有所不通.用君之心，行君 之意，龜策誠不能知事.” (Sometimes a foot may lack the strength, while an inch is just fit in length; things have their flaws, and the wise may sometimes prove to be dim in sight. Divining may not reveal all; all oracles may not be applied. Just do whatever you think right, and act in light of your ideal: the issues I can’t do for you, you must decide.) (Note: I refers to ancient fortune tellers using tortoise shells and stalks.) In Báiqǐ wángjiǎn lièzhuàn zàn 白起王 翦列傳贊 [Praise to Bái Qǐ and Wáng Jiǎn] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “bǐyǔ yún: ‘chǐyǒu suǒduǎn, cùnyǒu suǒ cháng.’ Bái qǐ liàodí hébiàn, chūqí wúqióng, shēngzhèn tiānxià, rán bùnéng jiùhuàn yú yīnghóu; wángjiǎn wéi qínjiàng, yí liùguó . . . shǐhuáng shīzhī, rán bùnéng fǔqín jiàndé.” 鄙语云: “尺有所短,寸有所长.” 白起料敌合变, 出奇無窮, 声震天下, 然不能救患於应侯; 王翦为秦将,夷六国 . . . 始皇师之, 然不能辅秦建德. (As the saying goes, sometimes a chĭ may prove short while a cùn may prove long – everyone has his strong and weak points. Bai Qi was adept in perceiving the enemy’s moves, adapting to changes, having numerous strategies, and enjoyed nationwide fame. However, he could not rescue Marquis Ying. Commander

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Wang Jian of the Qin dynasty demolished the six kingdoms and was honored as the teacher of Emperor Shihuang, yet he could not assist the Qin dynasty to build virtues.) The proverb is meant to tell people that chi is longer than cun, yet shorter than another longer unit; while cun is shorter than chi, but longer than another shorter unit, which means that everything has its strengths and weaknesses that are in a relative sense instead of the absolute sense. Cóngshànrúdēng,cóngèrúbēng從善如登，從惡如崩 In Zhōuyǔ xià 周語下 [Discourses of the State Zhōu II] of Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it is recorded that “yàn yuē: ‘cóngshàn rúdēng, cóng è rú bēng.’ Xī Kǒng Jiǎ luàn xià, sìshì ér yǔn, xuán wáng qín shāng, shí yǒu sìshì ér xīng. 諺 曰：’從善如登，從惡如崩.’昔孔甲亂夏，四世而隕，玄王勤商，十有四世 而興.” (The saying reads that to follow goodness is to rise; to follow evil is to fall. Kong Jia wreaked havoc in Xia, and the dynasty came to its demise after only four generations. The Supreme King built Shang, which rose to its prominence after 14 generations.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 notes that rúdēng 如登 has the sense of difficulty; rúbēng 如崩 has the sense of easiness. Dēng 登 means to climb to higher places; indicating one needs to walk ahead step by step with effort; and bēng 崩 means landslide or a mountain which collapses rapidly. The proverb figuratively means that it requires effort to follow examples of goodness; one needs to be watchful and persistent. It is easy to follow bad examples; a careless beginning would lead to a downfall beyond one’s control. The meaning contrast of cóngshàn rúdēng 從 善如登 and cóng è rú bēng 從惡如崩 is intended to give advice and/or a warning, i.e., to encourage good things and get rid of evil things. Liúyánzhǐyúzhìzhě流言止於智者 In Dàlüè 大略 [The Great Compendium] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it reads that “yǔ yuē: Liúwán zhǐyú ōuyú, liúyán zhǐyú zhīzhě. Cǐ jiāyán xiéxué zhī suǒyǐ wù rúzhě yě. 語曰：流丸止於甌臾，流言止於知者.此家言邪學之所以 惡儒者也.” (One proverb says that a rolling ball will halt in a small hole; rumors will stop by wise men. That’s what the narrow-minded and evil minds resent about the Confucians.) A rolling ball comes to a stop at a low place; the spreading of rumors will stop when they reach clever minds. Rumors do not have enduring power, and truly wise men would not believe or spread them. Nìngwéijīkǒu,bùwéiniúhòu寧爲雞口，不為牛後 The literary meaning of this proverb means that it is better to be the mouth of a chicken than the ass of a cow; the figurative meaning is that it is better to be head of the subordinate than to be laggard within the superior. In Háncèyī 韓策一 [Strategies of Han I] of Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Strategies of the Warring States], it reads that “chénwén bǐyǔ yuē: ‘nìngwéi jīkǒu, wúwéi niúhòu.’ jīn dàwáng xīmiàn jiāobì

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese 231 ér chén shìqín, héyǐ yìyú niúhòu hū? fū yǐ dàwáng zhīxián, jiāqiáng hánzhībīng ér yǒu niúhòu zhīmíng, chén qièwéi dàwáng xiūzhī.” 臣聞鄙語曰：“甯為雞口， 無為牛後.” 今大王西面交臂而臣事秦，何以異于牛後乎？夫以大王之賢， 挾強韓之兵而有牛後之名，臣竊為大王羞之. (I have got a saying that it is better to be the leader of the junior group than that of being the follower of the senior one. Now your lordship befriend and serve the Qin dynasty, which is very much like being leader of the junior group. With your wisdom and your army’s might, you deserve better fame or a better position. I feel rather ashamed for you having such a low position.) The mouth of a chicken is small yet at the head of the body, functioning as an organ for taking in food; the ass of a cow is big yet at the bottom of the body, functioning as an organ for pooping. In a figurative sense, the proverb means that one should take charge rather than being charged, which could be slightly changed into nìngwéi jīshī, bùwéi niúcóng 寧爲雞尸，不為牛從. In Shǐjì Suǒyǐn 史記索隱 [Seeking the Obscure in the Records of the Grand Historian] by Sima Zhen 司馬貞 of the Tang dynasty, it quotes that “Zhànguócè yún: ‘nìngwéi jīshī, bùwéi niúcóng.’Yándǔ zhùyún: ‘shī, jī zhōngzhǔ yě; cóng, wèi niúzǐ yě. Yán nìngwéi jīzhōng zhīzhǔ, bùwéi niúzhī cónghòu yě.’” 戰國策雲:“寧為雞尸,不為 牛從.” 延篤注雲: “屍,雞中主也.從, 謂牛子也.言寧為雞中之主, 不為牛之從後 也.” (In Strategies of Warring States, it reads, “It is better to be the head of a hen rather than the tail of a cow.” Yan Du notes, “Shī 尸 means charge or the head of chicken; cóng 從 means calf; it is better to be the head of a chicken than a follower in a cow herd.”) In Shūzhèng 書證 [Text Sources for the Family Instructions] of Yánshì jiāxùn 顏氏家訓 [The Family Instructions of Master Yan] by Yan Zhitui 顏之推 of the Northern Qi dynasty, it quotes that “nìngwéi jīshī, bùwéi niúcóng. 寧爲雞尸，不為牛從.” (Better be the head of a chicken than the tail of a cow.) It also reads that “kǒudāng wéishī, hòudāng wéicóng, súxiě wù yě.” 口當為尸, 後 當為從, 俗寫誤也. (The correct character is not kǒu 口 but shī 尸, not hòu 後 but cóng 從. They are errors in everyday usage.) In Shìzòngpiān 釋豵篇 [Explaining Piglings] of Eryǎyì 爾雅翼 [Wings of Eryǎ, the Literary Expositor] by Luo Yuan 羅愿 of the Song dynasty, it reads that “nìngwéi jīshī, wúwéi niúcóng. Shī, zhǔ yě. Yīqún zhīzhǔ, suǒyǐ jiàngzhòng zhě. Cóng, cóngwùzhě yě. Suí qún érwǎng, zhì bú zàiwǒ yě.” 寧爲雞尸，無為牛從.尸，主也.一群之主，所以將眾者.從，從 物者也.隨群而往，制不在我也. (It is better to be the head of a chicken than a follower in a cow herd. Shī 尸 means charge or master, head of a crowd, or the one who takes charge.) Cóng 從 means follower, the one who follows instead of taking charge. Shī 尸 (zhǔ 主) and cōng 從 are less clear than kǒu 口 and hòu 後 in terms of a sense of comparison. Pǐfūwúzuì,huáibìqīzuì匹夫無罪，懷璧其罪 In Huángōng shínián 桓公十年 [The Tenth Year of the reign of Lord Huán] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads that “Chū, yúshū yǒuyù, yúgōng qiúzhān. Fúxiàn. Jì’ér huǐzhī, yuē: ‘zhōuyàn yǒu zhī: ‘pǐ ū wúzuì, huáibì qízuì.’ wúyān yòngcǐ.” 初，虞叔有玉，虞公求 旃.弗献.既而悔之，曰：“周谚有之： ‘匹夫无罪，怀璧其罪.’吾焉用此.”

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The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese

(At first, Yushu 虞叔, the brother of Lord Yu, had a piece of rare jade. Lord Yu asked for it but was rejected. Later on, Yushu regretted, “As the proverb of Zhou said, ‘A man is not guilty but will be sentenced as guilty because of the jade he possesses.’ How could I be like this.”) The proverb consists of two clauses, pǐfū wúzuì 匹夫無罪 and huáibì qīzuì 懷璧其罪, forming a contrast, with the emphasis on the second clause of huáibì qīzuì 懷璧其罪. A person is innocent, yet the jade he possesses might bring him trouble. The proverb reveals something true in real life. Qiānrénsuǒzhǐ,wúbìngérsǐ千人所指，無病而死 The proverb means that one being condemned by thousands of people will die without any illness. In Wángjiā zhuàn 王嘉傳 [Biography of Wáng Jiā] of Hànshū 漢 書 [The Book of Han], it reads that “lǐyàn yuē: ‘Qiānrén suǒzhǐ, wúbìng érsǐ.’Chén cháng wèizhī hánxīn. 里諺曰：千人所指，無病而死.臣常為之寒心.” (One saying is that one being condemned by thousands of people will die without any illness. I often feel sad for it.) That is to say, if one was criticized by many people, they would die even if they were not with any illness. Rénérwúhéng,bùkěyǐzuòwūyī人而無恒，不可以作巫醫 In Zǐlù 子路 (One disciple of Confucius) of Lúnyǔ 論語 [The Confucian Analects], it reads that “Zǐyuē: Nánrén yǒu yán: ‘Rén ér wúhéng, bù kěyǐ zuò wūyī.’ Shàn fū. 子曰：南人有言：’人而無恒，不可以作巫醫.’善夫.” (Confucius says there is a saying from the southern region that a person unable to persist in doing things could not even be a witch doctor, which is a good saying.) The proverb means that one needs to be persistent in doing things. One lacking perseverance could not even do an easy thing, such as treating patients by praying instead of medical operation, not to say something harder. Shòuwùqīwǎng,mínwùqīshàng獸惡其網，民惡其上 In Zhōuyǔ zhōng 周語中 [Discourses of the State Zhōu II] of Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it reads that “Qiě yàn yuē: ‘Shòuwù qīwǎng, mínwù qīshàng.’ . . . Shì zé shèngrén zhī mín zhī bùkě jiā yě. 且諺曰：’獸惡其網，民 惡其上’ . . . 是則聖人知民之不可加也.” (As the proverb goes, beasts hate nets, and people hate their rulers. The sages knew that people should not be oppressed.) Wei Zhao 韋昭 noted that “shòu wù qíwǎng, wèi qí hàijǐ; mín wù qí shàng, wèi qí bìngjǐ.” 獸惡其網，為其害己；民惡其上，為其病己. (Beasts hate nets in that they are injured; people hate their rulers in that they are ill-treated.) Beasts hate hunting nets for being caught in them; common people loathe officials for being persecuted. The proverb explains that the tense relationship between the rulers and the oppressed people results from the cruel oppression of the ruler upon the oppressed.

The progress of idioms and proverbs of Old Chinese

233

Táolǐbùyán,xiàzìchéngxī桃李不言，下自成蹊 In Lǐ jiāngjūn lièzhuàn zàn 李將軍列傳贊 [Praise to General Li] of Shǐjì 史 記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads that “yànyuē: ‘táolǐ bùyán, xiàzì chéngxī.’ Cǐyán suīxiǎo, kěyǐ yùdà yě. 谚曰： ‘ 桃李不言，下自成蹊.’此言雖 小，可以喻大也.” (One saying is that peaches and plums do not speak anything, yet they are so attractive that a path is paved under the trees. The saying is simple yet has rich implied meanings.) That is, so long as one is consistent with his endeavor to make achievements, he or she is bound to achieve something great, and will be respected and admired by people.

5 Conclusion The above idioms and proverbs underwent historical changes. Proverbs are from vernaculars of the common people. With the development of history in China, some proverbs became archaic and gradually became extinct; some have remained in use as a different character, yet with slight changes in their forms. Others remain intact both in their forms and meanings and have been passed down to modern China, indicating a strong life in the contemporary Chinese language.

Bibliography

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Index

absolute synonyms 171 alliterated disyllables 91 attributive compounds 110 Chen Mengjia 24 coordinating compounds 104

polysyllabic words 88 proverb 227 reduplicates 98 relative synonyms 172 rhyming disyllables 92

Guo Moruo 2, 5, 14, 17, 18, 29

semantic extension 147 subject-predicate compounds 119 Sun Yirang 55 synthetic words 102

Hu Guangwei 19

Tang Lan 54

idiom 205 interchangeable words 156

verb-object compounds 117

derivatives 103 Ding Shan 18

lexicon 1 liánmián words 95 Luo Zhenyu 9, 18, 20, 30, 32 mono-morphemic disyllables 90 monosemy 124 non-alliterated/rhyming monomorphemic disyllables 93 oracle bone inscriptions 1 parallel compounds 104 polysemy 124

Wang Guowei 4, 11, 12, 14, 16, 21, 23, 37, 96, 97, 129 Wang Niansun 78, 81, 82, 97, 98, 178, 197 Wang Yi 19, 65, 72, 82, 93, 135, 140, 142 Wang Yinzhi 156, 162 Wang Yun 4, 144, 195, 198, 221 Wu Qichang 17 Xu Zhongshu 13 Yang Shuda 28, 194 Zhang Yi 8