3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials 3031259939, 9783031259937

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Divya Singh Ranvijay Kumar Sunpreet Singh Seema Ramniwas   Editors

3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials

3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials

Divya Singh  •  Ranvijay Kumar Sunpreet Singh  •  Seema Ramniwas Editors

3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials

Editors Divya Singh University Centre for Research and Development Chandigarh University Mohali, Punjab, India Sunpreet Singh Centre for Nanofibers & Nanotechnology National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore

Ranvijay Kumar University Centre for Research and Development Chandigarh University Mohali, Punjab, India Seema Ramniwas University Centre for Research and Development Chandigarh University Mohali, Punjab, India

ISBN 978-3-031-25993-7    ISBN 978-3-031-25994-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25994-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The book entitled 3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials is aimed to deliver a foolproof concept-based methodology/technology demonstration/processing for utilizing insects in 3D food printing applications. The purpose of this book is to establish a technology-driven (3D food printing) route map to fight against issues like hunger and nutrition deficiencies in humans/animals with considering insects as a part of a sustainable/nutritional food supply (Entomophagy). The contents of this book consist of a collection of principles for Entomophagy, insect processing methods, a literature survey, a concept of modern 3D food printing technologies, theoretical/practical aspects of Entomophagy by 3D printing, emphasizing future aspects of Entomophagy with technologies, etc. In particular, this book is designed to cover the updated research contribution across the world for Entomophagy and 3D food printing concepts. This ground-breaking book provides broad coverage of the theory behind this emerging technology, material development by Entomophagy, functional characterization, and the technical details required for readers to investigate the novel applications of 3D food printing materials (especially insects) with involved methods for themselves. Chandigarh University Mohali, India  National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore 

Divya Singh Ranvijay Kumar Sunpreet Singh Seema Ramnwas

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Contents

1 Entomophagy  in 3D Food Printing��������������������������������������������������������    1 Priya and Rajinder Kumar 2 Entomophagy  and Its Application Through 3D Printing for Sustainable Food Development��������������������������������������������������������   21 Devina Seram, James Watt Haobijam, and Sonia Morya 3 Crickets  as a Promising Alternative Edible Insect: Nutritional and Technological Aspects and 3D Printing Prospective ������������������������������������������������������������������   41 Ingrid Rodrigues Ferreira, Patrícia Milano, Marise Aparecida Rodrigues Pollonio, Ana Karoline Ferreira Ignácio Câmara, and Camila de Souza Paglarini 4 Insects  Nutrition and 3D Printing����������������������������������������������������������   69 Priya and Rajinder Kumar 5 Entomophagy:  Application of Edible Insects in 3D Printed Foods ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   83 Sonia Morya, Deepika Sandhu, Akriti Thakur, Arno Neumann, and Chinaza Godswill Awuchi 6 Edible  Insects as Materials for Food Printing: Printability and Nutritional Value����������������������������������������������������������  101 Harmanpreet Singh and Victor Shikuku 7 Drosophila as a Potential Functional Food: An Edge Over Other Edible Insects ������������������������������������������������������  115 Aanchal Sharma and Seema Ramniwas 8 3D  Printing, Insects and Food: A Bibliometric Analysis����������������������  123 Divya Singh

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9 Inkjet-Based  3D Food Printing for Sustainable Insect Materials: A State-­of-­the-Art Review and Prospective Materials ����������������������������������������������������������������������  135 Ketan Badogu and Ranvijay Kumar 10 Extrusion-Based  3D Printing Concept in Customized Nutritional Products��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  153 Khushwant Kour and Ranvijay Kumar 11 A  Review on Binder Jetting and Selective Laser Sintering: A Novel Assessment of the Processes for 3D Insect Food Printing Materials��������������������������������������������������������������������������  173 Sehra Farooq and Nishant Ranjan 12 Social,  Economic, Scientific and Environment Aspects of Entomophagy in 3D Food Printing����������������������������������������������������  191 Ketan Badogu, Khushwant Kour, and Ranvijay Kumar Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  205

Chapter 1

Entomophagy in 3D Food Printing Priya and Rajinder Kumar

1.1 Introduction Food security is becoming a massive concern as it is estimated that the population of the world will surpass 9 billion in 2050. Hunger and malnutrition are ongoing issues in impoverished areas because nutritional inadequacy is the basis of so many other diseases, ensuring enough nutrition for everyone is critical. Arthropods, particularly insects, are considered a source of protein in this area (Nadeau et al. 2015; Van Huis 2015). Insects are the most diverse category of organisms, accounting for 80% of all species on the planet. Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera dominate the one million species that fall into 24 orders, with over 2100 edible species (Jongema 2017). Cicada, silkworm pupae, bamboo caterpillars, giant water bugs, locusts, ant eggs, beetles, and crickets are the most famous insects devoured in Asian countries. Entomophagy is the scientific term used for devouring insects. For thousands of years, humans have consumed the eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of some insect species obtained from forests or other appropriate environments (Dobermann et al. 2017). In numerous parts of the world-devouring insects is not an innovative concept, it is appraised to be exercised by at least 2 billion people across the world, extending from ants to beetle larvae – eaten as part of subsistence meals by tribes in Africa and Australia – to the prevalent, crispy-fried beetles and locusts appreciated in Thailand. In the literature, insect species of more than 1900 have been identified as edible, the majority of which are noticed in tropical areas (Van Huis et al. 2013). It was reported that usually, insects were found to be extremely nutritious, with high levels of, vitamins, energy, minerals, fat, and protein (Ramos-­ Elorduy et al. 1997). For example, in about 100 g of caterpillars, either moth larvae or butterfly larvae, individuals, it was discovered to fulfill 76% of their protein intake requirement on daily basis and approximately 100% of their daily vitamin Priya (*) · R. Kumar Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Singh et al. (eds.), 3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25994-4_1

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requirement (Agbidye et al. 2009). Along with nutritious properties edible insects also have pharmacological properties such as the venom of Jewel wasp (Nasonia vitripennis) acts as an anti-inflammatory which prevents NF-k B signaling in mammalian cells (Danneels et  al. 2014), products of honey bee (Apis mellifera) like honey, royal jelly, propolis, and venom work as anti-bacterial, anti-angiogenesis, anti-allergic and anti-tumor (Li et al. 2009; Hegazi et al. 2013; Lee et al. 2005; Jang and Song 2013). Despite these advantages, entomophagy is not so popular because of a lack of research and awareness among people. The food security aspects for emerging populations necessitate the immediate provision of safe, clean, and nutritious food, which could be fulfilled by adopting new emerging technology such as 3D food printing (Chantawannakul 2020).

1.2 Role of Insects 1.2.1 Beneficial Role 1.2.1.1 Pollinator A crucial role is played by insects in the reproduction of plants. A total of 1 lakh pollinator species have been found, with insects accounting approx the majority of them (98%) (Ingram et al. 1996). Pollinators are obligated for however almost 90% of the 250,000 blooming plant species. This is likewise truly the case for three-­ quarters of the 100 species of crop that yield the majority of the world’s food (Ingram et al. 1996). Only domesticated bees could contribute 15% to pollination. The value of this ecological function to agriculture and wildlife cannot be overstated. 1.2.1.2 Decomposition Insects are also important in the biodegradation of debris. Beetle larvae, flies, ants, and termites clean up dead plant waste, breaking it down so that fungus and bacteria can consume it. Dead organism minerals and nutrients become readily available in the soil for plant uptake in this manner. Fly maggots and beetle larvae, for example, feed on animal carcasses. Dung beetles, of which there are over 4000 species, are also important in the decomposition of manure. They can colonize a dung heap in as little as 24 hours, inhibiting the development of flies. If the faeces remain on the soil surface, around 80% of the nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere; however, the presence of dung beetles means that carbon and minerals are recycled back to the soil, where they decompose further to form humus for plants. When cattle were first introduced to Australia in 1788, waste biodegradation became an early issue since endemic dung beetles couldn’t keep up with the huge amounts of manure. Dung beetles in Australia had evolved into marsupial dung (e.g. kangaroo dung), which differs from bovine dung in a variety of respects, including size, texture, and water

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content. To address the issue, the Australian Dung Beetle Project was founded, and dung beetles were imported from South Africa, Europe, and Hawaii (of 46 introduced species, 23 established) (Bornemissza 1976). 1.2.1.3 Valuable Products Insects supply a range of additional useful products to humans. The most well-­ known insect products are honey, silk, and lac. According to FAO (2009b) report every year, bees produce around 1.2 million tonnes of commercial honey (FAO 2009b) and more than about 90,000 tonnes of silk produced by silkworms (Yong-­ Woo 1999). Foods, textiles, and medications all contain carmine, a red color generated by scale insects (order Hemiptera). Because of its elastic qualities, Resilin, a rubber-like protein that allows insects to jump, has been employed in medicine to repair arteries (Elvin et al. 2005). Maggot therapy and the use of bee products – such as honey, propolis, royal jelly, and venom in the treatment of traumatic and infected wounds and burns are two other medical applications (Van Huis 2002). 1.2.1.4 Technology and Engineering Insects have also influenced engineering and technology. Arthropod silk proteins (e.g., spider silk) are strong and elastic and have been employed as biomaterials in the past (Lewis 1992). Chitosan, a substance derived from chitin found in insect exoskeletons, has also been proposed as a smart and biodegradable biobased polymer for food packaging. Natural packaging made from insect “skin” can acclimate the inside environment, preserving the goods from food spoilage and microbes. Chitosan, for instance, may store antioxidants and has antibacterial properties against bacteria, moulds, and yeasts (Cutter 2006; Portes et al. 2009). Nevertheless, because the chitosan polymer is susceptible to moisture, it may be unworkable in its natural state (Cutter 2006). Biomimicry is the process of using nature or rather, replicating it to solve human issues. Similarly, termite hills, with their intricate network of tunnels and ventilation systems, can be used as a model for designing structures with effective air quality, temperature, and humidity control (Turner and Soar 2008). 1.2.1.5 Cultural Entomology Cultural entomology is a branch of entomology (the scientific study of insects) that explores the impact of insects on culture (e.g. language, art, literature, and religion) (Hogue 1987). Contributions from this discipline have served to emphasize the unique role that insects have played in literature (particularly children’s books), film, and visual art, as well as their use as collectibles, ornaments (Jewel beetle), and other decorative things more broadly, as a source of creative inspiration (Van Huis et al. 2013).

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1.2.2 Entomophagy The word ‘Entomophagy’ is made up of two Greek words “Entomos,” which means “insects,” and “Phagein,” which means “food.” As a result, entomophagy refers to the eating of insects. Humans have been eating insects as food for over a 1000 years, dating back to the hunter-gatherer era, and this tradition has continued for several years with succeeding civilizations. Insect success as food is determined by palatability, economic value, nutritional value, and other factors. Insects are a superior option to other protein sources like beef, meat, and poultry since they require less food and are cold-blooded, requiring less energy to stay warm. As a result, they transform their diet into proteins quickly (Chakravorty et al. 2013a). 1.2.2.1 Why Do People Eat Insects? Overall, there are three reasons to promote entomophagy (Van Huis et al. 2013): • Health • Best nutritious, healthy replacements to normal staples like beef, pork, chicken, and fish caught in the ocean are insects. • Numerous insects are abundant in calcium, and iron, in addition to zinc, as well as high in protein and healthy fats. • Insects are already a staple of various national and regional cuisines. • Environmental • Insects raised for food emit far lower greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions than many other animals (for illustration, only a limited insect group, like cockroaches and termites, emit methane). • Insects are hugely advantageous at attempting to convert feedstuff into protein because they are cold-blooded. • Insects could be fed organic waste streams. • Insect rearing is not usually a land-based activity, and increasing output does not need land loss. The most fundamental requirement for land is food. • Ammonia emissions from insect farming are also markedly smaller than those of traditional animals (e.g. pigs). • Livelihoods (economic and social factors) • Both urban and rural populations can earn a living by raising miniature cattle. • Insect collection and rearing is a low-tech, low-investment activity that is accessible to even the lowest elements of society, such as women and the landless. • Insect rearing can be low-tech or high-tech, liable on the level of investment.

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1.3 History of Insect Consumption by Humans 1.3.1 Ancient Time’s Entomophagy Although most of us find eating insects weird, entomophagy has played a significant role in nearly every human diet historically. In reality, numerous references to insect ingestion are mentioned in Christian, Islamic, and Judaism sacred texts (Van Huis et al. 2013). The first references to entomophagy in Europe date back to Ancient Greece, when eating cicadas was considered a delicacy. The taste of female cicadas improved after mating, according to Aristoteles, since they are filled with eggs, as evidenced by his Historia Animalium (384–322 B.C.) (Bodenheimer 1951).Many more documents illustrate how communal it was to devour insects during the period. People belonging to Ethiopia were dubbed ‘Acridophagi’ by Diodorus of Sicily (200 B.C.) since grasshoppers and locusts belonging to the family Acrididae were on their diets. Writer of Historia Naturalis named Pliny the Elder, mentions a dish prevalent among Romans called ‘cossus’, prepared with the use of Cerambyx cerdo (beetle larvae) as per Bodenheimer (1951). According to Chinese literature, entomophagy and the usage of insects in customary medicine was frequently mentioned. A large number of recipes based on the usage of insects, as well as their therapeutic properties, were listed in the Compendium of Materia Medica (Bodenheimer 1951).

1.3.2 Modern-Day Entomophagy The most popular insect species for human consumption include beetles (Coleoptera) with a maximum consumption rate of 31% followed by caterpillars (18%), Bees, wasps, and ants (14%), Grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets (13%), Cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects and true bugs (10%), Termites (3%), Dragonflies (3%), and Flies (2%) (Lange and Nakamura 2021) (Table 1.1). Table 1.1  Popular insects species for human consumption Order Diptera Hymenoptera Orthoptera Odonata Coleoptera Isoptera Hemiptera Lepidoptera

Insect species Flies Bees, wasps, and ants Locusts, crickets, and grasshoppers Dragonflies Beetles Termites True bugs, leafhoppers planthoppers, scale insects, and cicadas Caterpillars

Lange and Nakamura (2021)

Consumption (%) 2 14 13 3 31 3 10 18

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Numerous stages of insects are consumed as prepared and live in a variety of ways, including raw, baked, ground, boiling, or fried. There are abundant illustrations of entomophagy as a part of an ordinary diet. In Thailand, for example, 150 distinct bug species are consumed, the majority of which are wild-harvested, and are a necessary part of the diet (Yhoung-Aree 2010). Similarly, in Burkina Faso and Kenya, insect consumption has a rich history. The Cirina butyrospermi (Shea tree caterpillar) was considered problematic to plantations of trees established for the manufacture of shea butter in Burkina Faso, which is the most widely consumed insect (Anvo et al. 2016). The most widespread in Kenya are larvae of Rhynchophrus phoenicis (Palm weevil), together are wild-harvested and semi-cultivated by cutting off raffia trees (Kelemu et al. 2015).

1.4 Insects as Human Food 1.4.1 Entomophagy in India Various tribes in India consume approximately a total of 245 species, 50 families, and 10 orders of insects employing food. The ingesting of Coleopteran species was the uppermost among these entomophagous insect species which comprised 24.69% followed by Hemiptera (22.63%), Orthoptera (17.28%), Hymenoptera (13.17%), Odonata (10.70%), Lepidoptera (5.35%), Isoptera (2.88%), Dictyoptera (2.06%) and the minimum were Diptera (0.41%), and Ephemeroptera (0.82%). The study of edible insects in India led to the discovery of previously unknown natural resources in northeast regions of India, as well as medical and traditional beliefs held by tribal people (Haldhar et  al. 2021). Entomophagy is widely practiced among ethnic groups, particularly among the tribes of Nagaland, in North East India (92 insect species), Manipur (69 insect species), Assam (67 insect species), Arunachal Pradesh (65 insect species), and a minor extent among Mizoram’s tribes (24 insect species), Meghalaya (16 insect species), Tripura (12 insect species), and Sikkim (5 insect species) (Table  1.2). In comparison, among the ethnic communities of Odisha, Table 1.2  Consumption of edible insect species in different states of North-­ east India

North-East state Nagaland Manipur Assam Arunachal Pradesh Mizoram Meghalaya Tripura Sikkim Haldhar et al. (2021)

No. of edible insect species 92 69 67 65 24 16 12 5

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Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in the South and Central parts of India, this practice is much less common (consisting of roughly one to five insect species). Individuals of diverse tribes select insects as food based on their traditional beliefs, palate, and geographical and seasonal convenience of eatable insects. Only some, but sometimes all, developmental stages are devoured, depending on the species. Roasting or boiling are the most common methods of preparing edible insects for consumption (Chakravorty 2014).

1.4.2 Entomophagy in the World For a variety of reasons, providing precise data on the quantity of edible insect species globally is challenging. Official estimates are difficult for several reasons, one of which is that a layperson is reluctant to characterize an insect using Linnaean terminology. Another fact is the adoption of many vernacular names, sometimes known as ethnospecies – for the same insect species in numerous cultures complicates matters. Still, some scientists have estimated it on various basis. Worldwide, beetles are the most consumable insect species belonging to the order Coleoptera contributing about 31% and also this group consists of approximately 40% of entirely identified species of insects. Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) came in second in terms of consumption, accounting for 18% of all consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa. Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and, wasps) come in third place with 14% and are particularly prevalent in Latin America followed by crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts (Orthoptera) containing 13%, true bugs, scale insects, planthoppers, leafhoppers, and cicadas (10%), termites (3%), dragonflies (3%), flies (2%), and other orders about 5% (Van Huis et al. 2013). Various popular edible insects in different countries are described in Table 1.3. Around 80% of the population of the world eats 1000 to 2000 different types of insects as a rich source of fibre and protein. Most of the insects consuming countries are Mexico, Central America, Brazil, South America, Ghana, New Zealand, Thailand, China, and the Netherlands. Termites make up 60% of the African countryside’s food. Crickets, mealworms, and grasshoppers are eaten with fries and zatziki sauce in the United Kingdom, and a favorite dessert course, Welsh cake, is served with cinnamon mealworms (Chakravorty et al. 2013b). In Thailand and Cambodia, street insects are fried or roasted and eaten as appetizers. Bundaegi (Silkworm pupae) are considered one of the greatest alternatives for community consumption in Korea. For the promotion of insect industries, the South Korean government encourages food makers to produce more insect powder and soups (Sharma and Banu 2019). In the pastoral areas of Japan insects are part of old-style food. Insect tsukemen, cricket rice worms, spring rolls, and ice cream flavored with insect powder are also famous in Japan. Along with these, cricket bars, unicorn beetles, and canned tarantulas are also popular (Chakravorty et al. 2013b).

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Table 1.3  Major orders and popular edible insects in the world

Insect order Coleoptera (beetles)

Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)

Percentage of edible species 31

18

14 Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, and ants)

13 Orthoptera (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets)

Hemiptera Homoptera; suborder (scale insects, planthoppers leafhoppers, and cicadas)

Popular edible insects Palm weevil, Rynchophorus phoenicis (equatorial and tropical Africa). R. ferrugineus (Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Japan) in Asia. R. palmarum Americas (West Indies and Central America, South America and Mexico) the tropical. Agrotis infusa (Bogong moth) is consumed by Indigenous Australians. Hawkmoths (Theretra spp. and Daphnis spp.) afterward removed the legs and wings eaten by individuals of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Mopane caterpillar (Imbrasia belina) in Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, Angola, South Africa, Zambia, and Namibia. Weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) larvae and pupae of the queen brood (reproductive form), also termed ant eggs, are a prevalent food in Asia. Polymachis dives, a black weaver ant found in subtropical southeast China, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, and Bangladesh. During the annual Hebo Festival of Japan, yellow jacket wasps larvae Vespula and Dolichovespula spp. are popular as hebo. Chapulines (edible grasshoppers of the genus Sphenarium) in Madagascar, Mexico (Oaxaca state). Sphenarium purpurascens in Mexico. In Asia Crickets Teleogryllus occipitalis, Gryllus bimaculatus, and T. mitratus. House cricket (Acheta domesticus) in Thailand.

Reference Ramos-Elorduy et al. (2009)

Van Huis et al. (2013); Flood (1980); Ghazoul (2006)

Van Mele (2008); Shen et al. (2006); Nonaka et al. (2008)

Van Mele (2008); Cohen et al. (2009); Cerritos and Cano-Santana (2008); Yhoung-­ Aree and Viwatpanich (2005)

10 Van Mele (2008) Psyllid (Arytaina mopane) in South Africa. A brilliant red color recognized as E120 (Carmine dye) resultant from the Cactus cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus) is extensively utilized in food, and several Homoptera create products that are regularly consumed by humans. Humans also eat lerp, a crystallized, sugary fluid produced by psyllid larvae as a defensive coating. (continued)

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Table 1.3 (continued)

Insect order Heteroptera; suborder

Isoptera (termites)

Percentage of edible species

3

Popular edible insects Pentatomid bugs are widely consumed in Sub-Saharan Africa, especially in Southern Africa Agonoscelis versicolor the pentatomid also produces oil, which is used in food preparation and to treat camel scab illness in the Republic of Sudan. Macrotermes spp. in Africa Syntermes spp. eaten in Amazon.

Reference Van Huis (2002)

Van Huis (2003); Paoletti (2005); Paoletti et al. (2000)

1.4.3 Nutrient Content Although it is difficult to make broad comments regarding the nutritional worth of insects, the first and foremost reason is there are so many distinct edible species, and second, because there are so many variables that affect nutritional content. But, there is no doubt that insects provide vitamins, fat, protein, minerals, and energy (content equivalent to that of additional fresh meat sources (per fresh weight), excluding pork, which has a high-fat content) (Rumpold and Schlüter 2013). Energy levels are estimated to be between 400 and 500 kcal per 100 g of dry matter, forming analogous to supplementary protein sources (Payne et al. 2016). According to the research, insects have a caloric value that is 50% more than soybeans, 87% more than corn, 70% above lentils, fish, and beans, and 95% above wheat and rye, respectively. Protein content varies with insects, with caterpillars containing 50-60  g. Grubs of Palm weevil comprise 23–36  g, Orthopterans have 41-91 g, and ants include 7-25 g per 100 g−1 dry weight. Essential amino acids were found in significant concentrations in proteins, extending between 90 to 172%, and 52.4% unsaturated fatty acids, comprising linolenic acids and linoleic. The eatable insects of Northeast India have been shown to have a high protein content (Shantibala et  al. 2012). Chakravorty et  al (2013) (Chakravorty et  al. 2013b) advocated for edible insects as human food in North-east India, claiming that B. orientalis adults included minerals (Zn, Fe, Cu), palmitic acid (50%), stearic acid (9–32%), vitamin B12, palmitoleic acid (20–26%) and linoleic acid (36–40%). The energy content of crickets, termites, grasshoppers, and caterpillars is substantial. Animal meals with increased protein content included chicken, bacon, eggs, steak, and lamb. In mulberry silkworm, B. mori pupa powder, Sangavi and Sarath (2017) discovered little fat about 2% but high protein content of 72% and amino acids of roughly 57%, as well as, essential linoleic acid with 33%, unsaturated fatty acids approx 75% and alpha-linolenic acid with 35% in oil recovered from pupae. Protein (55.6%), fat (32.2%), and important amino acids like valine, methionine, and phenylalanine were all abundant in B. mori pupae (Sangavi and Sarath 2017).

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1.4.4 Different Types of Edible Insect Products Insects are killed after being raised in a domesticated environment by boiling, sun, and freeze-drying. They are devoured and processed in three different ways: ground, whole, or paste form, and as strengthening food and feed products with protein, fat, or chitin extract. They are also cooked and consumed while still alive. Yellow mealworms are being added to tortillas in Mexico (Ayieko et al. 2010a). 1.4.4.1 Consume as the Whole Insect In tropical nations, insects are commonly eaten whole, however other insects, like locusts and grasshoppers, require body portions to be removed (like legs, and wings). Roasting, frying, or boiling fresh insects can be used to enhance the flavor of the food. Insects are sold as ready-to-eat appetizers or fried along with leaves of lime in other countries’ markets (Van Huis et al. 2013). 1.4.4.2 As Paste Form or Granular Form Processing can make edible insects into more appetizing forms. To increase the nutritional value of low-protein foods, they are commonly mashed into a paste or powder. A simple approach to obtaining a powder is grinding and drying the insects. The Lao People’s Democratic Republic popularly known as jaew maeng da in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and nam phik in Thailand was a common key component in chile paste with crushed and ground gigantic waterbugs (Lethocerus indicus). The huge water bug’s flavor has been artificially replicated and is now readily available. In societies where people are not used to eating whole insects, granular or paste versions of insects might be a little more appealing (Van Huis et al. 2013). 1.4.4.3 Extracted Insect Proteins Insect protein extraction aimed at human food products, which is previously being done, could be a good strategy to boost customer acceptance. To develop the technique and make it lucrative and practical for industrial application more research is needed. The various promising edible products for the consumption of humans are Protein-enriched sorghum porridge (SOR-Mite), a sorghum mixture supplemented with termites popular in African countries (Institute of Food Technologists 2011), Termite crackers and muffins in Kenya has a high commercial potential (Ayieko et al. 2010b), Buqadilla a food product served as snacks in Mexico (van Huis et al. 2012), Crikizz a spicy snack of mealworms and cassava prevalent in Europe (Van Huis et  al. 2013), Mealworm powder in Australia, Europe and North America (Téguia et al. 2002) (Table 1.4).

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Table 1.4  Illustrations of auspicious edible insect products for human consumption in different countries Name of product SOR-Mite (protein-­ enriched sorghum porridge)

Type of product Porridge

Termite crackers and muffins

Snacks

Buqadilla

Snacks

Crikizz

Snacks

Mealworm powder

The powder can be worked into biscuits, candy, bread, instant noodles, pastries, flour, and condiments.

Constituent/use of a product Because the grain was lacking in protein, lipids, and certain key amino acids, such as lysine, it was revitalized with very nutritious flying termites (Macrotermes species). Crackers, meatloaf, sausages, muffins, and made by termites and lakeflies were discovered to have high commercialization potential. Chickpeas and lesser mealworms are used to make leguminous foods (40%) Mealworms and cassava-­ based Crikizz are spicy, popped snacks. Insects can also be eaten whole as a meal or as a side dish or processed into medicinal enhancements to benefit the immune system of the human body.

Country African countries

Reference Institute of Food Technologists (2011)

Kenya

Ayieko et al. (2010b)

Mexico

van Huis et al. (2012)

Europe

Van Huis et al. (2013)

Australia, Europe, North America

HaoCheng Mealworm, Inc. (2012)

1.5 Insects as Animals Feed Among the most auspicious species for industrial feed, production is common housefly larvae, black soldier flies, yellow mealworms, and silkworms. Termites and grasshoppers, though to a lesser extent, are also viable (Van Huis et al. 2013).

1.5.1 Common Housefly Larvae Maggots, or housefly larvae, are a valuable main source of protein for poultry. The crude protein content of their total wet larval mass is 54%, and the dry matter content was 30%. Maggots can be sold fresh in intensive farming and are easier to store, and transport as a dried commodity. According to a study, a meal of maggot could be used instead of fishmeal in the production of broiler chicks (Ekoue and Hadzi 2000; Awoniyi et al. 2004). Some examples of housefly larvae as animal feed in different countries are mentioned in Table 1.5.

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Table 1.5  Housefly larvae as animal feed in different countries Animal Chickens

Country Togo Cameroon South Korea

Broiler chickens (enhance the carcass worth and growth concert when feeding a diet containing 10–15% maggots) Chickens (In terms of average weekly weight increase, a Nigeria 25% substitute of fishmeal with maggot meal is the most effective)

Reference Téguia et al. (2002) Ekoue and Hadzi (2000) Hwangbo et al. (2009)

Awoniyi et al. (2004)

1.5.2 Black Soldier Flies Commercially, Flies like a black soldier, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) can be utilized to reduce manure mass, moisture level, and objectionable aromas. They also offer high-value feed for pigs, poultry, fish, and cattle at the same time (Newton et al. 2005).

1.5.3 Silkworms According to Ijaiya and Eko (2009), the meal of silkworm larvae is not as much of expensive as standard fishmeal, making it an excellent financial opportunity. When Anaphe panda (silkworm) caterpillar meal was substituted for fishmeal (by 25, 50, 75, or 100%), they found no noteworthy variations in feed ingestion, feed conversion efficiency, body weight gain, or protein effectiveness ratio among dietary regimens.

1.5.4 Mealworms Tenebrio molitor (mealworms) are currently being mass-produced. After being cultivated on low-nutritive waste matter, they can be nourished by broiler chickens (Van Huis et al. 2013).

1.5.5 Termites In the wild, termites can also be used to trap birds and fish. The birds were captured by tying a snare to a termite mound’s damaged top, where soldiers had collected for hours. In Zambia, Silow (1983) reported utilizing Trinervitermes spp (snouted termites) as fish and as insectivorous bird bait (such as francolins fowl, thrushes, quails, and guinea) (Silow 1983).

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1.5.6 Grasshoppers In India, grasshoppers have been studied for their potential use as farm animal feed. Spathosternum prasiniferum prasiniferum, Acrida exaltata, Hieroglyphus banian, and Oxya fuscovittata were studied for their nutritional content. They concluded that the protein level of acridids was above that of conventional soybean and fishmeal available locally (Anand et al. 2008).

1.6 Insects in Sustainable Entomophagy A need to feed an ever-increasing global population puts ongoing pressure on food output, contributing to additional natural resource depletion (FAO 2009a). Furthermore, climate change challenges are expected to exacerbate existing production issues. FAO activities on sustainable diets are currently investigating the links and collaborations among food biodiversity, urban agriculture, food proportions, agriculture, food production, sustainability, and nutrition. The overarching aim is to strengthen food and nutritional security while simultaneously providing consumers and policymakers with more ecologically friendly dietary recommendations, including clarification of what an environmentally sustainable food system involves (FAO 2009b).

1.6.1 What Is a Sustainable Diet According to FAO? “The FAO defined sustainable diets as diets with low environmental impacts which contribute to food and nutrition security and healthy life for present and future generations. Sustainable diets are protective and respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically fair and affordable; nutritionally adequate, safe, and healthy; while optimizing natural and human resources” (FAO 2012). As a result, edible insects as food should be considered top competitors for both dietary keys and enhancements, as well as their character in sustainable diets in general (refer to Sect. 1.2.2.1).

1.7 Scope of Entomophagy in the Post-COVID-19 World The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which had an unprecedented global influence in 2020, caused several significant changes in human society. Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, several significant concerns about food security have been highlighted, including transportation, manufacturing, and supply

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chain maintenance. In comparison to conventional cattle, Doi et al. (2021) examined the benefits of entomophagy in the post-COVID-19 environment, including the minimal risk of zoonotic disease propagation, high production rate, and chances for increasing entomophagy to expand the variety in the food chain. Because insects targeted for human and animal food are pests that feed on plant matter or agricultural waste, they represent little danger of transmitting zoonotic illnesses. As a result, these insects do not operate as direct pathogen vectors among humans and animals (Doi et al. 2021).

1.8 Obstacles to Utilizing Insects as Food and Feed In spite of the numerous advantages of entomophagy, there are substantial challenges to overcome leading to a shortage of research and the industry’s need for innovation. The possibility that insects possess ‘anti-nutrient’ qualities, food safety problems relating to preservation and allergic reactions, eater appropriateness, and vague or non-existent regulation are all major roadblocks (Dobermann et al. 2017).

1.8.1 Anti-nutrient Properties According to one study, chitin is a nitrogen-based carbohydrate observed in insect exoskeletons that can be an ‘anti-nutrient’ due to its negative impacts on protein digestibility. The potential toxicity of some compounds in insects is also a cause of worry. Toxic insects are classified into two groups: phanerotoxics and cryptotoxics. Toxic substances are found in cryptotoxics as a consequence of either direct synthesis or accumulation from their diet. Phenerotoxics contain organs that synthesize toxins (Belluco et al. 2013). Studies of the quantities of oxalate, hydrocyanide, phenol, tannins, and phytate in entomophagous insect species have revealed that they are considerably below toxicity levels for human ingestion (Ekop et  al. 2010; Shantibala and Lokeshwari 2014). Overall, there is a lack of data on the anti-­nutrient characteristics of edible insects, and additional research is compulsory.

1.8.2 Microbial Risks Spore-forming bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae have been discovered in crickets and mealworms, with larger quantities detected in crushed insects — possibly due to the release of germs from the gut (Klunder et al. 2012). The main bacteria identified for the species studied (R. phoenicis, Bematistes alcinoe Gryllotalpa africana) were from the genera Staphylococcus and Bacillus, in addition, most of the microbes were saprophytes (Amadi and Kiin-Kabari 2016).

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1.8.3 Allergens Many arthropods, including insects, myriapods, crustaceans, and arachnids, include, haemocyanin, arginine kinase, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and tropomyosin, which are known to produce allergic reactions in sensitive people (Belluco et al. 2013; Srinroch et al. 2015).

1.8.4 Mass Production Before insects can be regarded as viable micro livestock, they must be able to be produced on a giant scale in a sustainable, secure, and productive way. The expansion of insect nurture for human and animal nutrition is still hampered by a few hurdles. The first challenge is to specify a promising candidate insect species for mass raising.

1.8.5 Regulation There are no regulatory restrictions on the production, marketing, or eating of insects in nations where they are historically consumed. In Western countries, however, protocols make the custom of insects in both food and feed prohibitive. As per EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), all products of insects for human consumption were designated a “Novel Food” and were required to be submitted for Novel Food certification by 2018, with a two-year transition period permitting existing authorized goods to be on the market until 2020 (IPIFF (International Platform of Insects for Food and Feed) 2017). However, certain participant states of the European Union (EU) have legislation that permits them to evade this need (Dobermann et al. 2017).

1.8.6 Consumer Acceptability There are two unique psychological responses to insects as a food source for humans. In communities where entomophagy is common, insects have valued protein sources, and local knowledge about which species are eatable is passed from generation to generation. In Western societies, on the other hand, insects can trigger visceral negative reactions: ‘a image of insects as unclean, nasty, and deadly is profoundly established in the Western mind’ (Looy et al. 2014). So, consumer acceptability of entomophagy varies with country.

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1.8.7 3D Food Printing 3D printing (3DP) is a digital control robotic building technology that can build up complicated solid shapes layer by layer and bind the layers together via phase transitions or chemical processes. Food printing combines 3D printing and digital gastronomy techniques to produce food portions with mass customization in form, colour, flavour, texture, and even nutritional value. As a result, a customized digital 3D model of food may be instantly changed into a final product with a layered structure (Sun et al. 2015). In recent years, the food industry and digital technology entrepreneurs have been interested in the production of food items utilizing 3D printing technologies (more properly known as additive manufacturing). It is stated that these technologies may utilize food waste that would otherwise be thrown, as well as items like insects, algae, grass, and duckweed, to produce delicious and nutritious food products that are more aesthetically appealing (TNO 2016). Recently, there has been increased interest in the human health and environmental benefits of fostering entomophagy (insect eating) as an alternative protein source (Shelomi 2015). Researchers and designers are experimenting with the use of 3D printed delicacies made from flour ground from insects or insect flesh. The designers participating in the Insects Au Gratin project, for example, concentrated on developing aesthetically beautiful commodities that would appeal to consumers. When designing these food products, they employed forms inspired by insects’ natural structure and motions, such as their wing patterns and eggs, seeking to make the designs resemble jewels rather than duplicating current food products (Soares and Forkes 2014). Carolin Schulze, an industrial designer, also used flesh from mealworm insects to 3D print delicacies in the shape of rabbits in her “Bugs Bunny” idea.

1.9 Conclusion Whether for human food or indirect usage as feedstock, edible insects seem to be a viable substitute for traditional meat production, and 3D printing of insects can help to increase the acceptability and nutritional value of food. To attain consistency in food manufacturing, it is required to examine platform designs, printing materials, printing technologies, and their impacts on food production in a systematic manner. A process model should connect design, manufacturing, and nutrition control. Food printers may become a component of an ecological system where networked machines may order new ingredients, encourage user innovation, produce beloved foods on demand, and even collaborate with physicians to promote healthier diets through the creation of an interactive user interface.

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Nadeau L, Nadeau I, Franklin F, Dunkel F (2015) The potential for entomophagy to address undernutrition. Ecol Food Nutr 54(3):200–208 Newton LARRY, Sheppard CRAIG, Watson DW, Burtle GARY, Dove ROBERT (2005) Using the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, as a value-added tool for the management of swine manure. In: Animal and Poultry Waste Management Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 17(2005), pp 18 Nonaka K, Sivilay S, Boulidam S (2008) The biodiversity of insects in Vientiane. National Agriculture and Forestry Institute and Research Institute for Hamanity and Nature. Nara, Japan Paoletti MG (2005) Ecological implications of minilivestock: potential of insects, rodents, frogs and sails. CRC Press Paoletti MG, Buscardo E, Dufour DL (2000) Edible invertebrates among Amazonian Indians: a critical review of disappearing knowledge. Environ Dev Sustain 2(3):195–225 Payne CL, Scarborough P, Rayner M, Nonaka K (2016) A systematic review of nutrient composition data available for twelve commercially available edible insects, and comparison with reference values. Trends Food Sci Technol 47:69–77 Portes E, Gardrat C, Castellan A, Coma V (2009) Environmentally friendly films based on chitosan and tetrahydrocurcuminoid derivatives exhibiting antibacterial and antioxidative properties. Carbohydr Polym 76(4):578–584 Ramos-Elorduy J, Moreno JMP, Prado EE, Perez MA, Otero JL, De Guevara OL (1997) Nutritional value of edible insects from the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. J Food Compos Anal 10(2):142–157 Ramos-Elorduy J, Moreno JMP, Camacho VHM (2009) Edible aquatic Coleoptera of the world with an emphasis on Mexico. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 5(1):1–13 Rumpold BA, Schlüter OK (2013) Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects. Mol Nutr Food Res 57(5):802–823 Sangavi M, Sarath S (2017) Byproducts of seri-industry and their applications. Kisan World 44(9):21–23 Shantibala T, Lokeshwari R (2014) Nutritional and antinutritional composition of the five species of aquatic edible insects consumed in Manipur. India. J Insect Sci 14:14 Simpanya M, Allotey J (2000) A mycological investigation of phane, an edible caterpillar of an emperor moth, Imbrasia belina. J Food Prot 63:137–140 Shantibala T, Lokeshwari RK, Sharma HD (2012) Entomophagy practices among the ethnic communities of Manipur. North-East India IJIIT 1(5):13–20 Sharma S, Banu N (2019) Entomophagy diversity in India a review. J Emerg Technol Innov Res. (www jetir org), ISSN 6:2349–5162 Shelomi M (2015) Why We Still Don’t Eat Insects: Assessing Entomophagy Promotion through a Diffusion of Innovations Framework. Trends Food Sci Technol 45(2):311–318 Shen L, Li D, Feng F, Ren Y (2006) Nutritional composition of Polyrhachis vicina Roger (Edible Chinese black ant). Songklanakarin J Sci Technol 28(Suppl 1):107–114 Silow CA (1983) Notes on Ngangela and Nkoya ethnozoology: ants and termites. Etnol Stud Goteb 36:1–7 Soares S, Forkes A (2014) Insects Au Gratin: an investigation into the experiences of developing a 3D printer that uses insect protein based flour as a building medium for the production of sustainable food. In: Bohemia E, et al. (eds) Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Srinroch C, Srisomsap C, Chokchaichamnankit D, Punyarit P, Phiriyangkul P (2015) Identification of novel allergen in edible insect, Gryllus bimaculatus and its cross-reactivity with Macrobrachium spp. allergens. Food Chem 184:160–166 Sun J, Peng Z, Yan L, Fuh JYH, Hong GS (2015) 3D food printing an innovative way of mass customization in food fabrication. Int J Bioprinting 1(1):27–38 Téguia A, Mpoame M, Mba JO (2002) The production performance of broiler birds as affected by the replacement of fish meal by maggot meal in the starter and finisher diets. Tropicultura 20(4):187–192 TNO (2016) Food & nutrition: development of healthy and safe food. Web. 26 November 2016

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Chapter 2

Entomophagy and Its Application Through 3D Printing for Sustainable Food Development Devina Seram, James Watt Haobijam, and Sonia Morya

2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Entomophagy as a Source of Food Insects are the most dominant species on earth occupying almost all the habitats and niches including the dense forest areas, deserts, oceans, water streams, Arctic regions, etc. At least a million insect species have been described, and another 4–30 million species are thought to actually exist on earth (Costa and Dunkel 2016). Because of their high level of diversity and adaptability, they represent a considerably more reliable and secure source of future food supply than any other species of vertebrate animal, including cattle, fish, or chickens. The terms “entomon,” which means “insect,” and “phagy,” which means “eating,” are the roots of the word “entomophagy” (to consume), and the consumption of insects as food by any kind of organism is referred to as entomophagy, however, it is most usually used to relate to humans eating edible insects. Insects are ingested by as many as 3071 different ethnic groups throughout 130 different countries in the world (FAO 2008; Yen 2009; Srivastava et al. 2009; Vantomme 2010). It is reported that approximately 2 billion people worldwide practice entomophagy on a routine D. Seram (*) Department of Entomology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India e-mail: [email protected] J. W. Haobijam Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India S. Morya Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Singh et al. (eds.), 3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25994-4_2

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Table 2.1  Proportion of edible insects based on the common orders Edible insect orders Coleoptera Lepidoptera Hymenoptera Orthoptera Hemiptera

Edible number of families 26 (Scarabaeidae with 247 species, Dytiscidae with 55 species, Cerambycidae with 129 species) 36 (Saturnidae with109 species, Hepialidae with 47 species, Sphingidae with 36 species) 6 (Formicidae, Vespidae) 9 (Acrididae with 150 species) 27 (Cicadidae with 70 species, Pentatomidae with 31 species, Nepidae with 9 species, Belostomatidae with 17 species)

Edible number of species 661 396 268 219 222

basis, mostly by the ethnic groups in various countries (Pal and Roy 2014). Over the course of the past several years, there has been a growing trend toward the consumption of insects as a sustainable and dependable source of food based on animal products for the human diet (FAO 2008; Nonaka 2009; Srivastava et al. 2009; Yen 2009; Vantomme 2010; Premalatha et al. 2011; Vantomme et al. 2012). The exact number of insect species consumed as food, their consumption level and for use as animal feed are still unknown (Yen 2015; Costa and Dunkel 2016). Butterflies, moths (Lepidoptera), bugs, cicadas (Hemiptera), beetles, weevils, grubs (Coleoptera), grasshoppers, locusts, crickets (Orthoptera), termites (Isoptera), and bees, ants, wasps (Hymenoptera) are the six primary insect orders that are generally considered for entomophagy in different parts of the world (Jongema 2012; Costa and Dunkel 2016). Nevertheless, further estimation is difficult due to lack of accurate information from different countries (Costa and Dunkel 2016). The following Table 2.1 shows the proportion of most common edible insects from different orders: Insects that can be eaten are often seen as valuable cultural resources because of the rich biodiversity they represent. In addition, those who consume insects have developed a wide range of methods for collecting and preparing them (Nonaka 2009). Diet and culture frequently reflects the socio-economic circumstances of the people in many countries. Societal taboos, religious and cultural restrictions, and culinary preferences all contribute to the widespread rejection of insects as a source of food (Vantomme et al. 2012). Dietary restrictions can be imposed for a variety of reasons, including nutritional, religious, social or other considerations. On the ther hand, many civilizations across the world, including those in Australia, Asia, Africa, Central and South America, and New Zealand, have come to tolerate and even actively engage in insect-eating as a source of sustenance, particularly protein, which accounts for 60% by dry weight. As a result, people with these restrictions have the tendency or willingness to eat whole insects and/or insect-based foods if the practice of entomophagy grows more common. Since most consumed insect species are easily accessible, they can be mass-cultured, and transformed into nutritious food items or can be mixed with common foods (Johnson 2010). Insects were traditionally eaten either raw or cooked and depending on the culture, they are cooked as boiled, roasted, or deep-fried in oil, which are regarded as gourmet in various parts of the world, particularly in Asia and Africa (Yen 2009). Many cultures rely heavily on the nutritional and economic benefits provided by the

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Fig. 2.1  Common edible insects in the North-Eastern states of India. (a) Cicadas steamed in banana leaf (Hemiptera), (b) Fried honeybee pupae (Hymenoptera) (c) Roasted silkworm pupae (Lepidoptera) (d) Carpenter worms pickled in brine (Lepidoptera) (e) Garden spiders (f) Deep fried grasshoppers (Orthoptera) (g) Silkworm larvae pickle (Lepidoptera) (h) Hornet wasp larvae cooked with bambooshoot (i) Fried honeybee larvae and pupae (Hymenoptera). Pictures courtesy: the_rumbling_spoons (https://www.instagram.com/the_rumbling_spoons/?hl=en)

thousands of insect species employed in their traditional meals (Defoliart 1995). Indigenous people from North-Eastern states of India, especially states like Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and, to a lesser extent the tribal people of Meghalaya and Mizoram, are normally engaged in entomophagy in India (Chakravorty 2014). In these regions, edible insects are generally consumed as fried, steamed, roasted, pickled form, etc. (Fig. 2.1).

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2.1.2 Why Entomophagy? By 2050, the world’s population is predicted to reach 9 billion, considerably increasing the demand for animal protein (FAO 2008). Meat consumption will rise by 76% between 2005 and 2050 (Godfrey et al. 2010; van Huis 2017) and thus, new protein sources are required to feed the growing population. Conventional farming methods will not be able to provide enough food of adequate quality because of the lack of suitable land. A long-term solution is needed, one that helps to feed the hungry, malnourished people while also making money for restaurants, food manufacturing companies and governments. As a result, diets that are more sustainable, either by reducing the amount of meat consumption or by increasing the use of alternative sources of protein, are required. However, there is a cost to consuming animal protein: almost 80% of the world’s agricultural land is used to raise and feed cattle, even though animals only make up around 18% of the global food supply. One study indicated that if people ate less meat, there would be less of an incentive to raise animals, which would open up land for ecological remediation and species expansion. The widespread eating of insects as food by humans or its use as animal feed could have serious substantial consequences, especially for developing countries. Compared to standard livestock and poultry, insect farming have lower needs for grazing land, water, and food. The production and consumption of insects results in significantly less emissions of greenhouse gases. The excreta or frass that insects produce is not only a great alternative to soil amendment and fertiliser, but also helps in reducing wastes. Climate change, biodiversity loss, poverty, and starvation are all interconnected issues that can be elegantly addressed by cultivating insects. However, it needs to be visually appealing in a way that is respectful of other cultures and social norms (Kalibata 2021).

2.1.3 Nutritive Composition in Edible Insects In 2015, the United Nations implemented and released a set of 17 goals called the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Among these, the SD Goal number two is “Zero Hunger”, which includes the following slogan as “Put an end to hunger, ensure enough food supplies, improve dietary intake, and advance sustainable agriculture (UN 2015). Growing more food sustainably and efficiently in agriculture is essential in the fight against hunger. Food and humanitarian help must be delivered quickly to the world’s most vulnerable people, as over a quarter of a billion people may soon starve to death if immediate action is not delivered. Simultaneously, in order to feed the world’s growing population, we must make significant changes to global food and agriculture systems. On the other hand, as an alternative source to agricultural foods, entomophagy can aid in minimizing the world hunger with improved nutrition.

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Insects offer a number of benefits, including increased accessibility to foods with a high nutrient density over the long term and potential contributions to the reduction of hunger on a global scale. Animal-based foods are vital, mainly for children’s nutritional intake, growth, development, and repair rate. Such food contributes about 25–33% of the nutrient requirement, which considerably boosts their growth rate (Michaelsen et al. 2009). The edible insects contain between 50–82% protein source (Rumpold and Schluter 2013; Banjo et  al. 2006), iron, calcium and zinc (Govorushko 2019). The involvement of insects is crucial in many ecosystems across the world and they are possibly the best source of animal-based sustenance. Insects represent a significant, yet mostly underutilized, alternative possibility to offer much-needed animal-based nutrients, particularly in underdeveloped and developing countries. Several authors have highlighted on the health benefits and nutrient composition of different consumable insects and their role in human nutrition (DeFoliart 1995; Bukkens and Paoletti 2005; Banjo et al. 2006; Finke 2012; Michaelsen et al. 2009). In most nutritional studies, insects are examined for their protein, fibre, ash, fat, and moisture contents. Protein and lipid levels in insects are similar to those in milk and meats like beef (Shockley and Dossey 2014). For example, mealworms have high nutritional values of protein, aminoacids, vitamins, fibre, choline, phsosphorus, etc. (Fig. 2.2). The protein content in house cricket is approximately 205 g when compared to 256 g and 265 g in ground beef and whole powdered milk, respectively (Shockley and Dossey 2014). Furthermore, cricket powder is a natural nutrient powerhouse that provides important minerals for proper growth, development, and daily performance. It provides all nine essential amino acids, iron, calcium, more than four times the amount of vitamin B12 found in beef, and a highly desired 3:1 ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids (beef offers 20:1 ratio).

Fig. 2.2  Nutritional content of yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). Source: Wang (2016)

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It also contains chitin and prebiotic oligosaccharides, which are sources of good dietary fibre. Protein from a variety of sources, in dried form, is most commonly seen at the village markets of many developing countries. Certain insect species have even more than 60% protein by dry weight, making them a good source of protein for human consumption (Bukkens 1997; Bukkens and Paoletti 2005). Because of the indigestibility of chitin (i.e. the main constituent of insect cuticle or integument), whole insects as a protein source are of slightly poorer quality than vertebrate animal products. Alternatively, insect proteins include varied amount of amino acids, including relatively little amounts of cysteine and methionine and comparatively high concentrations of threonine and lysine (DeFoliart 1995). The fat content is relatively more in edible insects as well and the majority of commonly consumed insect species are notably high in important fatty acids such as linolenic and linoleic acid (Bukkens 1997; Bukkens and Paoletti 2005). Insect cholesterol levels range from low to medium level, similar to those contained in different animals, varying according to the species and diet. In terms of unsaturated fats, fatty acids found in insects are comparable to those of chicken and fish, with some groups having somewhat higher concentration of important fatty acids (DeFoliart 1995). Additionally, many species of edible insects contain greater levels of other nutrients such as vitamins and minerals like thiamine and riboflavin, to name a few. For instance, termites contain 350 g of protein per kilogram when compared to beef, which has only 320 g. For crickets, one kilogram yields 470 g of edible weight, but only 110  g for pigs and 40  g for cows. A substantially larger percentage of an insect’s body is usually edible (Frost and Estriga 2013).

2.2 The Practice of Entomophagy in the World – Past, Present and Future The practice of entomophagy remains unusual in Western countries despite the increased publications of articles, reviews, and books discussing about the potential of insects as human food and animal feed. There are an estimated two billion people worldwide who consume insects and majority of them resides in the developing regions such as Asia, Latin America and Africa. The traditional consumption of insects particularly in these tropical and subtropical countries offers significant advantages to the rural populations in terms of nutrition, economics, and also to the environment (Shockley and Dossey 2014). However, in countries like North America and Europe, the term “bugs” is more usually connected with disgust than with nourishment. On the other hand, in some African nations, such as Uganda and Kenya, the consumption of all insect-derived sources of digestible protein as food and feed for humans and aniamals, respectively, has been legalized, whereas in Europe, the consumption of insects of any kind is only permitted for the purpose of animal feed, and only seven different insect species are permitted (Madau et  al. 2020). Even though entomophagy has only been around for a short while, the agribusiness that relies on it has experienced explosive growth in the past few years

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(Abro et  al. 2020). Interestingly, an increasing number of young individuals are showing interest in eating insects of different kinds. In recent years, a large number of products, such as energy bars, chips, bug powder, and coarse insect meal, amongst many others, have become readily available in the market (Goldstein 2018). Because of our long-standing associations with insects and other arthropods, we tend to view them less favourably as food, despite the fact that their nutritional value is comparable to that of other healthy foods. This is due to the popular belief that every culture follows and which is universally accepted across all societies, i.e. we are what we eat (Maheu 2020). The majority of individuals have an aversion to eating insects or are hesitant to do so since they believe insects to be unclean creatures. On the contrary, people fail to realize that most of the insects that are consumed such as cicadas, crickets, grasshoppers, as well as lepidopteran, coleopteran larvae, often feed on fresh plant leaves or wood only, and are therefore cleaner than lobsters, crabs, or some species of shrimps, which eats wastes materials (Mitsuashi 2010). Despite the great nutritional value of edible insects for humans, they have not been widely accepted as a food source in Western countries, and there has been little study of their potential applications in animal feed and waste recycling (Costa and Dunkel 2016). First, we need to find out which insects are actually edible, and then we can figure out how to best cook, prepare and process them for ingestion. In just a decade, the potential of mass-culturing insects with little capital and the use of abundant organic wastes has led to a dramatic increase in insect farming in East Africa (Chia et  al. 2020). Few countries like Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya have each seen the establishment of a number of new businesses based on entomophagy. Over 95% of these farms are considered to be microenterprises, and in future, if the demand for edible insects grows, these small scale industries have the potential to become more efficient and productive (Tanga et al. 2021). The consumption preference value of honeybees, crickets, cockchafers, and termites was evaluated among the indigenous people of villages in Cameroon (Tamesse et al. 2018). Their findings revealed that the majority of people (about 3/4) eat insects, with termites and crickets being the most popular, and honeybees being the least popular due to the presence of their venom. Apart from entomophagy, insects are used in traditional medicine, cultural ceremonies, and indigenous traditions in Cameroon. The cultural belief that insects are unfit for human consumption must be challenged. To achieve this goal, some of the viable options are conducting educational campaigns, organizing training programmes related to entomophagy, and the support of marketing tactics established by millennial generations around the world to generate goods based on consumable insect species. In Europe, edible insects are available in the form of cereals, cricket powder, protein bars, chips, and cricket meal, especially in the meat grocery stores. Peoples’ attitudes regarding entomophagy appear to be shifting, with increased acceptance of the concept in recent years. Entomophagy is still a relatively new technique in East Africa for use as food for humans and feed for animals; nonetheless, over 75% of the region’s farmers and millers have expressed interest in adopting the practice (Chia et al. 2020). Several types of edible insects, such as desert locusts, bugs, field crickets, and mealworms have the potential to be farmed successfully in East Africa (Magara et al. 2021: Egonyu et al. 2020).

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The market for edible insects is projected to grow at a compounding rate of 25%, from $400 million in 2018 to more than $1.2 billion in 2023 (Costa and Dunkel 2016). This food industry is estimated to be worth about $8 billion by the year 2030, according to projections. While Latin America and Asia-Pacific do make up the majority of the market, North America and Europe are anticipated to have the highest rates of expansion (Bombe 2019). The Asia-Pacific industry for edible insects is predicted to be worth more than $270 million by 2024. Cultivation of insects on a large scale is gaining prominence as a strategy for alleviating rural poverty in Cambodia. Poor and rural households are shifting towards the cultivation of crickets in order to improve their economic standing. The price range for a can of fried crickets weighing 150 g to 200 g is around 0.40 to 0.70 Euros. People in Thailand eat more insects than any other communities in the world, and they enjoy eating various kinds of insects. Insect farming is becoming a multibillion dollar industry, with an annual production reaching up to 7500 tonnes in recent years. Most of this production comes from the small, locally-based family businesses. In fact, insect farming aids financially strapped Thai farmers by producing hard currency and supplying a new vital source of family income. Over 20,000 farms have been documented in Thailand, the vast majority of which are operated on a very small-scale by individual families. Among these, crickets farms are the most common since they multiply rapidly, spread out minimally, and require little maintenance (Hanboonsong et al. 2013; Takoradee 2019). In contrast, a decline in insect-eating practice has been observed due to the westernization in Laos and few parts of Thailand, especially in terms of their eating habits and their prevalence in urban areas. Nevertheless, attempts are being made by the local people in order to revive the insect-eating practices. Consequently, despite the growing interest around the world in eating insects as food, some difficulties require further investigation (Mueller 2019). According to Meyer-Rochow et al. (2008), people in Laos do not believe in God and consider insects to be highly undesirable and disease carriers. Insect production has uses outside the food and animal feed industries. The cultivation of cockroaches for use in cosmetics and traditional Chinese medicine has recently boomed in China, with some entrepreneurs raking in millions from the industry. The pupae of silkworm are an important by-product of sericulture in South Korea, yet they have been utilized as food for many centuries since they are edible. Edible crickets, on the other hand, are far more modern, having only been raised and consumed for around 20 years. Even though cricket farming is still relatively new, there is potential for it to grow due to the rising demand for cricket flour. This is because cricket flour is increasingly being used in the baking industry as a protein-­ rich additive (Cappelli et al. 2020; Meyer-Rochow et al. 2019). According to Meyer-­ Rochow et al. (2019), the proportion of crickets reared and consumed in Korea is reduced due to the high production of silkworm pupae (10 tonnes of silkworm pupae are cultivated every year, with only 20% destined for the food and feed market). Several farmers, collectors, wholesalers, and merchants gain income along the edible insects supply chain in various African nations, including Kenya, Cameron, Uganda, and Burundi (Baiano 2020). The edible insect markets in the Lake Victoria basin (few areas included in two countries, Burundi and Uganda) were investigated

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(Odongo et al. 2018) and they discovered that most of the delicacies sold in metropolitan areas were made from edible insects and their value-added products. They also anticipate the expansion in this sector because of the increased demands from different customers, thus driving up the price of insects relative to traditional meats such as pork, chicken, beef, etc. (Odongo et al. 2018).

2.3 3D Printing in Entomophagy Prior studies related to 3D printing of foods have been mostly concentrated on the ethical issues, nutritional composition for marketing (De Boer et al. 2013); identifying psychological individual traits (Tan et al. 2016), sensory appeal, and the suitability of created food products (Verbeke 2015). 3D printing can create insect foods and products based on insects. Tan et al. (2016) recently demonstrated that placing insects in well-known food carriers increases their acceptance among the consumers. It is not surprising that studies are being conducted on the effectiveness of insect extracts and dry forms of insects (Azzollini et al. 2016). However, since sensory expectations are raised by familiarity, combining insects with a carrier that is viewed inappropriately may lead to low consumption rate. As a result, the development of suitable insect products that do not satisfy any sensory expectations is an essential component, in addition to the implementation of socially responsible marketing campaigns and the enhancement of processing methods. In order to accomplish this goal, edible insect companies and industries have recognised the need and application of 3D printing as an essential resource and tool at their disposal (Payne et al. 2016). The process of 3D printing, which is also known as additive manufacturing (AM), is a cutting-edge method of manufacturing which uses robotic construction that is digitally controlled to create three-dimensional objects by depositing material layer by layer. It is now a major force behind innovations in key industries like engineering, manufacturing, medicine, food technology, etc. (Campbell et al. 2011). Additionally, Pallottino et al. (2016) remarked on the fact that the field of food production offers significant potential for commercial and residential 3D printing applications. One of the many applications that is gaining popularity is called an atomic force microscope (AFM). This application makes it possible to create food with appealing textures, shapes, and distinctive nutritional profiles (Severini and Derossi 2016). Printing cookies with a honeycomb structure (Aregawi et al. 2015), printing wheat dough with specified levels of porosity, and printing snacks with a variety of different textures are some successful examples of 3D printed foods (Severini and Derossi 2016). Soares and Forkes (2014) offered an example of how the technology of 3D printing can be utilized to manufacture edible insects by printing yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) larvae along with fondant to create icing for cake decorations. Mealworm larvae are grown commercially on farms all over the world for the purpose of consumption and selling them to consumers as a food source (Kim et al. 2016); and its dry powders or other derivatives are already available in the markets in United States, the Netherlands, Belgium, Mexico and Canada

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(Dossey et  al. 2016). The larvae have a lot of potential, and the creation of 3D printed foods that include them could be advantageous in realising that potential and boost the nutritional value of ordinary raw food items. The employment of technology related to 3D printing in the production of new culinary products is becoming increasingly common. One of the novel, advanced and yet potentially problematic applications of this innovative culinary technology is the use of lab-grown meat or insect-based components to support ethical consumption, food security, and environmental sustainability programmes. For instance, 3D printed foods incorporated with various edible insects such as yellow mealworm powder improves the nutritional value of the food carrier, more appealing than the whole insect and it provides little or no technological functionality. Printec Bites (https://www.margaritak.com) is a small start-up project based in Denmark, initiated by Margarita Kuzina with two students wth main focus on the prospects of 3D printing technology such as the creation of different textures, custom-­made foods, and the utilization of alternative ingredients. By using aqueous extraction, insect powder is separated into fats and proteins, which are made into pastes, and these pastes are then 3D printed into custom-made nutritional value bars. For example, yellow mealworms are utilised as the foundation of the paste, which is subsequently printed into shapes such as bars or cookies; no whole meals are created. The worms are first freeze-dried, pulverised into granules, and their proteins and lipids are separated in water. Following the filtration process, a paste is left in which flavours such as vanilla or chocolate can be added. Here, the insects are no longer visible in the finished result, which means that the aesthetic feature, that generally discourages people from eating insects, is no longer relevant after the use of 3D printing technology. The food products made from insects generated through 3D printing are not only healthy and sustainable, but also visually attractive towards the consumers. Food products made by Printec Bites are primarily intended for people who have special nutritional needs, such as athletes, military personnel and astronauts. The Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e) innovation Space, located in the Netherlands, has been honoured in this new venture by bestowing upon it the award for Best Pitch. 3D food printing is currently non-feasible for large-scale production due to its low speed. Before 3D printed foods can be manufactured on a wide scale, printing technology must progress first. Since Printec Bites’ products are still in its developmental stage, the team’s activities are currently limited to the university alone. As a result, it is unclear whether their insect based products will be available in the market or not. However, it is expected that the products will be in stores in the near future. Another project is the Insects Au Gratin (http://www.susanasoares.com/index. php?id=79), a collaborative project led by London South Bank University professors, Dr. Ken Spears, Andrew Forkes and Susana Soares. In this project, they used 3D food printing technology to study the health and ecological effects of entomophagy on humans. At this facility, insects used in different dishes are first dried and then pulverised into fine powders. The resulting “flour” is combined with other culinary goods as icing butter, spices, chocolate, and cream cheese using 3D printing technology to achieve the appropriate consistency. They are focused on the

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innovative use of 3D printing technology, which may enable people to overcome the traditional aesthetic challenges associated with ‘insect eating or entomophagy,’ as well as challenge peoples’  perceptions about eating insects. Overall, They are attempting to change peoples’ opinions towards the consumption of insects. The use of insect protein as a “printed” material opens up a wide variety of new opportunities and poses questions regarding the viability of raw materials, nutrition, and the general public’s attitude towards eating insects.

2.4 Edible Insects Farming Insects have significant prospects as a direct or indirect source of animal proteins for human consumption due to their high production rates (Yen 2009). Presently, the vast majority of the insect species that can be consumed are either collected in large quantities from their natural populations or farmed in small-scale agricultural systems. Similar reports also mention that although edible insects are widely available in the wild, some studies have demonstrated that insect cultivation has advantages over wild collection (Reverberi 2020: Dossey et  al. 2016: Oonincx and de Boer 2012). In several regions of the world where it is impossible to breed dairy cattle, it is possible to cultivate insects in an efficient manner. This not only offers a viable alternative to milk, but also presents farmers with a potential new income source (Shockley and Dossey 2014). One-third of the world’s agricultural production and food wastes may be utilised to support insect farming (van Huis 2017). Important insect species having the potential for large scale farming in different parts of the world are crickets, mealworms (Fig. 2.3), silkworms, etc. The large scale manufacturing of mealworms (for example) include the following steps presented in Fig. 2.3: (i) Reproduction of darkling beetle (adult of mealworms) (ii) Growth of larvae (iii) Feeding and Automatic sorting (iv) Sterilization (v) Sorting into different finished products (vi) Packaging According to the findings of a new study conducted by the University of Copenhagen, insects provide a good source of protein that is noticeably more than that contained in cattle. As a result of the fact that insects can subsists on organic wastes, farmers are able to reduce the quantity of grains grown for animal feed, which saves a significant amount of both energy and water. Simply said, insect farming uses significantly less food than cattle farming. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that it takes only two pounds of feed to produce one pound of meat from insects, whereas it takes eight pounds of food to produce one pound of beef from cattle. This is the reason why the United Nations proposed exchanging burgers for bugs in the coming years (Webb 2019). The amount of crops grown by the farmers for animal feed requires a lot of capital, energy and water,

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Fig. 2.3  Large scale manufacturing of insect by-products: production of insect protein, oil, chitosan and fertilizers from mealworms (larvae of Tenebrio molitor, a species of darkling beetle). Source: Modified from Ynsect, French insect farming start-up, http://www.ynsect.com/en/

which can be reduced if it is shifted to insect farming since insects can be mass-­ reared solely on organic wastes also. Insect farming is also economically viable since insects require less energy to stay warm because they are cold-blooded. This explains the reason why insects can turn their nutrients into protein so efficiently. For instance, in order to produce the same amount of protein, crickets require four times less feed than sheep, 12 times less feed than cattle, and half as much feed as broiler chickens and pigs (Leblanc 2019). The benefit of breeding insects far outweighs those of most livestock and crop production (Govorushko 2019: Micek et al. 2014).

2.5 Value Addition and By-products Development Using Edible Insects Most people living in the Western societies have little to no aversion to eating seemingly dangerous foods (Shockley and Dossey 2014). Several entomologists have made numerous attempts to make insects more appealing to the general public (Shockley and Dossey 2014). Insect proteins are incorporated into a range of food products. For instance, many recipes could benefit from the use of crickets, with some individuals even changing some of the flour quantities with cricket powder (Webb 2019). Bugs can also be ground into a nutrient-dense powder and mixed with more traditional dishes like pies and chicken nuggets. Researchers in Kenya found that people who were malnourished preferred wheat buns enriched with insects to regular loaves (Chia et al. 2020). Common forms of insect-based protein used in baking and animal feed are dried, whole or crushed insect meal (Chia et al. 2021: Sumbule et  al. 2021: Kinyuru et  al. 2021). Food items usch as buns, biscuits,

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cookies, bread, cupcakes, samosas, chapatis, and other foods are commonly fortified with insect meal to improve nutrition and consumer acceptability (Vogel et al. 2018; Kinyuru et al. 2021). Oven baking, roasting, smoking, boiling, frying, vacuum pan cooking, extruding, and even 3D printing technology are all examples of processing methods (Severini et al. 2018). All these techniques have been utilised to improve the nutritional characteristics, reduce microbial contamination, promote palatability, and increase customer acceptance of edible insects (Delvare et al. 2019). These days, crickets are one of the most farmed insects in the USA. The Entomo Farms online store (https://ca.entomofarms.com/) sells cricket powder, whole roasted crickets, and seasoned roasted crickets, and other insect farms like Aspire Food Group (https://aspirefg.com/) and Entomo Farms (https://entomofarms.com/) are working to make it easier for people in North America to acquire insects for personal use (Webb 2019). With 60,000 square feet devoted to the bulk production of high-quality cricket ingredients, Entomo Farms is the largest cricket farm in North America. They are the preferred food provider for huge food companies such as Loblaws and Purina, and they are backed by Maple Leaf Foods (https://entomofarms.com/). At one of Canada’s major grocery companies, Loblaws, crickets are being sold in powder form since 2018. In January (2018), the European Union’s food safety committee deemed yellow mealworms (the larval stage of a kind of darkling beetle) acceptable for human consumption, paving the way for the commercial sale of insect-based delicacies across the continents. Researchers at Barclays Bank estimate that the insect protein industry might reach $8 billion by 2030, up from less than $1 billion at present. Even so, when compared to the $324 billion beef business, it is a drop in the bucket (Webb 2019). In 2011, a French insect farming start-up known by the name Ynsect raised around $160 million. AgriProtein, a South African business, has so far attracted more than $105 million in funding. Insect farming operations are growing in popularity for many reasons, including the high need for animal protein, the push for more sustainability, and the favourable feed-to-protein ratios. Combining cutting-edge processing methods with carefully selected insect species can yield a new generation of products with improved shelf life, purity, and safety. Compounds with nutraceutical properties such as chitin, oils, biodiesel, chitosan, and protein hydrolysates obtained from a variety of edible insects are among the other value-added goods, which are gaining popularity in the markets. Th following figure (Fig. 2.4) shows the the extraction of insect protein, in the form of protein hydrolysate, using commercial enzymes.

2.6 Consumer Acceptance and Response Towards Insect-Based Foods In many cultures, eating insects is still prohibited, especially among those who find insects repulsive (Sidali et al. 2019). Insects, despite being a fascinating source of high-quality nutrition, can provoke negative emotions such as disgust, and are seen as a primitive eating habit. Nonetheless, there have been notable developments in

34 Fig. 2.4 Flowchart showing the production of protein hydrolysate powders from whole insects or insect flour

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Whole Insect or Insect Flour

Homozenization of flour in water

Adjustment of temperature and Ph

Addition of enzyme for a pre-determined time

Inactivation of enzymes

Centrifugation

Protein concentration by dehydration and storage

Insect Proten hydrolysate

the response and acceptance of insect-based cuisines in recent years (Megido et al. 2016). Consumer acceptance is highly influenced by the sensory features; hence characteristics of products and meals which include insects as the main ingredient, such as insect flour, are critical for reducing rejection and increasing consumer appeal (Mishyna et  al. 2020). Despite extensive researches being conducted on entomophagy, consumers in the Western regions are more likely to try insects as a food source if they are changed into a more familiar form, such as flour or paste, rather than if they are explicitly labelled as “may include insects” (Meyer-Rochow and Hakko 2018). A survey of Brazilian consumers found that the primary reason people do not consider insects as edible foods is because of the stigma associated with the idea of eating insects. Therefore, it is crucial that efforts to develop and commercialise insect protein sources for humans should mainly focus on dismissing consumers’ concerns by showing them how eating insects can be a positive and beneficial experience. Then, and only then, can factors like nutritional value, sustainable production, and a smaller water footprint be considered in policymaking by the Food industries and the Government (Cheung and Moraes 2016). Another research conducted to check the perception of Brazilian consumers’ attitudes towards entomophagy found that males are more likely to try eating insects than females. Though most people wanted their insects “disguised,” as in flour, others, especially those who were used to eating them, favoured the whole insects (Schardong et al. 2019). In Germany, a poll was undertaken in order to learn what factors the customers consider while deciding whether or not to try eating insects, either whole insects or processed into insect-based dishes. The study suggests that psychological and personality barriers, such as discomfort and food anxiety, contribute to the reluctance

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of Germans to eat insects. Less resistance was found towards processed insect products, suggesting that there is hope for the progressively developing field of entomophagy across the country (Orsi et  al. 2019). In the Netherlands, the most compelling reasons to experiment with insect-based cuisine vary widely according to the same factors that affect the regular purchase and consumption of more conventional fare. Early adopters of other novel foods are also more inclined to try insects as food and related products, and so they should be prioritized (House 2016). Numerous European nations conducted consumer response studies to measure the impact of advertising on consumers’ tendency to buy insect-based foods. The study’s main conclusions showed that knowledge affects people’s willingness to buy insect foods, but that this influence varies by country or region, with differences appearing mostly between nations in central and northern Europe. Successful marketing of insect-based foods was, at long last, found to be possible in the northern side of European countries (Piha et al. 2018). The attitude of Korean and Ethiopian consumers towards entomophagy was studied (Ghosh et al. 2020) and it was discovered that Koreans were far more likely than Ethiopians to consume insect-based cuisines. It was discovered through this research that male survey participants were more likely towards insects consumption than female respondents. The results also dispelled the myth that people from more affluent countries are more resistant to the thought of eating insects than those from less developed nations. Several studies are currently being undertaken to evaluate the potential of crude protein from various edible insects and the public’s perception towards this idea. In Brazil, flour from cockroaches was made and mixed with white bread to increase the protein content (Oliveira et al. 2017). The protein content increased by 133% when cockroach flour was added, and the fat amount decreased by 66%. The researchers estimated the consumers’ acceptability index and discovered that it topped 75% in all sensory elements studied. Only 22% of respondents were firm buyers of cockroach-flour bread, while 41% had doubts. Another experiment was performed in Italy, where different hamburgers were created with the main ingredient as beef, lentil, and insect (mealworm). It turned out that the burgers made with insects actually tasted better and looked better than the regular ones. Finally, these burgers were compared to those made from both ground meat and vegetables. This study has shown that consumers are more open to products containing ground insects rather than the entire insects, especially among individuals who are not traditionally entomophagous (insect-eaters). Likewise researchers in Italy also compared the perception of snacks made with whole insects to that of snacks made with insect flour (Cicatiello et  al. 2020). Despite significant cultural hurdles, young Italian customers appears to have a keen interest to try some insect-based items, as they do not have the same level of distaste for these products, compared to where whole insect body parts are visible. Numerous ongoing investigations into the feasibility of using insects as food or food additives for human consumption continue to examine many different aspects of the products themselves as well as the general public’s reception of them (Loss et al. 2017). In situations where customers must decide between trying something new and something they are more comfortable with, food phobia plays a significant role in how they make their choices. The

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neophilic consumers, however, are the ones open to try anything new and who have a high tolerance for novel flavours. Moreover, favourability increases rapidly when consumers are given more opportunities to try new dishes (Guiné et al. 2020).

2.7 Conclusion By 2030, the global market for insects is anticipated to increase at a compounding rate of 28.7% (Webb 2019). It is possible that the increasing demands for protein-­ rich foods, the shrinking availability of arable lands, and the high price of animal protein will all lead to a rise in the popularity of products derived from insects. Some food and nutrition scientists advocate entomophagy as a sustainable, low-cost diet that can contribute to global nutrition security. While animal products provide the majority of proteinaceous food acceptable to the Western palate, the meat and poultry industries have been linked to considerable greenhouse gases emissions as well as serious public health problems. At the same time, low-income countries, particularly those dealing with malnutrition, might tremendously benefit from insect diet. While the ‘insects as food’ sector is still in its developmental stage, several start-ups and businesses throughout the European Unions and US are preparing to enter this potentially multi-billion dollar market. Over the next few decades, it is anticipated that the performance of the new insect-farming firms will be observed with great interest and concern. Perhaps there will be a moment of union for industries that are developing and becoming more sophisticated, as well as a changing consumer tastes towards insect consumption. Although printing food is not a new science, however, using edible insect pastes as the foundation may serve as a turning point for this revolutionary food production technology. 3D printing of foods (including insects) has enormous future potential for use in entomophagy because, in conjunction with large-scale insects farming and insect collection, it might provide a sustainable source of food for the world’s expanding population, which is expected in the years to come.

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Chapter 3

Crickets as a Promising Alternative Edible Insect: Nutritional and Technological Aspects and 3D Printing Prospective Ingrid Rodrigues Ferreira, Patrícia Milano, Marise Aparecida Rodrigues Pollonio, Ana Karoline Ferreira Ignácio Câmara, and Camila de Souza Paglarini

3.1 Introduction According to United Nations estimates, the world population will reach 9.74 billion people in 2050, and it is necessary to create strategies to expand food production and keep it in balance with consumption growth (UN 2019). In addition, hunger and malnutrition in certain regions, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, represent a constant concern for health organizations. The scarcity of macronutrients such as proteins of high biological value and micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals are prevalent in regions with high consumption of cereals and low consumption of animal products (Murugu et al. 2021). Thus, there is a pressing need for new sources of nutrients to meet the growing demands, with edible insects being a promising choice. Entomophagy, the practice of consuming insects, is a common act in many parts of the world, with around 2100 species of insects consumed in over 110 countries (Van Huis 2020; Magara et al. 2021; Reverberi 2020). Crickets have high-quality nutrients such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins, which are generally much more bioavailable than plant and I. R. Ferreira School of Architecture and Engineering, Mato Grosso State University, Mato Grosso, Brazil P. Milano PRONABUG- Ecological Food, São Paulo, Brazil M. A. R. Polonio School of Food Engineering, State University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil A. K. F. I. Câmara Department of Food Engineering, Federal University of Sete Lagoas, São João Del Rei, Sete Lagoas, Minas Gerais, Brazil C. de Souza Paglarini (*) School of Architecture and Engineering, Mato Grosso State University and School of Nutrition, Federal University of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Singh et al. (eds.), 3D Printing of Sustainable Insect Materials, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25994-4_3

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animal food sources. Therefore, cricket consumption can represent an effective, economical solution to problems arising from nutrient shortages (Murugu et  al. 2021; Magara et al. 2021). Insects require less land and water to raise and impact the environment much less when compared to traditional meat production systems, such as beef and pork. In addition, they have high nutritional value and their creation in organic systems contributes to a circular economy (Van Huis 2020). One of the challenges inherent to the insertion of insects in human food is the non-acceptance of the consumer, especially in Western countries. One way to minimize this problem would be the processing of insects in the form of flour, for example, incorporating them into food products familiar to consumers to make their presence unrecognizable and thus increase acceptance. Suitable design of insect products is a very important factor when associated with better sensory perception, socially conscious marketing campaigns and improvements in processing techniques. For this, 3D printing has been recognized as an important tool available to the edible insect industries (Payne et al. 2016). 3D printing is an additive manufacturing process where a process of digitally-­ controlled robotic construction can fabricate a three-dimensional object by layer-­ by-­layer deposition (Campbell et  al. 2011; Schubert et  al. 2014). Among the advantages of the use of food printing technology are the formulation of food to specific diets (vegetarian, celiacs, diabetics, etc), the use of new ingredients (traditional and non-traditional food materials) such as insects, and with suitable sensorial and functional properties, such texture and design characteristics (Severini et al. 2018a; Baiano 2022). Lastly, 3D printing is an efficient process to reduce food scarcities in developing countries, and to reducing resource consumption (reduce cost) and food waste production (Baiano 2022; Demei et al. 2022). Cricket flour has been used in the preparation of bakery products (De Marchi et  al. 2021), pasta (Reverberi 2020), and meat products (Caparros Megido et  al. 2016; Turan and Şimşek 2021). 3D printing has been used to produce protein-rich and sustainable foods added from ground insects (Soares and Forkes 2014; Severini et al. 2018b). To the best of our knowledge, only one study has been conducted to investigate the use of 3D printing in cricket products (Soares and Forkes 2014). Authors have used 3D printing to produce icing for cakes added of flour derived from dried insects (mealworms, crickets).

3.2 Edible Insects According to a 2013 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), around 2 billion people worldwide consume insects as part of a traditional diet – a practice known as entomophagy (FAO 2021). About 113 countries in Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Americas enjoy insects as a form of food (Van Huis 2013). This consumption is different in each region and depends on cultural practices and insect availability.

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Approximately 2100 species of insects are edible and are part of human food, such as ants, bees, beetles, caterpillars, crickets, dragonflies, termites, and wasps (Jongema 2017). In Brazil, about 135 species of insects are consumed. The most consumed are the Hymenoptera (order of ants, 63% of total), followed by the Coleoptera (beetles, 16%), and the Orthopterans (locusts and crickets, 7%) (Tunes 2020). In most cases, eating insects is not poverty but taste: people consume insects as a delicacy (Reverberi 2020). Figure 3.1 presents the most consumed insects worldwide (Jongema 2017). Eating insects is a viable alternative source of nutrients in human food in developing countries and has also grown in developed countries where there is a concern to consume healthier and more sustainable foods (Hanboonsong et al. 2013). They are ecologically sustainable due to their high feed conversion ratio, lower water usage, and greenhouse gas production relative to animal protein production (Stone et al. 2019). Edible insects are considered a trend in the food market around the world. Their healthiness is related to their protein content (49–76 g/100 g dry matter) and amino acid profile (41–47% of total amino acids are essential), unsaturated fats (59–72% of total fat), vitamins (A, B2, B12, E and K), fiber, minerals (P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, Fe, and Cu) and low in carbohydrates (Udomsil et al. 2019).

Fig. 3.1 Percentage of the most consuming insects in the world. Source: Adapted from Jongema 2017

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Among the edible insects, the cricket has great potential, both for consumption in its whole processed form (cricket chips, fried cricket, and others) and as flour and protein concentrates to be used as an ingredient in foods rich in proteins, such as bakery products and meat products.

3.2.1 Cricket Characteristics Crickets are wild insects found in all natural environments, except cold places. The species are common in warm regions due to the climate being more favorable for their development. These insects live in grasslands, shrubs, forests, trees, swamps, beaches, caves, underground, and buildings (Magara et al. 2021). Crickets are consumed more in developing countries than in developed countries for cultural reasons and also problems related to food security. However, their consumption is growing in Western countries, and legislation has already been implemented (Turck et  al. 2021) that recognizes edible crickets as new alternatives to eliminate food insecurity and malnutrition (Magara et al. 2021; Reverberi 2020), in addition to being a sustainable alternative source of protein. The development from egg to adult cricket is similar between the different species, lasting from 45 to 60 days, consisting of the egg, nymph, and adult stages (CelAgrid 2016), as shown in Fig. 3.2. Cricket eggs are laid in containers containing clean porous material, such as rice husk ash or sand. Oviposition can also occur in wooden boxes filled with moist soil and peat (Entomo farms 2016). Eggs are kept for 7–12 days in an incubation room

Fig. 3.2  Life cycle of the cricket of the species A. domesticus

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that must be warm and humid. Then go to the hatching room, which is cooler. In about 2–3 days in this room, the newborn crickets hatch and are transferred to the breeding room, where they remain until collection. Each cycle lasts between 4 and 5 weeks, with a viable number of 6 or 7 cycles per year (Sens 2020a). The length of the production cycle depends on the cricket species, temperature, and purpose of breeding. 3.2.1.1 Breeding and Slaughtering Systems Commercially, crickets are raised on farms that may have particularities depending on the region. In Asia, farms are made of concrete, crickets are raised in plastic containers with egg cartons inside, and fed mainly on agricultural by-products (https://cricketone.asia/) (Fig. 3.3a). A similar system is used in North America and Europe. In North America, the EntomoFarms Canadian company raises crickets in old chicken farms filled with various cardboard supports (Fig. 3.3b), called condominiums, to simulate these insects’ natural habitat (hot and dark). The German company Sens Foods raises the insects on counters containing shelves with plastic boxes with an internal environment suitable for crickets, as shown in Fig. 3.3c. In Brazil, the Ecological Food startup creates the insects in plastic boxes of different sizes depending on the stage of development of the crickets, with controlled temperature (28  +  30  °C) and adequate supply of food and water (Ecological Food 2022).

Fig. 3.3  Cricket farming systems in Asia (a), North America (b) and Europe (c). (Source: (Entomo farms 2016; Sens 2020b; Saigoneer 2020))

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I. R. Ferreira et al.

Before slaughter, the adult insects are initially fasted for 24 h, with only water provided, so that the insects fecal content is better eliminated and the microbial load is reduced. Insects are slaughtered by freezing, and soon after this procedure, the insects are pasteurized and dehydrated. When desired, they are ground for obtention flour. In some farms in Eastern countries, crickets are collected and slaughtered by boiling in salty water for at least 15 min, a procedure that does not align with the concept of humane slaughter. Thus, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) proposes that crickets be slaughtered either by grinding or freezing (Farina 2017). 3.2.1.2 Edible Cricket Species Insects from the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera are the most regularly consumed. The crickets belonging to the family Gryllidae of the superfamily Grylloidea of the order Orthoptera are widely distributed and the most consumed, both in the nymph and adult stages. The cricket species most used in food are Brachytrupes membranaceus, Gryllus assimilis, Gryllus bimaculatus, Gryllotalpa orientalis and Acheta domesticus (Fig. 3.4). However, due

Fig. 3.4  Cricket species most used in human food. Source: (Biodiversity4all 2022; Bugguide 2022)

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47

to the many species that exist globally, there may be other edible crickets that have not yet been identified (Magara et al. 2021). Edible crickets have been domesticated in Thailand, where 20,000 farmers raise about 7500 tonnes a year (Hanboonsong et  al. 2013). The two crickets bred in Thailand are Acheta domesticus and Gryllus bimaculatus, the latter being considered a stronger and more resilient species and, although less popular than A. domesticus, still represents a significant percentage of total Thai production (Reverberi 2020). The species A. domesticus is the most produced in Europe and the USA, while the species bred in Brazil commercially is Gryllus Assimilis (Soares Araújo et al. 2019). The advantages of rearing the species A. domesticus involve its good nutritional profile (high protein content), soft tissue, low production cost, low incidence of diseases, and the ability to consume various foods, including organic waste. In addition, the taste of the A. domesticus species, particularly females, due to a large number of eggs, has been reported as “deliciously crispy” (Van Huis 2020). Countries like China prefer to breed cricket species G. bimaculatus, as they have a shorter life cycle than domestic crickets, are larger, easier to market, and are resistant to cold (Gan et al. 2022). G. assimilis lives for an average of 60 days, can survive up to 73  days, and has a high reproductive capacity (Mello et  al. 1980). In addition, it has good adaptation to the hot and humid Brazilian climate (Mello et al. 1980; Fialho et al. 2021). 3.2.1.3 Feeding Crickets Orthoptera crickets are omnivorous and feed on a wide range of organic materials, including by-products of animal and plant origin (Vilella 2018). Commercial feeds with a high protein content, mainly chicken feed (with 14 or 21% protein content), are widely used in cricket farming. The 21% protein feed is used to feed the crickets after hatching until they are 20 days old. Subsequently, they are fed a mixed diet of 14 and 21% protein until 45 days. A few days before collection, the protein-rich feed is replaced by vegetables such as pumpkins, cassava leaves, morning glory leaves, and watermelons, which improves taste and reduces costs (Hanboonsong et al. 2013). Other rations have been used to feed the animals, such as wheat bran and dried anchovies (Ghosh et  al. 2017). Commercial diets may contain fishmeal, soybean meal, ground acacia leaves, cornmeal, wholegrain or defatted rice bran, vegetable oil, meat, ground bone, sunflower seed meal, ground corn or rice, and cassava, molasses, calcium carbonate and dicalcium phosphate, salt, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids. Raw or dried pumpkin can also be added to supplement the crickets’ diet (Bawa et al. 2020). The n-3 fatty acid content of crickets produced in commercial diets is low, and their n-6/n-3 ratio is very high so dietary n-3 supplementation can increase the amount in insect composition. According to Oonincx et al. 2019, adding linseed oil to the feed increased the omega 3 content in the crickets produced.

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3.2.2 Nutritional Quality of Crickets The nutritional quality of crickets is affected by the species, stage of development, habitat, sex, climatic conditions, feeding, and preparation method before ingestion (Magara et al. 2021). Most edible crickets supply acceptable contents of proteins, lipids, minerals, vitamins and carbohydrates. In addition, these insects meet the requirements of amino acid intake and have relevant contents of monounsaturated (MFA) and polyunsaturated (AGP) fatty acids (Mlcek et al. 2018). Crickets are rich in micronutrients such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, and vitamins such as folic acid and pantothenic acid, riboflavin, and biotin and can be considered a significant source of several nutrients essential for human development and growth (Ghosh et al. 2017; Ramos-Elorduy 2009). Table 3.1 shows the proximate composition of the cricket species Acheta domesticus, Brachytrupes membranaceus, Brachytrupes portentosus, Gryllus assimilis, Gryllus bimaculatus, Tarbinskiellus potentosus, and Teleogryllus emma compared to beef (Longissimus dorsi muscle). The rearing substrate’s chemical composition can directly affect most insect species’ nutritional profiles (Bawa et al. 2020), which could help elucidate the variance in proximate composition values shown in Table 3.1. A considerable effect on the proximate composition of A. domesticus crickets was observed by the variety of diets. The rice bran and brewery yeast residue resulted in insects with higher protein and ash content and a lower fat content (Orinda 2018). Bawa et  al. (2020) evaluated the effects of commercial diets and other formulated diets on the nutritional composition and growth parameters of A. domesticus cricket species. Crickets fed with 22% protein had the highest levels of proteins and minerals, such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and sodium in their composition. The diet with the same protein content and supplemented with pumpkin pulp resulted in higher amounts of vitamin B and lower concentrations of proteins and minerals. In small amounts, some antinutrient compounds such as phytates, tannins, oxalates, saponins, and cyanogenic glycosides were found in Gryllus assimilis, with oxalate being the predominant component (Oibiokpa 2017). 3.2.2.1 Protein Content Cricket has a high protein content, with values ranging from 41 to 76% in dry weight, Table  3.1. The main proteins found in A. domesticus cricket meal were: myosin, actin, alpha-actinin, tropomyosin, tubulin, troponin T, and paramyosin (Montowska et  al. 2019). In the Gryllodes sigillatus species (tropical or Indian domestic cricket), albumin, globulin, glutelin and prolamin were found (Stone et al. 2019). Regarding protein digestibility, the species Braquitrupes sp., Gryllo dessigillatuse, and A. domesticus presented 50.2, 76.2 and 83.9%, respectively, showing lower digestibility than animal protein. However, crickets’ protein digestibility

NR Not reported *Dietary fiber

References

Carbohydrates

Crude fiber

Ash

Fat

Protein

Composition (g/100 g dry basis)

Acheta domesticus Nymph Adult 64.10– 71.09– 67.25 76.19 14.40– 8.90– 24.00 22.00 3.55–4.80 3.57– 5.60 6.20–9.61 3.70– 10.39 2.12 1.60– 10.20 Bawa et al. (2020), Udomsil et al. (2019), Orinda (2018), Blásquez et al. (2012)and Finke (2002)

Musundire et al. (2016)

15.10

5.00

6.00

15.80

Brachytrupes membranaceus Adult 53.40

NR

Gryllus assimilis Nymph Adult 56.00– 55.60– 59.23 73.62 32.00– 7.25– 34.34 23.20 4.26 4.08– 6.22 3.24 8.58

8.60– 12.91 Raksakantong Soares Araújo et al. et al. (2010) (2019), Mlcek et al. (2018), Adámková et al. (2017) and Bednářová et al. (2013)

9.74

11.61

9.36

20.60

Brachytrupes portentosus Adult 48.69

3.88

1.16*

7.93

23.70

NR

10.37

8.17

25.14

NR

NR

2.62

37.32

Beef (longissimus Tarbinskiellus Teleogryllus dorsi with portentosus emma fat) Adult Adult 58.00 55.65 61.81

Udomsil et al. Narzari (2017) Ghosh et al. TACO (2011) (2019), (2017) Orinda (2018) and Ghosh et al. (2017)

NR

9.53–10.00

2.80–9.69

11.88–23.40

Gryllus bimaculatus Adult 58.32–70.10

Table 3.1  Centesimal composition of different species of edible crickets and bovine animal tissue

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I. R. Ferreira et al.

values are higher than plant proteins (sorghum, corn, wheat, and rice) (Stone et al. 2019; Klunder et al. 2012; Ramos-Elorduy 2009). The effects of isocaloric and isonitrogenated diets supplemented with insects (moth larvae, grasshoppers, crickets, termites) compared with basal diets and reference protein (casein) in rats were evaluated through some biochemical and hematological indices of the animals in the study developed by Oibiokpa et al. 2018. The results obtained by the authors showed that casein was the most digestible (98%) protein, possibly due to the presence of chitin. However, the biological value of the protein of the species G. Assimilis was higher (93%) when compared with the reference protein, casein (73%), and the other proteins of insects evaluated. 3.2.2.1.1  Amino Acid Content Table 3.2 presents the amino acid composition of different species of edible crickets compared to beef. The species A. domesticus and G. bimaculatus had all essential amino acids, with 42.7% and 40.4% of the total amino acids being essential, respectively (Udomsil et al. 2019; Ghosh et al. 2017). High levels of lysine, threonine, glutamic acid, glutamine, and arginine were found in A. domesticus and G. bimaculatus. However, cricket species had low methionine and tryptophan contents (Udomsil et al. 2019). The Gryllodes sigillatus species presented leucine as the most abundant essential amino acid (Józefiak et al. 2016; Tang et al. 2019). The species Tarbinskiellus portentosus has a high essential amino acid valine content in its composition (Narzari 2017). Compared to the values of amino acids present in beef, the species Tarbinskiellus portentosus has a higher content of valine, tryptophan, methionine and tyrosine, while the species Gryllodes sigillatus and Gryllus assimilis have a higher value of tyrosine. According to Oibiokpa et al. (2018), insects such as G. assimilis, Melanoplus foedus (grasshopper), Macrotermes nigierensis (termites) and Cirina forda (moth caterpillar) have 20 amino acids, with essential and non-essential amino acids present. The concentration of amino acids present in the mentioned species meets the standard suggested by FAO WHO as a daily intake requirement for preschool-age children and adults. Although the authors found the best source of lysine in locusts, the amino acids methionine and cystine were the most abundant in G. assimilis compared to the other insects analyzed. In general, the amino acid profiles of the cricket species presented in Table 3.2 exceed the recommended intake requirements for adults, with some exceptions, such as the more limited content of leucine, methionine and tryptophan, especially when compared to the concentrations found in muscle Longissimus dorsi. Tryptophan was also considered the limiting amino acid in grasshoppers and crickets (A. domesticus) in the study developed by Köhler et al. (2019). Methionine is essential for protein synthesis, synthesis of antioxidants, and lipotropic compounds such as taurine, glutathione, choline, carnitine, and S-adenosylmethionine (Kiruthikajothi et al. 2014).

Valine* Isoleucine* Leucine* Lysine* Threonine* Phenylalanine* Methionine* Histidine* Tryptophan* Arginine** Asparagine+ aspartic acid Glutamine + glutamic acid Serine Glycine** Alanine Cysteine** Proline** Tyrosine**

Amino acids

1.31–6.77

3.64

0.61 2.41 4.02 0.74 1.26 5.44

6.45

1.59 2.60 3.67 0.40 3.04 2.71

1.32–2.73 3.31 4.69–5.64 0.38–5.10 1.99–3.05 2.45–2.77

Gryllus bimaculatus 3.20–3.50 2.16–4.39 3.88–7.86 1.56–2.89 1.67–2.00 1. 83–2.24 0.27–0.86 0.48–2.50 0.27 1.4–3.60 2.87–3.60

Species (g/100 g dry sample) Acheta Gryllus domesticus assimilis1 4.50 4.62 2.90 2.12 3.80 4.96 3.22 7.91 1.65 3.55 2.38 0.72 0.98 0.63 1.72 1.32 0.43 0.95 3.92 8.64 4.61 3.02

Table 3.2  Amino acid composition of different species of edible crickets and beef

3.48 3.13 5.40 NR NR 3.47

8.73

Gryllodes sigillatus 3.99 2.80 4.96 3.35 2.76 3.48 1.16 1.58 ND 4.12 6.67

NR NR NR NR NR 2.38

0.96

Scapsipedus icipe 2.91 4.34 6.62 1.82 NR 2.54 1.61 1.08 NR 1.36 NR

3.17 NR 0.14 NR 1.44 4.73

19.24

Tarbinskiellus portentosus 11.45 3.03 NR 6.10 3.81 2.59 2.42 NR 1.35 0.32 10.26

3.54 3.37 4.54 1.12 3.29 3.01

12.50

(continued)

Beef (g/100 g dry sample) (Longissimus dorsi) 4.74 4.11 6.67 7.20 3.70 3.35 2.53 3.17 1.00 5.24 7.45

3  Crickets as a Promising Alternative Edible Insect: Nutritional and Technological… 51

Species (g/100 g dry sample) Acheta Gryllus domesticus assimilis1 43 47 Udomsil et al. Bednářová et al. (2019) (2013) Gryllus bimaculatus 41 Udomsil et al. (2019) and Ghosh et al. (2017)

Gryllodes sigillatus 41 Kilburn et al. (2020)

Scapsipedus icipe – Murugu et al. (2021)

NR Not reported, EAA Essential Amino Acids *indicates essential amino acids for adult humans **indicates conditional essential amino acids for adult humans 1 Nymph

% EAA References

Amino acids

Table 3.2 (continued)

Tarbinskiellus portentosus 47 Narzari (2017)

Beef (g/100 g dry sample) (Longissimus dorsi) 45 Wu et al. (2016)

52 I. R. Ferreira et al.

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3.2.2.2 Lipid Content The lipid content in different cricket species can vary from 7 to 34.34 g/100 g of dry matter, as shown in Table 3.1. Depending on the species, the values may be higher in the nymphal stage (Adámková et al. 2017; Blásquez et al. 2012) or adult (Orinda 2018; Finke 2002). 3.2.2.2.1  Fatty Acid Content Table 3.3 presents the fatty acid composition of different species of edible crickets compared to beef. It is observed that the cricket fat is unsaturated mainly, with oleic and linoleic acids in greater amounts. The predominant saturated fatty acids in the different species are palmitic and stearic acid. It is also observed that these insects are not a good source of linolenic fatty acid. 3.2.2.3 Mineral Content Crickets are excellent sources of minerals such as phosphorus, zinc, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and sodium (Table 3.4). The iron, phosphorus, and potassium levels in the species Tarbinskiellus poetentosus, Gryllus bimaculus, and Acheta domesticus are higher than in beef. All species have higher copper, calcium and manganese content than beef. Teleogryllus emma, Tarbinskiellus poetentosus, Scapsipedus icipe, Gryllus bimaculatus and Acheta domesticus have higher amounts of sodium than animal tissue. Teleogryllus emma, Gryllus bimaculatus, and Acheta domesticus have higher amounts of magnesium and all (except Tarbinskiellus poetentosus and Gryllus assimilis) have a higher amount of zinc when compared to beef. The mineral content in crickets of the species A. domesticus had considerable variation according to the diet of the insects. A commercialized diet suitable for crickets with 22% protein provided higher sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium (Bawa et al. 2020). In a study developed by Latunde-Dada et al. (2016), the levels of various minerals of four insect species were compared with sirloin meat. Furthermore, the authors evaluated the bioavailability of iron. Sirloin meat and the investigated cricket species (Gryllus bimaculatus) had comparatively higher Fe, Ca, and Mn levels than the other insect species (grasshopper, buffalo worms, and mealworms). However, buffalo worms and sirloin exhibited greater iron bioavailability, comparable to FeSO4. According to the authors, the diet composition, interactions with absorption inhibitors, food particle sizes, and the level of degradation by digestive enzymes influences the mineral solubility and bioavailability.

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Table 3.3  Fatty acid composition of different species of edible crickets and beef Fatty acid

Lauric acid (C12:0) Tridecanoic acid (C13:0) Myristic acid (C14:0) Pentadecanoic acid (C15:0) Palmitic acid (C16:0) Heptadecanoic acid (C17:0) Stearic acid (C18:0) Arachidic acid (C20:0) Heneicosanoic acid (C21:0) Tricosanoic acid (C23:0) Myristoleic acid (C14:1) Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) Heptadecenoic acid (C17:1) Oleic acid (C18: 1n-9) Linoleic acid (C18: 2 n-6) Linolenic acid (C18: 3 n-3) Eicosenoic acid (C20:1) Eicosatrienoic acid (C20: 3 n-6) Arachidonic acid (C20: 4 n-6) Eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5 n-3) Docosatetraenoic acid (C22:4 n-6)

Species (g/100 g fat) Acheta domesticus 0.10

Gryllus assimilis 0.12

Gryllus bimaculatus 0.34

Beef Longissimus Teleogryllus dorsi (g/100 g with fat) emma 0.08 0.08

NR

0.02

NR

NR

NR

0.44–0.5

0.4–1.28

0.42–0.58

0.72

3.20

ND

0.37

0.08

0.08

NR

22.65–24.9

25.85–26.4

18.18–24.31

12.17

25.08

0.12

0.57

0.25

0.16

NR

8.54–8.8

7.2–14.07

6.40–9.32

0.28

12.27

NR

0.56

1.01

1.12

0.08

0.24

0.03

0.34

0.36

NR

0.02

0.22

ND

0.28

NR

0.03

0.06

ND

0.08

NR

0.34–0.9

1.7–1.92

0.44–1.43

3.62

4.84

0.24

0.19

0.08

0.12

NR

20.18–20.4

25.03–25.8

22.75–24.49

27.76

37.58

41.39

26.13–34.4

34.93–41.75

38.23

1.17

1.11–1.8

1.60–1.8

0.67–0.85

0.88

0.39

ND

0.24

0.25

0.16

0.08

NR

NR

0.17

0.04

NR

NR

NR

0.08

1.07

0.16

ND

0.38–0.7

ND

0.04

NR

ND

0.7

NR

NR

NR (continued)

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Table 3.3 (continued) Fatty acid

Species (g/100 g fat) Acheta domesticus 32.11–34.68

Saturated fatty acids (SFA) Monounsaturated 20.79–21.57 fatty acids (MUFA) Polyunsaturated 42.50–43.19 fatty acids (PUFA) n-6/n-3 22.99–37.29 References

Gryllus assimilis 35.2–43.64

Gryllus bimaculatus 27.02–36.23

Beef Longissimus Teleogryllus dorsi (g/100 g with fat) emma 14.36 40.78

27.22– 28.21

23.52–26.25

31.90

42.50

28.81–37.6

35.85–42.85

40.37

1.72

41.68–49.32

42.76

3.41

Gan et al. (2022) and Ghosh et al. (2017)

Ghosh et al. (2017)

TACO (2011)

13.55– 14.04 Mlcek et al. Paul et al. (2018) and (2017) and Barroso et al. Barroso et al. (2014) (2014)

NR Not reported, ND Not detected

3.2.2.4 Vitamin Content The most abundant vitamins in the species are vitamins A and some of the B complex as shown in Table  3.4. The cricket species Gryllus bimaculatus presented a greater amount of vitamin E, D, and B6 in its composition. The Gryllus Assimilis species, however, has a higher content of vitamins B2, C, and E. The vitamin content of edible crickets collected in the wild depends on the seasons and is affected according to the cricket’s diet (Magara et al. 2021). The study by Murugu et al. (2021) reported that the species Gryllus bimaculatus has lower vitamins A, B2, and E levels compared to research by Oibiokpa (2017) for the species Gryllus assimilis. In addition, other vitamins were detected in the Gryllus bimaculatus species, such as the B complex (B1, B3, and B6), vitamins D and E, and not reported for the Gryllus assimilis species.

3.2.3 Functional Properties of Cricket Protein Producing insect-based ingredients for the food industry requires a higher level of knowledge of their functional properties and adequate control of processing steps to minimize potential negative impacts on protein functionalities and ensure microbiological safety (Stone et al. 2019; Dion-Poulin et al. 2020). In general, insect proteins have high water and fat holding capacity, high emulsifying activity, moderate foaming capacity, and foam stability and thus can be used in food formulations that require these properties. In addition, cricket protein isolate has better properties than flour (Zielińska et al. 2018a).

A B1 B2 B3 B5 B6 B7

Vitamins

Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Zinc Manganese Iron Copper Cobalt Aluminum References

Mineral

Gryllus assimilis NR 380.45 0.43 0.09–45.30 9.24–27.19 0.25–5.22 1.42 0.15–2.78 0.02–0.68 NR 4.21 Soares Araújo et al. (2019) and Oibiokpa (2017)

Species (mg/100 g dry sample) Acheta domesticus Gryllus assimilis NR 3.00 NR NR 11.07 238.34 12.47 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR

Acheta domesticus 899.33–1038.90 389.92–1211.10 101.44–471.40 132.14–186.90 109.42–136.58 15.70–21.79 3.73–4.40 3.3–8.83 2.01–4.86 NR NR Bawa et al. (2020), Udomsil et al. (2019) and Finke (2002)

Species (mg/100 g dry sample)

Gryllus bimaculatus 0.11 0.42 0.89 1.09 NR 5.28 NR

Gryllus bimaculatus 702.02–1169.60 321.71–1079.90 88.84–452.99 105.14–240.17 72.94–143.65 14.39–22.43 3.4–10.36 7.16–9.66 3.86–4.55 NR NR Udomsil et al. (2019) and Ghosh et al. (2017)

Teleogryllus emma 1085.40 895.50 278.23 193.54 152.48 18.47 5.86 10.75 2.19 NR NR Ghosh et al. (2017)

Tarbinskiellus poetentosus 506.10 1240.89 370.81 26.00 10.50 7.00 NR 122.5 4.50 NR NR Narzari (2017)

(mg/100 g dry sample) Carne bovina (Longissimus dorsi with fat) 0.01 0.32 0.23 11.05 0.59 0.06 2.35

Scapsipedus icipe NR 66.32 395.44 66.07 35.57 19.19 95.67 10.70 7.93 5.07 NR Murugu et al. (2021)

Table 3.4  Mineral and vitamin composition of different species of edible crickets and beef Beef Longissimus dorsi with fat 478.13 830.90 128.28 11.66 52.48 8.16 0.03 3.79 0.12 NR NR TACO (2011)

56 I. R. Ferreira et al.

Species (mg/100 g dry sample) Acheta domesticus Gryllus assimilis B8 NR NR B9 NR NR B12 0.31–17.44 5.18 C 9.74 1049.74 D NR NR E 6.40 341.96 K NR 44.56 References Bawa et al. (2020) and Oibiokpa (2017) Finke (2002) NR Not reported

Vitamins Gryllus bimaculatus NR 0.51 NR NR 22.00 1307.00 NR Murugu et al. (2021)

(mg/100 g dry sample) Carne bovina (Longissimus dorsi with fat) NR 0.007–0.39 0.02 8.12–45.53 0.00057–0.0013 0.16–0.40 0.0018–0.0013 Lofgren (2013) and TACO (2011)

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I. R. Ferreira et al.

Table 3.5  Functional properties of proteins from cricket species and bovine animal tissue Parameters

Solubility (%) Water holding capacity (%) Emulsifying capacity (%) Emulsion stability (%)* Foaming capacity (%) Fat holding capacity (g oil/ g sample) Foam stability % (10 min) Foam stability %(30 min) Foam stability % (60 min) Favorable conditions for gel formation References

a

Species

Animal tissue Beef (myofibrillar proteins 70

Acheta domesticus 46 (pH 12)

Gryllus assimilis –

Gryllodes sigillatus 96 (pH 11)

Gryllus bimaculatus 75 (pH 11)

190.00–201.99

–

176.00– 344.00

203.00– 201.22

18.00–41.70

–

62.00–72.62 –

39.23–59.5

21.86–97.36

–

15.00–78.30 97.38

55.30

26.00–50.00

190.00

41.00–99.00 13.5–16.67

21.00–40.00

2.27–3.48

–

1.42–3.33

1.57

–

–

50.00

–

–

32.00–92.36

88.90

Unstable

34.67–92.00 92.30–94.86

14.47–89.73

88.38

–

95.00

93.14

10.27–84.60

18% flour, 86 °C

pH 6, 0.6 M ionic strength, 60–70 °C

Jeong et al. (2021) and Udomsil et al. (2019)

Dara et al. (2021), Sharifian et al. (2019), Alasvand Zarasvand et al. (2011) and Sun and Holley (2010)

pH 7, 3–30% protein, 86 °C

0.1 M NaCl, – 6.5% concentrated protein, 90 °C/ 15 min Psarianos et al. Santiago et al. Stone et al. (2022), Brogan (2021) (2019), et al. (2021), Zielińska Ndiritu et al. et al. (2017), (2018b) and Udomsil et al. Hall et al. (2019) and Yi (2017) et al. (2013)

21.80–37.30

Different methods were used to measure this parameter

Table 3.5 shows the functional properties of cricket species proteins about beef myofibrillar proteins. Myofibrillar proteins (especially actin and myosin) are primarily responsible for the functional properties of meat and meat products, including gelling, emulsifying, and water-binding properties. They are responsible for 97% of the water holding capacity of meat, about 75% of the emulsifying capacity, and producing viscous gels through protein-protein interactions (Amiri et al. 2018).

3  Crickets as a Promising Alternative Edible Insect: Nutritional and Technological…

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Gel formation in the A. domesticus was observed for 3% of protein and pH 7 and a concentration of 30% at pHs 7 and 10, with gelation temperature of 56.2 ± 0.7 °C (Yi et al. 2013). Gels of the soluble and insoluble fraction of A. domesticus cricket protein showed a difference in hardness when the protein was extracted under acidic or alkaline conditions (Urbina et al. 2021). The solubility of proteins from the Gryllodes sigillatus species was lower at pH 5 (4%), had a considerable increase at pH 2, 3, 4, and 8 (72, 65, 57, and 92%, respectively), and was higher at pH 11 (96%) (Zielińska et al. 2018a, b). For the species A. domesticus, the protein solubility decreased from pH 2 to 8, followed by a significant increase at pH 12 (Ndiritu et al. 2019). The isoelectric point of Gryllodes sigillatus proteins is around pH  3, which explains the low solubility of proteins near this pH. In general, cricket protein has shown better functional properties when compared to other insects such as Tenebrio Molitor, Schistocerca gregaria, and Pisum sativum (Stone et al. 2019). The functional properties of insect proteins can be affected by different processing conditions, such as enzymatic hydrolysis, physical separation by membranes, heat treatments, and variation in ionic strength (Mishyna et al. 2021; Santiago et al. 2021; Yi et al. 2013). The elaboration of hydrolyzed protein can be a good strategy to improve the functional properties of cricket proteins (Hall et al. 2017). In addition, different conditions of temperature and ionic strength can affect the foaming ability and its stability and gel formation (Santiago et al. 2021). The functional properties of cricket proteins need to be further studied. When the interest is to use cricket protein as an ingredient in the elaboration of food products, evaluating its behavior under processing conditions is very important.

3.2.4 Regulatory Aspects of Adding Insects to Foods Over the years, there has been considerable development of regulations for the consumption of food intended for humans and animals. In European Union (EU) legislation, there are standards and regulations for insects in the preparation of food and feed (Carvalho et al. 2019). Recently the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved the use of yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) in food, an important milestone for the insect market (Turck et al. 2021). Insect consumption in parts of North America is considered a food crop. In the United States, insect-based foods are overseen by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). According to legislation, food must be free of dirt, toxins, and pathogens. Furthermore, it must be adequately packaged, stored, labeled, and transported. Food preparation with insects for human consumption must follow good manufacturing practices. In addition, insects raised for animal feed cannot be diverted for human consumption, just as insects collected in the wild cannot be sold as food (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al. 2021).

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In Brazil, researchers, producers, and companies are increasingly committed to adopting the use of insects in food and feed. However, Brazilian laws still do not allow insects for human consumption as ingredients in food products (Lähteenmäki-­ Uutela et  al. 2021). Brazil is a country that tends to follow Codex Alimentarius standards and recommendations (Allegretti et al. 2018). Brazilian startups market their insects for pets while waiting for authorization from Brazilian legislation to allocate their insects for human consumption.

3.2.5 Applications of Insects as Ingredients for the Food Industry In recent years, proteins from vegetables have become quite popular, mainly because consumers want a more economical and sustainable diet. Furthermore, this growing interest has been similarly driven by the rise of veganism and vegetarianism in Western countries (Gravel and Doyen 2020). Some consumers have also embraced flexitarianism. Despite their wide availability in nature, plant-based proteins contain little of the essential amino acids and are less digestible compared to animal-based proteins (Gravel and Doyen 2020). In this way, insect proteins have aroused interest in the food industry due to their high protein content with concentrations of essential amino acids well-adjusted to nutritional needs and greater digestibility than some vegetable proteins, in addition to the presence of vitamins, minerals and unsaturated fatty acids in considerable concentrations (Gravel and Doyen 2020; Rumpold and Schlüter 2013; Van Huis 2013). Future perspectives point to a considerable growth in its use to replace animal proteins (Choi et al. 2017). Cricket proteins have great potential for application among the insects studied due to their high productivity, nutritional profile, and flavor characteristics. 3.2.5.1 Cricket Flour The most common cricket processing in Asian countries such as Thailand and Laos is frying, where the fried cricket snack is a popular snack in these countries (Halloran et al. 2016; Gan et al. 2022). In western countries, insects have a greater potential for consumption in the form of flour. In addition to being a possible solution to food neophobia, it consists of a nutritious ingredient to prepare various industrialized products. The use of cricket in the form of flour can also improve its sensory properties, which are poorer when compared to meat (Mishyna et al. 2020). Drying is the first processing step after insect collection, where there is a reduction in humidity (5–10%) and in the water activity of the product (