A Brief History of the Chinese Language VIII: Modern Chinese Lexicon 2 [1 ed.] 9781003365594

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A Brief History of the Chinese Language VIII

As the final volume of a multi-volume set on the Chinese language, this book studies the western and Japanese influence on the lexicon of Modern Chinese, lexical developments in synonyms, idioms and proverbs in modern times, and lexical developments in contemporary times. This volume first introduces the influence of foreign cultures on the Modern Chinese lexicon with an emphasis on loanwords from Japanese and IndoEuropean languages. It then discusses the synonyms, idioms, and proverbs of Modern Chinese, elucidating their evolution, sources, and composition. The final part centers on the development of the Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement in 1919, marking the beginning of the contemporary phase of the Chinese language. The author analyzes trends and types of neologisms and loanwords and analyzes the blend of Mandarin and dialect words and the necessity of lexical standardization. Illustrated with abundant examples, this comprehensive groundwork on Chinese lexical history is a must-read for scholars and students studying Modern Chinese language, linguistics, and especially for beginning learners of modern and contemporary Chinese lexicon. Xi Xiang is Professor at Sichuan University (China) and a distinguished linguist. His research interests are focused on Chinese language history and Chinese linguistics. His major works include A Brief History of Chinese, Dictionary of Poetry Classics, Commentary on the Translation of Poetry Classics, Dictionary of Ancient Chinese Knowledge, and Concise Ancient Chinese Dictionary.

Chinese Linguistics

Chinese Linguistics series selects representative and frontier works in linguistic disciplines including lexicology, grammar, phonetics, dialectology, philology and rhetoric. Mostly published in Chinese before, the selection has had far-reaching influence on China’s linguistics and offered inspiration and reference for the world’s linguistics. The aim of this series is to reflect the general level and latest development of Chinese linguistics from an overall and objective view. Titles in this series currently include: A Brief History of the Chinese Language V Middle Chinese Lexicon 1 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VI Middle Chinese Lexicon 2 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VII Modern Chinese Lexicon 1 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VIII Modern Chinese Lexicon 2 Xi Xiang Modern Chinese Complex Sentences III Adversative Type XING Fuyi For more information, please visit www.routledge.com/Chinese-Linguistics/ book-series/CL

A Brief History of the Chinese Language VIII Modern Chinese Lexicon 2

Xi Xiang

This translation is published with financial support from the Chinese Fund for the Humanities and Social Sciences (20WYYB011) First published in English 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Xi Xiang Translated by Hulin Ren, Lifei Wang, Xiaofeng Zhan, Zihui Yang, Gang Dong, Li Xia, Yikun Li and Tanith Booth The right of Xi Xiang to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. English version by permission of The Commercial Press, Ltd. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Xiang, Xi, author. | Ren, Hulin, translator. Title: A brief history of the Chinese language / Xi Xiang ; translated by Hulin Ren [and 7 others]. Other titles: Jian ming han yu shi. English Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Series: Chinese linguistics | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Contents: v. 1. The basics of Chinese phonetics — v. 2. From old Chinese to middle Chinese phonetic system — v. 3. From middle Chinese to modern Chinese phonetic system. Identifiers: LCCN 2022025941 (print) | LCCN 2022025942 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032381077 (vol. 1 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381107 (vol. 1 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781032381084 (vol. 2 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381114 (vol. 2 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781032381091 (vol. 3 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381121 (vol. 3 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781003343516 (vol. 1 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781003343523 (vol. 2 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781003343530 (vol. 3 ; ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Chinese language—Phonetics—History. | Chinese language—History. Classification: LCC PL1205 .X5313 2023 (print) | LCC PL1205 (ebook) | DDC 495.1/15—dc23/eng/20220718 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025941 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025942 ISBN: 978-1-032-43064-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-43066-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-36559-4 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003365594 Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

1

List of tables

vi

The influence of modern western culture on the development of the Chinese lexicon

1

2

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

41

3

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese

93

4

The innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement

157

Bibliography Index

173 174

Tables

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22

Names related to science and technology Names related to politics and economy Names related to culture and art Names related to general things Titles Examples of translated verbs in Japanese Examples of translated adjectives in Japanese Examples of translated Japanese words from other western languages Nouns loaned from self-created Japanese formed by Chinese characters Verbs loaned from self-created Japanese formed by Chinese characters Adjectives loaned from self-created Japanese formed by Chinese characters Examples of complete transliteration Transliteration mixed with free translation Semi-transliteration and semi–free translation Transliteration with a Chinese ideographic morpheme Self-created nouns with western counterparts Self-created verbs with western counterparts Self-created adjectives with western counterparts Multisyllablic transliterated words replaced by freely translated words Retained self-created Chinese words with translated Japanese words being eliminated Retained translated Japanese words with self-created Chinese words being eliminated Translations with more popular and clearer meanings being retained and other ones being eliminated

8 8 9 9 10 10 11 12 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 32 37 38 39 39

1

The influence of modern western culture on the development of the Chinese lexicon

1 Introduction Before western capitalist culture was introduced into China during the 16th century, Chinese had absorbed some foreign words. For example, the Huíhuí yàofāng 回回藥方 [Hui’s Prescriptions] was introduced into China during the Yuan dynasty and was translated into Chinese, in which some medicines are mentioned such as āfūróng 阿夫榮 and āféiróng 阿肥榮. The Pǔjì fāng 普濟方 [Prescriptions for Universal Benefit] edited in the early Ming dynasty discusses ābáiyǒng 阿白勇, and the Yīlín lèizhèng jíyào 醫林類證集要 [The Collection of Medical Faculty Syndromes (1488, the Yīlín jíyào 醫林集要 [The Collection of Medical Faculty], for short)] written by Wang Xi 王璽 of the Ming dynasty discusses āfūróng 阿芙蓉. They all refer to the opium made from that which is extracted from poppy fruit and is dehydrated. In the 15th century, the word name of yāpiàn 鴉片 (opium) came into being. The Shěnjīngjuàn 曋精雋 written by Xu Boling 徐伯齡 (about 1457–1487) reads that “hǎiwài zhūguó bìng xīyù chǎnyǒu yīshuò, míng héfǔróng, zhōngguó yòu míng yāpiàn. 海外諸國並西域産有一藥，名合 甫融，中國又名鴉片.” (Overseas countries and western regions produce a medicine called héfǔróng 合甫融, which is also known as yāpiàn 鴉片 in China.) In Li Shizhen’s 李時珍 (1518–1593) Běncǎo gāngmù 本草綱目 [Compendium of Materia Medica], the volume 23 of Gǔ bù 穀部 [Gu Group] writes that “Āpiàn, súmíng yāpiàn. 阿片，俗名鴉片.” (Āpiàn 阿片 is known as yāpiàn 鴉片.) There is also the saying that “Āfúróng, qiándài hǎnwén, jìnfāng yǒuyòngzhě, yún shì yīngsùhuā zhī jīnyè yě. Yīngsù jié qīngbāo shí, wǔhòu yǐ dàzhēn cì qí wàimiàn qīngpí, wù sǔn lǐmiàn yìngpí, huò sānwǔchù, cìzǎo jīnchū, yǐzhú dāoguā, shōurù cíqì yīngān yòngzhī. 阿芙蓉，前代罕聞，近方有用者，云是罌粟花之津液也. 罌粟結青苞時，午後以大針刺其外面青皮，勿損裏面硬皮，或三五處， 次早津出，以竹刀刮，收入瓷器陰乾用之.” (Āfūróng 阿芙蓉 is rarely mentioned in previous generations. It is used recently, which is said to be the fluid of poppy. When the poppy bears a green bud, in the afternoon, prick its green shuck with a big needle and do not damage the inner hard skin, or scrape it with a bamboo knife in three or five places, and put it in porcelain for drying to be used later.) The above-mentioned āfūróng 阿夫榮, āféiróng 阿肥榮, ābáiyǒng 阿白 勇, āfūróng 阿芙蓉, héfǔróng 合甫融, āpiàn 阿片, yāpiàn 鴉片, and so on are all DOI: 10.4324/9781003365594-1

2 The influence of modern western culture transliterated from the Persian word Afyum. After the Qing dynasty, gradually it was collectively called yāpiàn 鴉片 or dàyān 大煙. The opium is originally a type of medicine for controlling the pain or anesthetizing. Since the 19th century, the Chinese people have taken opium, and it has since become a lethal drug, which has poisoned the health of the majority of Chinese people for a long time. This is a painful lesson that we should never forget. Since the 16th century, capitalist countries such as European countries including Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands have successively come to Guangzhou and Macao for pirate-like plunder. From 1603 (the 31st year of Wànlì 萬曆 during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of the Ming dynasty) to 1624 (the fourth year of Tiānqǐ 天啟 during the reign of Emperor Xizong of the Ming dynasty), Dutch colonialists successively attacked China’s Penghu area, but were defeated by the troops and the people of Fujian province. Though their plot to occupy the Penghu area failed, they did not give up. From 1624 to 1626 (the fourth year to sixth year of Tiānqǐ 天啟 during the reign of Emperor Xizong of the Ming dynasty), Dutch and Spanish colonists occupied Tainan and Keelung in the Taiwan Province of China, respectively, and took the two places as the center to expand the scope of aggression. This was the first time that Taiwan was robbed by imperialism. In 1661 (the 18th year of the Emperor Shunzhi’s age of the Qing dynasty), Zheng Chenggong 鄭成功, a Chinese national hero, drove away the invaders and liberated Taiwan with close cooperation from the local people. In 1511 (the sixth year of Zhèngdé 正德 during the reign of Emperor Wuzong of the Ming dynasty), after occupying Manchuria, the Portuguese further invaded the Southeast Sea of China, robbed business trips, looted and sold human beings, trafficked contraband, and even attacked the coastal areas of Guangdong with armed force. In 1523 (the third year of Jiājìng 嘉靖 during the reign of Emperor Shizong of the Ming dynasty), the Ming dynasty defeated the Portuguese merchant ships who attempted to invade along the coastline of Guangdong and blocked all treaty ports. In 1553 (the 32nd year of Jiājìng 嘉靖 of the Ming dynasty), Portuguese colonialists rented China’s Macao territory deceptively under the pretext of drying goods. In 1887 (the 13th year of the Emperor Guangxu’s age of the Qing dynasty), the corrupt Qing government was forced to make a contract to allow the Portuguese to manage Macao forever. In 1999, Macao returned to the motherland of China, and the Macao Special Administrative Region was established. In the beginning of the 17th century, British armed merchant ships came to Guangzhou, bombarded Humen, and asked for commercial intercourse. As the advanced army of economic aggression, Catholics followed, coming to China. They broke the gate of the ancient East with the narcotic of the crosses and the colonialist cannons and swords. While preaching, western missionaries imparted some modern western culture and scientific knowledge to the Chinese people. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, a good many western missionaries came to China. Some of the more famous of them are as follows: Italian missionaries including Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), Niccolo Longobardi (1559–1654), Sabbatino deUrsis (1575–1620) and Giulio Aleni (1582–1649), the Spanish missionary Diego de Pantoja (1571– 1618), the Germanic missionaries including Johann Schreck (1576–1630) and

The influence of modern western culture 3 Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1591–1666), the Belgian missionaries including Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–1688) and Philippus Maria Grimaldi (1639–1712), the French missionaries Jean-François Gerbillon (1654–1707) and Joachim Bouvet (1656–1730). While preaching, they wrote books and propounded ideas, taught the Chinese a great deal of western cultural and scientific knowledge, and some of them even served as officials in the imperial court. For instance, Johann Adam Schall von Bell was appointed imperial astronomer in the fourth year of the age of Shunzhi (1647), and Ferdinand Verbiest was imperial vice-astronomer during the age of Kangxi. Some insightful Chinese scholar-officials, such as Xu Guangqi 徐光啟, Li Zhizao 李之藻, and Wang Zhi 王徴 also hoped to gain western cultural and scientific knowledge as the foundation of enriching the country and strengthening the army. They learned western languages and cooperated with some foreign missionaries to translate or write some scientific books. Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 and Matteo Ricci translated the the first six volumes of the Jǐhéyuánběn 幾何原本 [Elements] written by ancient Greek mathematician Euclid (in the tenth year of Xiánfēng 咸豐, Li Shanlan 李善蘭 finished translating the other nine volumes with English missionary Alexander Wylie.); Matteo Ricci wrote the Jīngtiāngāi 經天該 [Jingtiangai] (one volume), the Qiánkūn tǐyì 乾坤體義 [The Equal Law of the Heaven and Earth] (two volumes), the Yuánróng jiàoyì 圓容較義 [The Geometry Relationship of Graphics] (one volume), and the Chóngkè jīrén shípiān 重刻 畸人十篇 [Ten Pieces of Reshaping Eccentrics] (two volumes); Johann Schreck wrote the Cètiān yuēshuō 測天約説 [An Overview of Celestial Observation] (two volumes), and the Dàcè 大測 [Big Observation] (two volumes); Johann Schreck dictated and then Wang Zhi 王徴 translated and wrote the Yuǎnxī qíqì túshuōlù zuì 遠西奇器圖説録最 [Descriptive Handbooks on Far West Peculiar Instruments] (three volumes); Italian missionary Sabbatino deUrsis interpreted the Jiǎnpíngyí shuō 簡平儀説 [A Handbook on Jianpingyi] (one volume) and the Tàixī shuǐfǎ 泰 西水法 [Taixi Hydraulic Theory] (six volumes), and Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 noted down or transcribed them; Spanish Jesus fellow Giulio Aleni wrote the Zhífāng wàijì 職方外紀 [Chronicles of Territory] (five volumes), describing local conditions and customs of countries on five continents, their climate and scenic spots, and Columbus’s voyage to the new world; Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 wrote the Nóngzhèng quánshū 農政全書 [Agricultural Administration Encyclopedia] (60 volumes); Li Zhizao 李之藻 wrote the beginning of the first volume of the Húngài tōngxiǎn túshuō 渾蓋通憲圖説 [General Illustrated Handbooks of Hungai] (two volumes); Wang Zhi 王徴 wrote the Xīnzhì zhūqì túshuō 新制諸器圖説 [An Illustrated Handbook of Newly Made Utensils] (one volume), etc. With the introduction of western modern natural science and social science, many new things and concepts emerged. When we need to translate these things and concepts, there are three methods often applied including transliteration, free translation, and semitransliteration and semi-free translation. Transliteration is the way in which we translate original words directly based on their pronunciation; free translation is to create neologisms with the original Chinese morphemes according to the law of Chinese word composition or to endow Old Chinese words with new meanings

4 The influence of modern western culture for translating. In terms of semi-transliteration and semi-free translation, it means that half of the translated words are transliterated and the other half are freely translated. From the above works, we can see many neologisms and loanwords, as evidenced in the following examples. Asia, transliterated as yàxìyà 亞細亞, a Latin word, is also translated as yàzhōu 亞洲. Europe, transliterated as ōuluóbā 歐邏 (羅)巴, a Latin word, is also translated as ōuzhōu 歐洲. Geometria, an Italian word, is a type of mathematics that deals with the relationship between the shape, size and position of various objects. Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 freely translated it as jǐhé 幾何, which is still in use today. Historia, a Latin word, refers to a science that studies the developmental process of human society. It is transliterated as yīsīduōlìyà 伊斯多利亞. Afterwards it is literally translated as lìshǐ 歷史 and shǐxué 史學. Logica, a Latin word, is a science that studies forms and laws of thinking. It is transliterated as luòrìjiā 絡日伽 or freely translated as mínglǐxué 名理學 and xíngxìngxué 形性學, and Yan Fu 嚴復 translated it as míngxué 名學. Later on, it was translated as yùlǐxué 諭理學 according to Japanese language. During the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, it was translated as lǐzéxué 理則學, but it is transliterated as luó jí 邏輯 now. Mathematica is a science that studies spatial forms and quantitative relationships in the real world, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, and so on. It is a Latin word, transliterated as mǎdémǎdìjiā 瑪得瑪第加 and freely translated as shěnxíngxué 審形學; later on, it was translated as shùxué 數學 that is still in use today. Oeconomica is the sum of social production relations in a certain period of history. It also refers to the discipline that studies all aspects of the national economy. It is a Latin word, transliterated as égènuòmǐjiā 額各諾靡加. The Japanese uses the Old Chinese word jīngjì 經濟 to refer to the English words economy and economics, then the translation was adopted in Chinese. The Chinese word jīngjì 經濟 was first seen in the book Dá Yīn Hào shū 答殷浩書 [A Letter in Reply to Yin Hao] written by Huiji 會稽 Prince Sima Yu 司馬昱 in the second year of Yǒnghé 永和 during Emperor Mu 穆 of the Jin dynasty (356 AD), which writes that “zúxià shěnshí yāncháng, sīzōng tōngliàn, qǐér míngzhī, zúyǐ jīngjì. 足下沈 識淹長，思综通練，起而明之，足以經濟.” (You have a long-term vision, are careful to consider problems, and capable and decisive enough to become a talent for the world and the people.) Hereon, jīngjì 經濟 means govern and benefit the people. In 1898, Kang Youwei 康有為 established the Economic Society in Beijing, which is an early example of having the modern meaning in Chinese. Physica is a basic science in natural sciences, including mechanics, acoustics, heat, electricity, magnetism, optics, and so on. It is an Italian word, transliterated as fěixījiā 斐西伽 or freely translated as xíngxìngxué 形性學. The Japanese literally translated the English word physics as wùlǐxué 物理學, simplified as wùlǐ 物 理, and then Chinese used the two translated words. In Old Chinese, wùlǐ 物理 had appeared, referring to reason and law of things. It is written in the Héguànzǐ: Wángtiě 鶡冠子王鉄 [Ho-Kuan-Tzu: The Imperial Law] that “yuàn wén qí rénqíng wùlǐ. 願聞其人情物理.” (I am willing to hear innate laws of things.) The

The influence of modern western culture 5 Zhōushū: Míngdìjì 周書明帝紀 [The Book of the Zhou dynasty: A Biography of Emperor Ming] reads that “shìyǐ shēngér yǒu sǐzhě, wùlǐ zhī bìrán. 是以生而有 死者，物理之必然.” (The fact that someone was born and someone was dead is an inexorable law.) Theologia is a theory that Christians use idealist philosophy to demonstrate religious doctrine. It is a Late Latin word, transliterated as dǒulùrìyà 陡禄日亞 or freely translated as chāoxué 超學or “chāoxìngxué 超性學. Afterwards, it was translated as shénxué 神學, which is still in use today. Torrid zone refers to both sides of the equator, namely the zone between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer. In this region, there is little difference in the length of days and nights in the four seasons, and its climate is hot all year round with abundant rainfall. “Torrid zone” is an English phrase, translated as rèdài 熱帶 by Matteo Ricci. His book Qiánkūn tǐyì 乾坤體義 [The Equal Law of the Heaven and Earth] (1605) reads that “qídì shènrè, zéwéi rèdài. 其地甚熱，則為 熱帶.” (The region is very hot, so it belongs to the tropics.) Giulio Aleni’s Zhífāng wàijì 職方外紀 [Chronicles of Territory] also uses the title that is still in use today. The temperate zone is the region between the regression line of the northern and southern hemispheres of the Earth and polar circles. In this area, there are four distinct seasons and a relatively mild climate. It is English, translated as zhèngdài 正帶 by Matteo Ricci. Giulio Aleni translated it as wēndài 溫帶, which is still in use today. Frigid zone is the region within the north and south polar circles of Earth, in which the climate is cold all year round and there are polar days and nights every year. It is an English word, which is translated as hándài 寒帶 by Matteo Ricci in his book Qiánkūn tǐyì 乾坤體義 [The Equal Law of the Heaven and Earth], and it is also translated as lěngdài 冷帶 by Giulio Aleni. Nowadays, the name hándài 寒帶 is still in use nowadays. Principle is the norm of speaking and doing. It is an English word, which is translated as yuánzé 原則 by Matteo Ricci. In his book of Tiānxué shíyí 天學實義 [The Real Meaning of Catholicism], it reads that “jīnzi yùwén tiānzhǔjiào yuánzé, wú zhíchén cǐlǐ yǐduì. 今子欲聞天主教原則，吾直陳此理以對.” (As you want to hear Catholic principles, I will present them straight.) The translation is still in use today. Material, an English word, refers to the information material provided as a reference or basis. Giulio Aleni translated it as zīliào 資料. In his book Xīxuéfán 西學凡 [Western Methods of Learning and Cultivating Talents], it writes that “xiān guān wù, guān shì, guān shíshì, ér xímì dàolǐ yǐ xiāngzhì, suǒwèi zhǒngzhǒng yìlùn zhī zīliào shìyě. 先觀物、觀事、觀時勢，而習覓道理以相質，所謂種 種議論之資料是也.” (Firstly, observe objects, things and current situations, and then find the truth and essence of things. All kinds of the discussions are so-called materials.) Telescope is an optical instrument that is used to observe long-distance objects. It is an English word, first translated as yuǎnjìng 遠鏡 and later translated as qiānlǐjìng 千里鏡, yuǎnwàngjìng 遠望鏡, and wàngyuǎnjìng 望遠鏡. It is noted in the Qīngshǐgǎo: Shíxiànzhì yì 清史稿·時憲制一 [The Qing History Draft:

6

The influence of modern western culture

Time and Constitution I] by Johann Adam Schall von Bell in the first year of the age of Shunzhi (1644) that “lùn xīnxué dàyào fán sìshíèr shì: . . . rì tiānhàn shìyí. Xīnfǎ cèyǐ yuǎnjìng, tiānhàn nǎi wúsuàn xiǎoxīng cuánjù érchéng. 論新學大要 凡四十二事： . . . 日天漢釋疑. 新法測以遠鏡，天漢乃無算小星攒聚而成.” (In terms of new learning, it includes 42 things by and large: . . . it is called the Milky Way which is used to dispel suspicion. The new calendar is observed with telescopes, and the Milky Way is the collection of uncountable little stars.) In 1842, Wei Yuan 魏源 wrote in the volume 59 of the Hǎiguó yuánzhì 海國圆志 [Illustrated Annals of Overseas Countries] that “qiānlǐjìng néng guān yuǎnjǐngzhě wúzú chēngqí, yǒu qūqǔ guǎnzhě néng dǔ qí shì zhī piānyú. 千里鏡能觀遠景者 無足稱奇，有屈曲管者能睹其室之偏隅.” (It is not uncommon that people use telescopes to see long-range perspectives, but some people can see the corner of their room with a flexible tube.) The second volume of the Lùshuǐtíng záshí 渌水 亭雜識 [Lushui Pavilion Miscellaneous Knowledge] by Nalan Xìngde 納蘭性德 reads that “Zhōngguó tiānguānjiā, jùyán tiānhé shì jīqì . . . . Yǐ wàngyuǎnjìng kuī zhī, jiē xiǎoxīng yě, lìlì fēnmíng. 中國天官家，俱言天河是積氣. . . . 以望遠鏡 窥之，皆小星也，歷歷分明.” (Chinese officials all regard the Milky Way as the accumulation of gas . . . Through a telescope, it is observed that there are all distinct and clear little stars.) The name “wàngyuǎnjìng 望遠鏡” is still in use today. A Catholic father is usually the head of a single church and assists a bishop in the administration of the church as westerners respect Catholic and Orthodox clergy. As an English phrase, it was introduced into China in the 17th century, and translated as shénfù 神父. Giulio Aleni’s Zhífāng wàijì 職方外紀 [Chronicles of Territory] (1623) writes that “Zhānlǐ diàntáng, zì guódū yǐzhì xiāngjǐng, suí zài jiànlì, fù yǒu zhǎngjiàozhě zhuān zhǔjiào shì, rén jiē chēngwéi shénfù. 瞻 禮殿堂，自國都以至鄉井，随在建立，復有掌教者專主教事，人皆稱爲神 父.” (From the capital of the country to the countryside, halls of worship were established during the Sui dynasty. Later there was a leader who specialized in episcopal affairs and was called “Catholic father” by the people.) Some translated names have been preserved over time, while some are later replaced by other translated names. On the one hand, it depends on whether the translated names are appropriate and popular; on the other hand, it depends on the popularity of translated works. In the Ming dynasty, the translated works were not unimportant but also were not widely circulated, in which many new words had not been widely used and did not become general Chinese lexicon, so they were easily replaced by other translated names. Before the 18th century, the rulers of the Qing dynasty once closed its doors to the outside world, so the traffic between China and the West almost came to a standstill. In the age of Yongzheng (1729), “Doors were open widely and Southeast Asian countries came to China to trade.”1 From then on, the traffic between China and the West began to flourish again. After the Opium War, great changes took place in Chinese society. Imperialist cannons and warships frightened the rulers of the Qing dynasty and made some people realize that the old ways no longer worked. They emphasized westernization, sending foreign students to the

The influence of modern western culture 7 west, opening schools and establishing manufacturing bureaus. Many patriotic advanced people wanted to seek truth from western countries and learn from capitalism in order to make our country strong and prosperous. In this situation, the translation industry has developed greatly. There was the School of Combined Learning in Beijing and the Translation Hall attached to Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau in Shanghai. More than 170 western books have been translated, involving politics, military, law, history, geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, physiology, technology, commerce, agriculture, etc. Other institutions did a lot of translation work as well, including the Western Studies School in Tianjin, the Nanyang Public School in Shanghai, the Board of Admiralty, the Current Affairs Newspaper, the Christian Literature Society, the London Missionary Society Mission Press, and so on. From the middle of the Ming dynasty to the late Qing dynasty, there were more than 1,000 western and Japanese works which were translated into Chinese. The dramatic changes in society and the growing prosperity of translation have greatly affected the development of the Chinese lexicon. There have been more and more loanwords and neologisms day by day. Among which, the contents involved are becoming more and more extensive, and they are used in more ordinary situations. The loanwords and neologisms produced by the introduction of western culture in the Ming dynasty were mostly limited to the fields of science and technology. However, after the Opium War, especially before and after the reform movement of 1898, the loanwords and neologisms included not only all fields of modern science and technology, but also all aspects of people’s lives. They play an important role in people’s daily lives and are widely used. These words come from three main sources. For the first source, some of them are borrowed from translated words in Japanese or Japanese loanwords; secondly, some of them are Indo-European loanwords; thirdly, some of them are neologisms. They are discussed respectively as follows.

2 Translated words in Japanese and Japanese loanwords 2.1 Translated words in Japanese After the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan translated a large number of western cultural and scientific books, most of which were freely translated by the Japanese who used Chinese characters to construct neologisms. Later, the Chinese adopted these words entirely including their forms and meanings. Phonetically, the words were read in Japanese by the Japanese, while they were read in Chinese by the Chinese, so they did not affect each other. These are the Japanese translated words which include a large number and involves extensive content. The 99% of translated words in Japanese come from English, the largest numbers of which are nouns. (1) Names related to science and technology (see Table 1.1) (2) Names related to politics and economy (see Table 1.2)

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Table 1.1 Names related to science and technology Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

電報 電車 電話 電子 動力學 工業 航空母艦 化學 科學 機關炮 汽船 輕工業 驅逐艦 生理學 生態學 手工業 心理學 因子 優生學 元素 原子 重工業

denpō densha denwa denshi dōriki-gaku kōgyō kōkubokan kagaku kagaku kikanho kisen kei-kōgyō kuchiku-kan seiri-gaku seitai-gaku shu-kōgyō shinri-gaku inshi yūsei-gaku genso genshi jū-kōgyō

telegram tramcar telephone electron dynamics industry aircraft carrier chemistry science machine gun steamship light industry destroyer physiology ecology manual industry psychology factor eugenics element atom heavy industry

Table 1.2 Names related to politics and economy Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

霸權 不動產 財團 動產 獨裁 高利貸 公報 公債 共產主義 國際 國庫 集團 金融 領海 領空 領土 企業 情報 人權 商業 社團

haken fudō-san zaidan dōsan dokusai kōrigashi kōhō kōsai kyosan-shugi kokusai kokko shudan kin’yū ryōkai ryōku ryōdo kigyō jōhō jinken shōgyō shadan

hegemony immovables foundation, syndicate movables dictatorship usury official report public bond communism international national treasury group finance territorial waters territorial sky territory enterprise information human rights commerce corporation

The influence of modern western culture 9 Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

實業 市場 所有權 特權 協會 議會 議院 債權 債務 政策 政黨 證券

jitsugyō shijō shoyū-ken tokken kyōkai gikai giin saiken saimu seisaku seitō shōken

industry, business market ownership privilege society, association parliament congress, parliament creditor’s right debt policy political party negotiable securities

(3) Names related to culture and art (see Table 1.3) Table 1.3 Names related to culture and art Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

悲劇 出版物 處女作 幻燈 漫畫 美術 交響樂 教科書 腳本 體育 文庫 舞臺 喜劇 宗教

higeki shuppan-but’su shuju-saku gentō manga bijutsu kōkyō-gaku kyōka-sho kyakuhon taiiku bunko butai kigeki shūkyō

tragedy publication first publication magic lantern caricature art symphony textbook script, scenario physical culture, sports library stage comedy religion

(4) Names related to general things (see Table 1.4) Table 1.4 Names related to general things Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

常識 單元 方式 方案 金剛石 空間 類型 理想 蜜月

jōshiki tangen hōshiki hōan kongō-seki kūkan ruikei risō mitsugetsu

common sense unit way, fashion, pattern plan diamond space type ideal honeymoon (Continued)

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Table 1.4 (Continued) Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

目標 目的 內容 情操 權威 時間 事態 現象 義務 原則 指標

mokuhyo mokuteki naiyō jōsō ken’i jikan jitai genshō gimu gensoku shihyō

mark, target aim, goal, end content sentiment authority time, hour situation phenomenon duty, obligation principle index, norms, target

(5) Titles (see Table 1.5) Table 1.5 Titles Translated Words in Japanese Pronunciation in Japanese English jōkyaku teinō-ji hōjin kōboku kōshi kyōin keisatsu keikan kishu zuiin musan-sha giin sōri sō-ryoji chūsai-jin

乘客 低能兒 法人 公僕 講師 教員 警察 警官 旗手 隨員 無產者 議員 總理 總領事 仲裁人

passenger imbecile juridical person, legal person public servant lecturer, instructor teacher police police officer standard-bearer attendant, suite proletarian member of parliament prime minister consul general arbitrator

There are also many translated words in Japanese which are verbs, as exemplified in Table 1.6. Table 1.6 Examples of translated verbs in Japanese Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

暗示 表決 出庭 抵抗 動員 反應 否定

anji hyōketsu shuttei teikō dōin hannō hitei

hint, suggest, suggestion decide by vote, rote appear in court resist, resistance arouse, mobilize, mobilization react, response, reaction deny, negate, denial, negation

The influence of modern western culture 11 Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

否決 否認 概括 公訴 歸納 解放 進化 進展 講演 論戰 派遣 陪審 批評 强制 清算 審判 施工 輸出 速記 探險 退化 演出 引渡 指導 制裁 制約 綜合

hiketsu hi’nin gaikatsu kōso kinō kaihō shinka shinten kōen ronsen haken baishin hihyo kyōsei seisan shinpan, shinban shikō yushutsu sokki tanken taika enshutsu hiki-watasu shidō seisai seiyaku sōgō

reject, rejection deny, denial summarize, summary prosecute, prosecution induce, conclude, sum up, induction liberate, liberation, emancipate evolve, evolution progress, development lecture debate, controvert, controversy send, dispatch serve on a jury criticize compel, force liquidate, liquidation judge, adjudge construct, construction export shorthand explore, exploration degenerate, degeneration perform, performance extradite, extradition, deliver(y) guide, guidance, direct, direction punish, sanction restrict, condition synthesize

There are relatively fewer translated adjectives in Japanese, as exemplified in Table 1.7. Table 1.7 Examples of translated adjectives in Japanese Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

必要（的） 抽象（的） 活躍（的） 積極（的） 間接（的） 絕對（的） 客觀（的） 敏感（的） 消極（的） 直接（的） 主觀（的）

hitsuyō chūshō katsuyaku sekkyoku kansetsu zettai kyakkan binkan shōkyoku chokusetsu shukan

necessary abstract active positive indirect absolute objective sensitive negative, passive direct subjective

Some of the translated words in Japanese are from other western languages, as exemplified in Table 1.8.

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Table 1.8 Examples of translated Japanese words from other western languages Translated Words in Japanese

Pronunciation in Japanese

English

二重奏 幹部 感性 歌劇 幻想曲 加農炮 金絲雀 剩餘價值 世界觀 素描 天鵝絨 無產階級 象徵 小夜曲 哲學

nijū-sō kanbu kansei kageki gensō-kyoku kanon-bo, kanōhō kanaria jōyo-kachi seikai-kan sobyō birōdo musan-kaikyu shōchō sāyo-kyoku tesugaku

(Italian) duetto, duo (French) cardre (German) Sinnlichkeit (Italian) opera (Italian) fantasia (Dutch) kanon (Spanish) canania (German) Mehrwert (German) Weltanschauung (French) dessin (Portuguese) veludo (French) proletariat (French) symbole (German) Serenade (Greek) philosophia

2.2 Translated words in Japanese from Old Chinese The Japanese sometimes use existing words in Old Chinese to translate new western concepts. These words are inherent in Ancient Chinese in terms of forms, some of which have an inheritance relationship in terms of meanings, but some of which are very different in terms of meanings. When these words return to China, they change in appearance and are not what they used to be, as can be seen in the following examples. 2.2.1 Nouns Bówù 博物 is pronounced as hakubutsu in Japanese, which is the general name of animals, plants, minerals, physiology, and other disciplines. It is translated freely as natural history or natural science in English. In Old Chinese, it meant knowing everything. It is recorded in the Zuǒzhuàn: Zhāogōngyuánnián 左傳·昭公元 年 [Chronicle of Zuo, The First Year of the Age of Zhaogong] that “Jìnhóu wén Zichǎn zhīyán, yuē, ‘Bówù jūnzi yě.’ 晉侯聞子産之言，曰：‘博物君子也’.” (When Duke Jin heard Zi Chan’s words, he said, “He is a knowledgeable gentleman.”) The Bǐshuō: Bówù shuō 筆説博物説 [Informal Essays: Knowing Everything] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 of the Song dynasty writes that “cǎomù chóngyú, Shī jiā zìwéi yìxué, bówù yóunán. 草木蟲魚，《詩》家自爲一學，博物尤難.” (Grass, trees, insects, and fish, are discussed respectively in Poems, and it is more difficult to know everything.) Fǎlǜ 法律 is pronounced as horitsu in Japanese, which is the rules of conduct that are enacted by the legislation and enforced by the organs of state power, and must be observed by citizens. It is translated freely as law in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the criminal law and various decrees. The Guǎnzi: Qīchénqīzhǔ

The influence of modern western culture 13 管子七臣七主 [Guǎnzǐ: Seven Monarchs and Seven Officials] reads that “fū fǎzhě suǒyǐ xīnggōng jùbào yě; lǜzhě, suǒyǐ dìngfēn zhǐzhēng yě; lìngzhě suǒyǐ lìngrén zhīshì yě; fǎlǜ zhènglìng zhě, lìmín guīju shéngmò yě. 夫法者所以興功 懼暴也；律者，所以定分止争也；令者所以令人知事也；法律政令者，吏 民規矩繩墨也.” (The so-called fǎ 法 is used to advocate meritorious service and deter violence; the lǜ 律 is used to clearly define people’s duties to stop disputes; orders are used to order people to manage affairs. Laws and decrees are the rules governing people.) Gànshì 幹事 is pronounced as kanji in Japanese, which is translated freely as manager and secretary in English. It refers to a person who specializes in a specific job. In Ancient Chinese, it meant do things. It is written in the Yì: Gàn 易 幹 [Changes: Doing] that “zhēngù zúyǐ gànshi. 貞固足以幹事.” (Sticking to the right path is enough to achieve a career.) The Dá Huáng Zǐgēng shū 答黄子耕書 [A Letter in Reply to Huang Zigeng] by Zhu Xi 朱熹 of the Song dynasty writes that “jīnqiě zào yī xiǎo shūyuàn, yǐwéi wǎnglái gànshi xiūxi zhīchù. 今且造一小 書院，以爲往来幹事休息之處.” (Now build a small academy of classical learning as a resting place for secretaries.) Gémìng 革命 is pronounced as kakumei in Japanese, which is translated freely as revolution in English. It refers to great changes in society, politics, and economy. In Old Chinese, it meant changing destiny. The ancients believed that the emperor was ordered by Heaven, so they called the change of dynasties gémìng 革命. It is written in the Yì Gé 易革 [Changes: Reforming] that “tiāndì géér sìshí chéng. Tāng Wǔ gémìng, shùnhū tiān ér yìnghū rén. 天地革而四時成. 湯武革 命，順乎天而應乎人.” (The seasons are formed by the change of Heaven and Earth. The revolutions launched by King Tang of the Yin dynasty and King Wu of the Zhou dynasty are an inevitable action in accordance with the will of Heaven and the people.) The Jìnshū: Wáng Dūn zhuàn 晋書·王敦傳 [The Book of the Jin dynasty: A Biography of Wang Dun] writes that “xī Hànzǔ yǐ Shénwǔ gémìng, kāijiàn dìyè. 昔漢祖以神武革命，開建帝業.” (In the past, the emperor of the Han dynasty built a new dynasty with the Shenwu revolution.) Gònghé 共和 is pronounced as kyowa in Japanese, which is a political system in which heads of state and fixed authorities are regularly elected. It is translated freely as republic in English. In Old Chinese, it was called gònghé 共和, referring to the 14 years of co-governance by Zhou and Zhao after King Li of the Western Zhou dynasty lost his country. It is noted in the Shǐjì: Zhōuběnjì 史 記周本紀 [Records of the Grand Historian: The History of the Zhou dynasty] that “Zhàogōng, Zhōugōng èrxiāng xíngzhèng, hào rì gònghé. 召公、周公二相 行政，號日共和.” (Duke Zhao and Duke Zhou governed the country together, which is called gònghé 共和.) The Míngzhèngtǒnglùn 明正統論 [The Orthodoxy of Ming] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 of the Song dynasty writes that “xī Zhōushǔwáng zhīluàn, tiānxià wú jūn, Zhōugōng, Shàogōng gòng xíng qízhèng shísì nián, érhòu Xuānwáng lì, shì zhōu zhītǒng chángjué shísì nián ér fùxù. Rán wéi zhōushǐzhě, jì Zhōu, Zhào zhīnián wèi zhī gònghé, ér tàishǐgōng yì liè zhī yú niánbiǎo. 昔周 属王之亂，天下無君，周公、邵公共行其政十四年，而後宣王立，是周之

14 The influence of modern western culture 統嘗絶十四年而復續. 然爲周史者，紀周、召之年謂之共和，而太史公亦 列之於《年表》.” (There was once no king in the country due to the chaos of King Shu of the Zhou dynasty. Then the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao governed the country for 14 years. Afterwards King Xuan was proclaimed to be the King, who was an orthodox inheritor to continue the Zhou dynasty. According to the history of the Zhou dynasty, Zhou and Zhao’s reign was recorded as gònghé, which was also recorded in Taishigong’s Chronology.) Jīguān 機關 is pronounced as kikan in Japanese, which is translated freely as organ in English. It refers to the key part of the whole machine and also refers to the organization handling affairs. In Old Chinese, jīguān 機關 referred to instruments capable of moving with mechanical parts. The Hànshū: Yìwén zhì 漢書·藝 文志 [The Book of the Han dynasty: Records of Skill and Culture] writes that “Jìqiǎozhě, xí shǒuzú, biàn qìxiè, jī jīguān, yǐ lì gōngshǒu zhī shēngzhě yě. 技巧 者，習手足，便器械，積機關，以立攻守之勝者也.” (Those who have skills, practice hands and feet, use instruments, and accumulate mechanisms to win in attack and defense.) The Lùnhéng:Rúzēng 論衡儒增 [The Discussion on Balance: Exaggeration in Confucianism] by Wang Han 王漢 of the Han dynasty writes that “mùrén yùzhě, jīguān bèijù, zǎimǔ qíshàng, yìqū bùhái. 木人御者，機關備具， 載母其上，一驅不還.” (The wooden coachman drove the wooden carriage with complete mechanisms. His mother sat on it. As soon as the carriage ran, it didn’t come back.) Jiējí 階級 is pronounced as kaikyu in Japanese. It refers to the groups that people are divided into due to their different positions in certain social production relations in history and their different possession of means of production. It is translated freely as class in English. In Old Chinese, it meant the step. The Yěmiào bēi 野廟碑 [A Tablet in an Unknown Temple] authored by Lu Guimeng 陸龜蒙 of the Tang dynasty writes that “jīn zhī xióngyì ér shuòzhě yǒu zhī, wēnyuàn ér shàozhě yǒu zhī, shēng jiējí, zuò tángyán, ěr xiánpáo, kǒu liángròu, zǎi chēmǎ, tāntú lìzhě, jiē shì yě. 今之雄毅而碩者有之，温願而少者有之，升階級，坐 堂筵，耳絃匏，口粱肉，載車馬，摊徒隸者，皆是也.” (Now there are also powerful and decisive people with large physiques, as well as those who are kind, cautious, and young. This is true of people who climb the steps, hold large banquets, listen to music, feast on exquisite food, ride horses, and are surrounded by servants.) It also meant the hierarchy between the superior and the inferior. In the Sānguózhì 三國志 [Records of the Three Kingdoms], the Wúshū: Gù Tán zhuàn 吴書·顧譚傳 [The Book of the Wu dynasty: A Biography of Gu Tan] 顧譚 reads that “nòng zūnbēi zhīlǐ, shǐ gāoxià yǒuchà, jiējí yúmiǎo. 弄尊卑之禮，使高下 有差，階級逾邈.” (The etiquette of differentiating superiors from inferiors is respected so as to make a distinction between lowliness and nobleness and there is a hierarchy.) Jīngshén 精神 is pronounced as seishin in Japanese, referring to consciousness of human beings, thinking activity, and general mental state. It is translated freely as mind and spirit in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the vitality of Heaven and Earth. The Yítán: Pìnlǐ 儀檀·聘禮 [Etiquette: Betrothal Presents] writes that “jīngshén jiànyú shānchuān, dì yě. 精神見於山川、地也.” (Vitality can be seen

The influence of modern western culture 15 in mountains, rivers, and earth.) Zhèng 鄭 annotated that “jīngshén yì jú jīnglǜ yě. 精神亦局精氯也.” (Jīngshén 精神 is also the vitality Yin and Yang.) Furthermore, it referred to people’s spirits and minds. The Zhuāngzǐ Tiāndào 荘子天道 [Chuang Tzu Natural Law] reads that “shuǐjìng māomíng, érkuàng jīngshén. 水静 猫明，而况精神.” (Calm water is clean and clear, not to mention people’s spirits!) The Shénnǚ fù 神女賦 [The Ode to Goddess] written by Song Yu 宋玉 reads that “bǔxī zhīhòu, jīngshén huǎnghū, yóuyǒu suǒxǐ. 哺夕之後，精神恍忽，猶 有所喜.” (In the late afternoon, his mind is wandering, as if he is happy.) Lǐshì 理事 is pronounced as riji in Japanese, referring to the person who exercises authority and carries out affairs on behalf of a group. It is translated freely as director in English. In Old Chinese, it meant handling tasks and dealing with things. The Hòuhànshū: Zhuó Mào zhuàn 後漢書·卓茂傳 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: A Biography of Zhuo Mao] records that “Hénánjùn wéi zhì shǒulìng, Mào bù wéi xián, lǐshì zìruò. 河南郡爲置守令，茂不爲嫌，理事自 若.” (A deputy magistrate was appointed to assist him in Henan County. Zhuo Mao was not suspicious, dealing with business as usual.) Nèigé 內閣 is pronounced as naikaku in Japanese, referring to the highest administrative institutions in some countries. It is translated freely as cabinet in English. In Old Chinese, it was a polysemous word: (1) The living room or inner room of a noble woman. The Běishǐ Xíng Shào zhuàn 北史邢邵傳 [The History of the Northern dynasties: A Biography of Xing Shao] records that “Àofù shènshū, wèicháng nèisù, zì yún cháng huà rù nèigé, wéi gǒu suǒfèi. 奥婦甚疏，未嘗 内宿，自云嘗畫入内閣，爲狗所吠.” (He is very estranged from his wife and hasn’t slept in her room. He said he had tried to enter his wife’s living room in the daytime, but the dog barked.) (2) The ancient Central office; during the Three Kingdoms Period, it referred to the place in the palace where rare books were kept. In the Sānguózhì 三國志 [Records of the Three Kingdoms], the Wèishū: Wáng Sù zhuàn 魏書·王肅傳 [The Book of the Wei dynasty: A Biography of Wang Su] reads that “yì lìzhù jīngzhuàn, pō chuán yú shì. 亦歷注经傳，頗傳于 世.” (They also annotate scriptures completely, and spread them widely around the world.) Quoting from the Wèiluè 魏略 [The Brief History of the Wei dynasty] written by Wei Yuhuan 魏魚豢, Péi 裴 annotated that “lántái wéi wàitái, mìshū wéi nèigé, táigé yì yě. 蘭臺爲外臺，秘書爲内閣，臺閣一也.” (Lántái 蘭臺 is wàitái 外臺, and mìshū 秘書 is nèigé 内閣, the two refer to the same official title.) In the Song dynasty, the government offices lóngyuángé 龍圓閣, tiānzhānggé 天 章閣, bǎowéngé 寶文閣, and so on were all called nèigé 內閣. The Hè qìngzhōu Dù Dàizhì qǐ 贺慶州杜待制啓 [A Congratulatory Letter to Daizhi Du of Qingzhou] written by Wang Anshi 王安石 reads that “juàn nèigé zhī jìnbān, dū shuàichén zhī zhòngbǐng. 眷内閣之近班，督帥臣之重柄.” (Nèigé 内閣 is full of courtiers supervising commanders with heavy responsibility.) (3) Government agencies of the Ming and Qing dynasties. At the beginning of Yongle’s era of the Ming dynasty, the officials responsible for teaching and compiling in the Imperial Academy were selected to enter the Pavilion of Literary Profoundity, who dealt with confidential work. This is known as nèigé 內閣 (cabinet). After the middle of the Ming dynasty, the power of the cabinet became heavier and heavier. It

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The influence of modern western culture

also took charge of the six ministers. In fact, it was called the emperor’s highest decision-making organ. In the early Qing dynasty, the three academies including the National History Academy, the Secretary Academy, and the Hongwen Academy formed the cabinet. They set up a bachelor to participate in military and political secrets. Since the age of Yongzheng, the cabinet had no real power. The chapter 92 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty records that “tīngde nèigé lǐrén shuōqǐ, Yǔcūn yòu yào shēng le. 聽得内閣裹人説起，雨村又要升了.” (It is said by the officials in the cabinet that Yucun will get a promotion again.) Shèhuì 社會 is pronounced as shakai in Japanese, the general term of the relationship between people based on common material life activities. It also refers to people who connect with each other due to common material conditions, which is translated freely as society in English. In Old Chinese, it was the gatherings and meetings held in villages. The Dōngjīngmènghuálù: Qiūshè 東京夢華録·秋社 [The Autumn Meeting of Reminiscences of the Eastern Capital] written by Meng Yuanlao 孟元老 of the Song dynasty reads, “Bāyuè qiūshè . . . shìxué xiānsheng yù liǎn zhūshēng qián zuò shèhuì. 八月秋社 . . . 市學先生預斂諸生錢作社會.” (For the autumn meeting in August . . . Private teachers plan to collect money from students to hold the meeting.) Shénjīng 神經 is pronounced as shinkei in Japanese, which is the tissue that conducts excitement in humans and animals, consisting of fiber bundles and connective tissue. It is translated freely as nerve in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to mysterious classics. The Hòuhànshū: Fāng Shù zhuànxù 後漢書方術傳序 [The Preface of a Biography of Fang Shu of the Book of the Later Han dynasty] records that “rán shénjīng guàidié, yùcè jīnshéng, guānjiōng yú mínglíng zhīfǔ, fēngténg yú yáotán zhīshàng zhě, mídé ér kuī yě. 然神經怪牒，玉策金繩，關 扃於明靈之府，封縢於瑶壇之上者，靡得而窺也.” (Mysterious classics and books made of jade and golden strings are stored and sealed in Gods’ mansions, only when you research them, you can have a look.) Tiáojiàn 條件 is pronounced as jōken in Japanese, which are the factors that affect and promote the occurrence, existence, or development of things. It is translated freely as condition in English. In Old Chinese, it meant one by one. The Běishǐ: Lángjī zhuàn 北史·郎基傳 [A Biography of Lang Ji of the History of the Northern dynasties] records that “suì tiáojiàn shēn táishěng, réng yǐ qíngliàng shì kēchù. 遂條件申台省，仍以情量事科處.” (Their charges will be stated by Taisheng one by one, and the convictions are made on an individual basis.) Wèishēng 衛生 is pronounced as jōken in Japanese, which can prevent disease and pain and is beneficial to health and also refers to hygienic conditions. It is translated freely as hygiene and sanitation in English. In Old Chinese, it meant keep in good health and protect life. The Zhuāngzǐ: Gēng sāngchǔ 莊子·庚桑 楚 [Kang Sangchu of Chuang Tzu] records that “Lǎozǐ yuē, ‘Wèishēng zhījīng, néng bào yì hū?’ 老子曰：‘衛生之經，能抱一乎？’” (The truth of keeping in good health is to embrace Tao.) Guo Xiang 郭象 annotated that “fáng wèi qí shēng, lìng hé dào yě. 防衛其生，令合道也.” (Protecting life conforms to Tao.) It also meant making a living. The Sòngshū: Zhèng Xiānzhī zhuàn 宋書·鄭鮮之

The influence of modern western culture 17 傳 [A Biography of Zheng Xianzhi of the Book of the Song dynasty] writes that “zhìyú Chén Píng mòshùn bìhuò, yǐquán jìqū, jiēshì wèishēng miǎnhài, fēiwéi róng yě. 至於陳平默順避禍，以權濟屈，皆是衛生免害，非爲榮也.” (The reason why Chen Ping secretly obeyed to avoid disasters and use his power to help those who had been wronged was because he wanted to make a living rather than to gain glory.) Wénhuà 文化 is pronounced as bunka in Japanese, which is the sum of material and spiritual wealth created by human beings in the process of historical development, especially spiritual wealth, such as literature, art, science, education, and so on. It is translated freely as culture in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to civil administration and enlightenment. The Shuōyuàn: Zhǐwǔ 説苑指武 [Military Guidance of Discussing Literature] written by Liu Xiang 劉向 records that “fán wǔ zhī xīng, wéi bù fú yě. Wénhuà bù gǎi, ránhòu jiā zhū. 凡武之興，爲不 服也. 文化不改，然後加誅.” (Whoever conquers the world by force would not be convinced by people. If a man is enlightened first but still doesn’t change his words and deeds, he can then be punished by force.) The Bǔwángshī Yóuyí 補亡 詩由儀 [The Appearance of the Poetry of Making up the Lost] written by Shu Xi 束皙 of the Jin dynasty records that “wénhuà nèijí, wǔgōng wàiyōu. 文化内輯， 武功外悠.” (A man should have cultural cultivation in mind and make contributions to the outside world.) Wénxué 文學 is pronounced as bungaku in Japanese, referring to the works that use language and words as tools to vividly reflect objective facts, including poetry, novels, prose, drama, etc. It is translated freely as literature in English. In Old Chinese, it meant articles and various learning and classic literature. The Lúnyǔ: Xiānjìn 論語·先進 [The Analects of Confucius: The Advanced] illustrates that “wénxué, Ziyóu Zixià. 文學，子游子夏.” (Ziyou and Zixia are familiar with the classic literature.) According to the Hànshū: Wǔdì jì 漢書武帝紀 [The History of Emperor Wu of the Book of the Han dynasty], an edict was issued in November of the first year of Yuánshuò 元朔, saying that “xuǎn háojùn, jiǎng wénxué. 選 豪俊，講文學.” (Select people of exceptional ability to teach classic literature.) Xiànfǎ 憲法 is pronounced as kenpō in Japanese, which has the highest legal effect and is the basis of other legislative work. Its role is to determine the social and economic system in line with the interests of the ruling class, the principles of the activities of state organs, and the rights and obligations of citizens. It is translated freely as constitution in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the fundamental law. The Guóyǔ: Jìnyǔ jiǔ 國語·晉語九 [The Language of the Jin dynasty IX of National Language] records that “shǎngshàn fájiān, guó zhī xiànfǎ yě. 賞 善罰奸，國之憲法也.” (The national fundamental law is to reward good and punish evil.) The Guǎnzi: Qīfǎ 管子·七法 [Seven Laws of Guan Zi] records that “yǒu yìtǐ zhīzhì, gù néng chū hàolìng, míng xiànfǎ yǐ. 有一體之治，故能出號 令，明憲法矣.” (There is an integrated rule, so it can issue orders and clarify the fundamental law.) Yuánshuài 元帥 is pronounced as gensui in Japanese, which refers to the rank higher than that of a general. It is translated freely as marshal in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the commander in chief of the army. In the Zuǒzhuàn:

18 The influence of modern western culture Xīgōng èrshíqī nián 左傳·僖公二十七年 [The 27th Year of the Age of Xigong of Chronicle of Zuo] records that “Jìn zuò sānjūn, móu yuánshuài. 晉作三軍， 謀元帥.” (There are three kinds of armies in the state of Jin, which needs to select commanders.) The Guóyǔ: Jìnyǔ sì 國語·晉語四 [The Language of the Jin dynasty IV of National Language] writes that “(Wén) gōng wèn yuánshuài yú Zhào Shuāi.〔文〕公問元帥於趙衰.” (Wengong asked Zhao Shuai whether he wanted to be commander.) Zhǔyì 主義 is pronounced as shugi in Japanese, which refers to systematic theories and propositions on the objective world, social life, and academic issues, and also refers to a certain social system as well as political and economic systems. It is translated freely as principle in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the claim on things. It is noted in the Shǐjì: Tàishǐgōng zìxù 史 記·太史公自序 [Taishigong’s Preface of Records of the Grand Historian] that “gǎnfàn yánsè yǐ dá zhǔyì, bùyán qíshēn, wèi guójiā shù chánghuà. 敢犯顔色以 達主義，不顔其身，爲國家樹長畫.” (He dares to violate dignity to achieve Lord’s proposition, without regard for self-interest, he draws a long-term plan for the country.) Zīběn 資本is pronounced as shihon in Japanese, which refers to the means of production in the hands of capitalists and the currency used to hire workers. It is translated freely as capital in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to seed money. The Shìmíng: Shìzīróng 釋名·釋姿容 [Paraphrasing Appearance of Paraphrasing Names] explains that “zī, zī yě; zī, qǔ yě; xíngmào zhībǐng, qǔwéi zīběn yě. 姿， 资也；資，取也；形貌之稟，取爲資本也.” (zī 姿 is zī 资; zī 資 is also equal to qǔ 取; the shape and appearance of a person acting as seed money.) The third volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuì 古今小說 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty writes that “sīxíng zīběn, jìngòu pánfèi. 絲行資本，盡彀盤費.” (The seed money of business dealing in raw silk is enough to pay for travelling expenses.) 2.2.2 Verbs Fāmíng 發明 is pronounced as hatsumei in Japanese, which means creating new things or methods. It is translated freely as invention in English. In Old Chinese, it meant enlighten and expand. The Fēngfù 風賦 [The Ode to Wind] written by Song Yu 宋玉 writes that “fāmíng ěrmù, níngtǐ biànrén. 發明耳目，寧體便人.” (Make people see and hear well and have peace of mind and body.) It also meant expound. The Hànshū: Liúxīn zhuàn 漢書·劉歆傳 [A Biography of Liu Xin of the Book of the Han dynasty] reads that “chū Zuǒshìzhuàn duō gǔzì gǔyán, xuézhě chuán xùngù éryǐ. Jí xīnzhì Zuǒshì, yǐn zhuàn yǐ jiějīng, zhuǎnxiāng fāmíng, yóushì zhāngjù yìlǐ bèi yān. 初《左氏傳》多古字古言，學者傳訓故而已. 及 歆治《左氏》，引傳以解經，轉相發明，由是章句義理備焉.” (At first, The Chronicle of Zuo was mostly composed of ancient characters and sayings, scholars only passed on and interpreted exegesis. When Liu Xin studied Zuo’s Biography, he quoted and transmitted texts to interpret scriptures and expounded them. From then on, the meaning of chapters and sentences became clear.)

The influence of modern western culture 19 Fǎnduì 反對 is pronounced as hantai in Japanese, which means disapproving and disagreeing. It is translated freely as opposition in English. In Old Chinese, it meant the dual sentences in which the two sentences have the same meaning but opposite expressions. The Wénxīndiāolóng Lící 文心雕龍麗辭 [Beautiful Wordage of the Literature Mind and the Carving of Dragons] by Liu Xie 劉勰 of the Southern dynasties writes that “fǎnduìzhě, lǐshū qùhé zhě yě . . . Zhòngyí Dēnglóu yún, ‘Zhōngyí yōu ér chǔ zòu, zhuāng xì xiǎn ér yuè yín’, cǐ fǎnduì zhīlèi yě. 反對者，理殊趣合者也. . . . 仲宜《登樓》云：‘鍾儀幽而楚奏，莊舄顯而越 吟’，此反對之類也.” (The so-called fǎnduì 反對 is the antithesis of opposite reasoning and consistent purport . . . Wang Can said in his The Ode to Ascending the Stairs, “Though Zhong Yi was imprisoned in the state of Jin, he still played the sound of Chu; Zhuang Jiu was a senior official in the state of Chu, who still sang the songs of Yue when he was ill.” These are examples of “fǎnduì 反對”.) Fēnxī 分析 is pronounced as bunseki in Japanese, which is to divide a thing, phenomenon, and concept into simpler components, and find out the essential attributes of these components and their relationship. It is translated freely as analyze in English. In Old Chinese, it meant separation. The Hòuhànshū: Xú Fǎng zhuàn 後漢書·徐昉傳 [A Biography of Xu Fang of the Book of the Later Han dynasty] records that “chén wén Shī, Shū, Lǐ, Yuè, dìng zì kǒngzi; fāmíng zhāngjù, shǐyú Zǐxià. Qíhòu zhūjiā fēnxī, gèyǒu yìshuō. 臣聞《詩》《書》 《禮》《樂》，定自孔子；發明章句，始于子夏. 其後諸家分析，各有異 説.” (I heard that The Books of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, and The Book of Music came from Confucius; expounding the chapters and sentences was initiated by Zixia. Then each school separated and advocated different theories.) The Dá Lú Chén shībìngshū 答盧諶詩並書 [A Letter in Reply to Lu Chen] written by Liu Kun 劉琨 reads that “tiānxià zhī bǎo, dāng yǔ tiānxià gòng zhī. Dàn fēnxī zhī rì, bù néng bù hèn hèn ěr. 天下之寶，當興天下共之. 但分析之 日，不能不恨恨耳.” (The treasure of the world should be shared with the world. But on the day of separation, I cannot help feeling sad.) Jūliú 拘留 is pronounced as kōryū in Japanese. It refers to the short-term detention or custody of specific people, which is a compulsory measure in law. Jūliú 拘留 is translated freely as detain in English. In Old Chinese, it also meant detain. The Hànshū: Xiōngnúzhuàn zàn 漢書·匈奴傳赞 [Zan of Collected Biography of Huns of the Book of the Han dynasty] writes that “Xiōngnú rénmín měilái xiáng Hàn, Chányú yì zhé jūliú Hànshǐ, yǐ xiāng bàofù. 匈奴人民每来降漢，單于亦 輒拘留漢使，以相報復.” (Whenever the Hun people surrendered to the Han, Chanyu tried to detain the Han envoy for revenge.) Kàngyì 抗議 is pronounced as kōgi in Japanese, which means that we express strong opposition to the remarks, actions, measures, etc. of a country or group. It is translated freely as protest in English. In Old Chinese, it meant providing different opinions directly. The Hòuhànshū: Hé Chǎng zhuànlùn 後漢書·何敞傳 論 [A Biography of He Chang of the Book of the Later Han dynasty] writes that “Yuán Rèn èrgōng, zhèngsè lìcháo; Hé Lè zhītú, kàngyì zhùxià. 袁任二公，正 色立朝；何樂之徒，抗議柱下.” (Duke Yuan and Duke Ren enforced the law strictly, but He and Le were publicizing different opinions.) The Lú Zhí zhuàn 盧

20

The influence of modern western culture

植傳 [A Biography of Lu Zhi] also writes that “(Dǒng Zhuó) dà huì bǎiguān yú cháotáng, yì yù zōulì, qúnliáo wú gǎnyán, Zhí dú kàngyì bùtóng. 〔董卓〕大會 百官於朝堂，議欲黀立，群僚無敢言，植獨抗議不同.” ([Dong Zhuo] summoned all civil and military officials in the court to openly discuss the abolition of the emperor. None of the officials came out to express different opinions. Only Lu Zhi protested and disagreed directly.) Láodòng 勞動 is pronounced as rōdō in Japanese, which is the activity of human beings to create material or spiritual wealth. It is translated freely as labour in English. In Old Chinese, it meant exercising. In the Sānguó zhì 三國 志 [Records of the Three Kingdoms], the Wèishū: Huá Tuó zhuàn 魏書·華佗傳 [The Book of the Wei dynasty: A Biography of Hua Tuo] reads that “réntǐ yù dé láodòng, dàn bù dāng shǐjí ěr. 人體欲得勞動，但不當使極耳.” (Human beings should exercise, but do not do too much.) It also meant bothering or worrying. The Chénshěnjǔbiǎo 陳審舉表 [A Memorial to the Throne] by Cao Zhi 曹植 of the Kingdom of Wei writes that “Bìxià kě dé yōngróng dūchéng, héshì láodòng luánjià bàolù yú biānjìng zāi? 陛下可得雍容都城，何事勞動鑾駕暴露於邊境 哉？” (Your Majesty can have the grace of the imperial palace, but why do you bother to expose yourself at the border?) Pànjué 判決 is pronounced as hanketsu in Japanese, which is the decision made by the judicial authorities on the case at the end of the trial. It is translated freely as judge in English. In Old Chinese, it meant that the feudal officials judged cases. The Nánshǐ: Kǒng Yǐ zhuàn 南史孔顗傳 [A Biography of Xing Yi of the History of the Southern dynasties] records that “suī zuìrì jūduō, ér míngxiǎo zhèngshì, xǐngshí pànjué, wèicéng yǒuyōng. 雖醉日居多，而明曉政事，醒時判決，未 曾有壅.” (Although there were more drunken days, he understood political affairs thoroughly, so he judged cases when waking up and was never fatuous.) Qīnlüè 侵略 is pronounced as shinryaku in Japanese, which means that a country or several countries unite to violate the territory and sovereignty of other countries, plunder and enslave the people of other countries. It is translated freely as aggress and invade in English. In Old Chinese, it meant violating and plundering. The Hòuhànshū: Kǒng Róng zhuàn 後漢書·孔融傳 [A Biography of Kong Rong of the Book of the Later Han dynasty] writes that “chū, Cáo Cāo gōngtú yèchéng, Yuánshì fùzi duō jiàn qīnluè. 初，曹操攻屠鄴城，袁氏婦子多見侵 略.” (At first, Cao Cao attacked and captured the City of Ye, and Yuan’s women and children were often plundered.) The Sòngshǐ Pān Měi zhuàn 宋史潘美傳 [A Biography of Pan Mei of the Book of the Song dynasty] writes that “Xītóng mánliáo zì táng yǐlái, bùshí qīnluè, pōwéi mín huàn. 溪峒蠻獠自唐以来，不 時侵略，頗爲民患.” (The rude nations plundered now and then from the Tang dynasty, which people were suffering from.) Shěnwèn 審問 is pronounced as shinmon in Japanese, which means that the court or procuratorial organ inquires the parties in civil cases, or private prosecutors and defendants in criminal cases about the case. It is translated freely as interrogate and question in English. In Old Chinese, it meant inquiring carefully. In the Lǐjì 禮記 [Book of Rites], the section of Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Golden Mean] writes that “bóxué zhī, shěnwèn zhī, shènsī zhī, míngbiàn zhī, dǔxíng zhī.

The influence of modern western culture 21 博學之，審問之，慎思之，明辨之，篤行之.” (To be erudite and versatile, we must inquire about knowledge in detail, understand it thoroughly, think carefully, distinguish clearly, and practice it practically.) Shēngchǎn 生產 is pronounced as seisan in Japanese, which means that people use tools to create all kinds of material wealth. It is translated freely as production in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the work for making a living. The Shǐjì: Gāozǔ běnjì 史記·高祖本纪 [The Biographic Sketch of Emperor Gaozu of the Han dynasty of Records of the Grand Historian] writes that “chángyǒu dàdù, bù shì jiārén shēngchǎn zuòyè. 常有大度，不事家人生産作業.” (He always has the magnanimity to do great things and does not do the work of ordinary people.) The Lù Jiǎliè zhuàn 陸贾列傳 [The Collected Biographies of Lu Jia] writes that “nǎi chū suǒshǐ yuèdé tuózhōng zhuāng mài qiānjīn, fēn qízi, zi èrbǎi jīn, lìng wéi shēngchǎn. 迺出所使越得橐中装賣千金，分其子，子二百金，令爲生 産.” (He took out the clothes from the luggage that he got when he was an envoy to Nanyue, sold them for 1,000 taels of gold and gave them to his sons, each of whom got 200 taels of them, and asked them to arrange their own work for their livelihood.) Shūrù 輸入 is pronounced as yunyu in Japanese, which means that goods or capital come to the country from abroad. It is translated freely as import in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to bring in. The Shǐjì: Lián pō Lìn Xiàngrú lièzhuàn fù Lǐ Mù 史記·廉頗藺相如列傳附李牧 [Records of the Grand Historian: The Collected Biographies of Lian Po, Lin Xiangru, and Li Mu] writes that “shìzū jiē shūrù mùfǔ, wéi shìzú fèi. 市租皆輸入幕府，爲士卒費.” (The rent and taxes of the cities in the defensive area were sent to Li Mu’s shogunate as military funds.) Tóngqíng 同情 is pronounced as dōjō in Japanese, which means resonating emotionally with the misfortunes of others. It is translated freely as sympathize in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the same feeling. The Hànshū: Wúwáng Bì zhuàn 漢書·吴王濞傳 [The Book of the Han dynasty: A Biography of King Wu Liu Bi] writes that “tóngqíng xiāngqiú, tóngyù xiāngqù, tónglì xiāngsǐ. 同情相 求，同欲相趣，同利相死.” (They sympathize with each other, pursue the same desires, and die with the same interests.) Tóujī 投機 is pronounced as tōki in Japanese, which means that people take advantage of opportunities for personal gain. It is translated freely as speculate in English. In Old Chinese, it means setting up mechanical instruments. The Wúzǐ: Liàodí 吴子·料敵 [Wuzi: Predicting the Situation of the Enemy] writes that “shèfú tóujī, qíjiāng kěqǔ. 設伏投機，其将可取.” (We can ambush and set up mechanical instruments to capture their general.) It also meant catering to the opportunity. The Xīntángshū: Zhāng Gōngjǐn zhuàn 新唐書·張公謹傳 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty: A Biography of Zhang Gongjin] writes that “tóujī zhīhuì, jiān bù róng suì, Gōngjǐn suǒyǐ dǐguī ér jué yě. 投機之會，間不容穟，公謹所以抵龜 而决也.” (At the critical moment of the right time, no hesitation is allowed, so Zhang Gongjin threw away his divination tools and made up his mind.) Xuānchuán 宣傳 is pronounced as senden in Japanese, which is written as xuānchuán 宣伝, which means that people explain something to the masses to make them believe and act accordingly. It is translated freely as propaganda

22 The influence of modern western culture in English. In Old Chinese, xuānchuán 宣傳 meant transmitting or declaring. In the Sānguó zhì 三國志 [Records of the Three Kingdoms], the Shǔshū: Péng Yàng zhuàn 蜀書·彭羕傳 [The Book of the Shu dynasty: A Biography of Peng Yang] reads that “xiānzhǔ yì yǐ wéi qí, shù lìng yàng xuānchuán jūnshì, zhǐshòu zhūjiāng. 先主亦以爲奇，数令羕宣傳軍事，指授諸将.” (Liu Bei also thought he was very unusual. He ordered Peng Yang to preach and teach military affairs many times and instructed him to teach the generals.) Xuǎnjǔ 選舉 is pronounced as senkyo in Japanese, which means that people elect a representative or person in charge by voting or a show of hands. It is translated freely as elect in English. In Old Chinese, it means electing and recommending talents. The Huáinánzǐ: Bīngluè 淮南子兵略 [Huai Nanzi: Tactics] writes that “gù déyì zúyǐ huái tiānxià zhīmín, shìyè zúyǐ dāng tiānxià zhījí, xuǎnjǔ zúyǐ dé xiánshì zhīxīn, móulǜ zúyǐ zhī qiángruò zhīshì, cǐ bìshèng zhīběn yě. 故德義足以 懷天下之民，事業足以當天下之急，選舉足以得賢士之心，謀慮足以知强 弱之勢，此必勝之本也.” (Therefore, the virtue and righteousness are enough to cherish all of the people, the cause is enough to deal with urgencies of the world, the election is enough to win the hearts of sages, and the planning is enough to know the trend of strength and weakness. This is also the foundation of victory.) The Hòuhànshū: Chén Fān zhuàn 後漢書·陳蕃傳 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: A Biography of Chen Fan] writes that “zì Fān wéi guānglùxūn, yǔ wǔguān zhōnglángjiàng Huáng Wǎn gòng diǎn xuǎnjǔ, bù piān quánfù. 自蕃 爲光禄勳，與五官中郎将黄琬共典選舉，不偏權富.” (Since Chen Fan held the post of minister, he elected talented people together with Commander Huang Wan, and they didn’t take sides with bigwigs.) Yíchuán 遺傳 is pronounced as iden in Japanese, written as yíchuán 遺伝, which means that the structure and physiological functions of organisms are passed from one generation to the next. It is translated freely as hereditary in English. In Old Chinese, yíchuán 遺傳 means leaving something to pass on to later generations. The Shǐjì Cānggōng lièzhuàn 史記·倉公列傳 [Records of the Grand Historian: Collected Biographies of Canggong] notes that “qìng yǒu gǔ xiān dào yíchuán huángdì, Biǎn Què zhī màishū. 慶有古先道遺傳黄帝、扁鵲 之脈書.” (I have pulse books of Yellow Emperor and Bian Que passed on by the ancient Taoism.) Yùndòng 運動 is pronounced as undō in Japanese, which refers to the phenomenon that the position of objects is constantly changing and also refers to sporting activities. It is translated freely as motion, movement, and sports in English. In Old Chinese, yùndòng 運動 meant moving, operating, or utilizing. The Xīnyǔ: Shènwēi 新語·慎微 [The New Analects: Meticulousness] written by Lu Jia 陸 賈 of the Han dynasty reads that “yīn tiānshí ér xíngfá, shùn yīnyáng ér yùndòng. 因天時而行罰，順陰陽而運動.” (Punish along with the order of nature, move according to Yin and Yang.) The Hòuhànshū: Liáng Tǒng zhuànlùn 後漢書·梁統 傳論 [A Biography of Liang Tong of the Book of the Later Han dynasty] writes that “fū zǎixiàng yùndòng shūjí, gǎnhuì tiānrén, zhōng yú dào zé yì yǐ xīngzhèng, guāi yú wù zé nánhū yùwù. 夫宰相運動樞極，感會天人，中于道則易以興 政，乖於務則難乎御物.” (The prime minister runs the central power and reacts

The influence of modern western culture 23 the connection between Heaven and man. Following Taoism, it is easy to make political affairs flourish; having disharmony with affairs, it is difficult to control everything.) 2.2.3 Adjectives Jǐngqì 景氣 is pronounced as keiki in Japanese, which means economic prosperity. It is translated freely as prosperous in English. In Old Chinese, it referred to the scenery. The Qiūhán 秋寒 [The Chill Autumn] written by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty reads that “xuěbìn niányán lǎo, shuāngtíng jǐngqì qiū. 雪鬓年 顔老，霜霆景氣秋.” (The old face is manifested by the snow-white temples, the autumn scenery is revealed by the frosty courtyard.) Jùtǐ 具體 is pronounced as gutai in Japanese, which means that the details are very clear and not abstract. It is translated freely as concrete in English. In Old Chinese, it meant that there are roughly all the components of things, yet the shape or scale is small. The Mèngzǐ: Gōngsūn chǒu shàng 孟子公孫丑上 [Gongsun Chou I of Mencius] writes that “Zǐxià, Ziyóu, Zizhāng jiē yǒu shèngrén zhī yìtǐ, Rǎnniú, Mǐnzi, Yányuān zé jùtǐ érwēi. 子夏、子遊、子張皆有聖人之一 體，冉牛、閔子、顔淵則具體而微.” (Zixia, Ziyou, and Zizhang all acquire a part of sage Confucius, while Ranniu, Mizi, and Yanyuan acquire all parts but on a small scale.) Wénmíng 文明 is pronounced as bunmei in Japanese, which describes the situation that society develops to a higher stage, and people have higher culture and there is modern color. It is translated freely as civilized in English. In Old Chinese, it meant being bright or talented. The Yì Gàn 易幹 [Changes: Doing] writes that “jiàn lóng zàitiān, tiānxià wénmíng. 見龍在天，天下文明.” (The dragon flying in the sky shows that the world is bright.) 書·舜典 [The Book: A Record of Shun’s Sayings] writes that “Jùnzhé wénmíng, wēngōng yǒngsāi. 濬哲文明，温恭永 塞.” (He has profound wisdom and excellent literary talent, and he is gentle and honest.) Xiāngduì 相對 is pronounced as sōtai in Japanese, which describes that something depends on a certain condition and changes with a certain condition. It is translated freely as relative in English. In Old Chinese, it was a polysemous word, meaning being face-to-face or corresponding. The Yílǐ: Shìhūnlǐ 儀禮士昏禮 [Etiquette: Wedding] writes that “fùchéng yǐjǐ, cóngzhě èrrén, zuòchí jǐ xiāngduì. 婦乘以几，從者二人，坐持几相對.” (The bride stepped into the carriage on a small stool, and the two followers sat face-to-face, holding the stool firmly.) The Wàng Tiānménshān 望天門山 [Viewing the Tianmen Mountains] written by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty reads that “liǎngàn qīngshān xiāngduì chū, gūfān yípiàn rìbiān lái. 兩岸青山相對出，孤帆一片日邊来.” (Green cliffs on both sides gradually unfold themselves. After a solitary sail is coming from where the sun sheds its light.) It also meant conform to and match. The Cháoguī 朝歸 [Returning to the Imperial Court] written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty writes that “fúzhāng qǐ bùhǎo, bùyǔ dé xiāngfēng. 服章豈不好，不與德相封.” (How can the clothes representing official status be bad? They do not need to

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conform to morality.) Moreover, it meant (something) exists or changes depending on conditions. The Mèngxībǐtán: Zázhì yì 夢溪筆談雜誌一 [Dream Pool Essays: Jottings I] written by Shen Kuo 沈括 of the Song dynasty reads that “yǐ biànhuà xiāngduì yánzhī, jìnéng biànwéi dàdú, qǐ bùnéng biànwéi dàshàn? Jìnéng biàn ér shārén, zé yíyǒu néng shēngrén zhīlǐ. 以變化相對言之，既能變爲大毒， 豈不能變爲大善？既能變而殺人，則宜有能生人之理.” (In terms of change depending on conditions, since it can become great poison, cannot it become a greater good? If one can change and kill others, one can also make others live.) 2.3 Japanese loanwords In addition to using a composition of Chinese characters to translate western works, the Japanese also create some new words, which are also composed of Chinese characters and later borrowed by those in China. Different from the translated words in Japanese which are from the west and passed through Japan, Japanese loanwords are real Japanese products. There are hundreds of these words, as exemplified below. (1) Nouns (see Table 1.9) Table 1.9 Nouns loaned from self-created Japanese formed by Chinese characters Loanwords

Pronunciation in Japanese

Meaning

財閥 茶道

zaibatsu sadō, chadō

場合 場所 成員 出口

baai bashō seiin deguchi

入口 大局 讀本 讀物

iriguchi, irikuchi taikyoku tokuhon yomimono

方針 歌舞伎 廣場 尖兵

hōshin kabuki hiroba (written as “広場”) senpei

巨匠

kyoshō

立場

tachiba

流感 內幕

ryūkan uchimaku, naimuku

Large capitalist. A custom in Japan to cultivate spirit and learn etiquette by making and drinking tea. A certain time, place and situation. A place of activity. Members of a group or family. The place where people go out from public places. The place where people enter public places. The whole situation. Textbooks. Books, magazines and other things for reading. The direction and goal of guiding the cause. A kind of Japanese drama. The square for mass activities. The unit dispatched to take charge of the guard task during the March. A person who has made great achievements in science or culture. The position and attitude when understanding and dealing with problems. The abbreviation for “influenza.” The internal situation.

The influence of modern western culture 25 Loanwords

Pronunciation in Japanese

Meaning

內勤

naikin

俳句

haiku

平假名 權限 人力車

hiragana kengen jinriki-sha

人選 日程 手續

jinsen nittei tetsuzuki

學會

gakkai

學歷 訓令

gakureki kunrei

陣容 支部

jinyō shibu

重點

jūten

Internal or office work, a person engaged in internal service. A short Japanese poem with three sentences (17 words in total: five words in the first sentence, seven words in the second sentence, five words in the third sentence). Japanese cursive characters. The scope of functions and powers. A kind of car pulled by people, having two large rubber wheels and two yellow handles in front of the car, mainly used to carry people, also called rickshaw and Oriental car. Candidates selected for a purpose. A routine that acts on a daily schedule. (Written as “手続”) the procedure for handling affairs. An academic group of people who study a subject. The educational background. The document in which a superior gives general instructions to a subordinate. The overall appearance of a combat team. Grassroots organizations of certain parties and groups. An important or major part of a similar food.

(2) Verbs (see Table 1.10) Table 1.10 Verbs loaned from self-created Japanese formed by Chinese characters Loanwords

Pronunciation in Japanese

Meaning

參看 參觀 參照 登載

sankan sankan sanshō tōsai

服務

fukumu

集結 集中 見習 就任 臨床 落選 取締 取消 失效

shūketsu shūchū minarau shūnin rinshō rakusen torishimaru torikesu shikō

Refer to, consult. On-the-spot observation. Refer to and accord with something. News, articles, etc. are published in a newspaper. Work for the country, collective, others or cause. Gather in one place. Get together. On site internship for new employees. Hold a position. Doctors diagnose and treat patients. Fail to be elected. Explicitly cancel or prohibit. Make the original thing ineffective. Lose its effect. (Continued)

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Table 1.10 (Continued) Loanwords

Pronunciation in Japanese

Meaning

鎖國

sakoku

訓話 製版 座談

kunwa seihan zadan

Close the door and do not carry out cultural, economic and trade exchanges with foreign countries. The superior admonishes the inferior. Make all kinds of printing plates. Free and easy discussion or conversation.

(3) Adjectives (see Table 1.11) Table 1.11 Adjectives loaned from self-created Japanese formed by Chinese characters Loanwords

Pronunciation in Japanese

Meaning

不景氣 單純 等外 公立

fukeiki tanjun (written as “単純”) tōgai kōritsu

國立 簡單 明確 私立 小型

kokuritsu kantan (written as “簡単”) meikaku shiritsu kogata

Not prosperous. Simple and pure. Substandard. Established and maintained by the government or public group. State-maintained. Brief and simple. Clear and definite. Private-run. Small in shape or scale.

The above translated words (Tables 1.9–1.11) in Japanese and Japanese loanwords were created by the Japanese and were composed of Chinese characters. After borrowed into Chinese language, they were pronounced according to the features of Chinese characters, and their meanings can be inferred from the character patterns, so they are easily accepted. Hence, they were widely spread and integrated with the original Chinese words as soon as they arrived in China. After a while, people hardly knew that they came from the East. Some translated words in Japanese originally came from Old Chinese, which were borrowed by the Japanese to translate new western concepts. Although these words have new contents, they are easy for the Chinese to master and understand.

3 Indo-European loanwords There had been some transliterated foreign language loanwords in Middle Chinese. In Modern Chinese, there had also been many Mongolian loanwords, but most of the words borrowed from Mongolian did not represent any new concepts, and there had been corresponding words in Chinese. Hence, they intervened in Chinese and did not play a role in enriching the Chinese lexicon. Therefore, most of them failed to gain a firm foothold in Chinese, and gradually disappeared with the demise of the Yuan dynasty. Only a few loanwords in the translated works of the late Ming dynasty had been preserved. By the end of the 19th century and

The influence of modern western culture 27 the beginning of the 20th century, the situation had changed greatly, and a large number of borrowed words were preserved as one part of the Chinese lexicon. Apart from Japanese, most of these loanwords came directly from English and a few from German, French, and other western languages. There are three borrowing ways of loanwords: complete transliteration, transliteration mixed with free translation, and semi-transliteration and semi-free translation. 3.1 Complete transliteration Examples of complete transliteration are given in Table 1.12. Table 1.12 Examples of complete transliteration Loanwords

Original Words From Foreign Languages

Meaning

阿德們 阿門

(English) atman (English) amen

哀的美敦 阿摩尼亞

(English) ultimatum (English) ammonia

阿司匹林 白蘭地

(French) aspirin (English) brandy

鎊

(English) pound

泵

(English) pump

便士

(English) penny

打 丹寧 德律風 閥

(English) dozen (English) tannin (English) telephone (English) valve

葛郎瑪

(English) grammar

海洛因

(English) heroin

咖啡

(English) coffee

羅曼蒂克

(English) romantic

馬達、摩托

(English) motor

Soul, spirit. An expression used by Christians at the end of their prayer to mean that they wish so. A final peremptory demand. A pungent gas compounded of nitrogen and hydrogen. Acetylsalicylic acid. A strong alcoholic drink distilled from wine or fermented fruit juice. The basic unit of money in Great Britain, Australia, and other countries. A mechanical device that moves fluid or gas, including water pump, air pump, oil pump, etc. A monetary unit in Britain and some Commonwealth countries; a penny is equal to a quarter of a shilling. A group of 12 of the same thing. Digallic acid. Telephone, phone. Valve (a device attached to a pipe or a tube that controls the flow of air or liquid through the pipe or tube). The ways that words can be put together in order to make sentences. An organic compound, which is white crystal, refined from morphine. It is used medically as a sedative, anesthetic, and drug. It is commonly known as “báimiàner 白面兒.” A beverage consisting of an infusion of ground coffee beans. Poetic, full of fantasy; dissolute, careless behavior. The electric motor. (Continued)

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Table 1.12 (Continued) Loanwords

Original Words From Foreign Languages

Meaning

麥克風 密斯 密斯脱 摩登 尼古丁 盤尼西林

(English) microphone (English) miss (English) mister (English) modern (English) nicotine (English) penicillin

撲克

(English) poker

巧克力

(English) chocolate

賽因斯 司的克 伊甸（園）

(English) science (English) stick (English) Eden

The microphone, loudspeaker. Miss. Mister. Fashionable, stylish. Nicotine, which is toxic. A drug that kills bacteria and is used to treat infections. The international general-purpose solitaire has four suits of spades, hearts, clubs and diamonds, with 13 cards of each suit, plus jokers. There are a variety of playing methods. Also known as zhūgǔlì 朱古力, sweet food made from cocoa powder, milk, and sugar. Science. Cane. The garden in which Adam and Eve were placed at the Creation according to the Bible, also referring to any place of complete bliss, delight, and peace.

3.2 Transliteration mixed with free translation With regard to transliteration mixed with free translation, it is by means of using Chinese to translate, both phonetic and semantic aspects should be taken into account, as shown in the following loanwords in Table 1.13. Table 1.13 Transliteration mixed with free translation Loanwords

Original Words From Foreign Languages

Meaning

百倍蟲

(English) babesia

繃帶

(English) bandage

法老

(English) pharaoh

苦力

(English) coolie, cooly

模特兒

(English) model

颱風

(English) typhoon

A protozoan parasite on animals, which can cause Texas rinderpest. A gauze band for dressing the wound or the affected area. The title of the king of ancient Egypt. It is often used as a proper name in the Bible. A disdain for the heavy manual workers in the imperialist colonies. The modeling object of painting and sculpture. It also refers to the archetype used in literature to shape characters. An extremely violent storm that occurs in the Pacific Ocean. English borrowed the gale from Chinese. Later, Chinese re-borrowed it from English, which changed into typhoon.

The influence of modern western culture 29 Loanwords

Original Words From Foreign Languages

Meaning

圖騰

(English) totem

烏托邦

(English) utopia

引擎

(English) engine

The image of an animal, plant, or inanimate object that primitive people believed to have a special mysterious relationship with their clan as their protector and emblem of their clan. Originally known as the land of Utopia, it is the abbreviation of the title of the book written in Latin by Sir Thomas Moore in 1516, and later known as a synonym for utopianism. Engine, especially steam engine, internal combustion engine, and other heat engines.

3.3 Semi-transliteration and semi-free translation Regarding semi-transliteration and semi-free translation. Half of the translated words are transliterated and the other half are freely translated, as can be seen in the following loanwords in Table 1.14. Table 1.14 Semi-transliteration and semi–free translation Loanwords

Original Words From Foreign Languages

Meaning

愛克斯射綫

(English) x-ray

白令海

(English) Bering Sea

冰激凌

(English) ice cream

長噸

(English) long ton

大笨鐘

(English) Big Ben

Also known as àikèsīguāng 愛克斯光, an electromagnetic wave with a short wavelength emitted by a high-speed electron stream hitting metal, which has strong penetration ability. Since it was discovered by German physicist Roentgen, it is also known as the Roentgen ray. Àikèsī 愛克斯 is the result of the transliteration version, and shèxiàn 射綫 is the version of free translation. Báilìng 白令 is the free translation of Bering; hăi 海 is the transliteration of sea. A semi-solid cold food made of water, milk, eggs, sugar, fruit juice, etc. Bīng 冰 is the free translation of ice; jīlíng 激凌 is the transliteration cream. A British unit of weight equivalent to 2,240 pounds. Cháng 長 is the free translation of long; “dūn 噸” is the transliteration of ton. The big clock of the house of England in London, which is nine feet in diameter and weighs 13.5 tons. Dà 大 is the free translation of big; bènzhōng 笨鐘 is the transliteration of clock. (Continued)

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Table 1.14 (Continued) Loanwords

Original Words From Foreign Languages

Meaning

道林紙

(English) Dowling paper

東亞

(English) East Asia

浪漫主義

(English) romanticism

摩托艇

(English) motor boat

A kind of refined printing paper. Dàolín 道林 is the transliteration of Dowling; zhĭ 紙 is the free translation of paper. Eastern Asia. Dōng 東 is the free translation of East; yà 亞 is the transliteration of Asia. A creative method of literature and art. It is characterized by the use of rich imagination and exaggerated techniques to shape characters and reflect real life. Làngmàn 浪漫 is the transliteration of romantic; zhŭyì 主義 is the free translation of -ism. Gas boat. Mótuō 摩托 is the transliteration of motor; tĭng 艇 is the free translation of boat.

Sometimes a Chinese ideographic morpheme is added to the transliteration, which is also included in this category, as shown in the following words in Table 1.15. Table 1.15 Transliteration with a Chinese ideographic morpheme 貝雷帽 駁船 大麗花 卡車 可蘭經 來福槍 毛瑟槍

(English) beret (English) barge (English) dalia (English) car (English) Koran (English) rifle (German) mauser

啤酒

(German) Bier

香檳酒 雪茄煙

(French) Champagne (English) cigar

A flat, round cap without eaves. A ship used for shipment of goods or passengers. A perennial herb with ornamental flowers. The auto truck. Also called gŭlánjīn 古蘭經, an Islamic classic. The rifle. A long-distance, continuous-firing fast gun with four rifle lines in the tube. A low-alcoholic drink made from malt and hops with a foam and special fragrance. A sparkling white wine. Also transliterated as xuějiā 雪茄, freely translated as lǚsòngyān 吕宋煙.

The above-mentioned mào 帽, chuán 船, huā 花, chē 車, jīng 經, qiāng 槍, jiǔ 酒, and yān 煙are all morphemes added to the loanwords for expressing meanings. Sometimes transliterated words have many syllables, which can be simplified into one syllable, plus an ideographic morpheme to form polysyllabic words, as shown in the following words. Africa America Australia Europe

阿非利加-非洲 亞美利加-美國 澳大利亞-澳洲 歐羅巴-歐洲

The influence of modern western culture 31

4 Self-created neologisms and old words used in new ways In the second half of the 19th century, the Chinese not only used translated words in Japanese and western transliterated loanwords when they translated western works, but they also applied self-created neologisms and old words which were used in new ways. 4.1 Self-created neologisms Most self-created neologisms can find corresponding words in western languages. (1) Nouns (see Table 1.16) Table 1.16 Self-created nouns with western counterparts 報紙 博物館★2 時政★ 袋鼠 地球 地質 法院 工廠 工程師 工會 公司 公約★ 股本 股份 雇工 光年★ 國會★ 海軍★ 黑死病 後動 價格★ 礦物★ 領帶 馬口鐵 碼 置辦 麵包 民族★ 權利★ 商標 司法★ 唐人街 團體★ 文藝復興 問題★ 新加坡 郵政

(English) newspaper (English) museum (English) public finance (English) kangaroo (first translated as 袋獸) (English) the Earth, the globe (English) geology (English) court of justice, law court (English) factory, mill (English) engineer (English) trade union, labour union (English) company (English) convention, pact (English) share, stock, share certificate (English) share (English) employee, hired hand (English) light year (English) parliament, congress (English) navy (English) the plague (English) rear service, logistics (English) price (English) mineral (English) tie, neck tie (English) tinplate (English) yard (English) compradore (English) bread (English) nation, nationality (English) right (English) trademark (English) judicature, administration of justice (English) Chinatown (English) organization, group (English) Renaissance (English) question, problem (English) Singapore (English) postal service (Continued)

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Table 1.16 (Continued) (English) postage stamp, stamp (English) duty, responsibility (English) cheque, check (English) colony (English) director, head (English) bicycle (also translated as “jiăotàchē 腳踏車”)

郵票 責任★ 支票 殖民地 主任 自行車

(2) Verbs (see Table 1.17) Table 1.17 Self-created verbs with western counterparts 罷工 罷免 辦公 表演 調查★ 化合★ 競爭★ 就職★ 留學★ 拍賣 探險★ 協商★ 壓迫 照會★

(English) strike, go on strike (English) recall (English) handle official business (English) perform, act, play (English) investigate, inquire into (English) chemical combination (English) compete (English) assume office (English) study abroad (English) auction, sale (English) explore, make explorations (English) consult, talk things over (English) oppress, repress (English) present a note to, note

(3) Adjectives (see Table 1.18) Table 1.18 Self-created adjectives with western counterparts 必然★ 辯證 超重 機動★ 集體

(English) inevitable, certain (English) dialectical (English) overload (English) power-driven, motorized (English) collective

4.2 Old words used in new ways Old words used in new ways means to use the words of Old Chinese to translate foreign concepts, thus, many old words are given a new meaning and their old content is replaced with the new one, as can be seen in the following words. Cèliáng 測量 is freely translated as survey in English, referring to the measurement of relevant values of space, time, temperature, speed, function, etc. by means of gauges or instruments. In Old Chinese, it meant speculation and measurement. The Hòuhànjǐ: Língdìjì shàng 後漢紀靈帝紀上 [The Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty: The Record of the Emperor Ling] compiled by Yuan Hong 袁宏 of the Jin dynasty writes that “Shūdù wāngwāng rú wànqǐng zhībō, chéngzhī ér bùqīng, ráozhī ér bùzhuó, qíqì shēnguǎng, nan cèliàng yě. 叔度汪汪如萬頃之波，澄之

The influence of modern western culture 33 而不清，橈之而不濁，其器深廣，難测量也.” (Shudu is like the water of the ocean, which is not clear though it is clarified, and is not turbid though it is stirred. He has such a wide tolerance that it is really hard to measure it.) Dàshǐ 大使 is freely translated as ambassador in English, referring to the diplomatic representative at the highest level dispatched by a country to another country, whose full title is ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary. In Old Chinese, it meant the special envoy provisionally appointed by the emperor. The Lǐjì Yuèlìng 禮記月令 [The Books of Rites: Monthly Climate] writes that “(Mèngqiū zhīyuè) wúyǐ gēdì, xíng dàshǐ, chū dàbì. 〔孟秋之月〕毋以割地， 行大使，出大幣.” (In the first month of autumn, instead of cutting land, the emperor sent envoys to give them much money.) Fǎguān 法官 is freely translated as judge and justice in English, referring to the judicial officers in the court. In Old Chinese, it meant the official in charge of trial and conviction. The Shāngjūnshū Dìngfēn 商君書定分 [The Books of Shang: Court Decision] writes that “Lìmín (yù) zhī fǎlìng zhě, jiē wèn fǎguān. 吏民 〔欲〕知法令者，皆問法官.” (Officials and people who want to know judicial laws and regulations should ask judges.) It also referred to the Taoist priest with a position. For example, it is noted in the chapter 73 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Léiléi qǐng jiāng fǎguān lái, yě zhuō tā bùdé. 累累請将法 官来，也捉他不得.” (Though we invited the Taoist priest to come many times, we are still unable to catch him.) Gōngmín 公民 is freely translated as citizen in English, referring to the person who has the nationality of a country, enjoys the rights and performs the obligations stipulated in the Constitution and laws of that country. In Old Chinese, it meant the people of the monarch or the people of the public house. For instance, the Hánfēizǐ: Wǔdù 韓非子·五蠹 [Han Feizi: Five Moths] reads that “shì yǐ gōngmín shào ér sīrén zhòng yǐ. 是以公民少而私人衆矣.” (In this way, fewer people of the monarch contribute to the public and more people depend on the private power.) The Liènǚzhuàn: Qí shānghuáinǚ 列女傳·齊傷槐女 [Biographies of Virtuous Women: The Daughter of the Man who Damaged the Locust Tree from the State of Qi] written by Liu Xiang 劉向 records that “duì yuē, ‘Qièfù Yǎn, xìngdé chōng chéngguō wéi gōngmín.’ 對曰：‘妾父衍，幸得充城郭為公民’.” (My father was lucky to be a citizen of the state.) Gōngyuán 公園 is freely translated as park in English, referring to the garden where the public visit and rest. In Old Chinese, it meant the official garden. The Wèishū: Rènchéngwáng zhuàn 魏書·任城王傳 [The Book of the Wei dynasty: A Biography of King of Rencheng] writes that “(Yuánzhèng) yòu míng chùzhì shǎngfá zhīfǎ, biǎojiǎn gōngyuán zhīdì yǐ gěi wúyè pínkǒu. 〔元證〕又明黜 陟賞罰之法，表減公園之地以給無業貧口.” (Yuan Cheng also clarified the methods of dethroning, promoting, rewarding, and punishing, and commended the one who cut down official gardens for the unemployed and the poor.) Huǒchái 火柴 is freely translated as match in English, used to make a fire by dipping one end of the small wooden strip with phosphorus or sulfur compounds, and rubbing the sandpaper on both sides of the matchbox. It is also called yánghuǒ

34 The influence of modern western culture 洋火 and zìláihuǒ 自來火. In Old Chinese, it referred to the dry firewood used for making a fire. The sixth volume of the Tiěwéishān cóngtán 鐵圍山叢談 [Essays about Mount Tieyuan] written by Cai Tiao 蔡條 reads that “duògōng zhī fùnù, jǔ huǒchái jī qíshǒu. 柁工之婦怒，舉火柴撃其首.” (The wife of the helmsman is angry; then she raises firewood and hits his head.) Jiǎnyuè 檢閱 is freely translated to review and inspect (troops) in English, meaning that senior leaders personally visit the army or the mass in the inspection ceremony. In Old Chinese, it meant examine. The Běishǐ: Guǎngyǒngzhuàn fù tángjǐn 北史·廣永傅附唐瑾 [The History of the Northern dynasties: A Biography of Guang Yong and Tang Jin] records that “(Zhōuwéndì) yù míng qí xūshí, mì qiǎn shǐ jiǎnyuè zhī, wéijiàn jìngjí éryǐ. 〔周文帝〕欲明其虚實，密遣使檢 閲之，唯見境籍而已.” ([Emperor Wendi of the Zhou dynasty] wanted to know its truth and deficiency, so he sent secret dispatches to check it but there were only classics and ancient books.) Jiàoyù 教育 is freely translated as education in English, referring to the whole process of training the new generation to prepare for social life. In Old Chinese, it meant teach and cultivate. The Mèngzǐ: Jìnxīn xià 孟子·盡心下 [Mencius: Dedication III] reads that “dé tiānxià yīngcái ér jiàoyù zhī. 得天下英才而教育之.” (Recruit the world’s talent and cultivate them.) Jīnglǐ 經理 is freely translated as handle and manage in English, which refers to operation and management, and also refers to people in charge of enterprises. In Ancient Chinese, it meant general rule. The Xúnzǐ: Zhèngmíng 荀子·正名 [Xunzi: Rectification of Names] writes that “Xīn yě zhě, dào zhī gōngzǎi yě; dào yě zhě, zhì zhī jīnglǐ yě. 心也者，道之工宰也；道也者，治之经理也.” (The heart is the master of Tao, and Tao is the general rule of governance.) The Shǐjì: Qínshǐhuáng běnjì 史記·秦始皇本紀 [Records of the Grand Historian: Biographic Sketches of First Emperor of Qin] write that, “Huángdì míngdé, jīnglǐ yǔnèi. 皇帝明德，經理宇内.” (The emperor was above board and governed the whole land.) Lǜshī 律師 is freely translated as lawyer in English, which refers to the professionals entrusted by the parties or designated by the court to assist the parties in litigation, defense in court, and handling relevant legal affairs according to law. In Old Chinese, it was the title of Taoist priest and monk. The Tángliùdiǎnsì: Cíbù lángzhōng 唐六典四: 祠部郎中 [Volume Four of Six Classics of the Tang dynasty: The Official of the Ministry of the Temple] records that “Ér dàoshi xiūxíng yǒu sānhào: qíyì yuē fǎshī， qíèr yuē wēiyíshī, qísān yuē lǜshī. 而道 士修行有三號：其一曰法師，其二日威儀師，其三日律師.” (The Taoist priests have three titles, including fǎshī 法師, wēiyíshī 威儀師, and lǜshī 律師.) It referred to the Taoist priest here. The third volume of the Nièpán jīng 涅槃經 [Nirvana Sutra] translated by Dharmaksema of the Northern Liang dynasty writes that “rúshì néng zhī fófǎ suǒzuò, shànnéng jiěshuō, shì míng lǜshī. 如是能知佛 法所作，善能解説，是名律師.” (If you can understand what the Dharma has done and be good at explaining, you are a monk.) So, it referred to the monk here. Mínzhǔ 民主 is freely translated as democracy in English and transliterated as démókèlāxī 德謨克拉西, meaning that people have the right to participate in

The influence of modern western culture 35 state affairs or express their opinions freely on state affairs. When democracy is used in the form of a state, it becomes a state system, which is opposite to autocracy. In Old Chinese, it was the master of people, referring to the emperors and officials. The Diǎnyǐn 典引 [Citations from Classics] by Ban Gu 班固 of the Han dynasty records that “Zhàomìng mínzhǔ, wǔdé chūshǐ. Càiyōng zhù, ‘mínzhǔ, tiānzi yě’. 肇命民主，五德初始. 蔡邕注：‘民主，天子也’.” (A new emperor ascends to the throne; the five elements start to work. Cai Yong annotated, “Mínzhǔ is the emperor.”) In the Sānguózhì 三國志 [Records of the Three Kingdoms], the Wúshū: ZhōngLímùzhuàn 吴書·鍾離牧傳 [The Book of the Wu dynasty: A Biography of Zhong Limu] reads that “pú wéi mínzhǔ, dāngyǐ fǎlǜ xià. 仆爲民主，當以法率下.” (As an official, we should lead our subordinates by law.) Here it means the official. Wàijiāo 外交 is freely translated as diplomacy and foreign affairs in English, referring to the activities of a country relating to international relations. In Old Chinese, it meant that officials meet princes privately. The GǔLiángzhuàn: Yǐngōng yuánnián 糓梁傳·隱公元年 [A Biography of Gu Liang: The Fifth Year of the Age of Yingong] records that “huánnèi zhūhóu, fēiyǒu tiānzǐ zhīmìng, bùdé chūhuì zhūhóu; bùzhèng qí wàijiāo, gù fúyú cháoyě. 寰内諸侯，非有天子之 命，不得出會諸侯；不正其外交，故弗與朝也.” (Princes in the capital and its vicinity are not allowed to go out to meet each other without the order of the emperor; it is against the court not to correct the behavior of ministers meeting with princes in private.) Xiéyì 協議 is freely translated as agreement in English, meaning that a consensus is reached after negotiations and consultation. In Old Chinese, it meant joint discussion. The Suíshū Lǜlìzhìzhōng 隋書·律曆志中 [The Book of the Sui dynasty: Temperament and Calendar II] reads that “Èrrén xiéyì, gòngduǎn xiàosūn. 二人協議，共短孝孫.” (The two [people] agreed to jointly expose the fault of their ancestors.) Zhīshi 知識 is freely translated as knowledge in English, referring to the achievements or crystallization of human understanding of nature and society, including empirical knowledge and theoretical knowledge. In Old Chinese, it had three meanings: (1) Acquaintances, friends. It is noted in the Lǚshìchūnqiū Yùhé 吕氏春秋·遇合 [Mister Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals: Meeting and Getting Along Well] that “rén yǒu dàchòu zhě, qí qīnqi xiōngdì qīqiè zhīshi wú néng yǔ jū zhě. 人有大臭者，其親戚兄弟妻妾知識無能與居者.” (There was a man who smelled so bad that his relatives, brothers, wives, concubines, and acquaintances were unwilling to live and associate with him.) (2) Become acquainted with someone, make friends. The Nánshǐ: Yúcóng zhuàn 南史虞悰傳 [The History of the Southern dynasties: A Biography of Yu Cong] records that “Cóng xìng dūnshi, yǔrén zhīshi, bìxiāng cúnfǎng, qīnshū jiēyǒu zhōngshǐ, shì yǐcǐ chēngzhī. 悰性敦 實，與人知識，必相存訪，親疏皆有終始，世以此稱之.” (Yu Cong is honest and sincere. When he gets acquainted with others, he will visit and greet them. Whether their relationship is close or distant, he will start and end it reasonably. People praise him for his character.) (3) Understand. The Liènǚzhuàn: Qíguǎnqiè jìng 列女傳·齊管妾婧 [Biographies of Virtuous Women: Jing of Guanzhong’s

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Concubine from the State of Qi] written by Liu Xiang 劉向 records that “rén yǐ yǔ jūn yǐ, jūn bù zhīshí yé? 人已語君矣，君不知識邪？” (They have spoken to you, do you not know?) Zhǔquán 主權 is freely translated as sovereign rights and sovereignty in English, referring to the independent power of a country. In Old Chinese, it meant the monarch’s power. The Guǎnzi: Qīchén qīzhǔ 管子·七臣七主 [Guanzi: Seven Monarchs and Seven Officials] writes that “cángjié zé zhǔquán shuāi, fǎshāng zé jiānmén kǎi. 藏竭則主權衰，法傷則奸門闓.” (The exhaustion of the national treasury weakens the monarchy; the damage of the national law leaves the door of treachery wide open.) Zhǔxí 主席 is freely translated as chairman in English, which refers to the person who presides over the meeting or is in the top leadership position of a state, organ, party, group, or organization at a certain level. In Old Chinese, it meant hosting banquets. The Xīntángshū: Hánwò zhuàn 新唐書·韓偓傳 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty: A Biography of Han Wo] writes that “Wò shì yàn, . . . cí yuē: xuéshì bù yǔ wàibān jiē. Zhǔxí zhě gù qǐng, nǎi zuò. 偓侍宴， . . . 辭曰： 學士不與外班接. 主席者固請，乃坐.” (When Han Wo was accompanying the emperor at the banquet, . . . he refused and said, “As a member of the Imperial Academy, I cannot contact with central officials.” He did not take his seat until the host of the banquet asked him again and again.) Zhǔxí 主席 also meant the master’s seat at the banquet. The first volume of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [The Stories to Warn People] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 records that “Bóyá tuī Ziqi zuò yú kèwèi, zìjǐ zhǔxí xiāngpéi. 伯牙推子期坐於客位，自己主席相陪.” (Boya pushed Ziqi to let him sit in the guest’s seat and then he sat in the host’s seat himself for accompanying.) Zìyóu 自由 is freely translated as freedom in English, which has three meanings: (1) Within the scope of the Constitution and laws, citizens enjoy the rights of person, speech, communication and so on. (2) A philosophical noun. People understand the developmental law of things and apply it to practice in a planned way. In other words, it means the understanding of inevitability and the transformation of the objective world. (3) Make your own decisions without restrictions and constraints. In Old Chinese, there was the third meaning without the first and the second meanings. For example, the Hòuhànshū: Yánhuánghòu jì 後漢書·閻 皇后紀 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: A Biography of Empress Yan] writes that “Yàn zhíjīnwú, wēifú zìyóu. 晏執金吾，威福自由.” (Yan Yan acted as zhijinwu who tyrannically abused his power and made his own decisions without restrictions and constraints.) The Wèi jiāo zhòngqīng qī zuò 爲焦仲卿妻作 [A Poem for Jiao Zhongqing’s Wife] writes that “wú yìjiǔ huáifèn, rǔ qǐdé zìyóu. 吾 意久懷忿，汝豈得自由.” (I have been holding my breath for a long time. How can you make your own decisions on this matter?) Zǒngtǒng 總統 is freely translated as president in English, which is the title of the heads of some Republics. In Old Chinese, it meant centralizing or administering in a unified way. The Hànshū: Bǎiguān gōngqīngbiǎo shàng 漢書·百官公 卿表上 [The Book of the Han dynasty: A Memorial Written by Officials to the Throne I] writes that “Tàishī, tàibǎo, tàifù shì wéi sāngōng, gài cān tiānzi, zuò

The influence of modern western culture 37 ér yìzhèng, wú bù zǒngtǒng. 太師、太保、太傅是爲三公，蓋参天子，坐而 議政，無不總統.” (The three dukes, imperial tutor, grand guardian, and grand preceptor, make a formal visit to the emperor, and then sit and discuss politics as all the things are administered in a unified way.) Chinese people translate western works early or late. In terms of the translated works, some use transliteration, some use free translation, some borrow Japanese words, and some create neologisms. As for creating neologisms, there are different ways, as the same thing or concept often has different translation versions, as shown in the following words. Cement – 水泥、洋灰、水門汀、土敏土、西門土、塞門脫 Philosophy – 哲學、理學、智學、愛智學、神學、心學 Telescope– 望遠鏡、遠鏡、遠視鏡、千里鏡、窺鏡、神鏡 In the process of development, this chaotic situation has been gradually standardized, from which we can see the following trends: At the beginning, many translated words were later replaced by freely translated words, especially multisyllablic transliterated words. Examples are shown in Table 1.19. Table 1.19 Multisyllablic transliterated words replaced by freely translated words atman bank bishop camera chimpanzee cholera compradore democracy dictator gorilla Hispania Magna Carta nebula nerve orangutan parliament physiology politics Protestantism telephone

阿德門-靈魂、自我 版克-銀行 華協-主教 開米拉-照相機 昔門子-黑猩猩 虎列拉-霍亂 康白度、剛白度-置辦 德謨克拉西-民主 狄克推多-獨裁者 戈里拉-大猩猩 日斯巴尼亞-西班牙 馬格拉吒大-大憲章 涅菩剌斯-星雲 涅伏-神經 倭蘭-猩猩 巴力門-國會 腓力阿洛志-生理學 波裹的斯-政治、政治學 波羅得斯坦特-新教、耶穌教 德律風-電話

There are two opposite reasons for this translation. First of all, Chinese character composition is very different from western languages. A word in western languages can have multiple syllables, which is not the case in Chinese. In Old Chinese, most of the words were monosyllabic. After medieval times there were

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gradually more and more disyllabic words, but polysyllabic transliterated words were not suitable for the rules and phonetic habits of Chinese character composition. Secondly, when Chinese developed into the 19th century, there were very rich morphemes and flexible ways of word creation. Neologisms can be created to express any number of complex things and concepts. Generally speaking, selfmade neologisms are easier to be accepted than transliterated words, so many transliterated words were gradually eliminated by self-made neologisms. Certainly, there are opposite situations. A few transliterated words can express more accurately the meaning of the original words than self-made words. They can be retained, and some even eliminate self-made neologisms, such as luójí 邏輯, sūdá 蘇打, wǎsī 瓦斯, báilándì 白蘭地, and so on. Secondly, translated words in Japanese and Japanese loanwords are composed of Chinese characters as morphemes. After most translated words in Japanese were introduced into China, they were quickly integrated into the Chinese lexicon, being widely spread and retained. Sometimes translated words in Japanese and self-created neologisms exist at the same time. Which way to go depends on the adaptability of these words themselves. Some self-created neologisms have been retained, while translated words in Japanese have been eliminated, as can be seen in Table 1.20. Table 1.20 Retained self-created Chinese words with translated Japanese words being eliminated Foreign Words

Translated Words in Japanese

Self-Created Chinese Words

Aufheben (German) catalyzer (English) cumulativeness (English) degression (English) efficiency (English) enzyme (English) hydrogen (English) Jod (German) lathe (English) memorandum (English) nitrogen (English) opportunism (English) pantomime (English) permission (English) revelation (English) search light (English) sodium bicarbonate (English) stamp (English) steam (English) tank car (English)

揚 觸媒 纍進 纍減 能率 酵素 水素 沃素 旋盤 覺書 窒素 日和見主義 默劇 克許 默示 探海燈 重曹 郵便切手 水汀 油槽車

揚弃 催化劑 遞增 遞減 效率 酶 氫 碘 車床 備忘錄 氮 機會主義 啞劇 批准、准許 啟示 探照燈 小蘇打，碳酸氫鈉 郵票 水蒸氣，暖氣 油罐車

Other translated words in Japanese have been retained, but self-created neologisms have been eliminated, as exemplified in Table 1.21.

The influence of modern western culture 39 Table 1.21 Retained translated Japanese words with self-created Chinese words being eliminated English Words

Self-Created Chinese Words

Translated Words in Japanese

capital chemistry deduction definition evolution heredity induction physics

母財 質學 外籀 界說 天演 種性之說 內籀 格致

資本 化學 演繹 定義 進化 遺傳 歸納 物理

There is another situation: self-created neologisms and translated words in Japanese exist at the same time, yet there is a division of labor in the level of meaning. For example: Engineer is translated as jìshī 技師 in Japanese, and as Gōngchéngshī 工程師 in Chinese. Now both are the job names of technicians. Gōngchéngshī 工程師 refers to the special personnel who can independently complete the design and construction of a special technical task, and jìshī 技師 refers to the junior engineer or senior technical personnel. Thirdly, there is also repetition in self-created neologisms. In a foreign language, the same word often has several different self-created translations. Later, due to natural standardizing, some were eliminated and some were preserved. Generally speaking, translated words with a profound meaning are always replaced by the popular ones, and the vague ones are always replaced by the clearer ones. In order to make the translation elegant, early translators often tended to translate with some ancient words that were no longer popular at that time. Some of the translations were not abstruse, but the meaning of the original words was not clear. When there were more popular and clearer translations, these old ones would be gradually eliminated, as can be seen in Table 1.22. Table 1.22 Translations with more popular and clearer meanings being retained and other ones being eliminated artificial selection Atlantic Ocean biology canal carbon dioxide laboratory natural selection rail steam-engine struggle existence struggle fight telescope thermometer

人擇-人為淘汰 西洋-大西洋 生學-生物學 運渠-運河 炭養-二氧化碳 驗室-實驗室 天擇-自然淘汰 鐵轍-鐵軌 氣機-蒸汽機 物競-生存競爭 鬥鬩-鬥争 遠鏡-望遠鏡 量天尺-寒暑表

40

The influence of modern western culture

There are also some translated terms, which seem to be similar in terms of popularity and clarity. In the process of circulation, some disappeared while others survived, as can be seen in the following words. bring to trial compete hardness scope, limits

判審-審判 爭競-競爭 堅度-硬度 圈限-範圍

The translation that can be retained may appear in works that are widely popular and influential, at the same time being accepted by the majority of people, so another translation can be eliminated.

5 Conclusion All in all, the introduction of modern western capitalist culture into China has already had a great impact on Chinese society and the development of Modern Chinese lexicon. With the emergence of a number of neologisms and loanwords, a series of ancient words have been revitalized, which satisfies the increasing communication needs of Chinese. In the process of creating neologisms and borrowing foreign words to be used in Modern Chinese, some complex situations existed once, which have been standardized gradually with its further development.

Notes 1 The fourth volume of the Róuyuǎnjì 柔遠記 [A Tale of Soothing People in Remote Places] written by Wang Zhichun 王之春. 2 The symbol ✶ means that they also exist in Japanese.

2

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

1 Introduction Based on the development of words in Modern Chinese, there was a great development of synonyms in Modern Chinese. First of all, many of the synonyms emerging in the remote and middle ancient times were still widely used in modern times, being a part of the synonym systems in Modern Chinese, as shown in the following examples. (1) 大抵 (generally) – 大都 (mostly) 奇怪 (weird) – 奇異 (bizarre) 推崇 (high praise) – 推重 (have a high regard for) 星辰 (stars) – 星星 (star) (2) 乖隔 (separate) – 阻隔 (obstruct) 均衡 (equilibrium) – 平衡 (balance) 辛苦 (hard) – 勞苦 (laborious) 佐助 (assist) – 幫助 (help) (3) 灰塵 (dirt) – 塵土 (dust) 分離 (separate) – 離別 (leave) 驕傲 (proud) – 傲慢 (arrogant) 依倚 (lean on) – 依靠 (rely on) (4) 力氣 (strength) – 氣力 (effort) 平生 (all one’s life) – 生平 (lifetime) 痛苦 (pain) – 苦痛 (pain) 折磨 (torture) – 磨折 (suffering) (5) 芙蓉 (lotus) – 荷花 (lotus) 抬舉 (praise) – 提拔 (promote) 喜歡 (like) – 愉快 (please) 造次 (rash) – 倉忙 (hurried) With the emergence of a large number of Modern Chinese neologisms, through the dissemination of literary works, many dialect or colloquial words have been integrated into common lexicon, and Modern Chinese synonyms have increased unprecedentedly. DOI: 10.4324/9781003365594-2

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

Most of the neologisms emerging in modern times are polysyllabic words, and so is the development of modern synonyms.

2 The derivation of polysyllabic synonyms From the perspective of the origin, there are mainly four situations in which synonyms in modern times emerged. 2.1 Neologisms of synonymous with neologisms Two or more synonyms of the same thing were created in modern times, but their word composition is different. Examples include the following. The meanings of zìláihuǒ 自來火 and yánghuǒ 洋火 are the same, referring to the match. The fifth volume of the Wèngyǒu yútán 甕牖餘談 [Chatting about Poor Families] by Wang Tao 王韜 of the Qing dynasty writes that “xīrén yǒu zìláihuǒ mùtiáo zhě, nǎi liúhuáng zhìliàn shíyú cì . . . jiāng mù xuēchéng xiǎopiàn, jí tú dàpiàn zhīduān, yì jīng mócā, qíhuǒ sùshēng, shì wèi zìláihuǒ, jīn xīfāng zhūguó duōyòng shìwù. 西人有自来火木條者，乃硫磺制煉十餘次 . . . 将木削成小 片，即塗大片之端，一经磨擦，其火速生，是謂自来火，今西方諸國多用 是物.” (Western matches are made from sulfur refined for more than ten times . . . Cut wood into small pieces and paint ashes on the end of large pieces. Once it is rubbed, fire will grow quickly, which is called zìláihuǒ. Nowadays, most western countries use the object.) The third volume of Liǔhú 柳弧 [Willow Bows] written by Ding Kerou 丁克柔 of the Qing dynasty reads that “sānrén yì xǐng, nèi yìrén yǐ yánghuǒ ránzhú zhào zhī. 三人亦醒，内一人以洋火燃燭照之.” (All three woke up. One of them lit a candle with a match.) The chapter 68 of the Èrshí nián mùdǔ zhī guài xiànzhuàng 二十年目睹之怪現状 [The Strange Situation Witnessed in Twenty Years] written by Wu Woyao 吴沃堯 of the Qing dynasty records that “nàshíhòu wǒ jìde wǒmen hái méiyǒu yòng yánghuǒ ne. 那時候我記得我們還 没有用洋火呢.” (At that time, I remember we did not use matches.) The meanings of qiānlǐjìng 千里鏡 and wàngyuǎnjìng 望遠鏡 are the same, referring to the optical instrument used to observe distant things. The second volume of the Hútiānlù 壶天録 [The Fairyland] by Buddhist Bairen 百人 writes that “xīrén suǒzhì zhīwù jiē jí qíqiǎo, qiānlǐjìng zhě, zé shìyuǎn kěyǐ Shǐ jìn yān. 西人所制之物皆極奇巧，千里鏡者，則視遠可以使近焉.” (The things made by westerners are extremely ingenious. Telescopes can see things in the distance.) The Shèngshì wēiyán: Huǒqì 盛世危言火器 [Straightforward Words in the Flouring Age: Fire Arms] by Zheng Guanying 鄭觀應 of the Qing dynasty writes that “búlùn dàpào xiǎopào, jù kě shǐ bǎifā bǎizhòng, qífǎ zài pàoshǒu jiāyǐ qiānlǐjìng, biàn néng fàngyuǎn wéijìn. 不論大砲小砲，俱可使百發百中，其法在砲首加 以千里鏡，便能放遠爲近.” (Whether it is the big gun or the small one, they can shoot with great accuracy. The key to the fact is that a telescope added to the front end of the gun can bring things in the distance closer.) The second volume of the Lùshuǐtíng záshí 渌水亭雜識 [Lushui Pavilion Miscellaneous Knowledge] written by Nalan Xingde 納蘭性德 reads that “xīrén yún: wàngyuǎnjìng kuī jīnxīng,

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 43 yì yǒu xiánwàng. 西人云：望遠鏡窺金星，亦有弦望.” (Westerners say: “The telescope can observe Venus and time.”) The two words of Àidài 靉靆 and yǎnjìng 眼鏡 have the same meaning, referring to the lens that corrects vision or protects the eyes. The Liúqīng rìzhá: Àidài 留青日札·靉靆 [Daily Records of Reserving the Green: Glasses] by Tian Yiheng 田藝衡 of the Ming dynasty writes that “tíxué fùshǐ cháoyáng língōng yǒu èrwù, dàrú qiánxíng, zhìbó ér tòumíng, rú xiāozishí, rú liúlí, sè rú yúnmǔ. Měi kàn wénzhāng, mùlì shuāijuàn, bú biàn xìshū, yǐcǐ yǎnmù, jīngshén búsàn, bǐhuà bèimíng. Zhōng yòng língjuàn lián zhī, fù yú nǎohòu. Rén jiē bù shí, jǔ yǐ wèn yú. Yú yuē, ‘cǐ àidài yě.’ 提學副使潮陽林公有二物，大如錢形，質薄而 透明，如硝子石，如硫璃，色如雲母. 每看文章，目力衰倦，不辨细書， 以此掩目，精神不散，筆畫倍明.中用綾絹聯之，縛於腦後.人皆不識，舉 以問余.余曰：‘此靉靆也’.” (The vice envoy of promotion supervisor Chaoyang Duke Lin has two objects, which are shaped like a bigger coin, and they are thin and transparent like nitrate stone and glass, whose color is like mica. When reading an article, his eyesight is faint and poor, and he cannot distinguish small characters in books, so he uses them to cover his eyes. Then he is no longer distracted and can see the strokes of characters more clearly. The two objects are bound together with damask silk and then tied to the back of the head. People do not know them and asked me; I said, “They are glasses.”) The Qī xiū xùgǎo: Shìwù 七修續稿事物 [The Sequel of Seven Categories] written by Lang Yng 郎瑛 of the Ming dynasty writes that “shào cháng wén guìrén yǒu yǎnjìng, lǎonián guānshū, xiǎozì kàndà. 少嘗聞貴人有眼鏡，老年觀書,小字看大.” (I once heard that nobles have glasses which will be used when they are reading in old age and they can enlarge the font size.) The Gāiyú cóngkǎo: Yǎnjìng 陔餘叢考眼镜 [Research of Taking Care of Parents: Glasses] by Zhao Yi 趙翼 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Gǔ wèi yǒu yǎnjìng, zhì míng shǐ yǒu zhī, běn láizì xīyù. 古未有眼鏡，至 明始有之，本来自西域.” (There were no glasses in ancient times. They started to be introduced in the Ming dynasty from the Western Regions.) Yǎnjìng 眼鏡 was a newly created word of the Ming dynasty, but àidài 叆叇 meant the phenomenon that thick cloud covers the sky. The Yìmínyín 逸民吟 [The Ode to Hermits] authored by Pan Ni 潘尼 of the Jin dynasty records that “zhāoyún àidài, xínglù wèixī. 朝雲靉靆，行露未晞.” (Early in the morning, white clouds are thick, and dew beside the road has not evaporated.) Here its meaning was irrelevant to the meaning of glasses. 2.2 Neologisms synonymous with old words Among synonyms, one had the similar meaning in ancient times, and the other one was newly created in modern times, as shown in the following words. The words měilì 美麗 and piàoliang 漂亮 both mean pretty. Měilì 美麗 has been in usage in the pre-Qin dynasty. The Zhànguó cè: Qícè yī 戰國策齊策一 [Strategies of the Warring States: Strategies of the State of Qi I] writes that “Chéngběi Xúgōng, qíguó zhī měilìzhě yě. 城北徐公，齊國之美麗者也.” (Mr. Xu in the north of the city is a handsome man in the state of Qi.) Piàoliang 漂

44 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 亮 that is newly created in modern times is synonymous with měilì 美麗. For instance, the Lèjiāo sīyǔ 樂郊私語 [Private Sketches of Land of Happiness] by Yao Tongshou 姚桐壽 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “Zǐáng fēngshén měilì ér héyì kěqīn, wénzhāng shūhuì, rén chēng sānjué. 子昂風神美麗而和易可親， 文章書繪，人稱三绝.” (Ziang is pretty but also amiable and easy-going. His articles, calligraphy, and paintings are titled as three wonders.) The chapter 52 of the Guānchǎng xiànxíng jì 官場現形記 [Exposure of the Official World] written by Li Baojia 李寶嘉 reports that “zhè rén suī shì wǔguān, shèn shì wēnwén ěryǎ, rén hěn piàoliang, gōngshì yì hěn míngbái. 這人雖是武官，甚是温文爾雅， 人很漂亮，公事亦很明白.” (Although he is a military officer, he is very gentle, pretty, and knows his business very well.) The words lìnsè 吝嗇 and kèsè 克嗇 both mean stingy, too reluctant to use the financial resources that should be used. Lìnsè 吝嗇 has been in usage in the pre-Qin dynasty. In the Sānguó zhì 三國志 [Records of the Three Kingdoms], the Wèishū: Cáohóng zhuàn 魏書·曹洪傳 [The Book of the Wei dynasty: A Biography of Cao Hong] reads that “Hóngjiā fù ér lìnsè. 洪家富而吝嗇.” (The Hong family is very rich but very stingy.) As it has been handed down, it is synonymous with kèsè 克嗇, which emerged in modern times. For example, the Liáozhāi zhìyì: Huònǚ 聊齋志異·霍女 [A Collection of Bizarre Stories: Miss Huo] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 reads that “Zhūdà xīng, zhāngdérén. Jiāfù ér lìnsè yǐshèn. 朱大 興，彰德人. 家富而吝嗇已甚.” (Zhu Daxing is from Zhangde, whose family is very rich but awfully stingy.) The chapter 46 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty records that “fán chūrù yínqián shìwù, yì jīng tā shǒu, biàn lìnsè yìcháng. 凡出入银錢事務， 一经他手，便吝嗇異常.” (He was very stingy as long as he dealt with the business of income and expenditure.) The words wūxiàn 誣陷 and zhuāngwū 妝誣 (zāngwū 贓誣, zhuāngwū 裝誣) all express the meaning of fabricating bad things to frame others. Wūxiàn 誣陷 emerged in ancient times. The Hòu Hàn shū: Huángdì jìxià 後漢書·桓帝紀下 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: The Record of the Emperor Huan III] records that “ruò chāo nuò shū, wūxiàn liángshàn, píngyuán zhīrén jiē wéi dǎng hū! 若超諾 書，誣陷良善，平原之人皆爲黨乎！” (If quickly agreeing to draft an imperial edict and framing good people, all the people in the plain will be his party!) The meaning is transmitted and is still kept in usage today. The words like zhuāngwū 妝 誣, zāngwū 贓誣, and zhuāngwū 裝誣come into being in modern times and become synonymous words. In the volume 22 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Sìdào nǎi lìng chuāngōng tàijiān chá nǚpín míngxìng, jiāng tā shì wūxiàn tā, cìsǐ gōngzhōng. 似道乃令穿宫太監查女嬪名姓，將他事誣陷他，賜 死宫中.” (Sidao ordered the eunuch who went in and out of the palace to secretly check the names of the female concubines, framed him with other things, and killed him in the palace.) The third act of the Shénnúér 神奴兒 [The Story of Shennuer] written by an anonymous writer reads that “zhè gōngshì píng shéi zuòzhǔ, dōushì tā èrsǎo zhuāngwū. 這公事憑誰做主，都是他二嫂妝誣.” (Whoever presides over justice in this matter, the result is that his sister-in-law framed him.) The fourth

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 45 act of the Xièjīnwú 謝金吾 [Xie Jinwu] written by an anonymous writer reads that “zhè gōngshì yǎnkàn xūshí dìng hérú . . . xū bùshì wǒ huánggū de zāngwū. 這公 事眼看虚實定何如 . . . 須不是我皇姑的贓誣.” (I will decide on what to do after distinguishing the truth and falsehood of this business . . . It is impossible that my aunt’s manservant framed him.) In the Mínglǜ 明律 [Laws of the Ming dynasty], the Hùlǜ: Kèchéng 户律課程 [The Law of Household: Tax] writes that “ruò zhuāngwū píngrén zhě, jiā sānděng. 若装誣平人者，加三等.” (If someone frames civilians, the tax will be increased by three grades.) 2.3 Words in dialects becoming common and synonymous with common words Due to the wide spread of popular novels, operas and other literary works, many dialect words in Modern Chinese gradually integrated into common words and formed a synonymous relationship with common words, as can be seen in the words below. The three words of yǎnjing 眼睛, yǎnnǎo 眼腦, and lùlǎo 渌老 were synonymous in modern times, referring to the visual organ of humans or animals. Yǎnjing 眼睛 is a common word, while yǎnnǎo 眼腦 and lùlǎo 渌老 were dialectal words in the Song and Yuan dynasties. The third act of the Xièjīnwú 謝金吾 [Xie Jinwu] written by an anonymous writer reads that “chángyán dào: yǎnjīng tiào, huǐqì dào. Nándào yǒu shènme huǐqì dào wǒ jiālǐ? 常言道：眼睛跳，悔 氣到. 難道有甚麽悔氣到我家裹？” (As the saying goes, eyes that jump means that bad luck is coming. Is there any bad luck in my house?) In the first book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實 甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written in act four that, “hài xiāngsī de chán yǎnnǎo, jiàn tā shí xū kàn gè shífēn bǎo. 害相思的饞眼腦，見他時須看個十分飽.” (Suffering from lovesickness, I desire to see him with my eyes. When I see him, it will feast my eyes.) Wang Jisi 王季思, quoting Mao Qiling 毛奇齡, checked and annotated that “běirén chēng yǎn wéi yǎnnǎo. 北人稱眼爲眼腦.” (The northern people call yǎn 眼 as yǎnnǎo 眼腦.) It is written in the Bāshēng gānzhōu 八聲 甘州 [Eight Rhymes of Ganzhou] by Wang Jiafu 王嘉甫 of the Yuan dynasty that “zhǎigōng gōng piědào, liūdāo dāo lùlǎo, chèn xiásāi yìdiǎn zhūyīng xiǎo. 窄弓弓撇道，溜刀刀渌老，稱霞腮一點朱樱小.” (The little feet bend like a bow and the eyes twinkle. People praise the beauty’s gorgeous face and small cherry mouth.) Jiao Xun 焦循 of the Qing dynasty wrote the Jùshuō 劇説 [The Opera] quoting the Zhīxīnlù 知新録 [The Record of New Knowledge] and cleared up doubts about the Xīxiāng 西廂 [The Western Chamber] that “Lùlǎo, wèi yǎn yě, yì zuò lùlǎo. Lǎo shì chènzì, rú shēn wéi qūlǎo, shǒu wéi zhǎolǎo. 渌老，謂 眼也，亦作騄老. 老是襯字，如身爲軀老，手爲爪老.” (Lùlǎo 渌老 is called yǎn, also written as lùlǎo 騄老. Lǎo 老 is a character inserted outside melodic form, for example, the body is called qūlǎo 軀老 and the hand is called zhǎolǎo 爪老.) The Yuánqǔ shìcí 元曲釋詞 [Interpretation of Yuan Operas] by Gu Xuejie 顧學頡 and Wang Xueqi 王學奇 writes that “Àn lùlǎo, yì zuò lǜlǎo, lùlǎo, liùlǎo, lǘlǎo. Lú, lù běnzì dàngzuò lǘ. Guǎngyùn: Móyùn:‘lǘ, mù tóngzǐ yě.’ Gù shūfǎ

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

suī fēnyún, yìng yǐ ‘lǘlǎo’ wéizhǔn, qíyú dōu shǔ tóngyīn jièyòng. 按渌老，亦作 緑老、騄老、六老、驢老. 矑、睩本字當作驢.”《廣韻·模韻》：‘驢，目童 子也’. 故書法雖紛紜，應以‘驢老’爲准，其餘都屬同音借用.” (Lùlǎo is also written lùlǎo, lùlǎo, liùlǎo, and lúlǎo. Lù and lú were originally regarded as lú. Guǎngyùn Móyùn reads that “lú refers to the eyeball.” Therefore, although there are different kinds of calligraphy, lú is the basic one, and the rest belong to homophonic loanwords.) The words of zhěngqí 整齊 and qíjié 齊截 have the same meaning, referring to being orderly, or having little difference in size, length, degree, etc. Zhěngqí 整齊 is a common word, and qíjié 齊截 is a dialectal word in the area of Beijing. The seventh volume of the Báiyǔjì cíhuà 白雨霽詞話 [The Poetry of Hailstones] written by Chen Yanchao 陳延焯 of the Qing dynasty reads that “shìrén lùnshī, duō yǐ tàibái zhī zòng héng chāoyì wéibiàn, dùlíng zhī zhěngqí yánsù wéizhèng. 世人論詩，多以太白之縱横超逸爲變，杜陵之整齊嚴肅爲正.” (When people talk about poetry, most people assume that Li Bai’s poetry is unrestrained, while Du Fu’s poetry is neat and serious.) It is written in the chapter 110 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty that “wǒ shàngtóu ái le hǎoxiē shuō, wèide shì nǐmen bù qíjié, jiàorén xiàohuà. 我上頭捱了好些説，爲的是你們不齊截，叫人笑話.” (I have been criticized a lot because you are out of order which makes others laugh.) 2.4 Extended meanings of synonymous words There is the case that words whose extended meanings are synonymous. Two or several different words have the same extended meaning in the course of historical development and become synonyms, as exemplified below. The four words dàifu 大夫, lángzhōng 郎中, tàiyī 太醫, and yàofāng 藥方 had different meanings in ancient times. Dàifu 大夫 was a rank of medical officials of the Song dynasty. The volume 16 of Róngqí sān bǐ 容齊三筆 [The Third Draft of Rongqi] written by Hong Mai 洪邁 of the Song dynasty reads that “Shénzōng Dǒngzhèng zhìguān, zhǔ yīguān ézhǐ yú sìyuán. Jí Xuānhé zhōng, zì Héān dàifu zhì hànlín yīguān fán yìbǎiqīshí rén . . . sānnián wǔyuè, shǐ zhào dàifu yǐ èrshí yuán, láng yǐ sānshí yuán, yīxiào zhì zhīhòu yǐ sānbǎi rén wéié. 神宗董正治官， 主醫官额止於四員. 及宣和中，自和安大夫至翰林醫官凡一百七十人 . . . 三年五月，始詔大夫以二十員，郎以三十員，醫效至祗候以三百人爲額.” (Shenzong Dong Zheng governed hundreds of officials and instituted medical officials with a number of no more than four. In the middle age of the Xuanhe period, there was a total of 117 medical officials from Hean dàifu to Hanlin medical officials . . . In May of the third year, the imperial edict stipulated that there were 20 dàifu and 30 lángzhōng, and the total number of officials from yīxiào to zhīhòu was 300 people.) Lángzhōng 郎中 was originally an official’s name, and since the Warring States Period, lángzhōng 郎中 has been set up in all dynasties as senior civil servants of governments. It is written in the Hánfēizǐ: Gūfèn 孤憤 [Han Feizi: Highly Critical of Society] that “Lángzhōng bù yīnzé bùdé jìnzhǔ, gù zuǒyòu wéi zhī nì. 郎中不因則不得近主，故左右爲之匿.” (Lángzhōng is not

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 47 allowed to approach the emperor if he does not follow the norms, so he accompanies the emperor.) Tàiyī 太醫 referred to an official or a royal doctor of subjective medicine in the ancient imperial court. The Hòu Hàn shū: Dōnghǎi gōngwáng Jiāng zhuàn 後漢書·東海恭王疆傳 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: A Biography of Dōnghǎi gōngwáng Jiang] records that “Yǒngpíng wúnián, Jiāng bìng, Xiǎnzōng qiǎn zhōngchángshì Gōudùn lìng jiāng tàiyī chéngyì shìjí. 永平无年， 疆病，顯宗遣中常侍鉤盾令将太醫乘驛視疾.” (In the first year of Yongping, Jiang was seriously ill. Then, the emperor Xianzong dispatched the servant Goudun to ask the imperial doctor to come to see him by riding in the carriage of the post station.) Yàofāng藥方 originally referred to the prescription given by the doctor. The Hòu Hàn shū: Bǎiguān zhì sān 後漢書百官志三 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: The Record of Hundreds of Officials III] writes that “Yàochéng zhǔ yào, fāngchéng zhǔ yàofāng. 藥丞主藥，方丞主藥方.” (Yàochéng 藥 丞 is responsible for medicine, fāngchéng is responsible for prescription.) In modern times, dàifu 大夫, lángzhōng 郎中, tàiyī 太醫, and yàofāng 藥方 all meant doctor in a broad sense, who holds the knowledge of medicine and health. Their occupation is to prevent and treat diseases. These words have such a meaning and become synonyms. It is written in the tenth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “cónglái dàifu bùxiàng tā shuōde tòngkuai, xiǎngbì yòngyào búcuò de. 從来大夫 不象他説的痛快，想必用藥不錯的.” (The doctor has never been as straightforward as he said. He must have taken good medicine.) The second act of the Bàiyuètíng 拜月亭 [The Worship of the Moon Pavilion] written by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “Lángzhōng, zǐxì de píng zhè màizán. 郎 中，仔細的評這脈咱.” (The doctor carefully touches my pulse.) The chapter 38 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “nǐ ruò xīnnèi bú zìzài, zǎo duì wǒ shuō, wǒ hǎo qǐng tàiyī lái kàn nǐ. 你若心内不自在，早對我説，我 好請太醫来看你.” (If you feel uncomfortable in your heart, tell me earlier. I can ask a doctor to see you.) The third volume of the Xiāngyán jiěyí 鄉言解頤 [Happiness of Dialects] written by Li Guangting 李光庭 of the Qing dynasty reads that “sú wèi yī yuē lángzhōng, yányī yuē qǐng dàifu . . . jiāxiāng zé wèi zhī yàofāng, gài zhǐ qí suǒ yìyè yě. Gù cūnyáo yuē: ‘chīfàn xiān hētāng, bùyòng qǐng yàofāng. Luóbo shàng le jiē, yàofāng bǎ zuǐ juē.’ 俗謂醫曰郎中，延醫曰請大夫 . . . 家鄉 則謂之藥方，蓋指其所肄業也. 故村謡曰：‘吃飯先喝湯，不用請藥方’. 蘿 蔔上了街，藥方把嘴撅’.” (Yī is traditionally known as lángzhōng, and yányī is to call a doctor . . . In my hometown, it is called yàofāng, generally standing for his occupation. Therefore, the village ballad says: “Drink soup before eating, you do not need to call a doctor. When the radish is on the market, the doctor will be unhappy.”) The five words shìqíng 事情, shìtǐ 事體, shìyì 事意, shìjì 事濟, and shìtóu 事 頭 originally were not synonymous. The original meaning of shìqíng 事情 was the truth or actual situation of things. The Zhànguó cè Qíncè èr 戰國策秦策二 [Strategies of the Warring States: Strategies of the State of Qin II] writes that “dàoyuǎn, chén bù dé fù guō yǐ, qǐng yè shìqíng. 道遠，臣不得復過矣，請謁

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事情.” (It is a long way. I cannot go there again. Please explain the truth.) Gao You 高誘 annotated that “yè, gào yě; qíng, shí yě. 謁，告也；情，實也.” (Yè means reporting an offender; qíng is the truth.) Shìtǐ 事體 originally referred to the reason. The Dōngguān Hàn jì: Húguǎng zhuàn 東觀漢記胡廣傳 [Dōngguān Record of the Han dynasty: A Biography of Hu Guang] compiled by Liu Zhen 劉珍 of the Han dynasty records that “Dáliàn shìtǐ, míngjiě cháozhāng. 達練事 體，明解朝章.” (You should know the reason and understand the rules of the imperial court.) Shìyì 事意 originally referred to the meaning of things. The Hàn shū: Jiǎshān zhuàn 漢書賈山傳 [A Biography of Jia Shan of the Book of the Han dynasty] writes that “qí yán duō jīqiè, shàn zhǐ shìyì. 其言多激切，善指事意.” (His words are fierce and straightforward, and he is good at telling the meaning of things.) Shìjì 事濟 originally referred to the completion of business. The Xīnshū Ěrbì 新書耳痹 [The New Book: Ear Paralysis] written by Jia Yi 賈誼 of the Han dynasty writes that “shìjì gōngchéng, Fànlǐ fùshì ér guī jiānghú. 事濟功成，范 蠡負室而歸江湖.” (After successfully completing his cause, Fan Li retired and took a boat to hide in a corner of the country.) Shìtóu 事頭 originally referred to the cause of something. The second act of the Huíchūnyuán 回春園 [Return of Spring Garden] written by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “wǒ yù wèn yígè shìtóu, hūntiān hēidì, shéi gǎn xiàng huāyuánlǐ zǒu? 我欲問一 個事頭，昏天黑地，誰敢向花園裹走？” (I want to ask the reason of one thing. Who dares to walk into a garden in the dark?) They have successively extended the same meaning, referring to all activities in human life and all phenomena in human society, which have become synonymous in modern times. For example, the Yuánshǐ: Shìzǔjì yī 元史世祖紀一 [The Record of the Emperor Shizu I of the History of the Yuan dynasty] records that “yǐ hǎiqīng yínfú èr, jīnfú shí gěi zhōngshūshěng, liàng jūnguó shìqing huǎnjí, fù chéngyìzhě pèi zhī. 以海青銀符 二、金符十給中書省，量軍國事情緩急，付乘驛者佩之.” (Two silver symbols and ten gold symbols of Haiqing post station are given to the Central Library province, which are awarded to the officials taking post cars to dress according to the priorities of military and national affairs.) The chapter 57 of the Jīnpíngméi 金 瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑 笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “wèi zhí’er fāyuàn, hé bù yìlì dúchéng, yěshì xiǎokě de shìtǐ. 爲侄兒發願，何不一力獨成，也是小可的事體.” (If you wish for your nephew, why not do it alone? It is an easy thing as well.) The first volume of the Wǔwáng fá Zhòu pínghuà 武王伐紂平話 [A Popular Story about King Wu Attacking Zhou] writes that “Bǐgàn wèn tàizǐ, yǒu hé shìyì dàolái. 比干問 太子，有何事意到来.” (Bigan asked the prince for which thing he came here.) The chapter 15 of the Xiǎotúsūn 小屠孫 [Little Tusun] by an anonymous writer of the Southern Song dynasty writes that “zuò shìjì, bù diǎnshí, rújīn zěnshēng lái jiù nǐ? 作事濟，不點實，如今怎生来救你？” (How can I save you now as you did not handle things properly?) The volume 40 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今 小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty writes that “Yánsōng fùzǐ shēnyǐ wéihèn, shāngyì yào xún gè shìtǐ shāquè Shěn Liàn. 严嵩父子深以爲恨，商議要尋個事體殺却沈鍊.” (Yan

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 49 Song and his son felt deep hatred about this matter and discussed to find some reason to kill Shen Lian.)

3 The composition of polysyllabic synonyms There are various compositions of polysyllabic synonyms. Some polysyllabic synonyms have one same morpheme and one different morpheme; some of them have two of the same morphemes, with the order of morphemes being opposite; some of them have two different morphemes. Different from Middle Chinese, Modern Chinese has developed more polysyllabic words, and various forms of synonyms are richer, so the composition of polysyllabic synonyms seems to be more complex. 3.1 The synonyms with the same morpheme The composition of the synonyms with the same morpheme can be attached formation, combined formation, modifier-head structure and verb-object structure. Different morphemes can be synonymous or not, but the polysyllabic words formed by them are synonyms, which can be divided into three categories as shown below. 3.1.1 The same former morpheme with different latter morpheme The two nouns bāozǐ 包子 and bāoér 包兒 both refer to a kind of steamed food with meat, vegetables and sugar as stuffing, leavened dough as skin, and wrapped into a circle in modern times. Bāozǐ 包子 came into being in the Song dynasty, being more common in use during the Yuan and Qing dynasties. Bāoér 包兒 had originally been seen in the Ming dynasty. In the Hèlín yùlù 鶴林玉露 [The Dewdrop in the Forest Around the Monastery] written by Luo Dajing 羅大經 of the Song dynasty, the volume 18 of the Lǚcōngsī 縷葱絲 [A Wisp of Anthracene Thread] writes that “jìshì bāozǐ chúzhōngrén, héwéi bùnéng zuò bāozǐ? 既是包 子廚中人，何爲不能作包子？” (Since you are the cook of the steamed stuffed bun, why can’t you just make it?) The chapter 42 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “měirén chī yí dà shēn wǎn bābǎo cuántāng, sāngè dà bāozǐ, hái líng sìgè táohuā shāomài, zhǐ liúle yígè bāoer yā dié’ér. 每人吃一大 深碗八寶攅湯，三個大包子，還零四個桃花燒賣，只留了一個包兒壓碟 兒.” (Each person has a big deep bowl of soup, three big steamed stuffed buns, and four peach blossom Sumai. Only one steamed stuffed bun is left to press the plate.) The words of Chāishì 差事 and chāish 差使 both refer to what one is asked to do, namely official business in modern times. Chāishǐ 差使 came into being in the Song dynasty, meaning dispatch and official position. The Qǐbà jiàngguān zhuàng 乞罷将官状 [A Pleading of Dethroning Generals] written by Sima Guang 司馬光 of the Song dynasty writes that “jīn wéi zhōuxiàn zhǎnglì jí zǒngguǎn

50 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese děngguān, ér yú suǒbù shìzú, yǒu bù xiāng tǒngshè, bù dé chāishǐ, dài rú lùrén zhě. 今爲州縣長吏及總管等官，而於所部士卒，有不相統摄，不得差使， 殆如路人者.” (Nowadays, the people who serve as state and county magistrates, administrators and other officials only command their own soldiers and are not allowed to dispatch other soldiers, who are roughly regarded as passers-by.) By extension, it referred to the thing that someone is dispatched to do. The chapter 56 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹 雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “gūniangmen chūrù, tái jiàozi, chēng chuán, lā bīngchuáng, yìyìng cūzhòng huójì, dōushì tāmen de chāishǐ. 姑娘們出入，擡 轎子，撑船，拉冰床，一應粗重活計，都是他們的差使.” (When the girls go in and out, they carry sedan chairs, punt, pull sleds, and do all the heavy physical work belonging to them.) Chāishì 差事 was a neologism produced in modern times. The Yuándài báihuà bēijílù Píngyáo chóngshènggōng gěiwénbēi (yī) 元 代白話碑集録·平遥崇聖宫给文碑（一） [Tablets of Vernacular Chinese in the Yuan dynasty: The Gěiwén Tablet of Píngyáo Chóngshèng Palace I] writes that “dé cǐ wénzhuàng, chú biéxíng wài, yǐ jiāng běngōng jí xiàyuàn chāishì xíng xiàdàosī chúmiǎn qùqì. 得此文状，除别行外，已将本宫及下院差事行下道 司除免去訖.” (With this document, except for special acts, the notification of removing me and my followers from office has been issued to the Taoist Department.) It is written in the seventh chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “Mā háiyǒu shénme bùliǎode chāishì. 媽還有什麽不了的差事.” (My mother has some unfinished things.) The words of chūtiāo 出挑, chūtiào 出跳, chūtiáo 出條, chūtuō 出脱, chūluò 出落, and chūxī 出息 were synonymous verb in Modern Chinese, referring to the development, change, growth (of young people’s physical abilities, appearance and intelligence towards the good aspects). The sixth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “rújīn chūtiāo de měiréner shìde, shǎo shuōzhe zhǐpà yǒu yíwàn xīnyǎnzi. 如今出挑的美人兒似的，少説着只怕有一萬心眼子.” (She grows to be a beautiful woman now. I am afraid that she is very scheming.) The sixth volume of the Xīxiāng jì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宫調 [Various Melodies of Romance of the Western Chamber] written by Dong Jieyuan 董解元 of the Jin dynasty reads that “shìzé shì zhè yuānjia méi duǒbō, dǒu nèndì jīngshén chūtiào, zhuǎn tiānjiāo. 是則是這冤家没軃剥，陡恁地精神出跳，轉添嬌.” (Although she had no shortcomings, she suddenly became so beautiful and lovely.) The chapter 71 of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] by Xizhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Hǔgē yǐ zhǎngchéng shíwǔ suì, chūtiáo le gè hǎo xiǎosī. 虎哥已長成十五歳， 出條了個好小廝.” (Brother Huge is 15 years old and has become a good boy.) The fourth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “qí múyàng suīrán chūtuō de zhěngqí hǎoxiē, rán dàgài xiàngmào, zìshì bù gǎi. 其模樣雖然出脱得整齊好 些，然大概相貌，自是不改.” (Although he looks more handsome, his general appearance has not changed.) In the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 51 to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, the ninth volume records that, “(Qiūfāng) kànkan zhǎngchéng shíliù suì, chūluò de hǎo gè nǚér, měiyàn fēicháng. （秋芳）看看長成十六歳，出落得好個女兒， 美豔非常.” ([Qiu Fang] is 16 years old and has become a good girl. She is very beautiful.) The chapter 27 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “mínger nǐ fúshì wǒ ba, wǒ rèn nǐ zuò gānnǚháier, wǒ yī tiáolǐ, nǐ jiù chūxī le. 明兒你伏侍我罷， 我認你做乾女孩兒，我一調理，你就出息了.” (You shall serve me tomorrow, and I will take you as my nominal foster daughter, and as soon as I teach you, you shall grow to be better.) The former three words chūtiāo 出挑, chūtiào 出 跳 and chūtiáo 出條 originated in modern times. Chūtuō 出脱 originated in the Song dynasty, also having the meaning of exculpate, goods are sold, and change clothes. Chūluò 出落 also originated in the Song dynasty, meaning break away from, discover, and only end in as well. Chūxī 出息 originated in the Six dynasties, meaning earnings and exhaled breath. Hence, it can be said that the words have other different meanings in addition to the development, change, and growth of the meaning itself. The five words dǎdāng 打當, dǎdiǎn 打點, dǎdié 打叠, dǎdié 打疊, and dǎbìng 打並 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning clear away/pack up and prepare. It is noted in the chapter 24 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “qiě shuō Wǔdà chī le zǎofàn, dǎdāng le dānér, zì chūqù zuò dàolù. 且説 武大吃了早飯，打當了擔兒，自出去做道路.” (After having breakfast, Wuda packed up the goods and went out to do business by himself.) The first chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty reads that “dǎdāng xiàchuán, kàn yǒu shèn rén lái. 打當下 船，看有甚人来.” (Get ready to get off the ship and see who comes.) It is written in the volume 18 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “bālǎo shōushi huòwù, dǎdiǎn qǐshēn. 八老收拾货物，打點起身.” (The servant packed up the goods and was ready to set off.) The chapter 91 of the Hónglóumèng 紅 樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty writes that “cǐshì shàngtóu kě tuō, dǐxià nán tuō, bìxū dǎdiǎn cáihǎo. 此事上頭可托， 底下難托，必須打點才好.” (This matter can be entrusted to the people superior, but the servants are not reliable. We must bribe them.) The volume 11 of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty writes that “nǐ dǎdié yǐ wán, zhǐ xū tóng nǐ gēge huíqù, jiànjiàn qīnzú, ránhòu dàorèn biàn liǎo. 你打叠已完，只須 同你哥哥回去，見見親族，然後到任便了.” (After you pack up your luggage, you just need to go back with your brother, meet your relatives, and then take office.) It is noted in the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “bǎ zhuānglǐ yǒude méide xìruǎn děngwù, jíbiàn shōushi, jìn jiào dǎdié qǐ le. 把莊裹有的没的细軟等物，即便收拾，盡教打叠起了.” (Immediately pack up all the expensive clothing and other valuables in the Grange, whatever they are,

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just pack up.) The fifth volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty reads that “Wéidé xiān jiāng diànzhōng cūzhòng jiāhuo biànmài, dǎdié xínglǐ, gù le yìzhī chánglùchuán. 韋德先将店中粗重家夥變賣，打叠行李，雇了一隻長 路船.” (Weide first sold off thick or heavy utensils in the store, packed his bags and hired a long-distance boat.) It is noted in the chapter 18 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wǒ hé Gōngsūn xiānsheng dǎbìng le biàn lái. 我和公 孫先生打並了便来.” (We will come as soon as Mr. Gongsun and I have packed up.) It is written in the volume 39 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “dǎbìng dé wǔshí liǎng yínzi, fēn sòngyǔ èrrén. 打並得五十兩银子，分送 與二人.” (Fifty taels of silver was prepared and distributed to the two.) The two words dǎbìng 打並 and dǎdié 打叠 originated in the Song dynasty. For example, the Xiǎo qǐ cǎiméi 曉起採梅 [Picking Plums at Dawn] written by Yang Wanli 楊萬里 of the Song dynasty records that “dǎbìng rénjiān mínglìxīn, wànshān jiāchù yì xīshēn. 打並人間名利心，萬山佳處一溪深.” (Clean up the heart of fame and wealth in the world. There is a wonderful residence surrounded by mountains and a deep stream.) The Yǔ Téngdádào shū 與滕達道書 [A Letter to Teng Dadao] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty writes that “wǎnjǐng ruò bù dǎdié cǐshì, zé dàcuò. 晚 景若不打叠此事，則大錯.” (It would be a big mistake not to arrange this in his later years.) The word dǎdié 打疊 is dǎdié 打叠. The other two words dǎdāng 打當 and dǎdiǎn 打點 came into being in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. The two words zhīwu 支吾 and zhīdiào 支調 are synonymous verb, meaning do something perfunctorily and prevaricate. Zhīwu 支吾 originated in middle ancient times, originally referring to resist. The Jiù wǔdài shǐ: Mèng Zhīxiáng zhuàn 舊五代史·孟知祥傳 [History of the Five dynasties: A Biography of Meng Zhixiang] records that “zhīxiáng lǜ Tángjūn zhòuzhì, yú suì jiān bīnghé, zé shì bùkě zhīwu. 知祥慮唐軍驟至，舆遂間兵合，則勢不可支吾.” (Zhixiang was worried about the sudden arrival of the Tang army, so he reviewed armies and merged them, whose momentum was unstoppable.) Zhīwu 支吾 meant do something perfunctorily and prevaricate by extension. In the first book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written in act two that “zòngrán chóudé jīnshēng zhì, zhù shèn zhīwu cǐ yè cháng. 縦然酬得今生志，著甚支吾此夜長.” (Even if I realize my ambition in this life, what can I do to while away this long night.) The Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō: Féng Yùméi tuányuán 京本通俗小説·馮玉梅團圓 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: The Reunion of Feng Yumei] writes that “(Hè) Chéngxìn yányǔ zhīwu, sì yǒu xiūkuì zhīsè. （賀）承信言語支吾，似有羞愧 之色.” ([He] Chengxin’s words falter as if he were ashamed.) Zhīdiào 支調 was a new word coming into being in modern times. The chapter 16 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施 耐庵 of the Ming dynasty notes that “rúhé dàoshēng zhīdiào, tuīcí bùchū. 如何倒 生支調，推辭不出.” (I can’t decline it no matter how I prevaricate.) The chapter 84 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 53 Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “nà shí dàoshi duǒqù yìbiān, zhǐ jiào túdi lái zhīdiào. 那石道士躲去一邊，只教徒弟来支調.” (The Taoist Shí ducked away and only let his apprentice prevaricate.) The two words dābó 搭膊 (dābāo 搭包) and dālián 搭連 (dālián 褡褳) were synonymous in modern times, referring to a kind of cloth bag for holding property, with an opening in the middle and pockets at both ends, which can be put on the shoulder. It is noted in the chapter 18 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhǐ jiàn Wángsì dābó xí tūchū yínzi lá. 只見王四搭膊袭突出銀子 来.” (I saw silver bulging out of Wang Si’s bag.) It is written in the chapter 24 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “yímiàn shuō, yímiàn guǒrán cóng dābāo lǐ tāochū yījuǎn yínzi lái. 一面説，一面果然從搭包裹掏出一卷銀子来.” (While he is speaking, he takes out a roll of silver from the cloth bag.) The volume 19 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢 龍 of the Ming dynasty writes that “yòu zhīdào Yánggōng shèn pín, qù zìjǐ dālián nèi qǔ shílái liǎng hǎo chì jīnzi, wǔliùshí liǎng suì yínzi, sòngyú Yánggōng zuò pánchán. 又知道楊公甚贫，去自己搭連内取十来兩好赤金子，五六十兩碎 銀子，送與楊公做盤纏.” (Knowing that Mr. Yang was very poor, he took ten taels of pure gold and 56 taels of silver coins from his bag and gave them to Mr. Yang as traveling expense.) The chapter 12 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Dàoshi cóng dālián zhōng qǔchū gè zhèngmiàn fǎnmiàn jiē kě zhàorén de jìngzi lái. 道士 從搭褳中取出個正面反面皆可照人的鏡子来.” (The Taoist priest takes out one mirror with front and back sides both reflecting things from his bag.) It is argued that dālián 褡褳 is transliterated from the Mongolian word takalimpa or talimp. The two words jiězǐ 解子 and jiěrén 解人 are synonymous noun, referring to the officer who escorts prisoners. The second act of the Xiāoxiāng yǔ 瀟湘雨 [Night Rain in the Xiang River] written by Yang Xianzhi 揚顯之 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “zuǒyòu, biàn chāi gè néng xíng kuàizǒu de jiězi, jiāng zhè táonú jiědào Shāméndǎo. 左右，便差個能行快走的解子，将這逃奴解到沙門 島.” (Anyway, you dispatch an official who could walk quickly and order him to escort the fugitive slaves to the Shamen Island.) It is written in the volume 29 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Liúqīng zài wàimiàn yǐ zì mǎizhǔ jiězi, xiān jiāng Chéngbiāo, Chénghǔ gēnyóu bèixì yǔ Hónggōng shuō le. 劉青在外面已自買嘱解子，先將程彪、程虎根由備細與洪恭説了.” (Liu Qing has bribed and talked with the escort officials outside, and he told Hong Gong about the details of the origin of Cheng Biao and Cheng Hu.) The first act of the Hēixuànfēng 黑旋風 [Black Whirlwind] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “yǒu wǒ bābài de gēge Cháogài, zhī mǒu yǒu nàn, lǐng lóuluó xiàshān jiāng jiěrén dǎsǐ, jiù mǒu shàngshān. 有我八拜的哥哥晁蓋，知 某有難，領僂饠下山将解人打死，救某上山.” (My sworn brother knew I was in trouble, so he led his subordinates down the mountain, killed the escort and rescued me to go up the mountain.)

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The words shāo (shāo) gōng 梢(艄)公, shāo (shāo) rén 梢(艄)人, and shāozǐ 梢子 were synonymous noun in modern times, referring to the boatman. It is noted in the chapter 37 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “yě nándé zhège shāogōng jiù le wǒmen sāngè xìngmìng. 也難得這個梢公救了我們三個性命.” (Thanks to the boatman who saved our three lives.) The Zhì xiá chuán jù shīxù 誌 峽船具詩序 [The Ship’s Apparels of the Zhi Gorge] written by Wang Zhou 王周 of the Ming dynasty reads that “súchēng cāozhōu zhě, nán yuē shāo gōng, nǚ yuē shāopó, gài yǐ qí zhǎngshāo yě. 俗稱操舟者，男曰艄公，女曰艄婆，蓋以其 掌艄也.” (Traditionally, the male boatman is known as shāogōng and the female boatman is known as shāopó, both of them operate rudders.) It is written in the volume 23 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “shùrì zhījiān, suī shuǐhuǒ zhīshì yì zì jǐnshèn, rén yì bùzhī qí wéi nǚrén yě. 数日之間，雖水火之事 亦自謹慎，人亦不知其爲女人也.” (In the past few days, she was very cautious when using the lavatory, so people did not know that she was a woman.) It is written in the chapter 9 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “zhǐjiàn shāozi Liúhóng, Lǐbiāo èrrén, chēngchuán dàoàn yíngjiē. 只見梢子劉洪、李彪二人，撑船到岸迎接.” (It was seen that the boatmen Liu Hong and Li Biao came ashore to greet.) The words shuōkǒu 説口 and shuōzuǐ 説嘴 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning boast and brag. It is noted in the chapter 62 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “fēi shì Lúmǒu shuōkǒu, jīnbó qiáncái jiāzhōng pōyǒu, dàn dédào běijīng pánchán zúyǐ. 非是盧某説口，金帛錢財家中頗有， 但得到北京盤纏足矣.” (It was that Lu boasted that there was a lot of gold and silk at home, so he only needed travelling expenses to Beijing.) The second act of the Suì Fàn Shū 誶范叔 [Scolding Fan Shu] authored by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “bùshì wǒ Fànsuī shuōkǒu, xiǎng bào yuān zhīqī, kě yě bù yuǎn. 不是我范睢説口，想報冤之期，可也不遠.” (I do not boast; I will avenge in just a few days.) The first act of the Xuē Rénguì 薛仁貴 [Xue Rengui] written by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “nǐ búyào shuōzuǐ, nǐ dōu yǒu shènme gōngláo zài nàlǐ. 你不要説嘴，你都有甚麽功勞 在那裹.” (Do not boast. What is your contribution there?) The chapter 12 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “rénrén dōu shuō nǐ méiyǒu bù jīngguò, bù jiànguò, lián zhège shā hái bù rènde ne, mínger hái shuōzuǐ. 人人都説你没有不經過，不 見過，連這個紗還不認得呢，明兒還説嘴.” (Everyone says you have experienced and seen it, but you do not even recognize the silk. Do not boast tomorrow.) 3.1.2 The former different morpheme with latter same morpheme Fāhuà 發話 and dǎhuà 打話 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning speak. It is written in the volume 40 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 55 that “zài tīngshàng dàjīng xiǎoguài, gāoshēng fāhuà. 在廳上大驚小怪，高聲發 話.” (He makes a fuss in the hall and speaks loudly.) The chapter 11 of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫 中 of the Ming dynasty writes that “Zhāngfēi jiànle, gèng bù dǎhuà, zhíqǔ Yújìn. 張飛見了，更不打話，直取於禁.” (Zhang Fei met him withour speaking one word, and directly attacked Yu Jin.) Dǎhuà 打話 has been put into use in the Song dynasty. Làngkǎn 浪侃 and húkǎn 胡侃 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning talk nonsense and make irresponsible remarks. The first act of the Wàngjiāngtíng 望江亭 [The Wangjiang Pavilion] written by Guan Hanqing 關漢 卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “zhǐ yuàn tā kěnkěnkěn zuò yìxīnrén, wǒ hé tā shǒushǒushǒu Báitóuyín, fēi làngkǎn. 只願他肯肯肯做一心人，我和他守守守 《白頭吟》，非浪侃.” (As long as he loves me wholeheartedly, I will sing The Ode to Growing Old Together with him, I do not talk nonsense.) In the third book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written in act two that “nǐ nà géqiáng chóu hè dōu húkǎn, zhèngguǒ de shì jīnfān zhè yígè. 你那隔墙酬和都胡侃，證果的是 今番這一個.” (Though you and he exchanged love poems across the wall, what you two said was all bullshit. The result is that you are with this man now.) Màinòng 賣弄 and mǎinòng 買弄 are synonymous verb. Màinòng 賣弄 originally appeared as one polysemous word in the Six dynasties. Mǎinòng 買弄, as a new word, came into being in modern times. The two words both mean boast of and show off. The seventh volume of the Xīxiāng jì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸 宫調 [Various Melodies of Romance of the Western Chamber] written by Dong Jieyuan 董解元 of the Jin dynasty writes that “búshì zìjiā zì màinòng, wǒ yìbān nǚxù, yě yào réndié. 不是自家自賣弄，我一般女婿，也要人叠.” (I do not boast myself. I could be the son-in-law of families in turn.) The volume 43 of the Gāiyú cóngkǎo: Màinòng 陔餘叢考·賣弄 [Research of Taking Care of Parents: Boasting] by Zhao Yi 趙翼 of the Qing dynasty writes that “jìndài súyǔ, màinòng èrzì, zhuānzhǐ kuāyào zhīyì, liùcháo yǐlái, zé wèi zhāotóu quánshì yě. 近代俗語， 賣弄二字，專指誇耀之意，六朝以来，則謂招投權勢也.” (The word màinòng 賣弄, as a modern saying, specifically refers to boasting. Since the Six dynasties, it means taking refuge in power.) The third act of the Táohuā nǚ 桃花女 [The Peach Blossom Woman] by Wang Ye 王曄 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “mǎinòng shā zhōuyì Yīn Yáng, shuí sì nǐ, háiyǒu gè wèibǔ xiān zhīyì. 買弄殺 《周易》陰陽，誰似你，還有個未卜先知意.” (Try to show off the theory of Yin and Yang in the book of Changes. Who knows that you have the ability to make a prediction?) Tǎosǐ 討死, xúnsī 尋思, and zuōsǐ 作死 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning court death and describing that someone has no sense of priorities and is indifferent to danger. It is noted in the chapter 55 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “tiānbīng dào cǐ, bù sī zǎozǎo tóujiàng, hái zì gǎn kàngjù, bùshì tǎosǐ! 天兵到此，不思早早投降，還自敢抗拒，不是討死！” (When the heavenly soldiers arrive, you do not want to surrender early and resist tenaciously,

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that is, court death!) The chapter 58 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty writes that “nǐ liǎnggè yīn shènshì nào tiāngōng, rǎng zhì zhèn qián xúnsǐ. 你兩個因甚事鬧天宫，嚷 至朕前尋死.” (What are you fighting about so violently that you dare to come to heaven and yell in front of me to court yourself death.) The first act of the Chén Zhōu tiàomǐ 陳州糶米 [Chen Zhou Selling Rice] written by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads that “nǐ zhège hǔcìhái (qiángdào) zuōsǐ yě. Nǐ de yínzi yòu shǎo, zěn gǎn mà wǒ! 你這個虎刺孩（强盗）作死也. 你的銀子又 少，怎敢罵我！” (You robber, you want to die. As you do not have enough silver, how dare you scold me!) The chapter 11 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “zhè chùshēng hégāi zuōsǐ, kàn tā lái le zěnme yàng. 這畜生合該作死，看他来了怎 麽樣.” (The brute will court death, let us see what he will do when he comes.) Tījǐ 梯己 and tǐjǐ 體己 were synonymous in modern times, having two meanings: (1) Noun, referring to the property saved by family members, private money or cash dough. The chapter 65 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Jiǎliǎn yòu jiāng jīnián suǒyǒu de tījǐ, yíbìng bān le yú èrjiě shōuzhe. 賈璉又將積年所有 的梯己，一併搬了舆二姐收着.” (Jia Lian gave her second sister all the private money he had saved for many years.) In the Tōngsúbiān: Huòcái 通俗編貨財 [Records of Common Words: Property] compiled by Di Hao 翟灝 of the Qing dynasty, it is written in the Tījǐ 梯己 [Private Money] quoting the Xīnshǐ 心史 [The History Written with Great Pains] that “yuánrén wèi zìjǐwù, zé yuē tījǐwù. 元人謂自己物，則曰梯己物.” (The people of the Yuan dynasty call their own belongings tījǐwù.) The chapter 106 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty writes that “(Jiǎliǎn) xiǎngqǐ lìnián jījù de dōngxī bìng fèngjiě de tǐjǐ yǐ bú xià qībāwàn jīn, yìzhāo érjìn, zěndé bùtòng. （賈璉）想起歷年積聚的東西並鳯姐的體己已不下七八萬金，一朝 而盡，怎得不痛.” (Jia Lian thought that the sum of his savings over the years and Fengjia’s private money was no less than 70,000 in gold. Once they were all used up, how could he not feel heartache?) (2) Adjective, meaning being intimate and considerate. It is noted in the chapter 30 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wǒ zhàngqián quē nèndì yígè rén, bù zhī nǐ kěn yǔwǒ zuò qīnsuí tījǐ rén me. 我帳前缺恁地一個人，不知你肯與我做親随梯己人麽.” (I am short of such a person in my camp. I wonder if you are willing to be my intimate follower to serve around.) The Shānjū xīnhuà 山居新話 [A New Script of a Mountain Dwelling] written by Yang Yu 楊瑀 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “yú céng jiàn Zhōucǎochuāng (mì) jiā cáng Huīzōng zài wǔguó chéngyù guī yù pī shùshí zhǐ, zhōngjiān yǒu yún kě fù tǐjǐ rén zhě, jí jīn zhī suǒwèi tījǐ rén. 余曾見周草窗 （密）家藏徽宗在五國城寓歸御批数十紙，中間有云可付體己人者，即今 之所謂梯己人.” (I once saw that there were dozens of emperor’s instructions written by Huizong in cities of the five kingdoms, which were stored in Zhou Caochuang’s secret room. Among the writings, there was a sentence saying: “it can be delivered to an intimate person, which is called tījǐ today.”)

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 57 Tiǎodòu 挑鬥 (逗) and liáodòu 撩鬥 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning induce and provoke. The Bǎihuātíng 百花亭 [The Hundreds of Flowers Pavilion] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty writes that “wéi lián tā hàochǐ xīngmóu, pīnde gě zhì huángjīn huī báibì, ànzhōng tiǎodòu. 爲憐他皓 齒星眸，拚的個擲黄金揮白璧，暗中挑鬥.” (Loving his bright eyes and white teeth, I gave gold and white jade to induce him secretly.) It is written in the chapter 115 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty that “nà gūzi huìyì, běnlái xīnlǐ yě hàipà, bù gǎn tiǎodòu, biàn gàocí chūqù. 那姑子會意，本来心裏也害怕，不敢挑逗，便告辭出去.” (The girl understood and was afraid already, so she did not dare to provoke and then she excused herself and left.) The second act of the Dāndāohuì 單刀會 [Going on a Dangerous Date Alone] written by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “tā jiǔxìng zào, bù zhōng liáodòu, nǐ zé zhànkǒuér xiū tízhe suǒqǔ Jīngzhōu. 他 酒性躁，不中撩鬥，你則綻口兒休提着索取荆州.” (He is irritable after drinking, so you cannot provoke him and do not mention taking Jīngzhōu.) It is noted in the chapter 24 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wǒ jīnrì zhuóshí liáodòu tā yī liáodòu, bù xìn tā bù dòngqíng. 我今日着實撩鬥他一撩鬥，不信他不動情.” (I must be going to seduce him today. I do not believe that he will not be touched.) Xiǎngtóu想頭 and niàntóu 念頭 were synonymous noun in modern times, having two meanings: (1) Thought, idea. The chapter 34 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “shuí zhī nǐ fāngcái hé wǒ shuōdehuà quánshì dà dàolǐ, zhèng hé wǒ de xiǎngtóu yīyàng. 誰知你方才和我説的話全是大道理，正和我的想頭一様.” (I did not expect that what you said to me just now is the same as my idea.) It is noted in the chapter 30 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “(Wǔsōng) tízhe pōdāo, chóuchú le bànshǎng, yīgè niàntóu, jìng bēnhuí Mèngzhōu chénglǐ lái. （ 武 松 ） 提 着 朴 刀 ， 躊 躇 了 半 晌 ， 一 個 念 頭 ， 竟 奔 回 孟 州 城 裏 来 .” ([Wusong] held the sword and hesitated for quite a while. Just due to an idea, he ran back to Mèngzhōu City.) (2) Desire, hope. The sixth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “nà Liúlǎolǎo xiān tīngjiàn gào jiānkǔ, zhǐ dāngshì méi xiǎngtóu le. 那劉老老先聽見告艱苦，只當是没想頭了.” (Grandma Liu first heard that life was hard and thought it was hopeless.) The fourth poem of the Cìyùn Wú Xuélù chūnrì shānzhōng záxīng 次韻吴學録春日山中雜興 [Cìyùn Wu Xuelu the Spring Day in the Mountain] written by Chen Yi 陳鎰 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “gōngmíng lǎoqù niàntou qīng, jìn rì kàn shān yǎn xìnmíng. 功名老去念頭輕，盡日看山眼信明.” (In old age, the wish for fame and wealth is getting lighter and lighter, and the belief of watching the mountain in spring all day is clearer.) Zàofǎn 造反 and zuòfǎn 作反 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning launch a rebellion. It is noted in the chapter 40 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “jiélián Liángshānpō qiáng kòu, tōng tóng zào fǎn. 結連梁山泊强

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

寇，通同造反.” (Unite strong bandits of the Marsh and collude in rebellion.) In the ninth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty it writes that “wàibian jǐgè dà púrén Lǐ Guì děng tīngjiàn lǐbiān zuòfǎn qǐlái, máng dōu jìnlái yìqí hèzhù. 外邊幾個大僕 人李貴等聽見裏邊作反起來，忙都進來一齊喝住.” (Several officials outside, such as Li Gui, heard the rebellion inside and rushed in to stop it with a loud voice.) 3.1.3 The same second word morpheme with different first word morpheme Cìhòu 次後 and hòulái 後來 were synonymous temporal words in modern times, meaning later on, the time after a certain point in time. Hòulái 後來 began to emerge in ancient times and is still used in modern times. The Chóu Yīnmíngzuǒ jiànzèng wǔyúnqiú gē 酬殷明佐見贈五雲裘歌 [The Ode to Thanking Yinmingzuo for Giving Me a Colourful Fur Coat] written by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty reads that “Xiè Tiǎo yǐ mò qīngshān kōng, hòulái jìzhī yǒu Yīngōng. 謝朓已没青山空，後来繼之有殷公.” (Xie Tiao had passed by and the green mountain was uninhabited. Later, Mr. Yin continued to live there.) The chapter 39 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹 雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Bǎoyù tīng le, diēzú tànxī, yòu wèn: ‘hòulái zěnmeyàng?’ 寶玉聽了，跌足嘆惜，又問：‘後来怎麽樣？’” (After hearing that, Baoyu stamped his feet and sighed, and asked what happened later.) Cìhòu 次後 began to emerge in modern times. It is noted in the chapter 44 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Zhū Guì xiàngqián, xiān yǐn Lǐ Yún bàijiàn Cháo, Sòng èr tóulǐng, xiāngjiàn zhòng hǎohàn . . . Cìhòu, Zhū Guì yǐn Zhū Fù cānbài zhòngwèi. 朱贵向前，先引李雲拜見晁、宋二頭領，相見衆好漢 . . . 次後，朱贵引朱富参拜衆位.” (Zhu Gui went ahead and led Li Yun to meet the two leaders called Chao and Song and met with the heroes . . . Then, Zhu Gui led Zhu Fu to pay homage to the heroes.) The first chapter of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三國 演義 [The Romance of Three Kingdoms] authored by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty writes that “(Zhāng) jiǎo yǒu túdi wǔbǎiyú rén, yúnyóu sìfāng, jiē néng shūfú niànzhòu, cìhòu túzhòng rì duō. （張）角有徒弟五百餘人，雲遊 四方，皆能書符念咒，次後徒衆日多.” (Zhang Jiao had more than 500 disciples who travelled around and could all draw magic figures and spells. Later on, the number of disciples increased every day.) Gànbà 干罷 and bàxiū 罷休 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning stop and come to an end. Bàxiū 罷休 originated in the Han dynasty, commonly used in ancient and modern times. It is noted in the Shǐ jì: Sūnzǐ lièzhuàn 史記·孫子列 傳 [Records of the Grand Historian: The Collected Biographies of Sun-Tzu] that “Jiāngjūn bàxiū jiùshě, guǎrén bù yuàn xiàjìn. 將軍罷休就舍，寡人不願下覲.” (The general will be excused if he gives up. I do not want my subjects to present oneself before me.) It is noted in the chapter 21 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “yúnqíng yǔyì liǎng bàxiū, wúduān àonǎo chù xīntóu. 雲情雨意兩罷

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 59 休，無端懊惱觸心頭.” (The love between us is over, suddenly I feel annoyed in my heart.) Gànbà 干罷 came into being in modern times. The first act of the Wǔ Yuán chuīxiāo 伍员吹簫 [Wu Yuan Playing the Pan Flute] written by Li Shouqing 李壽卿 of the Yuan dynasty mentions that “nàsī ruò zhīdào wǒ shā le tā yìjiā lǎoxiǎo, tā kěn hé wǒ gànbà?” 那廝若知道我殺了他一家老小，他肯和我干 罷？(If the guy knew that I have killed his whole family, would he let the matter drop?) It is noted in the chapter 33 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wǒ xiǎng, tā rúhé kěn gànbà, bìrán yào hé nǐ dòng wénshū. 我想，他如何肯干罷，必然 要和你動文書.” (I assume that he will not let the matter drop, he will sue you.) Gēnxún 跟尋 and xúnzhǎo 尋找 were synonymous verb in modern times, both originating in modern times, meaning look for and find. The third act of the Qǔjiāngchí 曲江池 [Qǔjiāngchí] by Shi Junbao 石君寶 writes that “nǐ qù nà chūbìnchù gēnxún, qǐ sāngchù fǎngwèn, xià guānchù dǎtīng. 你去那出殯 處跟尋，起喪處訪問，下棺處打聽.” (You go to the places where the funeral procession is held, where ghosts are summoned and where the coffin is put to look for it.) It is noted in the chapter 56 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “kuài yāng rén qù lóngfú gōnglǐ bàoyǔ guānrén zhīdào, jiào tā zǎolái gēnxún. 快央人去龍符宫裹報與官人知道，教他早来跟尋.” (Please ask a person to go to the Dragon Sign palace quickly and report it to my husband so that he can go to find it early.) It is written in the chapter 85 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “yī zé tú tā lǐmiàn gànjìng, èr zé děng tā sānrén bù lái xúnzhǎo, dǎtīng tāmen qù le, wǒmen què bǎ tā ná chūlái zìzìzàizài de shòuyòng. 一則圖他裹面乾浄，二則等他三人 不来尋找，打聽他們去了，我們却把他拿出来自自在在的受用.” (Firstly, it was clean inside; secondly, we had waited for the three of them but they did not come to look for it, then we heard that they had gone, so we took it out and used it freely.) The chapter 47 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Jiǎzhēn děng xíshàng hū bú jiàn le tā liǎnggè, gèchù xúnzhǎo bù jiàn. 贾珍等席上忽不見了他兩個，各 處尋找不見.” (Jia Zhen and others suddenly found that both of them were not at the feast, and they could not find them anywhere.) Gūjī 咕唧 and jīnong 唧噥 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning speak in a low voice. The sixth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Zhōuruì jiā de yòu hé tā gūjī le yīhuì zi, fāng cèngdào zhèbiān wūnèi. 周瑞家的又和他咕 唧了一會子，方蹭到這邊屋内.” (Zhou Rui’s wife whispered to him for a while before slowly walking into the house.) The volume 16 of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement (II)] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛 初 of the Ming dynasty writes that “yǒude dào, ‘zhèxiē xū yínzi yě bú jiàndé jǐshí yòng, búyào xīnxiàn tā . . .’ Gèzì jīnong bù tí. 有的道：‘這些須銀子也不見得 幾時用，不要欣羡他 . . . 各自唧噥不題’.” (As one saying goes, “The day when the silver is used is unknown, do not envy him . . .” Needless to say, they speak in a low voice.)

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

Jímù 即目 and mùjīn目今 were synonymous temporal words in modern times, meaning at present and now. The first volume of the Xīxiāng jì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宫調 [Various Melodies of Romance of the Western Chamber] written by Dong Jieyuan 董解元 of the Jin dynasty reads that “zhèxiē gǔjì, xiàn zài Hézhōngfǔ, jímù réng cún jiù sìyǔ. 這些古跡，現在河中府，即目仍存舊寺 宇.” (These historic sites are now in Hézhōngfǔ and are still preserved in the old temple at present.) It is noted in the chapter 12 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “jímù dàozéi chàngkuáng, guójiā yòngrén zhījì. 即目盗賊倡狂，國 家用人之際.” (Now it is a time for the nation to employ its people when thieves are in full swing.) In the third book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written in act four that “wǎngshì yǐchén, zhǐ yán mùjīn, jīnyè xiāngféng guǎnjiào nèn. 往事已 沈，只言目今，今夜相逢管教恁.” (The past has sunk, just talk about the present, we meet tonight and Iwill teach you.) The first chapter of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三 國演義 [The Romance of Three Kingdoms] authored by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty writes that “jīn xìng xiāngyù, yuàn wén mùjīn ānwēi zhīshì. 今幸相遇，願聞目今安危之事.” (I am lucky to meet you today. I’d like to hear about the emergency at present.) Jìnxīn 近新 and xīnlái 新來 were synonymous temporal words in modern times, meaning recently and lately. The first act of the Xiāoxiāng yǔ 瀟湘雨 [Night Rain in Xiang River] written by Yang Xianzhi 揚顯之 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “wǒ jìn xīnrèn le gè yìnǚér, jiàozuò Cuìluán. 我近新認了個義女兒，叫做翠鸞.” (I recently had a new foster daughter called Cuiluan.) The second act of the Érnǚ tuányuán 兒女團圆 [Reunion of Children] written by Gao Maoqing 高茂卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “xīnlái ǎn nà húnjiā gēnqián, dé le yìgè xiǎode, kěxī luòdì biàn sǐ le. 新来俺那渾家根前，得了一個小的，可惜落地便死了.” (Recently, my wife was finally pregnant, but the baby died as soon as it was born.) Xīnlái 新來 has been in use in the Song dynasty, for example, the Línjiāngxiān 臨江仙 [Línjiāngxiān] written by Liu Yong 柳永 of the Song dynasty reads that “jiào xīnlái qiáocuì jiùrì fèngbiāo. 覺新来憔悴舊日鳳標.” (Comparing with the previous look, I look haggard recently.) The Fènghuáng táishàng yì chuīxiāo 鳳凰臺上憶吹簫 [Recalling Playing the Pan Flute on the Phoenix Stage] by Li Qingzhao 李清照 of the Song dynasty writes that “xīnlái shòu, fēigān bìngjiǔ, bùshì bēiqiū. 新来瘦，非 干病酒，不是悲秋.” (Recently, I have been losing weight, not because of drinking too much wine, nor because of the influence of autumn.) There is also a compound word jìnxīnlái 近新來. The third act of the Xiètiānxiāng 謝天香 [Xie Tianxiang] written by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “jìnxīnlái xiàyǔ de nà yírì, nǐ shūyǔ wǒ xiùxiéér yíduì, guàkǒuér zài bùcéng tí. 近新来下雨的那一 日，你輸與我繡鞋兒一對，掛口兒再不曾提.” (On the rainy day lately, you lost a pair of embroidered shoes to me, but you did not mention it anymore.) Tóulù 頭路 and lùshù 路數 were synonymous noun in modern times, meaning way and approach. It is noted in the chapter 16 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “pà nǐ bù zhī tóulù, tèdì zài jiāo nǎigōng Xiè dūguǎn, bìng liǎnggě

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 61 Yúhóu hé nǐ yītóng qù. 怕你不知頭路，特地再教奶公謝都管，並兩個虞侯和 你一同去.” (I am afraid you do not know the way, so I specially asked nanny husband Steward Xie and two Yuhou [official title] to go with you.) The third volume of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty writes that “kuàngqiě jīngshī zhōngrén bù zhī wàifāng tóulù, bù xǐhuān pānchě wàifāng qīnqi. 况且京師中 人不知外方頭路，不喜歡攀扯外方親戚.” (Moreover, the people in the capital do not know other ways and do not like to connect with relatives from other places.) In the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, the volume 15 mentions that “yìfā mō bùzháo gě tóulù. 一發摸不着個頭路.” (It’s more difficult to find a way.) It is noted in the chapter 16 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhè yíshì bùxū qù le, píndào yǐ dǎting zhī tā láide lùshù le. 這一事不須去了， 貧道已打聽知他来的路数了.” (There is no need to ask about it. I have inquired about him around and known his route to come here.) It is written in the volume 40 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “qiě búyào mányuàn, hé nǐ qùwèn tā lǎopó, huòzhě xiǎodé tāde lùshù, zài lái zhuāxún biànle. 且不要埋怨， 和你去問他老婆，或者曉得他的路数，再来抓尋便了.” (Do not complain now. I will go to ask his wife with you, maybe we can know something about his background, and then we can look for him again.) Wánshuǎ 頑耍 and shuǎzi 耍子 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning play games and carry out activities to make yourself happy. It is written in the tenth volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Lǎozi jiàn tā línglì, yòu tuīhuì wánshuǎ, yào sòng tā guǎnzhōng shàngxué. 老子見他伶俐， 又忒會頑耍，要送他館中上學.” (I saw him, clever, and he can play well, so I wanted to send him to school.) The first chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty records that “yì zhāo tiānqì yánrè, yǔ qúnhóu bìshǔ, dōu zài sōngyīn zhīxià wánshuǎ. 一朝天氣炎 熱，與群猴避暑，都在松陰之下頑耍.” (Once it is hot, the monkeys and I have to avoid the summer heat by playing in the shadow of pine trees.) In the second chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is noted that “xiǎoguānrén ruòshì bù dàngzhēn shí, jiàoliàng yì bàng shuǎzi. 小官人若是不當真時，較量 一棒耍子.” (If you do not believe, let’s fight and have a play.) The chapter 24 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty reads that “háizài zhèlǐ màijiěér shuǎzi li. 還在這裹賣解兒耍 子哩.” (You are still performing acrobatics and playing here.) 3.2 The synonyms of same morphemes with different morphemes order The two morphemes of these kinds of synonyms are the same, but the character order is opposite, as exemplified below.

62 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese Duànsòng 斷送 and sòngduàn 送斷 are synonymous verb in modern times, both meant spell an end to and ruin. The third act of the Hēixuànfēng 黑旋風 [Black Whirlwind] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “Ǎn gē hányuān fùqū yǒu shuí zhī, wùde bù duànsòng zài gāoqiáng hòubì ǎimén nèi? 俺哥含冤負屈有誰知，兀的不斷送在高墙厚壁矮門内？” (No one knows that my brother is wronged. How can he not be ruined in the cell?) The Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō: Cùzhǎn Cuīníng 京本通俗小説·錯斬崔寧 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: Beheading Cuining Wrongly] records that “zhǐ wéi jiǔhòu yìshí xìyán, duànsòng le tángtáng qīchǐ zhīqū. 只爲酒後一時戲言，斷送了堂堂七尺 之軀.” (It was a drunken joke that ended his life.) It is written in the sixth volume of the Xīxiāng jì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宫調 [Various Melodies of Romance of the Western Chamber] by Dong Jieyuan 董解元 of the Jin dynasty that “wǒ hái dài sòngduàn nǐ zigè, què yòu zǐmǔ qíngcháng yì búguò. 我還待送斷你子箇， 卻又子母情腸意不過.” (I want to destroy you, but I think of our son-mother relationship.) Duànsòng 斷送 has been seen in the Tang dynasty. The Qiǎnxīng 遣興 [Spontaneous Writing] written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty reads that “duànsòng yìshēng wéi yǒu jiǔ, xúnsi bǎijì bùrú xián. 斷送一生唯有酒，尋 思百計不如閑.” (The best thing to kill your time is wine. It is better to live comfortably than to think about doing something.) Sòngduàn 送斷 came into being in modern times. Gùxiāng 故鄉 and xiānggù 鄉故 were synonymous noun in modern times, referring to hometown. Gùxiāng 故鄉 is commonly used in ancient and modern times. The Xúnzǐ: Lǐlùn 荀子·禮論 [Xunzi: Discussion of Rites] writes that “guò gùxiāng, zé bì páihuái yān, míng háo yān. 過故鄉，则必徘徊焉，鳴號 焉.” (When I pass through my hometown, I must linger, sigh and cry.) In the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, its volume 19 mentions that “bù yírì láidào shāndōng gùxiāng. 不一日来到山東故鄉.” (He came to his hometown of Shāndōng in a day.) Xiānggù 鄉故 originated in modern times. The volume 34 of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 records that “Gōngzǐ bùrú zàn huí xiānggù, qiě jìn shuāngqīn. 公子不如暫回鄉故，且覲雙親.” (Child, why do not you go back to your hometown and visit your parents first?) Hòuwèn 候問 and wènhòu 問候 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning make cautious inquiries about and send one’s regards to. Hòuwèn 候問 has been in use in the Han dynasty, and still commonly used in modern times. The Hàn shū: Kuǎitōng zhuàn 漢書·蒯通傳 [The Book of the Han dynasty: A Biography of Kuai Tong] writes that “Zhào Wǔ Xìnjūn bù zhī tōng bú xiào, shǐ rén hòuwèn qí sǐshēng. 趙武信君不知通不肖，使人候問其死生.” (Wu Xinjun from the state of Zhao was unwise and unsophisticated; let someone inquire about his death.) In the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, its volume 36 mentions that “fǔxiàn dōu lái hòuwèn. 府縣都来候問.”[All of the prefectures come to send their regards.] Wènhòu 問候 came into being in modern times. The chapter 11 of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 63 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Gōngsūn yě wú nàihé, máng zǒudào shūfáng qù wènhòu. 公孫也無奈何，忙走到書房去問候.” (He was also helpless and hurried to the study to send his regards to him.) In the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮 夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, its volume 19 mentions that “xiěxià wènhòu shūzhá, shàng shòulǐ tiē, yòu qǔchū yìzhāng lùyǐn, yǐfáng yīlù pánjié. 寫下問候書劄、上壽 禮帖，又取出一张路引，以防一路盤詰.” (He wrote a greeting letter and prepared a birthday gift, then took out a pass to prevent cross examination all the way.) The chapter 25 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Cìrì, Wáng Zǐténg yě lái wènhòu. 次日，王子勝也来問候.” (Next day, Wang Ziteng also comes to send his regards.) Láodòng 勞動 and dòngláo 動勞 are synonymous verb in modern times, both meant request someone’s help and trouble someone to do. The first act of the Huīlán jì 灰闌記 [The Chalk Circle] written by Li Hangdao 李行道 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “jiějiě, nǐ xiān huílái le, láodòng zhe jiějiě li. 姐姐，你先回 来了，勞動着姐姐哩！(Sister, you come back first, thanks for the trouble!) The chapter 82 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高 鶚 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Bǎoyù hé Qiūwén xiàodào, ‘wǒ jiù guòqù, yòu láodòng nǐ lái zhǎo. 寶玉和秋紋笑道：‘我就過去，又勞動你来找’.” (Baoyu smiled and said to Qiuwen, “I will go right away, thank you for helping me to find it again.”) The second act of the Láncǎihé 藍采和 [Láncǎihé] by an anonymous writer reads that “liàng xiǎorén yǒu shènme néng, dòngláo nǐ huǒbàn línlǐ jiēfang. 量小人有甚麽能，動勞你火伴鄰里街坊.” (What can the villain do? You do not need to trouble your comrades in arms and neighbors.) The Táohuāshàn: Xiánhuà 桃花扇·閒話 [The Peach Blossom Fan: Chats] authored by Kong Shangren 孔尚 任 of the Qing dynasty writes that “dòngláo jiǔpéi, wǎnshēng bùān. 動勞久陪， 晚生不安.” (Bothering you to company me for a long time makes me feel sorry.) In addition, láodòng 勞動 began to be in use in remote ancient times, meaning work and operate. The Zhuāngzǐ: Ràngwáng 莊子·譲王 [Chuang Tzu: Demise to the Throne] writes that “chūn gēngzhòng, xíng zúyǐ láodòng. 春耕種，形足 以勞動.” (When farming in spring, the body can fully bear this kind of work.) In middle ancient times, there were the meanings request someone’s help and trouble someone to do. The Chóu yúrǔxī xiǎoxuě jiànjì 酬於汝錫曉雪見寄 [Sending You the Sight of Snow at the Dawn] by Wang Jian 王建 of the Tang dynasty reads that “láodòng gèng cái xīnyàng qǐ, hóngdēng yíyè jiǎndāo hán. 勞動更裁新様綺， 紅燈一夜剪刀寒.” (I spent the whole night under the lamp to cut the cloth with fresh patterns. The cold weather made the blade of the scissors cold.) Yǐnyòu 引誘 and yòuyǐn 誘引 are synonymous verb in modern times, both meant induce others to do bad things. Yǐnyòu 引誘 originated in the Six dynasties with the meaning of exhorting. For example, the Sòngshū: Lúlíngwáng Yìzhēn zhuàn 宋書·廬陵王義真傳 [The Book of the Song dynasty: A Biography of the Duke of Luling Yizhen] writes that “xuǎn bǎofù yú jiùlǎo, qiú sìyǒu yú máojùn, yǐnyòu qíngxìng, dǎodá cōngmíng. 選保傅於舊老，求四友于髦俊，引誘 情性，導達聰明.” (Choose teachers with the same hobbies and making friends

64 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese with outstanding talents will exhort you to have good characters and insights.) Later on, it was negative in terms of meaning, referring to induce others to do bad things. For instance, the third legend of the Hóngluōjìng 紅羅鏡 [A Red Compass] by Fu Shan 傅山 of the Qing dynasty writes that “zhǐ gè yòu bùtóng bāngxián, yǐnyòu liángjiā bàizǐ. 只個又不同幫閑，引誘良家敗子.” (In this way, it is not the same as scholars depending on and serving the rich and powerful, it is to lure children of aristocratic families to do nothing.) The chapter 69 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “jiānglái yǐnyòu huài le rénjiā zǐdì. 将来引誘壊 了人家子弟.” (You seduce their disciples to do bad things and might make them become bad in the future.) Yòuyǐn 誘引 came into being in modern times. It is written in the volume 35 of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 that “bǎibān yòuyǐn, huài le tāde jièxíng. 百般 誘引，壞了他的戒行.” (All kinds of temptations broke his precepts.) Zhènyā 鎮壓 and yāzhèn 壓鎮 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning suppress and force someone to submit. Zhènyā 鎮壓originated in middle ancient times. The Jìnshū: Tángbīn zhuàn 晉書·唐彬傳 [The Book of the Jin dynasty: A Biography of Tang Bin] writes that “jīn zhūjūn yǐ zhì, zúyǐ zhènyā wàinèi, yuàn wúyǐ wéilǜ. 今諸軍已至，足以鎮壓外内，願無以爲慮.” (Now that all the armies have arrived, they are enough to suppress internal and external rebellion. I hope there is no need to worry.) It is written in the volume 13 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “bèi zhēnrén jiāng shénfú zhènyā, yòu ānxiǎng jìsì, zài bù chūxiàn le. 被真人將神符鎮壓，又安享祭祀，再不出 現了.” (Suppressed by the immortal with a talisman, it enjoyed the sacrifice safely and no longer appeared.) Yāzhèn 壓鎮 came into being in modern times. The chapter 103 of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty writes that “Jiāngwéi rù zhàng, zhèng jiàn Kǒngmíng pīfà zhàngjiàn, tàgāng bùdòu, yāzhèn jiàngxīng. 姜維入 帳，正見孔明披髪仗劍，踏罡步斗，壓鎮將星.” (When Jiang Wei entered the tent, he saw that Kong Ming, with disheveled hair, was wielding his sword to worship the astral deities and suppressing the stars standing for generals.) The volume 28 of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 reads that “xiǎoyǐgē hé wǒ xǔduōshí fūqī, shàng wùzì bù bǎ wǒ qīnrè, què xìn biérén yányǔ, bànyè sāngēng, shāofú lái yāzhèn wǒ. 小乙 哥和我許多時夫妻，尚兀自不把我親熱，卻信别人言語，半夜三更，焼符 来壓鎮我.” (He and I have been husband and wife for many years. However, he was not close to me, believed what others said, and burnt charms to suppress me.) Zhǔzhāng 主張 and zhāngzhǔ 張主 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning take the responsibility for a decision. Zhǔzhāng 主張 has been is use in ancient times and is still commonly used in modern times. The ninth volume of the Běi mèng suǒyán 北夢瑣言 [The Anecdotes of the Northern Dream] written by Sun Guangxian 孫光憲 of the Song dynasty reads that “wǒ fēi tiānwáng, nánjiéshén yě, zhǔzhāng cǐdì, rǔ hé xiāng wǔ? 我非天王，南截神也，主張此地， 汝何相侮.” (I am not the king of heaven, but the God of the Southern Mountain.

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 65 I am in charge of this place. Why do you feel regret?) It is written in the tenth volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “jiāzhōng shìtǐ, bèixì yǔ wǒ shuō le, jiào wǒ zhǔzhāng. 家中事體，備细與我説了，教我主張.” (Everything at home has been carefully told to me and they let me decide.) The chapter 32 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Fùmǔ zǎoshì, suīyǒu míngxīn kègǔ zhīyán, wúrén wèiwǒ zhǔzhāng. 父母早逝，雖有銘心刻骨之言，無人爲我主張.” (My parents died at an early date. Although their unforgettable words are left, no one can have a decision for me.) Zhāngzhǔ 張主 came into being in modern times. The chapter 21 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty records that “wàirén shuōde xiánshì xiánfēi dōu búyào tīng tā, yāsī zì zuò gè zhāngzhǔ. 外人説的閑是閑非 都不要聽他，押司自做個張主.” (Do not listen to the irrelevant right or wrong comments of outsiders. The officials will judge and make a decision by themselves.) In the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, its volume three mentions that “Nèndìshí, lǎoshēn biàn hǎo zhāngzhǔ. 恁地時，老身便好張主.” (At that time, I can make the decision.) In Modern Chinese, zhǔzhāng 主張 means there is an opinion on how to act yet zhāngzhǔ 張主 is no longer used nowadays. Ǎicuó 矮矬 and cuóǎi 矬矮 were synonymous adjective in modern times, describing someone being short. It is noted in the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Lǐsì ǎicuó, kàn biérén yě jiāng jiǎotà. 李四矮 矬，看别人也将脚踏.” (Li Si is short, who has to step on the stool in order to look at people.) The introduction of the Wútóngyǔ 梧桐雨 [The Rain of Chinese Parasols] by Bai Pu 白樸 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “Bìxià, zhèrén yòu cuóǎi. yòu huì wǔxuán, liúzhe jiěmèn dǎohǎo. 陛下，這人又矬矮，又會舞旋，留着 解悶倒好.” (Your Majesty, the man is short and can be fooled; you can keep him for fun.) The second chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty reads that “nǐ zhèbān cuóǎi, wǒ zhèbān gāo. 你這般矬矮，我這般高.” (You are so short and I am so tall.) Bǎibù 擺佈 and bùbǎi 布擺 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning arrange and deal with. Bǎibù 擺佈 originated in the Song dynasty and is still commonly used today. Sòng jì sān cháo zhèng yào èr: Chúnyòu sì nián Huáng Kǎibó děng shàng shū 宋季三朝政要二·淳祐四年黄愷伯等上書 [The Political Important Members during the Three Emperors’ Ages in the Song dynasty II: Huang Kaibo Submitting a Written Statement to the Throne in the Fourth Year of the Age of Emperor Chunyou] writes that “yòu bǎibù sīrén, yǐwéi qùhòu zhīdì. 又擺佈私人，以爲去後之地.” (He also arranged places for relatives and old friends to go after they leave here.) It is written in the volume 40 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuì 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Guānrén yǒu lù jìnzǒu, nújiā zì huì bǎibù, bù láo guàniàn. 官人有路盡走，奴家自會擺佈，不勞掛念.” (My husband, if you have a way, just go by yourself. I will arrange my own way. Do

66 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese not worry about me.) Bùbǎi 布擺 originated in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. It is noted in the chapter 62 of the Shuǐ hǔ quán zhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “nǐ yòu méi yìwén, jiào wǒmen rúhé bùbǎi. 你又没一文，教我們如何布擺.” (You do not even have a penny, so how can we deal with it?) The second act of the Fú Jīndìng 符金锭 [Fu Jinding] by an anonymous writer reads that “zhè mí’ér zěn cāi, wǒ shízài nán bùbǎi. 這謎兒怎猜，我實在難布擺.” (It is really hard for me to ascertain the riddle.) Duǒcáng 躲藏 and cángduǒ 藏躲 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning that one hides his/her body so that people cannot find it. The third volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty writes that “bèi Suíbīng suǒ zhuī, wúchù duǒcáng. 被隋兵所追，無處躲藏.” (Chased by Sui soldiers, there was nowhere to hide.) The chapter 61 of the Hóng lóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Wǔ’ér cángduǒ bùjí, zhǐděi shànglái wènhǎo. 五兒藏躲不及，只得上来問好.” (Wuer could not hide himself, so he had to come along to say hello.) Éyán 俄延 and yáné 延俄 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning procrastinate and delay. The third act of the Wútóngyǔ 梧桐雨 [The Rain of Chinese Parasols] by Bai Pu 白樸 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “méi nàihé zěn liú tā, bǎ sǐxiàn éyán le duō bànshà. 没奈何怎留他，把死限俄延了多半 霎.” (There is no way to keep him but to just delay his time of death a little bit.) It is noted in the eighth chapter of the Shuǐhǔquánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “shàng xià fang biàn, xiǎo rén qǐ gǎn dài màn, é yán chéng tú, qí shí shì jiǎo téng zǒu bù dòng. 上下方便，小人豈敢怠慢，俄延程途，其實是脚疼 走不動.” (It is convenient to go up and down. How dare I neglect you? Iam delaying the journey as my feet are too painful to go ahead.) The second act of the Dānguìxìhé 丹桂细盒 [The Jewel Box of Orange Osmanths] written by Ye Xianzu 葉憲祖 of the Ming dynasty reads that “jiǎobù qiě yáné, nán yú wǒ, Wēnláng yùjìng shì rúhé? 脚步且延俄，難愚我，温郎玉鏡事如何？” (Walk slowly, I cannot keep up. Mr. Wen, what about the jade mirror?) The Shēngdiàn Chūnshuì 生殿春睡 [The Palace of Eternal Life: Sleep in the Spring] by Hong sheng 洪昇 of the Qing dynasty reads that “Yáné, màn zhīyuán yángliǔ yāoshēn. 延俄，慢支援楊柳腰身.” (Wait for a minute to support her slender body walking slowly.) Kuīshū 虧輸 and shūkuī 輸虧 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning the loss and damage caused by failure. The fourth act of the Qì Yīng Bù 氣英 布 [Angry Ying Bu] written by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 reads that “tā ruò wèn Yīng Bù rúhé jiù Wài Huáng, zán zé shuō Xiàng Yǔ kuīshū zǒu Xiàyáng. 他若問 英布如何救外黄，咱則説項羽虧輸走夏陽.” (If he asks Ying Bu how to rescue Wai Huang, we would say Xiang Yu loses and flees to Xiayang.) It is noted in the chapter 63 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Jí yào xiàngqián qù jiù shí, bèi Sòng Jiāng dàduì jūnmǎ qiánhòu yǎnshā jiānglái, jiù qì le Mìyún xiàn,

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 67 dàbài kuīshū, bèn Tánzhōu lái. 急要向前去救時，被宋江大隊軍馬前後掩殺 将来，就棄了密雲縣，大敗虧輸，奔檀州来.” (When he was about to go forward to rescue him, he was surprisingly attacked by the army of Song Jiang’s brigade, so he abandoned Miyun County, got a big loss and rushed to Tanzhou.) The fourth act of the Xiāngyánghuì 襄陽會 [The Xiangyang Meeting] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “Ǎn zhèlǐ zuǒyòu shàoàn máicáng, nà Cáo bīng dàbài shūkuī zǒu. 俺這裹左右哨暗埋藏，那曹兵大敗输虧走.” (There are secret outposts and ambushes around here. Soldiers of Cao were defeated and got a big loss.) It is noted in the chapter 67 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Guān Shèng cuìshǒu wúcuò, dàbài shūduàn, wàng hòu biàn tuì. 關勝翠手 無措，大敗输斷，望後便退.” (Guan Sheng had no solution and lost badly. As a result, he had to retreated.) Pàjù 怕懼 and jùpà 懼怕 were synonymous verb in modern times, meaning fear. It is noted in the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “liǎngbiān kànde rén jùpà Lǔ tíxiá, shuí gǎn xiàngqián lái kān. 兩邊看的人懼怕 魯提轄，誰敢向前来勘.” (Those standing on both sides are afraid of Lu Tixia. Nobody dares to move forward to persuade him!) It is written in the volume 13 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “suǒyǐ yìfāng jùpà, měinián yòng zhòngjià gòuqiú yìrén. 所以一方懼怕，每年用重價購求一人.” (Hence, one party is afraid that they will bribe one person at a heavy price each year.) The chapter 74 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty records that “wǒ shīfu dǎnxiǎo pàjù, zhuó wǒ lái wèn yìshēng. 我師父膽小怕懼，着我来問一聲.” (My master is timid and afraid, so he sends me to get the related information.) The chapter 55 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes, that “Fèng yātou zài wàitóu, tāmen hái yǒu gè pàjù, rújīn tāmen yòu gāi qǔbiàn le. 鳯丫頭在外頭，他們還有個怕懼，如今他們又該取 便了.” (If Xifeng is outside, they could still be afraid. Now they must be unrestrained in behavior again.) Shìtóu 勢頭 and tóushì 頭勢 were synonymous noun in modern times, meaning the situation, development trend of things. The Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō: Féng Yùméi tuányuán 京本通俗小説·馮玉梅團圓 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: The Reunion of Feng Yumei] writes that “Yùméi jiàn shìtóu bùhǎo, liàodào Xīzhōu bìsǐ, huāngmáng bēnrù yìjiān huāngwū zhōng, jiěxià luópà zìyì. 玉梅見勢頭不好，料道希周必死，慌忙奔入一間荒屋中，解下羅帕自縊.” (Seeing that the situation was bad, she thought that Xizhou would definitely die. She hurried into a deserted house and untied her silk handkerchief to hang herself.) The 14th chapter of the Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [Lao Can’s Travels] by Liu E 劉鶚 of the Qing dynasty writes that “xiàn dàlǎoye kàn shìtóu bùhǎo, kǒngpà xiǎoniàn shǒu búzhù, jiào rén gǎnjǐn jìnchéng ba. 縣大老爺看勢頭不好，恐 怕小埝守不住，叫人趕緊進城罷.” (On seeing the bad situation, the county magistrate was afraid that the small dike could not resist and asked people to

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

make hurry into the city.) It is noted in the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “liǎnggè dōu tóu jiàn tóushì bùhǎo, zhuǎnshēn biàn zǒu. 兩個 都頭見頭勢不好，轉身便走.” (On seeing that the situation was bad, the two leaders both turned around and got left.) The chapter 86 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶 梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “nà Fù huǒji zuìshì gè xiǎodǎn de rén, jiàn tóushì bùhǎo, chuānshàng yīfú, qiāoqiāo wǎngjiā yìliùyān zǒu le. 那傅夥計最是個小膽 的人，見頭勢不好，穿上衣服，悄悄往家一溜煙走了.” (As the man named Fu is the most timid person, on seeing that the situation was bad, he put on his clothes and snuck home.) Yàojǐn 要緊 and jǐnyào 緊要 were synonymous adjective in modern times, meaning very important. The first act of the Pénérguǐ 盆兒鬼 [The Basin Ghost] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads that “nǐ xìngmìng yàojǐn, cáiwù yàojǐn? Nǐ bù yǔ wǒ, wǒ jiù shāle nǐ. 你性命要紧，財物要紧？你不與 我，我就殺了你.” (Is your life more important than your property? If you do not give the property to me, I’ll get you killed.) It is noted in the chapter 74 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “dàgē xiū guài, zhèngshì yàojǐn de rìzi, xiān shuōdé míngbái zuìhǎo. 大哥休怪，正是要緊的日子，先説得明白最好.” (Brother, do not blame me. It is an important day, so it is best to make it clear first.) The first act of the Jīnqián jì 金錢記 [A Record of Money] written by Qiao Ji 喬吉 of the Yuan dynasty records that “xiǎoshēng yǒu xiē jǐnyào de gòudàng. 小生有些緊要的勾當.” (I have something important to do.) In Modern Chinese, yàojǐn 要緊 describes that something is important, jǐnyào 緊要 describes that something is not only important but also urgent, so the two words are different in terms of the degree importance. The synonyms with the same morphemes yet in different orders are limited to the combined structure and also modifier-head structure. For example, tóngshēng 童生 refers to the intellectuals who do not pass the imperial examination at the county level in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second chapter of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty writes that “yuánlái Míngcháo shìdàfū chēng rúxué shēngyuán jiàozuò péngyǒu, chēng tóngshēng shì xiǎoyǒu. 原来明朝士大夫稱儒學生员叫 做朋友，稱童生是小友.” (At first literati and officialdom in the Ming dynasty called the candidates who passed the imperial examination as péngyǒu and those who did not pass as xiǎoyǒu.) As for the word in an opposite character order, the meaning of shēngtóng 生童 is the same as tóngshēng 童生. It is written in the chapter 85 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高 鶚 of the Qing dynasty that “zuórì xúnfǔ Wú dàrén lái bì jiàn, shuōqǐ lìngzūnwēng qiánrèn xuézhèng shí, bǐnggōng bànshì, fánshǔ shēngtóng, jù xīnfú zhīzhì. 昨日 巡撫吴大人来陛見，説起令尊翁前任學政時，秉公辨事，凡屬生童，俱心 服之至.” (Governor Wu came to see the emperor yesterday. They talked about how your eminent father acted impartially as educational inspector. All students trusted him.) However, such an example is very rare in normal case.

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 69 3.3 The synonyms with different morphemes The two words of these kinds of synonyms do not have to have the same structure, yet their meanings are the same, as shown in the following words. Chāchí (chí) 差池 (遲) and shǎnshī 閃失 both meant error and mistake in modern times. It is noted in the eighth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zì méng tàishān cùài, jiāng lìngài jiàshì xiǎorén, yǐjīng sānzǎi, bù céng yǒu bànxiēér chāchí. 自蒙泰山錯爱，将令爱嫁事小人，已经三載，不 曾有半些兒差池.” (Thank you for your kindness, my father-in-law, your daughter and I have been married for three years. In these three years, I have not done anything wrong.) The chapter 26 of the Sānsuì píngyāo zhuàn 三遂平妖傳 [The Tale of Calming Down a Demon] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty writes that “zhè jiǔdiàn lǐ zhǔrénjiā yě rènde tā, dàn yǒu chāchí, zhǐ wèn jiǔdiàn lǐ yào rén. 這酒店裹主人家也認得他，但有差遲，只問酒店裹要人.” (The owner of the hotel also knows him. Whenever there is a mistake, just ask for help from the hotel owner.) The chapter 19 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “jiēshàng rénjǐ chēpèng, mǎjiào fēnfēnde, ruò yǒu gè shǎnshī, yěshì wándéde? 街上人擠 車碰，馬轎紛紛的，若有個閃失，也是顽得的？” (The street is crowded with people, cars, and sedan chairs. If anything goes wrong, it is because you are naughty!) Another example is written in the chapter 53 that “tāmen dàodǐ niánqīng, pà lùshàng yǒu shǎnshī, zài guò jǐnián jiù kě fàngxīn le. 他們到底年 輕，怕路上有閃失，再過幾年就可放心了.” (They are young after all. I am afraid that there is a mistake on the road, I can be rest assured in a few years.) Shǎnshī 閃失 was a new word coming into being in modern times, while chāchí 差池 meant irregular in remote ancient times, and had the extended meaning of error and mistake in the Tang dynasty. For instance, the Jì Cuī èrshíliù Lìzhī 寄崔 二十六立之 [Sending to Cui Lizhi] written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty writes that “měi xún yí wǒ shū, jìng suì wú chāchí. 每旬遗我書，竟歳無差池.” (You send me letters every ten days, which is punctual without any mistakes all year round.) Thus, they become synonyms. Fēnxiǎo 分曉 and zhǔyì 主意 both meant method in modern times. The first act of the Zhāngtiānshī 張天師 [Taoist Master Zhang] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads that “Xiānzǐ qǐng guòqù, ǎn liǎnggě gèyǒu fēnxiǎo. 仙子請過 去，俺兩個各有分曉.” (Fairy, please go here, we both have our own methods.) It is noted in the chapter 19 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhòng háojié xiū shēng jiànwài zhīxīn, Línchōng zì yǒu fēnxiǎo. 衆豪傑休生見外之 心，林冲自有分曉.” (All the heroes here do not treat me as a stranger. I have my own judgment.) The third chapter of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty writes that “bàolùde nèizhōng yǒu yígè rén dào, ‘zàixià dào yǒu yígè zhǔyì, bù zhī kěxíngdé xíngbùdé.’ 報録的内中有一個人道：‘在下倒有一個主意，不知可行得行不 得’.” (A man who sent the admission notice said, “I come up with a method, but I

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

am nor sure whether it works or not.”) The chapter 55 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “ruòshì Fèngjiě qián, tā biàn zǎoyǐ xiànqín, shuōchū xǔduō zhǔyì, yòu cháchū xǔduō jiùlì lái, rèn Fèngjiě jiǎnzé shīxíng. 若是鳳姐前，他便早已献勤，説出 許多主意，又查出許多舊例来，任鳳姐揀擇施行.” (If Fengjie had been there, he would have been diligent, raised a lot of methods, and found out many old rules to let Fengjie choose and implement.) According to survey, fènxiǎo 分曉 and zhǔyì 主意 both originated in middle ancient times, but were originally different in meanings. The former meant daybreak, understand, and ins and outs, while the latter meant purport and proposition. In modern times, they both had the extended meaning of method. Thus, they became synonyms. Guānggùn 光棍 and pōpí 潑皮 were synonyms noun in modern times, referring to the hooligan and rogue. The Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “què xìnzhe liǎnggè guānggùn, bānhuài le ǎn yìjiāér yě. 却信着雨個光棍，搬壞了俺一 家兒也.” (But he believed those two rogues and drove a wedge between my family members.) The chapter 46 of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Kǒngpà shì wàifāng de shènme guānggùn, dǎzhe tàizūn de qíhào, dàochù lái piàn rénde qián. 恐怕是外方的甚麽光棍，打着太尊的旗號，到處来骗人的錢.” (I am afraid it is a rogue from other places, who swindles money everywhere under the banner of prefect.) It is noted in the sixth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “qiěshuō càiyuán zuǒjìn yǒu èrsānshí gè dǔbó bù chéngcái pòluòhù pōpí, fàncháng zài yuánnèi tōudào càishū, kàozhe yǎngshēn. 且説菜園左近有二 三十個賭博不成財破落户潑皮，泛常在園内偷盗菜蔬，靠着養身.” (There are 20 or 30 rogues living near the vegetable farm who have no money due to gambling. They often steal vegetables from the garden to live by.) The chapter 24 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “zhè Ní’èr shì gè pōpí, zhuān fàng zhònglìzhài, zài dǔbócháng chīfàn, zhuān ài hējiǔ dǎjià. 這倪二是個潑皮，專放重利债，在賭 博場吃飯，專愛喝酒打架.” (Ni Er is a rogue who especially puts usury, eating in the gambling house, and is fond of fighting and drinking.) Guòmài 過賣 and huǒjiā 火家 were synonyms in modern times, referring to the shop assistant or waiter. It is noted in the tenth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Yǐtōng bùxiǎng láidào Cāngzhōu, tóutuō yígè jiǔdiànlǐ, xìng Wáng, liú xiǎorén zài diànzhōng zuò guòmài. 迤通不想来到滄州，投托一個酒 店裏，姓王，留小人在店中做過賣.” (I was away from home to Cangzhou and took refuge in an inn. The owner’s surname was Wang and allowed me to be a waiter there.) It is written in the volume 24 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Yángsīwēn děng nà guìjiā rù jiǔsì, qù qínlóu lǐmiàn zuòdì, jiào guòmài zhìqián. 楊思温等那貴家入酒肆，去秦樓裹面坐地，叫過賣至前.” (Yang Siwen entered the tavern with his noble family, sitting on the ground in

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 71 the brothel, and asked the shop assistant to come forward.) It is noted in the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhòng línshè bìng shílái gè huǒjiā, nà gè gǎn xiàngqián lái kān. 衆鄰舍並十来個火家，那個敢向前来勘.” (Neighbors and a dozen waiters did not dare to come forward to persuade.) The sixth chapter of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “yímiàn láidào wǔdà ménshǒu, zhǐjiàn nà jǐgè huǒjiā zhèngzài ménshǒu cìhou. 一面来 到武大門首，只見那幾個火家正在門首伺候.” (When I came to the gate of Wuda’s store, I saw the waiters waiting at the door.) Yínzi 銀子 and fàngguāng 放光 were synonyms in modern times, referring to the silver as currency. It is noted in the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “biàn qù shēnbiān mōchū wǔliǎnglái yínzi, fàngzài zhuōshàng. 便去身邊摸出五兩来銀子，放在桌上.” (He took five taels of silver from his pocket and put it on the table.) In the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written in the third volume that “láiwǎngde dōushì dàtóuer, yào shíliǎng fàngguāng cái sù yíyè li. 来往的都是大頭兒，要十兩放光才宿一夜哩.” (The people who come and go are all big shots. They must stay in an inn where they spend ten taels of silver for one night.) Yínzi 銀子 is the name of Mandarin Chinese, and fàngguāng 放光 is an alternative word which came into being due to the luster of the silver. The above words are all nouns. Chǔzhì 處治 and fāluò 發落 were synonyms in modern times, meaning arrange and dispose. The first volume of the Xīxiāng jì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宫調 [Various Melodies of Romance of the Western Chamber] written by Dong Jieyuan 董 解元 of the Jin dynasty writes that “shēng cóng jiàn le Rúhuā, fánnǎo chǔzhì bùxià. 生從見了如花，煩惱處治不下.” (Zhang Sheng cannot dispose his vexation since he has seen Ruhua.) The introduction of the Liǔ Yì chuán shū 柳毅傳 書 [Liu Yi Sending a Home Letter] written by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 is that “yǒu zhèyàng shì, jiào nà xiǎo jiànrén lái, wǒ zìyǒu chǔzhì. 有這樣事，叫那小 賤人来，我自有處治.” (Such a thing happened? Let that little bitch come here and I will deal with it.) The first act of the Xiètiānxiāng 謝天香 [Xie Tianxiang] written by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads that “jīnrì shēngtáng zuòqǐ zǎoyá, yǒu gāi qiān (qiān) yā de wénshū, jiānglái wǒ fāluò. 今日升堂坐起 早衙，有該僉（簽）押的文書，將来我發落.” (I am going to hold court trial this morning; I will handle all the documents that need to be signed.) The Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō: Púsàmán 京本通俗小说·菩薩蠻 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: Pusaman] writes that “míngrì fēnfù Línān fǔ, liàngqīng fāluò. 明日分 付臨安府，量輕發落.” (Tomorrow, inform the administration of Linan County that they should punish him lightly.) Hàipà 害怕 and fāmáo 發毛 were synonyms in modern times, meaning that people feel flustered or uneasy when they encounter danger and difficulties. It is noted in the chapter 44 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh

72 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Yángxióng dào, ‘duō xiè zhège xiōngdì jiùhù le wǒ, dǎ dé Zhāngbǎo nàsī jiàn yǐng yě hàipà.’ 楊雄道：‘多謝這個兄弟救護了我，打得張保那廝見影也害怕’.” (Yang Xiong said, “Thanks for the brother rescuing me, he beat Zhang Bao so hard that he was scared even when he saw a shadow.”) The Shèn zhìjiāo: Jìsǒng 慎騭交·計竦 [A Cautious Attitude Towards Marriage: Plan and Panic] written by Li Yu 李漁 of the Qing dynasty reads that “búyào shuōqǐ, shuōqǐ lìng rén hàipà. 不要説起， 説起令人害怕.” (Do not talk about it, which makes me scared.) It is written in the seventh chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “nà fùrén jiàn zhè yàngzi, biàn yǒuxiē fāmáo. 那婦人見這樣子，便有些發毛.” (The woman was a little uneasy when she saw that [strange things].) The fourth chapter of the Sān xiá wǔ yì 三侠五義 [Chivalrous Men] written by Shi Yukun 石玉昆 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Bāo Xīng xīnzhōng yǒuxiē fāmáo, jíjí zài dēngshàng shāo le. 包興心中有些發毛，急急在燈上焼了.” (Bao Xing was a little scared and burned it with the candle lamp in a hurry.) Shěnxùn 審訊 and qǔwèn 取問 were synonyms in modern times, meaning asking the parties for relevant information when hearing a case. The Xiàotíng xùlù: Lǐ Zhòngzhāo 嘯亭續録·李仲昭 [The Sequel of the Collected Tales of Xiaoting: Li Zhongzhao] written by Zhao Lian 昭槤 of the Qing dynasty reads that “shàng dànù, mìng liújīng Wáng dàchén shěnxùn, xián jiē yǐnfú. 上大怒，命留京王大臣 審訊，咸皆引服.” (The emperor was very annoyed, and ordered Minister Wang, who was staying in the capital, to hear the case, and all criminals pleaded guilty.) It is written in the tenth chapter of the Sān xiá wǔ yì 三侠五義 [Chivalrous Men] written by Shi Yukun 石玉昆 of the Qing dynasty that “cǐ àn shàngzài shěnxùn, wèinéng jiéàn. 此案尚在審訊，未能结案.” (The case is still under interrogation and has not be closed.) It is noted in the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “jìrán fàn le rénmìng zuìguò, nǐ kě ná tā yī fǎdù qǔwèn. 既然 犯了人命罪過，你可拿他依法度取問.” (Since it is a homicide case, you should try him by law.) It is written in the volume 19 of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 that “sù lìng gōnglì rénděng názhì tīngqián qǔwèn. 速令公吏人等拿至廳前取問.” (Quickly order the public officials to take him to the hall for interrogation.) Yīcóng 依從 and suíshùn 隨順 were synonyms in modern times, meaning agree and obey. It is written in the volume 24 of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍that “fùmǔ míngzhī gōngzǐ běnyì zhāngguà Yùtángchūn, zhōng le jǔ, zhǐděi yīcóng. 父母明知公子 本意章掛玉堂春，中了舉，只得依従.” (His parents already knew that he liked Yutangchun, after he passed the provincial civil service examination, they had to yield to his choice.) It is written in the chapter 14 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “sānzàng zhǐděi yīcóng, zhāngmǎ xiàshān. 三藏只得依從，章馬下山.” (Sanzang had to obey and led his horse down the mountain.) The second act of the Dòuéyuān 竇娥冤 [The Injustice to Dou E] written by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 73 dynasty reads that “Hái’ér yě, nǐ suíshùn le tā ba. 孩兒也，你随顺了他吧.” (My child, you just obey him.) It is written in the ninth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “liǎnggè gōngrén huáizhe guǐtāi, gèzì yào bǎo xìngmìng, zhǐděi xiǎoxīn suíshùn zhe xíng. 兩個公人懷着鬼胎，各自要保性命，只得小 心随順着行.” (The two officials have sinister designs, so if you want to survive, obey them carefully.) The above words are all verbs. Húluàn 胡亂, suífèn隨分, and qǔbiàn 取便 were synonyms in modern times, meaning casual and at will. It is noted in the chapter 21 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wǒ nǚér zài jiālǐ zhuānwàng, yāsī húluàn shùngù tā biàn liǎo, zhínènde xià dé? 我女兒在家裹専望，押司胡亂顺顧他便了，直恁地下 得？” (My daughter is looking forward to it at home. What if the officer attended her perfunctorily? How could I bear it?) Another example is shown in the fourth chapter: “Lǔdá dào, ‘bùxiāo duōshì, suífèn biànhǎo.’ 鲁達道：‘不消多事，随分 便好’.” (Lu Da said, “There is no need to do anything superfluous. Just do at will.”) The chapter 73 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads that “Wú Yuèniáng zài shàngfáng bǎichá, zhòng zǐmèi dōu zài yíchù péishì, xūyú, chī le chá, gèrén dōu qǔbiàn zuò le. 吴月娘在上房擺茶，衆姊妹都在一處陪侍， 须臾，吃了茶，各人都取便坐了.” (Wu Yueniang made tea in the main room, and the sisters were waiting on one side. After a while, everyone sat down casually after having tea.) Huófàn 活泛 and jíliū 即溜 were synonyms in modern times, meaning flexible. It is noted in the seven chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Zhìshēn zhèng shǐdé huófàn, zhǐ jiàn qiángwài yígè guānrén kànjiàn, hècǎi dào, ‘duānde shǐdé hǎo!’ 智深正使得活泛，只見墙外一個官人看見，喝彩 道：‘端的使得好！ ’” (Zhishen was wielding it agilely. An official outside the wall saw it and cheered up, “Pretty good!”) It is written in the volume 15 of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 that “nà yíyè wǒ yǎn yě bùcéng hé, tā zěn nádé zhèyàng jíliū. 那一夜我 眼也不曾合，他怎拿得這様即溜.” (I did not have a sleep that night. How did he take it so quickly?) Piányi 便宜 and xiāngyìng 相應 both meant worthwhile and economical in modern times. The Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō Àohúgōng 京本通俗小说拗胡 公 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: The Opinionated Man] writes that “xiāoyáo kuàilè shì piányi, dàolǎo fāngzhī zīwèi bié. 逍遥快樂是便宜，到老方 知滋味别.” (Carefree happiness is the most worthwhile. One will not know the different feelings until one gets old.) The volume 21 of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻 拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty writes that “zhuàngzhe shíyùn yòu shùnlì, zuòqù jiùshì piányi de, délì shènduō. 撞着時運又顺利，做去就是便宜的，得利甚多.” (If lucky enough, it is economical and one can make a good profit.) It is written in the third

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “mài le tā yígè, jiù tǎodé wǔliùgè, ruò còuqiǎo zhuàngde zhe xiāngyuànde, shíláigè yě tǎodé de. 賣了他一 個，就討得五六個，若凑巧撞得着相愿的，十来個也討得的.” (The money earned from selling her can buy five or six people. If the price happens to be economical, a dozen or so can be bought as well.) It is written in the chapter 84 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “Xiāngyìng a, wǒ nàlǐ wǔqián yínzi hái búgòu qǐng xiǎoniángermen li. 相應啊，我那裹五錢银子還不够請小娘兒們哩.” (It is economical. In my hometown, five qian of silver cannot afford to entertain prostitutes.) Piányi 便宜 has been seen in middle ancient times, meaning benefit. For example, the poem 273 of the Shī sānbǎisān shǒu 詩三百三首 [Three Hundreds and Three Poems] written by Han Shan 寒山 of the Tang dynasty reads that “yǒurén lái mà wǒ, fēnmíng le liǎozhī. suīrán bù yìngduì, quèshì dé piányi. 有人来駡我，分明了了 知. 雖然不應對，却是得便宜.” (When someone came to abuse me, I knew it from my heart clearly. Although I would not deal with it, I gained great benefits.) In terms of the expressed meaning, piányi 便宜 is different from xiāngyìng 相應. The above words are adjectives. 3.4 The synonyms with multiple combinations With the development of polysyllabic words in Modern Chinese, the number of synonyms has greatly increased, and their forms are also complex and diverse. In most cases, the same group of synonyms includes many words with different forms. For some groups of synonyms, the new words and the old words coexist, as can be seen in the following words. The monosyllabic words shù 束, kǔn 綑(捆), fù 縛, bǎng, 綁, and shuān 拴 all mean tie something tightly with a rope. They successively constitute six polysyllabic words as synonyms preserved in Modern Chinese: The word shù 束 is noted in the chapter 49 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “yāojiān jǐnshù hǔjīnxiàng. 腰間緊束虎筋像.” (A string of a tiger’s tendon is tied tightly around his waist.) The word kǔn 綑 is written in the volume 18 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “bùqī lǎojiāngjūn bùxíng xìshěn, yìgài kǔndiào. 不期老将軍 不行細審，一概綑吊.” (Unexpectedly, the old general tied them up and hung them up without a detailed trial.) The word kǔn 捆 is written in the seventh chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “biàn bǎ tā kǔn qǐlái, yòng tǔ hé mǎjì mǎnmǎnde tián le tā yìzuǐ. 便把他捆起来， 用土和馬冀滿滿的填了他一嘴.” (Then he was tied up and his mouth was filled with soil and horse dung.) The word fù 縛 is noted in the eighth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 75 dynasty that “shàngxià yào fù biàn fù, xiǎorén gǎn dào zěnde. 上下要縛便縛，小 人敢道怎地.” (How dare I retort when the bailiffs want to tie me up.) The word bǎng 綁 is elucidated in the Zhèngzìtōng: Huǒbù 正字通·火部 [A Dictionary of Chinese Characters] that “bǎng, sú zuò kǔnbǎng zì. 綁，俗作綑 綁字.” [Bǎng is commonly used as a character of kǔnbǎng.] It is written in the chapter 25 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴 承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “yòu náchū tā sāngè, měi yìgēn zhùshàng bǎng le yígè. 又拿出他三個，每一根柱上綁了一個.” (Then he takes out three or more and ties them to three pillars, respectively.) The word shuān 拴 is written in the chapter 104 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty that “zhòng yáyì dáyuàn, shuān le Níèr, lāzhe jiù zǒu. 衆衙役答愿，拴了倪二，拉着就走.” (The Yamen runners agreed, tied Ni Er up and dragged him to leave.) The word shùfù 束縛 originated in remote ancient times. For example, the Hánfēizǐ: Nán yī 韓非子難一 [Difficulties I of Han Feizi] writes that “Huángōng jiě Guǎn Zhòng zhī shùfù ér xiàng zhī. 桓公解管仲之束縛而相之.” (Duke Huan personally untied Guan Zhong’s rope and made him prime minister.) It was universally used in modern times. It is noted in the chapter 85 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Lú xiānfēng kàn le, jíjiù báchū jiàn lái, xuèliú bùzhǐ, xiàngshàng biàn shùfù dōuzhù. 盧先锋看了，急救拔出箭来，血流不 止，项上便束縛兜住.” (Seeing that, Pioneer Lu hurriedly pulled out the arrow to help. As the wound was bleeding, he tied a cloth to the neck.) The word bǎngfù 綁縛 is written in the chapter 19 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “nà guài zhēngè dào bèizhe shǒu, yú tā zěnme bǎngfù. 那怪真個倒背着手，愚他怎麽綁 縛.” (The monster really put his hands behind his back to let him tie himself up.) The word fùbǎng 縛綁 is noted in the chapter 14 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wǒmen bǎ suǒzi fùbǎng le. 我們把索子縛綁了.” (We had the rope untied.) The word kǔnfù 綑縛 is written in the first volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今 小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Jiǎng Xīng gē bǎ liǎngtiáo suǒzi, jiāng Qíngyún, Nuǎnxuě kǔnfù qǐlái. 蒋興哥把两條索子，将晴雲、暖雪綑縛起來.” (Jiang Xing took two ropes to tie Qingyun and Nuanxue up.) The word kǔnbǎng 捆綁 is written in the sixth chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “bèi qīshèng yì ànzhù, jí jiāng shéngsuǒ kǔnbǎng. 被七聖一按住，即將繩索捆綁.” (He was held down by seven saints quickly and tied up by ropes.) The word shuānfù 拴縛 is noted in the chapter 53 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “huàshuō Dài Zōng, Lǐ Kuí gè cáng le ànqì, shuānfù le bāoguǒ. 話説戴宗、李逵各藏了暗器，拴縛了包裹.” (Dai Zong and Li Kui hid hidden weapons respectively and tied their bags tightly.)

76 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese The above words like shù 束, kǔn 綑 (捆), and fù 縛 are old words that have existed since ancient times and were commonly used in modern times, while the other words are new words coming into being in modern times. Kǒu 口 and zuǐ 嘴 are both organs of speech. They constitute polysyllabic words with the morphemes of zhēng 争, dòu 鬥, bàn 拌, chǎo 吵, and so on in Modern Chinese, meaning quarrel and squabble, so they became synonyms to be preserved in Modern Chinese language. The word hékǒu 合口 is noted in the seventh chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “guānrén, xiūyào zuòdì, niángzǐ zài miàozhōng hérén hékǒu. 官人，休要坐地，娘子在廟中和人合口.” (Darling, stop sitting! I quarreled with a man in the temple.) The word hézuǐ 合嘴 is written in the volume 20 of the Chūkè pāiàn jīngqí 初 刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “nà érzi shì gè xiàoxīn de rén, tīng le zhèxiē huàtóu, méi gè láilì, zhí bǎibù dé fūqī liǎngkǒu zhōngrì hézuǐ héshé, shèn bù xiāngān. 那兒子 是個孝心的人，聽了這些話頭，没個来歷，直擺佈得夫妻兩口終日合嘴合 舌，甚不相安.” (The son was a filial man. After hearing these words, he did not ask the reason, which made the couple quarrelling and have fights all day long.) The word jiāokǒu 交口 is written in the Dàsòngxuānhéyíshì 大宋宣和遺 事 [Incidents of Past Ages During the the Emperor Xuanhe’s Age of the Song dynasty] that “xíng zhì rìbǔ, yù yígè èshào hòushēng, yào mǎi bǎodāo, liǎnggè jiāokǒu sīzhēng. 行至日哺，遇一個恶少後生，要買寶刀，兩個交口廝争.” (When it was three p.m., he met a young villain who wanted to buy the valued knife. Then the two fought with each other.) The word zhēngkǒu 争口 is noted in the seventh chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “jīngshīrén jùpà tā quánshì, shuí gǎn yǔtā zhēngkǒu. 京 師人懼怕他權勢，誰敢與他争口.” (The people in the capital were afraid of his power, and no one dared to argue with him.) The word dòukǒu 鬥口 is written in the Jīngchā jì: Dàbī 荆釵記·大逼 [A Tale of a Hairpin Made of Wattle: A Major Threat] by Ke Danqiu 柯丹丘 of the Yuan dynasty that “shìjiān shuí shì yùzhīrén, héxū dòukǒu wǒ xiāngzhēng. 世間誰是 預知人，何須鬥口我相争.” (If anyone in the world knows things in advance, is it necessary for him to quarrel with me?) The word dòuzuǐ 鬥嘴 is recorded in the third act of the Xièjīnwú 謝金吾 [Xie Jinwu] by an anonymous writer that “bǎixìng měi dōu tīngde, Wángshūmì zhè jiānzéi gǎn hé zán dòuzuǐ, zhínèn bān wú shàngxià, shī zūnbēi. 百姓每都聽得， 王樞密這奸賊敢和咱鬥嘴，直恁般無上下，失尊卑.” (Everyone heard every time that Wang Shumi dared to quarrel with us without respecting the superior and the elder.) Bànzuǐ 拌嘴 is written in the chapter 24 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty that “liǎnggě zhèng bànzuǐ, bèi xiǎoyùér qǐng de yuèniáng lái, bǎ sāngè dōu hēkāi le. 兩個正拌嘴，被小玉兒請的月娘来，把三個都喝開了.” (When the two

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 77 were quarreling, Yueniang invited by Xiaoyuer came and then she drank with them and made them happy.) The chapter 80 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “xiānshì yíchōng yízhuàng de bànzuǐ, hòulái Jīnguì qìjí, shènzhìyú kū, zài zhìyú dǎ. 先是一冲一撞的拌嘴，後来金桂氣急，甚至於哭，再至於打.” (Firstly, they argued with each other, afterwards Jin Gui was very angry, crying, and even hitting him.) Kǒujiǎo 口角 is written in the volume 29 of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Niǔchéng yuán xì wǒjiā yòngnú, yǔ jiārén Lúcái kǒujiǎo érsǐ, què yǔwǒ wúgān. 鈕成原系我家傭奴，與家人盧才口角而死，却舆我無干.” (Niu Cheng was a servant slave of my family. He died in a quarrel with his kinfolk, Lu Cai, but this his death has nothing to do with me.) Kǒushé 口舌 is written in the chapter 17 of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty that “wǒ shì gè liángshàn rénjiā, cóng bùtóng rén kǒushé, jīngguān dòngfǔ. 我是個良善 人家，従不同人口舌，经官動府.” (I am kind-hearted, never having quarreled with any other people, and have never been involved in a lawsuit.) Kǒumiàn 口面 is written in the second volume of the Chūkè pāiàn jīngqí 初刻 拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “qiánrì yīn yǒu liǎngjù kǒumiàn, tā shǐ yígè xìngzi, pǎohuí le jiā. 前日因有兩句口面，他使一個性子，跑回了家.” (Due to a small quarrel several days ago, he lost his temper and ran back home.) Kǒuguò 口過 is recorded in the Bǐmùyú: Zhēnglì 比目魚·征利 [Flatfish: Imposing Benefits] by Li Yu 李漁 of the Qing dynasty that “xiǎofùrén de nǚér tóushuǐ shì shí, yuán wéi mǔzǐ zhījiān yǒu jǐjù kǒuguò, suǒyǐ zìxún duǎnjì. 小婦 人的女兒投水是實，原爲母子之間有幾句口過，所以自尋短計.” (The little woman’s daughter threw herself into the water. The reason was that there were quarrels between her mother and her. As a result, she committed suicide.) The above 11 words are synonyms, among them, hékǒu 合口, hézuǐ 合嘴, jiāokǒu 交口, zhēngkǒu 争口, bànzuǐ 拌嘴, and dòuzuǐ 鬥嘴 all have verb-object structures, kǒushé 口舌 and kǒumiàn 口面 have the combined formation, kǒujiǎo 口角 has the modifier-head structure, and kǒuguò 口過 has the subject-predicate structure. In addition, kǒujiǎo 口角 has been seen in middle ancient times, meaning corner of the mouth. The Kǔhán 苦寒 [Bitter Cold] written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty reads that “zhuóláo fèi rùhóu, kǒujiǎo rú jiēqián. 濁醪沸入 喉，口角如街箝.” (The boiled unstrained liquor enters the throat, and the mouth is like a horse’s mouth bound with a bit, which is difficult to open and close.) In modern times, it meant quarrel by extension. As for kǒushé 口舌, it referred to the mouth and tongue in remote ancient times. It had the meaning of quarrel in middle ancient times. The fifth volume of the Qímínyàoshù 齊民要術 [Arts for the People] written by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, quoting from Zá wǔxíng shū 雜五行書 [The Mix of Five Elements], records that “shèxī zhòng zǐqiū gè wǔgēn, lìng zǐsūn xiàoshùn, kǒushé xiāomiè yě. 舍西種梓楸各 五根，令子孫孝順，口舌消滅也.” (Next to the house in the west, five catalpa

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

trees and five mallotus japonicus trees are planted to make the children filial and to decrease quarrels.) The monosyllabic words jùn 俊, qiào 俏 (峭), jiāo 姣, jiāo 嬌, mèi 媚, miào 妙, qiàn 倩, liàng 靚, shū 姝, xiù 秀, yán 妍, yàn 豔, yāo 妖, and so on, all mean being good-looking. These morphemes constitute with one other morpheme to form 52 polysyllabic words, which all mean good-looking. In this sense, this is a group of synonyms, as exemplified below. Jùnshēng 俊生 is written in the second act of the Dōngqiáng jì 東墙記 [A Tale of an Eastern Wall] by Bai Pu 白樸 of the Yuan dynasty that “Zhǐ yīn nǐ qīngchūn jùnshēng, ǎn xiǎojiě xīncháng búyìng. 只因你青春俊生，俺小姐心腸不硬.” (Just because you are young and handsome, my young lady is not hard-hearted.) Jùnguā 俊刮 is written in the chapter 20 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “sì nà jùnguā xiē’ér de, jiàozuò zhōngkàn bù zhōngchī. 似那俊刮些兒的，叫做中看不中吃.” (Like that, it is just beautiful but useless.) Jùnpáng 俊龐 is noted in the chapter 100 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “dāngxiān yígè jùnpáng niánshào jiāngjūn, tóu dài qīngjīnjì, shēn chuān lǜ zhànpáo. 當先一個俊龐年少將軍，頭戴青巾績，身穿緑戰袍.” (At the front, there was a handsome young general, wearing a cyan bonnet and a green robe.) Jùnqiào 俊俏 is written in the first book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, its act four reports that “niǔniē zhe shēnzǐer bǎibān zuòzuo, láiwǎng xiàng rénqián màinòng jùnqiào. 扭捏着身子兒百般做作，来往向人前賣弄俊俏.” (Twisting her body, she always shows off her beauty to pedestrians.) Jùnxiù 俊秀 is written in the fourth act of the Érnǚ tuányuán 兒女團圆 [Reunion of Children] by Gao Maoqing 高茂卿 of the Yuan dynasty that “rú cǐbān chǔnbèn shēnzi, shīzàng yāozhī, què shēngde zhèbān jùnxiùde hái’ér. 如此般蠢 坌身子，施奘腰肢，却生的這般俊秀的孩兒.” (She, having such a heavy body and thick waist, surprisingly gave birth to such a beautiful child.) Jùnměi 俊美 is written in the chapter 26 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “yuánlái zhè Dàiyù bǐng juédài zhī zīróng, jù xīshì zhī jùnměi. 原来這黛玉秉絶代之姿容， 具稀世之俊美.” (It turns out that Daiyu has peerless beauty.) Jùnyǎ 俊雅 is noted in the Pípá jì: Càizhái zhùshòu 琵琶記·蔡宅祝夀 [A Tale of the Chinese Lute: Birthday Congratulations in the Cai’s Family] by Gao Ming 高明 of the Yuan dynasty that “yíróng jùnyǎ, yě xiū kuā táolǐ zhīzī. 儀容俊 雅，也休誇桃李之姿.” (She is good-looking, and it is not exaggerated that she appears to be youthful.) Qiàolì 俏麗 is written in the Jīnquèér: Zhìguǒ 金雀兒·擲果 [The Goldspink: Women Showing Affection for a Handsome Man] by Wuxinzi 無心子 of the Yuan dynasty that “zìjiā shēngdé měi, qiàolì; chōngtiān xuéwèn ào shānqí, déyì. 自家生 得美，俏麗；冲天學問奥山齊，得意.” (She is beautiful and good-looking; she is proud of herself because of having knowledge loftier than mountains.)

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 79 Qiàocù 俏簇 is noted in the Huòlángdān 货郎擔 [A Itinerant Peddler] authored by an anonymous writer that “jù yìbiǎo yíróng fēisú, dǎban de zhūyúlǐ qiàocù. 據一表儀容非俗，打扮的諸餘裹俏簇.” (He looks handsome and dresses the best.) Qiàopí 俏皮 is written in the chapter 63 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “yào xún liǎnggè yòu yǒu gēnjī yòu fùguì yòu niánqīng yòu qiàopí de liǎngwèi yídiē, hǎo pìnjià zhè èrwèi yíniáng de. 要尋兩個又有根基又富贵又年輕又俏皮的兩位姨 爹，好聘嫁這二位姨娘的.” (We want to find two uncles who are moral, rich, young, and handsome to marry the two aunts.) In Mandarin Chinese, qiàopí 俏皮 generally describes that one’s behavior is lively and his or her talk is witty. Zhuōqiào 倬峭 is written in the volume 38 of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍 案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “qiěshuō Qíhuà ménwài yǒu yígè zhuōqiào de zǐdì, xìng Yù míng Shèng, shēngxìng yíndàng, lìshēn diāozuān. 且説齊化門外有一個倬峭 的子弟，姓郁名盛，生性淫蕩，立身刁鑽.” (Outside the gate of Qihua lives a handsome guy, called Yu Sheng, who is lascivious by nature and cunning by heart.) Chuòqiào 綽俏 is written in the volume 21 of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍 案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “yǒu qī yěróng niánshào, dāngguàn gūjiǔ, sīxià shùnbiàn jiéshí jǐgè qiào de zǒudòng zǒudòng. 有妻冶容年少，當罐沽酒，私下順便結識幾個 綽俏的走動走動.” (There is a wife who is young and beautiful. When she buys wine, she gets acquainted with some pretty people in private and they visit each other.) Bōqiào 波俏 is written in the volume 23 of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “què yǒu yígè bōqiào de nǚzǐ, yě yīnwéi dēngyè yóuwán, zhuàngzhe gè kuángdàng de xiǎo xiùcái. 却有一個波俏的女子，也因爲燈夜遊玩，撞着 個狂蕩的小秀才.” (But there was a beautiful girl who bumped into a dissipated young scholar on lantern night.) Qiàozhuō 俏倬 is written in the seventh volume of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “Lǚ Shǐjūn wén zhào, qiānhuān wànxǐ, dǎban dé shífēn qiàozhuō, qūguò chuán lái. 吕使君聞召，千歡萬喜，打扮得十分俏倬，趨過 船來.” (Receiving the imperial decree, Lv Shijun was very happy. He dressed up very beautifully and hurried to come across by boat.) Jiāolì 嬌麗 is recorded in the third volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Qín Zhòng dìngjīng guān zhī, cǐnǚ róngyán jiāolì, tǐtài qīngyíng, mùsuǒ wèidǔ. 秦重定睛觀之，此女容颜嬌麗，體態輕盈，目所未睹.” (Qin Zhong stared at her and found that she was good-looking and slender. He had never seen such a beautiful woman before.) Jiāoměi 嬌美 is written in the Tiānyǔhuā 天雨花 [The Flower of Rain] authored by Tao Zhenhuai 陶貞懷 of the Qing dynasty that “ruò hái shēngdé róng jiāoměi,

80 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese qǐ bù tiānshēng shì wǒ jǐnzhàng rén? 若還生得容嬌美，豈不天生是我錦幛 人？” (If she is beautiful, would not she be my wife at birth?) Jiāomèi 嬌媚 is written in the volume 11 of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚 奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that he married a girl whose surname is Lu from the Kuaiji 會稽 county, who is good-looking. Jiāonà 嬌娜 is recorded in the chapter 35 of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty that “jiǎrán jiù rú gě nǚzǐ, dǎban de shènshì jiāonuó. 假然就如個女子，打扮的 甚是嬌娜.” (Just like a woman, he dressed up very beautifully.) Jiāoqiào 嬌俏 is written in the chapter 69 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “rén tài shēng jiāoqiào le, kě zhīxīn jiù jídù le. 人太生嬌俏了，可知心就嫉妒了.” (The girl is so beautiful that no wonder she is jealous of it.) Jiāowǎn 嬌婉 is noted in the Liáozhāi zhìyì: Niànyāng 聊齋志異·念秧 [A Collection of Bizarre Stories: Setting a Trap to Deceive Others] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 that “tīng qí yǔ, cāo nányīn, jiāowǎn ruò nǚzi. 聽其語，操南音，嬌婉若女子.” (Judged from his voice, he puts on a southern accent and he is as beautiful as a girl.) Jiāoyán 嬌妍 is written in the Báixuě yíyīn 白雪遺音 [Echoes of White Snow], the Mǎtóudiào: Yìzhī huā 馬頭調·一枝花 [The Melody of Horse’s Head: A Flower] that “jiāoyán de měitài, shíshì kěguān. 嬌妍的美態，實是可觀.” (The beauty is very impressive.) Jiāoyàn 嬌豔 is written in the Zèngshū jì: Jiǎní rùsì 赠書記·假尼入寺 [A Tale of Donating Books: A Fake Nun Entering a Temple] by an anonymous author that “chūjiā suī shì hǎoshì, zhǐshì nǐ huāróng jiāoyàn, liǔxìng piāoyàn, kǒngpà chūjiā bùliǎo. 出家雖是好事，只是你花容嬌鼱，柳性飄豔，恐怕出家不了.” (Although it is a good thing to become a nun, it is just that you are beautiful and dissolute. I am afraid you cannot become a nun.) Jiāozhì 嬌治 is noted in the Huànxīshā: Yǒng jīguānhuā 浣溪沙·詠雞冠花 [The Tune of Silk-Washing Stream: The Ode to Prince’s Feathers] by Liu Ji 劉基 of the Ming dynasty that “tóngchí yùbào wǔgēng chóu, búshèng jiāoyě lì qīngqiū. 彤墀欲報五更籌，不勝嬌冶立清秋.” (According to the sound of imperial court’s night watch, the dawn is right away. The scenery is beautiful as the clean and bright autumn is coming.) Jiāolì 姣麗 is written in the Liáozhāi zhìyì: Ā Xiù 聊齋志異·阿繡 [A Collection of Bizarre Stories: A Xiu] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 that “jiàn záhuò sìzhōng yī nǚzǐ, jiāolì wúbiàn. 見雜貨肆中一女子，姣麗無變.” (A woman in the grocery store is incomparably beautiful.) Jiāomèi 姣媚 is written in the Yètán suílù: Qiànér 夜譚随録·倩兒 [A Collection of Incredible Stories: Qianer] complied He Bange by 和邦額 of the Qing dynasty that “nǚ yǒu bì míng Chūnlán zhě, jiāomèi huìxiá, shāo xùnyú nǚ. 女有 婢名春蘭者，姣媚慧黠，稍遜於女.” (There is a maidservant named Chunlan who is beautiful and clever, slightly inferior to my daughter.) Jiāoyán 姣妍 is written in the Báixuě yíyīn 白雪遺音 [Echoes of White Snow], the Mǎtóudiào: Shuāngfēiyàn 馬頭調·雙飛燕 [The Melody of Horse’s Head:

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 81 Double Swallows] by Hua Guangsheng 華广生 of the Qing Dyansty that “Ài zhǐ ài de, Tàihú chízhōng, bìngdì hónglián, měitài jiāoyán. 爱只爱的，太湖池中， 並蒂红蓮，美態姣妍.” (I love what I love only, in Lake Taihu, there are twin lotus flowers on one stalk, which are very beautiful.) Jiāoyàn 姣豔 is recorded in the Huàfǎng yútán 畫舫餘譚 [Stories in a Boat] written by Penghuasheng 捧花生 of the Qing dynasty that “Liú Sùlán, rǔmíng Lánzi, shūtóufù zhīnǚ, mào jiāoyàn ér chīyúqíng. 劉愬蘭，乳名蘭子，梳頭婦 之女，貌姣豔而癡於情.” (Liu Sulan, whose infant name is Lanzi, a daughter of a woman responsible for combing, is good-looking and has a passion for love.) Juānlì 娟麗 is written in the Wǔzázǔ: Rénbùsì 五雜俎人部四 [Wǔzázǔ: Rénbù IV] by Xie Zhaozhe 謝肇淛 of the Ming dynasty that “zhìyú juānlì xuānqiǎo, zé xīběi fēi dōngnán dí yǐ. 至於娟麗儇巧，則西北非東南敵矣.” (The enemy in the northwest, not in the southeast, is smart and clever.) Juānyán 娟妍 is noted in the Bǎnqiáo zájì: Lìpǐn 板橋雑記·麗品 [Notes of Banqiao: The Beauty] by Yu Huai 余懷 of the Qing dynasty that “(Dǒng Bái) tiānzī qiǎohuì, róngmào juānyán. （董白）天资巧慧，容貌娟妍.” ([Dong Bai] is clever and good-looking.) Mèihǎo 媚好 is recorded in the Liáozhāi zhìyì: Dùwēng 聊齋志異·杜翁 [A Collection of Bizarre Stories: Du Weng] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 that “Dù biéxíng, zhuīzhōng yù liùqī nǚláng, róngsè mèihǎo. 杜别行，追中遇六七女郎，容色媚 好.” (Du Weng said goodbye to the man and went back. On the way, he met six or seven girls with beautiful looks.) Mèilì 媚麗 is written in the fourth volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Xuán Wēi jiù yuèxià zǐxì kàn shí, yígègè zīróng mèilì, tǐtài qīngyíng. 玄微就月下仔細看時，一個個姿容媚麗，體態輕盈.” (Xuan Wei took advantage of the moonlight to look carefully and found each woman was beautiful and slender.) Miàolì 妙麗 is written in the volume 11 of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚 奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “shuí xiǎng cǐnǚ rúcǐ miàolì, zàicǐ lìng xǔle rénjiā. 誰想此女如此妙 麗，在此另許了人家.” (Who knows that the girl is so beautiful and betrothed to another man?) Qiànjiāo 倩嬌 is written in the second chapter of the Zàishēngyuán 再生缘 [Eternal Happiness] by Heng Wushi 蘅蕪室 of the Ming dynasty that “xiǎngzhe nǐ yìyán yìzì jiē dōu yǎ, wēixiào wēipín suì qiànjiāo. 想着你一言一字皆都雅， 微笑微顰繐倩嬌.” (I am at the thought that you are elegant in speaking and beautiful in every frown and smile.) Qiànjùn 倩俊 is noted in the Yǐnjū tōngyì: Shīgē sì 隠居通議·詩歌四 [The General Rules of Living in Seclusion: Poem IV] by Liu Xun 劉壎 of the Yuan dynasty that “Zhào Chóngfān wéirén qiànjùn lòuluò, fùyǒu wéncǎi. 趙崇墦爲人 倩俊漏落，富有文采.” (Zhao Chongfan is handsome, big-hearted, and rich in literary talent.) Qiànlì 倩麗 is written in the Shùyì jì: Zìzhīqiánshēng 述異記自知前生 [A Tale of Strange Things: Knowing Your Previous Life] written by Dongxuan zhuren 東

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

軒主人 of the Qing dynasty that “yírì dēng qí lóu, jiàn nǚzi pō qiànlì. 一日登其 樓，見女子頗倩麗.” (One day, I ascended the building and saw that the woman was quite beautiful.) Liànglì 靚麗 is recorded in the Júqùxuān jì 菊趣軒記 [A Tale of the Interest of Enjoying Chrysanthemums] by Fang Xiaoru 方孝孺 of the Ming dynasty that “dǔ yuánlín zhī liànglì, wú fù yǐnjū zhī shì yǐ. 覩園林之靓麗，無復隱居之適矣.” (I want to enjoy the beauty of the garden and feel no longer suitable for seclusion.) Shūlì 姝麗 is noted in the Wǔzázǔ: Rénbùsì 五雜俎·人部四 [Wǔzázǔ: Rénbù IV] written by Xie Zhaozhe 謝肇淛 of the Ming dynasty that “Dàtóng fùnǚ, shūlì ér duō liàntǔ zhòngqiān. 大同婦女，姝麗而多纞土重遷.” (The women of Datong are beautiful and are attached to their native land and unwilling to leave it.) Shūyàn 姝豔 is written in the Yěhuò biān 野獲编 [Wild Beasts], the Fùnǚ: Guǎnglíng jī 婦女·廣陵姬 [Women of Guangling] by Shen Defu 沈德符 of the Ming dynasty reads that “yǐ gù xiàshānzhě jí shèn shūyàn, jià jǐn shízhīsān. 以故 下山者即甚姝豔，價僅十之三.” (Therefore, those who go down the mountain are very beautiful, and the price is only 13.) Shūyàn 秀麗 is written in the Sōng yóu sì 嵩遊四 [Travel Notes of Mount Song IV] by Yuan Hongdao 袁宏道 of the Ming dynasty that “yǒu qiè míng Xuāncǎo, Fāngcǎo, jiē xiùlì ér shàn shēnglǜ. 有妾名萱草、芳草，皆秀麗而善聲律.” (He has two concubines called Xuancao and Fangcao, respectively, who are beautiful and adept at music.) Xiùmàn 秀曼 is recorded in the Liáozhāi zhìyì: Xiānréndǎo 聊齋志異·仙人 島 [A Collection of Bizarre Stories: Celestial Being’s Island] by Pu Songling 蒲 松齡 that “yì chuíjì nǚ zìnèi chū, jǐn shíyú líng, ér zītài xiùmàn, xiàoyī Fāngyún zhǒuxià, qiūbō liúdòng. 一垂髻女自内出，僅十餘龄，而姿态秀曼，笑依芳 雲肘下，秋波流動.” (Another beautiful girl in her teens came out, snuggled up under Fangyun’s arm with a smile, looking around with a pair of big eyes.) Xiùměi 秀美 is written in the first volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “yuèxiāng suīrán nián xiǎo, róngmào xiùměi kěài. 月香雖然年小， 容貌秀美可爱.” (Though Yuexiang is still very young, she is good-looking and cute.) Yánlì 妍麗 is recorded in chapter 53 of the Dōngzhōu lièguó zhì 東周列國志 [The History of Various Countries of the Eastern Zhou dynasty] by Yu Shaoyu 余邵 魚 of the Ming dynasty that “Xiàjī yánsè yánlì, yǔfù xiángyǎ, zhuāngwáng yíjiàn, xīnzhì míhuò. 夏姬顔色妍麗，語復詳雅，莊王一見，心志迷惑.” (Xiaji is good-looking and elegant. So, King Zhuang was attracted by her at the first sight.) Jiāomèi 嬌媚 is written in the chapter 15 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “Nà Qín yě ài tā yánmèi, èrrén suī wèi shàngshǒu, què yǐ qíngtóu yìhé le. 那秦也爱 他妍媚，二人雖未上手，却已情投意合了.” (The man whose surname is Qin also likes her beautiful looks, though not having started, they have already fallen in love with each other.)

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 83 Yànlì 豔麗 is written in the Jiātóng zì yětián xié huángjú èrzhū zhì xuānzhōng gǎn ér yǒu zuò 家僮自野田攜黄菊二株至軒中感而有作 [Poems Composed When My Servant Brought Two Yellow Chrysanthemums from the Field to the Hut] by Tang Shunzhi 唐順之 of the Ming dynasty that “huāyì yōujiān dāng yànlí, tiānxīn shuāngxiàn shì zāipéi. 花意幽間當豔麗，天心霜霰是栽培.” (Flowers are leisurely and gorgeous, and Heaven is cultivated by frost and graupel.) Yànměi 豔美 is recorded in the Jīnshǐ 金史 [The History of Jin], the Nìngxìng zhuàn: Zhāng Zhòngkē 佞幸傳·張仲軻 [A Biography of Sycophantic Officials: Zhang Zhongke] reads that “Sòng yǒu Liúguìfēi zhě, zīzhì yànměi. 宋有劉貴妃 者，姿質豔美.” (A highest-ranking imperial concubine whose name is Liu of the Song dynasty is very beautiful.) Yànmèi 豔媚 is written in the Liáozhāi zhìyì: Húmèng 聊齋志異·狐夢 [A Collection of Bizarre Stories: A Dream about the Fox Girl] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 that “hū yì shàonǚ bào yī māo zhì, nián kě shíèrsān, chúcè wèizào, ér yànmèi rùgǔ. 忽一少女抱一猫至，年可十二三，雏畟未燥，而豔媚入骨.” (Suddenly a young girl came with a cat in her arms. She was about 11 or 12 years old. She was childish, but very beautiful.) Yànyě 豔冶 is noted in the Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō: Zhìchéng zhāng zhǔguǎn 京本通俗小说·志誠張主管 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: A Honest Butler Named Zhang] that “shuō bújìn de wànzhǒng yāowǎn, gài bùchū de qiānbān yànyě. 説不盡的萬種妖婉，盖不出的千般豔冶.” (It’s too enchanting and too beautiful to say or draw even with thousands of words or strokes.) Yāojiāo 妖嬌 is written in the Táng Bóhǔ huà cuīshì qiě tícì qíyùn 唐伯虎畫崔 氏且题次其韻 [A Reply Poem of Tang Bohu Drawing a Portrait of the Daughter of the Cui Family] by Xu Wei 徐渭 of the Ming dynasty that “Jiàhòu xíngróng nán bùlǎo, huàzhōng línjiē yě yìngchén. Hǔtóu yìshì dēngtúzǐ, tèqǔ yāojiāo dòng shìrén. 嫁後形容難不老，畫中臨揭也應陳. 虎頭亦是登徒子，特取妖嬌動世 人.” (It is difficult to stay young after marriage, and the color in the painting is also easy to become old. The appearance of nobility is also used to describe a man, who especially takes the advantage of his good look to charm the world.) Yāoráo 妖嬈 is written in the Míngzhū jì: Yóuyíng 明珠記·郵迎 [A Tale of a Peal: Posting and Welcoming] by Lu Cai 陸采 of the Ming dynasty that “jīn huāfěn, yù jìngtái, zhuāngbà yāoráo zēng bǎibèi. 金花粉，玉鏡臺，妝罷妖嬈增 百倍.” (There is golden flower powder and a jade dressing table. After wearing makeup, she is 100 times much more enchanting than the former.) Yāoyán 妖妍 is recorded in the Qīngmíngrì Yán Zàipéng miáo gētóng fànzhōu chéngběi 清明日閻再彭描歌童泛舟城北 [Yan Zaipeng with a Boy Singing for a Living Going Boating in the North of the City in the Qingming Festival] by Sun Zhiwei 孫枝蔚 of the Qing dynasty that “zhòngqíng yuè yāoyán, tóngzhì guì zhēnlǜ. 衆情悦妖妍，同志贵真率.” (People like beautiful things. People with the same interests should be sincere and frank.) Yāoyàn 妖豔 is written in the chapter 12 of the Dōngzhōu lièguó zhì 東周列國 志 [The History of Various Countries of the Eastern Zhou dynasty] by Yu Shaoyu 余邵魚 of the Ming dynasty that “yāoyàn chūnqiū shǒu èrjiāng, zhì lìng qíwèi

84 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese wěn gāngcháng. 妖豔春秋首二姜，致令齊衛紊綱常.” (Wenjiang and Xuanjiang were the two most beautiful women during the Spring and Autumn Period, who caused the disorder of the principles of the State of Qi and the State of Wei.) Yāoyě 妖冶 is noted in the Bǎnqiáo zájì: Lìpǐn 板橋雑記·麗品 [Notes of Banqiao: The Beauty] by Yu Huai 余懷 of the Qing dynasty that “Hàochǐ míngmóu, yìcháng yāoyě. 皓齒明眸，異常妖冶.” (She has good teeth and bright eyes, who is very attractive.) Yáoyě 姚冶 is written in the Xiāngyuè:Jiǎxū chūn fànzhōu xīhú fùcǐ 湘月·甲 戌春泛舟西湖赋此 [The Moon in the Xiang: Going Boating in the West Lake in the Spring of the Year of Jiaxu] by Gong Zizhen 龔自珍 of the Qing dynasty that “yì mǒ chūnshān luózidài, duìwǒ qīngpín yáoyě. 一抹春山螺子黛，對我輕颦 姚冶.” (The green hill, like the paint to draw a woman’s brows, smiled at me and was very beautiful.) In terms of the above 52 synonyms, some of them have been seen in remote or middle ancient times. For example, jiāolì 姣麗 has been seen in the Chǔcí: Dàzhāo 楚辭:大招 [The Songs of Chu: The Big Ceremony of Calling Back the Spirit of the Dead], in which one sentence reads that “Pāngxīn chāotài, jiāolì shī zhǐ. 滂心綽態，姣麗施只.” (The beauty is broad-minded and able to accommodate the public. She is not only good-looking, but also loves to do philanthropic work.) As for yāoyě 妖冶, it has been seen in the Shànglín fù 上林賦 [An Ode to Shanglin] by Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 of the Han dynasty, in which it is written that “ruò fú Qīngqín Mìfēi zhītú, juéshū lísú, yāoyě xiándōu. 若夫青琴宓 妃之徒，絕殊離俗，妖冶嫻都.” (The dancers, like the goddesses Qingqin and Mifei, are beautiful and graceful.) Yànlì 豔麗 has been seen in the Guīqíng 閨 情 [Women Thinking of Love] by Cao Zhi 曹植 of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, it writes that “yāozī yànlí, wěng ruò chūnhuā. 妖姿豔麗，蓊若春華.” (She was dressed enchanting and gorgeous, as brilliant as spring flowers.) Yánlì 妍麗 has been seen in the Chēqú wǎn fù 硨渠椀賦 [An Ode to the Bowls Made of Chequ (a type of jade)] by Cao Zhi 曹植, it is written that “mìng gōngshū zhī qiǎojiàng, qióng yánlì zhī shūxíng. 命公輸之巧匠，窮妍麗之殊形.” (The craftsman Luban was ordered to make the most beautiful bowls with special shapes.) Yāoyàn 妖 豔 has been seen in the Júhuā fù 菊花賦 [An Ode to the Chrysanthemums] by Zhong Hui 鍾會 of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, it is written that “nǎi yǒu Máo Qiáng Xī Shī, Jīng Jī Qín Yíng, yánzī yāoyàn, yígù qīngchéng. 乃有毛嬙西施， 荊姬秦贏，妍姿妖豔，一顧傾城.” (There are Mao Qiang, Xi Shi, Jing Ji, and Qin Ying, who are beautiful and charming. Once they look back, the whole city is enchanted by them.) Jùnxiù 俊秀 has been found in the Hòu Hàn shū: Dǎnggù zhuànxù 後漢書·黨錮傳序 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: The Introduction of the One-Party Dictatorship], one sentence reads that “xuézhōng yǔyuē, ‘tiānxià kǎimó Lǐ Yuánlǐ, búwèi qiángyù Chén Zhòngjǔ, tiānxià jùnxiù Wáng Shūmào.’ 學中語曰：‘天下楷模李元禮，不畏强禦陳仲舉，天下俊秀王叔 茂’.” (One saying spreads in the palace: Li Yuanli is a model in the world, Chen Zhongju is not afraid of strong imperial, and Wang Shumao is an elite in the world.) Therefore, it describes people who are talented here, while the meaning good-looking came into being in modern times.

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 85 The monosyllabic words bǔ 捕, zhuō 捉, ná 拿, and qín 擒 all mean catch with brute force. In Modern Chinese, the group of polysyllabic words composed of these morphemes with other morphemes all have such meaning. In this sense, they are synonyms.1 See the following examples. Bǔná 捕拿 is written in the tenth chapter of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty that “Cháotíng yóu bǎ tā zuìzhuàng de hěn, xuánshǎng zhuōná. 朝廷尤把他罪狀的 狠，懸賞捉拿.” (The imperial court especially announced his extreme crime and offered a reward for his arrest.) Bǔhuò 捕獲 is recorded in the fourth volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世 恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “jí chāi jīshǐchén dàilǐng jǐgè zuògōngde, yā Zhàngbà zuòyǎn, qiánqù bǔhuò. 即差緝使臣帶領幾個做公的，押賬霸作眼，前去捕 獲.” (Immediately, officers were ordered to lead several bailiffs to detain Zhangba as a spy, going to arrest him.) Bǔzhuō 捕捉 is written in the second chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Huáyīnxiàn lǐ xiànchū sānqiān guàn shǎngqián, bǔzhuō tā sāngè zéiré. 華蔭縣裏現出三千貫賞錢，捕捉他三個賊人.” (In the Huayin County, a reward of 3,000 yuan was granted to the one who captures the three thieves.) Názhuō 拿捉 is noted in the chapter 31 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “què shì liǎnggè zìjiā qīnsuírén, biàn shì qiánrì názhuō Wǔ Sōng de. 却是兩 個自家親隨人，便是前日拿捉武松的.” (Indeed, they turned out to be the two followers of their own family, who captured Wu Song the day before yesterday.) Qínná 擒拿 is recorded in the fourth chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “Zhèn qiǎn tiānbīng, qínná cǐguài. 朕遣天兵，擒拿此怪.” (I [Emperor] dispatch soldiers of Heaven to capture this monster.) Qínzhuō 擒捉 is noted in the chapter 23 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “guānsi rújīn zhàngxiàn dǎliè bǔhù, qínzhuō fāluò. 官司如今杖限 打獵捕户，擒捉發落.” (The government now stipulates that within a limited period of time, the farmers hunting here will catch the tiger and hand it over to the government.) Zhuōbǔ 捉捕 is recorded in the chapter 49 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “dāngtīng yàole zhàngxiàn wénshū, zhuōbǔ Dēngzhōu shānshàng dàchóng. 當廳要了杖限文書，捉捕登州山上大蟲.” (In the hall, he asked for an official document to catch the tiger on Mount Dengzhou.) Zhuōná 捉拿 is written in the fifth chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “nà dújiǎoguǐwáng yǔ qīshíèrdòng yāoguài, jìnbèi zhòng tiānshén zhuōná qù le. 那獨角鬼王與七十二洞妖怪，盡 被眾天神捉拿去了.” (The one-horn ghost king and the 72-hole monster were both captured by God.)

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The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

Suō 唆 is suōshǐ 唆使 (to instigate), tiǎo挑 is tiǎozhàn 挑戰 (to challenge), and cuān 攛 means jiàosuō 教唆 (to incite). In modern times, they acted as morphemes and constituted a quantity of polysyllabic words, all meaning instigate someone to do bad things. Suōdiào 唆調 is recorded in the fourth act of the Nánláo jì 南牢記 [A Tale of the Southern Jail] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty that “tā suōdiào de jiābài rénwáng. 他唆調的家敗人亡.” (The family is ruined by his instigation.) Suōjiào 唆教 is written in the Sìchuān Tǎo Mǎnzhōu xí 四川討滿洲檄 [An Official Call to The War of Sichuan against Manchu] by Wangdi 望帝 of the Qing dynasty that “Shùnzhì shíwǔ nián, lǔchén Wú Sānguì yóu Bǎoníng qū Zūnyì, suì fàn Guìwáng yú Diān, bó zǒu Miǎndiàn. Zéichén gèng suōjiào zhī, wáng yǐ bùmiǎn. 順治十五年，虜臣吳三桂由保寧趨遵義，遂犯桂王於滇，薄走緬 甸. 賊臣更唆教之，王以不免.” (In the 15th year of the reign of Shunzhi, the slave Wu Sangui expelled enemies from Baoning to Zunyi and then he defeated the king of Gui in Yunnan and invaded Myanmar. Moreover, the emperor was inevitably instigated by the treacherous subject.) Suōlìng 唆令 is noted in the chapter 27 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “suōlìng nánnǚ gùshī rénlún, nǐ hé língchí chǔsǐ. 唆令男女故失人 倫，擬合凌遲處死.” (Those who instigate men and women to ignore the humanrelation ethics should be executed into pieces.) Suōshǐ 唆使 is written in the chapter 27 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “jù Wángpó shēngqíng zàoyì, hǒngyòu tōngjiān, suōshǐ běnfù xiàyào dúsǐ qīnfū. 據王婆生情造意，哄誘通姦，唆使本婦下藥毒死親夫.” (With Mrs. Wang’s wicked thought, she seduced the woman into committing adultery, and instigated her to poison her husband.) Suōtiāo 唆挑 is reorded in the Wángxiángwòbīng 王祥卧冰 [Wang Xiang Lying on the Ice] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty that “jiēyīn shì pōnǎipó, bǎ yányǔ suōtiāo, jīfā wǒ mǔqīn xīnjiāo. 皆因是潑奶婆，把言語唆 挑，激發我母親心焦.” (It is all because the unreasonable wet nurse instigated with words, making my mother anxious.) Bānsuō 搬唆 is written in the Qīngpíngshāntáng huàběn: Kuàizuǐ Lǐ Cuìliánjì 清平山堂话本·快嘴李翠莲記 [Storytelling Scripts of Qingpingshantang: Story of the Talkative Li Cuilian] that “gōngpó lìhài yóu zìkě, zěndāng mǔmǔ yǔ gūgū, wǒ ruò luèluè kāidé kǒu, biànqù bānsuō yǔ jiùgū. 公婆利害猶自可，怎當姆 姆與姑姑，我若略略開得口，便去搬唆與舅姑.” (The relationship with my parents-in-law is good, yet I could not deal with the relationship with my sistersin-law. If I speak a little, it means that I instigate my parents-in-law.) Cuānsuō 攛唆 is written in the chapter 27 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “(Sānzàng) guǒrán xìn nà dāizi de cuānsuō, shǒuzhōng niǎnjué, kǒulǐ niànzhòu. （三藏） 果然信那獃子攛唆，手中撚訣，口中念咒.” ([Sanzang] really believed the

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 87 fool’s instigation, twisted the rhymed formula in his hand, and chanted a curse in his mouth.) Diāosuō 刁唆 is noted in the ninth chapter of the Xiǎotúsūn 小屠孫 [Little Tusun] by an anonymous writer of the Southern Song dynasty that “zhè yuānjiamò jìng xìn diāosuō, bǎ nújiā ēn hé ài jìn xīluò. 這冤家莫竟信刁唆，把奴家恩和愛 盡奚落.” (The damned nuisance even believed in the instigation and treated my kindness and love coldly.) Tiáosuō 調唆 is written in the Qīngpíngshāntáng huàběn: Kuàizuǐ Lǐ Cuìlián jì 清平山堂话本·快嘴李翠蓮記 [Storytelling Scripts of Qingpingshantang: Story of the Talkative Li Cuilian] that “xiǎogū nǐ hǎobù xiánliáng, biànqù fángzhōng tiáosuō niáng. 小姑你好不賢良，便去房中調唆娘.” (My younger sister-in-law, you are not so virtuous that you went to the room to instigate our mother.) Jiàosuō 教唆 is written in the fourth act of the Zhuàn Kuǎitōng 賺蒯通 [The Trick of Kuaitong] that “dāngchū Hánxìn yìshì nǐ jiàosuō tā lái. 當初韓信亦是你 教唆他來.” (At that time, you also instigated him to come.) The word came into being at earlier time. For instance, it is written in the Dá Lǚbógōng shū 答吕伯恭 書 [A Reply Letter to Lvbogong] by Zhu Xi 朱熹 of the Song dynasty that “shìrén fànfǎ zhě, jiàosuō bǎchí, qízuì bùyī. 士人犯法者，教唆把持，其罪不一.” (As for scholars who break the law due to instigation and those due to monopolization, their crime penalties are different from each other.) Tiǎosuō 挑唆 is noted in the second act of the Táohuā nǚ 桃花女 [The Peach Blossom Woman] by Wang Ye 王曄 of the Yuan dynasty that “nǐ jiāng nà hǎoyányǔ wǎnglái shōucuō, zé bàndé liǎngxiàlǐ tiǎosuō. 你將那好言語往來收撮，則辦得 兩下裏挑唆.” (If you fiddle with the good words back and forth, both sides will be instigated.) The monosyllabic word zhèng 挣 means support by heart and get rid of strongly. In Modern Chinese, the group of polysyllabic words composed of the morpheme zhèng 挣 all means support by heart or get rid of strongly, resulting in the case that these words are synonyms. Dǎzhèng 打挣 is recorded in the third act of the Shénnúér 神奴兒 [The Story of Shennuer] by an anonymous writer in the Yuan dynasty that “nǐ yěbù suǒyìng dǎzhèng qù jiēfang shàng yāohe. 你也不索硬打挣去街坊上幺喝.” (You should not argue forcefully and shout in the neighborhood.) The third act of the Huīlán jì 灰闌記 [A Tale of the Circle of Ash] by Li Hangdao 李行道 of the Yuan dynasty writes that “wùnà fùrén, nǐ dǎzhèng xiē, zhuǎnguò zhè shānpō qù, wǒ zhuó nǐ zuò yíhuìer zài zǒu. 兀那婦人，你打挣些，轉過這山坡去，我着你坐一會兒 再走.” (That woman hang in there. Until we climb over the hillside. I will let you sit and have a rest for a while.) Zāzhèng 紮挣 is written in the second act of the Dòuéyuān 竇娥冤 [The Injustice to Dou E] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty that “nǐ lǎorénjia fàng jīngshén zhe, nǐ zāzhèngzhe xiēer. 你老人家放精神着，你紮挣着些兒.” (You old man, keep your spirits up, and support it harder.) The chapter 13 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of

88 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese the Qing dynasty writes that “Jiǎzhēn yímiàn fúguǎi, zāzhèng zhe yào dūnshēn guìxia qǐngān dàofá. 賈珍一面扶拐，紮挣着要蹲身跪下請安道乏.” (Jiazhen was leaning on a crutch and trying to support herself, at the same time, she was going to squat and kneel down to give her regards.) Zhǎnzhèng 展挣 is noted in the seventh chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “ruòdé yīngxióng chóng zhǎnzhèng, tānián fèngfó shàngxīfāng. 若得英雄重展 挣，他年奉佛上西方.” (If I get your powerful support again, I will do good deeds in the future.) Another example shown in the eighth chapter reads that “Rúlái hǒngle wǒ, bǎ wǒ yāzài cǐshān, wǔbǎiyú nián le, bùnéng zhǎnzhèng. 如來 哄了我，把我壓在此山，五百餘年了，不能展挣.” (The Tathagata coaxed me and pressed me on this mountain for more than 500 years, and I cannot escape from here.) Zhèngchuāi 挣揣 is written in the second volume of the Xīxiāng jì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宫調 [Various Melodies of Romance of the Western Chamber] by Dong Jieyuan 董解元 of the Jin dynasty that “nàihé shǐdāode rén kùn mǎfá, yù dài zhèngchuāi xiē yīngxióng, bùrú qǐsǎ. 奈何使刀的人困馬 乏，欲待挣揣些英雄，不如起撒.” (However, the people are good at knives and their horses are tired. Though they want to get rid of some heroes, they might as well retreat.) Zhèngzā 挣紮 is recorded in the chapter 23 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “qiě zhèngzā xià gāngzi qù, míngzǎo quèlái lǐhuì. 且挣紮下岡子 去，明早却來理會.” (He struggled to go down the hill and would deal with it next morning.) The eighth volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty mentions that “jīnrì qǔ nǐ xífu láijiā chōngxǐ, nǐ xū zhèngzā zétǒng. 今日 娶你媳婦來家沖喜，你須挣紮則筒.” (Today you will get married to counteract your bad luck. You struggle to brace yourself.) Zhèngcuō 挣搓 is written in the chapter 38 of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “hǔdé shǒuruǎn jīnmá, zhèngcuō bùdòng le. 唬得手軟筋麻，挣搓不動了.” (I was so scared that I felt numb and then I struggled but could not move any more.) Zhèngcuò 挣挫 is noted in the Shuāngdiào bìyù xiāo 雙調碧玉簫 [Double Tone Jasper Flute] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty that “zuìhúner nán zhèngcuò, jīngcǎiér qiáng dǎái. 醉魂兒難挣挫，精彩兒强打捱.” (It is difficult for a muddle-headed person to cheer up and keep the spirit up.) Zhèngchuài 挣䦟 is written in the Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō: Púsàmán 京 本通俗小说·菩萨蛮 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: Pusaman] that “kěcháng tuībìng bùdé, zhǐděi zhèngchuài qǐlái, suízhe gōngrén dào Línānfǔ gōngtīng shàng guìxia. 可常推病不得，只得挣䦟起來，隨着公人到臨安府 公廳上跪下.” (He argued that he was ill and tried to refuse but did not succeed, so he struggled to get up and went to the yamen of Lin’an County with the runners for kneeling down.)

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 89 Zhēngchuài 䦛䦟 is noted in the Qīngpíngshāntáng huàběn: Jiǎntiě hé shàng 清平山堂话本簡帖和尚 [Storytelling Scripts of Qingpingshantang: Monk Jiantie] that “wàimiàn Huángfǔ Diànzhí hé xíngzhě . . . pǎo jiāng rén qù kàn shí, jiàn kèzhe tā húnjiā, zhēngchuài xìngmìng. 外面皇甫殿直和行者 . . . 跑將人去看 時，見尅着他渾家，䦛䦟性命.” (Huangfu Dianzhi and the pedestrian waited outside . . . When he came to check out, he saw his wife being choked, struggling to survive.) Hé 和 started to have the meaning of cheat in middle ancient times, and was widely used in modern times. Hǒng 哄 and chuò 啜 both meant cheat in modern times. The polysyllabic words composed of these morphemes all mean deceive people with lies or means, constituting a group of synonyms in Modern Chinese. Chuòchí 啜持 is recorded in the volume 37 of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 that “wàn Xiù niáng líbùdé shì bǎgè tiányán měiyǔ, chuòchí guòlái. 萬秀娘離不得是把個甜言 美語，啜持過來.” (The mother of Wan Xiu could not avoid some sweet words which can cajole her into coming over.) Chuòhǒng 啜哄 is noted in the chapter 13 of the Jīnpíngméi cíhuà 金瓶梅詞話 [one edition of The Plum in the Golden Vase] written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty that “tā yàole rénjiā hànzi, yòulái xiàn xiǎo yīnqínér, chuòhǒng rénjiā lǎogōng. 他要了人家漢子，又來獻小殷勤兒，啜哄 人家老公.” (She had an affair with husband of other family and came to pay attention to him for cajoling him.) Chuòyòu 啜誘 is mentioned in the Yuán diǎnzhāng 元典章 [Regulations of the Yuan dynasty], the chapter Xíngbù shíjiǔ: Jìnjúpiàn 刑部十九·禁局騙 [The Ministry of Punishments 19: Prohibitions of Setting Traps to Cheat] writes that “(Zhāng Shèng) chuòyòu Lǐ Huìguāng jiāng tóngqián dāguī, yòng júpiàn shǒufǎ yíngqì. (張勝) 啜誘李慧光將銅錢搭龜，用局騙手法贏訖.” ([Zhang Sheng] tricked Li Huiguang into putting his copper money into a turtle and won it by setting a trap.) Diàohǒng 調哄 is written in the Wùrù táoyuán 誤入桃源 [Entering the Utopia Peach Garden by Accident] by Wang Ziyi 王子一 of the Ming dynasty that “Pàn bùde yújiā chūnshuǐdù, wén bújiàn sēngsì xīyángzhōng, zán liǎnggè mò búbèi qiáofū diàohǒng. 盼不的漁家春水渡，聞不見僧寺夕陽鐘，咱兩 個莫不被樵夫調哄.” (I cannot see the fisherman crossing the spring water and cannot hear the sunset bell in the temple. We are all cheated by the woodcutter.) Héhǒng 和哄 is mentioned in the chapter 20 of the Mǔdāntíng 牡丹亭 [The Peony Pavilion] by Tangxianzu 湯顯祖 of the Ming dynasty that “shènchūnguī wúduān sī héhǒng, wù hé yān liǎng bù línglóng. 甚春歸無端廝和哄，霧和煙 兩不玲瓏.” (Spring has gone, and the servant deceives for no reason. Fog and smoke are not exquisite.) Hŏngfàn 哄犯 is mentioned in the second act of the Nánláo jì 南牢記 [A Tale of the Southern Jail] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty that “Lǐ dàjiě

90 The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese yìqǐ yǔyán lìbiàn, xiūyào hǒngfàn le nǐ. 李大姐一起語言利便，休要哄犯了你.” (Sister Li and her gang are very articulate. Do not be deceived by them.) Hŏngnòng 哄弄 is written in the Hándān jì: Rúmèng 邯鄲記·入夢 [A Tale of Handan: Falling Asleep] by Tangxianzu 湯顯祖 of the Ming dynasty that “Lǎowēng hǒngnòng zhuāngjiā li. 老翁哄弄莊家哩.” (Sir, you are cheating farmers.) Hǒngpiàn 哄騙 is noted in the seventh volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒 言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “xiǎorén wèn qí yuángù, quèshì nà chǒuhàn mǎizhǔ méirén, yào hǒngpiàn xiǎorén de nǚér wéihūn. 小人問其緣故，却是那丑漢買囑媒人， 要哄騙小人的女兒為婚.” (I asked him and the fact is that the ugly man bought over the matchmaker to coax my daughter into marriage.) Hǒngyòu 哄誘 is written in the chapter 27 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “jù Wángpó shēngqíng zàoyì, hǒngyòu tōngjiān, suōshǐ běnfù xiàyào dúsǐ qīnfū. 據王婆生情造意，哄誘通姦，唆使本婦下藥毒死親夫.” (With Mrs. Wang’s wicked thought, she seduced the woman into committing adultery, and instigated her to poison her husband.) In short, there were a large number of synonyms in Modern Chinese, involving rich contents and various forms, so they could define things elaborately, accurately and vividly. For example, words such as tuīcè 推測, gūliào 估料, cāi 猜, zìcǔn 自忖, xúnsi 尋思, chuǎimó 揣摩, and cáiduó 裁度all have the meaning of estimating and judging some unknown things. However, they have their own features in meaning. Most of them are used in different contexts and cannot be interchanged at will. Tuīcè 推測 is usually used in solemn and serious occasions, meaning speculate, and the speculated object is often a relative important thing. For example, the Tàipíng tiānguó gǎidìng xīnlì 太平天國改定新曆 [A New Calendar of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom] writes that “tiānqíng zhēndào fú wúqióng, wàngwéi tuīcè yǒu héyì? 天情真道福無窮，妄爲推測有何益？” (It conforms to the heavenly principles and truth, blessed with infinite blessings. What benefits can arbitrary speculation have?) Gūliáng 估量 means reckon with a general sense that there is a good reason or some basis for something. For example, it is written in the chapter 30 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “gūliángzhe Bǎoyù zhèhuìzi zàibù huíláide. 估量着寶玉這會 子再不回来的.” (They reckoned that Baoyu would not come back now.) Cāi 猜 with the sense of guess is used when an expression is not groundless, but it has great contingency and blindness, usually used in daily life. For example, the chapter 64 of the Jìnghuāyuán 鏡花缘 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝 珍 of the Qing dynasty writes that “yǒu gè mí, qǐng jiùjiù xiān cāicāi. 有個謎，請 舅舅先猜猜.” (There is a riddle. Please guess it first, my uncle.) Zìcǔn 自忖 means think to oneself, indicating that people think to and ask themselves, speculate and judge secretly. For example, the chapter 41 of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese 91 Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty writes that “Shíxiù jiànshuì, xīnzhōng zìcǔnle yìhuí. 石秀見説，心中自忖了一回.” (Shixiu murmured himslef that he thought to himself once.) Xúnsi 尋思 means think something overand over, which is similar to the meaning of Zìcǔn 自忖 that a person thinks himself, asking himself and judging secretly. For example, the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty writes that “Lǔ Dá xúnsi dào, ‘ǎn zhǐ zhǐwàng tòngdǎ zhèsī yídùn, bùxiǎng sānquán zhēngè dǎsǐ le tā, sǎjiā xū chīguānsi, yòu méirén sòngfàn, bùrú jízǎo sākāi.’ 鲁 達尋思道：‘俺只指望痛打這廝一顿，不想三拳真個打死了他，洒家须吃官 司，又没人送飯，不如及早撒開’.” (Lu Da thought: “I only hoped to beat this guy up. I did not expect him to be killed with three fists. I will be sued but no one will bring food for me. I’d better leave as soon as possible.”) Chuǎimó 揣摩 means try to figure out, showing that people think carefully and repeatedly to find the answer. For example, the chapter 73 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “Xíng fūrén huítóu kàn shí, dōushì xiē nǚháier, bùbiàn dìyú, zìjǐ biàn sāi zài xiùnèi, xīnnèi shífēn hǎnyì, chuǎimó cǐwù cónghé érzhì. 邢夫人回頭看 時，都是些女孩兒，不便遞舆，自己便塞在袖内，心内十分罕異，揣摩此 物從何而至.” (When Mrs. Xing looked back, they were all girls. As it was inconvenient to take a stage carriage, she stuffed it in her sleeve. She felt that it was rare and wondered where it came from.) Cáiduó 裁度, referring to weigh and decide, means that people judge and make decisions according to the situation. For example, the chapter 55 of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty writes that “rújīn qǐng gūniangmen cáiduózhe, zài tiān xiē yě shǐdé. 如今請姑娘們裁度着，再添些也使得.” (Girls, please judge and make a decision. It is also workable if we give more.)

4 Conclusion The massive development of Modern Chinese synonyms reflects the strengthening of the language ability of the Han people and the improvement of the expressive power of Chinese words. The Chinese language, as a whole, has developed to a new and quite mature stage.

Note 1 The polysyllabic word dàibǔ 逮捕 also means catch with brute force. This usage has been seen in the Han. For example, the Shǐ jì: Jiànghóu Zhōu Bó shìjiā 史記·绛侯周勃 世家 [Records of the Historian: A biography of the Aristocratic Family of Duke Zhou Bo] writes, “Qí hòurén yǒu shàngshū gào bó yù fǎnhé, xià tíngwèi, tíngwèi xià qí shì chángān, dǎibǔ bó zhìzhī.” 其後人有上書告勃欲反和，下廷尉，廷尉下其事長安， 逮捕勃治之.” (One of his descendants wrote a letter to judicial officers to inform on Zhou Bo who wanted to rebel and oppose peace. Then the officers reported the matter to the emperor, so Zhou Bo was arrested and punished.) The Hàn shū: Xiāo Wàngzhī

92

The innovation of synonyms in Modern Chinese

zhuàn 漢書·蕭望之傳 [The Book of the Han: A Biography of Xiao Wangzhi] writes that “wàng zhī dàchén . . . shòu suǒ jiān zāng èrbǎiwǔshí yǐshàng, qǐng dǎibǔ xìzhì.” 望之大臣 . . . 受所監臧二百五十以上，請逮捕繫治.” (Minister Wang . . . according to the investigation, his illicit money is more than the number of 250. Please arrest and imprison him as the punishment.) At present, the word is also frequently used. For example, the fifth issue of the Xīnhuá wénzhā 新華文摘 (1981) [Xinhua Digest] writes that “jiàodǎoyuán zhōngyīn fǔhuà ér bèi dàibǔ bànle. 教導員終因腐化而被逮捕辦了.” (The instructor was eventually arrested for corruption.) In Modern Chinese, there were not such similar examples.

3

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese

1 Introduction Modern Chinese idioms have developed greatly and have become an important symbol of the development of Modern Chinese lexicon. The total amount of idioms that appear in modern works is more than 5,000 numbers. Some of them are from Old Chinese language, such as bàoxīn jiùhuǒ 抱薪救火 (carry faggots to put out a fire), dàyì mièqīn 大義滅親 (punish one’s own relations in the cause of justice), huá’ér bùshí 華而不實 (produce flowers but bear no fruits), míngchá qiūháo 明察秋毫 (discover the minutest detail in everything), and xiǎoxīnyìyì 小心翼翼 (with extreme caution), which were produced in the Ancient Chinese language, while chēzài dǒuliáng 車載鬥量 (innumerable), gùmíng sīyì 顧名思義 (seeing the name of a thing one thinks of its function), jí’è rúchóu 疾惡如仇 (hate injustice like poison), núyán bìxī 奴顏婢膝 (a hateful flattering appearance), shēnglíng tútàn 生靈塗炭 (plunge the people into misery and suffering), and zhuōjīn jiànzhǒu 捉襟見肘 (pull down one’s jacket to conceal the raggedness, only to expose one’s elbows) were seen in the Middle Chinese. They still have a strong vitality in Modern Chinese. Although some of the sources are from ancient times, they have only been solidified into idioms in modern times. Ruòròu qiángshí 弱肉 強食 (the weak at the mercy of the strong) is a metaphor for the weak being bullied and maimed by the strong. In Qínnǚ xiūxíng 秦女休行 [Qin’s Women Forbidden Behaviour] by Liu Ji 劉基 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “Yǒushēng bùxìng zāoluànshì, ruòròu qiángshí guanwúzhū. 有生不幸遭亂世，弱肉強食官 無誅.” (The whole life unfortunately experienced times of chaos, the weak at the mercy of the strong got no eradication from the officials.) This idiom comes from Sòng Fútú Wénchàng shīxù 送浮屠文暢師序 [Preface to Sending off Futu Wenchang Shi] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, recording that: “The flesh of the weak, the food of the strong.” Shuǐluò shíchū 水落石出 is an idiom to show that the time will come to reveal the whole truth. In chapter 11 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Rújīn zhèshì, bāxiàlǐ shuǐluòshíchū le. 如今這事，八下裏水落石 出了.” (The fact is that this business is coming to the truth, and is almost settled today.) This idiom comes from Zuìwēngtíngjì 醉翁亭記 [The Pavilion of an Old Drunkard] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 of the Song dynasty, recording that “Shuǐluò DOI: 10.4324/9781003365594-3

94 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese ér shíchū zhě, shānjiān zhī sìshíyě. 水落而石出者，山間之四時也.” (The water level declines and the rocks at the bottom of the stream appear. All these show the usual view of the four seasons in the mountains.) In Hòu Chìbìfù 後赤壁賦 [The Latter Song of the Read Cliff] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it was written that “Jiāngliú yǒushēng, duàn’àn qiānchǐ, shāngāo yuèxiǎo, shuǐluòshíchū. 江流有聲，斷岸千尺，山高月小，水落石岀.” (The water of the Yangtze River sounded, the steep banks were high; the mountains were high, the moon appeared small, the water was lowered, and the rocks were exposed.) “Zhōngliú dǐzhù 中 流砥柱” is a metaphor for a strong force or important person who can withstand a dangerous situation. In the poem Zìyǒng 自詠 [Self-Chant], Ding Henian 丁鶴年 of the Ming dynasty described “Chánghuái héngkuì huòfēiqīng, zuòjiàn zhōngliú dǐzhùqīng. 長淮橫潰禍非輕，坐見中流砥柱傾.” (The mountain Dizhu in the Yellow River rapids stood still under the power of the river.) Dizhu Mountain can also be seen in the novel collections Yànzǐ Chūnqiū: Nèipiān jiàn xià 晏 子春秋·内篇諫下 [Chunqiu Period’s Yanzi Main Chapters Commentary II] that “Yuánxián zuǒcān, yǐrù dǐzhù zhī zhōngliú. 黿銜左驂，以入砥柱之中流.” (A big turtle, which bit the leg of the left horse dragging the carriage, pulled the horse into the rushing flow under the Dizhu Mountain.) Most of the idioms appear in modern times. They come from people’s colloquial language which are full of life atmosphere, and have been widely used in modern vernacular literature, adding to the linguistic characteristics of these works. For example, seven idioms and proverbs are used in the following short text. Fèng Jiĕ dào: “Zánmenjiā suǒyǒude zhèxiē guǎnjiā nǎinǎi, nàyīgè shì hǎochánde? Cuòyīdiǎn’ér, tāmen jiù xiàohuà dǎqù, piānyīdiǎn’ér, tāmenjiù zhǐsāng màhuáide bàoyuàn. Zuòshān guānhǔdòu, jièdāo shārén, yǐnfēng chuīhuǒ, zhàn gān’ànr, tuīdǎole yóupíng’er bùfú, dōushì quánguàzide wǔyì. 鳳姐道：‘咱們家所有的這些管家奶 奶，那一個是好纏的？錯一點兒，他們就笑話打趣，偏一點兒，他們就指 桑駡槐的抱怨.” 坐山觀虎鬥，借刀殺人，引風吹火，站乾岸兒，推倒了油瓶 兒不扶，都是全掛子的武藝’.” (Xifeng said, “And you know what a difficult lot those old stewardesses are? The tiniest mistake and they are all laughing at you and making fun; the tiniest hint of favoritisms and they are grumbling and complaining. You know their way of ‘cursing the oak-tree when they mean the ash’. Those old women know just how to sit on the mountain-top and watch the tiger’s fight; how to murder with a borrowed knife, or help the wind to fan the fire. They will look on safely from the bank while you are drowning in the river. And the fallen oil-bottle can drain away but they are not going to pick it up. They’re all old hands at such tricks.”) (written in the chapter 16 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty). Zhǐsāng màhuái 指桑駡槐 refers metaphorically to abusing a person by ostensibly pointing to someone else. Zuòshān guān hǔdòu 坐山觀虎鬥 refers to watching in safety while others fight, then reaping the spoils when both sides are exhausted. Jièdāo shārén 借刀殺人 is a metaphor for doing harm to somebody through the hands of another. Yǐnfēng chuīhuǒ 引風吹火 is a metaphor to secretly instigate, aggravate the conflict and expand the trouble. Zhàn gān’ànr 站乾岸兒

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 95 is a metaphor for seizing the territory of profit. Tuīdǎole yóupíng’ér bùfú 推倒了 油瓶兒不扶is metaphorically to say that one only cares about oneself and does not care other people. Quánguàzǐde wǔyì 全掛子的武藝 is a metaphor for all skills. These idioms and proverbs are concise and expressive. If idioms are not used, the above text will take too much wordy space. It will be difficult to describe the character of Xifeng 熙鳳 so vividly in the above text of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. The development of modern idioms from two aspects is discussed below.

2 The development of the idiom content There are many idioms in Modern Chinese, which are extensive and colorful in content. Almost all kinds of things in nature and various phenomena in society can be expressed in idioms. For example, there are hundreds of idioms related to people themselves to be described below. 2.1 Description of personal appearance Bàotóu huányǎn 豹頭環眼 means a head like leopard, eyes like ring. In the second scene of Bówàng shāotún 博望燒屯 [Fire in Bowang Barracks] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “wǒyě bùxìn, wǒ bàotóu huányǎn, dǎonábùzhù yīmùde Xiàhóu Dūn 我也不信，我豹頭環眼，倒拿不 住一目的夏侯惇.” (I do not believe a fierce man like me could not defeat his one-eyed Xiahou Dun.) Chényú luòyàn 沉魚落雁 or bìyuè xiūhuā 閉月羞花 means a beauty that makes the fish sink and wild geese fall or a beauty which would obscure the moon and make flowers blush. In the third scene of Fēngguāng hǎo 風光好 [Good Scenery] by Dai Shanfu 戴善夫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “wǒ kàn cǐnǚ yǒu chényú luòyàn zhīróng, bìyuè xiūhuā zhīmào. 我看此女有沉魚落雁之容，閉月羞花之 貌.” (I think that the girl is good-looking and is such a breathtaking beauty that makes the fish sink and wild geese fall, obscuring the moon and making flowers blush.) Chúnhóng chǐbái 唇紅齒白 means rosy lips and pretty white teeth. In chapter 96 of Èrshínián mùdǔ zhī guàixiànzhuàng 二十年目睹之怪現狀 [Strange Events of the Last Twenty Years] by Wu Woyao 吴沃堯 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “zhīxiàn bǎtā zǐxì yīduānxiáng, zhǐjiàntā shēngdé yīzhāng báijìng miànkǒng, yīshuāng wūliūliūde sèyǎn, dàoyě chúnhóngchǐbái. 知縣把他仔細一端詳，只見 他生得一張白浄面孔，一雙烏溜溜的色眼,倒也唇紅齒白.” (The magistrate of a county carefully examined him, only finding that he was born with a white face, rosy lips, and pretty white teeth.) Chǐbái chúnhóng 齒白唇紅 refers to pretty white teeth and rosy lips. In the volume 34 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “méiqīng mùxiù, chǐbái chúnhóng, piāopiāorán yǒu língyúnzhīqì. 眉清目秀，齒白唇紅，飄飄然 有淩雲之氣.” (He has beautiful and delicate eyes, white teeth, and pink lips, and was lofty with an appearance of soaring to the skies.)

96 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese Chìshēn lùtǐ 赤身露體 means nake or in the nude. In the chapter 71 of Shuō Yuè quánzhuàn 説岳全傳 [The Complete Story of Yue Fei] by Qian Cai 錢彩 in the Qing dynasty), it is recorded that “hénèi xǔduō guǐfàn, jìnshì chìshēn lùtǐ. 河内 許多鬼犯，儘是赤身露體.” (Many ghost criminals in rivers are totally naked.) Dāitóu dāinǎo 呆頭呆腦 is idiotic or jolter-head. In the chapter 31 of Nièhǎihuā 孽海花 [Flower in an Ocean of Sin] by Zeng Pu 曾樸 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “háiyǒu zài zhǔrén xiàshǒude nàyīwèi . . . shénqì yǒuxiē dāitóu dāinǎode, shì guǎngdōng Gǔ Mínghóng. 還有在主人下首的那一位 . . . 神氣有 些呆頭呆腦的，是廣東古冥鴻.” (And there is the one who is on the right side of the master . . . Somewhat idiotic, it was the Gu Minghong from Guangdong.) Dàomào ànrán 道貌岸然 means pretend to be gentleman-like or pose as a person of high morals. In the chapter 104 of Èrshínián mùdǔ zhī guàixiànzhuàng 二 十年目睹之怪現狀 [Strange Events of the Last Twenty Years] by Wu Woyao 吴 沃堯 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yīnjiàn Duānfǔ dàomàoànrán, bùgǎn zàocì. 因見端甫道貌岸然，不敢造次.” (Because I saw Duanfu looked gentlemanly, I did not dare to be rash.) Ěrlóng yǎnhuā 耳聾眼花 means one’s eyes are faded and ears deaf. In the chapter 90 of Xǐngshì yīnyuánzhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Cháofūrén yòubù tóutòng nǎorè, yòubù ěrlóng yǎnhuā. 晁夫人又 不頭痛腦熱，又不耳聾眼花.” (Lady Chao does not have a headache and slight fever, and she is not deaf and blind.) Fāngmiàn dà’ěr 方面大耳 refers to square face and big ears. In the third chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is noted that “nǐbùkànjiàn chénglǐ zhāngfǔshàng nàxiē lǎoyé, dōuyǒu wànguàn jiāsī, yīgègè fāngmiàn dàěr. 你不看見城裏張府上那些老爺，都有萬 貫家私，一個個方面大耳.” (Look at the Zhang family in the city. All those officials have pots of money, dignified faces, and big ears.) Fěnzhuāng yùzhuó 粉裝玉琢 means to be decorated with white powder and carved out of jade. In the chapter 16 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Shìyǐn jiàn nǚér yuèfā shēngde fěnzhuāng yùzhuó, múyàng kěxĭ. 士隱見女兒越發生 得粉裝玉琢，模樣可喜.” (Shiyin saw his daughter getting whiter, prettier, and more adorable.) Fēngliú tìtǎng 風流倜儻 means casual and elegant bearing. In the chapter 70 of Èrshínián mùdǔ zhī guàixiànzhuàng 二十年目睹之怪現狀 [Strange Events of the Last Twenty Years] by Wu Woyao 吴沃堯 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhèběibiān yuànlǐ tóngjūde, yěshìgè jīngguān . . . wéirén shènshì fēngliútìtǎng. 這北邊院裏同居的，也是個京官 . . . 爲人甚是風流倜儻.” (The neighbor in the north courtyard is an official from Beijing . . . He is casual and elegant bearing and unconventional in life.) Gǒngjiān suōbèi 拱肩縮背 refers to hunching one’s shoulders and bowing one’s back. According to the chapter 30 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “tā gǒngjiān suōbèide shuō:‘Nàgè xìng Shǐde jiào Shǐ Liánfēng.’

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 97 他拱肩縮背地説：‘那個姓史的叫史蓮峰’.” (He said with a poor and old looking, hunching his shoulders and bowing his back: “The man surnamed Shi is Shi Lianfeng.”) Gǔshòu rúchái 骨瘦如柴 means as thin as a lath. According to the chapter 13 of Sānsuì píngyāo zhuàn 三遂平妖傳 [The Biography of Sansui Repressing Demons] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “kànzhe gǔshòu rúchái, zìzhī bùjì. 看著骨瘦如柴，自知不濟.” (He looked at himself as thin as a lath, seeming to be a bag of bones, and realizing he was in fatal disease.) Guǐtóu guǐnǎo 鬼頭鬼腦 means stealthy. According to the chapter 46 of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yòu guǐtóu guǐnǎo, bùzhī shuōlexiē shénme. 又鬼頭鬼腦，不知説 了些什麽.” (Then he was behaving stealthily and talking in whispers.) Hǔbèi xióngyāo 虎背熊腰 means strong as a bear in the hips and with a back. According to the chapter 16 of Suítáng yǎnyì 隋唐演義 [Romance of the Sui and Tang dynasties] by Chu Renhuo 褚人穫 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “xībiān zuòzhe yīgè hǔbèi xióngyāo, yíbiǎo bùfánde dàhàn. 西邊坐著一個虎背 熊腰、儀表不凡的大漢.” (A strong man is sitting in the west with a stocky and imposing build with handsome looks.) Hǔtóu yànhàn 虎頭燕頷 refers to a noble look. According to Shuǐlóngyín 水龍 吟 [Water Dragon Chant] by Gong Zizhen 龔自珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “hǔtóu yànhàn shūshēng, xiāngféng xìbǎ jiādòushuō. 虎頭燕頷書生，相 逢細把家鬥説.” (The scholar looked very noble, and everyone talked about his family.) Huāróng yuèmào 花容月貌 is fair as a flower and beautiful as the moon. It is recorded in the chapter 62 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty that “nà gōngzhǔ huāróng yuèmào, yǒu èrshífēn réncái. 那公主花容月貌，有二十分人才.” (The princess is as lovely as flowers or the moon and brilliant as well.) Huāzhī zhāozhǎn 花枝招展 is gorgeously dressed. According to the chapter 62 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, “Píng’ér yědǎbànde huāzhī zhāozhǎnde láile. 平兒也打扮的 花枝招展的來了.” (Ping’er approached, freshly made up as pretty as a flower.) Jiānzuǐ bóshé 尖嘴薄舌 means to have a caustic and flippant tongue. According to the third chapter of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, “Nǐjìyào piànwǒ jiǔ chī, yòu dòuwǒ wéiqí, piānyǒu zhèxiē jiānzuǐbóshéde huàshuō. 你既要騙我酒吃，又鬥我圍棋，偏有 這些尖嘴薄舌的話説.” (You tricked me into drinking and playing chess, and you have such sharp tongues and made fun of me.) Jiānzuǐ hóusāi 尖嘴猴腮 refers to one’s mouth sticks out and one has an apelike chin. According to the third chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, “Xiàngnǐzhè jiānzuǐhóusāi, yěgāi sāpāoniào zìjǐ zhàozhào. 像你這尖嘴猴腮，也該撒泡尿自己照照.” (People like you should really look at yourself: Your mouth sticks out and you’ve an apelike chin.)

98 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese Lǎomài lóngzhōng 老邁龍鐘 means looking old and clumsy. According to chapter 99 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝 珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “dāngrì láishí shìhéděng jīnglì qiángzhuàng, nàzhī rújīn lǎomài lóngzhōng, rútóng yīcháng chūnmèng. 當日來時是何 等精力強壯,那知如今老邁龍鍾，如同一場春夢.” (How strong and energetic he had been when he came, but now he was old and frail and unable to move. It is just like a dream.) Lóngméi fèngmù 龍眉鳳目 means to have eyebrows like a dragon’s and eyes like those of a phoenix. According to the ninth chapter of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “mǎshàng nàrén shēngde lóngméi fèngmù, hàochǐ zhūchún. 馬上那 人生得龍眉鳳目，皓齒朱唇.” (He had the brows of a dragon and the eyes of a phoenix, gleaming white teeth, and ruby red lips.) Mǎnmiàn chūnfēng 滿面春風 refers to one’s face full of joy. According to the first scene of Lìchūntáng 麗春堂 [Lichun Hall] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “déshèng guīlái xǐxiàonóng, qì’áng’áng zhìjuǎn chánghóng, yǐnqiānzhōng mǎnmiàn chūnfēng. 得勝歸來喜笑濃，氣昂昂志捲長虹，飲 千鐘滿面春風.” (When he returned from victory, he wore all smiles with an imposing manner like a rainbow; he drank a lot and his face radiated happiness, full of joy.) Méifēi sèwǔ 眉飛色舞 means enraptured. According to the first chapter of Guānchǎng xiànxíngjì 官場現形記 [Exposure of the Official World] by Li Baojia 李寶嘉 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Wáng xiāngshēn yītīng cǐyán, bùjīn méifēi sèwǔ. 王鄉紳一聽此言，不禁眉飛色舞.” (Squire Wang was enraptured and could not help beaming on hearing this message.) Méikāi yǎnxiào 眉開眼笑 means grin from ear to ear. According to the second chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹 雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Fēng Sù xǐde méikāi yǎnxiào, bābùde fèngchéng tàiyé. 封肅喜得眉開眼笑，巴不得奉承太爺.” (Enraptured at the prospect of doing a good turn for a mandarin, Feng Su hastened to urge upon his daughter the importance of complying with this request.) Méiqīng mùxiù 眉清目秀 means bright eyes and graceful eyebrows. According to the first scene of Hétong wénzì 合同文字 [The Contract Text] by anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “shēngde méiqīng mùxiù, shì hǎoyīgè hái’ér yě. 生得眉清目秀，是好一個孩兒也.” (Born with fair features, he is a good child with bright eyes and graceful eyebrows.) Miànhóng ěrchì 面紅耳赤 means redden up to the ears or become red in the face. According to the third chapter of Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – First Series] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Dōng Shān yòngjìn píngshēng zhīlì, miànhóng ěrchì. 東山用盡平生之力， 面紅耳赤.” (With all his strength, Dong Shan was red in the face.) Miànhuáng jīshòu 面黃肌瘦 means yellow face and emaciated flesh. It is recorded in the first scene of Dújiǎoniú 獨角牛 [Unicorn] by anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty that “Gēyě, nǐzhèbān miànhuáng jīshòu, zěnshēng yíngde rén. 哥也，你這般面黃肌瘦，怎生贏的人.” (Brother, you look so pale and thin with a yellow face, how can you win?)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 99 Miànmù zhēngníng 面目猙獰 means looking fierce. According to the chapter 13 of Jiǔmìng qíyuān 九命奇冤 [Unjust Case] by Wu Woyao 吴沃堯 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Lìngwài háiyǒu liǎngrén . . . dōushì réncái jiǎojiàn, miànmù zhēngníng.另外還有兩人 . . . 都是人材矯健，面目猙獰.” (There were two others . . . They were all strong and ferocious.) Miànrú tǔsè 面如土色 means looking ashen. According to the chapter 15 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Xiàde Gōngsūn Shèng miànrú tǔsè. 嚇得公 孫勝面如土色.” (Gongsun Sheng’s face turned the color of clay, looking ashen.) Mùdèng kǒudāi 目瞪口呆 means startled or stunned. According to the first scene of Zhuàn Kuǎi Tōng 賺蒯通 [Detecting Kuai Tong] by anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “Xiàde Xiàngwáng mùdèng kǒudāi, dòngtán bùde. 嚇得項王目瞪口呆，動彈不得.” (The king was so startled that he could not move.) Mùguāng jiǒngjiǒng 目光炯炯 means eagle-eyed or eyes flashed like lightning. According to the first scene of Ōubēi yúhuà: Gěcānggōngzhuàn 鷗陂漁話·葛 蒼公傳 [Gecanggong Legend] by Ye Tingguan 葉廷琯 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “xìngmǐn duōcái, zhuàngqíwěi, mùguāng jiǒngjiǒng yǒuyīngqì, dǎnlì guòrén. 性敏多才，狀奇偉，目光炯炯有英氣，膽力過人.” (He is smart and talented with a strong body, and his eyes flash like lightning and are full of bravery.) Mùguāng rújù 目光如炬 refers to eyes like burning torches. According to the fifth chapter of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhōngjiān zuòzhe yīwèi shéndào, miànkuò chǐyú, xūrán mǎnjiá, mùguāng rújù, jiānbì qǐdòng, xiànggè huóde yībān. 中間坐著一位神道，面闊尺餘，鬚髯滿 頰，目光如炬，肩臂啓動，像個活的一般.” (In the middle sat a holy man, with a broad-bearded face, eyes blazing like torches, arms, and shoulders working as if he were alive.) Nóngméi dàyǎn 濃眉大眼 refers to big eyes with bushy eyebrows. According to the seven chapter of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “kànnà shàonián, shēngde shēncháng bāchǐ, nóngméi dàyǎn, kuòmiàn zhòngyí. 看那少 年，生得身長八尺，濃眉大眼，闊面重頤.” (The new warrior was of middle height with bushy eyebrows and large eyes, a broad face and a heavy jowl, and a youth of commanding presence.) Pītóu sànfà 披頭散髮 refers to disheveled hair. According to the chapter 22 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty), it is recorded that “nà Zhāngsān yòutiǎosuō Yánpó qùtīngshàng pītóusànfà láigàodào. 那張三又挑唆閻婆去廳上披頭散髮來告道.” (At Zhang’s instigation Mistress Yan again came before the magistrate, her hair disheveled in a fine display of grief.) Péngtóu gòumiàn 蓬頭垢面 refers to disheveled hair and a dirty face. According to the chapter 77 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Qíngwén sìwǔrì shuǐmǐ

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wèicéng zhānyá, rújīn xiàndǎ kàngshàng lāxiàlái, péngtóu gòumiànde, liǎnggè nǚrén chānjiàlái qùle. 晴雯四五日水米未曾沾牙，如今現打炕上拉下來，蓬頭 垢面的，兩個女人攙架來去了.” (Qingwen was wasting away, having touched no food for four or five days; but now with disheveled hair she was dragged from the kang and two women carried her off.) Péngshǒu gòumiàn蓬首垢面means with disheveled hair and a dirty face. According to the volume 40 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “nújiā qíngyuàn péngshǒu gòumiàn, yīlù fúshì guānrén érxíng. 奴家情願蓬首垢 面，一路伏侍官人而行.” (I am willing to serve you as my husband all the way, even with disordered hair and a dirty face.) Qìyǔ xuān’áng 器宇軒昂 means have a dignified appearance or manner. According to the chapter 43 of Sānguó yǎny ì三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “Zhāngzhāoděng jiàn Kǒng Míng fēngzī piāosǎ, qìyǔ xuānáng, liàodào cǐrén bìlái yóushuì. 張昭等見孔明丰姿飄灑，器宇軒昂，料到此人必來遊説.” (They, on their part, noted with interest Zhuge Liang’s refined with elegant manner and his commanding figure, thinking within themselves, “Here is a persuader fitted for discourse.”) Qīngmiàn liáoyá 青面獠牙 means with a green face and ferocious fangs. According to chapter 25 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “dēngshí tājiù lùchū běnxiàng, bǎ hǎohǎo yīzhāngliǎn biànchéng qīngmiàn liáoyá. 登時他就露出本 相，把好好一張臉變成青面獠牙.” (On the spot, he showed his nature himself, turning into a man with a green face and ferocious fangs.) Shéméi shǔmù 蛇眉鼠目 means with long ears, pointed chin and stealthy eyes like a mouse. According to the chapter 39 of Sānxiá wǔyì 三俠五義 [Three Heroes and Five Gallants] by Shi Yukun 石玉昆 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Bāogōng jiàntā tù’ěr yīngsāi, shéméi shǔmù, yǐzhīshì bùliángzhībèi. 包公 見他兔耳鶯腮，蛇眉鼠目，已知是不良之輩.” (Upright official Bao observed him with long ears, pointed chin, and stealthy eyes like a mouse, judging that he has a bad heart.) Shēnqiáng lìzhuàng 身強力壯 means strong and sturdy. According to the chapter 14 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “zuì’ài cìqiāng shǐbàng, yìzì shēnqiáng lìzhuàng, bùqǔ qīshì, zhōngrì zhǐshì dǎ’áo jīngǔ. 最愛刺槍使棒，亦 自身強力壯，不娶妻室, 終日只是打熬筋骨.” (Extremely fond of playing with weapons, Chao was very strong and sturdy. He had never married and practiced bodybuilding exercises from morning till night.) Shéntóu guǐmiàn 神頭鬼面 means something strange and ugly looking. According to Shuǐdōng rìjì 水東日記 [The Ming dynasty Notes] by Ye Sheng 葉 盛 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “jìnzhīzuòzhě, shéntóu guǐmiàn, yǐwéi xīnqí. 近之作者，神頭鬼面，以爲新奇.” (The authors find a novel way to write articles which pays excessive attention to wording, thus making the articles strange and ugly looking.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 101 Tìtǎng bùzhōu 倜儻不周 means free in one’s conduct. According to the first chapter of Zuìxǐngshí 醉醒石 [Sobers-up Stone] by Donglu gukuangsheng 東魯 古狂生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “wéirén tìtǎng bùzhōu, qīngcái shàngyì. 爲人倜儻不周，輕財尚義.” (He is free in his conduct and values morality over money.) Tǐngxiōng tūdù 挺胸凸肚 means throw out one’s chest and bulge one’s belly. According to the chapter 21 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “zhǐtīngde yuànzilǐ xǔduō jiǎobùxiǎng, zǎojìnláile nùmù héngméi, tǐngxiōng tūdùde yīqúnrén. 只聽得院子裏許多脚步響，早進來了怒目橫眉，挺胸凸肚 的一群人.” (There was the sound of many footsteps in the yard, and in came a crowd with angry faces and they stuck out their chests.) Tóngyán hèfà 童顔鶴髮 refers to having white hair and a ruddy complexion. According to the chapter 15 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “tóngyán hèfà, piāorán yǒu chūshì zhīzī. 童顔鶴髮，飄然有出世之姿.” (A man with the complexion of a youth and a snowy beard, he looked more like a saint who had passed the gates of the life.) Tóupò xuèchū 頭破血出 means head broken and bleeding. According to the chapter 93 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “nàxiē gǎnchēde dànshuōjùhuà, dǎde tóupò xuèchūde. 那些趕車的但説句話，打的頭破血出的.” (If the carters spoke even one word, they would get their heads broken and bleeding.) Wēifēng lǐnlǐn 威風凜凜 refers to majestic-looking. According to the first chapter of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “jiàn xiàshǒu gòngzhegè Huángjiāngjūn, wēifēng lǐnlǐn.見下首供著個黃將軍，威風凜凜.” (In a secondary position is a statue of General Huang looking majestic.) Wēnwén ěryǎ 温文爾雅 means gentle and cultivated. It is written in Liáozhāi zhìyì: Chén Xījiǔ 聊齋志異常·陳錫九 [Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio: Chen Xijiu] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty that “cǐmíng shìzhīzǐ, wēnwén ěryǎ, yānnéng zuòzéi. 此名士之子，温文爾雅，焉能作賊.” (How could the gentle son of such a gentleman be a thief?) Xiàoróng kějū 笑容可掬 refers to one’s smiles being thick enough to pluck off one’s face. According to the chapter 95 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “guǒjiàn Kǒngmíng zuòyú chénglóu zhīshàng, xiàoróngkějū, fénxiāng cāoqín. 果見孔明坐於城樓之上，笑容可掬，焚香操琴.” (It was exactly as the scouts had reported that Zhuge Liang sat there, his face with all smiles as he played the lute.) Xiàozhú yánkāi 笑逐顔開 means beam with smiles. It is recorded in the chapter 42 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Sòng Jiāng jiànle, xǐcóngtiānjiàng, xiàozhú yánkāi. 宋 江見了，喜從天降，笑逐顏開.” (A beaming smile crept across the face of Song Jiang when he saw the man’s unexpected presence.)

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The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese

Yóutóu fěnmiàn 油頭粉面 is dressy or foppish. According to the volume 36 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhǐjiàn wàimiàn yīgè fùnǚ rùjiǔdiànlái, yóutóu fěnmiàn, báichǐ zhūchún. 只見外面一個婦女入酒店來，油 頭粉面，白齒朱唇.” (Outside, a dressy woman came into the wine shop with greasy hair and rosy cheeks, white teeth, and red lips.) Zhāngtóu shǔmù 獐頭鼠目 means rat-eyed and buck-headed. According to the third chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬 梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Zhōu Xuédào zuòzài tángshàng, jiàn nàxiē tóngshēng fēnfēn jìnlái, yěyǒu shàode, yěyǒu lǎode, yíbiǎo duānzhèngde, zhāngtóu shǔmùde, yīguān qíchǔde, lánlǚ pòhuàide. 周學道坐在堂上，見那些 童生紛紛進來，也有少的，也有老的，儀表端正的，獐頭鼠目的，衣冠齊 楚的，藍縷破壞的.” (Commissioner Zhou sat in the hall and watched the candidates crowding in. There were young and old, handsome and homely, smart and shabby men among them.) Zhèngyán lìsè 正顔厲色 means with a stern countenance. it is written in the chapter 98 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty that “yìyù shàngqián tóngtā tántán, wúnài zhèxiē fùnǚ dōushì zhèngyán lìsè, nàgǎn màomèi tángtū. 意欲上前同他談談，無奈這些婦女都是 正顏厲色，那敢冒昧唐突.” (I intended to go over and talk to him, but these women were so serious with stern countenances that I did not dare to be rude.) 2.2 Description of human behavior Bàntuī bànjiù 半推半就 is half-loath and half-consenting. According to the first scene of Xīxiāngjì 西廂記 [The Romance of West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王 實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “bàntuī bànjiù, yòujīng yòuxǐ. 半推 半就，又驚又喜.” (He accepted the gift after making a show of declining with half-loath and half-consenting, the gift being a pleasant surprise to him.) Bàotiào rúléi 暴跳如雷 means to stamp with fury. It is written in the sixth chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty that “Yán Gòngshēng yuèfā nǎode bàotiào rúléi. 嚴貢生越發惱得 暴跳如雷.” (Yan Gongsheng became more and more furious.) Bīnbīn yǒulǐ 彬彬有禮 is refined and courteous. According to the chapter 83 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “[Lǎozhě] huànchū tāliǎnggè érzi, xiōngxiān dìhòu, bīnbīn yǒulǐ. [老者]喚出他兩個兒子，兄先弟後，彬彬有禮.” ([The old man] called out his two sons, the elder in front and the younger in the back. The two sons were very polite and courteous.) Bǐngshēng xīqì 屏聲息氣 means hold one’s breath. It is written in the chapter 67 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪 芹 of the Qing dynasty that “zhǐjiàn liǎngsāngè xiǎoyātou dōuzài nàlǐ, bǐngshēng xīqì, qíqíde cìhòuzhe. 只見兩三個小丫頭都在那裏，屏聲息氣，齊齊的伺候 著.” (It was only seen two or three junior maids waiting there, obviously scared out of their wits and looking as if they scarcely dared to breathe.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 103 Cángtóu lùwěi 藏頭露尾 means hide the head but show the tail. According to the chapter 15 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴 承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “xiàngtā zhèyàng cángtóu lùwěide, běngāi dǎta yīdùn. 像他這樣藏頭露尾的，本該打他一頓.” (A deceitful pair like him hiding the head but showing the tail should deserve a thrashing.) Chìshǒu kōngquán 赤手空拳 is bare-handed. It is recorded in the fourth scene of Héhànshān 合汗衫 [A Family Reunion] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty that “Kělián’ǎn chìshǒu kōngquán, wàng jiāngjūn qùfāngbiàn.可憐俺赤 手空拳，望將軍覷方便.” (I am unarmed and bare-handed, so I beg the General not to give me a hard time.) Chūguāi lòuchǒu 出乖露醜 means expose one’s weak points. According to the first scene of Yuānyāngbèi 鴛鴦被 [The Mandarin Duck Quilt] of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “ruòzhēngè dǎqǐguānsīlái, chūguāi lòuchǒu, yīfā bùshōu. 若真個打起官司來，出乖露醜，一發不收.” (If we do go to court, we will make a fool of ourselves and expose one’s weak points, which can be hardly controlled.) Chūtóu lòumiàn 出頭露面 means appear in public. According to the chapter 104 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施 耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, “Duànsānniáng cóngxiǎo chūtóu lòumiàn, kuàngshì guòláirén, guànjiā’ér, yěbù hàishénme xiūchǐ. 段三娘從小出頭露面，況是過來 人，慣家兒，也不害什麽羞恥.” (Duansanniang appeared in public as a party girl at a young age, not a virgin and not shy, full of experience.) Chuíxiōng diēzú 捶胸跌足 means smite one’s breast and stamp one’s foot. According to the second scene of Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “zhǐluòde chuíxiōng diēzú kōngliúlèi. 只落的捶胸跌足空流淚.” (One can do nothing but to pound the chest and stamp the ground in despair, crying with regret.) Cuòshǒu bùjí 措手不及 is unprepared and having no positive response. It is recorded in the Opening Sketch of Qiānlǐ dúxíng 千裏獨行 [A Thousand Miles Alone] of the Yuan dynasty that “zán jīnwǎnjiān, lǐngzhe bǎishíqí rénmǎ, tōuyíng jiézhài, shātāgè cuòshǒu bùjí. 咱今晚間，領著百十騎人馬，偷營劫寨，殺他 個措手不及.” (We will take a hundred riders tonight, raiding the camp and giving the enemies one unprepared attack.) Dǎgōng zuòyī 打躬作揖 means scrape a bow. According to the fourth chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “jiànle kèlái, bùyào dǎgōng zuòyī, lèigè bùliǎo. 見了客 來，不要打躬作揖，累個不了.” (Whenever a guest comes, I have to bow and greet him – I am tired of doing it all.) Dàshǒu dàjiǎo 大手大脚 is extravagant. It is written in the chapter 51 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “Chéngnián yì dàshǒu dàjiǎode, tìtàitài bùzhī bèidìlǐ diànle duōshǎo dōngxī. 成年亦大手大脚的，替太太不知背地裏墊了多少東西.” (All the year round Chengnian is handing things out extravagantly that Her Ladyship has compensated many things for him.)

104 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese Dàyáo dàbǎi 大搖大擺 is swagger. According to the chapter 16 of Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [The Travels of Lao Can] by Liu E 劉鶚 of the Qing dynasty, “Shōuchāirén yīchě, shuō: ‘Zhùshǒu!’Biàn dàyáo dàbǎide zǒushàng nuǎngé. 收 差人一扯，説：‘住手！’ 便大搖大擺地走上暖閣.” (Pull the messenger and say, “Stop!” And swaggered up to the warm house.) Dōngdǎo xīwāi 東倒西歪 means reel right and left. According to Táohuāshàn: Tóuyuán桃花扇投轅 [A Peach Blossom Fan: Arriving at the Tent] by Kong Shangren 孔尚任 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “liǎnggè méiyǎnsède huāzǐ, guàibùde ède dōngdǎo xīwāide. 兩個没眼色的花子，怪不得餓的東倒 西歪的.” (No wonder two brainless beggars were so hungry that they reeled and staggered.) Dōngzhāng xīwàng 東張西望 means gaze around. It is written in Xīhújì: Ōuméi huǐgǎi 西湖記·毆媒悔改 [The Story of West Lake] of the Ming dynasty that “yǎnzài ménhòu, dōngzhāng xīwàng, cè’ěr tīngshēng. 掩在門後，東張西望， 側耳聽聲.” (Hidden behind the door, I gazed around and listened to the sound.) Dòngshǒu dòngjiǎo 動手動脚 means mess about or on the make. According to the chapter 12 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐzhègè niǎotóutuó, hǎobùyī běnfèn, quèzěnde biàn dòngshǒu dòngjiǎode? 你這個鳥頭陀，好不 依本分，卻怎地便動手動脚的？” (Where’s your sense of fitness, you friggin monk! Punching and kicking! You are always on the make.) Éxíng yābù 鵝行鴨步 means go as slowly as ducks or geese do. It is written in the chapter 32 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “nǐliǎngè xiáncháng zàizhènshàng táijiàoshí, zhǐshì éxíng yābù. 你倆個閑常在鎮上擡轎時，只是鵝行鴨步.” (When you two carry a chair in town, you waddle along just like ducks.) Èchā báilài 惡叉白賴 is fiendish and rascally. According to the second scene of Yúqiáojì 漁樵記 [The Story of Woodman] by the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “nǐzěnshēng zhǐxuéde zhèbān èchābáilài. 你怎生只學的這般惡叉白賴.” (Why are you being so fiendish and rascally?) Gǔruǎn jīnmá 骨軟筋麻 means one’s bones were weak and muscles numbed. According to the chapter 35 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty, “Nàlǎomó wéndé cǐyán, xiàde húnfēi pòsàn, gǔruǎn jīnmá, pūde diēdǎo zàidì.那 老魔聞得此言，嚇得魂飛魄散，骨軟筋麻，撲的跌倒在地.” (The news sent all the Senior King’s souls flying and turned his bones and sinews soft. He collapsed, howling aloud.) Guǐguǐsuìsuì 鬼鬼祟祟 is secretive. According to the chapter 51 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “liǎnggèrén guǐguǐ suìsuì, bùzhī shuōxiē shénme. 兩個人鬼鬼祟 祟，不知説些什麼.” (Goodness knows why they’re being so secretive.) Húzuò fēiwéi 胡作非爲 means act wildly against law and public opinion. It is written in the chapter 12 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty) that “huòwū hàochī lǎnzuò, huòwū húzuò fēiwéi. 或誣好吃懶做，或誣胡作非爲.” (Plant false evidence against him about being gluttonous and lazy or committing evil action.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 105 Jǐméi nòngyǎn 擠眉弄眼 means wink and make signs to one another. According to the chapter 30 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Wǔ Sōng yòujiàn zhèliǎnggè gōngrén yǔ nàliǎnggè típǔdāode jǐméi nòngyǎn, dǎxiē ànhào. 武松又 見這兩個公人與那兩個提樸刀的擠眉弄眼，打些暗號.” (Wu Song observed his guards make signs to each other and exchange significant glances with the newcomers.) Máoshǒu máojiǎo 毛手毛脚 is clumsy-handed. According to the chapter 76 of Sānxiá wǔyì 三俠五義 [Three Heroes and Five Gallants] by Shi Yukun 石玉昆 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “dànfán yǒudiǎn máoshǒu máojiǎode, xiǎorén juébù yòngtā. 但凡有點毛手毛脚的，小人决不用他.” (I would not let him do it if he was clumsy-handed.) Méilái yǎnqù 眉來眼去 means secret glances. In the eighth chapter of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫 中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Diāo Chán sòngjiǔ yǔ [Lǚ] Bù, liǎngxià méilái yǎnqù. 貂蟬送酒與[呂]布，兩下眉來眼去.” (Diao Chan gives Lv Bu wine and exchanges secret glances with him.) Miànmiàn xiāngqù 面面相覷 means look at each other in speechless despair. According to the chapter 17 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhòng zuògōngde dōu miànmiàn xiāngqù, rú jiàn chuānzuǐ, diàodā yúsāi, jìnwú yányǔ. 眾做公的 都面面相覷，如箭穿嘴，釣搭魚腮，盡無言語.” (They all sat looking at one another, as silent as geese with arrow-pierced bills, as mute as gill-hooked fish.) Móquán cāzhǎng 摩拳擦掌 means rub one’s fists and wipe one’s palms for doing something. It is written in the second scene of Zhēngbào’ēn 爭報恩 [Eager to Requite Favours] of the Yuan dynasty that “nà nīzi wǔxuánxuán móquán cāzhǎng. 那妮子舞旋旋摩拳擦掌.” (The girl is rubbing her fists and wiping her palms.) Mùbù jiāojié 目不交睫 means have one’s eyes open throughout the night. According to Liáozhāi zhìyì: Cùzhī 聊齋志異常·促織 [Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio: Cricket] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zìhūn dádàn, mùbù jiāojié. 自昏達旦，目不交睫.” (His eyes are open throughout the night.) Mùbù zhuǎnjīng 目不轉睛 means fix eyes on. In the eighth chapter of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅 貫中 of the Ming dynasty), it is recorded that “Diāo Chán biàn zuòyú Yǔn cè, Lǚ Bù mùbù zhuǎnjīng de kàn. 貂蟬便坐於允側，呂布目不轉睛的看.” (So, Diao Chan took a seat modestly near her master Yun. Lv Bu kept his gaze fixed upon the maid.) Núyán bìxī 奴顔婢膝 means subservient. According to Míngfèngjì 鳴鳳記 [The Story of Loyal Ministers] by Wang Shizhen 王世貞 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “gèngjiān núyán bìxī, yòng jǐxǔ wéiguǐ wéiyùde quánmóu. 更 兼奴顔婢膝，用幾許爲鬼爲蜮的權謀.” (He has a subservient appearance and injures others in secret.) Pāishǒu chēngkuài 拍手稱快 means clap and cheer. According to the chapter 35 of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series] by Ling

106 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty), it is written that “Yòujiàn ègū hǎofū jùsǐ, yòuwúbù pāishǒu chēngkuài. 又見惡姑好夫俱死，又無不拍手稱快.” (Meanwhile, everyone clapped their hands and shouted “Bravo!” when they learned that the wicked mother-in-law and the adulterer Cai had paid for it with their lives.) Qīngshǒu qīngjiǎo 輕手輕脚 means cautiously without any noise. According to the chapter 77 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nǐkàntā qīngshǒu qīngjiǎo, zǒudào jīnluándiàn xià. 你看他輕手輕脚，走到金鑾殿下.” (He walked cautiously without any noise, and he went to the throne hall.) Quándǎ jiǎotī 拳打脚踢 means cuff and kick. In the ninth chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “wèinǐ zhèliǎngdòngrén, dàilèi wǒ yīdùn quándǎ jiǎotī. 爲你 這兩侗人，帶累我一頓拳打脚踢.” (It is because of you that I got cuffed and kicked.) Shǒují yǎnkuài 手疾眼快 means move or act quickly. According to the fourth chapter of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “yuánlái shǒují yǎnkuài. 原來手疾眼快.” (It is due to the fact that he was moving or acting quickly.) Shǒumáng jiǎoluàn 手忙脚亂 means in a muddle. According to the third scene of Bǎihuātíng 百花亭 [Florist’s Kiosk] of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “xià de wǒ shǒu máng jiǎo luàn jǐn shōu shí. 諕的我手忙脚亂緊收拾.” (You frightened me to rush around in a muddle, trying to finish my packing.) Shǒuwǔ zúdǎo 手舞足蹈 means dance for joy. According to the chapter 41 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty), it is recorded that “dāngxià Liúlǎolǎo tīngjiàn zhèbān yīnyuè, qiě yòuyǒule jiǔ, yuèfā xǐde shǒuwǔ zúdǎo qǐlái. 當下劉姥姥聽見這般音樂，且又 有了酒，越發喜得手舞足蹈起來.” (At present, hearing the music and having good wine, Granny Liu is pleased to dance, waving her arms and beating time with her feet for sheer delight.) Shǒuzú wúcuò 手足無措 means having no ways or action, at a loss. In the volume 27 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Huāngde Yùyīng zǐzǐ shǒuzú wúcuò.慌得玉英姊姊手足無措.” (Yuying sisters were so frightened that they were at a loss.) Suōshǒu suōjiǎo 縮手縮脚 means shrink with cold or overcautious. According to the sixth chapter of Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [The Travels of Lao Can] by Liu E 劉鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “hǎnle xǔjiǔ, diànjiā fāng nále zhǎndēng, suōshǒu suōjiǎode jìnlái. 喊了許久，店家方 拿了盞燈，縮手縮脚的進來.” (After shouting for a long time, the shopkeeper took a lamp and came in, shrinking with cold.) Tōujī mōgǒu 偷雞摸狗 means whore like rutting dogs and fowls. According to the chapter 44 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “chéngrìjiā tōujī mōgǒu, xīngde chòude, dōulāle nǐwūlǐqù. 成日家偷雞摸狗，腥的臭的，都拉了你屋 裏去.” (You never stop philandering, whoring like rutting dogs and fowls and dragging every stinking bit of filth to your room.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 107 Tóuzhòng jiǎoqīng 頭重脚輕 refers to one’s head is heavy and feet light. It is written in the chapter 16 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhǐjiàn zhèshíwǔgèrén, tóuzhòng jiǎoqīng, yīgègè miànmiàn sīqù, dōu ruǎndǎole. 只見這十五個人，頭 重脚輕，一個個面面廝覷，都軟倒了.” (Only seeing that the 15 people who were weak in the knees and heavy in the head stared at each other as, one by one, they sank to the ground.) Xīpí xiàoliǎn 嘻皮笑臉 means smile mischievously or ingratiatingly. According to the chapter 30 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yǒuhénǐ sùrì xīpí xiàoliǎnde nàxiē gūniángmen, nǐgāi xiàngtāmen qù. 有和你素日嘻皮笑臉的那些姑娘們， 你該向他們去.” (You should ask the other young ladies who are always smiling mischievously with you.) Yǎnqù méilái 眼去眉來 means to converse with eyes or to make passes both ways with secret glances. According to the second scene of Qiángtóu mǎshàng 牆頭馬上 [Secret Love] by Bai Pu 白樸 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “shuō yǔnǐgè cōngmíngde nǐnǐ, sòngchūnqíng yǎnqù méilái. 説與你個聰明的妳 妳，送春情眼去眉來.” (Nobody comments that old lady [you] understand that they are exchanging love glances with each other.) Yáotóu huàngnǎo 搖頭晃腦 means wag one’s head. It is written in the fourth chapter of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “dāngxià èrrén shāngdìng, biàn zhànqǐshēnlái, yáotóu huàngnǎode zǒule. 當下二人商定，便站起身來， 搖頭晃腦地走了.” (The two of them stood up immediately and went back to the inn, wagging their heads and looking pleased with themselves.) Yǎozhǐ tǔshé 咬指吐舌 means bite one’s thumb or stick one’s tongue out. According to the chapter 33 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yīgègè yǎozhǐ tǔshé, liánmáng tuìchū. 一個個咬指吐舌，連忙退出.” (Everyone is biting their thumbs or sticking their tongues out, hastily retreating from the room.) Xiéjiān chǎnxiào 脅肩諂笑 refers to trying to win someone’s favor by servile behavior. According to the first scene of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Yang Ne 楊訥 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐkàntā xiéjiān chǎnxiào, qūqián tuìhòu, zhānghuáng shīcuò. 你看他脅肩諂笑，趨前退後，張皇失措.” (Look at the way he flatters, trying to win the favor by servile behavior – forward and backward, losing his head.) Zhāng kǒu jié shé 張口結舌 means open the mouth and hold the tongue. According to the chapter 23 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Gōngzǐ bèitā wènde zhāngkǒu jiéshé, miànhóng guò’ěr, zuòzài nàlǐ zhǐguǎn fāzhèng. 公子被他問的張口結舌，面紅過耳，坐在那裹只管發怔.” (He was left stammering without any words, flushing up to his ears by the questions, opening the mouth and holding the tongue, and sat there in a trance.) Zhuānglóng zuòyǎ 裝聾作啞 means pretend to be deaf and dumb. According to the fourth scene of Qīngshānlèi 青衫淚 [Tears on Choth] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致

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遠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “kězěnshēng zhuānglóng zuòyǎ. 可怎 生裝聾作啞.” (But why pretend to be deaf and dumb?) Zhuāngqiāng zuòshì 裝腔作勢 means put on airs. In the chapter 65 of Shuō Yuè quánzhuàn 説岳全傳 [The Complete Story of Yue Fei] by Qian Cai 錢彩 of the Qing dynasty, it is described that “Zhàodà Qián’èr háiyào zhuāngqiāng zuòshì. 趙 大錢二還要裝腔作勢.” (Zhaoda and Qian’er still wanted to put on airs.) Zuòlì bù’ān 坐立不安 means feel restless. According to the chapter 40 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “zìcóng gēgē chīguānsī, xiōngdì zuòlì bù’ān. 自從哥哥吃官司，兄弟坐立不安.” (Big brother, I feel uneasy since you have a big lawsuit on your hands, not knowing whether sitting or standing.) 2.3 Description of human thoughts and emotions Āiāi yùjué 哀哀欲絶 refers to extremely distressed as if one’s heart would break. According to the chapter 13 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “nà Bǎozhū àn wèijiànǚ zhīlǐ zàilíngqián āiāiyùjué.那寳珠按未嫁女之禮在靈前哀哀欲絶.” (Then Baozhu mourned like an unmarried daughter, weeping by the coffin as if her heart would break.) Āishēng tànqì 哀聲歎氣 means sigh in despair. It is written in the chapter 13 of Jiǔmìng qíyuān 九命奇冤 [Unjust Case] by Wu Woyao 吴沃堯 of the Qing dynasty that “sāngèrén āishēng tànqì, liánhuán yībānde bùduàn. 三個人哀聲歎 氣，連環一般的不斷.” (The three men keep sighing in despair like a chain.) Bàohèn zhōngtiān 抱恨終天 means regret forever. According to the chapter 41 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “jīn lǎomǔ yǐsàng, bàohèn zhōngtiān. 今老母已喪，抱恨終天.” (My old mother is dead today, and I will regret forever.) Cánkuì wúdì 慚愧無地 means feel too ashamed. In the volume 22 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] by Feng Menglong 馮夢 龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Yè Lǐ wèn Zhèng Hǔchén tǎozhǐbǐ lái, zuòcíshǒu xiāngzèng . . . Sìdào decí, cánkuì wúdì. 葉李問鄭虎臣討紙筆來， 作詞首相贈 . . . . . . 似道得詞，慚愧無地.” (Ye Li asked Zheng Huchen for a pen and paper, and wrote him a poem. . . . Jia Sida got the poet and felt very ashamed.) Chángyù duǎntàn 長吁短歎 means sigh and groan. According to the second scene of Xīxiāngjì 西廂記 [The Romance of West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王 實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “shuìbùzháo rúfānzhǎng, shǎokěyǒu yīwànshēng chángyù duǎntàn, wǔqiānbiàn dǎozhěn chuíchuáng. 睡不著如翻 掌，少可有一萬聲長吁短歎，五千遍倒枕槌床.” (Sleepless all night, toss from left to right. How many times I have uttered sigh and groan, and beat bed and pillow all alone!) Chàngrán ruòshī 悵然若失 means feel lost. According to Liáozhāi zhìyì: Niú Chéngzhāng 聊齋志異常牛成章 [Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio: Niu

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 109 Chengzhang] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “zhǔrén chàngrán ruòshī jiǔzhī, wènyuē: ‘Érmǔ wúyànghū?’ 主人悵然若失久 之，問曰：‘而母無恙乎?’” (The Master felt lost for quite a while. Then, he asked: “Is your mother alright?”) Chóuméi bùzhǎn 愁眉不展 means with a worried frown. According to the chapter 35 of Niànzǎi fánhuámèng 廿載繁華夢 [Dreams of Fortune in Two Decades] by Huang Xiaopei 黃小配 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhǐ Zhōu Yōngyòu xīnzhōng yǒushì, wèimiǎn chóuméi bùzhǎn. 只周庸祐心中有 事，未免愁眉不展.” (There is something urgent that was on Zhou Yongyou’s mind, and that’s why he was so worried.) Chóuméi kǔliǎn 愁眉苦臉 means wear a sad face. According to the chapter 98 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “gègè chóuméi kǔliǎn, jíqí kělián. 個個愁眉苦臉，極 其可憐.” (They all looked sad and pitiable, wearing a sad face.) Chuítóu sàngqì 垂頭喪氣 means become dejected and despondent or be in low spirits. In the fifth volume of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “xǔduō réncóng, yīgègè chuítóu sàngqì, dōurú sàngjiā zhīgǒu. 許多人從，一 個個垂頭喪氣，都如喪家之狗.” (A group of men are all in low spirits like the dog with the tail between the legs.) Dàjīng shīsè 大驚失色 means turn pale with fright. According to the chapter 24 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty), it is written that “hūjiàn Cáo Cāo dàijiàn rùgōng, miànyǒu nùróng, dì dàjīng shisè. 忽見曹操帶劍入宮，面有怒容， 帝大驚失色.” (The sudden appearance of the angry Prime Minister, armed as he was, frightened them greatly, turning pale with fright.) Dàjīng xiǎoguài 大驚小怪 refers to a storm in a teacup or making a fuss. It is written in the chapter 74 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “nǐ āizài chóurénzhōng kàn zhēngjiāo shí, bùyào dàjīng xiǎoguài. 你挨在稠人中看爭跤時，不要大驚小 怪.” (Don’t make a fuss when you see people wrestling in the crowd.) Dānjīng shòupà 擔驚受怕 refers to being in a state of anxiety. According to the third scene of Pén’érguǐ 盆兒鬼 [A Ghost of the Pot] of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zěnjiào’ǎn dānjīng shòupàzhe hūnmí. 怎叫俺擔驚受怕著昏迷.” (Why are you making me in a state of anxiety?) Dǎnzhàn xīnhán 膽戰心寒 means tremble with fear. According to the chapter 112 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐 庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “zhòngrén dōu dǎnzhàn xīnhán, bùgǎn chūzhàn. 衆人都膽戰心寒，不敢出戰.” (They were too scared to fight, trembling with fear.) Dǎnzhàn xīnjīng 膽戰心驚 means be terror-stricken or tremble with fear. In the volume 29 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World], Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty wrote that “jiā rén mén jiàn le zhè gè wēi shì, yīgègè dǎnzhàn xīnjīng. 家人們見了這個威勢，一個個膽戰心驚.” (On seeing the terrified situation, the family was trembling with fear.)

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Déyì wàngxíng 得意忘形 means get dizzy with success. According to Zhéguìlìng: Huà 折桂令畫 [Order of the Laurel: Painting] by Xianyu Bi 鮮於必 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “déyì wàngxíng, yǎnxīng tiáoyáo. 得意忘 形，眼興迢遙.” (People who easily get dizzy with success are shallow.) Fènfèn bùpíng 憤憤不平 means feel aggrieved. In the volume 32 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] by Feng Menglong 馮夢 龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “shūmìshǐ Hán Shìzhōng fènfèn bùpíng, qīnyì Huìfǔ zhēnglùn. 樞密使韓世忠憤憤不平，親詣檜府爭論.” (The Secretary of Defense Han Shizhong felt aggrieved and went to the House of Qin Hui [the prime minister] to argue with him.) Gānxīn qíngyuàn 甘心情願 means willingly and gladly. According to the chapter 32 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhǐyàowǒ yīdúshū, wúlùn zěnyàng dōushìgānxīn qíngyuànde. 只要我一讀書，無論怎樣都是甘心情願 的.” (I would like to do anything willingly and gladly if I have a chance to read.) Gāncháng cùnduàn 肝腸寸斷 means be heartbroken as if the liver and bowels have been cut to pieces. According to the chapter 34 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “wànzhǒng qīliáng, gāncháng cùnduàn. 萬種淒涼，肝腸寸斷.” (This changing scene made him heartbroken like his liver and bowels have been cut to pieces.) Gěnggěng yúhuái 耿耿于懷 means an unsettled or disturbed mind or hold the grudge. According to the section of 184 of Xiǎocāngshānfáng chǐdú 小倉 山房尺牘 [Letters from Xiaocangshan] by Yuan Mei 袁枚 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “suǒ gěnggěngyúhuáizhě, Méi niánjiè bāxún . . . bùmiǎnyǒu wàngměirénxī tiānyīfāng zhītàn. 所耿耿于懷者，枚年屆八旬 . . . 不免有望 美人兮天一方之歎.” (There is always something unsettled or disturbed in my mind. I am over 80 years old. . . . It is like two lovers apart.) Hāntiān xǐdì 歡天喜地 refers to full of joy. According to the chapter 39 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “nàxiǎosī huāntiān xǐdì, dāyìng qùle. 那小廝歡 天喜地，答應去了.” (The little boy assented and was full of joy.) Huánghuáng bù’ān 惶惶不安 means on tenterhooks. According to the third chapter of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Dǒng Zhuó túnbīng chéngwài, měirì dài tiějiǎ mǎjūn rùchéng, héngxíng jiēshì, bǎixìng huánghuáng bù’ān. 董卓屯兵城外，每日帶鐵甲馬軍入城，橫行街市，百姓惶惶 不安.” (Dong Zhuo camped without the walls, but every day he was to be seen in the streets with an escort of mailed soldiers so that the common people were on tenterhooks.) Huǎngrán zìshī 恍然自失 refers to suddenly lost or at a loss. According to chapter 37 of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “chéng kè huǎng rán zìshīdào: ‘Mòfēishì zuòmèngme?’ 程客恍然自失道：‘莫非是做夢麽?’” (The traveller was at a loss after a sudden awakening, saying, “Could it have been a dream?”)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 111 Huīxīn sàngqì 灰心喪氣 is depressed or frustrated. According to the chapter 101 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹 雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Fèngjiě yīnfāngcái yīduàn huà, yǐjīng huīxīn sàngyì, hèn niángjiā bùgěi zhēngqì. 鳳姐因方才一段話，已經灰 心喪意，恨娘家不給爭氣.” (Wang Xifeng was depressed after her husband’s disclosure and resented the way her family had let her down.) Huíxīn zhuǎnyì 回心轉意 means turn back one’s heart and change one’s mind. According to the scene 31 of Pípájì 琵琶記 [The Story of Lute] by Gaoming 高明 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “pà nǐbàbà yěyǒu huíxīn zhuǎnyì shíjié, qiě gèngníng nàikàn rúhé. 怕你爸爸也有回心轉意時節，且更寧耐看如何.” (I am afraid your father will change his mind sometime. Why do not we just sit down and see what happens?) Huíchēn zuòxǐ 回嗔作喜 means turn from angry into happy mood. According to the fifth chapter of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “dàshèng wényán, huíchēn zuòxǐ. 大聖聞言，回嗔作喜.” (These words turned the Great Sage’s bad mood into a good mood.) Húnbù fùtǐ 魂不附體 means as if the soul had left the body. In the volume 30 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty), it is wriiten that “xiàde Lǐ Miǎn zhǔpú húnbùfùtǐ. 嚇得李勉主僕魂不附體.” (Li Mian and his servitor were frightened out of their wits, as if the soul had left the body.) Húnfēi pòsàn 魂飛魄散 refers to one’s heart almost stood still with fright. According to the second scene of Húdiémèng 蝴蝶夢 [Butterfly Dream] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jīngdewǒ húnfēi pòsàn. 驚 的我魂飛魄散.” (I was half dead, my heart almost stood still with fright.) Húnfēi tiānwài 魂飛天外 means one’s soul flew beyond the skies. According to the first scene of Fànzhāng jīshǔ 範張雞黍 [Profound Friendship] by Gong Dayong 宮大用 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hǔde húnfēi tiānwài. 唬得 魂飛天外.” (I was frightened to death, my soul flew beyond the skies.) Húnwáng dǎnluò 魂亡膽落 refers to one’s soul dead and gallbladder gone. In the chapter 42 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “liǎngchǎnghuǒ shāode Cáo Cāo húnwáng dǎnluò, héyán bùzhī yé? 兩場火燒得曹操魂亡膽落， 何言不知耶？” (You took fire to attack on Cao Cao twice and he was almost frightened to death with soul dead and gallbladder gone. How could you have no idea about it?) Jīngshén huànfā 精神煥發 is refreshed and invigorated. According to Liáozhāi zhìyì: Liánxiāng 聊齋志異常·蓮香 [Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio: Lianxiang] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty), it is recorded that “xiānjué dāntián huǒrè, jīngshén huànfā. 先覺丹田火熱，精神煥發.” (He felt the pubic region burning and then refreshed and invigorated.) Kègǔ míngxīn 刻骨銘心 is unforgettable and remembered to the end of one’s life. According to the chapter 82 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men Are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhòng

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dìxiōng kègǔ míngxīn, nányǐ bǔsǔn.眾弟兄刻骨銘心，難以補損.” (There is nothing more importan t than the friendship of brothers that is remembered to the end of our lives.) Lǎoxiū chéngnù 老羞成怒 means become angry from shame or turn shame into anger. It is written in the tenth chapter of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “Bùxiǎng . . . . rědòngtā yīchōngde xìng’ér, lǎoxiū chéngnù, háibùcéng hóngsī ànxì, xiān nòngde báirèn xiāngjiā. 不想 . . . 惹動他一沖的性兒，老羞成怒，還 不曾紅絲暗系，先弄得白刃相加.” (Instead of introducing a boyfriend to her, the bad conversation made her angry as a result of an embarrassment and fight.) Mǎnfù láosāo 滿腹牢騷 refers to full of complaints or grumbles. According to the fifth chapter of Wénmíng xiǎoshǐ 文明小史 [A Brief History of Enlightenment] by Li Baojia 李寶嘉 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Liǔzhīfǔ qǐxiānshì mǎnfù láosāo . . . tíngle jǐtiān, yějiù jiànjiànde pínghé xiàlái. 柳知府起 先是滿腹牢騷 . . . 停了幾天，也就漸漸的平和下來.” (Magistrate Liu at first is full of complaints. . . . After a few days, he gradually calmed down.) Máogǔ sǒngrán 毛骨悚然 refers to hair stands on end. In the chapter 25 of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “jǐjù shuōde liǎnggè shūbàn máogǔ sǒngrán. 幾句説的兩個書辦 毛骨悚然.” (The words made two officers’ hair stand on end.) Mènmèn bùlè 悶悶不樂 is in low spirits or bad mood. According to Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – First Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩 濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Péi Yuèkè déle Zhāngjiā zhīxìn, chīle yījīng . . . mènmèn bùlè. 裴越客得了張家之信，吃了一驚 . . . 悶悶不樂.” (Pei Yueke was surprised to receive the letter from the Zhang’s family . . . and was in a bad mood.) Míngxīn kègǔ 銘心刻骨 refers to the memory imprinted on one’s bones and in one’s heart. According to the chapter 32 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “suǒbēizhě, fùmǔ zǎoshì, suīyǒu míngxīn kègǔ zhīyán, wúrén wèiwǒ zhǔzhāng. 所悲者，父母早逝，雖有銘心刻骨之言，無人爲我主張.” (The sadness is that, though there are words imprinted on bones and heart, there is no one to give me good advice, as my father and mother died at my young age.) Pīgān lìdǎn 披肝瀝膽 means be loyal and faithful. According to the chapter 26 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “pīgān lìdǎn, bǐchǔ nánqióng. 披肝瀝膽，筆楮難窮.” (Ink and paper are poor substitutes for my loyalty and faithfulness.) Pìgǔn niàoliú 屁滾尿流 means fart with terror and piss in one’s pants. According to the chapter 26 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “nà Xīmén Qìng zhènghé póniáng zàilóushàng qǔlè, tingdé Wǔ Sōng jiàoyīshēng, jīngde pìgǔn niàoliú, yīzhí bènhòumén, cóng Wángpójiā zǒule.那西門慶正和婆娘在樓上 取樂，聽得武松叫一聲，驚得屁滾尿流，一直奔後門，從王婆家走了.” (Ximen Qing was frolicking with Golden Lotus upstairs. At the sound of Wu

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 113 Song’s voice, he farted with terror and pissed in his pants. He scooted out of the back door and left via Mistress Wang’s shop.) Píngxīn jìngqì 平心靜氣 means keep calm. According to the chapter 74 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “qiě píngxīn jìngqì, ànàn fǎngchá, cáinéng dézhègè shízài. 且平心靜氣，暗暗訪察，才能得這個實在.” (If we can keep calm and carry out our investigations in secret, we are much more likely to get at the truth.) Pōugān lìdǎn 剖肝瀝膽 means show one’s inmost feelings. According to the chapter 21 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “(Dǒng) Chéng biànsè érqǐ yuē: ‘Gōngnǎi hàncháo huángshū, gù pōugān lìdǎn yǐxiānggào, gōng hézhàyě?’” [董]承變色而起曰：‘公乃漢朝皇叔，故剖肝瀝膽以相告，公何 詐也?’” ([Dong] Cheng changed color and rose from his seat. You, Sir, are a relative of His Majesty, and so I showed you my innermost feelings. Why did you cheat me?) Qīqiào shēngyān 七竅生煙 means foam with rage. In the chapter 44 of Èrshínián mùdǔ zhī guàixiànzhuàng 二十年目睹之怪現狀 [Strange Events of the Last Twenty Years] by Wu Woyao 吴沃堯 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “tā lǎopó tīngle, biànqìde sānshī luànbào, qīqiào shēngyān. 他老婆聽了，便 氣得三屍亂暴，七竅生煙.” (The words irritated the hell out of his wife and she foamed with rage.) Qīngxīn guǎyù 清心寡欲 means cleanse one’s heart and limit one’s desires. According to the third scene of Rěnzìjì 忍字記 [The Record of Abstention] by Zheng Tingyu 鄭廷玉 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “wǒfèng shīfù fǎzhǐ, zhùnǐ qīngxīn guǎyù, shòujiè chízhāi, bùxǔ fánxīndòng. 我奉師父法旨，著你 清心寡欲，受戒持齋，不許凡心動.” (In accordance with master’s decree, you should cleanse your heart and limit your desires: no meat and no women.) Rěnqì tūnshēng 忍氣吞聲 refers to submit to humiliation. According to Qīngpíngshāntáng huàběn: Kuàizuǐ Lǐ Cuìlián 清平山堂話本·快嘴李翠蓮 [Stories from Qingping Mountain Studio: The Story of the Talkative Li Cuilian], it is written that “dàjiā zhāngkǒu tǔshé, rěnqì tūnshēng. 大家張口吐舌，忍氣吞聲.” (All feel surprised and swallow insult and humiliation silently.) Shénhún diāndǎo 神魂顛倒 is in a confused state of mind. In the volume 16 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty), it is writtten that “shénhún diāndǎo, lián jiālǐ yě bùsīxiǎng. 神魂顛倒，連家裏也不思想.” (I am in a confused state of mind that I do not even think of going home.) Shénhún shījù 神魂失據 means lose one’s normal state of mind. According to the chapter 21 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Èrgǔ réndìng, Jiǎ Liǎn biànliūjìnlái xiānghuì, yījiànmiàn, zǎoyǐ shénhún shījù. 二鼓人定，賈璉便溜進 來相會，一見面，早已神魂失據.” (At about ten o’clock that night, Jia Lian slipped into her room. The mere sight of her proved so potent a stimulant that he lost his normal state of mind.)

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Shénqīng qìshuǎng 神清氣爽 is fresh and energetic or refreshed. According to the chapter 76 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “wēifēng yīguò, línlínrán chímiàn zhòubì diéwén, zhēn lìngrén shénqīng qìshuǎng. 微風一過，粼粼然 池面皺碧疊紋，真令人神清氣爽.” (As a breeze ruffled the green water of the lake, they felt thoroughly refreshed.) Shénsī huǎnghū 神思恍惚 means in a state of mental confusion. According to the fourth scene of Xiāoxiāngyǔ 瀟湘雨 [Rain in Xiaoxiang] by Yang Xianzhi 楊 顯之 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “yīzhěshì xīnzhōng bùzú, èrzhěshì shénsī huǎnghū. 一者是心中不足，二者是神思恍惚.” (On one hand, he is not confident, on the other hand, he is in a state of mental confusion.) Shényáo yìduó 神搖意奪 means lose one’s mind. According to Liáozhāi zhìyì: Huàpí 聊齋志異常·畫皮 [Painted Skin of Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty, “Zhū zhùmùjiǔ, bùjué shényáo yìduó, huǎngrán níngsī. 朱注目久，不覺神搖意奪，恍然凝 思.” (Zhu looked at it for a long time and lost his mind, finding it is difficult to make it out.) Shīhún luòpò 失魂落魄 means lose one’s wits. It is recorded in the volume 25 of Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – First Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “zuòzǐdìde, shīhún luòpò, bùxī yúshēng. 做子弟的，失魂落魄，不惜餘生.” (Being the juniors, they looked uneasy and frightened, losing their wits.) Shíxīn shíyì 實心實意 means being honest and sincere. According to the chapter 109 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, “Wǔ’ér tīngle, juju dōushì BǎoYù tiáoxì zhīyì, zhī zhèwèi dāiyé quèshì shíxīn shíyì dehuà. 五兒聽了，句句都是寶玉調戲之意，知這位 呆爺卻是實心實意的話.” (It sounded to Wu’er as if he were flirting with Baoyu. Little did he know that the foolish master was honest and sincere.) Tíxīn diàodǎn 提心吊膽 means being filled with anxiety or being always on tenterhooks. According to the chapter 17 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhòngsēng wéndé cǐyán, yīgègè tíxīn diàodǎn. 眾僧聞得此言，一個個提心吊膽.” (When they heard this warning, the monks were nervous, filled with anxiety.) Tòngxīn jíshǒu 痛心疾首 means feeling bitter or with bitter hatred. According to the chapter 42 of Guānchǎng xiànxíngjì 官場現形記 [Exposure of the Official World] by Li Baojia 李寶嘉 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “zhìxiàde bǎixìng yīntā tīngduàn hútú, gègè tòngxīn jíshǒu. 治下的百姓因他聽斷糊塗， 個個痛心疾首.” (The people under his jurisdiction bitterly resent him because of his stupid judgment, feeling bitter and miserable.) Wǔnèi jùfén 五内俱焚 means feel extremely upset with sorrow in heart. According to the chapter 33 of Niànzǎi fánhuámèng 廿載繁華夢 [Dreams of Fortune in Two Decades] by Huang Xiaopei 黃小配 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “qiánshùtiān bùjiàn xiōngzhǎng fùshì, wǔnèi jùfén. 前數天不見 兄長覆示，五内俱焚.” (I have not seen my brother for several days and I was extremely upset with great sorrow.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 115 Xiāohún duópò 銷魂奪魄 means fascinating or losing one’s mind. In the chapter 41 of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yánshāng fùguì shēhuá, duōshǎo shìdàfū jiànle jiùxiāohún duópò. 鹽商富貴奢華，多少士大夫見了就銷魂奪魄.” (Many scholar officials admired salt merchants’ wealth and lost their mind.) Xīnfú kǒufú 心服口服 means admire from the heart or sincerely convinced. According to the chapter 59 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “rújīn qǐngchū yīgè guǎndezháo derén lái guǎnguǎn, sǎozi jiù xīnfú kǒufú, yězhīdào guījǔle. 如 今請出一個管得著的人來管管，嫂子就心服口服，也知道規矩了.” (What we need is someone whose opinion she will listen to, and my sister-in-law will admire from the heart and know the rules.) Xīndàng shénmí 心蕩神迷 means be anxious and preoccupied or being restless and delirious. According to the chapter 98 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Yáng Yǎn zhèngzài xīndàng shénmí, yīwén cǐyǔ, huāngmáng jiēguò sháoyào. 陽衍正在心 蕩神迷，一聞此語，慌忙接過芍藥.” (Yang Yan looked restless and delirious. On hearing the message, he took the peony in a hurry.) Xīndǎn jùliè 心膽俱裂 means being heartbroken and terror-stricken or extremely frightened. In the volume 22 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “cǐshí měnggǔ gōngchéng shènjí. Èzhōu jiāngpò, Sìdào xīndǎn jùliè. 此時蒙 古攻城甚急. 鄂州將破，似道心膽俱裂.” (At this time the Mongols attacked the city very urgently. Ezhou will be broken through. Jia Sidao was extremely frightened.) Xīnfán yìluàn 心煩意亂 means with troubled mind and distorted thoughts. According to the chapter 31 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, ir is recorded that “Yuán Shào huí Jìzhōu, xīnfán yìluàn, bùlǐ zhèngshì. 袁紹回冀州，心煩意 亂，不理政事.” (When Yuan Shao came home in Jizhou, he was with troubled mind and distorted thoughts. He could not attend to the business of government.) Xīnhuā nùfàng 心花怒放 means burst with joy or one’s heart bursts into bloom. In the chapter 30 of Nièhǎihuā 孽海花 [Flower in an Ocean of Sin] by Zeng Pu 曾樸 of the Qing dynasty), it is written that “Sūnsān’ér xiǎngdào zhèlǐ, jīnbùzhù xīnhuā nùfàng. 孫三兒想到這裏，禁不住心花怒放.” (Considering the situation, Sunsan’er is filled with joy in the heart.) Xīnhuāng yìluàn 心慌意亂 refers to the state of losing one’s presence of mind. According to the chapter 26 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, “Gūniáng cǐshí xīnhuāng yìluàn, rúshēng mángcì, rúzuò zhēnzhān. 姑娘此時心慌意亂， 如生芒刺，如坐針氈.” (The girl lost her presence of mind as if there was a thorn in the flesh or she was on pins and needles.) Xīnhuī yìlǎn 心灰意懶 means being disheartened or discouraged and disinclined for any further effort. According to the fifth chapter of Suítáng yǎnyì 隋 唐演義 [Romance of the Sui and Tang dynasties] by Chu Renhuo 褚人穫 of the

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Qing dynasty, it is mentioned that “shífēn guòyì bùqù, xīnhuī yìlǎn. 十分過意不 去，心灰意懶.” (Feeling very sorry, he is discouraged and disinclined for any further effort.) Xīnjiāo xìngbào 心焦性暴 means being anxious and bad-tempered. According to the chapter 22 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “wuè shuō xíngzhě jiàntā bùkěn shàng’àn, jídetā xīnjiāo xìngbào, hènbùde yībǎ zhuālái. 卻説行者見他不肯上岸， 急得他心焦性暴，恨不得一把抓來.” (But when the traveler saw that he would not come ashore, he was so anxious and bad-tempered that he longed to seize him.) Xīnjīng dǎnzhàn 心驚膽戰 means heart startling and gallbladder trembling – to be deeply alarmed or to shake with fear. According to the first scene of Lǔzhāiláng 魯齋郎 [The Wife-Snatcher] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ qià biàn shì lǚ shēn yuan, bǎ bú dìng xīn áo dǎn zhàn, yǒuzhèchǎng sǐzuìqiān. 我恰便是履深淵，把不定心鷔膽戰，有這場死罪愆.” (I saw that he would not come ashore. The sin made me feel as if I were walking on the edge of an abyss, shaking with fear.) Xīnjīng ròutiào 心驚肉跳 means to shudder with fear or filled with apprehension. According to the third scene of Zhēngbào’ēn 爭報恩 [Eager to Requite Favours] of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “bùzhī zěnme, zhè yīhuì’ér xīnjīng ròutiào, zhè yīshuāng hǎoxiǎojiǎo’ér zàiyě zǒubùdòngle. 不知怎麽，這 一會兒心驚肉跳，這一雙好小脚兒再也走不動了.” (I do not know why I am filled with apprehension now, and my fine little feet cannot go any further.) Xīnkuàng shényí 心曠神怡 means being free of mind and happy of heart or being relaxed and happy. According to the chapter 40 of Shuǐhǔ hòuzhuàn 水滸後 傳 [Sequel to Water Margins] by Chen Chen 陳忱 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “jiàn wànqǐng yíntāo, qiānshān qiàocuì, xīnkuàng shényí. 見萬頃銀濤， 千山峭翠，心曠神怡.” (The landscape of the vast lake and the green mountains made people relaxed and happy.) Xīnluàn rúmá 心亂如麻 means have one’s mind as confused as a tangled skein. In the volume 29 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories], Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty wrote that “xīnzhōng xiǎngdào:‘Rúhé shìliǎo?’ Xīnluàn rúmá. 心中想道：‘如何是了？’ 心亂如麻.” (And he said to himself: “What shall I do?” I am utterly confused in my mind.) Xīnmǎn yìzú 心滿意足 means being perfectly satisfied or rest satisfied with. According to the chapter 31 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “wǒ fāngcái xīnmǎn yìzú, zǒule bàxiū. 我方才心滿意足，走了罷休.” (I was perfectly satisfied and left here.) Xīnrú dāogē 心如刀割 means feel as if a knife was piercing one’s heart. According to the chapter 43 of Jìnghuāyuán 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “cǐshí shēngnǚ xīnrú dāogē. 此時甥女心如刀割.” (At this time, my niece is heartbroken as if a knife was piercing the heart.) Xīnshén bù’ān 心神不安 means feeling uneasy in one’s mind. According to the chapter 40 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 117 承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “huánghūn bùshuì, wǔgǔ bùmián, tingyǒu biānbào, xīnshén bù’ān. 黃昏不睡，五鼓不眠，聽有邊報，心神不 安.” (I would not be able to sleep at dusk or when the drum is beaten for the fifth watch. Whenever there was a report from the frontier, I would be worried and feel uneasy in my mind.) Xīnshén huǎnghū 心神恍惚 means being ill at ease and full of dread or perturbed in mind. According to the eighth chapter of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, “Wú qiánrì bìngzhōng, xīnshén huǎnghū, wùyán shāngrǔ, rǔwù jìxīn. 吾前日病中，心神恍惚，誤言傷汝，汝勿記心.” (I was ill at ease and full of dread yesterday owing to my illness and I wronged you, I know. Forgive me.) Xīnsuì chángduàn 心碎腸斷 means heartbroken. According to the chapter 28 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “shìxiǎng Lín Dàiyù de huāróng yuèmào, jiānglái yìdào wúkě xúnmì zhīshí, níngbù xīnsuì chángduàn? 試想林黛玉的花 容月貌，將來亦到無可尋覓之時，寧不心碎腸斷？” (Is not it heartbroken to think that Daiyu’s loveliness and beauty must one day vanish away?) Xīnyuán yìmǎ 心猿意馬 means a heart like a capering monkey and a mind like a galloping horse or being fanciful and fickle. According to the first scene of Wàngjiāngtíng 望江亭 [Wangjiang Pavilion] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, “Ǎn cóngjīn bǎ xīnyuán yìmǎ jǐnláoshuān, jiāng fánhuá bùguàyǎn. 俺從今把心猿意馬緊牢拴，將繁華不掛眼.” (I am not fanciful and fickle any more, no longer seeking wealth.) Xīnyuè chéngfú 心悦誠服 means feel a heartfelt admiration. It is recorded in the chapter 23 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李 汝珍 of the Qing dynasty that “bùdàn háobù wěiqū, érqiě xīnyuè chéngfú. 不 但毫不委曲，而且心悦誠服.” (Instead of feeling aggrieved, I have a heartfelt admiration.) Xìngzhì bóbó 興致勃勃 means being in high spirits. According to the chapter 56 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “shéizhītā háishì xìngzhìbóbó . . . yòujìnqù kǎole yīchǎng. 誰知他還是興致勃勃 . . . . 又進去考了一場.” (But he was still in high spirits, . . . and took another test.) Yǎoyá qièchǐ 咬牙切齒 means gnash the teeth in anger. It is written in the chapter 70 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhòngduō xiōngdì dōubèitā dǎshāng, yǎoyá qièchǐ, jìnyào láishā Zhāng Qīng. 眾多兄弟都被他打傷，咬牙切齒，盡要來殺 張清.” (Many brothers were wounded by him and gnashed the teeth in anger, trying to kill Zhang Qing.) Yíshén yíguǐ 疑神疑鬼 is extremely suspicious or even afraid of one’s own shadow. According to the chapter 61 of Shuō Yuè quánzhuàn 説岳全傳 [The Complete Story of Yue Fei] by Qian Cai 錢彩 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “xiézhèng qǐngcóng xīnnèipàn, yíshén yíguǐ mòyírén. 邪正請從心内 判，疑神疑鬼莫疑人.” (Judging what is good or bad from your heart. Do not be suspicious.)

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Yuànqì chōngtiān 怨氣沖天 means one’s wrath rose to the sky or one’s resentment mounts to heaven. In the chapter 76 of Dōngzhōu lièguózhì 東周列國志 [Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou dynasty] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “(Wǔ) yuán jiànqíshī, yuànqì chōngtiān. [伍]員見其屍，怨氣沖天.” (When Wu Zixu saw the corpse, his resentment mounts to heaven.) 2.4 Description of talking manner Chākē dǎhún 插科打諢 means make impromptu comic gestures and ramarks. According to Pípájì: Fùmò kāichǎng 琵琶記·副末開場 [The Story of Lute: The Opening] by Gao Zecheng 高則誠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “xiūlùn chākē dǎhún. 休論插科打諢.” (Do not make impromptu comic gestures and remarks.) Chūkǒu shāngrén 出口傷人 means speak bitingly or talk harshly. According to Hédiǎn 何典 [Allusion] by Zhang Nanzhuang 張南莊 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “huósǐrén guàitā chūkǒu shāngrén. 活死人怪他出口傷人.” (The walking dead blamed him for speaking bitingly.) Chúnjiāo shébì 唇焦舌敝 refers to lips scorched and tongue dry or talking till one’s tongue and lips are parched. According to Dōngōu nǚháojié 東歐女豪傑 [The Woman Warrior in Eastern Europe] by Lingnan yuyi nvshi 嶺南羽衣女士 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “féngrén shuōxiàng, chúnjiāo shébì, yǔbù lízōng, yīlián pǎole yīgèláiyuè. 逢人説項，唇焦舌敝，語不離宗，一連跑了 一個來月.” (For a month she was always praising the person before everybody. Her tongue was scorched and her lips were dry because of lots of talking.) Chúnqiāng shéjiàn 唇槍舌劍 refers to one’s tongue like a spear and lips like daggers or cross verbal swords. According to Miǎnchíhuì 澠池會 [Mianchi Meeting] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “píngzhe wǒ chúnqiāng shéjiàn dìngjiāngshān. 憑著我唇槍舌劍定江山.” (The dispute will be settled by my tongue like a spear and lips like daggers.) Dàhū xiǎojiào 大呼小叫 means shout and wrangle. According to Yānzijiān: Wěijí 燕子箋·偽輯 [Swallow Pad] by Ruan Dacheng 阮大鋮 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Mòyào dàhū xiǎojiàode, dàoPíngkāng, qiě qīngqīng kòude shuānghuánxiǎng, zhuànchūtā kāimén hǎopīmiànqiǎng. 莫要大呼小叫的，到平 康，且輕輕叩得雙環響，賺出他開門好劈面搶.” (Don’t shout loudly! When we go to Pingkang, gently knock on the door, so that he can open the door to rob.) Diédié bùxiū 喋喋不休 means chatter without stop or shout and wrangle. According to the first volume of Yuèwēi cǎotáng bǐjì: Luányáng xiāoxiàlù yī 閱 微草堂筆記·灤陽消夏録一 [Luanyan of Yuewei Caotang Notes] by Ji Yung 紀 昀 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “yīsúshì yáncí wěibǐ, diédié bùxiū, shūbài rényì. 一俗士言詞猥鄙，喋喋不休，殊敗人意.” (A vulgar man speaks despicably and babbles incessantly without stopping, making others disgusted.) Dōnglā xīchě 東拉西扯 means talk at random or drag in all sorts of irrelevant matters. According to the chapter 28 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “dùzilǐ

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 119 yuánméiyǒu shénme, dōnglā xīchě, nòngde niúguǐ shéshén, hái zìyǐwéi bó’ào. 肚子裏原没有什麽，東拉西扯，弄的牛鬼蛇神，還自以爲博奧.” (While the most ludicrous ones are written by ignoramuses who drag in all sorts of irrelevant matters to make up a monstrous mishmash, yet boast of their erudition.) Duōzuǐ duōshé 嘴多舌 means gossipy and meddlesome. According to the third scene of Xiāoxiāngyǔ 瀟湘雨 [Rain in Xiaoxiang] by Yang Xianzhi 楊 顯之 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “Xiězi yún:‘Nǐxiūyào duōzuǐ duōshé.’ 解子雲: ‘你休要多嘴多舌’.” (The Xiezi said, “Do not be gossipy and meddlesome.”) Èyán èyǔ 惡言惡語 refers to evil or abusive words. In the chapter 90 of Xǐngshì yīnyuánzhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “bùwéi méile nàxiē xiōngxìng, qiěshì liánnà èyán èyǔ dōu jìnshù biànde méile. 不惟没了那 些凶性，且是連那惡言惡語都盡數變得没了.” (It is not only the malevolence that is gone, but even the evil words that are gone.) Fēiduǎn liúcháng 飛短流長 refers to spreading embroidered stories and malicious gossip. According to Liáozhāi zhìyì: Fēngsānniáng 聊齋志異常·封三娘 [Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio: Fengsanniang] by Pu Songling 蒲松 齡 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zàoyán shēngshìzhě, fēiduǎn liúcháng, suǒbù kānshòu. 造言生事者，飛短流長，所不堪受.” (Those who are gossipy always spread groundless talk which is unbearable.) Fèifǔ zhīyán 肺腑之言 refers to words from the bottom of one’s heart. According to the second scene of Zhòuméixiāng 㑇梅香 [Beautiful Plum Blossom] by Zheng Guangzu 鄭光祖 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “xiǎo shēng bié wú suǒ gào, zhī jiāngzhè fèifǔ zhīyán, shísùyǔ xiǎoniángzǐ.小生別無所告，只索 將這肺腑之言，實訴與小娘子.” (I have nothing to report, only to tell my girl the words from the bottom of my heart.) Fēngyán fēngyǔ 風言風語 means slanderous gossip. According to the second chapter of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “shéizhī yǐnzhe yǐnzhe, nàfùrén jìngshì fēngyán fēngyǔde shuōqǐlái. 誰知飲著飲著，那婦人 竟是風言風語的説起來.” (Who knew she was talking slanderous gossip while drinking?) Gòusuìyáozhuó 詬誶謡諑 is whispered about and secretly discussed everywhere with rumour. According to the ninth chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “bèi dìlǐ nǐyán wǒyǔ, gòusuì yáozhuó, bùmǎn shūfáng nèiwài. 背地 裏你言我語，詬誶謡諑，佈滿書房内外.” (Both in the study room and out of it, all kinds of ugly rumours should have circulated behind their backs.) Hánhù qící 含糊其詞 means talk ambiguously. In the chapter 57 of Dōngzhōu lièguózhì 東周列國志 [Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou dynasty] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Èrrén xiānshòu Àn Jiǎ zhīzhǔ, hánhù qící, bùkěn tìzhàoshì fēnbiàn. 二人先受岸賈之囑，含糊 其詞，不肯替趙氏分辯.” (Being subject to An Jia, the two people mention the matter ambiguously, refusing to defend for Mr. Zhao.)

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Hǎnyuān jiàoqū 喊冤叫屈 means complain loudly about an alleged injustice or cry out one’s grievances. According to the chapter 83 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nà Bǎochán, zhǐguǎn hǎnyuān jiàoqū, nǎlǐ lǐhuì tā. 那寶蟾，只管喊冤叫屈，那 裏理會他.” (Baochan paid no attention, just crying out her grievances with the top of her voice.) Hūtiān zhuàngdì 呼天撞地 means shout loudly and hit on the ground with one’s head. In the chapter 17 of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Kuāng Chāorén hūtiān zhuàngdì, yīmiàn ānpái zhuāngliàn. 匡超人呼天撞地，一面安排裝殮.” (Kuang Chaoren cried very sadly, shouting loudly, and hitting on the ground with his head. Meanwhile, he did the funeral arrangements.) Húyán luànyǔ 胡言亂語 means talk nonsense or ramble in one’s speech. According to the second scene of Yúqiáojì 漁樵記 [The Story of Woodman] of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “nǐzéguǎn libiàn húyán luànyǔ jiāngwǒsī huābái. 你則管哩便胡言亂語將我廝花白.” (You are the ones who talked nonsense in management and wasted my time in life.) Huāyán qiǎoyǔ 花言巧語 is flowery and sweet words or deceiving words. According to the chapter 22 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nǐnà huāyán qiǎoyǔ, biéwàngzhe wǒshuō. 你那花言巧語，別望著我説.” (Do not try to get round me with your deceiving words.) Huàlǐ yǒuhuà 話裏有話 refers to words with hidden meaning. According to the chapter 21 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “nàzhī tā’èrrén zhèhuà quèshì jīdài shuāngqiāo, huàlǐ yǒuhuà. 那知他二人這 話卻是機帶雙敲，話裏有話.” (However, the two people’s words have hidden meaning.) Jīnyù liángyán 金玉良言 means invaluable advice or words of wisdom. In the volume 30 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Ēnxiāng jīnyù liángyán, mǒudāng zhōngshēn pèimíng. 恩相金玉良言，某當終身佩銘.” (I will always remember your words of wisdom and invaluable advice.) Kǒuchū dàyán 口出大言 means talk wildly or utter bold words. In the seventh chapter of Dōngzhōu lièguózhì 東周列國志 [Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou dynasty], Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “yùzhě jiàn Kǎoshū kǒuchū dàyán, gèngbùgǎn shàngqián. 禦者見考叔口出大 言，更不敢上前.” (The coachman saw him talking wildly and dared not come forward.) Kǒukǒu shēngshēng 口口聲聲 means keep saying all the time. According to the third scene of Qiūhú xìqī 秋胡戲妻 [Qiu Hu’s Flirting with his Wife] by Shi Junbao 石君寳 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “nǐyěcéng tīng Dù Yǔ, tānǎlǐ kǒukǒu shēngshēng liāoduō xiānshēng bùrú guīqù. 你也曾聽杜宇，他那 裏口口聲聲撩掇先生不如歸去.” (You had ever had the experience that Du Yu kept saying all the time, which reminded that he should be going back.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 121 Kǒuzhū bǐfá 口誅筆伐 means condemn both in speech and writing. According to the second scene of Sānzhùjì: Tóngzhé 三祝記·同謫 [The Biography of San Zhu, Same Blame] by Wang Tingne 汪廷訥 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Quán bùzhī kǒuzhū bǐfá shì shīrénjù, lǒngshàng fánjiān shízhěxiū.全不知 口誅筆伐是詩人句，壟上墦間識者羞.” (Little did they know that poets were already writing poems and satirizing him, and all who knew him, peasants and rich, were ashamed of him.) Kuǎnkuǎn értán 㱁㱁而談 refers to an honest and deliberate conversation. According to the chapter 25 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yòujiānkànzhe Jiǔgōng yǒugè shītú fēnjì, Chǔjiǔniángzǐ yǒugè jiěmèi qíngcháng, cáide zhèyàng kuǎnkuǎn értán. 又兼看著九公有個師徒分際，褚九娘子有個姐 妹情腸，才得這樣㱁㱁而談.” (Because Jiugong is her master and Chujiuniangzi is her sister, she has an honest and deliberate conversation with them.) Kuǎnyǔ wēnyán 㱁語温言 means blandishments and kind words. According to the chapter 20 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Bǎoyù jiànle zhèyàng, zhīnán wǎnhuí, dǎdiéqǐ bǎiyàngde kuǎnyǔ wēnyán láiquànwèi. 寶玉見了這樣，知 難挽回，打疊起百樣的㱁語温言來勸慰.” (Baoyu knew it would be hard to pacify her and was prepared to coax her with all sorts of blandishments and kind words.) Lāsān chěsì 拉三扯四 means wander from the subject or not stick to the point. According to the chapter 46 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “tāyě bìngbùshìshuō wǒmen, nǐdǎobié lāsān chěsìde. 他也並不是説我們，你倒別拉三扯四的.” (He was not referring to us when she mentioned that. It is you who wandered from the subject.) Língyá lìchǐ 伶牙俐齒 means able to put thoughts and feelings into clear speech or sharp-tongued. According to the fourth scene of Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗 權夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “yīrènnǐ bǎiyàng’ér língyá lìchǐ. 一任你百樣兒伶牙 俐齒.” (It is no use for you to be sharp-tongued.) Mántiān yuàndì 埋天怨地 means blame the heavens and reproach the earth. According to the third scene of Kànqiánnú 看錢奴 [The Miser] by Zheng Tingyu 鄭廷玉 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wùnà Jiǎ Rén, wèihé zàiwǒ shénshèngzhōng mántiān yuàndì, guàihèn shénlíng? 兀那賈仁，爲何在我神 聖中埋天怨地，怪恨神靈？” (Why do you complain everything in my temple, blame the heavens and reproach the earth or even resent me?) Nánqiāng běidiào 南腔北調 refers to mixed accent of north and south. According to the chapter 11 of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬 梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “sānjiān dōngdǎo xīwāiwū, yīgè nánqiāng běidiàorén. 三間東倒西歪屋，一個南腔北調人.” (Three ramshackle rooms and a man with an impure accent, mixed with dialect.) Néngshuō huìdào 能説會道 means have a glib tongue or have the gift of gab. According to the chapter 27 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of

122 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “hǎoyīgè néngshuō huìdàode Zhānggūniáng. 好一個能説會道的張姑娘.” (Miss Zhang, you are such a glib girl!) Nòngzuǐ nòngshé 弄嘴弄舌 refers to glibness in speech or wits. According to Qīngpíng shāntáng huàběn: Kuàizuǐ Lǐ Cuìlián 清平山堂話本·快嘴李翠蓮 [Stories from Qingping Mountain Studio: The Story of the Talkative Li Cuilian], it is recorded that “zhōngzhāo sìyán bājù, nòngzuǐ nòngshé chénghé yǐkàn. 終朝 四言八句，弄嘴弄舌成何以看.” (There are four words and eight sentences all the time; glibness in speech or wits is unacceptable.) Tānzuǐ jiànshé 貪嘴賤舌 means garrulous and sharp-tongued or art and mean. According to the chapter 25 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “nǐmen dōubùshì hǎorén, zàibùgēnzhe hǎorén xué, zhǐ gēnzhe Fèngyātou pínzuǐ jiànshé de. 你們都 不是好人，再不跟著好人學，只跟著鳳丫頭貧嘴賤舌的.” (Instead of following good examples, you all imitate Feng and are being tart and mean.) Píngtóu pǐnzú 評頭品足 means make frivolous remarks about one’s appearance. According to the fourth chapter of Dàmǎbiǎn 大馬扁 [A Big Liar] by Huang Xiaopei 黃小配 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nàgè hǎoyánsè, nàgè hǎotàidù, píngtóu pǐnzú, shǎobùmiǎnyào luàn’ó jǐjùshī láile. 那個好顔色，那 個好態度，評頭品足，少不免要亂哦幾句詩來了.” (He gave many frivolous remarks about women’s features: this one’s pretty and that one’s got an attitude.) Pòkǒu dàmà 破口大駡 means shout abuse or give vent to a torrent of abuse. According to the chapter 93 of Sānxiá wǔyì 三俠五義 [Three Heroes and Five Gallants] by Shi Yukun 石玉昆 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Shā Lóng pòkǒu dàmà, suǒyǒu shíyījiā lièhù jùshì tā yīrén chéngdāng. 沙龍破口大駡， 所有十一家獵戶俱是他一人承當.” (Sha Long cursed, shouting abuse, and he alone was responsible for all 11 hunters.) Qīyán bāyǔ 七言八語 refers to all sorts of opinion or many men having many minds. It is recorded in the chapter 25 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “dāngxià zhòngrén qīyán bāyǔ, yǒushuō sòngsuì de, yǒushuō tiàoshén de. 當下眾人七言八語， 有説送祟的，有説跳神的.” (By now proposals of all kinds were being made. Some suggested calling in exorcists to drive out evil spirits, while others suggested getting a witch to lure them out by dancing.) Qīzuǐ bāshé 七嘴八舌 means with seven mouths and eight tongues or gossip. According to the chapter 90 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “sòngdiǎnzi dōngxī méiyàojǐn, dǎoméide rěrén qīzuǐ bāshéde jiǎngjiū. 送點子東西没要緊，倒没的 惹人七嘴八舌的講究.” (It should not matter sending you a small present, but it might give rise to a whole lot of gossip.) Qīqī chāchā 嘁嘁喳喳 means chatter away or babble sound. According to the chapter 27 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhǐtīngnà tínglǐbiān qīqī chāchā yǒurén shuōhuà. 只聽那亭裏邊嘁嘁喳喳有人説話.” (But just then she heard faint babble or muffled voices from the pavilion.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 123 Qítán guàilùn 奇談怪論 refers to ridiculous or absurd argument. According to the chapter 27 of Lǚyuán cónghuà: Qíjiù: Zhòngzi jiàoshòu 履園叢話·耆舊·仲子 教授 [Notes in Lvyuan: Talented Elders: Professor Zhongzi] by Qian Yong 錢詠 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “liǎngyǎn ruòqī, qítán guàilùn, xiánshìwéi yìwù, wúyīrén yǔyánzhě. 兩眼若漆，奇談怪論，鹹視爲異物，無一人與言 者.” (He has dark eyes and speaks a ridiculous argument. Everyone treats him like he is different and does not talk to him.) Qiǎngcí duólǐ 強詞奪理 means take lame arguments and perverted logic. In the chapter 43 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Kǒngmíng suǒyán, jiē qiǎngcí duólǐ, jūnfēi zhènglùn. 孔明所言，皆強詞奪理，均非正 論.” (Zhuge Liang’s words are overbearing, and he uses lame arguments and perverted logic, which is not proper argument.) Qiǎoyǔ huāyán 巧語花言 refers to elegant but insincere words. In the third scene of Xīxiāngjì 西廂記 [The Romance of West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實 甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “duìrénqián qiǎoyǔ huāyán, méirénchù biàn xiǎng Zhāng Shēng, bèidìlǐ chóuméi lèiyǎn. 對人前巧語花言，没人處便想 張生，背地褻愁眉淚眼.” (In public, she says elegant but insincere words. While there is nobody around, she misses Zhang Sheng, shedding tears secretly.) Qièqiè sīyǔ 竊竊私語 refers to whisperring to one another. In Xuān jiéfùmùjié 宣節婦墓碣 [The Tomb of Virtuous Woman] by Gui Youguang 歸有光 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “jiéfù jiànqíjiā qièqiè sīyǔ, juéqíyì, dēnglóu zìyì. 節婦見其家竊竊私語，覺其意，登樓自縊.” (When the women observed there was whispering words or gossips about her family, she knew that they wanted her to marry again, so she climbed up the building and hanged herself.) Qīngzuǐ bóshé 輕嘴薄舌 means have a caustic and sharp tongue or make cutting remarks. According to the chapter 35 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Xírén tīngle huàlǐ yǒuyīn, sùzhī Bǎochāi bùshì qīngzuǐ bóshé xīluòrén de. 襲 人聽了話裏有因，素知寶釵不是輕嘴薄舌奚落人的.” (Xiren sensed something behind these words, knowing that Xue Baochai was not one to make cutting remarks.) Qīngxīn tǔdǎn 傾心吐膽 refers to pouring one’s heart out unreservedly. According to the chapter 68 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “gù qīngxīn tǔdǎn, xùle yīhuí. 故傾心吐膽，敘了一回.” (Hence, abandoning all caution, she began pouring her heart out unreservedly.) Shuōcháng dàoduǎn 説長道短 refers to gossip about people behind their backs or indulging in idle gossip. It is written in the first scene of Shénnú’ér 神奴兒 [The Son of God] of the Yuan dynasty that “Ǎndào bùyányǔ, tādào shuōcháng dàoduǎn de. 俺倒不言語，他倒説長道短的.” (I do not say anything, but he has gossip about people behind their backs.) Shuōsān dàosì 説三道四 means make irresponsible remarks. According to Tōngsúbiān: Yánxiào 通俗編·言笑 [Popular Words: Idioms] by Zhai Hao 翟 灝 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “mòxué tārén, bùzhī zhāomù, zǒubiàn

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xiāngcūn, shuōsān dàosì. 莫學他人，不知朝暮，走遍鄉村，説三道四.” (Do not go around like others to make irresponsible remarks.) Shuōyī bù’èr 説一不二 refers to meaning what one says or standing by one’s word. According to the chapter 40 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “dàole tāniángzǐ gēnqián, quèshì cónglái shuōyī bù’èr. 到了他 娘子跟前，卻是從來説一不二.” (When it came to his wife, he always kept his words, meaning what he says.) Shuōzuǐ dǎzuǐ 説嘴打嘴 means suffer from one’s own foolishness. According to the chapter 74 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “lǎobùshuōde chāngfù, zěnme zàoxiànièle, shuōzuǐ dǎzuǐ, xiànshì xiànbào. 老不説的娼婦，怎麽造下 孽了，説嘴打嘴，現世現報.” (Why could not you have kept your mouth shut? Now you have got to suffer from your own foolishness.) Tángǔ lùnjīn 談古論今 means talk about things ancient and modern. According to the chapter 19 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴 承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “quèshuō Sānzàng yǔnà zhūlǎo tángǔ lùnjīn, yīyè wúmián. 卻説三藏與那諸老談古論今，一夜無眠.” (Sanzang had been talking about things ancient and modern all night with the elders, and had not slept a wink.) Tántiān shuōdì 談天説地 refers to talk of everything under the sun. In the volume 22 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories], Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 (the Ming dynasty) wrote that “píngxījiān tántiān shuōdì, (Jiǎ) Sìdào yǐzhī wéizhòng. 平昔間談天説地，(賈) 似道倚之爲重.” (They talked of anything under the sun; Jia Sidao relied heavily on them.) Tiányán mìyǔ 甜言蜜語 refers to coaxing with delusive promises. In volume 36 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World], Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty wrote that “Biàn Fú zuòzài pángbiān, tiányán mìyǔ, quànle yīhuí. 卞福坐在旁邊，甜言蜜語，勸了一回.” (Bian Fu sat by and coaxed with delusive promises.) Tiáosān wōsì 調三窩四 means stir up trouble. According to the chapter 71 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “shǎobù déyì, bùshì bèidìlǐ jiáoshégēn, jiùshì tiáosān wōsìde. 少不得意，不是背地裏嚼舌根，就是調三窩四的.” (If they are the slightest bit crossed in anything, they begin spreading stories about you or finding other ways of stirring up trouble.) Tiáozuǐ nòngshé 調嘴弄舌 refers to stirring up trouble between people. According to Qīngpíng shāntánghuà běn: Kuàizuǐ Lǐ Cuìlián 清平山堂話本·快 嘴李翠蓮 [Stories from Qingping Mountain Studio: The Story of the Talkative Li Cuilian], it is recorded that “zhè zǎowǎn, dōng fāng jiāng liàng le, háibù shūzhuāngwán, shàngwùzi tiáozuǐ nòngshé. 這早晩，東方將亮了，還不梳妝 完，尚兀子調嘴弄舌.” (It is almost dawn and you have not finished dressing. How can you have time to stir up trouble between people?) Xiánzuǐ dànshé 鹹嘴淡舌 means enter into endless arguments. According to the chapter 58 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 125 Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “zhè yīdiǎnzi xiǎozǎizi, yětiāoyāo tiāoliù, xiánzuǐ dànshé, yǎoqún de luózi shìde. 這一點子小崽子， 也挑么挑六，鹹嘴淡舌，咬群的騾子似的.” (Who do you think you are, you little monkey, to pick and choose like this and enter into endless arguments? You are like a mule biting its mates.) Xīnzhí kǒukuài 心直口快 is straightforward and outspoken. In the second volume of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World], Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty wrote that “yǒugè xīnzhí kǒukuàide, biànxiǎngyào kāikǒu, shuōgōngdàohuà. 有個心直口快的，便想要開口，説公 道話.” (One who is straightforward and outspoken wants to say something fair.) Xīnzhuō kǒuhāng 心拙口夯 refers to being tongue-tied and slow-witted. According to the chapter 30 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “shéidōu xiàngwǒ, xīnzhuō kǒuhāngde, yóuzherén shuō ne? 誰都像我，心拙口夯的，由 著人説呢？” (If I were not such a tongue-tied, slow-witted creature, you would not get away with it quite so often, my friend.) Xìnkǒu kāihé 信口開河 means speak carelessly, rapidly and voluminously like the outflow of river water when the sluice gates are opened. According to the chapter 39 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “cūnlǎo lǎoshì xìnkǒu kāihé, qínggēgē piān xúngēn jiūdǐ. 村老老是信口開河，情哥哥偏尋根究底.” (An inventive old county woman tells a story of somewhat questionable veracity, carelessly, rapidly and voluminously. An impressionable young listener insists on getting to the bottom of the matter.) Yìlùn fēnfēn 議論紛紛 refers to being discussed animatedly or widely discussed by. In the chapter 43 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “shí wǔjiàng huòyǒu yàozhànde, wénguān dōushì yàoxiángde, yìlùn fēnfēn bùyī. 時武將或有要戰的，文官都是要降的，議論紛紛不一.” (Among the soldiers some wished for war, but of the civil officers, all were in favor of surrender. Therefore, there were many discussions and much conflict of opinion on the issue.) Yóuqiāng huádiào 油腔滑調 means speaking glibly or having a smooth, oily tongue. In the chapter 43 of Shīyǒu shīchuánlù 師友詩傳錄 [The Collections of Poetry from Teachers and Friends] by Wang Shizhen 王士禎 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “ruòbù duō dúshū, duō guànchuān, ér jùyán xìngqíng, zé kāihòuxué yóuqiāng huádiào, xìnkǒu chéngzhāng zhī è’xí yǐ. 若不多讀書，多 貫穿，而遽言性情，則開後學油腔滑調，信口成章之惡習矣.” (If we do not read and practice more, we tend to speak glibly and casually.) Zhǐsāng màhuái 指桑駡槐 means scolding the locust while pointing at the mulberry or grumbling and complaining. According to the chapter 39 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “piānyīdiǎn’ér, tāmen jiù zhǐsāng màhuái de bàoyuàn. 偏一點 兒，他們就指桑罵槐的抱怨.” (The tiniest hint of favoritism and they are grumbling and complaining.)

126 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 2.5 Praising the merits of people Chìdǎn zhōngxīn 赤膽忠心 refers to a red heart of complete dedication. According to the chapter 52 of Fēngshén yǎnyì 封神演義 [Romance of Enfeoffment to Deities] by Xu Zhonglin 許仲琳 and Li Yunxiang 李雲翔 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “chén kōngyǒu chìdǎn zhōngxīn, wúnéng huíqíwàn. 臣空有赤 膽忠心，無能回其萬.” (I have absolute loyalty to my country but unable to do anything.) Cōngmíng línglì 聰明伶俐 is clever and sensible. In the third volume of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World], Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty wrote that “nǐshì cōngmíng línglì zhīrén, yěxū shíxiē qīngzhòng. 你是聰明伶俐之人，也須識些輕重.” (You are a clever guy. You need to see things clearly.) Dàgōng wúsī 大公無私 means selfless or perfectly impartial. According to Lùnsī 論私 [On Selfishness] by Gong Zizhen 龔自珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “qiě jīnzhī dàgōng wúsīzhě, yǒu Yáng, Mò zhīxián yé? 且今之大 公無私者，有楊、墨之賢耶？” (Yet, as for today’s selfless men are there such good and able as Yang and Mo?) Gǎnzuò gǎnwéi 敢作敢爲 refers to acting with courage and determination. According to the fourth volume of Guǎngzhìyì 廣志繹 [Geographic Historical Data] by Wang Shixing 王士性 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “cǐzì yīngxióng dàlüè zhīzhǔ, gǎnzuò gǎnwéi zhīshì, yìdào jíxíng. 此自英雄大略 之主，敢作敢爲之事，意到即行.” (It is a hero that dares to act with courage and determination and do what he thought.) Gāngzhèng bù’ē 剛正不阿 is upright and outspoken or frank and straightforward. According to Liáozhāi zhìyì: Yīyuánguān 聊齋志異常·一員官 [Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio: One Official Essay] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Jǐnán tóngzhī Wúgōng, gāngzhèng bù’ē. 濟南同知吴公，剛正不阿.” (Mr. Wu, the magistrate of Jinan, is upright and never stoops to flattery.) Gāngzhèng wúsī 剛正無私 is upright and selfless. In the chapter 27 of Sānsuì píngyāozhuàn 三遂平妖傳 [The Biography of Sansui’s Subjugation of Demons] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “(Bāozhěng) wéirén gāngzhèng wúsī, bùqīng yīxiào. (包拯) 爲人剛正無私，不輕一笑.” ([Bao Zheng] was upright and selfless and seldom smiled.) Guāngmíng lěiluò 光明磊落 is frank and forthright. According to Dútōng jiànlùn: Hàn gāodì 讀通鑒論·漢高帝 [Comments on History as a Mirror: The Founding Emperor of the Han dynasty] by Wang Fuzhi 王夫之 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “[Zhāng Liáng] guāngmíng lěiluò, tǎnrán zhípōu xīnyì yú xióngcāi tiānzǐ zhīqián. [張良]光明磊落，坦然直剖心臆于雄猜天子之 前.” (Zhang Liang is open and aboveboard and tells the emperor what is in his heart.) Jiànduō shíguǎng 見多識廣 means having a wide range of experience or knowledgeable. In the chapter 44 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Dèngjiǔgōng běnshì

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 127 jiǔguàn jiānghú, jiànduō shíguǎng. 鄧九公本是久慣江湖，見多識廣.” (Deng Jiugong was originally experienced and sophisticated.) Jīngmíng qiánggàn 精明強幹 is smart and experienced. According to the chapter 13 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “kuàngqiě suídàide nàxiē guānyuán, yòudōushìxiē jīngmíng qiánggàn, jiǔjīng cān’àn de néngyuán. 況且隨帶的那些官員，又都是些精明強幹，久經參案的能員.” (Furthermore, the officers with him are smart and experienced men.) Kuānhóng dàliàng 寬宏大量 is generous and forgiving. According to the third scene of Yúqiáojì 漁樵記 [The Story of Woodman] of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yuánlái nàxiànggōng kuānhóng dàliàng. 元來那相公寬宏大量.” (The husband turned out to be a generous and forgiving man.) Lánxīn huìxìng 蘭心蕙性 is elegant and intelligent. According to the eighth chapter of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “kuàngqiě tāsuīshì gè xiāngcūn nǚzǐ, wàimiàn shēngde fù yuèmào huāróng, xīnlǐ cángzhe yīfú lánxīn huìxìng. 況且他雖是個鄉村女子，外面生得副月貌花容，心裏藏 著一幅蘭心蕙性.” (In addition, even though she was a country woman, she is elegant and intelligent.) Pǐnxué jiānyōu 品學兼優 is excellent both in character and learning. According to the ninth chapter of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yīdìng shìwèi pǐnxué jiānyōu, yuèlì tōngdáde lǎoqiánbèi. 一定是位品學兼優， 閱歷通達的老前輩.” (He must be a good character and learned, experienced veteran.) Qínchǐ dàifà 噙齒戴髮 is indomitable, strong, and masculine. According to the second chapter of Jīnpíngméi金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “Wǔ’èr shìgè dǐngtiān lìdì, qínchǐ dàifàde nánzǐhàn, bùshì nàděng bàihuài fēngsú shāngrénlúnde zhūgǒu. 武二是個頂天立地，噙齒戴髮的男子漢，不是那等敗壞風俗傷人倫 的豬狗.” (Wu er is an indomitable, strong, and very masculine man and will not do those immoral things.) Tiěmiàn wúsī 鐵面無私 is impartial and incorruptible or no personal consideration. According to the chapter 45 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “wǒ xiǎngbì děi nǐqù zuògè jiānchá yùshǐ, tiěmiàn wúsī cáihǎo. 我想必得你去做個監 察禦史，鐵面無私才好.” (It occurred to me that we must rope you in too as our supervisor, because we need someone strict and impartial.) Xīnzhí kǒukuài 心直口快 means frank and outspoken. According to the fourth scene of Luó Lǐláng 羅李郎 [Luo Lilang] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “gēgē shì xīnzhí kǒukuài shèlián jūn, gēgēshì hǎorén. 哥 哥是心直口快射糧軍，哥哥是好人.” (Elder brother is frank and outspoken and never beats about the bush. You are a good man.) Zhàngyì shūcái 仗義疏財 refers to generous in aiding needy people. According to the chapter 18 of Shuǐhǔ Quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [All Men are Brothers] by

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The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese

Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “wéirén zhàngyì shūcái, rénjiē chēngtā xiàoyì hēisānláng. 爲人仗義疏財，人皆稱他孝義黑三郎.” (He was a chivalrous man, generous to friends, so he was also known as the Filial and Gallant Dark Third Master.) Zhēnxīn shíyì 真心實意 means genuinely and sincerely. In the third scene of Bǎihuātíng 百花亭 [Florist’s Kiosk] of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “cháng yándào, hǎishēn xūjiàndǐ, gèbànzhe gè zhēnxīn shíyì. 常言道，海深須見底， 各辦著個真心實意.” (As the saying goes, “If you want to know the depth of the ocean, you need to get to the bottom. The measure of a man’s quality is his sincerity while doing things.”) Zhìyǒng shuāngquán 智勇雙全 is competent both in wisdom and bravery. According to the third scene of Wǔhóuyàn 五侯宴 [Banquet for Five Generals] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “mǒu wéntōng sānlüè, wǔjiě liùtāo, zhìyǒng shuāngquán. 某文通三略，武解六韜，智勇雙 全.” (He has military strategy and combined wisdom with courage.) Zhōnggān yìdǎn 忠肝義膽 means having good faith virtue and patriotism. According to the second scene of Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Shoot the Willow and Hit the Ball] of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “zhōnggān yìdǎn fúwángyè, lìguó ānbāng zuòzhùshí. 忠肝義膽扶王業，立國安邦作柱石.” (Build up a nation and make it stable with one’s virtue and patriotism.) Zhōngxīn chìdǎn 忠心赤膽 is a red heart of complete dedication. According to the chapter 65 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “nà Pínggūniáng yòushìgè zhèngjīngrén, cóngbùhuì tiāosān wōsìde, dàoyīwèi zhōngxīn chìdǎn fúshìtā. 那平 姑娘又是個正經人，從不會挑三窩四的，倒一味忠心赤膽伏侍他.” (Ping’er is really a good sort. She is not the sort of person to go looking for trouble, and she is always been dedicated to the mistress.) Zhōngxīn gěnggěng 忠心耿耿 is loyal and devoted. In the chapter 57 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “suī dàshì wèichéng, rán zhōngxīn gěnggěng, zìnéng míngchuí bùxiǔ. 雖大事未成，然忠心耿耿，自能名垂不朽.” (Though he got no success, he was of infinite loyalty, full of devotion, so it is natural that his name will descend through the evergreen ages.) Zúzhì duōmóu 足智多謀 means be able enough and clever or resourceful. According to the first scene of Liánhuánjì 連環計 [Series of Stratagems] of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “cǐrén zúzhì duōmóu, kěyǔ gòngshì. 此人足智多謀， 可與共事.” (The man is resourceful and easy to work together.) 2.6 Rebuking the evil deeds of people Bēibǐ wúchǐ 卑鄙無恥 is mean and having no sense of shame. According to the chapter 35 of Guānchǎng xiànxíngjì 官場現形記 [Exposure of the Official World] by Li Baojia 李寶嘉 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “bànnǐgè ‘dǎndà zuānyíng, bēibǐ wúchǐ’ xiàqù hòuzhe ba. 辦你個 “膽大鑽營，卑鄙無恥”

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 129 下去候著吧.” (We will accuse you of being shameless and ingratiating. Go and wait for your sentences.) Dǎndà wàngwéi 膽大妄爲 is undaunted and reckless. In the tenth chapter of Nièhǎihuā 孽海花 [Flower in an Ocean of Sin] by Zeng Pu 曾樸 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhèzhǒngrén yàozài bìguó, shìzǎoyǐ míngzhèng diǎnxíng, nǎxièróngde tāmen rúcǐ dǎndà wàngwéine? 這種人要在敝國，是 早已明正典刑，那褻容得他們如此膽大妄爲呢？” (In our country, such people have already been clearly sentenced. How can you tolerate them to act so undauntedly and recklessly?) Fókǒu shéxīn 佛口蛇心 refers to the Buddha’s words and a serpent’s heart. According to the chapter 70 of Shuō Yuè quánzhuàn 説岳全傳 [The Complete Story of Yue Fei] by Qian Cai 錢彩 of the Qing dynasty, it is described that “wǒ miànmào suīchǒu, xīndì quèshì shànliáng, bùsìnǐ fókǒu shéxīn. 我面貌雖醜，心地 卻是善良，不似你佛口蛇心.” (Although I look ugly, my heart is kind, not like you with a Buddha’s mouth but a viper’s heart.) Gǒuzhàng rénshì 狗仗人勢 means like a dog threatening people on the strength of its master’s power. According to the chapter 74 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nǐ jiù gǒuzhàn grénshì, tiāntiān zuòhào, zàiwomen gēnqián chěngliǎn. 你就 狗仗人勢，天天作耗，在我們跟前逞臉.” (Like a dog counting on its master’s backing you are always making trouble.) Guòhé chāiqiáo 過河拆橋 means burn the bridge after crossing it. According to the third scene of Lǐ Kuí fùjīng 李逵負荊 [Apology from Li Kui] by Kang Jinzhi 康進之 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “nǐxiūde shùnshuǐ tuīzhōu, piānbùxǔwǒ guòhé chāiqiáo. 你休得順水推舟，偏不許我過河拆橋.” (You do not think just because the bridge of our friendship is good, I will not burn the bridge after crossing it to expose your crimes.) Hàochī lǎnzuò 好吃懶做 means fond of eating and averse to work or eat one’s head off. According to the first chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “qiě rénqián rénhòu, yòuyuàn tā bùhuìguò, zhǐ yīwèi hàochī lǎnzuò. 且人前人後，又怨他不 會過，只一味好吃懶做.” (Complaining to all and sundry behind his back of his incompetence, idleness, and extravagance, he is fond of eating and averse to work.) Héngxíng bàdào 橫行霸道 refers to act like a tyrant or act against law and reason. According to the ninth chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢[A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Yīrèn Xuē Pán héngxíng bàdào. 一任薛蟠橫行霸道.” (He had not checked his tyrannous behaviour but actually abetted him in order to curry favor.) Jiānsuān kèbó 尖酸刻薄 means tart and mean. According to the chapter 66 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by (Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Shùnyīng jiějiě ānxīnyào jiānsuān kèbó, wǒyě bùlái fēnbiàn, suítā shuōqù. 舜英姐姐安心要尖酸刻薄，我也不來分辯，隨他 説去.” (Elder sister Shunying was willing to take tart and mean sarcasm. I will not argue with her and let her talk in her own way.)

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The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese

Lángtān shǔqiè 狼貪鼠竊 is greedy and despicable ones. According to Chūsài 出 塞 [Marching out to the Frontier] by Yu Qian 於謙 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “lángtān shǔqiè qùfùlái, bùjiě tōushēng qiúsùsǐ. 狼貪鼠竊去復來，不解偷生 求速死.” (These greedy and despicable enemies would rather die than live.) Lángxīn gǒufèi 狼心狗肺 is rapacious as a wolf and savage as a cur. In the volume 30 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǎzhī zhèzéizǐ nènbān lángxīn gǒufèi, fùyì wàng’ēn. 那知這賊子恁般狼心狗肺，負義忘恩.” (Who knew he could be so vicious, be ungrateful to my kindness.) Lángxīn gǒuxíng 狼心狗行 is greedy and shameless or ungrateful and heartless. In the seventh chapter of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “jīn zhī suǒwéi, zhēn lángxīn gǒuxíng zhītú, yǒu hémiànmù lìyú shìjiān? 今 之所爲，真狼心狗行之徒，有何面目立於世間？” (Now your deeds prove you are greedy and shameless in behavior. How can you look the world in the face?) Lángzǐ yěxīn 狼子野心 is the ambition of a wolf cub. In the eighth chapter of Huànhǎi 宦海 [Official Career] by Zhang Chunfan 張春帆 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nǎxiǎode nàbān xiángbīng, běnlái yuánshì yóuyǒng chūshēn, lángzǐ yěxīn, nǎlǐkěn ānān dùndùnde shǒuzhe guījǔ guòrìzi? 哪曉得那班降兵， 本來原是遊勇出身，狼子野心，哪裏肯安安頓頓的守著規矩過日子？” (Who knows that these surrendered soldiers, with their loose discipline and wicked intention, intend to live a life of discipline?) Mùkōng yīqiè 目空一切 means considering everybody and everything beneath one’s notice. According to the chapter 52 of Jìnghuāyuan 鏡花緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “dàntā shìzhe zìjǐ xuéwèn, mùkōng yīqiè, měiměi bǎrén bùfàng yǎnnèi. 但他恃著自己學問，目空 一切，每每把人不放眼内.” (He thinks highly of himself and looks down upon others, considering everybody and everything beneath his notice.) Mùzhōng wúrén 目中無人 refers to putting on airs and look down on other people. According to the tenth chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “yīntā zhàngzhe Bǎoyù hétā xiānghǎo, jiù mùzhōng wúrén. 因他仗著寶玉和他相好，就 目中無人.” (But on the strength of his friendship with Baoyu he looks down on everyone else.) Shéxiē xīncháng 蛇蠍心腸 means having a heart as malicious as snakes and scorpions. According to the second scene of Bàozhuānghé 抱粧盒 [Holding a Dressing Case] of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “biànshì shéxiē xīncháng, bùsì nènbān dúhài. 便是蛇蠍心腸，不似恁般毒害.” (Even merciless people are not so malicious.) Tāndé wúyàn 貪得無厭 means as greedy as a wolf. According to the chapter 107 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Fèngjiě běnshì tāndé wúyàn derén, rújīn bèi chāojìngjìn, zìrán chóukǔ. 鳳姐本是貪得無厭的人，如今被抄浄盡，自然愁 苦.” (Elder sister Feng was insatiably acquisitive or greedy. The loss of all her possessions had naturally cut her to the quick.)

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 131 Tānshēng pàsǐ 貪生怕死 refers to clinging to life and fear death. In the chapter 24 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “tānshēng pàsǐ zhītú, bùzúyǐ lùnqíshì. 貪生怕死之徒，不足以論其事.” (The sort of people who covet life and fear death are not those to discuss any great undertaking.) Tānzāng wǎngfǎ 貪贓枉法 means take bribes and bend the law. In the volume 21 of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zuòguānde tānzāng wǎngfǎ déláide qiánchāo cǐnǎi bùyì zhīcái. 做官的貪贓枉法得來的錢鈔此乃不義之 財.” (Money gained by corrupt officials is ill-gotten wealth.) Wàng’ēn fùyì 忘恩負義 means being devoid of all gratitude. In chapter 111 of Sānxiá wǔyì 三俠五義 [Three Heroes and Five Gallants] by Shi Yukun 石玉昆 of the Qing dynasty, it reads, “xīhū nĭ zhè yípiàn xuèxīn, jìng bèi nà wàng’ēn fùyì zhīrén qīhŏng le. 惜乎你這一片血心，竟被那忘恩負義之人欺哄了.” (It is a pity that despite your painstaking effort, you were cheated by such an ungrateful guy.) Xùnqíng wǎngfǎ 徇情枉法 means acting with partiality and defeating the ends of justice. In chapter 4 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it reads, “yŭcūn biàn xùnqíng wǎngfǎ, húluàn pànle cĭ’àn. 雨村便徇情枉法，胡亂判了此案.” (Yŭcūn then took the bribe and made an unfair verdict.) The nuances of the same kind of thing, or the nuances of will and feeling, can mostly be described from different angles with different idioms. Such as describing people’s panic mood, idioms such as dàjīng shīsè 大驚失色 (turn pale with fright), mùdèng kǒudāi 目瞪口呆 (stunned), zhāngkǒu jiéshé 張口結舌 (open the mouth and hold the tongue), and miànmiàn xiāngqù 面面相覷 (look at each other in speechless despair) are based on facial expressions. Idioms like cānghuáng shīcuò 倉皇失措 (all in a fluster), shǒuzú wúcuò 手足無措 (at a loss), and shǒumáng jiǎoluàn 手忙脚亂 (in a muddle) are based on behaviors. Idioms like xīndǎn jùliè 心膽俱裂 (extremely frightened), xīnjīng dǎnzhàn 心驚膽戰 (shake with fear), máogǔ sǒngrán 毛骨悚然 (hair stands on end), and gǔruǎn jīnmá 骨 軟筋麻 (one’s bones were weak and muscles numbed) are using body parts such as hair, bone, muscle, heart, and gut to describe such feeling. Idioms like huánghuáng bù’ān 惶惶不安 (on tenterhooks), dàjīng xiǎoguài 大驚小怪 (a storm in a teacup), húnbù fùtǐ 魂不附體 (as if the soul had left the body), húnfēi pòsàn魂飛 魄散 (one’s heart almost stood still with fright), and pòsàn húnfēi 魄散魂飛 (be half dead with fright) are based on psychological description. There are two aspects worth special attention in the content of modern idioms. First, many idioms sum up people’s life experience and understanding of social reality, which are full of philosophy and can give people enlightenment. Gūzhǎng nánmíng 孤掌難鳴 means it is difficult to achieve certain goal relying merely on the power of one individual or few people. In the chapter 61 of Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of the Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “Zhào Yún gūzhǎng nánmíng, zhǐhùde Ādǒu, ānnéng yízhōu páng’àn? 趙雲孤掌難鳴，只護得阿鬥， 安能移舟旁岸?” (Zhao Yun was difficult to achieve certain goal. It was hard to

132 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese protect A Dou, let alone anchor the boat to the bank.) In Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小 説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] (volume 21), Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 (the Ming dynasty) wrote that “(Qián Miào) kànjiàn chéngzhōng yǐyǒu zhǔnbèi, zìjǐ hòujūn wújì, gūzhǎng nánmíng, zhǐdé bōzhuǎn mǎtóu, chónghuí guīlù. (錢繆)看 見城中已有準備，自己後軍無繼，孤掌難鳴，只得撥轉馬頭，重回歸路.” ([Qian Miao] noticed the city was fully prepared, and he was short of follow-up units. He was so difficult to achieve certain goal that he could only turn his steed and go backwards.) In the fifth volume of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Qín Zìlì gūzhǎng nánwū, qìqí bùxià, zhīshēn xiéjiàn értáo. 勤 自勵孤掌難嗚，棄其部下，隻身挾劍而逃.” (Qin Zili was difficult to achieve certain goal, so he left his troop and fled with only his sword.) The expression is occasionally used together as dānsībùxiàn, gūzhǎng nánmíng 單絲不線，孤 掌難鳴, which makes the meaning more explicit. According to the chapter 49 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhǐshì dānsī bùxiàn, gūzhǎng nánmíng, zhǐbàodetā yīgèxìn. 只是單絲不線，孤掌難鳴，只報得 他一個信.” (It was difficult to achieve certain goal, so it was only possible to deliver one message to him.) In the chapter 30 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “wǒyào huíjiù Shāsēng, chéngránshì dānsī bùxiàn, gūzhǎng nánmíng. 我要回救沙僧，誠 然是單絲不線，孤掌難鳴.” (I planned to save Monk Sha back, but it was really difficult to achieve the goal, as one single palm cannot clap.) Guānguān xiānghù 官官相護 is also used as guānguān xiāngwéi 官官相爲, referring to the covering up and the preservation between bureaucrats, which is an exposure to the point of official circles’ essence. In the volume 22 of Pāi’àn jīngqí 拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “bìjìngshì guānguān xiānghù, dàotā shì géshěng shàngsī, bùhǎo tuīde gānjìng shēnzi. 畢竟是官官相護，道他是隔省上司，不好推得乾浄身 子.” (They cannot avoid the covering up and the preservation between bureaucrats after all. He is the bureaucrat in the other province, so it is inappropriate to pass the buck.) In addition, according to the chapter 99 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “rújīn jiùshì nàopòle, yěshì guānguān xiānghùde, bùguò rèngè chéngshěn bùshí, gézhí chǔfènba. 如今就是鬧破了，也是官官相護的，不過認個承審 不實，革職處分罷.” (Even if it was uncovered, the result would be a dismiss due to a wrong verdict. They all cover up between bureaucrats.) In the second scene of Húdiémèng 蝴蝶夢 [The Butterfly Dream] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “nǐdōu guānguān xiāngwéi yǐqīnshǔ, gèngzuòdào guóqī huángzú. 你都官官相爲倚親屬，更做道國戚皇族.” (You always conduct the covering up and the preservation between bureaucrats and depend on relatives, even the members of the imperial house.) In the fourth scene of Liǎngshì yīnyuán 兩世姻緣 [Marriage in Two Lifetimes] by Qiao Mengfu 喬夢符 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yěshì’ǎn guānguān xiāngwéi, nǐkěshèn xiánxián yìsè, yīncǐ shàng bùyuǎn qiānlǐ érlái. 也是俺官官相爲，你可甚賢賢易

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 133 色，因此上不遠千裏而來.” (I tend to keep the covering up and the preservation between bureaucrats and you are with morality and virtue. That is why the King travels a long distance here.) Lèjí shēngbēi 樂極生悲 is also used as lèjí bēishēng 樂極悲生 and lèjí bēilái 樂極悲來. The extreme happiness is apt to generate sorrow. As a result, one should not get too complacent and forget himself at any time. This is the dialectic truth of life. According to the chapter 26 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “chángyándào: ‘Lèjí shēngbēi, pǐjí tàilái.’ Guāngyīn xùnsù, qiánhòu yòuzǎo sìshí yúrì. 常言道: ‘樂極生悲，否極泰來.’ 光陰迅速，前後又早四十 餘日.” (It is said that the extreme happiness is apt to generate sorrow. Time flies, and about 40 days have passed.) In Xīhú èrjí: Sǎxuětáng qiǎojié liángyuán 西湖 二集·灑雪堂巧結良緣 [Novel Collection of West Lake: An Accidental Happy Match in Saxue Cottage] by Zhou Ji 周楫 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhēngnài hǎoshìduōmó, lèjí shēngbēi. 爭奈好事多磨，樂極生悲.” (The road to happiness is strewn with setbacks. The extreme happiness is apt to generate sorrow.) According to the sixth chapter of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “shéiliào lèjí bēilái, kuàihuó bùzhǐ yīnián, zhuàngzhe yuánzhèng shīgāng, sìfāng dàoqǐ. 誰料樂極悲來，快活不止一年，撞著元政失綱，四 方盜起.” (Unexpectedly, the extreme happiness was apt to generate sorrow; the happy days lasted for less than one year. The governance turned to be a chaos, and larceny was found everywhere.) Pángguānzhě qīng 旁觀者清 is derived from Yuán Xíngchōng zhuàn 元行沖 傳 [The Biography of Yuan Xingchong] in Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], which is written that “dāngjú chēngmí, pángguān jiànshěn. 當局稱迷，旁觀見審.” (Those closely involved cannot see clearly, but onlookers see most clearly.) The original meaning is for chess playing, while it turned to be an idiom in the modern times, indicating those at the centre of the course tend to be subjective and one-sided, but those standing by are coolheaded with objective opinion. In the chapter 55 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “súyǔshuō:‘Pángguānzhě qīng.’ Zhèjǐnián gūniáng lěngyǎn kànzhe, huòyǒu gāitiān gāijiǎnde qùchù, èrnǎinǎi méixíngdào, gūniáng jìngyītiānjiǎn. 俗語説: ‘旁 觀者清’. 這幾年姑娘冷眼看著，或有該添該減的去處，二奶奶没行到，姑 娘竟一添減.” (As the proverb says: “Those closely involved cannot see clearly, but onlookers see most clearly.” As a detached observer all these years, you may have noticed cases where she failed to make suitable cuts or additions.) According to the chapter 26 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “cónglái dāngjúzhě mí, pángguānzhě qīng. 從來當局者迷，旁觀者清.” (At all times, it is those closely involved that cannot see clearly, those closely involved cannot see clearly, but onlookers see most clearly.) This idiom of Qiánkě tōngshén 錢可通神 comes from the volume 25 of Yōuxián gǔchuī 幽閒鼓吹 [Drums and Pipes from Amidst the Dark] by Zhang

134 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese Gu 張固 of the Tang dynasty), which is written that “Xiàngguó Zhāng Yánshǎng jiāngpàn dùzhī, zhī yǒuyī dàyù, pōyǒu yuānlàn, měishèn èwàn. Jípànshǐ, jízhào yùlì yánjièzhī, qiěyuē: ‘Cǐyù yǐjiǔ, xúnrì xūliǎo.’ Míngdàn shìshì, ànshàng yǒuyī xiǎotiězi, yuē:‘Qián sānwànguàn, qǐbùwèn cǐyù.’ Gōng dànù, gèngcùzhī. Míngrì tiězi fùlái, yuē: ‘Qián wǔwànguàn.’ Gōng yìnù, mìng liǎngrì xūbì. Míngrì fùjiàn tiězi, yuē: ‘Qián wànguàn.’ Gōng yuē: ‘Qiánzhì shíwàn, kětōngshén yǐ, wú bùkěhuí zhīshì, wújù jíhuò, bùdé bùzhǐ.’ 相國張延賞將判度支，知有一大 獄，頗有冤濫，每甚扼腕. 及判使，即召獄吏嚴誡之，且曰: ‘此獄已久，旬 日須了’. 明旦視事，案上有一小帖子，曰: ‘錢三萬貫，乞不問此獄’. 公大 怒，更促之.明日帖子復來，曰: ‘錢五萬貫’. 公益怒，命兩日須畢. 明日復見 帖子，曰: ‘錢萬貫’. 公曰: ‘錢至十萬，可通神矣，無不可回之事，吾懼及 禍，不得不止.’” (The Premier Zhang Yanshang was going to be the Minister of Revenue. He knew there was a major case which was unjustly sentenced and he was quite in despair. When he took the office, he instantly admonished prison officers: “This case is open for too long, and it must be settled in days.” The second day when he was on work, there was a post on the table said, “Thirty thousand strings of cash and please do not hold this court again.” Zhang was in a rage, and he pushed the case even much harder. The next day, another post was on the table and said, “Fifty thousand strings of cash.” Zhang was furious and commanded the case to be closed in two days. The day after the next still saw a post and said, “One hundred thousand strings of cash.” Zhang said, “One hundred thousand strings of cash would settle anything. I am afraid that I will stir up trouble if I continue to deal with this case.” In the modern times, this expression is habitually used as an idiom, suggesting that even ghosts and gods can be bought off with money, needless to say human. This is a good illustration of the reality that money talks in society. In the fourth scene of Yuānyāngbèi 鴛鴦被 [The Mandarin Duck Quilt] by the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “qiánkě tōngshén, fǎ nán zòngnǐ. 錢可 通神，法難縱你.” (Even ghosts and gods can be bought off with money, needless to say human, the law will not connive you.) In Shídiǎntóu: Hóuguānxiàn liènǚ jiānchóu 石點頭·侯官縣烈女殲仇 [The Rock would nod: Lady Shentu’s Revenge in Houguan County] by Tianran chisou 天然癡叟 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “yīmiàn yòu chāirén dào jīngshī zhònghuì xíngbù sīfáng, qiú sùsù zhuǎnxiáng, yuēyú zhōngqiū juéqīzhōng jié’àn. Guǒrán qiánkě tōngshén, wúbù xiàoyàn. 一面又差人到京師重賄刑部司房，求速速轉詳，約于中秋决期中 結案. 果然錢可通神，無不效驗.” (At the same time, he sent one messenger to the capital to bribe the officials of the Criminal Department, begging to negotiate in length as soon as possible, and to settle the lawsuit in the mid-autumn. Indeed, it is always confirmed that even ghosts and gods can be bought off with money, needless to say human.) Zuòchī shānkōng 坐吃山空 is also used as zuòchī shānbēng 坐吃山崩 and zuòshí shānkōng 坐食山空, describing the situation that if one only eats what he has and does not care what he should produce, he will spend out all the wealth. Was not this the case with the downfall of many families in the old society? In the first scene of Dōngtánglǎo 東堂老 [The Eastern Hall Elder] by Qin Jianfu 秦簡夫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nàqiánwù zhǐyǒu chūqùde, wú

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 135 jìnláide. Biàn hǎodào zuòchī shānkōng, lìchī dìxiàn. 那錢物只有出去的，無進 來的. 便好道坐吃山空，立吃地陷.” (The money was spent, but not earned. That was called if one only eats what he has and does not care what he should produce, and the wealth would soon be wiped out.) It is recorded in Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō: Zhìchéng Zhāngzhǔguǎn 京本通俗小説·志誠張主管 [Popular Stories from Capital Editions: The Sincere Supervisor Zhang] that “Dàobùdé zuòchī shānbēng . . . bùqù yíngyùn, rìwǎng yuèlái, shǒunèi shǐde méile. 道不 得坐吃山崩, . . . 不去營運，日往月來，手内使得没了.” (That was what they called if one only eats what he has and does not care what he should produce, he will spend out all the wealth, . . . with no work for a while, there would be no money.) Qian Yong 錢詠 (the Qing dynasty) wrote in Lǚyuán cónghuà: Yìlùn: Suǒyè 履園叢話·臆論·所業 [Career of Speeches in Congyuan: Perspectives] that “Jīnjiàn shìjiā zǐdì, jìbù dúshū, yòuwú yīyè zìjǐ, zhōngrì xīxiào, zuòshí shānkōng, hū jiàng’ér wéiyóuduòzhīmín, zìcǐ suìbùkěwèn. 今見世家子弟，既不讀書，又 無一業自給，終日嬉笑，坐食山空，忽降而爲遊惰之民，自此遂不可問.” (Nowadays, younger generation of noble families do not learn knowledge or start up a business, but are addicted to entertainment and spend out all the wealth. It is certain that they will be degraded into lazy commons wandering around.) Secondly, many idioms use concrete object or actions to describe and visualize some abstract concepts, which may leave vivid and deep impressions for readers, as can be seen in the following examples. Guǐkū shénháo 鬼哭神號 is also used as shénháo guǐkū 神號鬼哭, guǐkū lángháo 鬼哭狼號, and lángháo guǐkū 狼號鬼哭, describing the miserable crying. The adoption of ghost and wolf increases the eerie atmosphere. In the chapter 43 of Shuō Yuè quánzhuàn 説岳全傳 [The Complete Story of Yue Fei] by Qian Cai 錢彩 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhíshāde tiānhūn dì’àn wúguāngcǎi, guǐkū shénháo hēiwùmí. 直殺得天昏地暗無光彩，鬼哭神號黑霧迷.” (The fighting continued until the sky was murky and the earth was dark. The miserable cry and the black fog were everywhere.) According to the chapter 66 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “yījiājiā shénháo guǐkū, sìxiàlǐ shíshùchù huǒguāng gèntiān, sìfāng bùbiàn. 一家家神號鬼哭，四下裹十 數處火光亙天，四方不辨.” (Families all had the miserable cry; the fire started in tens of points illuminated the sky, and no direction could be infered.) In the chapter 24 of Xǐngshì yīnyuánzhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Biographies of Warning Marriage] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yòu shénchāi guǐshǐ, jiàotā lǐmiàn rǎngdǎzuò guǐkū lánghào. 又神差鬼使，叫他 裏面嚷打做鬼哭狼號.” (Again, he used the the urge to trigger a war and they fought inside like the miserable cry.) In the chapter 58 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “lián wǒmenyě bùgǎn shuōhuà, nǐfǎn dǎde rén lángháo guǐkū de. 連 我們也不敢説話，你反打的人狼號鬼哭的.” (Even we dare not speak. You, on the contrary, beat them to miserable crying.) Hǎidǐ lāozhēn 海底撈針 and dàhǎi lāozhēn 大海撈針 are used to describe the extreme difficulty in searching something. The contrast that the sea is so vast

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while the needle is so slender generates a detailed and strong impression. According to the chapter 11 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “tàilǎoyé yàoná zhègèrén, zhǐpà bǐ hǎidǐ lāozhēn háinán. 太老爺要拿這個人，只怕 比海底撈針還難.” (His lordship wants to arrest this man. I am afraid it will be harder than looking for a needle in the ocean.) In the third chapter of Qiánhàn yǎnyì 前漢演義 [The Romance of the Former Han dynasty], it is recorded that “qiānrén gèzhǎn chángjì, tǒng xiàngshuǐzhōng tóurù, bābùde jiāngdǐng qǔchū, hǎo lǐngzhòngshǎng, piānpiān rú dàhǎi lāozhēn yībān, méiyǒu zhōudǐng yǐngjì. 千 人各展長技，統向水中投入，巴不得將鼎取出，好領重賞，偏偏如大海撈 針一般，没有周鼎影跡.” (Thousands of people showed their expertise, diving into the water and anxious to take out the tripod to receive the reward. Unluckily, the tripod was without a trace and the searching was like looking for a needle in the ocean.) Húqún gǒudǎng 狐群狗黨 is also used as húpéng gǒudǎng 狐朋狗黨 or húpéng gǒuyǒu 狐朋狗友, indicating bad people hooking up with each other. The adoption of hú 狐 (fox) and gǒu 狗 (dog) manifests a hideous picture to the readers. In the fourth scene of Qì Yīng Bù 氣英布 [Infuriating Ying Bu] by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “zán ruòbùshì fú Liú chú Xiàng, zhúzhe húqún gǒudǎng, wùliáng zěnxiǎnde zánzhè qíngmiàn dāngwáng. 咱若不是扶劉鋤項，逐著狐群狗黨，兀良怎顯得咱這黥面當王.” (If I did not lead bad people to support King Liu and dispose of Xiang Yu, how could I be a seignior with punishing tattoo on the face?) According to the chapter 90 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “dàgēgē zhèjǐnián zàiwàitou xiāngyǔde dōushìxiē shénmerén: Lián yīgè zhèngjīngde yěméiyǒu, dōushìxiē húqún gǒudǎng. 大哥 哥這幾年在外頭相與的都是些什麽人：連一個正經的也没有，都是些狐群 狗黨.” (The friends Brother Pan has been making these years! There is not a single decent sort among the whole foxy lot. They are a pack of bad people.) In the third scene of Dāndāohuì 單刀會 [The Single-knife Meeting] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “tā nàlǐànàndecáng, wǒ xūsuǒ jǐnjǐndefáng, dōushìxiē húpéng gǒudǎng. 他那裏暗暗的藏，我須索緊緊 的防，都是些狐朋狗黨.” (He has been secretly hiding and I have to be strictly on guard. They are all bad people.) In the tenth chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nǎode shìnà húpéng gǒuyǒu, bānnòng shìfēi, tiáosān wōsì. 惱的是 那狐朋狗友，搬弄是非，調三窩四.” (Angry with those bad people who cause trouble and gossip.) Lángxīn gǒufèi 狼心狗肺 is also used as gǒufèi lángxīn 狗肺狼心 and lǘxīn gǒufèi 驢心狗肺, presenting inhuman people with cruel and corrupt characters, which clearly indicates a hatred tendency. In the volume 30 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǎzhīzhè zéizǐ, nènbān lángxīn gǒufèi, fùyì wàng’ēn. 那知這賊子，恁般狼心狗肺，負義忘恩.” (Who knew that the despicable rat could be so cruel and ungrateful?) According to the eighth chapter of

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 137 Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty), it is written that “dǎowùbǎ zhègè lángxīn gǒufèide dōngxī, dàngzuò hǎorén. 倒誤把這個狼心狗肺的東西，當作好人.” (Never take this guy with cruel and corrupt characters as something good.) In the chapter 86 of Xǐngshì yīnyuánzhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Biographies of a Warning Marriage] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “xìng Xuē, mínghuàn Sùjiě, jiàyǔnà wàng’ēn fùyì, gǒufèi lángxīn . . . Dí Xīchén xiǎomíng Xiǎochéngē wéizhèngtóuqī. 姓薛，名喚素姐，嫁與那忘恩負義，狗 肺狼心 . . . 狄希陳小名小陳哥爲正頭妻.” (Her last name was Xue and first name was Sujie. She lawfully married the ungrateful guy with cruel and corrupt characters . . . named Di Xichen, or pet name Brother Xiaochen.) According to the fourth chapter of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “hégù kǔkǔ tānsī, sīliáng dúchī zì’ē . . . bùzhī lǘxīn gǒufèi zěnme shēngde. 何故苦苦 貪私，思量獨吃自屙 . . . 不知驢心狗肺怎麽生的.” (Why so greedy and never share gains with others . . . how could such a person with cruel and corrupt characters exist in the world?) Nǐsǐwǒhuó 你死我活 shows the scene that two sides fight fiercely and are irreconcilable. Sǐ死 (dead) and huó 活 (alive) testify the degree of the fight. In the first scene of Dù Cuìliǔ 度翠柳 [Cuiliu’s Renunciation] of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shìsúrén méiláiyóu zhēngcháng jìngduǎn, nǐsǐ wǒhuó. 世俗人没 來由爭長競短，你死我活.” (Secular people compete with each other to a lifeor-death struggle with no reason.) In the chapter 49 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “jìshì bóbó bùkěn, wǒmen jīnrì xiānhé bóbó bìnggè nǐsǐ wǒhuó. 既是伯伯不肯，我們今日先和伯伯併個你死我活.” (Since uncle disagreed, there must be a fight today to a life-or-death struggle.) Qiāncháng guàdù 牽腸掛肚 is also used as guàdù qiāncháng 掛肚牽腸, indicating the constant concern and worry. Qiāncháng 牽腸 (concern) and guàdù 掛 肚 (worry) are combined together to materialize the abstract concept in the idiom. In Xīhú èrjí: Jiǎlínnǚ dànshēng zhēnzǐ 西湖二集·假鄰女誕生真子 [Novel Collection of West Lake: The Fake Next Door Lady Gave Birth to a Human Child] by Zhou Ji 周楫 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “jiùshǐ lǎoshíhàn, yěyào rěxià qiāncháng guàdù zhīzhài. 就使老實漢，也要惹下牽腸掛肚之債.” (As veracious as he is, he cannot help but to constantly miss and worry too much.) In the chapter 37 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yàobùlái, tāyòu qiāncháng guàdùde. 要不來，他又牽腸掛肚的.” (If she cannot come, he will be in constant miss and worry.) In the chapter 52 of Xǐngshì yīnyuánzhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Biographies of Warning Marriage] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “zěnguàitā bùguàdù qiāncháng. 怎怪他不掛肚牽腸.” (How could he blamed for not worrying much about her?) Sǐpílàiliǎn 死皮賴臉 is the status of shamelessly badgering with somebody and being fulsome, being lost to all sense of shame. In the chapter 24 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty,

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it is written that “hái kuīshìwǒ ne! Yàoshì biéde, sǐpí làiliǎnde sānrì liǎngtóu láichán jiùjiù . . . . . . Jiùjiù yějiù méifǎ’ér ne. 還虧是我呢！要是別的，死皮賴 臉的三日兩頭來纏舅舅 . . . 舅舅也就没法兒呢.” (You are lucky that I am here. If someone else is here, he harassed my uncle being lost to all sense of shame from time to time, . . . There is no way for uncle to deal with him.) Yǎowén jiáozì 咬文嚼字 refers to the status of someone being over noticed of words and expressions that one wants to yǎo 咬 (bite) and jiáo嚼 (chew), being excessively particular about wording. This idiom describes vividly the picky verbalism. In the fourth scene of Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Killing the Dog to Persuade the Husband] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Āi, shǐbùde nǐ yǎowén jiáozì. 哎，使不的你咬文嚼字.” (Hey, do not be so excessively particular about wording.) In the seventh chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “(Yáng Zhízhōng) háizài dōngjiā miànqián yǎowén jiáozì, zhǐshǒu huàjiǎode bùfú. [楊執中]還在東家面前咬文嚼字，指手畫脚的不服.” ([Yang Zhizhong] refused to obey in front of the master. He made gestures, being excessively particular about wording.) In the chapter 27 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “tāmen bìdìng bǎyījùhuà lāchángle zuò liǎngsān jié’ér, yǎowén jiáozì, názhe qiāng’ér, hēnghēng jījī de, jídewǒ màohuǒ. 他們必定把一句話拉長了作兩三截兒，咬 文嚼字，拿著腔兒，哼哼唧唧的，急的我冒火.” (They take such an interminable time to tell you anything – being so excessively particular about wording! And the airs and graces they give themselves, the simpering, and the um-ing and ah-ing! If they only knew how it makes me fume!) Yǐnláng rùshì 引狼入室 means inviting a wolf into the house or bring disaster upon oneself. The behaviour of leading a wolf into the room is like leading the enemy or the villain in. This idiom leaves people a horrible impression that one must be on the alert. In Liáozhāi zhìyì Líshì 聊齋志異常·黎氏 [Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio: Ms Li] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Yìshǐshì yuē: Shìzé wúxíng, bàoyì cǎnyǐ. Zàiqǔzhě jiē yǐnláng rùshì ěr, kuàng jiāngyú yěhé táocuànzhōng qiúxiánfù zāi? 異史氏曰：士則無行，報 亦慘矣. 再娶者皆引狼入室耳，況將於野合逃竄中求賢婦哉？” (Yishishi said, “A man with no virtue will suffer his toll. Man who remarries is bringing disaster upon oneself. How can it be possible to select a virtuous wife in the indecent condition?”)

3 Structural development of idioms The idiom structure of Modern Chinese has developed comprehensively. Juxtaposed idioms are affluent correspondingly, which is a major character of the development of modern idioms. Most of the examples mentioned above belong to this type of structure, as exemplified below. Bǔfēng zhuōyǐng 捕風捉影 means to make groundless accusations. Cáishū xuéqiǎn 才疏學淺 means have little talent and less learning. Chóushān mènhǎi 愁山悶海 refers to people who are depressed but have no method to mediate.

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 139 Chúnqiāng shézhàn 唇槍舌戰 refers to a heated argument and a fierce battle of tongue. Fānyún fùyǔ 翻雲覆雨 refers to repeatedly changing one’s attitude or playing tricks. Gūmíng diàoyù 沽名釣譽 means to fish for fame and reputation. Guāngtiān huàrì 光天化日 refers to the status of being in broad daylight where everyone can see clearly. Hǎikū shílàn 海枯石爛 refers to the sea goes dry and the rocks melt with the sun, indicating the fact that great changes happened in a long period. Jiāotóu jiēěr 交頭接耳 means to speak ear to ear with small voice. Kōngqián juéhòu 空前絶後 means being unique, never known before and never to occur again. Lángtūn hǔyàn 狼吞虎嚥 means to eat eagerly and with great speed. Méitóu méinǎo 没頭没腦 refers to being incomprehensible and absent-minded. Qíngtóu yìhé 情投意合 means being pleased with each other; being closely allied in opinion and feelings. Sǔnrén lìjǐ 損人利己 means to benefit oneself at the cost of other people’s interest. Tiānzhū dìmiè 天誅地滅 means being destroyed by heaven and earth. Wéifēi zuòdǎi 爲非作歹 means to commit all sorts of crimes. Xúnguī dǎojǔ 循規蹈矩 means to accord with the custom and law and behave in a fit and proper way. Yīnchā yángcuò 陰差陽錯 refers to making mistakes due to accidental causes. Yǒutiān wúrì 有天無日 refers to being dark and without generally acknowledged truth. Zhuāngshén nòngguǐ 裝神弄鬼 refers to purposely making a mystery of simple things or deceiving people by mystifying others so they have no clue of what is going on. Juxtaposed idioms vary in their inner structure. The front and the end parts may be iterative in meaning; that is to say, either of them is capable to carry the whole meaning. For example, rénshān rénhǎi 人山人海 refers to huge crowds of people. The phrase rénshān 人山 or rénhǎi 人海 both express the meaning of crowds of people. Xīnmǎn yìzú 心滿意足 means to be fully satisfied and pleased. The phrase xīnmǎn 心滿 or xīnmǎn 意足 both take this meaning of complete satisfaction. Idioms like ānbāng dìngguó 安邦定國 (bring peace and stability to the country), shòudòng shòuè 受凍受餓 (suffer from hunger and cold), chéngxīn chéngyì 誠心誠意 (faithfully), duō zuǐduōshé 多嘴多舌 (gossipy and meddlesome), fěnshēn suìgǔ 粉身碎骨 (have one’s body smashed to piece), húqún gǒudǎng 狐群狗黨 (a gang of scoundrels), yàowǔ yángwēi 耀武揚威 (swagger around), zhǐshǒu huàjiǎo 指手畫脚 (make indiscreet remarks or criticisms), and so on, are all construed in this way. Two vocabularies or phrases with the same meaning in combination can be mutually compensatory, accenting, rendering the atmosphere, and rhyming. The two components of the idioms can also express meaning jointly. In other words, the meaning of the idiom can only be fully delivered when the two parts are united. They are inseparable and interdependent. The independent existence of any components will bring a totally different meaning. For example, nǐsǐwǒhuó 你死我活 refers to a life-or-death fight. The mere mentioning of nǐsǐ 你死 (you are dead) or wǒhuó 我活 (I am alive) will change the meaning. Shāngāo shuǐdī 山高水低 stands for the unexpected misfortune. Neither shāngāo 山高 (the high mountain) nor shuǐdī 水低 (the low river) provides the total meaning of the idiom.

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In addition, Shēntóu suōjǐng 伸頭縮頸 means to poke one’s head timidly. The use of either shēntóu 伸頭 (pop one’s head) or suōjǐng 縮頸 (retract one’s neck) will lose the meaning of the whole idiom. Qīshàng bāxià 七上八下 describes an unsettled state of mind. However, qīshàng 七上 (seven up) or bāxià 八下 (eight down) is meaningless in itself. Qīngzuǐbóshé 輕嘴薄舌 indicates the meaning of speaking impolitely and frivolously. Yet qīngzuǐ 輕嘴 (a light mouth) or bóshé 薄舌 (a thin tougue) is not understood in the sense of impolite speaking. The two structural parts or components of idioms can be causal. The front phrase is the reason or condition, while the end phrase is the result. For example, the idiom lǐzhíqìzhuàng 理直氣壯 means that a reasonable man is bold and straightforward. However, lǐzhí 理直 (reasonable) is the cause, and qìzhuàng 氣壯 (bold and straightforward) is the result of lǐzhí 理直. The idiom rénduō shǒuzá 人多手雜 refers to the fact that too many people together will disturb the management. However, rénduō 人多 (many people) is the cause, and shǒuzá 手雜 (many hands) is the result of rénduō 人多. The idiom tùsǐ húbēi 兔死狐悲 means the fox is sad at the death of a hare, i.e., to feel sad for the loss of one’s kind. Tùsǐ 兔死 (the death of the hare) is the cause, and húbēi 狐悲 (the sorrow of the fox) is the corresponding result. The idiom zìzuò zìshòu 自作自受 means one has to suffer from his own evil deed. Zìzuò 自作 (one’s own deed) is the cause, and zìshòu 自受 (one’s suffering) is the corresponding result. The two parts of one idiom can be contrastive or adversative. For instance, the idiom cángtóu lùwěi 藏頭露尾 means to show the tail but hide the head, telling part of the truth but not all of it. Shàonián lǎochéng 少年老成 demonstrates the contrast that one is young in age but sophisticated in handling affairs. Wènguān dáhuā 問官答花 manifests the disparity between the communicative intention and the feedback. Yìqǔ tónggōng 異曲同工 indicates that one may use different approaches but generate equally satisfactory results. Yánqīng xíngzhuó 言清行濁 means one’s words are not matched by deeds; the words are innocent but the the deeds are evil. The inner front and end parts of the idioms set each other off, making the idiom meaning more explicit and strong. One of the two parts of the idiom may be overweight than the other part. For example, the idiom xúnsǐmìhuó 尋死覓活 describes someone who tries to commit suicide in the name of desperation. In this idiom, xúnsǐ 尋死 (commit suicide) is emphasized. The meaning of the idiom sǐxīn tādì 死心塌地 is to give up any thought of an alternative. Sǐxīn 死心 (give up any thought of an alternative) is overweighted in the idiom. Two phrases composing juxtaposed idioms may construct various structures. For example, the idioms like cōngmínglínglì 聰明伶俐 (clever and sensible), guāngmíng zhèngdà 光明正大 (fair and square), qīnglián zhèngzhí 清廉正直 (honest and upright), and wēnwén ěryǎ 温文爾雅 (gentle and cultivated) are all formed by two juxtaposed polysyllabic words. While the idioms like chìshǒu kōngquán 赤手空拳 (bare-handed), dōngdǎo xīwāi 東倒西歪 (reel right and left), sīxīn zániàn 私心雜念 (selfish interest), and gāngjīn tiěgǔ 鋼筋鐵骨 (a body strong as iron) are composed of two subordinate polysyllabic words. The idioms like chūtóu lòumiàn 岀頭露面 (show one’s face in public), suōshǒu suōjiǎo 縮手

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 141 縮脚 (shrink with cold), téngyún jiàwù 騰雲駕霧 (walk on air), and wàng’ēn fùyì 忘恩負義 (ungratefulness) are construed by two governable phrases. The idioms like dìdòng shānyáo 地動山搖 (the earth trembled and the mountains swayed), lóngzhēng hǔdòu 龍爭虎鬥 (a fight between a dragon and a tiger), táohóng liǔlǜ 桃紅柳綠 (red peach blossoms and green willows), and xīnmǎn yìzú 心滿意足 (be fully satisfied and content) are formed by two representative phrases of the idiom. The idioms like sǐqù huólái 死去活來 (have fainted and recovered consciousness several times) is composed of two verb-complement phrases, namely, sǐqù 死去 and huólái 活來. Meanwhile, the idiom suǒ zuò suǒwéi 所作所爲 (what one does and how he behaves) contains two suǒ 所 structures in the idiom. One of the major ways to coin modern idioms is to take two numerals as the base and construe juxtaposed idioms, as exemplified below. Bàn 半 and bàn 半 form idioms like bàntuī bànjiù 半推半就 (half-loath and half-consenting), bàntūn bàntǔ 半吞半吐 (half concealing and half telling), bànxīn bànjiù 半新半舊 (half new and half old), bànxìn bànyí 半信半疑 (uncertain as to what to believe), bànmèng bànxǐng 半夢半醒 (half-asleep and half-awake), bàn qíbàn bǎo 半饑半飽 (not having enough to eat, half-starving), bànsān bùsì 半三 不四 (uneasy and in low spirits), bànsǐbùhuó 半死不活 (more dead than alive), bànyè sāngēng 半夜三更 (at midnight, in the late night), bànxìn bùxìn 半信不信 (uncertain about the result), and bànxīn bùjiù 半新不舊 (half new and half old). Yī 一 and the combination of other numerals generates idioms such as yīguān bànzhí 一官半職 (a common official position), yīnán bànnǚ 一男半女 (one son or one daughter), yīshí bànkè 一時半刻 (part of the day, moment; in a short duration), yījiē bànjí 一階半級 (an unimportant official position), yīlín bànzhǎo 一 鱗半爪 (fragments of things), yīyán bànyǔ 一言半語 (one word or two), yīzhī bànjiě 一知半解 (having a limited and superficial knowledge), yībù yīqū 一步 一趨 (walking on the heels of someone, follow blindly), yīchàng yīhè 一唱一和 (two people coordinate and echo each other), yīcǎo yīmù 一草一木 (every small things, every tree and bush), yīchuī yīchàng 一吹一唱 (two people coordinate and echo each other), yīdì yījù 一遞一句 (two people take turn and response to each other), yījǔ yīdòng 一舉一動 (every act and every move), yīlǎo yīshí 一老 一實 (honest and sincere), yīsī yīháo 一絲一毫 (a tiny bit), yīwǔ yīshí 一五一 十 (to narrate in details with nothing missed), yīmú yīyàng 一模一樣 (totally identical), yīxīn yīyì 一心一意 (paying undivided attention), yīyán yīxíng 一言 一行 (every word and action), yīzhāo yīxī 一朝一夕 (a short duration of time), yīzì yīlèi 一字一淚 (grief and earnest in wording), shuōyī shìyī 説一是一 (one’s word is as good as his bond), yīchā èrcuò 一差二錯 (possible mistake or mishap), yīchā èrduan 一長二短 (unexpected accidents, the real story), yīgān èrjìng 一乾 二淨 (very clean, not a trace left), yīlái èrqù 一來二去 (in the course of contacts), yīdé liǎngbiàn 一得兩便 (an appropriate move brings about two aspects of convenience or benefits), yīshuāng liǎnghǎo 一雙兩好 (a harmonious couple with similar talent and appearance), yīsīliǎngqì 一絲兩氣 (one’s breathing becomes faint and seems to be the last), yīxīn liǎngyòng 一心兩用 (keep one eye on), yīdāo liǎngduàn 一刀兩斷 (making a thorough break), yījī liǎngbǎo 一飢兩飽 (one hunger and two satiety, living in poverty), yījǔ liǎngdé 一舉兩得 (killing

142 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese two birds with one stone), yījiàn shuāngdiāo 一箭雙雕 (with high proficiency of shooting or achieving two things at one stroke), yīshí sānkè 一時三刻 (a short period), yībō sānzhé 一波三折 (full of twists and turns), yībǎn sānyǎn 一板三眼 (highly organized and efficient), yīyán jiǔdǐng 一言九鼎 (someone being authoritative with weighty advice), yīchàng bǎihè 一倡百和 (one leads, and the rest follow), yīhū bǎiyìng 一呼百應 (multitudes respond to one’s call), yīcuò bǎicuò 一 錯百錯 (major problems lead to other minor problems), yīliǎo bǎiliǎo 一了百了 (all troubles end when the main trouble ends), yīkè qiānjīn 一刻千金 (every minute is of value), yīfà qiānjūn 一髮千鈞 (in grave danger), yīluò qiānzhàng 一落千 丈 (a great fall in status and condition), yīrì qiānlǐ 一日千裏 (developing at a tremendous pace), yīxiào qiānjīn 一笑千金 (a beauty’s smile is very precious), yīxiè qiānlǐ 一瀉千裏 (vigorously bold and flowing), yīzhì qiānjīn 一擲千金 (lavishing one’s money like a gambler), yīzì qiānjīn 一字千金 (the calligraphy and poetry that of great value), yīběn wànlì 一本萬利 (making big profits with small capital), yībìwànqǐng 一碧萬頃 (watery blue, reaching far beyond the horizon), dīngyī mǎoèr 丁一卯二 (precise and reliable), dúyī wúèr 獨一無二 (the original without copies), shǔyīshǔèr 數一數二 (ranking in number one or number two), shuōyī bùèr 説一不二 (one never changes his words), jǔyī fǎnsān 舉一反三 (inferring other things from one fact), guàyī lòubǎi 掛一漏百 (hang a leak and let it go, not fully covered but missing many points), guàyī lòuwàn 掛一漏萬 (incomplete in record, too many omissions), shāyī jǐngbǎi 殺一儆百 (executing one as a warning to others), and so on. Liǎng兩and its combination with other numerals builds up juxtaposed idioms, such as liǎngmiàn sāndāo 兩面三刀 (playing a double game; sinister and cunning), liǎngcì sānfān 兩次三番 (many times), liǎngdào sānkē 兩道三科 (making deceiving and irresponsible remarks), liǎngtóu sānmiàn 兩頭三面 (speaking and acting in one way but aiming at something quite different; trying to please both sides), liǎngtóu sānxù 兩頭三緒 (annoyed and perplexed), and jiēèr liánsān 接二 連三 (the situation happens in quick succession). Sān 三 and its combination with other numerals form juxtaposed idioms, such as sānbān liǎngyàng 三般兩樣 (making up to some people and look down on others), sāncháng liǎngduǎn 三長兩短 (gossiping; unforeseen disasters/accidents), sānfān wǔcì 三番五次 (saying or doing something over and over again), sānhǎo liǎngqiàn 三好兩歉 (the stand or fall of illness), sāngēng bànyè 三更半夜 (late at night), sānquán èrjiǎo 三拳二脚 (three fists and two feet, a few cuffs and kicks), sānxīn èryì 三心二意 (weak-minded and in hesitation), sānlín sìshè 三鄰四舍 (a generic term of neighbourhood), sānrìliǎngtóu 三日兩頭 (frequently, nearly every day), sānwǎ liǎngshè 三瓦兩舍 (a generic term of houses with tiled roof), sānyán liǎngyǔ 三言兩語 (in a few words), zháosān bùzháosì 著三不著四 (behaving in an inappropriate and unprepared way), sānpéng sìyǒu 三朋四友 (friends in all directions, especially the crooked ones), diūsān làsì 丟三落四 (forgetful due to carelessness or bad memory), dīsān xiàsì 低三下四 (humble and degrading; groveling as if having no strength of character), diānsān dǎosì 顛三倒四 (thinking, speaking, or behaving disorderly), héngsān shùsì 橫三豎四 (in disorder), diàosān wòsì 調三斡四 (stirring up enmity), shuōsān dàosì 説三道四 (making

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 143 irresponsible remarks), yánsān yǔsì 言三語四 (making irresponsible remarks), zhāngsān lǐsì 張三李四 (a generic term of anyone or someone), zhāosān mùsì 朝 三暮四 (changeful and unsteady), qīsān mánsì 欺三瞞四 (deceiving or misleading), tuīsān zǔsì 推三阻四 (declining with all kinds of excuses), sānlìng wǔshēn 三令五申 (giving repeated orders and injunctions), sānfén wǔdiǎn 三墳五典 (books written in the most remote antiquity, a generic term of books), sāngāng wǔcháng 三綱五常 (principles of feudal moral conduct), sānshēng wǔdǐng 三牲 五鼎 (a high position and a good pay; living in great luxury), sānnián wǔzǎi 三年 五載 (in a few years), sānshān wǔyuè 三山五嶽 (a generic term of famous mountains), āi sān dǐng wǔ 挨三頂五 (suffer from three to five, continuously), sānbān liùfáng 三班六房 (officials in the yamen in the Ming and the Qing dynasties), sānduì liùmiàn 三對六面 (together with the parties involved and the witness), sāntuī liùwèn 三推六問 (repeated interrogations), sānchá liùfàn 三茶六飯 (attentive to guests and serving all kinds of foods and drinks), sāngū liùpó 三姑六婆 (various liberal professions of women of the lower classes), sānqīn liùjuàn 三親 六眷 (a generic term of all the kinsmen, old friends and acquaintances), sāntóu liùbì 三頭六臂 (strong and powerful), sānzāi bānàn 三災八難 (being dogged by bad luck), sānjiào jiǔliú 三教九流 (a generic term of religions, schools of thought, people, professions), sānliù jiǔděng 三六九等 (various differences and ranks), sānxún jiǔshí 三旬九食 (nine meals in 30 days; to live in dire poverty and hunger), sānzhēn jiǔliè 三貞九烈 (feudal women who died in defence of their chastity), and so on. Sì 四 and its combination with other numerals construct idioms, such as, sìfēn wǔliè 四分五裂 (being torn apart and breaking into pieces), sìfēn wǔluò 四分五 落 (scattered and in disorder), sìshān wǔyuè 四山五嶽 (a general reference of all regions), sìqīng liùhuó 四清六活 (smart and capable), sìlín bāshè 四鄰八舍 (neighbors around), sìmiàn bāfāng 四面八方 (in all areas and directions), sìpíng bāwěn 四平八穩 (in a methodical and well-balanced way), sìshí bājié 四時八節 (four seasons and solar-terms in a year; four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter; eight solar-terms: start of spring, spring equinox, start of summer, summer solstice, start of autumn, autumn equinox, start of winter, and winter solstice), sìtíng bādāng 四停八當 (steady and in order), sìtōng bādá 四通八達 (transportation being convenient and unimpeded, extending in all directions), dǎosìdiānsān 倒四顛三 (speaking or behaving in a confused and disordered way), piánsì líliù 駢四驪六 (parallel prose composed of four words each sentence using parallel dual), and so on. Wǔ 五 and its combination with other numerals form idioms, such as, wǔhú sìhǎi 五湖四海 (all parts of the country), qiānwǔ guàsì 牽五掛四 (things being involved with each other and influential to each other), wǔhuáng (huāng) liùyuè 五 黃 (荒) 六月 (temporary shortage in May and June in the lunar calendar), wǔyán liùsè 五顔六色 (in all the colors), wǔqíng liùyù 五情六欲 (various human sexual passion), wǔquè liùyàn 五雀六燕 (balanced with little difference), wǔzàng liùfǔ 五臟六腑 (internal organs of the body), wǔláo qīshāng 五勞七傷 (miscellaneous illness; tending to fall ill), wǔháng bāzuō 五行八作 (all trades and professions), wǔhuā bāmén 五花八門 (of a wide variety and changeful), wǔfēng shíyǔ 五風

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The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese

十雨 (the good weather for the crops), wǔguāng shísè 五光十色 (multicolored), and so on. Liù 六 and its combination with other numerals will make up idioms like liùjiē sānshì 六街三市 (the tumultuous downtown), liùtāo sānlüè 六韜三略 (books on the art of war), liùtōng sìdá 六通四達 (convenient transportation extending toal directions), and so on. Qī 七 and its combination with other numerals will compose idioms like qīqíng liùyù 七情六欲 (human emotions and sensory pleasures), qīcháng bāduǎn 七長 八短 (of uneven size), qīdà bāxiǎo 七大八小 (of different sizes), qīdiān bādǎo 七顛八倒 (in extreme disorder; incoherent and abnormal), qīgāo bādī 七高八低 (rough and uneven), qīliǎo bādāng 七了八當 (planning everything well), qīlíng bāluò 七零八落 (in a state of confusion), qīpīn bācòu 七拼八湊 (a patchwork without pattern or order), qīqǐ bāluò 七起八落 (with rises and falls; troublesome), qīshàng bāxià (luò) 七上八下 (落) (in an unsettled state of mind), qīshǒu bājiǎo 七手八脚 (in great hurry and bustle), qīsǐ bāhuó 七死八活 (suffering many privations), qīwāi bāniǔ 七歪八扭 (in a state of great disorder), qīzuǐ bāshé 七嘴八舌 (all sorts of gossip), héngqī shùbā 橫七豎八 (spreading all across in confusion), jiāqī jiābā 夾七夾八 (talking or behaving illogically), and so on. Jiǔ 九 and its combination with other numerals will form idioms like jiǔniú yī máo 九牛一毛 (the least particle in a great amount), jiǔsǐyīshēng 九死一生 (a slim chance of surviving in dangerous situation), jiǔliè sānzhēn 九烈三貞 (feudal women who died in defence of their chastity), and so on. Shí 十 and its combination with other numerals will constitute idioms like shí guāng wǔsè 十光五色 (a myriad of varied scenes; all sorts of colours), shíbìng jiǔ tòng 十病九痛 (falling ill frequently), shíná jiǔwěn 十拿九穩 (almost ninetenths certain, in hand), shínián jiǔhuāng 十年九荒 (crops fail nine years out of ten), shíqīng jiǔzhuó 十清九濁 (in utter disorder), shíshì jiǔkōng 十室九空 (nine houses out of ten are deserted – a scene of desolation after a plague or war when people are bankrupted and fleeing), shíquán shíměi 十全十美 (be perfect in every respect), and so on. Bǎi 百 and its combination with other numerals will form idioms like bǎilǐtiāoyī 百裏挑一 (only one in a hundred is chosen, indicating the rareness), bǎiwú yīèr 百無一二 (the proportion of certain group is very small), bǎiwú yīnéng 百無一能 (someone who is incompetent with no professional skill), bǎiwú yīshì 百無一是 (absolutely nothing is correct), bǎifā bǎizhòng 百發百中 (every shot or fire hits the target), bǎilíng bǎilì 百伶百俐 (pretty clever and swift), bǎiyī bǎishùn (suí) 百依百順 (隨) (obeying in every way), bǎizhàn bǎishèng 百戰百勝 (victorious in every battle), bǎikǒng qiānchuāng 百孔千瘡 (heavily damaged; full of ills and troubles), bǎizhé qiānhuí 百折千回 (a winding channel of mountains ranges, rivers, paths, or tones), and so on. Qiān 千 and its combination with other numerals will make up idioms like qiānjīn yīkè 千金一刻 (the precious moment), qiānjūn yīfà 千鈞一髮 (in a most dangerous or crucial condition), qiānpiān yīlǜ 千篇一律 (works following the same pattern), qiānzǎi yīshí 千載一時 (a rare chance), qiānchuāng bǎikǒng 千瘡 百孔 (in a disastrous state with wounds or problems), qiānchuí bǎiliàn 千錘百煉

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 145 (poems and essays being carefully and repeatedly modified), qiānfāng bǎijì 千方 百計 (making every endeavor), qiānqí bǎiguài 千奇百怪 (very strange; all sorts of strange things), qiānjiāo bǎimèi 千嬌百媚 (girls being exquisitely dainty and ravishingly beautiful), qiāngē bǎijiù 千擱百就 (gentle and considerate), qiānbiàn wànhuà 千變萬化 (infinite in variety), qiānchā wànbié 千差萬別 (a tremendous difference), qiāndāo wànduò (guǎ) 千刀萬剁 (剮) (ancient times’ punishment of giving criminals a thousand cuts; now the curse words), qiāndīng wànzhǔ 千叮 萬囑 (giving many exhortations to someone), qiānēn wànxiè 千恩萬謝 (particularly grateful), qiāncūn wànluò 千村萬落 (thousands of villages), qiānhū wànhuàn 千呼萬喚 (called a great many times), qiānhuān wànxǐ 千歡萬喜 (fully joyful), qiānhuí wànzhuǎn 千回萬轉 (the voice being tactful and continuous), qiānmén wànhù 千門萬戶 (numerous households), qiānjūn wànmǎ 千軍萬馬 (an impressive scene of a large number of mounted and foot soldiers), qiānnán wànnán 千難萬難 (numerous difficulties and dangers), qiānqiū wàngǔ (suì) 千秋萬 古 (歲) (through all eternity), qiānshān wànshuǐ 千山萬水 (a journey filled with numerous difficulties and dangers), qiānsī wànlèi 千絲萬累 (various associations hard to tear off), qiāntuī wànzǔ 千推萬阻 (keeping declining and refusing), qiānxīn wànkǔ 千辛萬苦 (innumerable trials and hardships), qiānyánwànyǔ 千言萬語 (thousands of words), qiānzhēn wànquè 千真萬確 (absolutely true), chéngqiān lèiwàn 成千累萬 (in huge numbers), and so on. Wàn 萬 and its combination with other numerals will form idioms like wànwú yīshī 萬無一失 (on the safe side), wànjù yīxīn 萬聚一心 (people unite as one community and with one mind), wàngǔ qiānqiū 萬古千秋 (through all eternity), wànzǐ qiānhóng 萬紫千紅 (the beautiful scene of innumerable flowers in bloom in spring), lěiwàn yíngqiān 累萬盈千 (being in huge numbers), and so on. Juxtaposed idioms with numerous meanings can be formed by making use of one or two general words as basis, which is also a main method in Modern Chinese development. For instance, as the basis, bù 不 can be combined into idioms with the structure of 不 X 不 X below. Bùgān bùgà 不尷不尬 means in an awkward position, in a dilemma, difficult to handle. Bùlíng bùluò 不零不落 means withered and fallen. Bùdú bùfā 不毒不發 means there is no self-improvement without being despised. Bùcí bùxióng 不雌不 雄 means taking an ambiguous attitude. Bùgān bùjìng 不乾不浄 means neither dry (dirty) nor clean. Bùhūn bùsù 不葷不素 means neither meat nor vegetable or suspended in midair. Bùjí bùlí 不即不離 refers to keeping the right distance. Bùkàng bùbēi 不亢不卑 refers to neither aggressive (haughty) nor humble. Bùláng bùyǒu 不稂不莠 means good for nothing. Búle búdāng 不了不當 refers to nothing wrong or sloppy and unfinished. Bùlíngbùlì 不伶不俐 is not smart or clever. Bùlún bùlèi 不倫不類 is neither fish nor fowl. Bùmíng bùàn 不明不暗 is neither light nor dark or the truth is distorted. Bùlǐbùcǎi 不理不睬 refers to completely ignore or give somebody the cold shoulder. Bùqū bùnáo 不屈不撓 means not to bend or swerve in front of difficulty or vicious power. Bùrén bùyì 不仁不義 refers to cruel and cold-hearted, without any morality or virtue. Bùsēng bùsú 不僧不俗 refers to neither priest nor layman. Bùsān bùsì 不三 不四 means neither one thing nor the other. Bùshàng bùxià 不上不下 refers to

146 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese things unsettled or in a difficult situation. Bùshēng bùsǐ 不生不死 refers to halfdead in long-standing malady. Bùtòng bùyǎng 不痛不癢 means not grasping the main points. Bùwèn bùwén 不問不聞 means neither care to inquire nor to hear. Bùzhī bùjué 不知不覺 refers to without noticing something is happening. Among the idioms mentioned above, bùgān bùgà 不尷不尬 or bùlíng bùluò 不零不落 make use of negation to represent confirmation. The function of bù 不 (no) is to emphasize the affirmative tone. The idiom bùdú bùfā 不毒不發 is a packed structure with bùdú 不毒 (unless being despised) as the condition of bùfā 不發 (do not rise in great vigor); the rest are juxtaposed structures with bù 不 as the negative adverbs. Tiān 天 and dì 地 can construe the idiom structure of天 X 地 X or 天 X 地 X, as exemplified below. Tiānbēng dìliè 天崩地裂 refers to a huge sound, abrupt change, or disaster. Tiānfān dìfù 天翻地覆 refers to everything being turned upside down. Tiāngāo dìhòu 天高地厚 means high as heaven, deep as earth (of kindness, emotion etc.). Tiānhán dìdòng 天寒地凍 refers to the weather being so cold that the ground is frozen. Tiānhūn dì’àn 天昏地暗 refers to a murky sky over a dark earth. Tiānluó dìwǎng 天羅地網 refers to an invisible net in air and on land to prevent escape. Tiānnán dìběi 天南地北 means being separated far apart. Tiānnù rényuàn 天怒 人怨 refers to the gods being angry and the people resentful, indicating the severe evil deeds lead to indignation. Tiāntā dìxiàn 天塌地陷 refers to the collapse of heaven and earth, meaning huge disaster. Tiānzào dìshè 天造地設 refers to ideal things created by nature. Tiānzhū dìmiè 天誅地滅 refers to one who stands condemned by God due to his horrible crime. Dǐngtiān lìdì 頂天立地 refers to one who stands upright on his two legs between heaven and earth (of indomitable and heroic spirit). Hūtiān qiāngdì 呼天搶地 means to lament to heaven and knock one’s head on earth, suggesting the cry of bitterness and excessive grief. Huātiān jiǔdì 花天酒地 means indulging in a life of debauchery and luxury. Huāntiān xǐdì 歡天喜地 means being in an ecstasy of joy. Hūntiān hēidì 昏天黑地 refers to being in pitch darkness, illustrating the darkness of society. Jīngtiān dòngdì 驚天動地 means with world-shaking influence and significance. Shàngtiān xiàdì 上天下地 means in a wide range with no limitation. Tántiān shuōdì 談天説地 refers to the talk of everything under the sun. Wūtiān hēidì 烏天黑地 refers to the gloomy sky indicating the society in chaos. Zhèntiān dòngdì 震天動地 refers to the situation that is powerful and startling. Dōng 東 and xī 西 can construe the idiom structure of 東 X 西 X or 東 X 西 X, as can be seen in the following examples. Dōngdǎo xīwāi 東倒西歪 refers to lack of physical strength and falling over like ninepins. Dōnglā xīchě 東拉西扯 means to drag into all sorts of irrelevant matters. Dōnglín xīshè 東鄰西舍 refers to neighborhood nearby. Dōnglín xīzhǎo 東鱗西爪 refers to fragments and segments. Dōngpīn xīcòu 東拼西湊 means to put all sorts of things together. Dōngtú xīmǒ 東塗西抹 refers to women whitewashing themselves; it is also used as the humble expression of writing or compositing. Dōngyóu xīdàng 東遊西蕩 means to fool around and have nothing

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 147 serious to do. Dōngzhāng xīwàng 東張西望 means to look all around and wait for someone’s arrival. The first and the third word or the second and the fourth word in this sort of idiom structure are the same, but the constitute forms and the key meanings are completely different. For example, among the idioms composed of qíguài 奇怪 (strange and odd), qítán guàilùn 奇談怪論 is formed by two subordinate phrases, and qí奇 (strange) and guài 怪 (odd) are the modifiers, presenting the unreasonable talk. Qiānqíbǎiguài 千奇百怪 also contains two subordinate phrases, and qí 奇 (strange) and guài 怪 (odd) are the central words, signifying the diversity of strange things. Chēngqí dàoguài 稱奇道怪 (marvel at something) is formed by two predicate-object phrases, emphasizing the verbs chēng 稱 (claim) and dào道 (speak). Xīqí gǔguài 希奇古怪 (strange and eccentric) is jointly constructed by xī 希 (rare), qí 奇 (strange), gǔ 古 (strange), and guài 怪 (odd), highlighting the original meaning of qí 奇 (strange) and guài 怪 (odd). In the cases of idioms made up by cháng長 (long) and duǎn 短 (short). The idiom sāncháng liǎngduǎn 三長兩 短 is formed by two subordinate phrases with cháng 長 (long) and duǎn 短 (short) as the central components, suggesting the accident or misfortune. The idiom shuōcháng dàoduǎn 説長道短 includes two predicate-object phrases, in which cháng長 (long) and duǎn 短 (short) are the object, indicating the unfairness of the comments. Qīcháng bāduǎn 七長八短 is composed of two subject-predicate phrases with cháng 長 (long) and duǎn 短 (short) as the predicate stressing the irregularity of things. Chángxū duǎntàn 長吁短歎 is formed by two subordinate phrases with cháng 長 (long) and duǎn 短 (short) as the modifier demonstrating the sorrow, while the focuses are on xū 吁 (sigh) and tàn 歎 (acclaim). All in all, using the same element as basis will create many idioms with various meanings and internal structures. These idioms can describe attributes of a variety of objects and their nuance. In Modern Chinese lexicon, these idioms cover a large proportion and they enrich the content of Chinese idioms. Moreover, other idioms in Modern Chinese have also developed. For example, jìntuìliǎngnán 進退兩難 (in a dilemma) and pǐnxué jiānyōu 品學兼優 (excellent in character and learning) are of the subject-predicate structure, while guòyǎn yúnyān 過眼雲煙 (as transient as a fleeting cloud) and huànnàn zhījiāo 患難之交 (intimate friends in adversity) are of subordinate structure. Chūrén tóudì 出人頭 地 (become outstanding or standing out from others) and zhāngdà qící 張大其詞 (making an overstatement deliberately) are of the predicate-object structure. Yǐdú gōngdú 以毒攻毒 (curing a poisoned patient with poison; using a vicious way to treat those who did so) is a verb-object phrase in combination with the prepositional adverbial and the like. There will be no more detailed discussion in here.

4 The development of modern proverbs There are quite a few proverbs in Old Chinese, but more proverbs come into being in Modern Chinese. With the wide spread of vernacular literature in the modern era, the numbers of proverbs are on rises, whose content becoming more enriching, and the structure more popularized and colloquial. The total sum is beyond

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The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese

3,000 proverbs. In the second chapter of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty alone, we find more than 300 hundred proverbs. The following are some examples. Bùdào huánghé xīnbùsǐ 不到黃河心不死 means refusing to give up until all hope is gone, which is recorded in the chapter 82 of Dàngkòuzhì 蕩寇志 [Extermination of Bandits] by Yu Wanchun 俞萬春 of the Qing dynasty. Bùshì yuānjiā bùjùtóu 不是冤家不聚頭 means that opponents will always meet, which is recorded in the scene one of Chǔ Zhāogōng 楚昭公 [Chu ChiuKung] by Zheng Tingyu 鄭廷玉 of the Yuan dynasty. Bbùdǎ bùchéng xiāngshí 不打不成相識 means that from an exchange of blows friendship grows, which is recorded in the chapter 38 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty. Bùkàn sēngmiàn kànfómiàn 不看僧面看佛面 means doing something for a person out of deference to somebody or something else, which is recorded in the chapter 31 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty. Bùpàguān, zhǐpàguǎn 不怕官，只怕管 means that no fearing the officials but fearing the man in direct control, however low his position might be, which is recorded in the chapter two of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty. Bùshì dōngfēng yādǎo xīfēng, jiùshì xīfēng yādǎo dōngfēng 不是東風壓倒西 風，就是西風壓倒東風 means that when two sides are in conflict, either this part prevails, or that part prevails, which is recorded in the chapter 82 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty. Chīzhe wǎnlǐ wàng(qiáo)zhe guōlǐ 吃著碗裏望(瞧)著鍋裏 means that eating one dish, while watching for next, which is recorded in the chapter 16 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭 陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, and in the chapter 16 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty as well. Chūtóu chuán’ér xiān xiǔlàn 出頭椽兒先朽爛 means that the outstanding usually bears the brunt of attack, which is recorded in the chapter 86 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty. Déráorénchù qiě ráorén 得饒人處且饒人 means that one shouldn’t be too hard on others, and should be lenient wherever it is possible, which is recorded in the chapter 81 of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩 of the Qing dynasty; and in the chapter 59 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty. Dǎqiángbǎn’ér fānshàngxià 打牆板兒翻上下 refers to changeable life and world affairs, which is recorded in the chapter 90 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty. Dāngzhe ǎirén, biéshuō duǎnhuà 當著矮人，別説短話 means that one should not point out others’ shortcomings on the spot, which is recorded in the chapter 46

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 149 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty. Hèntiě bùchénggāng 恨鐵不成鋼 refers to the status of being exasperated at one’s relative’s failure to make them good, which is recorded in the chapter 96 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty. Huāmùguā kōnghǎokàn 花木瓜空好看 means being in a good look without substantial ability, which is recorded in the chapter 24 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty. Jiāchǒu bùkě wàiyáng 家醜不可外揚 refers to the domestic shame should not be made public, which is recorded in the scene two of Zhēngbào’ēn 爭報恩 [Eager to Requite Favours] by anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty. Diānhámá xiǎngchī tiān’éròu 癲蛤蟆想吃天鵝肉 refers to a toad wishing to eat swan meat – to crave for what one is not worthy of, which is recorded in the chapter 101 of Shuhe Mquánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty. Liángyuán suīhǎo, bùshì jiǔliànzhījiā 梁園雖好，不是久戀之家 means that an alien land may be beautiful, but does not stay for long, which is recorded in the volume 15 of Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō 京本通俗小説 [Popular Stories from Capital Editions]. Lùjiàn bùpíng, bádāo xiāngzhù 路見不平，拔刀相助 means that when there is injustice, draw a knife to give help, which is recorded in the chapter 44 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty. Mòxìn zhízhōngzhí, xūfáng rénbùrén 莫信直中直，須防仁不仁 means not to just judge a person by the appearance, but be wary of his bad intentions, which is recorded in the chapter 45 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty. Niútóu bùduì mǎzuǐ 牛頭不對馬嘴 refers to a horse’s jaw not matching a cow’s head, meaning that something is irrelevant, which is recorded in the volume 11 of Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty. Nàihé bùdé dōngguā, zhǐbǎ qiézi láimó 奈何不得東瓜,只把茄子來磨 refers to buy not winter melon, only eggplant to grind, meaning someone who only dares to bully the weak and fear the strong, which is recorded in the chapter 112 of Dàngkòuzhì 蕩寇志 [Extermination of Bandits] by Yu Wanchun 俞萬春 of the Qing dynasty. Qiǎoxífù zuòbùchū méimǐdezhōu lái 巧媳婦做不出没米的粥來 means that one cannot make something out of nothing, which is recorded in the chapter 24 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty. Rénxīn bùzú shétūnxiàng 人心不足蛇吞象 means that greed has no limits, which is recorded in Yuānjiā zhàizhǔ 冤家債主 [Prelude of the Foe and Moneylender] by anonymous writer; and in the fifth volume of Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通

150 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty. Sānrì dǎyú, liǎngrì shàiwǎng 三日打魚，兩日曬網 refers to the lack of perseverance, which is recorded in the ninth chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty. Tàpò tiěxié wúmìchù, délái quánbù fèigōngfū 踏破鐵鞋無覓處，得來全不費 工夫 means that the one that you spend a lot of time and energy searching for will appear when one is unintentional, which is recorded in the chapter 53 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty; and it is written in the scene 35 of Pípájì 琵琶記 [The Story of Lute] by Gao Ming 高明 of the Yuan dynasty as well. Tiānwú juérénzhīlù 天無絶人之路 means that one can always find a way out in extreme difficulty, which is recorded in the fourth scene of Huòlángdàn 貨郎擔 [Traveling Salesman] by anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty. Tōuláide luógǔ’ér dǎbùdé 偷來的鑼鼓兒打不得 means that if one does something evil behind one’s back, do not make it public, which is recorded in the chapter 65 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪 芹 of the Qing dynasty. Xīnbìng háicóng xīnshàng yī 心病還從心上醫 means heart disease is also needed to be treated from the heart, which is recorded in the second scene of Zhāng Tiānshī 張天師 [Celestial Master Zhang] by Wu Changling 吴昌齡 of the Yuan dynasty. It is used as xīnbìng háiděi xīnyào yī 心病還得心藥醫, which is recorded in Xīhú èrjí:Chuīfèngxiāonǚ yòudōngqiáng 西湖二集·吹鳯簫女誘東牆 [Novel Collection of West Lake: Lady Playing the Panpipe’s Love Searching at the East Wall] by Zhou Ji 周楫 of the Ming dynasty. Xíng bùgǎixìng, zuò bùgēngmíng 行不改姓，坐不更名 means that a dignified man will never conceal or change his name, which is recorded in the fourth scene of Yàn Qīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Yan Qing Gambled on Fish] by Li Wenwei 李文蔚 of the Yuan dynasty; and in the chapter 17 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty. Yǎorénde gǒu’ér bùlùchǐ 咬人的狗兒不露齒 means that barking dogs seldom bite or the rat-face will not leave a trace when committing crime, which is recorded in the chapter 26 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty. Yīshēn zuòshì zìshēndāng 一身做事自身當 means that one should be responsible for what he has done (committed), which is recorded in Chāichuàn jì: Hòushěn 釵釧記·後審 [The Opera of Chaichuan: Post Interrogation] by Mingyuexie zhuren 明月榭主人 of the Ming dynasty; and in the chapter 55 of Shuō Yuè quánzhuàn 説岳全傳 [The Complete Story of Yue Fei] by Qian Cai 錢彩 of the Qing dynasty. It is also used as yīrén zuòzuì yīréndāng 一人作罪一人當, which is recorded in the chapter 55 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty. Now it is commonly adopted as yīrén zuòshì yīréndāng 一人做事一人當. Yīwénqián nándǎo yīngxiónghàn 一文錢難倒英雄漢 refers to anyone who has no money cannot make a living, which is recorded in the chapter 19 of Érnǚ

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 151 yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty. Yíngdé māoér màileniú 贏得貓兒賣了牛 refers to one who tries to save a little but loses a great deal, which is recorded in the tenth chapter of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty. Zhīrén zhīmiàn bùzhīxīn 知人知面不知心 refers to the fact that one may know a person for a long time without understanding his true nature, which is recorded in the tenth chapter of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty. Most of the proverbs are from modern spoken language, and some are from old and Middle Chinese, which are still active in modern times; see the following examples. Liángyào kǔkǒu lìyúbìng, zhōngyán nì’ěr lìyúxíng 良藥苦口利於病，忠 言逆耳利於行 means that good medicine is hard to take but is effective; good advice is tough but beneficial. It is recorded in Hánfēizǐ Wàichǔshuō zuǒshàng 韓非子·外儲説左上 [Hanfeizi: The Essay of the Heir (Outer-Left-I)] that “fū liángyào kǔyúkǒu, ér zhìzhě quàn’ér yǐnzhī, zhīqírù éryǐjibìng yě; zhōngyán fúyú’ěr, érmíngzhǔ tīngzhī, zhīqí kěyǐ zhìgōng yě. 夫良藥苦於口，而智者勸而 飲之，知其入而已己病也；忠言拂於耳，而明主聽之，知其可以致功也.” (Though good medicine is bitter, the wise persuades himself to take it, understanding that it can cure the disease; although the good advice is harsh to the ear, the wise king listens to it, knowing it will help achieve success.) In Shuōyuà Chénjiàn 説苑·臣諫 [Anecdotes: Expostulation of the Officials] by Liu Xiang 劉向 of the Han dynasty, Confucius said, “liángyào kǔyúkǒu lìyúbìng, zhōngyán nì’ěr lìyúxíng. 良藥苦於口利於病，忠言逆耳利於行.” (Good medicine is bitter but beneficial to the health; good advice is harsh to the ear but benefits conduct.) It can be found in Shǐjì: Liúhóushìjiā 史記·留侯世家 [Historical Records: Biography of Duke Liu] and the Post-set fourth volume of Huīchén lù 揮塵錄 [The Record of Wielding Duster] by Wang Mingqing 王明清 of the Song dynasty. In modern times, there is the case like Kǔzhāi jì 苦齋記 [A Poor Study] by Liu Ji 劉基 of the Ming dynasty, saying that “liángyào kǔkǒu lìyúbìng, zhōngyán nì’ěr lìyúxíng, bǐzhīkǔ wúzhīlè, bǐzhīlè wúzhīkǔ yě. 良藥苦口利於病，忠言逆耳利 於行，彼之苦吾之樂，彼之樂吾之苦也.” (Good medicine is bitter but beneficial to the health; good advice is harsh to the ear but benefits conduct. The bitter can be happiness and happiness can be bitter at the same time.) Yuǎnshuǐ bùjiù (jiùbùdé) jìnhuǒ 遠水不救 (救不得)近火 means that a slow remedy cannot meet an urgency. It is recorded in Hánfēizǐ: Shuōlín shàng 韓非 子·説林上 [Hanfeizi: Story Collection I] that “shīhuǒ ér qǔshuǐ yúhǎi, hǎishuǐ suīduō, huǒ bìbùmiè yǐ, yuǎnshuǐ bùjiù jìnhuǒ yě. 失火而取水於海，海水雖 多，火必不滅矣，遠水不救近火也.” (If there is a fire and one gets water from the sea, though seawater is inexhaustible, the fire cannot be put out since the distant water cannot quench the fire nearby.) Such cases can be found in Middle Chinese language. In Běishǐ: Hè Liándá zhuàn 北史·赫連達傳 [The Biography of He Lianda of the History of the Northern dynasties], it is recorded that “cǐjiē

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yuǎnshuǐ bùjiù jìnhuǒ, hézúdào zāi? 此皆遠水不救近火，何足道哉？” (That is not worth talking about. The water from afar cannot put out the fire nearby.) In modern times, it is more applicable. In the tenth chapter of Chūkè pāiàn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – First Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhǐwèi yuǎnshuǐ bùjiù jìnhuǒ, jíqièlǐ jiùxǔle guìxiāngzhī. 只爲遠水不救近火，急切裏就許了貴相知.” (I thought the distant water could not put out the fire nearby, so I married her off to you.) In addition, in the third chapter of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “zhǐshì yuǎnshuǐ jiùbùdé jìnhuǒzhōng, xiǎoxiōng qíshí děngbùdé nà cóngróng deshì le. 只是遠水救不得近火中，小兄其實等不得那從容的事了.” (Since the water from afar can hardly fight the fire nearby, I really cannot wait and pretend nothing happened.) In the volume 20 of Cháyú kèhuà 茶餘客話 [Tea Table Stories] by Ruan Kuisheng 阮葵生 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yuǎnshuǐ bùjiù jìnhuǒ, nǎi Liáng Dù Shuòzhōu zhīyán. 遠水不救近火，乃梁杜朔周之言.” (Water far off cannot put off fire nearby, which is said by Du Shuozhou of the Liang dynasty.) In the tenth chapter of Hédiǎn 何典 [Allusion] by Zhang Nanzhuang 張南莊 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Shíbǎo tàishī dào: ‘jiùbīng rújiùhuǒ, ruò zhuānkào zhàomù, wèimiǎn yuǎnshuǐ jiùbùdé jìnhuǒ.’ 識寶太 師道：‘救兵如救火，若專靠召募，未免遠水救不得近火’.” (Grand Tutor Shibao said, “sending reinforcements is like putting out fire. If it only depends on recruiting, I am afraid it is like fighting the near fire using the far water.”) In the chapter 20 of Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [Travel Notes of Laocan] by Liu E 劉鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “wǒ jiālǐ suīyǒu yínzi, zhǐshì pàirénqù, zhìshǎo yědé sāntiān, yuǎnshuǐ jiùbùzháo jìnhuǒ. 我家裏雖有銀子，只是 派人去，至少也得三天，遠水救不著近火.” (I have money at home. But the thing is that sending someone back home will take as least three days. This far water cannot fight the near fire.) Xīnqù zuì(yì)nánliú 心去最(意)難留 means that if one’s heart wanders away, it is hard to make them stay, which is from the poem Yùtái xīnyǒng: Náncháo Liáng Wáng Sēngrú Wèi jīrén zìshāng 玉台新詠·南朝梁王僧孺·爲姬人自傷 [New Songs from the Jade Terrace: Wang Sengru of the Southern Liang dynasty: The Sorrow of a Concubine] that “duànxián yóukěxù, xīnqù zuìnánliú. 斷弦猶 可續，心去最難留.” (The broken string can be reconnected, but the left heart cannot be retained.) This expression is constantly used in modern times. In the second scene of Héhànshān 合汗衫 [A Family Reunion] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “jìrán hái’ér měiyàoqù, chángyándào: xīnqù yìnánliú, liúxià jiéyuānchóu. 既然孩兒每要去，常言道：心去意難留，留下 結冤仇.” (Now that the son feels like going, it is just as the saying goes, “If one’s heart wanders away, it is hard to make them stay.” Only if forbidden to stay, it would turn to hatred at the end.) In the eighth chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is recorded that “Wáng Yùhuī dào: ‘qìngjiā, wǒ zǐxì xiǎnglái, wǒzhè xiǎonǚ yàoxùnjiéde zhēnqiè, dàoyě yóuzhetā xíngba’. Chángyándào: ‘xīnqù yìnánliú.’ 王玉輝道：‘親家，我仔細 想來，我這小女要殉節的真切，倒也由著他行罷’. 常言道：‘心去意難留.’”

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 153 (Wang Yuhui said, “Look, I have a careful thought about it. If my daughter really seeks martyrdom, let her do it.” As the saying goes, “If one’s heart wanders away, it is hard to make them stay.”) In the chapter 80 of Qílùdēng 歧路燈 [The Lamp Over the Branch Road], it is recorded that “xīnqù zuìnánliú, liúxià jiéyuānchóu. Bùzhī wǒshuōde shìyě bùshì, xiànggōng zhuódù. 心去最難留，留下結冤仇. 不知我説的是也不是，相公酌度.” (If one’s heart wanders away, it is hard to make them stay. Only if forced to stay, it would turn to hatred eventually. Please think it over whether my saying is right or wrong.) Shénbùzhī, guǐbùjué 神不知,鬼不覺 means that the action is done in complete secrecy that no one perceives it. It is recorded in the volume 14 of Zǔtángjí 祖 堂集 [Genealogy of Zen Buddhism] by Jing, Yun 靜, 筠 of the Five dynasties that “rénbùjué, guǐbùzhī, jīnrì zhīxià bèitǔdì guānjiàn. 人不覺，鬼不知，今日 之下被土地觀見.” (It is in absolute secrecy, but it is seen by the earth today.) It is widely adopted in Modern Chinese language. In the chapter 42 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “nàshí shǐxiāngzhōng shénbùzhī guǐbùjué, ruòhái duōdàile rénbàn qùshí, bìrán jīngxià xiānglǐ, fǎnzhāo bùbiàn. 那時使鄉中神不知鬼不覺，若還多帶了人伴去時，必然驚嚇鄉裏，反招 不便.” (Then it will be in complete secrecy in the town. If one more person is taken together, there will be turmoil, which will bring inconvenience.) In the volume 31 of Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “mòde dào Cáojiā, shénbùzhī guǐbùjué, wán qíqīnshì. 驀地到曹家，神不知鬼不覺，完其親事.” (Let us come to Cao’s family suddenly and secretly, and then get married.) Concerning the meaning, proverbs and idioms are the conclusions of the production and life experience in society, some of which are with positive influence. For example, yīnián zhījì zàiyúchūn 一年之計在於春 is written in Báitùjì: Mùniú 白兔記·牧牛 [The White Hare: Oxherding] by an anonymous writer, indicating that things should be planned ahead of time. The proverb kàoshān chīshān, kàoshuǐ chīshuǐ 靠山吃山，靠水吃水 is recorded in the third volume of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, illustrating the truth that livelihood should be various, according to different natural conditions. The proverb jiāyǒu qiānjīn, bùrú rìjìn fēnwén 家有千金，不如日進分文 is written in Qīngpíngshāntáng huàběn: Fēngyuèruì xiāntíng 清平山堂話本·風月瑞仙亭 [Colloquial Stories in Mount Qingping Study: A Lovers’ Tryst in Ruixian Pavilion] means the principle of making a life should be increasing income and reducing expenditure, instead of living off one’s past gains. Qiángzhōng gèngyǒu qiángzhōngshǒu 強中更有 強中手was written in the third volume of Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, suggesting that people should be humble and prudent, rather than being supercilious and arrogant. Píngshēng bùzuò kuīxīnshì, yèbàn qiāomén bùchījīng 平生不做虧 心事，夜半敲門不吃驚 was recorded in the chapter 57 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, meaning that one has to be fair and square so that he will feel at ease

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at any time. Déyì bùkě zàiwǎng 得意不可再往 is recorded in the chapter 16 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, indicating that one should stop where it should stop to take precautions for potential difficulty in well-off times. Rruòyào rénbùzhī, chúfēi jǐmòwéi 若要人不知，除非己莫爲 means that one should be sincere and dependable, be practical and realistic, and not conduct guilty deeds. Cāngyíng bùbào wúfèngdedàn 蒼蠅不抱無縫的蛋 is recorded in the chapter 60 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, meaning that every law has a loophole. Méiyǒu jiāqīn yǐnbùchū wàiguǐ lái 没有家親引不出外鬼來 is written in the chapter 72 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, suggesting that one must notice the internal integrity, since the invasion of the foreign enemy is mostly due to the inner spy. Gguān bùwēi, zhǎoyá wēi 官不威，爪 牙威 is written in the third scene of Hǔtóupái 虎頭牌 [The Tigher Head Token] by Li Zhifu 李直夫 of the Yuan dynasty, meaning that yamen runners are sometimes more dreadful than officials. Shàngliáng bùzhèng xiàliáng wāi 上樑不正下樑歪 is written in the chapter 26 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, indicating that the bad things conducted by subordinates are often caused by the improper behavior of their superordinates. Yuānjiā yíjiě bùyíjié 冤家宜解不宜結 is recorded in the volume 20 of Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Stories to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, meaning that old hatred should be closed and no new hatred should be started. Yuǎnqīn bùrú jìnlín 遠親不如近 鄰 is recorded in the chapter 14 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, meaning that good neighbors are more efficient in helping than distant relatives. Some of the proverbs tend to be negative in meaning, which should be criticized. For example, féngrén qiěshuō sānfēnhuà, wèikě quánpāo yīpiànxīn 逢人 且説三分話，未可全拋一片心 is written in the chapter 20 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶 梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, meaning that all truth must not be told at all times. Gèrén zìsǎo ménqiánxuě, mòguǎn tārén wǎshàngshuāng 各人自掃門前雪，莫管他人瓦上 霜 is written in the volume 24 of Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, meaning to mind only one’s own business and not to meddle in other people’s affairs. This is a conclusion of one style of life experience. When the cruel and the wicked are in power, spies are on a rampage and the powerful act in collusion with each other to have one’s full swing, common people are scary to be blamed at every move. Who dare to express their feelings directly to others or to be officious when these actions may invite trouble? In modern times, may works employ proverbs in quantity to depict characters’ personality and writers’ thoughts and feelings. For instance, in the chapter 31 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, when Wu Song 武松 was killing Inspector Zhang’s family, he said, “yībùzuò, èrbùxiū, shāle yībǎigè yězhǐshìsǐ! 一不做，二

The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese 155 不休，殺了一百個也只是死！” (In for a penny, in for a pound! Killing one and killing a hundred are both death penalty!) “Yībùzuò, èrbùxiū 一不做，二不休” fully manifested the deadly feud that Wu Song held for the bureaucratic bully and his determination of taking revenge. In the chapter 28, when he was banished to prison camp in Meng County, all the prisoners told him that “gǔrén dào: ‘Bùpà guān, zhǐpà guǎn.’ ‘Zàirén wūyánxià, zěngǎn bùdītóu.’ Zhǐshì xiǎoxīn biànhǎo. 古人道：‘不怕 官,只怕管’. ‘在人屋簷下,怎敢不低頭. 只是小心便好’.” (The old saying goes, “There is no fear of the government, but rather fear to be governed.” “Under the circumstances, you should just be cautious.”) The two proverbs bùpàguān, zhǐpàguǎn 不怕官，只怕管 and zài rén wūyánxià, zěngǎn bùdītóu 在人屋簷下，怎敢不低 頭 specifically provide a fact that in the feudal society, people could only submit to humiliation and conceal their intention of revenge deeply because of the violent suppression of the ruling class in their heart. In the volume 15 of Jīngǔ qíguān 今古 奇觀 [Wonders of the Present and the Past], after describing the luxurious scene of Lu’s feast, the author employed a proverb fùjiā yīxíjiǔ, qiónghàn bànnián liáng 富 家一席酒，窮漢半年糧 (a feast for the rich is the half-year provision for the poor), which is an adequate reflection of the huge gap between the rich and the poor, which is also an indication of the author’s resentment and discontent.

5 Conclusion Compared to idioms, proverbs are more popular and flexible in form; see the following examples. (1) The idiom guǎ bùdí zhòng 寡不敵眾 means be hopelessly outnumbered. The proverb sānquán díbùdé sìshǒu 三拳敵不得四手 (the few cannot fight the many) is written in the chapter 14 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty. (2) The idiom qiāndīng wànzhǔ 千叮萬囑 means add a hundred practical hints and a thousand salutary warnings. The proverb qiān dīngníng, wàn zhǔfù 千叮嚀，萬囑咐 (add a hundred practical hints and a thousand salutary warnings) is written in the chapter 58 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪 芹 of the Qing dynasty. (3) The idiom tóushǔ jìqì 投鼠忌器 means hesitate to pelt a rat for fear of smashing the dishes beside it or spare the rat to save the dishes. The proverb dǎlǎoshǔ shāngle yùpíng 打老鼠傷了玉瓶 (hurt the jade vase by beating the mouse) is written in the chapter 61 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty. In the above examples, (1) guǎ bùdí zhòng 寡不敵眾 means the few people cannot match for many people; (2) Qiāndīng wànzhǔ 千叮萬囑 indicates to give

156 The innovation of idioms and proverbs of Modern Chinese practical hints and salutary warnings again and again; (3) means spare the rat to save the dishes. In each pair, the idiom is in four-word form, but the proverb is a sentence in free format language. As a result, we can infer that some proverbs are more flexible in form. For example, tiānxià wúnánshì, zhǐpà yǒuxīnrén 天 下無難事，只怕有心人 (nothing is too difficult if one puts their heart into it) written in the chapter 19 of Chūkè pāiàn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – First Series] by Ling Mengchu 淩濛初 of the Ming dynasty can also be used as shìshàng wúnánshì, zhǐpà yǒuxīnrén 世上無難事，只怕有心人 (nothing is too difficult if one puts their heart into it) in the second chapter of Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吴承恩, or shìshàng wúnánshì, zhǐpà yòngxīnrén 世上無難事，只怕用心人 (nothing is too difficult if one puts their heart into it) in the chapter 27 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty, all meaning that there will be no unconquerable hardship as long as one has determination and concentration. Qián bùbācūn, hòu bùbādiàn 前不巴村，後不巴店 (in the middle of nowhere) in Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty is also used as qián bùbācūn, hòu bùzháodiàn 前不巴村，後不著店 (in the middle of nowhere) in the chapter 59 of Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, describing the situation that one lives far from his family, so it is a problem of room and board. Mǔdān suīhǎo, háiyào lǜyè fúchí 牡丹 雖好，還要綠葉扶持 (A full-blown peony needs green foliage to set it off, or the green leaves set off the peony) in the chapter 32 of Xǐngshì yīnyuánzhuàn 醒 世姻緣傳 [The Biographies of a Warning Marriage] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty is also used as mǔdān suīhǎo, quánzhàng lǜyè fúchí 牡丹 雖好，全仗綠葉扶持 (the green leaves set off the peony) in the chapter 110 of Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, or mǔdān suīhǎo, zhōngxū lǜyè fúchí 牡丹雖好，終須綠葉扶持 (the green leaves set off the peony) in the chapter 19 of Érnǚ yīngxióngzhuàn 兒女英 雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, suggesting that the most capable one cannot alienate himself from the masses. These examples indicate that proverbs are living language, transmitted from mouth to mouth among people. Consequently, the basic meaning and form will stay consistent, in spite of the fact that individual words may be subject to change.

4

The innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement

1 The basis of contemporary Chinese lexical development Contemporary Chinese is further progress of Ancient and Modern Chinese. The majority of contemporary Chinese words are passed down from earlier times. With the transformation of times and people’s thoughts, many ancient and modern words have disappeared, including a large number of dialects in ancient and modern forms. However, many words have been kept and are blended into Contemporary Chinese, forming the basis of lexical development of the language. The oracle scripts of the Shang dynasty include more than 4,500 characters, among which only 1,000 characters are intelligible. Among the 1,000 characters, there are about 500 characters that are still in use as the basic monosyllabic words of Contemporary Chinese, such as tiān 天 (heaven), tǔ 土 (earth), shān 山 (mountain), shuǐ水 (water), rén 人 (human), nǚ 女 (female), niǎo 鳥 (bird), yú 魚 (fish), niú 牛 (ox), mǎ 馬 (horse), lù 鹿 (deer), shēng生 (life), sǐ 死 (death), dà 大 (big), and xiǎo 小 (small). During the pre-Qin Period and Han dynasties, thousands of disyllabic words emerged and are still in common use in contemporary times. Some examples are given as follows: tiānxià 天下 (world), guójiā 國家 (country), rénmín 人民 (people), bǎixìng 百姓 (the common masses), xiānshēng 先生 (sir, teacher), hòushēng 後生 (lad, disciple), dòngwù 動物 (animals), zhíwù 植物 (plants), fǎlǜ 法律 (law), gōngfu 功夫 (kungfu), yǐnshí 飲食 (diet), dòngzuò 動作 (action), tàidù 態度 (attitude), zhízhèng 執政 (political administration), jiànshè 建設 (construct), tǎolùn 討論 (discuss), cǎochuàng 草創 (draft), wénmíng 文明 (civilization), hémù 和睦 (harmony), kùnkǔ 困苦 (miserable), xīnsuān 辛酸 (bitter). A larger number of disyllabic words were from Middle Chinese, such as lǎohǔ 老虎 (tiger), hǎohàn 好漢 (a brave man), miànzi 面子 (face), bítóu 鼻頭 (tip of the nose), gōngchéng 工程 (project of construction), zhèngwù 政務 (government affairs), jiǎoqián 腳錢 (payment to a porter; tip), shǒujīn 手巾 (towel, handkerchief), gùyì 故意 (deliberate), pànduàn 判斷 (judge), dǎbàn 打扮 (dress up), tíbá 提拔 (promote), gǔdòng 鼓動 (encourage), tuīcè 推測 (speculate), fādá 發達 (flourish; developed), míngliàng 明亮 (bright, shining), kùnnán 困難 (difficult, difficulty), màoshī 冒失 (reckless), tòngkuài 痛快 (heartily). Without an etymological check, one could barely realize that these words have long existed since the Tang or Song or even much earlier dynasties. There are two types of words DOI: 10.4324/9781003365594-4

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coined in modern times. One type is colloquial expressions which are widely used in modern drama and novels and are collected in the dictionaries of colloquialism compiled by Ming-Qing lexicographers.1 Examples include dāizi 呆子 (a fool), shǎguā 傻瓜 (an idiot), yǎba 啞巴 (a dumb person), gōngtóu 工頭 (foreman), zuǐtou 嘴頭 (in words [only]), diǎnzi 點子 (ideas), dǐxì 底細 (secret; exact details), gǔzhǎng 鼓掌 (applause; to clap one’s hands), dòngyuán 動員 (mobilize), tuányuán 團圓 (reunite), zhōudào 周到 (considerate), xìngkuī 幸虧 (fortunately), tòumíng 透明 (transparent), láosao 牢騷 (grudge, complaint), táoqì 淘氣 (naughty), hǎodǎi 好歹 (good or bad, no matter what), and jiāoguàn 嬌慣 (spoil [a child]). Another type is the transliterated loanwords and newly coined words from more than 1,000 translation works from the western languages or Japanese to Chinese from the 16th to early 20th centuries. Most of these words signify new concepts of modern politics, economy, culture, and science, the majority of which are still in wide use. To sum up, archaic words passed down from ancient, medieval, and modern times have become the basis of contemporary Chinese lexicon. Together with the new words from the May Fourth Movement until the present time, contemporary Chinese lexicon comes into being and gets increasingly enriched in amount.

2 Birth of new words and new meanings of contemporary Chinese Since the May Fourth Movement, quite a large number of new words have emerged in the Chinese language. It is estimated that there are 400 to 500 new words appeared annually with the total number exceeding 300,000 words. In contemporary Chinese lexicon, multisyllabic words take the largest proportion of the total lexicon, most of which are disyllabic words. Xiàndài hànyǔ cídiǎn 現代漢 語詞典 [Contemporary Chinese Dictionary] (published by Shāngwù yìnshūguǎn 商務印書館 [The Commercial Press], 1983) collects 56,147 entries, which include 10,540 monosyllabic words (19%) and 45,709 multisyllabic words (81%). Of the multisyllabic words, 35,056 entries are disyllabic words, taking up 77% of the amount; 10,551 entries are of three or more syllables, taking up 23% of the amount. The new words coined in contemporary times are mostly disyllabic and cover a wide range of social phenomena. There are appellations such as shèyuán 社員 (member of an association), zhīqīng 知青 (educated youth), mángliú 盲流 (wandering migrants), dàkuǎn 大款 (moneybag), dǎoyé 倒爺 (profiteer), kōngjiě 空姐 (airline hostess), jūnsǎo 軍嫂 (wife of a military man), gēxīng 歌星 (singing star), yǐngdì 影帝 (movie king), etc. Names of things are produced, such as fēidié 飛碟 (flying saucer), fēipán 飛盤 (flying disc), páizhào 牌照 (license), táidēng 檯燈 (table lamp), kǎpiàn 卡片 (card), qǐyè 企業 (enterprise), shēngbō 聲波 (sound wave), shūzhǎn 書展 (book fair), etc. In addition, nouns of technology are coined, such as yìngpán 硬盤 (hard disc), ruǎnjiàn 軟件 (software), chāodǎo 超導 (superconduction), jīyīn 基因 (gene),

Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 159 wēijī 微機 (microcomputer), diànnǎo 電腦 (computer), guānglǎn 光纜 (cable), hénéng 核能 (nuclear power), jīguāng 激光 (laser), nàmǐ 納米 (nano), etc. There are also military words, such as wǔjǐng 武警 (armed police), tèjǐng 特警 (special police), tiānjūn 天軍 (space force), dǎodàn 導彈 (missiles), qīngdàn 氫彈 (H-bomb), qiántǐng 潛艇 (submarine), jūngòu 軍購 (military purchase), jūnyǎn 軍演 (military exercise), jūnqū 軍區 (military region), zhànbèi 戰備 (combat readiness), etc. Words related to politics begin to appear, such as báiqū 白區 (White areas [esp. the Kuomingtang-controlled areas during the Second Revolutionary War, 1927–1937]), jiěfàngqū 解放區 (liberated area), shěngàn 審幹 (evaluate cadres), sùfǎn 肅反 (purge counterrevolutionaries), píngfǎn 平反 (redress; rehabilitate), zhěngfēng 整風 (rectification), qǐngyuàn 請愿 (petition), dàimào 戴帽 (to brand, be labeled as), chújiān 鋤奸 (clear traitors), etc. Law terms come into being, such as ànfàn 案犯 (criminals), gōngsù 公訴 (prosecution), gōngzhèng 公證 (notarize), fǎyuàn 法院 (court house), sǐhuǎn 死緩 (suspended death sentence), láogǎi 勞教 (reeducate through labor), láogǎi 勞改 (reform through labor), pànxíng 判刑 (sentence), xíngzhēn 刑偵 (criminal investigation), etc. Words of trade and commerce are produced, such as chāoshì 超市 (supermarket), kèhù 客戶 (client), cùxiāo 促銷 (promotion), zhíxiāo 直銷 (direct sales), shuǐhuò 水貨 (smuggled goods), yìjià 議價 (bargain), tèjià 特價 (on sale), tǒnggòu 統購 (monopolize the purchase), tǒngxiāo 統銷 (monopolize the marketing), etc. Furthermore, there are generated words of industrial production, such as pǐnpái 品牌 (brand), dìng’é 定額 (quota), jīngpǐn 精品 (quality goods), cìpǐn 次品 (defective goods), yādìng 壓錠 (reduce the spindle), gāncái 鋼材 (steel), gāngdìng 鋼錠 (steel ingot), diànhàn 電焊 (electric welding), etc. With the development of agriculture, words of agricultural production are put into use, such as bànzhǒng 拌種 (dress seeds), xuǎnzhǒng 選種 (select seeds), yùzhǒng 育種 (breed), jīgēng 機耕 (tractor plowing), huàféi 化肥 (fertilizer), gōngliáng 公糧 (tax grain), nóngjī 農機 (farm machinery), nóngkěn 農墾 (land reclamation and cultivation), etc. Words of economy and finance are produced as well, such as fǎbì 法幣 (fiat currency), biānbì 邊幣 (border region currency), zījīn 資金 (capital), róngzī 融資 (raise funds), tóuzī 投資 (invest), kāipán 開盤 (give the opening quotation on the exchange), chǎogǔ 炒股 (speculate stocks), chǎohuì 炒匯(speculate in foreign exchange), etc. Words of medicine and sanitation also come into being, such as lǐliáo 理療 (physiotherapy), huàliáo 化療 (chemotherapy), tòushì 透視 (roentgenoscopy), yībǎo 醫保 (medical insurance), bìngxiū 病休 (be on sick leave), bǎojiàn 保健 (health care), ménzhěn 門診 (outpatient service), tèhù 特護 (intensive care), tòngfēng 痛風 (gout), etc. In addition, there are words of food, clothing, shelter, and means of travel, such as shízhuāng 時裝 (fashion), tóngzhuāng 童裝 (children’s clothing), yǒngfú 泳服 (swimming suit), fànpiào 飯票 (meal ticket), fànjú 飯局 (dinner party), sùshí

160 Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 速食 (instant food), gōngyù 公寓 (apartment), biéshù 別墅 (villa), diàntī 電梯 (elevator), fánggǎi 房改 (housing reform), kōnggǎng 空港 (airport), dǎdī 打的 (hail a taxi), qíyóu 騎游 (cycle tour), etc. Words of culture and education are produced, such as wénmáng 文盲 (illiterate), sǎománg 掃盲 (wipe out illiteracy), fùdú 複讀 (repeat a grade at school), zǒudú 走讀 (attend a day school), dàipéi 代培 (train on contract), tǒngkǎo 統考 (uniform examination), zìkǎo 自考 (self-taught examination), jiājiào 家教 (home tutor), and dōngxué 冬學 (winter school). Apart from the words mentioned above, there are words of arts and physical education, such as diàoyǎn 調演 (gather performers from various localities and troupes for joint performances), huìyǎn 匯演 (joint performance), diànshì 電視 (television), yàngbǎnxì 樣板戲 (model play), sānjípiān三級片 (adult movie), liánsài 聯賽 (league matches), dōngxùn 冬訓 (winter training), bèngdí 蹦迪 (disco dancing), yùsài 預賽 (preliminary contests), juésài 決賽 (finals), etc. Abstract words begin to appear as well, such as tiántou 甜頭 (good, benefit as an inducement), xīncháo 新潮 (new trend), tàishì 態勢 (situation), sīcháo 思潮 (trend of thoughts), xìnggǎn 性感 (sexy), kǒugǎn 口感 (taste), xìnfǎng 信訪 (complain by letters or visits), pàixìng 派性 (factionalism), jízhì 極致 (acme, superb), fēiwén 緋聞 (sexual scandal), etc. It should be noted that there are other words, such as shànggǎng 上崗 (take up a job), dàiyè 待業 (wait for employment), zǒuxué 走穴 ([especially of a performer] moonlight), shuāngyíng 雙贏 (win-win), líxiū 離休 ([of veteran cadres] retire), dǎjiǎ 打假 (crack down on counterfeits), gǎoxiào 搞笑 (provoke laughter), and gōngguān 公關 (public relation). Along with the emergence and popularity of a new thing, a new word would emerge, usually accompanied with a group of words of the same root. For example, the end of the 20th century saw the advent of the internet (wǎng 網) in China and there appeared a group of Chinese words with wǎng 網 as the word root. Some examples are given as follows: wǎngluò網絡 (computer network, a system that computers are connected via cable for resources sharing and information exchange), shàngwǎng 上網 (log on the internet to acquire and check information), wǎngmín網民 (net users), wǎngmí 綱迷 (internet addicts, those who spend exceedingly long hours on the net), wǎngchóng 網蟲 (same as wǎngmí 網迷), wǎngyǒu 網友 (friends who get to know each other via the internet), wǎngyè 網頁 (web page; information page on the internet), wǎngzhàn 網站 (website; a virtual site built on the net by organizations or individuals, including one main page and several subpages), wǎngzhǐ 網址 (the address of a website; by the address, users could easily log on the website and acquire information and resources), wǎngdiǎn 網點 (the basic units of commerce and service sectors at various places), wǎnggē 網哥 (male net users), wǎngjiě 網姐 (female net users). Since the 1980s, stock markets have been open in the China Mainland, and there has appeared a group of words with gǔ 股 (share, stock) as root: gǔběn 股本 (capital stock), gǔdōng 股東 (stock holder), gǔfèn 股份（分） (stocks), gǔfènzhì 股份制 (shareholding system), gǔhǎi 股海 (fluctuating stock market), gǔshì股市 (stock market), gǔjià股價 (stock price), gǔjīn 股金 (share capital), gǔlì 股利 (dividend), gǔxī

Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 161 股息 (dividend), gǔpiào 股票 (stock), gǔmín 股民 (share investor), gǔyǒu 股友 (members of a shareholders’ club), gǔmí 股迷 (stock fans), gǔpíng 股評 (stock review), gǔzhǐ 股指 (stock market index), gǔzāi 股災 (stock exchange crash), sīgǔ 私股 (private share), pèigǔ 配股 (rationed shares), rèngǔ 認股 (subscribe for shares), chǎogǔ 炒股 (speculate in shares), yuánshǐgǔ 原始股 (initial offerings), shàngshìgǔ 上市股 (listed stock), èrshǒugǔ 二手股 (secondary offering), lājīgǔ 垃圾股 (junk share), and quánlìgǔ 權利股 (right issues). These new words have three major features in their structures. Firstly, words of three, four, or more syllables are coined in large numbers, as disyllabic words fail to denote the complexity of meaning. It has become a trend of lexical development in contemporary Chinese that multisyllabic words are formed with disyllabic words as morphemes. Although the use of multisyllabic words does not start in contemporary China, it is undeniable that the number is on the rise. Some examples are as follows. Words of three syllables include lǎbākù 喇叭褲 (flare jeans), bàofāhù 暴發戶 (upstarts), yìlāguàn 易拉罐 (pop-top can), jiāsùqì 加速 器 (accelerator), sānjítiào 三級跳 (triple jump), hūnwàiliàn 婚外戀 (extramarital sex), biāozhǔnhuà 標準化 (standardization), kědúxìng 可讀性 (readability), zhīmíngdù 知名度 (popularity), zhǔxuánlǜ 主旋律 (main melody; mainstream values), shuǎibāofu 甩包袱 (cast off burden), shuǎtàidu 耍態度 (lose one’s temper), àoyùnrè 奧運熱 (trends boosted by the Olympics), ānlèsǐ 安樂死 (euthanasia), língzēngzhǎng 零增長 (zero growth), gāobǎozhēn 高保真 (high fidelity), jiǎdàkōng 假大空 (false, boastful and empty talk), and tàikōngchuán 太空船 (spaceship). Words of four syllables include jīhuì zhǔyì 機會主義 (opportunism), yòupài fènzǐ 右派分子 (rightists), xúnháng dǎodàn 巡航導彈 (cruise missile), rénzào wèixīng 人造衛星 (artificial satellite), yìwù jiàoyù 義務教育 (compulsory education), shuǎzuǐpízi 耍嘴皮子 (talk glibly), and zhōngyāng kōngtiáo 中 央空調 (central air-conditioning). Words of five syllables include xìnxī chuánbō xué 信息傳播學 (communication studies), sānbā hóngqíshǒu 三八紅旗手 (“March 8th” red banner winner; woman pace-setter), wényì gōngzuòzhě 文藝 工作者 (literary and art workers), gòngchǎn zhǔyì fēng 共產主義風 (wave of communism), fǎxīsī zhǔyì 法西斯主義 (fascism), sùchéng shízìfǎ 速成識字法 (accelerated literacy learning methodology), chǎngzhǎng fùzézhì 廠長負責制 (system of overall responsibility by the factory manager), tiānwén wàngyuǎnjìng 天文望遠鏡 (space telescope). All of these multisyllabic words are of varied structures, which are not to be covered here in detail. Secondly, a large number of abbreviations are formed. The use of multisyllabic words is not consistent with the phonological conciseness and dual-syllabic rhyming pattern of Chinese language. Hence, abbreviations are formed by three main types to be described below. (1) An abbreviation is formed with two or three syllables of a multisyllabic word. The first two characters (i.e., syllables) are used in some cases, such as qīnghuá 清華 (short for qīnghuá dàxué 清華大學, Tsinghua University), jiǔsān 九三 (jiǔsān xuéshè 九三學社, Jiusan Society), fùgāo 副高 (short for fùgāojí zhíchēng 副高級職稱, secondary senior position); sometimes

162 Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement the initial and a middle characters are used, such as dìtiě 地鐵 (short for dìxià tiělù 地下鐵路, underground railway), and zhōnggòng 中共 (short for zhōngguó gòngchǎndǎng 中國共產黨, Communist Party of China). The initial and final characters are used in other cases, such as chuànghuì 創匯 (chuàngshōu wàihuì 創收外匯, earn foreign exchange) and tōngzhàng 通脹 (short for tōnghuò péngzhàng 通貨膨脹, inflation). Sometimes the last two characters are used, such as dǎngyuán 黨員 (short for zhōngguó gòngchǎndǎng dǎngyuán 中國共產黨黨員, CPC members) and tuányuán 團員 (short for zhōngguó gòngchǎn zhǔyì qīngniántuán tuányuán 中國共 產主義青年團團員, members of the Communist Youth League of China). Ocassionally, one middle and the final character are used, such as yāngháng 央行 (zhōngyāng yínháng 中央銀行, The Central Bank of China) and yāngshì 央視 (zhōngyāng diànshì 中央電視, China Central Television). The initial, a middle, and the final character are used at times, such as huánwèichù 環衛處 (huánjìng wèishēng guǎnlǐchù 環境衛生管理處, Department of Environmental Sanitation), ānlǐhuì 安理會 (ānquán lǐshìhuì 安全理事會, [UN] Security Council), and lìjiāoqiáo 立交橋 (lìtǐ gōnglù jiāochāqiáo 立體公 路交叉橋, flyover; overpass). In some cases, two or three key characters are used but the character sequence are different from the original; for example, xuèfáng 血防 (fángzhì xuèxīchóng bìng 防治血吸蟲病, prevention and cure of schistosomiasis), fánglǎojì 防老劑 (lǎohuà fángzhǐ jì 老化防止劑, antideteriorant), and tèbié liándà 特別聯大 (liánhéguó dàhuì tèbié huìyì 聯合國 大會特別會議, special session of the UN General Assembly). Any two or more characters could be used so long as meanings could be communicated effectively. (2) An abbreviation is formed by adding a numerical word to a common morpheme of a group of words. For example, liǎngyī兩伊 (yīlǎng 伊朗 Iran and yīlākè 伊拉 克 Iraq) (liǎng 兩 means two), sānbāo 三胞 (Táiwān tóngbāo 臺灣同胞, Taiwan compatriots, gǎng’ào tóngbāo 港澳同胞 Hong Kong and Macau compatriots, hǎiwài qiáobāo 海外僑胞 overseas Chinese) (sān三means three), sānlǎo 三老 (dāng lǎoshi rén 當老實人 to be a highprincipled person, shuō lǎoshi huà 說老實話 to tell no lie, bàn lǎoshi shì 辦老 實事to do decent work), sìhuà 四化 (gànbù duìwù gémìnghuà, niánqīnghuà, zhīshihuà, zhuānyèhuà 幹部隊伍革命化、年輕化、知識化、專業化 to make the ranks of cadres more politically aware, younger in average age, better educated and more professionally trained) (sì 四 means four), wǔ ài 五 愛 (five loves) (ài zǔguó 愛祖國 love for the motherland, ài rénmín 愛人民 love for the people, ài láodòng 愛勞動 love for physical labor, ài kēxué 愛 科學 love for science, àihù gōnggòng cáiwù 愛護公共財物 love for public property) (Wǔ 五 means five.) (3) An abbreviation is formed by taking one character from each part of a compound phrase. For example, cáikuài 財會 (finance and accounting) (cáiwù gōngzuò 財務工作finance work and kuàijì gōngzuò會計工作 accounting work), zhèngfǎ 政法 (zhèngzhì 政治 politics and fǎlǜ 法律 law), zhèngzhào 證照 (zhèngjiàn 證件 certificate and zhízhào 執照 licence), yuānjiǎ cuò’àn

Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 163 冤假錯案 (yuānwàng de ànjiàn 冤枉的案件, jiǎzào de ànjiàn 假造的案件, cuòwù de ànjiàn 錯誤的案件 cases in which people were unjustly, falsely, or wrongly charged or sentenced), píngùnóng 貧雇農 (pínnóng 貧農 poor peasants and gùnóng 雇農 farm labourers), cuòbiézì 錯別字 (cuòzì 錯字 wrongly written characters and biézì 別字 misused characters), yǎnzhíyuán 演職員 (yǎnyuán 演員 acting staff and zhíyuán 職員 administrative staff). It should be noted that not every multisyllabic word could be abbreviated; for example, words like gòngchǎn zhǔyì 共產主義 (communism), rénzào wèixīng 人造衛星 (artificial satellite), juéduì zhēnlǐ 絕對真理 (absolute truth), zìyóu tǐcāo 自由體操 (floor exercise), tiānwén wàngyuǎnjìng 天文望遠鏡 (astronomical telescope), and shùzì shèxiàngjī 數字攝像機 (digital camera) cannot be shortened but must be used in the complete form. Thirdly, large numbers of words made of letters are formed. As a new word formation, each of these words includes or is entirely made up of alphabetical letters. (1) Words entirely made up of letters, being the same as acronyms. Some examples are given as follows. APEC – yàtài jīngjì hézuò zǔzhī 亞太經濟合作組織 Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation CEO – shǒuxí zhíxíngguān 首席執行官 Chief executive officer DVD – shùzì yǐngyīn guāngdié 數字影音光碟 Digital video disc GDP – guónèi shēngchǎn zǒngzhí 國內生產總值 Gross domestic product HSK – hànyǔ shuǐpíng kǎoshì 漢語水平考試 (Chinese Proficiency Test) (HSK is the abbreviation of pīnyīn 拼音.) MBA – gōngshāng guǎnlǐ shuòshì 工商管理碩士 Master of business administration OPEC – shíyóu shūchūguó zǔzhī 石油輸出國組織 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries RMB – rénmínbì 人民幣 (currency of China mainland) SCI – kēxué yǐnwén suǒyǐn 科學引文索引 Science citation index UFO – bùmíng fēixíngwù 不明飛行物 Unidentified flying object VCD – jīguāng yāsuō guāngdié 激光壓縮光碟 Video compact disc WTO – shìjiè màoyì zǔzhī 世界貿易組織 World Trade Organization (2) Words composed of both letters and characters. The letters could be the beginning or the ending of the words. Some examples are given as follows. A 股 (gǔ, shares) – rénmínbì pǔtōng gǔpiào 人民幣普通股票 common shares denominated in renminbi (RMB), issued in China (not including Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan), subscribed and exchanged by domestic investors. BP 機 (jī, machine) – wúxiàndiàn chuánhūjī 無線電傳呼機 pagers; BP is short for beeper. IP 電話 (diànhuà, telephone) – wǎngluò diànhuà 網絡電話 internet telephone; IP is short for internet protocol.

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Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement PC 機 (jī, machine) – gèrén diànnǎo 個人電腦 personal computer. SOS 兒童村 (ér tóng cūn, children’s home) – charity organizations for orphans; SOS is short for Save Our Souls. T 恤衫 (T xuè shān) – T 恤, T-shirt, a short-sleeved piece of clothing that covers the top part of the body, in the shape of the letter T. Xuè 恤 is the transliteration of shirt in Cantonese. X 射線 (shè xiàn, ray) – X 光 (guāng), lúnqín shèxiàn 倫琴 (Roentgen) 射線, or àikèsī shèxiàn 愛克斯射線; X-ray, discovered by the German physicist Roentgen. X rǎn sè tǐ 染色體 – a sex chromosome deciding the sex of an organism. There are 46 chromosomes in the body cells of humans, one of which is sex chromosome. There are two X-chromosomes in female cells. Y rǎn sè tǐ 染色體 Y-chromosome – a sex chromosome deciding the sex of an organism; among the 46 chromosomes of human cells, there exists an X-chromosome and a Y-chromosome in male cells. In fertilization, the mix of a sperm with a Y-chromosome and an egg produces a male organism; the mix of a sperm with a X-chromosome and an egg produces a female organism. Jiǎ 甲 (top or first) A – the highest tier of professional football or basketball league in China mainland. Kǎlā 卡拉 OK – music equipment invented in Japan in the mid-1970s, made up of recorder, sound box, loudspeaker, and music tape. In China, it is a machine to accompany a singer or play pre-programmed music. The word is the transliteration of the Japanese word karaōke, meaning mechanic music band. In Japanese, kara means empty, void; ōke is short for ōkesutora, the transliteration of orchestra in Japanese.

Words with letters appeared in the first half of the 20th century and have been in wide use in recent years, not only in writing but also in speaking. Xiàndài hànyǔ cídiǎn 現代漢語詞典 [Contemporary Chinese Dictionary] (fifth edition) collects 182 words with letters; Xiàndài hànyǔ guīfàn cídiǎn 現代漢語規範詞 典 [A Standard Dictionary of Current Chinese] collects 132 words with letters. It could be seen that these words have been accepted into Chinese lexicon; however, standardization is also necessary for the misuse of these words. Since the May Fourth Movement, large numbers of new words have entered Chinese lexicon, which improves the expressiveness of the language. Many new words have figurative meanings, which can be seen in the following examples. In ancient times, the word airén 愛人 meant befriend others or a loveable person. In modern times, it meant lovers, whose meaning extends to a spouse or wife since the founding of P.R. China in 1949. Bǐjìběn 筆記本 originally meant a notebook; the meaning extends to laptop (bǐjìběn diànnǎo 筆記本電腦), that is, computers that look like notebooks. Bǐgǎnzi 筆桿子 originally meant the part of a pen held in one’s hand, whose meaning extends to writing abilities or those with the abilities.

Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 165 Chōngdiàn 充電 originally meant to recharge batteries, which extends to the meaning of improving one’s knowledge and skill via learning. Huángsè 黃色 originally meant the color of yellow. In the 18th century, the American newspaper The World published comic strips of obscenity and pornography on yellow-colored pages. Hence, there is the extended meaning of obscene and porn content. The original meaning of xiǎojiǔjiǔ 小九九 was multiplication table, whose extended meaning is one’s personal plan. The original meaning of chūtái 出臺 was actors perform on stage. Figuratively speaking, the word means appear publicly or a policy coming out. The original meaning of liányīn 聯姻 was two families becoming relatives via marriage. Figuratively speaking, it means two or more sides cooperating. The original meaning of rónglú 熔爐 was furnace for melting metals. Figuratively speaking, it means the environment to build certain qualities. Kāilǜdēng 開綠燈 originally meant to turn on the green traffic light to allow for passing.” Figuratively speaking, the word means to give permission for something to happen; to green-light. Wángpái 王牌 originally meant trump card in the game of bridge. Figuratively speaking, it means the most powerful figure or mechanism. Duìtáixì 對臺戲 originally meant two troupes perform at the same time and place for vying. Figuratively speaking, it means the moves to beat rivals in confrontation or competition. Hòumén 後門 originally meant back door of a house or yard. Its figurative meaning is backdoor influence; an unrighteous way to conduct businesses by personal influence. Qiājiānr 掐尖兒 originally meant to pinch off young shoots. Its figurative meaning is to dismiss those who outshine others. Qiàowěiba 翹尾巴 originally meant animals raising their tails. Its figurative meaning is (a person) gets arrogant and conceited. Tiěfànwǎn 鐵飯碗 originally meant an iron bowl. Its figurative meaning is a very stable profession and position. The above words with extended figurative meanings are specific, vivid, and easy to understand, and therefore have been extensively used in contemporary times.

3 Entry and adjustment of loanwords Since the May Fourth Movement, an increasing number of loanwords have entered Chinese lexicon. Some of them are transliteration, while others are translation of meaning, and there are a mix of both. These new words are similar to newly coined ones and could be used freely in speaking. Some examples are given as follows: Anjiē 按揭 is transliteration of mortgage into Cantonese, bank loan that allows one to purchase a house or something. The house or object to be bought is mortgaged to the bank, and the loan is repaid on installment.

166 Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement Bàibai 拜拜 is a transliteration of bye-bye. Bǐjīní 比基尼 is a transliteration of bikini – a style of female swimming suit, made up of shorts and a bra covering the vital parts of the body. Dísīkē 迪斯科 is a transliteration of disco – a fast-paced vibrant dance which originated in the Afro-American communities and went popular around the world. Díquèliáng 的確良 is a transliteration of dacron; clothes made of dacron are durable, easily washed, and quick-drying. Dílún 滌綸 is a transliteration of terylene, a synthetic fiber of high strength and elasticity used to make clothes, insulated materials, or ropes. Yīmèir 伊妹兒 is a transliteration of e-mail. Kǎobèi 拷貝 is a transliteration of copy-film developed to be shown, audiovideo products, or digital files copied. Kèlóng 克隆 is a transliteration of clone: a sexual propagation; reproduction. Kù 酷 is a transliteration of cool, smart, handsome, gallant, (someone) of personality. Mǎsàikè 馬賽克 is a transliteration of mosaic, a small, square, colored piece of tile for ornament; the pattern made of mosaic. Mósī 摩絲 is a transliteration of mousses (French), a cosmetic product for hair stylization and care. Pàiduì 派對 is a transliteration of party (American English), a gathering or meeting for fun. Qǔqí 曲奇 is a transliteration of cookie in Cantonese. Sāngná 桑拿 is a transliteration of sauna (Finnish). Shālā 沙拉 is a transliteration of salad, a mixture of uncooked vegetables, sometimes with diced potato or sausage, flavored with a moist dressing. Wěigē 偉哥 is a transliteration of Viagra, a drug for treating men who are impotent, developed in the United States. Xuěbì 雪碧 is a transliteration of the soda drink Sprite. Hàikè 駭客 is a semantic transliteration of hacker, a programmer who is addicted to computers and skilled at computer and internet technology, who often breaks into other computers and causes trouble. Kěkǒu kělè 可口可樂 is a semantic transliteration of Coca-Cola, a soft drink. Dēnggérè 登革热 is a semantic transliteration of dengue, an English word for a kind of acute infectious disease caused by the dengue virus spread by mosqitoes. Àizībìng 艾滋病 is a semantic transliteration of AIDS, an English word for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a kind of rapidly spreading infectious disease with a high mortality rate. Bǐsàbǐng 比薩餅 is a semantic transliteration of pizza, an Italian-style baked pastry with vegetables and meat. Eěr ní nuò xiànxiàng 厄爾尼諾現象 is a semantic transliteration of the Spanish expression El Nino, the unusual rise of temperature of the western Pacific near the equator which causes the death of large quantities of fish.

Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 167 Lā nínà xiànxiàng 拉尼娜現象 is a semantic transliteration of the Spanish expression La Nina, counter to the El Nino phenomenon, the unusual decrease in temperature of the western Pacific near the equator. Hànbǎobāo 漢堡包 is a semantic transliteration of hamburger – bread with vegetables and cooked beef in between. Hū lā quán 呼拉圈 is a semantic transliteration of hula hoop – a gymnastic ring played for physical fitness. Mínǐ qún 迷你裙 is a semantic transliteration of mini-skirt; mínǐ 迷你 is a semantic transliteration of mini. Pī lì wǔ 霹靂舞 is a semantic transliteration of break-dancing, a fast-paced, vibrant, passionate street dance born in the United States in the 1970s. T xù shān T恤衫 is a semantic transliteration of T-shirt. Yǎ pí shì 雅皮士 is a semantic transliteration of yuppie, a young, capable, and enterprising person in the western countries. Yīn tè wǎng 因特網 is a semantic transliteration of internet, the largest open network of computers in the globe at present. Words newly coined to signify foreign concepts are of larger numbers than the other types of new coined words, as shown in the following examples. Hēixiázi 黑匣子 (black box) is a machine that records information about an aircraft during its flight. Hùliánwǎng 互聯網 (free translation of internet) is a system of connected computers. Bóshìhòu 博士後 (post-doctorate) are personals who have further academic research after obtaining a PhD degree. Jīguāng 激光 (laser) is a beam of light of high brightness, pure in color and highly focused and produced from an emitter; which is called léishè 鐳射 in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Niú zǎi kù 牛仔褲 (jeans) is the newly coined combined word of niúzǎi 牛仔 (cowboy) and kù 褲 (trousers). Shāshǒu 殺手 (killer) refers to someone who kills another person; someone or something threatening to life. Zhìshāng 智商 (intelligence quotient) is an index of a person’s intelligence. Règǒu 熱狗 (literal translation of hot dog) is bread with hot sausage, pickle, and mustard in between. The entry of loanwords into Chinese lexicon carries two features. One is the translation process from transliteration to semantic translation. A foreign word is first transliterated and then semantically translated into a Chinese word, fitting into the Chinese word-forming rule and becoming more idiomatic. Some examples are given as follows. ammonia (English) 阿摩尼亞 (ā mó ní yà) → 氨 (ān)

168 Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement anatomy (English) 安那北美 (ān nà běi měi) → 解剖 (jiěpōu), 解剖學 (jiěpōuxué) bourgeois (French) 布爾喬亞 (bù ěr qiáo yà) → 資產階級 (zī chǎn jiē jí) Esperanto (English) 愛斯不難讀 (ài sī bù nán dú) → 世界語 (shì jiè yǔ) mathematics (English) 瑪德瑪第加 (mǎ dé mǎ dìjiā) → 數學 (shù xué) mister (English) 密斯脫 (mì sī tuō), 密斯特 (mìsītè) → 先生 (xiān shēng) gentleman (English) 競得爾曼 (jìng dé ěr màn), 尖頭饅 (jiān tóu mán) → 紳士 (shēn shì), 先生 (xiān shēng) compradore (English) 康白度 (kāng bái dù) → 買辦 (mǎi bàn) communism (English) 康門尼斯姆 (kāng mén ní sī mǔ) → 共產主義 (gòng chǎn zhǔ yì) number one (English) 拿摩溫 (ná mó wēn) → 工頭 (gōng tóu) substances (English) 薩布斯坦斯 (sà bù sī tǎn sī) → 物質 (wù zhì), 實體 (shí tǐ) science (English) 賽因思 (sài yīn sī) → 科學 (kē xué) penicillin (English) 盤尼西林 (pán níxī lín) →青黴素 (qīng méi sù) Some transliteration or semantic transliteration is retained, mostly with fewer syllables, as exemplified below. Bīngjīlíng 冰激凌 is a semantic transliteration of ice cream, a semi-solid frozen food made of water, milk, egg, sugar, and juice. Báilándì 白蘭地 is a transliteration of brandy, an alcoholic drink made by fermenting and distilling grape and apple. Shālóng 沙龍 is a transliteration of salon, a meeting of intellectuals, especially writers or artists. Xiūkè 休克 is a transliteration of shock, an acute oxygen-loss syndrome. Módēng 摩登 is a transliteration of modern, also translated as shímáo 時 髦. (Both of the words módēng 摩登 and shímáo 時髦 are still in use nowadays). Gālí 咖喱 is transliteration of curry, a spice made of pepper, turmeric, pepper, fennel, and dried orange peel powder, yellow in color and spicy in flavor. Jīyīn 基因 is a transliteration of gene, hereditary factors which exist in chromosomes in a linear array. Jítā 吉他 is a transliteration of guitar, a strummed musical instrument with six strings, also called liùxiánqín 六弦琴 (six-stringed musical instrument). Jiālún 加侖 is a transliteration of gallon, a measuring unit in the United Kingdom and United States. In the United Kingdom, one gallon equals 4.546 liters, while in the United States, one gallon equals 3.785 liters. Kèlā 克拉 is a transliteration of the French word carat, a unit for measuring jewels. One carat equals 200 milligrams. Another feature is turning a syllable in a foreign word into a morpheme of a new Chinese word, as shown in the following examples. The morpheme of bā 巴 is in the compound of bāshì 巴士, which is the transliteration of bus into Cantonese. Some compound words are formed with bā

Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 169 巴 as a morpheme, such as dàbā 大巴 (large bus), zhōngbā 中巴 (midibus), xiǎobā 小巴 (minibus). Bā 吧 is a transliteration of bar (where drinks and food are sold for people to relax). Many compound words are formed with bā 吧 as a morpheme. For example, jiǔbā 酒吧 (a spot in a western restaurant or hotel, where drinks are sold), dībā 迪吧 (a bar where the customers could dance disco to the accompanied music), chábā 茶吧 (a small tea house of western style), shuǐbā 水吧 (a small bar with seats and different kinds of drinks), shūbā 書吧 (a small business where customers could read with a drink), táobā 陶吧 (a DIY workshop where customers could make their own favorite potteries by themselves), wǎngbā 網吧 (net-bar, where internet, alcoholic drinks, tea, and coffee are available), yǎngbā 氧吧 (oxygen bar, a place where people could take in purified oxygen by some apparatus), kāfēibā 咖啡吧 (cafeteria), bātái 吧臺 (the counter of a bar), bānǚ 吧 女 (barmaid), bāniáng 吧娘 (a bar hostess), and bāyíng 吧蠅 (barfly, someone who frequents bars and clubs at nights). Dī 的 is a morpheme of dīshì 的士, which is the transliteration of taxi into Cantonese. A number of compound words are formed with dī 的 as a morpheme, such as Dīgē 的哥 (male taxi driver), dījiě 的姐 (female taxi driver), dǎdī 打的 (hail a taxi), mǎdī 馬的 (hackney carriage), módī 摩的 (a motorcycle taxi), shuǐdī 水的 (yacht taxi), miàndī 面的 (minivan taxi), huòdī 貨的 (truck taxi), and bǎndī 板的 (rickshaw). Dí 滌 is a morpheme of dílún 滌綸 (a synthetic fiber of high strength and elasticity) that is the transliteration of terylene. Dí 滌 is a morpheme of a few compounds such as díkǎ 滌卡 (dacron drill; khaki fiber made of terylene mixed with cotton), dímián 滌棉 (polyester-cotton blend; commonly known as díquèliáng 的 確良). Mì 密 is a morpheme of mìsī 密斯 or mìsī 蜜絲 that is the transliteration of miss (a girl or young woman). Compounds with mì 密 as a morpheme include xiǎomì 小密 (a nickname for a young female secretary – mistress by her leader, manager, or boss) and mìr密兒 (same as xiǎomì 小密). Mó 模 is a morpheme of mótèr 模特兒 (models for sculptors or painters; fashion models or dummies) that is the transliteration of model (English) or modèle (French). The compound word míngmó 名模 (famous fashion models) takes mó 模 as a morpheme. Xiù 秀 is a transliteration of show. The word enters Mandarin lexicon from Taiwan and Hong Kong dialects. Compound words with shòu 秀 as a morpheme include zuòxiù 做秀 (perform, put on a show), mófǎngxiù 模仿秀 (shows by imitating famous people or certain things in image, sound or appearance), yǒngzhuāngxiù 泳裝秀 (swimsuits fashion show), xiùchǎng 秀場 (a venue of the show), etc.

4 The blend of Mandarin and dialect words As a common language is promoted across a country, different local dialects would be mixed into the common language, and some dialect words would

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gradually enter the common lexicon. This has been happening since ancient times till contemporary times in Chinese language. It is more likely for words of strong dialects to enter the common lexicon but less likely for those of weak dialects. After the May Fourth Movement, Mandarin has taken in a great number of dialect words, among which the Beijing dialect, Wu 吴 dialect, and Cantonese are of the largest proportion, as they are main domain dialects. Since the Yuan and Ming dynasties, Beijing has been the political, cultural, and economic center of China. Except in the period of the Republic of China (1911–1949), it has been the capital of China. In 1956, it was instituted that the common language of the Han nationality (Pǔtōnghuà 普通话, Mandarin) would take the Beijing phonological system as its norm of pronunciation, the northern dialect as its base dialect, and look to exemplary modern works in báihuà 白 話 (vernacular literary language) for its grammatical norms. In the common language, Beijing dialect plays a special part, and many Beijing vernacular words easily enter Pǔtōnghuà 普通话. For example, cìrtóu 刺兒頭 (a person hard to deal with), cuō 撮 (have a large meal), dǎoyé 倒爺 (profiteer), dǎnghéngr 擋橫兒 (interfere, block), gàimàor 蓋帽兒 (bravo, super), diàofènr 掉份兒 (degrading; cheapen), dòngzhēngé 動真格 (apply regulations seriously rather than merely talk), kǎndàshān 侃大山 (砍大山) (chat idly, gossip), māonì 貓膩 (something secretive, underhand act), méijìn 沒勁 (tedious, boring), and tiěgērmen 鐵哥兒們 (bosom friends among men). Wu dialect words were taken in Mandarin a long time ago; for example, gāngà 尷尬 (in dilemma; in an awkward situation), yìngpèngyìng 硬碰硬 (confront the tough with toughness without leaving a room for a compromise), and shàyǒujièshì 煞有介事 (act as if it were the case; usu. play powerful, pretend to be serious).2 Since the 20th century, Shanghai has become the largest economic center and an important cultural centre of China. Along with the development of Yangtze River Economic Zone, Shanghai plays an increasingly paramount role in the national economic construction, leading to the entry of an increasing number of Wu vernaculars, as represented by Shanghai vernaculars, into Pǔtōnghuà. Some examples are bǎipíng 擺平 (curb, handle), biēsān 癟三 (tramps, those who make a living by begging or stealing in cities), bùdājiè 不搭界 (irrelevant, not related in any way), dǎyáng 打烊 (a business closes its door at night), diǎ 嗲 (act affectionate; to please others in a deliberately sweetening manner; diǎshēngdiǎqì 嗲聲嗲 氣 (speak in a coaxing voice), fāmáo 發毛 (throw tantrums; meaning to panic as a Mandarin word), dǔdìng 篤定 (for sure, definitely), lǎoyechē 老爺車 (an oldfashioned vehicle that goes very slowly), lǎohǔzào 老虎竈 (a large kitchen stove used to boil water; where hot or boiled water is sold), pàiduì 派對 (transliteration of party into Wu dialect – birthday party), xiàngshà 像煞 (as if, seemingly), xúnkāixīn尋開心 (tease, play a joke), etc. Guangdong is adjacent to Hong Kong and Macau and has become the fastest growing economic region since the opening and reform of China Mainland. Mainland workers flock into Guangdong, which has led to a rapid entry of Hong Kong and Macau vernaculars into Pǔtōnghuà. Examples include bàopéng 爆棚 (too many people to accommodate), chǎoyóuyú 炒魷魚 (lit. to fry squid; fig. dismiss

Innovation of Chinese lexicon after the May Fourth Movement 171 someone; roll up one’s quilt and leave a job just like a squid rolls when fried), fàláng 髮廊 (hair salon), fāshāoyǒu 發燒友 (an enthusiast for an endeavor or a hobby; fanatics), fēilǐ 非禮 (molest, harass a female), gǎodìng 搞定 (get something troublesome done), gǎoxiào 搞笑 (crack a joke, make others laugh), máidān 埋單 (or mǎidān 買單) (pay the bill in the restaurant), bāfēn 扒分 (make money in one’s free time away from work or study), páidàng 排檔 (a licensed food stall), shēngměng 生猛 [lively, fresh (seafood, etc.)], wúlítóu 無厘頭 (groundless, absurd), etc. Certainly, there are also words from other dialects in Pǔtōnghuà, such as chěbái 扯白 (tell lies), sházi 啥子 (what) from Sìchuān 四川dialects; diānzi 癲子 (a fool), lǐshǒu 裏手 (professionals; experts), xuétáng 學堂 (school) from Xiāng 湘 (Húnán 湖南Province) dialects, and so on. The largest proportion is still from Beijing, Wu, and Yuè 粵 (Guǎngdōng 廣東 Province) dialects, which is one main feature of the entry of dialects into Pǔtōnghuà in the 20th century.

5 Necessity of lexical standardization The birth of volumes of new words and the increasing entry of loanwords inevitably enriches contemporary Chinese lexicon. Meanwhile, the number of polysemies is on the rise. Various words signify one object. For example, jīguāng 激 光, léishè 鐳射, and láisài 萊塞 all mean laser. Jìsuànjī 計算機 and diànnǎo 電 腦 both mean computer. Xióngmāo 熊貓and māoxióng 貓熊both mean panda. Bīngqílín 冰淇淋and bīngjīlíng 冰激凌both mean ice cream. Some of these words have been collected in dictionaries and are widely accepted in society. Nevertheless, there are certain variations that should be noticed. Some objects already have names yet have been renamed unusually, causing confusion in communication. Take some medicine names, such as the following. Yǎng fú shā xīng 氧氟沙星3 (ofloxacin) is also called tài lì bì ān 泰利必安, fú qín suān 氟嗪酸, bèi lì dé 貝利德, and ào fù xīng 奧復星. Duō pān lì tóng 多潘立酮4 (domperidone) is also called mǎ ding lín 嗎丁啉, lì měi lín 麗美啉, héng bāng恒邦, and mài dá lín 麥達啉. Nài pū wéi dī yǎn yè 萘撲維滴眼液5 (compound naphazoline hydrochloride eye drops) is also called rùn jié 潤潔, shì bì jiā 視必佳, yì jié E 潔, qīng lǎng 清郎, and yǔ jié 宇潔. In addition, Běn huáng suān ān lǜ dìpíng 苯磺酸氨氯地平6 (amlodipine besylate) is also called luò huó xǐ 絡活喜, lán dí 蘭迪, ān nèi dá 安內 達, yā shì dá 壓氏達, and lián huáng jiǎ yǎng biàn dìng piàn 聯磺甲氧 苄啶片. Lǜ léi tā dìng piàn 氯雷他定片7 (loratadine) is also called kāi ruì tǎn 開瑞坦, nuò dìng諾定, mǐn kè 敏克, and xīng yuán jiā 星元佳. Fēi nà xióng ān piàn 非那雄胺片8 (finasteride) is also called bǎo liè zhì 保列 治, bǎo liè sū 保列蘇, and sī kē bó 思克勃. Gé liè qí tè piàn 格列齊特片9 (gliclazide) is also called dá měi kāng 達美康, shū jiàng táng梳降糖, and ruì ěr 瑞爾.

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The renaming is not for communication but for economic gains. With a new name and in a different package, the same medicine could be sold at a price multiple times higher than the original price. People are fooled, and the communicative function of Chinese is also undermined. Thus, it is necessary to standardize the use of these words. Another case is the use of netspeak. On the internet, one can express their opinions at will. Netspeak is vivid and emerges and spreads fast; there are two opinions on the use of it. One is that the language should be allowed freely and that there is no need to interfere with the use. Another opinion is that the language violates the standards of the Chinese language and should not be used in textbooks and news reports. It should be noted that the development of a language is not to create barriers and confusion but to facilitate exchange and communication. Current Chinese needs to advance with the times, enrich itself, and preserve the language standard as well. Netspeak includes both new and old words, proper and improper alike, which should be treated differently. Some words like bǎnzhǔ 版主 (webmaster), liànjiē 鏈接 (link), zhádào 閘道 (gateway), wǎngkǎ 網卡 (network card), zhǔyè 主頁 (main page), shàngchuán 上傳 (upload), and xiàzǎi 下載 (download) follow the word-forming rules of Chinese and convey new information. They have been accepted in society and are used widely; there are no alternative words for them. However, some netspeak words are coined unnecessarily or involve abuse or misuse of characters or signs, such as dōngdōng 東東 (dōngxi 東西) (stuff, objects), xíngnán 型男 (a man in good shape), jiàngzǐ 醬紫 (i.e., zhèyàngzi 這樣子: just so, like this), kǒnglóng 恐龍 (an ugly looking woman), qīngwā 青蛙 (a bad-looking man), cōngbái 蔥白 (chóngbài 崇拜: worship), xīfàn 稀飯 (xǐhuān 喜歡: be fond of), ǒu 偶 (wǒ 我) (I, me), yīsì 14 (yìsi 意 思) (meaning), jiǔbā 98 (jiǔbā 酒吧) (bar), jiǔsì jiǔsì 9494 (jiùshì jiùshì 就是就 是) (yes yes). These words, coined and used randomly, are popular among certain groups but not beneficial to the healthy development of the Chinese language. It is necessary to regulate their use and not to allow the use of them in textbooks and news reports.

Notes 1 For example, Héngyánlù 恒言錄 compiled by Qian Daxin 錢大昕 of the Qing; Tōngsúbiān 通俗編 by Zhai Hao 翟灝 of the Qing; and Zhíyǔ bǔzhèng 直語補證 by Liang Tongshu 梁同書 of the Qing. The Japanese sinologist Kikuya Nagasawa (Japanese 長沢規矩也; Chinese, 長澤規矩也) compiled Míngqīng súyǔ císhū jíchéng 明清俗語 辭書集成, which includes 20 dictionaries of colloquialism. 2 Yuan, Jiahua 袁家驊 et al. Hànyǔ fāngyán gàiyào 漢語方言概要 [Introduction to Chinese Dialects] (second edition), p. 58. 3 An antibiotic for respiratory diseases and urinary infections. 4 A drug to improve bowel motility, boost digestion, and treat abdominal distension. 5 Eye drops for dryness of eye. 6 Hypotensor; a drug to lower blood pressure. 7 Antiallergic agent; a drug to treat allergy. 8 A drug for prostatomegaly. 9 A drug to lower blood sugar level, for type 2 diabetes.

Bibliography

Change, G 長澤規矩也. (1989). Ming qing suyu cishu jicheng 明清俗語辭書集成. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House. Siku quanshu 四庫全書. (1924). Beijing: The Commercial Press. Xuxiu sikuquanshu 續修四庫全書. (2002). Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House. Yuan, J 袁家驊. (2001). Hanyu fangyan gaiyao (2nd ed.) 漢語方言概要（第二版）. Beijing: Language Publishing House. Zhonghua dazidian 中華大字典. (1915). Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.

Index

complete transliteration 27 freely translated words 37 free translation 29 idioms 93, 95 Indo-European loanwords 26 Japanese loanwords 24 loanwords 195 multisyllablic transliterated words 37 neologisms 31, 38, 42, 43

polysyllabic synonyms 42, 49 proverbs 147 self-created neologisms 31 semi-free translation 29 semi-transliteration 29 synonyms 41, 46 synonyms with different morphemes 69 synonyms with multiple combinations 74 synonyms with the same morpheme 49, 61 translated words in Japanese 7, 12 transliteration mixed with free translation 28