Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry 9811681201, 9789811681202

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Kamalpreet Sandhu Sunpreet Singh   Editors

Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry

Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry

Kamalpreet Sandhu • Sunpreet Singh Editors

Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry

Editors Kamalpreet Sandhu Plaksha University Mohali, Punjab, India

Sunpreet Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore

ISBN 978-981-16-8120-2 ISBN 978-981-16-8121-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8121-9

(eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

The book entitled “Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry” aims to present various practical outbreaks of designing and preparing food using Additive Manufacturing, also known as “3D printing.” This book presents multidisciplinary aspects of the evolutionary growth of this exception in food technology including social, industrial, administration, and scientific. Moreover, a variety of design ideas interacts to humans like printing of cakes, cookies and chocolates. Overall, it is believed that the combined efforts of the editorial team members and contributing authors this book massive attention across food industries, food technology, nutrition, dietician researchers, food manufacturing units, and academic platforms. Mohali, Punjab, India Singapore, Singapore

Kamalpreet Sandhu Sunpreet Singh

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Contents

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Materials for Food Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jaspreet Kaur, Vishesh Bhadariya, Jyoti Singh, Prerna Gupta, Kartik Sharma, and Prasad Rasane

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Fundamentals of Food Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harmanpreet Singh and Sagarika Bhattacharjee

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Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing and Its Process Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Thangalakshmi and Vinkel Kumar Arora

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Food Printing: Unfolding a New Paradigm for Designer and User . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rasleen Kour and Harmanpreet Singh

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Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing: Methods, Processing and Nutritional Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mahendra Gunjal, Prasad Rasane, Jyoti Singh, Sawinder Kaur, and Jaspreet Kaur Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing Technology: 3D Printers, Technologies, and Application Insights in the Food Diligence . . . . . Sonia Morya, Jaysi Kumari, Devendra Kumar, Ashikujaman Syed, and Chinaza Godswill Awuchi

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Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing Based on Starch-Based Inks: Crucial Factors for Printing Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Bianca Chieregato Maniglia, Ahmed Raouf Fahmy, Mario Jekle, Patricia Le-Bail, and Alain Le-Bail

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Development of Cost-Effective and Sustainable Alternative Protein from Drosophila and Consumer Acceptability of Drosophila Protein Using 3D Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Divya Singh, Seema Ramniwas, and Ranvijay Kumar

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Commercial Market of Food Printing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Harmanpreet Singh and Rasleen Kour

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Prevention of Three-Dimensional (3D) Printed Food from Spoilage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Harmanpreet Singh

About the Editors

Kamalpreet Sandhu is an Educator and Researcher at Plaksha University, Mohali, Punjab, India. His area of research is Design Thinking, 3D printing, and Ergonomics for Podiatric Medicine. He has successfully established research collaborations in India and abroad to advance his research interest in Design Thinking and 3D Printing. Sunpreet Singh is a researcher in NUS Nanoscience & Nanotechnology Initiative (NUSNNI). He has received a PhD in mechanical engineering from Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India. His area of research is additive manufacturing and the application of 3D printing for the development of new biomaterials for clinical applications. He is working in collaboration with Prof. Seeram Ramakrishna, NUS Nanoscience & Nanotechnology Initiative, and Prof. Rupinder Singh, manufacturing research lab, GNDEC, Ludhiana.

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Chapter 1

Materials for Food Printing Jaspreet Kaur, Vishesh Bhadariya, Jyoti Singh, Prerna Gupta, Kartik Sharma, and Prasad Rasane

Abstract The materials required for food printing act as a restriction towards the uptake of additive manufacturing in industries. Therefore, the selection of material heavily depends on phase transition, various chemical reactions that are responsible for binding layers together, physical state and the process of the material. Usually 3D printing involves the use of plastics such as polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, nylon, etc.; various other materials like hydrogels and cellulose along with its derivatives are also employed in additive manufacturing during manufacturing applications. Overall, 3D food printing materials possess different requirements for different phases, namely pre-extrusion phase and post-extrusion phase. During the initial phase, the food formulation should be in liquid form, which is ensured by smaller particle size of the food material, whereas in post-extrusion phase, the printed food should resist the structural deformation post deposition, which can be achieved by curing of printed food. Fibrous food materials undergo mechanical degradation with the help of shearing equipment such as mixer or kitchen blender. Various food materials are used in different printing methods, namely hydrocolloid systems (gelatine and xanthan gum), flavourings, modified turkey, scallop, wheat dough are used in cold extrusion method; milk chocolate in hot melt extrusion; mashed potato, cream cheese and chocolate in hot and cold melt extrusion; combination of icing, caster, silk sugars along with maltodextrins in binder jetting printing method; mint syrup, linseed oil, wax, carrageen shell, edible ink made of glycol, ethanol, glycerol or water in inkjet printing method; etc. The complete literature review reveals the various applications and challenges faced by researchers while conducting studies based upon food materials used for 3D food J. Kaur · J. Singh · P. Gupta · P. Rasane Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India V. Bhadariya (*) Department of Petroleum Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Physical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India K. Sharma Department of Biotechnology, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (CSIR-IHBT), Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Sandhu, S. Singh (eds.), Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8121-9_1

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printing. This chapter aims to provide an updated analysis on the research into food printing technology. Keywords 3D food printing · Properties of food materials · Materials · 2D and 3D printers · Utilization in food industry

1.1

Introduction

Three-dimensional or 3D food printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has been established since the 1980s. It is used to construct complex physical models based on 3D models without using any sort of cutting tools, fixtures, moulds, dyes and coolants as materials, and are added layer by layer from the computerized model. Owing to its wide range of applicability, this technology is widely used by several fields, including food industry, aerospace, fashion design, medical, automotive, architecture and automobile industry. Attractive printing or imaging or surfaces always appear to represent main idea behind the design and product. These days printing an image on food packets requires careful consideration of selecting inks which should be edible in nature and their production process should be environment friendly [1, 2]. In the new era of food packaging, food processing industries have considered the aspect of designing the packages to be very important. They realized that the attractive colour of foods, shape, size, ingredients and printing images on packets play a dynamic role in fetching the attraction of consumers. In current scenario, various patents (e.g. 3D printers with deposition and for rapid prototyping) are commercially available [3, 4]. Consumers are focused on specific traits of food products including food constituents and printing techniques [5]. Thus, food industries are now more focused on the consumer specific needs, which involve tasty food products that are remarkable in appearance and provide proper nutrition as well. Food industries certainly face challenges with food packaging especially when plastic packaging materials react with food products which can result in migration of monomeric additives such as plasticizers, preservatives, antioxidants and stabilizers into the food materials [6]. It was reported in a research study conducted by Castle et al. [7] that food packages made from polypropylene material containing edible products that might chemically react with each other due to transferring of ink from the outer surface of package to the inner food constituents. Therefore, it was concluded from the experiment that food imaging or food print processing play an important role in food processing industry specifically when human health is taken into consideration. Recently, scientists are taking help of programming language such as visual basic and MATLAB as a part of their research in order to modify the food printing technology which helps in the determination of three-dimensional space distribution of colours [5]. This chapter aims to provide an emerging field available for researchers and industrialists in order to update the current innovations with respect to the technology for food imaging or printing onto food products. It will provide a deep insight to the readers about the consumer market, product development, product promotion,

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various properties and types of materials used in 3D food printing, comparison and technical advancements in the field of 2D and 3D food printers, applications as well as rationale of 3D technology in detail.

1.2

Methodology

The chief aim of the literature searching strategy was to explore the concept of 3D food printing, properties and types of materials most commonly used for 3D printing, comparison between 2D and 3D food printers, application of 3D printing in extrusion technology, inkjet printing, powder binding deposition, bioprinting and the rationale of 3D technology. A number of relevant publications were identified through searching over the electronic databases (ScienceDirect, PubMed, SciELO, Google scholar, SpringerLink and ResearchGate) based on keywords such as 3D food printing, properties, materials, 2D printers, 3D printers, applications of 3D food printing in food industry and rationale of technology. After searching suitable literature, 78 papers (including research and review articles) were reviewed which provided a detailed overview of all these aspects covered in this chapter.

1.3

Properties of Materials to be Used in 3D Food Printing

Various approaches exist in order to make the food purees printable in nature. Nevertheless, the fundamental mechanism for getting a productive 3D printout is quite indistinguishable and is independent of the type of additive used in the whole process. In the first phase of the process (i.e., pre-extrusion phase), it is highly desired that the food formulation must be fluid in nature and the particle size of the food material should be small. For instance, the high fibre food materials need to be degraded to reduce the particle size by using equipment of high shear quality. In the same line, food materials like powders (milk, sugar, starch, protein) and liquids including lemon juice can be utilized for 3D food printing. In the second phase of the process (i.e., post-extrusion phase), curing for the printed food is done in which the material undergoes deposition followed by the structural deformation. Therefore, the food material must bear the property of resistance against such sort of structural deformity. Curing is done either by employing heat treatment (for food materials) or by the use of UV radiations (for non-food applications). Taking the aforementioned properties of the food material into consideration, it is highly required to formulate food inks which are shear-thinning in nature. It allows the smooth flow of the food material through the printing nozzle by applying high shear at the nozzle end and once the material is printed onto the print bed, no further shear is experienced and the 3D shape of the food is also very well retained on the print bed. The two major factors which contribute to the shear-thinning behaviour of the food material include disentanglement of macromolecules (food fibres) in the solution and alignment of

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food emulsions in the layered form. The former factor affects the intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules by reducing electrostatic attractions, Van der Waals forces as well as hydrogen bonding. While the latter factor i.e., alignment of food emulsions in the layered form, leads to reduction of collision between food particles which further results in decreasing the viscosity of the emulsion and therefore, it exhibits shearthinning properties [8]. It has been revealed that while doing the practical procedures in 3D food printing, the optimization of hydrocolloid mixtures is done to obtain the desired degree of shear-thinning property of any particular food system. By ensuring that the particle size of the food material is small and the concentration is apt, shear-thinning property can be achieved as the cluster arrangement will be loose enough. Certain food additives are used in 3D food printing to enhance the printability of various food materials [8]. Yang et al. [9] conducted a research study in which potato starch in different concentrations was used as an additive to make lemon juice in printable form. The mixture of potato starch and lemon juice was subjected to heat treatment at 86
C which resulted in swelling of starch granules followed by rupturing. It led to the release of starch constituents into the mixture and thereby increased the overall viscosity. A stable and desirable network of gel was formed on subsequent cooling of mixture. Therefore, the study proved that potato starch is a potent candidate for 3D food printing as it undergoes the desired process of gelatinization. The only drawback associated with the utilization of potato starch is that it should be used in high concentration in order to be comparable to the use of hydrocolloids. Derossi et al. [10] attempted to formulate a printable food puree ink by mixing food puree (consisting of banana, dry milk powder, lemon juice, canned beans and dried mushrooms) with different concentrations of pectin solution. High-methoxyl pectin (HM pectin) and low-methoxyl pectin (LM pectin) can be used for this purpose as the former leads to the formation of strong gel networks followed by heating in the presence of acid and sugar, while the latter forms gel networks in the presence of Ca2+ ions. As pectin is a common gelling agent used in food industries, it contributes to the overall printability of food puree [8]. Liu et al. [11] used different concentrations of gelatine and mixed it with mechanically blended cooked meat and observed that the 3D printing process became smooth and consistent as compared to the sample of meat in which gelatine was not added. The result showed that phase separation was observed between liquid phase and solid meat, which ultimately results in nozzle blockage and therefore poor prints. However, upon the addition of gelatine there was improvement in overall process of printing and ultimately ends in consistent printing. Another study revealed that better printing quality was observed when 40 g of gelatine was added as compared to one in which only 20 g of gelatine was added. During hydration and rising the temperature to 40
C, results in unravelling and denaturing of the amino acid chains of gelatine which later allows the hydrophilic R group to bind with water. Further cooling of the same till the temperature becomes same as that of room temperature, gelatine amino acid chains renatures themselves and forms fibrillar collagen. These helical structures crosslink with each other, thereby forming the gel network which is thermo reversible [12]. Studies revealed the potential role of

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gelatine in the formation of gel network throughout the cooked meat sample. Thus, gelatine (a hydrocolloid) is highly suitable for 3D food printing of the substances which contain high amount of protein content. Lille et al. [13] used self-made cellulose nanofiber (consisting of 73% cellulose, 26% hemicellulose, 1% lignin) mixed with milk powder and starch to form food ink. The food ink so prepared consisted of digestible proteins derived from milk, carbohydrates from starch and non-digestible fibre owing to the presence of cellulose, hemicellulose as well as lignin. Shoseyov et al. [14] attempted to utilize crystalline nanocellulose and nanofibrillated cellulose, which is monocrystalline and fibrillar, respectively. Owing to the good shear-thinning properties of these additives at low concentrations, they are capable of forming self-assembled gel networks and, moreover, these additives do not require any kind of heat treatment or cooling cycle for gel formation [8, 15]. Zhang and Zhang [16, 17] carried out research studies on various food materials (such as mushroom, tomato, blueberry, pumpkin, mulberry and fig) in order to formulate 3D printable rice vermicelli noodle. Alginate and carrageenan were used as an additive in this process. A mixture of sodium alginate, potassium alginate and carrageenan was prepared and mixed into the food ink followed by spraying of a mixture containing calcium gluconate, calcium lactate and calcium chloride after deposition of each successive layer. The purpose of spraying mixture of calcium salts over the alginate mixture was to promote the gelling process and a desirable gel network was formed [8].

1.4

Various Materials Used for 3D Printing Technology

3D printing requires good quality materials of consistent specifications to develop consistent high-quality devices for which there is need of establishment of procedures, agreements and requirements of material between purchasers, suppliers and end users of the material. Three-dimensional food printing has potential of producing fully functional parts by using polymers, metallic, ceramic and their combinations in form of hybrid or composites [18].

1.4.1

Metals

In automobile, medical application, aerospace and manufacturing industries, metal 3D printing technology is used as they possess good physical properties [19, 20]. Various materials used under this category are titanium alloys [21], aluminium alloys [22], cobalt-based alloys [23], stainless steels and nickel-based alloys [24, 25]. Due to the high specific stiffness, high recovery capacity, resilience, elongation and high treated conditions, cobalt-based alloys are recommended for dental application

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[22]. Nickel-based alloys have high corrosion resistance and can resist temperature up to 1200
C, which makes it more suitable for the production of aerospace parts [20]. Titanium alloys, because of their oxidation resistance, ductility, good corrosion and low density are used in 3D printing technology in aerospace and biomedical industry [21, 25].

1.4.2

Polymers

For the production of polymeric components, 3D printing technologies are used, and by using fused deposition modelling (FDM), they can form a 3D printed through deposition of extruded thermoplastic filament including acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyethylene (PE), polylactic acid (PLA) and polypropylene (PP) [26]. The low cost, low weight and processing flexibility of polymeric materials makes them suitable for 3D food printing [27]. These polymeric materials are used for the development of medical device products and provide mechanical support in orthopaedic implants [23].

1.4.3

Ceramics

The 3D technology also uses ceramics and concrete without any cracks or pores for the production of 3D objects and set up excellent mechanical properties. Ceramics possess good durability; properties like fire resistance; and due to their fluid state before setting, these can be moulded into any shape and geometry [28]. Ceramics are used in the dental aerospace industries and various materials used under this category are bioactive glasses, alumina and zirconia [29–32]. Among all, alumina powder is widely used in the areas of microelectronics, aerospace and hightechnology industries [33]. Zirconia, especially hafnium-free zirconium, are used as construction materials in nuclear power sectors as they have low susceptibility to radiation and show low thermal neutron absorption [32].

1.4.4

Composites

Composites are used in high-performance industries because of their exceptional versatility, tailorable properties and low weight, and they include carbon and glass fibre–reinforced polymer composites [34, 35]. The difference in the properties of these two makes them suitable for different applications, like carbon fibre–reinforced polymers composite structures are used in aerospace industry as they have high strength, specific stiffness and good corrosion resistance, whereas glass fibre– reinforced polymers composite structures have various applications due to their

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cost-effectiveness and high performance [34]. Fibreglass, due to its high thermal conductivity and low coefficient of thermal expansion is suitable for 3D printing applicant [36].

1.4.5

Smart Materials

Smart materials are the those that can change the shape and geometry of the object and get influenced by external factors like water and heat [37]. These can be classified into shape memory alloys and shape memory polymers [38, 39]. Nickel titanium is one of the shape memory alloys that is used in electromechanical devices application but has some issues like density, transformation temperatures and reproducibility of microstructure. Shape memory polymer (SMP) responds to heat, electricity, light, etc. [38].

1.4.6

Special Materials

The examples of special materials include food, lumar dust and textile. Food materials like candy, meat, pizza, spaghetti, chocolate, sauce, etc., could be used in 3D printing technology to produced desired geometry and shape [40]. The advantage of 3D food printing allows the customer to alter the ingredients without reducing the taste and nutritive value [41]. From lumar dust, multilayered parts by using 3D printing could be developed which has potential applicability for future moon colonization [42]. In textile industries, 3D textile printing has important role to play as they reduces the cost of packaging material and also reduces the supply chain cost [43].

1.5

Other Available Printing Materials

Various efforts have been made to preprocess materials well suited for 3D printing and increase their thermal stability. The Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) has proposed printing pureed food for old-age population because of their chewing and swallowing problems [44]. TNO has also developed printed customized meals for pregnant women, seniors, athletes by altering proteins and fat. They are further classified into natively printable materials and non-printable traditional food materials.

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Natively Printable Materials

Natively printable materials include cheese, cake frosting, chocolates, hummus, hydrogel which can be easily extruded from syringe smoothly. Southerland et al. [45] has studied the application of mixture of starch, mashed potato and sugars as powder materials in Z corporation powder/binder 3D printer. Number of sugar teeth was developed for demonstration but none of them is the main course of meals. Fabaroni et al. [46] has tested pasta dough for printability and studied the viscosity, solidifying properties and consistency. These natively printable materials are highly stable to hold the shape after deposition and used in the field of medical and space industries. Food products made by natively printable materials can be easily controlled in taste, nutritional value and texture. For composite formulations like protein pastes and batters, post-deposition cooking process is required which make food product structure difficulty to retain their shapes [47].

1.5.2

Non-printable Traditional Food Materials

Foods like fruit, vegetables, rice and meat are not printable by nature but by adding hydrocolloids in these materials, their capability of extrusion can be enhanced. Complex geometrics and novel formulations were made by adding simple additives in traditional food recipes by Lipton et al. [47].

1.5.3

Post-Processing

The process of food printing does not require a high energy source to remove liquid ingredient completely from food composition. There is no need of solidification in fabricated layers as they have sufficient strength and rigidity to support its own weight without changing the shape [48].

1.6

Application of Hydrocolloids as 3D Food Material

Hydrocolloids are usually heterogeneous group of hydrophilic polymers that form gel-like or viscous dispersions when dispersed in water [49]. Various additives like pectin, starch, alginate, gelatine, nanocellulose, carrageenan, hydrocolloids, etc. are responsible for altering texture as well as rheological properties of pureed food to enhance the printability. Various hydrocolloids such as starch, guar gum, xanthan gum, locust bean gum, beta-glucan, alginate, pectin, inulin, konjac glucomannan are the ones which are most widely used now days. Number of approaches can be made

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Special material

Smart materials

Composites

Food Lumar dust Textiles

Shape memory alloys Shape memory polymers

Carbon fiber reinforces polymers composite Glass fiber reinforced polymers composite

Material used in 3D Printing Ceramics

Metals

Polymers

Alumina Bioactive glasses Zirconia Alumninium alloys Nickel based alloys Cobalt-based alloys Stainless steels Titanium alloys Polylactic acid (PLA) polypropylene (PP) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) Polyethylene (PE)

Fig. 1.1 Different materials used in 3D printing. (3D food printing is used as an advanced manufacturing technique by the industries. Various 3D printing materials like metals, polymers, ceramics and smart materials are used owing to their excellent physical and mechanical properties for the printing process)

to make purees printable and the mechanism for successful printing remains similar for almost all the additives [50]. Xanthum gum, which is obtained via aerobic fermentation of sucrose or glucose, is a commonly used as a thickener as it possesses better stability along with thickening ability at lower concentrations and remains stagnant at wide range of salt concentrations, pH and temperatures. The molecules of xanthan gum forms intermolecular clusters or aggregates either by polymer entanglements or hydrogen bonding. Hydrocolloids such as gelatine and xanthan gum are being used in combination with various food ingredients, where these act as alternative for making various printable food materials made up of protein, starch, etc. [4]. These two hydrocolloids, namely gelatine and xanthan, stimulate wide range of mouthfeels by providing different flavours and textures [49]. Thus, it can be concluded that the materials used for 3D food printing must meet certain specifications in order to give a fruitful result. There a several advantages as well as drawbacks associated with the use of this wide range of materials employed for 3D food printing technology, which should be considered while choosing the appropriate one. Some of the different materials used in 3D printing are shown in Fig. 1.1.

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Comparison Between 2D and 3D Printers

Currently, most of the research focuses on the development of printable materials and control of printing parameters in order to improve the printing accuracy and product quality. However, the influence of material pre-treatment methods and postprocessing techniques on 3D food printing have received less attention. This was due to the effect of pre-treatment technologies (crushing, gelation, recipe formulation, etc.) and post-treatment technologies (cooking, drying, frying, boiling, steaming, fast cooling technology, 4D printing, etc.) on the accuracy and shape fidelity of 3D printed food products [51]. For example, in 2012, EC passed a regulation permitting the use of food additive E445 (glycerol esters of wood resins) as an emulsifier in water-based inks used for inkjet printing on confectionary after a request from Mars Chocolate UK (William Reed Business Media 2012). A brief comparison between the 2D and 3D printing methods along with their technological advancements, principles, durability and other aspects has been presented chronologically in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Technological advancement of 2D and 3D printing in food Company Machine

2D printing EdiJET (Inkjet)

Principle

Small ink drops generated and placed on substrate to form an image from digital file Prints edible ink, ink tubings Embedded letters/ logos in cookies, photo cakes, rice sheets and sweets

Colour change or engraving, contactless, no additives, image from a digital file Optical components, laser tube Meat products, eggs, cheese, medical products

As an emulsifier, customized and personalized marking Full colour

–

1–5 mm

Up to 1 m

Low to high

Permanent

Technologies Materials

Platforms

Fabricated products Marking distance Durability

Laser marking

Single colour

3D printing ChefJet, robotic and conveyor, moulding, extrusion, sintering, inkjet printing and bioprinting Modified shape, size, designs, texture and shading

References [52]

Inkjet powder printing

[54]

Powdered sugars, starch, cornflour, liquid binders, military food, space food, elderly food, culture of cells Motorized size, powder bed

[16]

Sugar cube in full colour, meat, xanthan gum, sodium alginate Layers as thin as 16 μm Permanent

[47]

[53]

[55]

[4] [49]

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Application of 3D Printing in Food Industry

Three-dimensional printing has emerged as one of the creative technologies in food. Its progression lies in providing better characteristic features, customized shape, design, colour, textural and flavour properties to food. Personalized nutrition design with simplified supply chain to meet consumers need and to facilitate new product development has also been observed [48]; for example, to improve the digestion of elderly people soft food was prepared by using 3D edible gel printer with a syringe pump and a dispenser by Serizawa et al. [56]. To provide an accurate and precise printing, three main aspects—material properties, process parameters and postprocessing methods—are considered, respectively. Three-dimensional printing today finds applications in many industrial sectors like automobiles, medicine, textiles, civil engineering, military, agriculture and many food applications as food-layered manufacture (FLM) and can also be used with computer-aided design (CAD) tools [54]. Desired shape of the food can be processed and produced, and geometrical shapes can be obtained by using materials like chocolate, meat, candy, pizza, spaghetti, sauce, etc. [34, 57]. Without reducing the nutrient content, a desirable sensorial attribute can be maintained without compromising in quality, and thus a desirable healthy option can be produced. Today there is a growing demand for food with special dietary needs for people like pregnant and lactating mothers, growing and malnourished children, athletes, and patients with special care. Three-dimensional printing offers specific mixing of ingredients (carbohydrates, proteins and fats, respectively) with complicated but interesting food designs like pasta, crackers, chocolates, pizza, etc. [40, 41]. In 2018, propionic acid production by Propionibacterium acidipropionici immobilized on 3D-printed nylon beads was used for the first time to create a matrix for cell immobilization in the process of fermentation by Belgrano et al. It has been reported that these printed 3D beads can be used for other fermentation bioprocesses and are capable of promoting highdensity cell attachment and propionic acid production. An Italian bioengineer, Giuseppe Scionti in 2018 developed a technology using custom 3D bioprinter capable enough to generate fibrous plant–based meat analogues, mimicking meat texture and nutritional values and named it Novameat [58]. To minimize food waste NASA is looking into advanced technique to create 3D printed food that fit an astronaut’s dietary needs [4, 59]. The various applications of 3D printing applications, namely extrusion process, inkjet printing, bioprinting and powder binding deposition, have been presented in Fig. 1.2 along with the detailed explanation of these approaches has been discussed in the sections below.

1.8.1

Extrusion Process

Extrusion process involves the deposition of powder-based or liquid-based material followed by heating (either by laser and or hot air) and then cooling leading to

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Fig. 1.2 Various approaches of 3D printing

Extrusion process Powder binding deposition

3D printing applications

Inkjet printing

Bioprinting

solidification or hydrogel-forming extrusion. For the development of customized minicaplets of baclofen for the paediatric population, 3D printing technology was used. In this, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with sorbitol (10% w/w) were selected for preparation of baclofen-loaded filaments using hot melt extrusion (HME). It has been observed by Palekar et al. [60] that minicaplets printed in diamond (fast) infill pattern with 100% infill showed higher disintegration time (38 min) compared to linear, shark fill and hexagonal pattern. Liu et al. [11] have made dough by using wheat flour, freeze dried mango powder, water and olive oil as a material in different concentrations and the best results were obtained by using ratio of flour–water–olive oil–freeze-dried mango powder ratio as 57.5:30:3:2.5. In a similar manner, classical pasta recipe were chosen by the same process by using durum wheat and water excluding additives by Sol et al. [61]. Anukiruthika et al. [62] in 2019 performed a comparative study on the printability of egg yolk and egg white with blends of rice flour at a ratio of 1:1 and 1:2 w/w, focusing on the physical, mechanical and rheological properties of the material. The eggs were converted into powdered form by Refractance window drying (RWD) method. Lipton et al. in 2010 prepared extrusion-based print sugar cookies by using different concentrations of butter, yolk and sugar and turkey meat puree by using transglutaminase and bacon fat as additives. In fact, keeping the quality of the first pink cake frosting and processed cheese at room temperature was also tried by Fab@home fabrication system [63]. Hao et al. [64] have done tempering of Cadbury chocolate, in the shape of milk chocolate buttons by using seeding tempering process at a temperature of 28–40
C. Various parameters like rheological behaviour of chocolate, nozzle height and nozzle aperture diameter and the extrusion axis movement were analysed. The process has resulted in the increase in viscosity of chocolate in the range 3.5–7 Pa. This resulted in chocolates with different printed shapes and opening of a spin-off company ChocEdge. Alginate, a polysaccharide composed of mannuronic and glucuronic acid residues, is cross-linked by calcium ions resulting in a complex coacervate ionotropic hydrogel with better gelation and rheological properties [65, 66]. This process allows the use of cross-linking designs and has been widely used especially in the microencapsulation process [67]. Also, Yang et al. [9] in 2018 used lemon juice gel and

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potato starch for printing purposes by considering various parameters like viscosity, dynamic viscoelasticity and shear stress.

1.8.2

Inkjet Printing

Inkjet printers are basically of two types: thermal inkjet printer and piezoelectric inkjet printer. These printers are basically used with low-viscosity materials like chocolates, liquid dough, sugar icing, cheese, jam, meat paste and gels, etc. [68, 69]. Inkjet thermal printer uses high thermal power for high power pressure generation that forces the droplets through the nozzle whereas in case of piezoelectric inkjet printer a piezoelectric crystal is kept inside the print head that produces an acoustic wave to separate the liquid into droplets at even intervals [70].

1.8.3

Powder-Binding Deposition

The second most-sought-after system after extrusion process in 3D printing graphics is powder-binding deposition. It is generally done by selective laser sintering (SLS), selective hot air sintering and melting (SHASAM) and liquid binding (LB). A laser power source is used at selective sites for suitable layering of powdered materials at particular points by heating them to get a finalized 3D model and final fabrication by liquid binding is done (e.g. layering of fat and sugar together). The final structure so created relies on the laser absorptivity of materials and the mechanism for powder densification [71, 72]. Von Hasseln et al. [73] in 2014 prepared a variety of sweetand-sour candies by mixing various flavours by this method. Nowadays an edible formulated food powder composed of a water-soluble protein and/or a hydrocolloid onto a powder bed 3D object is also produced by spatial jetting of food fluid [74].

1.8.4

Bioprinting

Bioprinting is basically layer-by-layer deposition of biological materials and culture of living cells. Bioprinting is said to be the future of plant-based foods to create complex heterogeneous products. According to the recent report by the animal-free advocacy group of the Good Food Institute (GFI) the global demand for seafood is expected to rise by 30% by 2030 as compared to 2010 as far as health aspect is concerned [75]. Microprinter and laser-assisted printing are the commonly used techniques with this process. This technique also helps in overcoming barriers as far as social, ethical and religious beliefs regarding consumption of animal meat are concerned [76, 77].

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Rationale of the Technology

Global expansion of population has contributed largely to the increased food demands of the growing population. Food industries play an important role in the continuation of food processing and production with sustainable ways so as to meet the increased food demands of people. This emerging and revolutionary technology of 3D food printing offers several benefits as it helps to provide protection from sunlight, dust, unwanted elements, viruses, microbial attack, and thus preserve them for longer time duration. Three-dimensional technology is fulfilling the need of customized technology in food processing industry. The food product so produced can be easily adjusted, creative and customized as per the needs of the consumers [78]. Three-dimensional food printing or imaging is an advanced technique for producing food products using a wide range of methodologies in which the food is pre-imaged. This allows the users to design food by the application of programming tools and Internet. Food products can also be modified as per the requirements of consumers. For instance, modification is useful in areas such as cold weather zone, sea explorations, space explorations, healthcare settings, deserts and hot weather zones. This technology also helps in meeting the increased food demands of the growing population. Food processing industries are also focusing on human health and are more focused on environment-friendly food production and consumption, as well as incorporation of healthy and nutritious food ingredients. Poor handling and processing of food products can lead to gastrointestinal disorders (such as lactose intolerance, abdominal discomfort, distension) among people. Therefore, 3D food printing has been designed to address the issues which can pose an adverse effect on human health. Researchers are making an appreciable effort to acknowledge the food-related issues and are constantly doing adjustments in the diet by blending a specific food ingredient with another nutritious and healthy component. By doing so, industries are now targeting people with specific deficits and are trying to manage their dietary habits. The use of computer application in 3D food printing has allowed the researchers to mix certain ingredients or additives in food products to bring about a transformative change in the human health. The consumer data can be easily integrated by automation so that the food ingredients can be automatically adjusted as per the information and requirements of the consumer. Therefore, the concept of automatic printable food production system can be well developed by using 3D food printing as well as robotic fabrication [41, 78].

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Conclusion

The chapter highlights the wide applicability of 3D food printing technology that could revolutionize the food industry. The way of manufacturing food products can be significantly changed and improved by employing advancements in 3D printing sector. It is fast, reliable and reproducible due to the involvement of automation. It can also be concluded after reviewing the literature that the researchers faced many challenges while working on various food materials and additives used for the gel network formation. Each and every additive used in 3D food printing possess it owns merits and demerits. For instance, gelatine is suitable for foods which are supposed to be served without any exposure to heat treatment as it forms gelling systems with low temperature. However, it also implies that the food gel network prepared by using gelatine couldn’t be served above its melting point (temperature). Similarly, gel networks formed by using HM pectin is not suitable for the patients suffering from diabetes because they contain high amount of sugar concentration. Therefore, the need of the hour is to formulate such mixtures of hydrocolloids which can be used universally irrespective of the type of base food ingredient. But at the same time, this task would be quite challenging due to variability among various food materials contributed by factors like temperature, pH, intermolecular forces of attraction as well as ionic concentrations. This chapter highlights the need of further studies for the advancement of this technology for a more detailed understanding.

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32. Ianko, T., Panov, S., Sushchyns’ky, O., Pylypenko, M. and Dmytrenko, O., 2018. Zirconium alloy powders for manufacture of 3d printed articles used in nuclear power industry. Вопросы атомной науки и техники 33. Tang X, Yu Y (2015) Electrospinning preparation and characterization of alumina nanofibers with high aspect ratio. Ceram Int 41(8):9232–9238 34. Hao W, Liu Y, Zhou H, Chen H, Fang D (2018) Preparation and characterization of 3D printed continuous carbon fiber reinforced thermosetting composites. Polym Test 65:29–34 35. Shahrubudin N, Lee TC, Ramlan R (2019) An overview on 3D printing technology: technological, materials, and applications. Proc Manuf 35:1286–1296 36. Liu Z, Zhang L, Yu E, Ying Z, Zhang Y, Liu X, Eli W (2015) Modification of glass fiber surface and glass fiber reinforced polymer composites challenges and opportunities: from organic chemistry perspective. Curr Org Chem 19(11):991–1010 37. Lee JY, An J, Chua CK (2017) Fundamentals and applications of 3D printing for novel materials. Appl Mater Today 7:120–133 38. Yang Y, Chen Y, Wei Y, Li Y (2016) 3D printing of shape memory polymer for functional part fabrication. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 84(9):2079–2095 39. Van HJ (2018) Additive manufacturing of shape memory alloy. Shape Mem Superelasticity 4(2):309–312 40. Liu L, Meng Y, Dai X, Chen K, Zhu Y (2019) 3D printing complex egg white protein objects: properties and optimization. Food Bioprocess Technol 12(2):267–279 41. Singh P, Raghav A (2018) 3D food printing: a revolution in food technology. Acta Sci Nutr Health 2(2):11–12 42. Goulas A, Friel RJ (2016) 3D printing with moondust. Rapid Prototyp J 43. Dilberoglu UM, Gharehpapagh B, Yaman U, Dolen M (2017) The role of additive manufacturing in the era of industry 4.0. Proc Manuf 11:545–554 44. Gray N (2010) Looking to the future: creating novel foods using 3D printing. Food Navigator 45. Southerland D, Walters P, Huson D (2011) Edible 3D printing. In: NIP & digital fabrication conference, vol 2011. Society for Imaging Science and Technology, pp 819–822 46. Fabaroni: a homemade 3D printer. http://fab.cba.mit.edu/classes/MIT/863.07/11.05/fabaroni. Accessed Mar 2021 47. Lipton J, Arnold D, Nigl F, Lopez N, Cohen D, Norén N, Lipson H (2010) Multi-material food printing with complex internal structure suitable for conventional post-processing. In: Solid freeform fabrication symposium, vol 9, pp 809–815 48. Sun J, Zhou W, Huang D, Fuh JY, Hong GS (2015) An overview of 3D printing technologies for food fabrication. Food Bioprocess Technol 8(8):1605–1615 49. Godoi FC, Prakash S, Bhandari BR (2016) 3d printing technologies applied for food design: status and prospects. J Food Eng 179:44–54 50. Gholamipour-Shirazi A, Kamlow MA, Norton IT, Mills T (2020) How to formulate for structure and texture via medium of additive manufacturing-A review. Foods 9(4):497 51. He C, Zhang M, Fang Z (2020) 3D printing of food: pretreatment and post-treatment of materials. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 60(14):2379–2392 52. Hao L, Mellor S, Seaman O, Henderson J, Sewell N, Sloan M (2010a) Material characterisation and process development for chocolate additive layer manufacturing. Virtual Phys Prototyp 5(2):57–64 53. Kumar R, Kumar R (2020) 3D printing of food materials: a state of art review and future applications. Mater Today Proc 33:1463–1467 54. Nachal N, Moses JA, Karthik P, Anandharamakrishnan C (2019) Applications of 3D printing in food processing. Food Eng Rev 11(3):123–141 55. Mpofu, T.P., Mawere, C. and Mukosera, M., 2014. The impact and application of 3D printing technology 56. Serizawa R, Shitara M, Gong J, Makino M, Kabir MH, Furukawa H (2014) 3D jet printer of edible gels for food creation. In: Behavior and mechanics of multifunctional materials and composites 2014, vol 9058. International Society for Optics and Photonics, p 90580A

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Chapter 2

Fundamentals of Food Printing Harmanpreet Singh and Sagarika Bhattacharjee

Abstract Additive manufacturing is the new paradigm of advanced manufacturing. Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a boon for creating complex shapes, which is a cumbersome task with standard manufacturing techniques. The basic idea behind the manufacturing done through 3D printing is to design the product using the computer-aided design (CAD) tools and convert the file into the STL format which is readable by the printing machine and it further prints the product in layer format. Three-dimensional printing can be classified into various forms according to the starting material and the process format used. Food printing is a new concept in the market and can be utilized to create new products using various food inks. It gives an added advantage of personalized nutrition and customized design, which is nonconventional and intriguing concerning food’s general perception. Therefore, 3D printing has received an overwhelming response in the food industry. The technology facilitates unique design to the food structure and improves its palatability. Furthermore, there are four windows of 3D food printing. Those are printability, productivity, material property, and process mechanism. The formulation of food ink considers the desired rheological properties for the printing process. Again, different food printing mechanisms, such as extrusion-based printing, inkjet printing, and binder jetting, carry their process parameters, which require tuning to improve printing performance. Importantly, for the sizeable 3D food structures, the building blocks are their finite layers. While printing a specific portion of a frame, it is crucial to adjust the process parameters following the hydration level and the yielding behavior of those food materials. In sum, the chapter has demonstrated the fundamentals of food printing for the various aspects mentioned above.

H. Singh (*) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India S. Bhattacharjee Department of Physics and Nanotechnology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology (Deemed to be University), Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Sandhu, S. Singh (eds.), Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8121-9_2

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Keywords 3D printing · Food printing · Food ink · Inkjet printing · Extrusion-based printing · Binder jetting · Nutrition

2.1

Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM) is the advanced manufacturing technique involving the addition of materials to create a product different from the other processes which involve the subtractive method [1, 2]. Additive manufacturing is also called Rapid Prototyping (RP), as it was earlier made specifically for creating the prototypes (approximation of the original product) used for evaluating the shape and design of the actual product. With the advancement in computing and CAD technologies, the RP process gained importance for new horizons [3–5]. Figure 2.1 represents the RP process yearly growth rate which includes the multiple industries like metal industries, food sector, biomedical industries, etc., till the year 2010 [6–8]. The basic advantage of the RP process is that it has emerged out as the time-saving process for printing the complex shapes of the products which otherwise were a tedious task if done by the ordinary processes [9, 10].

2.1.1

Standard Food Preparations

The standard food preparation techniques used in the homes and the restaurants are based on thermal processes. However, we can say that the large industrial food production units use the latest equipment to produce food that is fully or partially automated. The primitive motive of cooking is to convert the raw form of the food

Fig. 2.1 The growth in RP process yearly till the year 2010 [6–8]

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into an eatable form using various processes. The three main processes involved in the standard food preparation techniques are discussed below.

2.1.1.1

Frying

This is the standard technique used in every household where the food is cooked by the means of heat transfer through the liquid, which can be oil or butter substrates [11]. This is the oldest and the most used method for cooking food. The frying process is further subdivided into the three categories, involving • Pan-frying: The process is used for the small-sized foodstuffs and is done on flat and wide utensils. In this process, a small amount of frying liquid is used to heat and cook the foodstuff. • Stir-frying: This process is usually used for small to medium-sized food particles in which a small quantity of frying liquid is used to heat the food particles with constant stirring. • Deep-frying: Unlike the above-mentioned processes this process involves a good amount of frying liquid in a hot state and the food particles are wholly immersed in this hot liquid where they are fried entirely. Among all the deep-frying process is mostly practiced in the industries for largescale production of various foodstuffs involving French fries, tortilla chips, and related snacks.

2.1.1.2

Baking

Baking is the popular method of cooking in the oven in the presence of water vapor or vaporless air [12]. Microwaves are also used for the baking process and the possibility for the same has been investigated by the researchers; however, the formation of the crust and surface browning is not achieved in the microwaves but the dough can be cooked easily [13, 14].

2.1.1.3

Roasting

Roasting is a similar process to baking as it is also done in the oven, but here the direct heat is supplied to the food products by conduction, convection, and also by radiation. Roasting is also done without the ovens, but the continuous type of ovens is used in the industries for the large-scale production of food items.

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Food Printing

Food printing is the new area of research where the availability of much literature is difficult. Food printing is the process that is inspired by the RP process where the food is printed layer by layer [15–18]. The need for food printing is not due to the single-step manufacturing, but is done for making the complex shapes, and textures without the use of labor-intensive machines which are almost difficult to make by the conventional methods [19]. The complex shapes in food, as shown in Fig. 2.2, are the way of attracting the customers (kids and various age groups) which will enhance the business and trade, alongside providing the change from the daily routine foods [21]. The printing of food is not limited to the complexity in shape, but is a timesaving process with the ability to make customizable foods. Customizable foods are produced for various specific groups of people, depending on their exigency. The specific group includes the athletes which need certain specific nutrients and minerals in their diet, children with food cravings for sweets, older people with mastication or swallowing problems, pregnant women requiring certain nutrients for their health, etc. [17, 22–28]. Taste and flavor are also the major factors for deciding the choice of food. Multilayered foods with different kinds of fillings can be achieved by Fig. 2.2 3D printed objects [20]

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the RP process, which is loved by the food connoisseurs [29–33]. Food printing can be done by various RP processes, and is capable of making the food which is in solid or semisolid state from the liquid, powder, and solid supply materials [34–40]. Food printing comprises of the standard RP process for making the food items, which involves the creation of a geometric model using CAD and its conversion to the specific format (.stl), followed by its slicing, and then finally the food is printed by the machine [8]. The complex design and shapes are easily made using the CAD tools in the computer, where the definition of supporting material, dimensions, and other required delineation is performed. Apart from this, 3D printing is the tool for Industry 4.0 and its usage in making food products can enhance this concept to widerange domains. Three-dimensional printed food can add to sustainability by overall growth in the economy, opening new business opportunities with customized food, reducing the environmental impacts and food wastage by using labor-intensive efficient machinery [41–46]. The 3D printed products including food items can aid the delay in the supply chain that was initiated in the pandemic situation where the worldwide lockdowns were executed which affected the large-scale productions [47].

2.1.3

Basis of Food Printing

The 3D printing techniques developed from the idea of prototyping are substantially used for non-food items like metals, ceramics, and synthetic polymers [8]. Making the food product is not that easy and simple just using the 3D printing techniques, as the properties of the food products are different from the non-food materials. Moreover, the food products are sentiently prepared based on the taste that depends on the prior experience of providing the level of heat and ingredient additions. Food printing, therefore, involves the various factors to be considered while in actual implementation, such as the following:

2.1.3.1

Printability

It is the most important factor to be considered for food printing as the formation of food products solely depends upon printability. The properties of the food material are uneven for the same ingredient (e.g., various vegetables and grains). Due to this, the gamut is selected for effectively printing the foodstuffs. The deposition machinery, like the nozzle of a 3D printer, also plays an important role for every material due to the variation in the viscosity and the rheological changes in the starting materials. Thermal properties are also a kind of game-changer especially in the case of food printing due to the different melting and glass transition temperatures. Further, the food items which are being made based on the complex geometry will require the particular size distribution of the ingredients, flowability, and wettability conditions circumventing without wastage and change in flavor.

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2.1.3.2

Productivity

Productivity is defined usually by the output achieved here in terms of a food product based on the inputs given like ingredients, energy source, and production time. RP technology is known for making attractive products with sophisticated designs in minimal time. For the foodstuffs, the complex texture and designs are however easy to make in CAD files on the computer but actual printing will depend upon the material property and the accuracy of the 3D printing process for particular material as discussed in the printability. The number of food products manufactured on the hourly based technique can evaluate the productivity which is material and 3D printing process-dependent. The successful foodstuff with complex shape and luscious flavor will be liked by the customer which further can enhance the overall economic profits.

2.1.3.3

Material Property

Food printing is based on the rheological properties of the materials/ingredients to be used in the printing. Further, the cross-linking of the material properties with the process of printing is substantial. As discussed earlier the properties of food materials are uneven and that simultaneously can change the flavor of food products on the application of unspecified operations. To counter this the optimized selection of material and operation need to bed done to make the fortunate food product.

2.1.3.4

Mixing

For the liquid and semi-liquid materials, mixing is of great importance to make the uniformity in flavor along with the structural, heat, and mass transfer changes in the ingredients [48]. Mixing is subdivided into three main categories based on quantity [49]. • Macromixing: This is done on a large scale where the ingredients are in large volume. The process of macromixing can be characterized by the τC ¼

V QC

QC ¼ C 1 Nd3i where τC is the circulation time, V is the volume of the tank used for stirring, N is the stirring rate, di is the impeller diameter, QC is the circular capacity, and C1 is the constant with the value of 1.5 which depends upon the pumping capacity of the impeller used for mixing.

2 Fundamentals of Food Printing

25

• Mesomixing: This is done for the medium-scale mixing process of the food ingredients. The time for turbulent diffusion is given by the τD with the feed rate of Qfeed, velocity u and the turbulent diffusivity is given by the DT τD ¼

Qfeed u  DT

• Micromixing: This is done for the small-scale mixing of the liquids which enhances the molecular diffusion of the foodstuff ingredients. The engulfment time constant τE is give by τE ¼

 12 1 v ¼ 17:24 E 2

where, 2 is the energy dissipation rate, E is the engulfment parameter and lastly, the v is the kinematic viscosity.

2.2

Food Printing Mechanisms

There are various food printing mechanisms based on the above factors discussed earlier. Some of the popular and commercially used food printing mechanisms are discussed in detail (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3 Food printing technologies

Extrusion

Binder Jetting

Food Printing Selective Laser Sintering

Inkjet Printing

26

2.2.1

H. Singh and S. Bhattacharjee

Extrusion-Based Printing

Extrusion, as the name suggests, is a mechanism that involves mechanical pressure to push the feed material to extrude through a nozzle. A simple setup (similar to injection) has a mechanical pressure applied to the feedstock, heated in the extruder to form a semi-solid or viscous form, and directed toward the nozzle. Here, the nozzle diameter determines the diameter of the food filament which will be deposited layer by layer. The food materials which can be fabricated by this mechanism are chocolate, cheese, dough, puree, and other viscous and/or soft materials [17].

2.2.1.1

Advantages

The most important advantage is that this process allows a large variety of food materials to be extruded. Along with a greater number of choices, it also allows us to easily process a mixture of two or more food materials together. This process is one of the easiest food printing methods due to its simplicity in the mechanism.

2.2.1.2

Limitations

Food printing of complex designs is not suitable using extrusion-based food printing. Hence, it is incapable of fabrication of complex-shaped food which doesn’t have a regular shape and size. Secondly, it can be difficult to extrude any food material depending upon its viscosity. In case of higher viscosity than usual, it can be stuck and the nozzle can be choked, whereas too low viscosity can have issues in the structural stability of the fabricated food.

2.2.2

Screw-Based Extrusion

In this extrusion process, food materials are fed into the sample feeder and transported to the nozzle tip with the help of a moving screw. During the extrusion process, continuous feeding of food materials can be carried out to ensure continuous printing. But the screw-based extrusion is not suitable for the food slurry with high viscosity and high mechanical strength [50]. Due to such constraints, the printed products do not have enough mechanical strength to support the upcoming deposited layers. This results in compressed deformation and poor resolution [51].

2 Fundamentals of Food Printing

2.2.3

27

Air Pressure-Based Extrusion

In the air pressure-based extrusion, food materials are transported to the nozzle through air pressure. This makes the process suitable for printing liquid or low viscosity materials [32, 50]. But this is a batch-type process where continuous feeding is not an option.

2.2.4

Syringe-Based Extrusion

This type of extrusion setup is suitable to print food materials with high viscosity and high mechanical strength. It can be used to fabricate complex 3D structures with high resolution. Although, there is a limitation of the noncontinuous feeding system of food materials during printing [50].

2.2.5

Binder Jetting

In the binder jetting mechanism, the printers can create complex 3D food fabrication with varying textures. In this technology, each powder layer is distributed evenly across the fabrication platform. The liquid binder sprays and binds consecutive powder layers [52]. Post-processing may be required to remove moisture or improve strength.

2.2.5.1

Advantages

This is one of the mechanisms which allows complex structures to be obtained regardless of the number of food materials used for a single product. Not only that, but it helps in getting combined food products with varying textures. It provides an option to choose the type of texture we need to fabricate [53]. This mechanism has a low maintenance cost and is faster than most of the other techniques.

2.2.5.2

Limitations

One of the key limitations of this process includes the reduction of nutrition content compared to other processes. Here, the binder used has an adverse effect on the nutrition content of the overall food product. Also, the variety of food materials that can be processed using this mechanism is very limited. Hence, it becomes incompetent for many food products to be fabricated.

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Fig. 2.4 Examples of (a) graphical decoration, (b) surface filling, and (c) cavity deposition using inkjet printing [17, 55]. (Source: FoodJet)

2.2.6

Inkjet Printing

Inkjet printing technology works on the principle of accumulation of droplets of material deposited on-demand by printing nozzles. These printers usually operate using thermal or piezoelectric heads. A thermal inkjet printer would use an electrically heated head to generate pulses of pressure that push the droplets from the nozzle, whereas piezoelectric inkjet printers use a piezoelectric crystal inside the printhead which creates an acoustic wave to separate the liquid into droplets at even intervals. Employing a voltage to a piezoelectric material arouses a prompt change in shape, which in succession produces the pressure necessary to eject droplets from the nozzle [17, 54]. Inkjet printers generally handle low viscosity materials; therefore, they do not find an application in the construction of complex food structure. Typical deposited materials are chocolate, liquid dough, sugar icing, meat paste, cheese, jams, gels, etc., as shown in Fig. 2.4.

2.2.6.1

Advantages

Similar to the extrusion method, inkjet printing gives a plethora of options for food material selection. In addition to that, the quality of the food fabricated is of better quality than the others. The whole setup of the inkjet printing is simple and has a simple design, enabling us to use it extensively.

2.2.6.2

Limitations

The limitations include the possibility of simple designs of the final fabricated product. And the unique aspect of this mechanism is that it can be used only for surface filling or image decorations. This is one of the biggest constraints in the inkjet printing mechanism.

2 Fundamentals of Food Printing

29

Fig. 2.5 Examples of (a) sugar; (b) Nesquik; and (c) curry cube, paprika pyramid, cinnamon cylinder, and pepernoot pentagon constructs printed by TNO using selective laser printing [54, 56]. (Source: TNO)

2.2.7

Selective Laser Sintering

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is a 3D printing mechanism in which the power source is a laser that is used to sinter powder particles. So, the feed material needs to be in powder form. Using a laser, the powder is fused according to the model fed to the printer, layer by layer, specific areas of the particulate powder bed by scanning cross-sections. After one layer formation, the bed will be lowered and then the next layer would be fused. Hence, it is repeated till the whole product is formed. This method can be applied to generate multiple layers of food matrix each layer containing different food material components [17, 54] (Fig. 2.5).

2.2.7.1

Advantages

Highly complex structure fabrication is possible using selective layer sintering. Similar to binder jetting, it can also facilitate varying textures of the food product.

2.2.7.2

Limitations

Due to the sintering process involved in this mechanism, the nutrition content lowers down. Also, a limited variety of raw food materials can be used as feed for this mechanism.

2.3

Advantages of Food Printing over Traditional Cooking

There are numerous potential benefits of 3D food printing technology. Some of them are discussed below: • Customized food designs: This technology will allow common people to get complicated food designs at ease. On the other hand, it would also save time

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and effort for experimenting with food and come up with new dishes as well as food products. • Quantified nutrition intake: The amount of nutrition intake can be precisely calculated and fabricated. During traditional cooking, a sufficient amount of nutrition content is lost due to overheating or frying [11]. Here, the fabrication process can be chosen based on the type of feed material such that the nutrition content is intact. Patients and athletes can take proper intake as per their requirements while keeping track of their health conditions. • Simplifying supply chain: Food processing, as well as food production, will be more accessible to the customers, eliminating the transport costs. Factors like packaging, distribution, etc., which depend on the transportation can be avoided [57, 58]. Moreover, the availability of the food product will be directly dependent on the feed food ingredients. Nontraditional food materials like high fiber plants and animal-based by-products can be directly used and availability will be increased. Three-dimensional food printing facilitates smooth on-demand production and implementation of a build-to-order strategy of food production [53]. • Reducing health risks: Three-dimensional printing of food overcomes the health risk caused due to traditionally prepared food using microwave heating. This helps in reducing human exposure to carcinogens and toxic radio waves [53].

2.4

Property Dependency Based on the Feed Ingredients

The property of the printed food product highly depends on the feedstock of the printers. Depending on their viscosity and textures, various cartridges are installed in the food printers before printing. Table 2.1 gives an insight into the involvement of the ingredients in the property of the printed food products using some examples.

2.5

Conclusion

Food printing technology can boost up the supply chain rapidly. Not only that, but it also provides various other choices of food which are not easily obtained using traditional cooking activities. Food printers are chosen based on the type of food to be printed, properties of the printed products required, and availability of the feed material or cartridges [17, 54, 72]. By using this technology, healthier life can be obtained, providing an adequate amount of food required both, nutritionally and quantitatively. Hence, a lot of research can be further done to increase the life of such printed food products. It is also essential to take care of the commercial cost to be brought down in order to make it economically more viable. Also, the difficulty is observed while mixing two flavors needs to be performed. These are some of the areas that the research that is still in its progress. In terms of supply chain and

2 Fundamentals of Food Printing

31

Table 2.1 Functional ingredients used in 3D printed foods and the purpose of their incorporation [59] Functional carbohydrates

Functional protein

Functional lipids Vitamins and minerals

Ingredients Xanthan gum Maltitol and xylitol Isomaltose Pectin Pea protein Egg albumin Insect protein powder Lecithin Olive oil Calcium Vitamin D, E

Used for Modify the matrix properties like thickening or gelation, enhance the mechanical strength Sucrose replacement

References [60]

Decrease formation of rigid network structure Produce pectin-based food simulants Substitute the fat in low-calorie food products Helps in gelation and shaping of the printed food

[62] [63] [64] [65]

Promoting sustainable food source

[66]

As an emulsifier, reduce wear and tear of the nozzle, increase mechanical strength Design healthy food Enhance printability Enrich personalized food

[67]

[61]

[68] [69] [70, 71]

reducing food wastage, this is an effective solution and should be promoted soon to proceed toward sustainability 3D printing [73].

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13. Keskin SO, Sumnu G, Sahin S (2004) Bread baking in halogen lamp–microwave combination oven. Food Res Int 37(5):489–495 14. Ovadia DZ, Walker CE (1995) Microwave baking of bread. J Microw Power Electromagn Energy 30(2):81–89 15. Hull CW (1986) Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereolithography. Google Patents 16. Kodama H (1981) Automatic method for fabricating a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer. Rev Sci Instrum 52:1770–1773 17. Godoi FC, Prakash S, Bhanari BR (2016) 3D printing technologies applied for food design: status and prospects. J Food Eng 179:44–54 18. Hao L, Mellor S, Seaman O, Henderson J, Sewell N, Sloan M (2010) Material characterisation and process development for chocolate additive layer manufacturing. Virtual Phys Prototyping 5(2):57–64 19. Yang F, Zhang M, Bhandari BR (2017) Recent development in 3D food Printing. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 57:3145–3153 20. Liu Z, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Yang C (2018) Impact of rheological properties of mashed potatoes on 3D printing. J Food Eng 220:76–82 21. 3D systems (2015) 3D systems previews new chocolate 3D printer CocoJetTM at 2015 international CES. http://www.3dsystems.com/de/node/7563 22. Lanaro M, Forrestal DP, Sheurer S, Slinger DJ, Liao S, Powell SK, Woodruff MA (2017) 3D printing complex chocolate objects: platform design, optimization and evaluation. J Food Eng 215:13–22 23. Lipton JI, Cutler M, Nigl F, Cohen D, Lipson H (2015) Additive manufacturing for the food industry. Trends Food Sci Technol 43(1):114–123 24. Kjeld VB (2014) 3D food. http://vo.ho.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/TNO-3D-food-printingLeuwarden.pdf 25. Nathan G (2010) Looking for the future: creating novel foods using 3D printing. http://www. foodnavigator.com/Science/Looking-to-the-future-Creating-novel-foods-using-3D-printing 26. Sun J, Zhou W, Huang D, Fuh JYH, Soon Hong G (2015) An overview of 3D printing technologies for food fabrication. Food Bioprocess Technol 8:1605–1615 27. Rando P, Ramaioli M (2021) Food 3D printing: effect of heat transfer on print stability of chocolate. J Food Eng 294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2020.110415 28. Severini C, Derossi A, Ricci I, Caporizzi R, Fiore A (2018) Printing a blend of fruit and vegetables. New advances on critical variables and shelf life of 3D edible objects. J Food Eng 220:89–100 29. Pallottino F, Hakola L, Costa C, Antonucci F, Figorilli S, Siesto A, Menesatti P (2016) Printing on food or food printing: a review. Food Bioprocess Technol 9:725–733 30. Severini C, Derossi A (2016) Could the 3D printing technology be a useful strategy to obtain customized nutrition? J Clin Gastroenterol 50:175–178 31. Sun J, Peng Z, Zhou W, Fuh JYH, Hong GS, Chiu A (2015) A review on 3D printing of customization food fabrication. Proc Manuf 1:308–319 32. Sun J, Zhou W, Yan L, Huang D, Lin LY (2017) Extrusion-based food printing for digitalized food design and nutrition control. J Food Eng 220:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng. 2017.02.028 33. Wegrzyn TF, Golding M, Archer RH (2012) Food layer manufacture: a new process for structuring solid foods. Trends Food Sci Technol 27:66–72 34. Chang C, Chen S, TDV Hsu, Huang S, Kuo C, Mao C, Olive X, Rodriguez L, Sepulveda E (2014) Additive manufacturing printer system for printing e.g. food product has processor that provides controller with position coordinates for movement of tool, instructions for exchange of capsule holders and adjustment of heating device. Natural Machines LLC (NATU-Nonstandard)

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35. Kuo CJ, Huang SH, Hsu TH, Rodriguez L, Olive X, Mao CY, Chang CT, Chen SC, Sepulveda E, Delgado V (2014) Manufacturing food using 3d printing technology. Natural Machines LLC 36. Lipton J, Arnold D, Nigl F, Lopez N, Cohen D, Noren N, Lipson H (2010) Multi-material food printing with complex internal structure suitable for conventional post-processing. In: 21st annual international solid freeform fabrication symposium-and additive manufacturing conference SFF 2010, pp 809–815 37. Grood JPW, Grood PJ (2011) Method and device for dispensing a liquid. Google Patents 38. Diaz JV, Noort MW, Van Bommel KJC (2015) Producing edible object used in food product. Comprises subjecting edible powder composition comprising water soluble protein, hydrocolloid and plasticizer to powder bed printing by depositing edible liquid onto powder in layerwise manner. Nederlandse Org Toegepast Natuurwetensch (Nede-C) 39. Diaz JV, Noort MWJ, Van BKJC (2015) Method for the production of an edible object by powder bed (3d) printing and food products obtainable therewith. Google Patents 40. Von Hasslen KW, Von Hasseln EM, Williams DX, Gale RR (2014) Making an edible component, comprises depositing successive layers of food material according to digital data that describes the edible component and applying edible binders to regions of the successive layers of the food material. 3d Systems Inc (Thde-C) 41. Berman B (2012) 3-D printing: the new industrial revolution. Bus Horiz 55(2):155–162 42. Franke N, Piller F-T (2004) Value creations of toolkits for user innovation and design: the case of the watch market. J Prod Innov Manag 21:401–415 43. Weller C, Kleer R, Piller FT (2015) Economic implications of 3D printing: market structure models in light of additive manufacturing revisited. Int J Prod Econ 164:43–56 44. Ghobadian A, Talavera I, Bhattacharya A, Kumar V, Garza Reyes JA, Regan N (2020) Examining legitimatisation of additive manufacturing in the interplay between innovation, lean manufacturing and sustainability. Int J Prod Econ 219:457–468 45. Suarez L, Dominguez M (2020) Sustainability and environmental impact of fused deposition modelling (FDM) technologies. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 106:1267–1279 46. Lupton D (2017) Download to delicious: promissory themes and sociotechnical imaginaries in coverage of 3D-printed food in online news source. Futures 93:44–53 47. Singh H, Bhattacharjee S, Bawa P (2022) Covid-19 success stories of 3D printing. In: Sandhu K, Singh S, Prakash C, Sharma NR, Subburaj K (eds) Emerging applications of 3D printing during Covid 19 pandemic. Lecture notes in bioengineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6703-6_11 48. Harnby M, Edwards MF, Nienow AW (2001) Mixing in the process industries. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford 49. Cullen PJ (2014) Mixing fundamentals. In: Food mixing principles and applications. Wiley, pp 6–19 50. Liu Z, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Wang Y (2017) 3D printing: printing precision and application in food sector. Trends Food Sci Technol 69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.018 51. Liu Z, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Yang C (2017) Impact of rheological properties of mashed potatoes on 3D printing. J Food Eng 220:76–82 52. Sachs E, Cima M, Cornie J (1990) Three-dimensional printing: rapid tooling and prototypes directly from a CAD model. CIRP Ann Manuf Technol 39:201–204 53. Sharmin A, Mohsen A (2020) Food printing: evolving technologies, challenges, opportunities, and best adoption strategies. J Int Technol Inf Manage 29:25–55 54. Diaz JV, Van Bommel KJC, Noort MW, Henket J, Brier P (2014) Preparing edible product, preferably food product including bakery product, and confectionary product, involves providing edible powder composition, and subjecting composition to selective laser sintering. Nederlandse Org Toegepast Natuurwetensch (Nede-C) 55. Foodjet Precision Depositing Solutions. https://www.foodjet.com/ 56. Van Bommel K (2014) 3D food printing. Available online at https://www.slideshare.net/tcnn/3d-food-printing-kjeld-van-bommel-tnocompressed

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57. Chen Z (2016) Research on the impact of 3D printing on the international supply chain. In: Advances in materials science and engineering, vol 2016, p 16, Article ID 4173873. https://doi. org/10.1155/2016/4173873 58. Jia F, Wang X, Mustafee N, Hao L (2016) Investigating the feasibility of supply chain-centric business models in 3D chocolate printing: a simulation study. Technol Forecast Soc Chang 102: 202–213 59. Zhao L, Zhang M, Chitrakar B, Adhikari B (2020) Recent advances in functional 3D printing of foods: a review of functions of ingredients and internal structures. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1799327 60. Feng C, Zhang M, Bhandari B (2019) Materials properties of printable edible inks and printing parameters optimization during 3D printing: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 59(19): 3074–3081. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2018.1481823 61. Xiao JY, Zhan MQ, Cong RH, Hua MH, Ma FL, Wan Y (2019) Study on the 3D printing formability of chocolate with Chinese medicine functional factor. Sci Technol Food Ind 40(5): 77–82 62. Teng X, Zhang M, Bhandri B (2019) 3D printing of Cordyceps flower powder. J Food Process Eng 42(6):e13179. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13179 63. Vancauwenberghe V, Mbong VBM, Vanstreels E, Verboven P, Lammertyn J, Nicolai B (2019) 3D printing of plant tissue for innovative food manufacturing: encapsulation of alive plant cells into pectin-based bio-ink. J Food Eng 263:454–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017. 12.003 64. Feng C, Wang Q, Li H, Zhou Q, Meng W (2018) Effects of pea protein on the properties of potato starch-based 3D printing materials. Int J Food Eng 14(3):20170297. https://doi.org/10. 1515/ijfe-2017-0297 65. Liu L, Meng Y, Dai X, Chen K, Zhu Y (2019) 3D printing complex egg white protein objects: properties and optimization. Food Bioprocess Technol 12(2):267–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11947-018-2209-z 66. Severini C, Azzollini D, Albenzio M, Derossi A (2018) On printability, quality and nutritional properties of 3D printed cereal based snacks enriched with edible insects. Food Res Int (Ottawa, Ont) 106:666–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.01.034 67. Dankar I, Pujola M, Omar FEL, Sepulcre F, Haddarah A (2018) Impact of mechanical and microstructural properties of potato puree-food additive complexes on extrusion-based 3D printing. Food Bioprocess Technol 11(11):2021–2031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-0182159-5 68. Schutyser MAI, Houlder S, de Wit M, Buijsse CAP, Alting AC (2018) Fused deposition modelling of sodium caseinate dispersions. J Food Eng 220:49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jfoodeng.2017.02.004 69. Zhang L, Lou Y, Schutyser MAI (2018) 3D printing of cereal-based food structures containing probiotics. Food Struct 18:14–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2018.10.002 70. Scerra M, Barrett A, Eswaranandam S, Okamoto M (2018) Effects of 3D printing and thermal post processing on the stability of vitamin E acetate. J Acad Nutr Diet 118(10):A148. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2018.08.101 71. Azam RSM, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Yang C (2018) Effect of different gums on features of 3D printed object based on vitamin-D enriched orange concentrate. Food Biophys 13(3):250–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11483-018-9531-x 72. Bhattacharjee S, Singh H (2021) Different approaches used for conversion of biomaterials to feedstock. In: Sharma NR, Subburaj K, Sandhu K, Sharma V (eds) Applications of 3D printing in biomedical engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6888-0_2 73. Bhalla GS, Singh H, Bawa P (2022) 3D printing incorporated with supply chain management and associated waste production. In: Sandhu K, Singh S, Prakash C, Subburaj K, Ramakrishna S (eds) Sustainability for 3D printing, Springer tracts in additive manufacturing. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75235-4_9

Chapter 3

Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing and Its Process Parameters S. Thangalakshmi and Vinkel Kumar Arora

Abstract Food printing is a process of converting a part model into a food product by layer-wise deposition of printable food material. The process is also referred as additive manufacturing (AM) and involves computer-controlled material deposition without human intervention. Although introduced in the field of food in the last decade yet its development is very rapid. Customization, digitalized nutrition, food for people with special needs, aesthetically appealing products, waste minimization, environment friendly are some of the other features which can be offered by 3D food printing. To successfully print an object, there are some challenges in food printing that needs to be addressed such as (1) standard material formulation and characterization, (2) optimal printer process parameters, (3) printability measurements and (4) post-processing. The material formulation needs to be standardized with regards to ingredients and simultaneously ensure printability. The printable material based on starch, protein, gels, hydrocolloids and native material have been reported as printable. Rheology, textural, morphological, physiochemical properties are important from material characterization point of view. Shearing thinning behaviour, that is, material with reducing complex viscosity has been reported to be printable for room temperature extrusion. Three-dimensional printer process parameters like nozzle diameter, path width, infill density, layer height, etc. are not yet standardized for each formulation. The parameters are different in different printers depending upon the materials. Printability assessment can be done by comparing dimensional accuracy, shape retention after certain time, layer count, line test, cylinder test, deformation rate measurement, etc. but still it is not standardized for each formulation. Another important aspect of 3D food printing is the postprocessing (i.e. drying, frying, baking, steaming, etc. of 3D printed products). Chocolate, marzipan, etc. requires no post-processing but most semi-solid consistency materials require some post-processing. It is aimed to cover all the aspects in addition to the different techniques of 3D food printing to give an overall understanding of the status of 3D printing in food sector.

S. Thangalakshmi · V. K. Arora (*) Department of Food Engineering, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonipat, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Sandhu, S. Singh (eds.), Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8121-9_3

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Keywords 3D food printing · Printable materials · Printer parameters · Postprocessing · Printability measurements

3.1

Introduction

Three-dimensional (3D) printing refers to the construction of a 3D structure from a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model. This type of printing is by far a new technology that has begun in the late 1980s, firstly in the field of mechanical engineering. It is now well established in the field of mechanical engineering and extensively used in aerospace, automotive, medical, rail, robotics, construction and so on. Its intrusion in the field of food is relatively a new entry. 3D food printing allows building of 3D structures from food materials with the help of appropriate hardware and software mechanisms. 3D printing is also referred as Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), Solid Free Form (SFF) modelling, Additive Manufacturing (AM) and by many other names as well. 3D printing was first introduced in the field of mechanical engineering and was later adopted into the field of food printing. The first food printing was accomplished in 2D, in the year 2005, by Homara Kantu, a chef at Chicago’s Moto Restaurant. It made the headlines by being the first to use regular inkjet 2D printing to design images on sushi rolls wrapped in edible paper made of soya beans and cornflour [1]. The technique he adopted was that of multicolour 2D printing processes using organic food-based inks. The actual 3D food printing became a reality with CandyFab project taken by Windell Oskay and Lenore Edman at Evil Mad Scientist Laboratories. They developed a laser or heat sintering-based 3D food printer. The possibilities of 3D food printing are elucidated in Fig. 3.1. The commonly used 3D food printing (3DFP) technologies, materials used for printing and their characteristics, printer parameters, printability measurements and post-processing are compiled in this chapter.

3.2

3D Printing Technologies

The different 3D food printing technologies available today can be classified into the following four categories [2]: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Selective sintering technology. Hot melt extrusion/room temperature extrusion based. Binder jetting. Inkjet printing.

3 Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing and Its Process Parameters

37

Fig. 3.1 Possibilities of 3D food printing

3.2.1

Selective Sintering Technology

In selective sintering technology, a layer of the material (powder) is first applied on the printing bed. The laser head or hot air head which provides a temperature just below the melting point of the material in bed is used to move in x–y axis as per the design specification. When this head moves, the material in bed is heated up and fuse together. After one layer is fused the next layer of powder is to be applied and the process repeated. This results in a 3D structure. The material which is not fused will provide support to the fused structure and can then be removed later on after print is complete. This is a bit complicated process as many variables are involved. Based on the type of head used it can be referred to as selective laser sintering (SLS) or selective hot air sintering.

3.2.2

Hot Melt Extrusion/Room Temperature Extrusion

This technique is also referred to as fused deposition modelling (FDM). In this technique, the printhead is heated to a temperature above the melting point of the material to be used for printing. The material liquefies and the printhead moves in x– y–z direction as per design to deposit the printing material. The material solidifies, once it is out of the hot head, or certain cooling mechanisms can be used to solidify it like fan cooling or cooled printer bed.

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In simple extrusion-based printing, the material is in a semi-solid state and can be extruded through the nozzle without heating mechanism. This technique is called as room temperature extrusion printing. It is by far the most commonly used food printing technique as on date because of the wide range of materials that can be printed, compact size and minimal maintenance. The limitations of this type of printing can be seam line between layers, long fabrication time and delamination.

3.2.3

Binder Jetting

In binder jetting, the material is laid in layers of powder bed similar to Selective Laser Sintering. Here the printhead moves and dispenses a binding liquid which binds the material one layer to another. The head moves in x–y–z axis to develop the complicated shapes. The advantage of this technique is that it has faster fabrication times and lower materials cost. The limitation can be rough surface finish and high equipment cost.

3.2.4

Inkjet Printing

This technique mainly deals with the concept of drop on demand. This technique is usually used for decoration or surface fill on pizza bases, cookies or cupcakes. The ejected droplets fall under the effect of gravity and dry through evaporation. This technology provides the advantages of high resolution, precision and speed.

3.3

Printing Materials

There are a wide range of materials which are investigated and are found to be printable both in the natively printable category and traditional food category. Natively printable category includes cake frosting, chocolate, hummus, cheese which can be easily extruded from a syringe [3]. The other category is the non-printable traditional food material like rice, meat, fruits and vegetables. This category is also being widely investigated to make it printable by means of addition of certain hydrocolloids or gums like xanthan gum [4] to increase the printability of traditional food products. However, research is also being carried out to make this traditional food category printable with the already existing recipes or a slight modification of recipes without the addition of any additives [5]. This last category will be of prime importance in future as customers are getting more health conscious. Recent work reported on the different materials used for 3D printing are enumerated in Table 3.1 along with the properties investigated by different researchers. A few examples of developed printable constructs under fruit, vegetable, staple food

3 Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing and Its Process Parameters

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Table 3.1 Materials used for 3D food printing and their properties investigated Category Fruits

Vegetables

Staple food

Material used for printing Printed snacks using pureed bananas (73.5%), white canned beans (15%), dried non-fat milk (6%), lemon juice (3%), dried mushrooms (2%), ascorbic acid (0.5%) [70% overall] and pectin solution [30%] Potato-based printed objects include mashed potatoes (MP) and potato starch (PS-0%, 1%, 2%, 4%), 15% trehalose Brown rice gel with brown rice flour and xanthan gum (XG), guar gum (GG), sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NCMC) and agar (AG)

By-product utilization

Yam and potato processing by product in different ratios of (0: 10, 1:9, 2:8 and 3:7)

Fish

Fish surimi gel—fresh silver carp fillet and NaCl (0, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%)

Egg

Egg yolk, egg white, rice flour

Functional food (protein rich)

Refined flour, pea protein isolate, butter and water.

Material properties studied Rheological measurements (viscosity and apparent viscosity), X-ray computed micro tomography, height and weight measurements

Reference [6]

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR—water distribution), rheological properties (G0 , G00 , loss tangent) Low Field—NMR (LF-NMR)— moisture distribution, rheological properties (G0 , G00 , loss tangent, apparent viscosity, flow behaviour index and consistency index), texture analysis (hardness, gumminess, springiness, cohesiveness) and microstructure properties using scanning electron microscope (SEM) Physicochemical properties (WAI—water absorption Index, WSI—water solubility index and colour), rheological properties and texture properties Rheological characterization (G0 , G00 , loss tangent), TPA (gel strength), water-holding capacity (centrifuge), SEM (microstructure properties), NMR (water distribution) Rheology (pasting profile, shear stress, shear rate, apparent viscosity), texture analyser(complete TPA), colour measurement and water activity Rheological analysis, texture profile analysis, moisture content, protein content, water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity and mixing behaviour

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

(rice), fish, egg and by-product utilization are covered in the table 3.1. Whenever the discussion about material to be used for printing is used, it has to satisfy the rheological properties of flowability through the nozzle of the printer. At the same time it also has to possess enough mechanical properties that will aid in shape retention of printed structures and should not collapse under its own weight when

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multiple layers are printed. When materials are discussed, a strong knowledge of their properties is required in order to characterize and compare whether a material is fit for printing. So there are different tests which are generally used to characterize a material for printing like rheological test, texture profile analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and so on.

3.4

Printer Parameters

3D food printing is not only affected by the material properties but also by the printer parameters such as nozzle size, layer height, extrusion rate, print speed, temperature, etc. These parameters influence the printing precision and ultimately the quality of the end product [13]. Nozzle size refers to the nozzle diameter. With smaller nozzle diameter, resolution and print quality improved [14] but it leads to an increase in print time. Hence a balance had to be maintained regarding the print quality and time required for printing. The commonly used nozzle diameter sizes varied from 0.6 to 2.5 mm. Layer height is the thickness of each line of the extruded material or in some printers referred to the distance by which the nozzle moves in z direction after each layer is printed. Layer height and nozzle height are sometimes invariably used. Layer and nozzle height have a significant impact on the printed structure [14]. He showed that nozzle movement speed affected the amount of material extruded per unit length per unit time. It was also reported that a high nozzle movement speed does not allow proper deposition or extrusion of the material. Typical nozzle movement speed reported are from 2 to 70 mm/s. Even though recent studies have also shown the possibility of working at very high printing speed of up to 200 mm/s [15]. Printing variables need to be optimized based on the material being printed and the printer type being used. Due to wide variation in the type of printers being used and a large number of customized printers available, the parameters are not same and constant across printers. Moreover the firmware is developed basically for mechanical printing and then customized for food printing. Hence there are correctional factors involved in the different firmware being used and those compensating factors are not explicit. Some of the 3D food prints are carried out using rice flour, jaggery and water by the research group and published [5] using thick paste extruder of ZMorph multi-tool 3D printer at National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM), India, are shown in Fig. 3.2. Some of the commonly used printer parameters and their optimized values are consolidated in Table 3.2.

3 Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing and Its Process Parameters

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Fig. 3.2 Depicts some of the food construct printed from a-c, using rice flour and jaggery water, using ZMorph thick paste extruder by the research group [5]

Table 3.2 Some printer parameters studied and their optimized values S. no. 1

Printer parameter studied Nozzle diameter, nozzle height, nozzle moving speed and extrusion rate

2

Nozzle diameter, nozzle height, nozzle moving speed and extrusion rate

3 4

Infill percentage and layer height Filament diameter, nozzle movement speed, nozzle diameter, nozzle height

5

Nozzle size, print speed and motor speed

Optimized value of printer parameter Nozzle diameter ¼ 2 mm Nozzle height ¼ 5 mm Nozzle moving speed ¼ 28 mm/s Extrusion rate ¼ 0.003 cm3/s Nozzle height ¼ nozzle diameter. Nozzle diameter ¼ 1 mm Nozzle moving speed ¼ 30 mm/s Extrusion rate ¼ 24 mm3/s Layer height ¼ 0.4 mm Filament diameter ¼ 2.3 mm Nozzle movement speed ¼ 25 mm/s Nozzle diameter ¼ 2 mm Nozzle height ¼ 2.40 mm Nozzle diameter ¼ 1.5 mm Print speed ¼ 1500 mm/min Motor speed ¼ 180 rpm

Reference [10]

[14]

[16] [17]

[18]

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Printability Assessments

Printability assessments is a very challenging part of the 3D printing process. As in 3D food printing, we don’t have any established system to define the percentage of matching of the printed product with the actual target geometry. The most commonly used method is the visual assessment of the printed object which cannot be exactly quantified [19] and based on printing precision assessed visually, ranks or grades are awarded. The other commonly used method is the dimensional measurement. Measuring the length, breadth and height of the printed sample and comparing with the target dimensions [20]. The next stage of printability assessment is using some image processing software like ImageJ which helps in assessing the correlation between the printed image and the target geometry. This tool can be used to determine microstructure descriptors like aspect ratio, circularity, roundness etc. [15]. Research has begun in this arena too recently [21] have proposed a novel window for screening food inks comprising of carbohydrates, protein, fat for their suitability in 3D printing. The equation for predicting the deformation rate is proposed as   Δh ρgH G00 ¼f , H G0 G0 where H is the initial height, Δh is the height reduction under its own weight. The second factor is the ratio of structure own weight ρgH to the force that opposes deformation due to the elastic nature of the material and the third term is the damping factor. Image scanner can also be used in near future to obtain percentage matching of the printed sample with the target geometry.

3.6

Post-Processing of printed construct

Some of the materials once printed can be consumed directly, like chocolates but some products like, dough need some kind of post-processing like baking, frying, microwave cooking or drying. As on date there are no printers which carry out cooking along with printing. Companies like Natural Machines are working on incorporating cooking with extrusion [22]. Baking is observed to be one of the post-processing method which can help in shape retention of printed structures to some extent [17]. Deep frying, hot air drying and microwave is also being tried as a possible post processing method for 3D printed products [23]. Some of the commonly reported post-processing methods are consolidated in Table 3.3.

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Table 3.3 Different post-processing methods S. no. 1

2

3 4

5

3.7

Material printed 3D printed snacks from composite flour of barnyard millet, green gram, fried gram and ajwain (carom seeds) seeds Baking dough comprising of icing sugar, butter, low gluten flour, eggs and distilled water Cookie dough using sugar, shortening, tapioca flour and milk Starch, milk powder, cellulose nanofiber, rye bran, oat protein concentrate and faba bean protein concentrate Rice flour, jaggery and water

Post-processing applied Deep frying, hot air drying followed by deep frying and microwave drying Fast-cooling at 65  C for more than 10 min after printing and before baking Baking

Reference [23]

[17]

[24]

Oven drying at 100  C for 20–30 min and freeze drying (after frozen at 18  C)

[25]

Steaming

[5]

Future Scope of Food Printing

3D food printing is one of the futuristic technologies having a wide scope and applications. It is all set to have, its foot in space foods where astronauts will be able to print their foods. The not-much-used and explored food materials are also being tested [26] like snacks enriched with edible insects. Attaran [27] has reported that AM is growing at a very rapid pace from $3.07 billion in 2013, nearly doubling to $5 billion in 2016, and on a curve to exceed $21 billion in 2020. AM in healthcare economy is expected to boom in a very big way. 3D printed implants and tissue organs are currently the focus of intensive research. Although such economic data is not available for food printing, new products are expected to hit the market. Multiple extruder printers are also coming up in a big way. 4D printing with instantaneous colour change was also printed using potato flakes and purple sweet potato puree [28]. Encapsulation of alive plant cells was also tested for 3D printing which provided the possibility for 3D printing of alive land plant cells [29].

3.8

Conclusion

3D food printing is undoubtedly a new technology with a bright future. 3D food printing is expected to be a revolution, in the food processing sector in the next decade. There are a lot of research coming up already in the field of materials that can be printed and their optimization with and without additives. Next important thing is the printer parameter optimization and standardization across printers which is the current important area of research and printability assessment using models or image analysis software. 3D food printing will reach the ultimate consumer end when Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be incorporated in it. Optimization of printer parameters can be achieved, depending on the printable food material being used. The

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technological development will take 3D food printing to new heights in the near future.

References 1. Sher D, Tutó X (2015) Review of 3D food printing. Temes de disseny 0(31):104–117 2. Sun J, Peng Z, Zhou W, Fuh JYH, Hong GS, Chiu A (2015) A review on 3D printing for customized food fabrication. Proc Manuf 1:308–319 3. Cohen DL, Lipton JI, Cutler M, Coulter D, Vesco A, Lipson H (2009) Hydrocolloid printing: a novel platform for customized food production. In: 20th Annu. Int. Solid Free. Fabr. Symp. SFF 2009, no. January 2009, pp 807–818 4. Liu Z, Bhandari B, Prakash S, Mantihal S, Zhang M (2019) Linking rheology and printability of a multicomponent gel system of carrageenan-xanthan-starch in extrusion based additive manufacturing. Food Hydrocoll 87:413–424 5. Thangalakshmi S, Arora VK, Kaur BP, Malakar S (2021) Investigation on rice flour and jaggery paste as food material for extrusion-based 3D printing. J Food Process Preserv 45(4):e15375 6. Derossi A, Caporizzi R, Azzollini D, Severini C (2018) Application of 3D printing for customized food. A case on the development of a fruit-based snack for children. J Food Eng 220:65–75 7. Liu Z, Bhandari B, Prakash S, Zhang M (2018) Creation of internal structure of mashed potato construct by 3D printing and its textural properties. Food Res Int 111:534–543 8. Huang M, Zhang M (2020) 3D printability of brown rice gel modified by some food hydrocolloids, J Food Processing and Preserv e14502. 9. Feng C, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Ye Y (2020) Use of potato processing by-product: effects on the 3D printing characteristics of the yam and the texture of air-fried yam snacks. LWT Food Sci Technol 125:109265 10. Wang L, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Yang C (2018) Investigation on fish surimi gel as promising food material for 3D printing. J Food Eng 220:101–108 11. Anukiruthika T, Moses JA, Anandharamakrishnan C (2020) 3D printing of egg yolk and white with rice flour blends. J Food Eng 265:109691 12. Hussain S, Arora VK, Malakar S (2021) Formulation of protein-enriched 3D printable food matrix and evaluation of textural, rheological characteristics, and printing stability. J Food Process Preserv 45(2):1–11 13. Pérez B, Nykvist H, Brøgger AF, Larsen MB, Falkeborg MF (2019) Impact of macronutrients printability and 3D-printer parameters on 3D-food printing: A review. Food Chem 287:249– 257 14. Yang F, Zhang M, Bhandari B, Liu Y (2018) Investigation on lemon juice gel as food material for 3D printing and optimization of printing parameters. LWT Food Sci Technol 87:67–76 15. Derossi A, Paolillo M, Caporizzi R, Severini C (2020) Extending the 3D food printing tests at high speed. Material deposition and effect of non-printing movements on the final quality of printed structures. J Food Eng 275:109865 16. Severini C, Derossi A, Azzollini D (2016) Variables affecting the printability of foods: Preliminary tests on cereal-based products. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 38:281–291 17. Yang F, Zhang M, Fang Z, Liu Y (2019) Impact of processing parameters and post-treatment on the shape accuracy of 3D-printed baking dough. Int J Food Sci Technol 54:68–74 18. Theagarajan R, Moses JA, Anandharamakrishnan C (2020) 3D extrusion printability of rice starch and optimization of process variables. Food Bioprocess Technol 13(6):1048–1062 19. Lille A, Nurmela M et al (2017) Applicability of protein and fiber-rich food materials in extrusion-based 3D printing. J Food Eng 220:1–8

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20. Yang F, Zhang M, Prakash S, Liu Y (2018) Physical properties of 3D printed baking dough as affected by different compositions. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 49:202–210 21. Nijdam JJ, Agarwal D, Schon BS (2021) Assessment of a novel window of dimensional stability for screening food inks for 3D printing. J Food Eng 292:110349 22. Sun J, Zhou W, Yan L, Huang D, Lin L y (2017) Extrusion-based food printing for digitalized food design and nutrition control. J Food Eng 220:1–11 23. Krishnaraj P, Anukiruthika T, Choudhary P, Moses JA, Anandharamakrishnan C (2019) 3D extrusion printing and post-processing of fibre-rich snack from indigenous composite flour. Food Bioprocess Technol 12:1776–1786 24. Pulatsu E, Su JW, Lin J, Lin M (2020) Factors affecting 3D printing and post-processing capacity of cookie dough. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 61:102316 25. Lille M, Nurmela A, Nordlund E, Metsä-Kortelainen S, Sozer N (2017) Applicability of protein and fiber-rich food materials in extrusion-based 3D printing. J Food Eng 220:20–27 26. Severini C, Azzollini D, Albenzio M, Derossi A (2018) On printability, quality and nutritional properties of 3D printed cereal based snacks enriched with edible insects. Food Res Int 106: 666–676 27. Attaran M (2017) The rise of 3-D printing: The advantages of additive manufacturing over traditional manufacturing. Bus Horiz 60(5):677–688 28. He C, Zhang M, Guo C (2020) 4D printing of mashed potato/purple sweet potato puree with spontaneous color change. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 59:102250 29. Vancauwenberghe V, Baiye Mfortaw Mbong V, Vanstreels E, Verboven P, Lammertyn J, Nicolai B (2017) 3D printing of plant tissue for innovative food manufacturing: encapsulation of alive plant cells into pectin based bio-ink. J Food Eng 263:1–11

Chapter 4

Food Printing: Unfolding a New Paradigm for Designer and User Rasleen Kour and Harmanpreet Singh

Abstract Three-dimensional (3D) food printing is the newest digitalized technology that has widened the horizon for designers and users in the realm of manufacture and production. 3D food printing is the emerging trend in the additive manufacturing and rapid prototyping field. Based on computer-aided design process, it has been introduced to overcome the shortcomings in the traditional method of food fabrication, like more carving design and multiple ingredient layering. The traditional method was focused on mass production, thereby leaving the product merely as an art piece on the shelves. This problem of stockpiling of products was handled in the underpinning used in the process of customized food-making that focuses mainly on shift from mass production to the essentiality or the need of the user, and also to enrich the nutritional deficiencies of various sections (i.e., from unhealthy people to the foodie ones). But its major drawback is that it is costly and time-consuming, as it mostly relies on hand skills. To tackle these problems in the customized food fabrication method, 3D food printing emerged as the panacea. Moreover, it is cost-effective, time-saving, taste-oriented, efficiently managing waste, accessible, affordable, healthy, environment-friendly, and sustainable. It advocates the idea of “Democratization of Innovation.” As a designer can independently start his/her business using greater innovativeness and creativeness by taking into consideration the demand of the user, this method potentially takes care of the needs of both designer and user concomitantly. The success of 3D food printing can be gauged from its applicability rate where the scope has outstretched from commercial sectors to domestic sectors such as Foodini 3D Printer. The success stories food printing will be categorized based on developed food printers and printed food stuffs. The chapter will discuss the state of the art in 3D

R. Kour (*) Department of Philosophy, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India H. Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Sandhu, S. Singh (eds.), Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8121-9_4

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food printing success stories, how by being disruptive, it has brought the third industrial revolution in the food industry, consequentially boosting the economy. Keywords 3D food printing · New paradigm · Essentiality · Third industrial revolution

4.1

Introduction

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing or layered deposition, gained prominence as one of the rapid prototyping methods in 1980, alongside laminated object manufacturing and ballistic particle manufacturing [1– 4]. However, 3D printing is substantially discrete from other manufacturing techniques in terms of characteristics such as cost-effectiveness and the use of computeraided design (CAD) [4]. Pertaining to cost, 3D printers are economical than the other machine tools. Further, in 3D printing, the combination of CAD and other digital technology such as magnetic resonance imaging makes it more effective. 3D printing with its phenomenal attributes such as geometrical competency, creativity, customizability, eco-designing, energy efficiency, durability, longevity, and product lifecycle has brought a prodigious revolution to all industries such as automobiles, military, textiles, and especially food industry [5]. In food industry, the 3D printing has broadened the range from producer to prosumer, which consequently resulted in high success rates in recent decades. The traditional technique of food production was lethargic and inefficient, making it almost impossible to meet the demands of individuals with diverse preferences. However, with the widespread availability of 3D food production machines and their ease of use, innovation may now be brought beyond the confines of industry to the comfort of one’s own home. Food materials have also achieved their pinnacle of innovation, whether in terms of flavor, form, nutrition, time efficiency, or aesthetic appearance. Thus, the success stories encompassing the availability of materials and machines in the market which proves beneficial to both producer and consumer forms the subject matter of this chapter.

4.2

3D Printing in Food Industry

3D printing in food industry is termed as food-layered manufacture (FLM) that works differently from the traditional food fabrication techniques [6]. Conventional food fabrication is based on the subtraction method, which means cutting the food ingredients (vegetables, fruits) into slices to make the required shapes and sizes. The procedure takes a long time, causes high wastage of food, and necessitates a lot of effort with active labor participation [7]. Since the focus here is on mass production rather than individual preparation, so this method is not effective to deal with the problems at individual level. To satisfy the individual need and demand, another

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method, known as “customization of food method” was implemented with an individualistic approach. Here, they made foods on demand only. However, this approach is expensive, time consuming, requires a trained practitioner, and is only effective on a limited scale [8]. Therefore, to overcome all these drawbacks, a new and improved alternative approach has emerged: 3D food printing, which is economically viable, adaptable to any lifestyle and nutrition enthusiasts, and does customer satisfaction at a reasonable level [3, 9].

4.3

3D Food Printing

3D printing is a layer deposition process in which materials are chemically bonded in different shapes to provide nutritious and customized food based on taste, desires, and needs. People adopt various dietary plans according to their diverse interests and preferences. According to Deloitte as per the American Pantry survey, 35% of total people are ingredient sensitive, while 47% are health conscious [10]. By offering customized care, 3D food printing helps to mask nutrient deficiencies in the diet. Several programs have also been launched to address the issues that arise because of nutritional deficiency. Biozoon Food Innovation has launched a project called “Performance” to help people with mastication problems by developing new cookie varieties made from flour derived from insects with nutritional properties [11]. Furthermore, several initiatives are underway to develop soft food to solve the issue of swallowing in elderly people [12, 13]. Other ventures, such as “Fresh possibilities for print media and packaging, mixing print and digital,” were started in 2011, intending to create new food printing technologies through an interdisciplinary approach [14]. NASA and a Texas-based corporation launched another venture to investigate the feasibility of developing 3D food systems for space travel [15]. Apart from these initiatives, food package waste issue has also been addressed using 3D food systems [16].

4.4 4.4.1

3D Food Printing: A Conglomeration of Business, Creativity, and Contentment Democratization of Innovation

Food printing has broadened the scope of the design process by emphasizing usercentricity in both manufacturing and usage [17, 18]. The design world is no longer dominated by elite engineers and scientists; instead, it now encourages both the designer and the customer to engage in the design process, resulting in more creative ideas [19]. Based on the principle of democratization of innovation, the FabLab Project launched the Fab@Home Model 1 with solid freeform fabrication

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technology to inspire young independent entrepreneurs to invest and develop. The FabLab also has a Wiki website and an online open-source forum for users and manufacturers to discuss new ideas and designs [20].

4.4.2

Increased Scope for Culinary Professionals

3D printing has widened the ambit for culinary professionals as several copies of original files can be made, making it easier to download and print any template on the product. It has also allowed amalgamating the various culinary skills and artist acquaintance into a single piece of art. Brill Culinary Studio provides different culinary software and printers for chefs to add imagination to their food materials [21]. Online modes such as e-commerce allow both designer and user to configure different designs with the help of software and various applications, making owners’ jobs easier in small-scale development in restaurants and cafés. Chocolate printers like Porimy have made it possible for designers to create personalized cakes with minimal time and effort [22].

4.4.3

The Impetus to Creativity

The traditional approach, or commonly used personalized methods of food fabrication, was geared more toward mass production, leaving little room for ingenuity in terms of shapes and structures. However, 3D printing technology has opened a whole new range of possibilities that are only possible with printing technologies. Customized burritos are an example of this, made by extruding bean paste and Mexican sauces together [14]. The Foodini™ printer can also customize the pizzas and cookies into different shapes [23].

4.4.4

Texture and Appearance of Food

It allows one to change the texture of food, which aids in treating a variety of health issues. The textured food made from vegetable puree to relieve dysphagia is the archetypal example [24]. Regarding this aspect, Liu et al. [25] stated that consistency in the internal structure is necessary to bind the material while designing a product. The biochemical and microbiological properties of the products are essential factors to consider when improving the texture and appearance of the product. Hydrocolloids, including xanthan gum and gelatin, are commonly used in vegetables and meats for satisfying shapes after post-processing [26, 27].

4 Food Printing: Unfolding a New Paradigm for Designer and User

4.4.5

51

Nutrient-Dense Innovative Food Material

Digital gastronomy’s novel feature helps a person to consume a nutrient-dense diet by replacing traditional cooking methods with modern computerized techniques [28]. Fab@Home in the kitchen has turned science fiction stories into reality by creating new food designs [29]. Coelho and Zoran [28] coined the term “Cornucopia” to describe the process of digital gastronomy, in which various ingredients are combined to create various forms and sources of food. The Virtuoso Mixer, the Digital Fabricator, and the Robotic Chef are three other well-known digital kitchen concepts. Insect-extracted flour is another factor that adds nutritional value to most people’s diets. The larvae of the mealworm beetle and fondant are used to ice the top layer of cakes to create personalized shapes [30, 31]. Lumistra [31] intends to print chicken and steak with algae or insect extract since they are high in proteins, carbohydrates, and other nutrients.

4.5

Success Stories in Food Printing

The success stories in food printing can be categorized based on the machines used for food printing using different techniques and the 3D printed food products.

4.5.1

Machines

3D food printers with diverse characteristics and principles were introduced to fulfil the need for food and materials. Depending on the materials employed, such as solid, liquid, or semi-solid, different 3D food printers can generate models, components, or a full product. Extrusion, inkjet, and binder jetting are among the most common used 3D food printing techniques [32].

4.5.1.1

Extrusion Printing

It is based upon the fused deposition modeling technique, which involves layer-bylayer deposition using a syringe, air pressure, and screw-based process [33]. The first layer solidifies immediately after deposition on the printing base, and then another layer is printed subsequently, and the process is repeated till the final product is printed [34]. The material used for extrusion is in the form of paste with high viscosity. Some of the food materials that are successfully printed using the extrusion method are meat, cheese, chocolate, printed cake, vegetable, dough, fruits, etc.

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[3]. Natural Machines has used this technique to produce the Foodini printer [35, 36].

4.5.1.2

Foodini

Foodini, the epitome of customized food design, is the first kitchen appliance created by Natural Machines, a Barcelona-based company shown in Fig. 4.1. It has open food capsules with a detachable nozzle that allows the consumer to choose fresh ingredients, making it easier and more comfortable to extrude food [37]. The machine is easy to operate and contributes toward a sustainable approach with minimal food wastage. The machine is equipped with an easy-to-use touch screen with Wi-Fi support, allowing users to use the Foodini Creator App that downloads different templates for printing. It is the most widely used appliance in restaurants, inns, and culinary laboratories. The Torren brothers are the most frequent users of Foodini printers, printing at least 100 dishes per day. A few of the printed food products using the Foodini printer include sugar candies, sweet dishes, pizzas, cookies, fresh chickpeas, and chocolate-based materials. The printing operation varies on the design and ingredients of the food product, where flattening food can take a few minutes while building a chocolate structure can take up to 20 min. The maximum height of the machine is about 110 mm/4.3 in., with a weight of around 20 kg, and a monitor of 10 in. The dish diameter of the machine is about 27.8 cm, and the machine is priced at around $4000 [38]. According to Natural Machines, Foodini will become the most widely used gadget in home and professional kitchens in the next 15–20 years [37]. Few other machines based on the extrusion process are discussed in Table 4.1. Fig. 4.1 Foodini printer (developed by Barcelona based company) [35]

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53

Table 4.1 List of extrusion-based 3D food printers S. no. 1.

Food printers Procusini 3.0 Dual

2.

Choc Creator V2.0 Plus

3.

Discov3ry 2.0

4.

F3D

5.

Fab@Home Model 3.0

6.

Sanna

7. 8. 9.

F5 QiaoKe BeeHex Printer

10. 11. 12.

PancakeBot 2.0 Barilla Pasta Printer Zmorph 2.0 VX and Thick paste extruder ChocoJet 3D printer Porimy 3D Printer

13. 14.

4.5.1.3

Make Print2Taste GmbH, Germany Choc Edge Ltd., UK Structr3D Printing, Canada Imperial College, UK Creative Machine Lab, USA Creative Machines Lab, USA ZBOT, China 3D Cloud, China USA Norway TNO, Netherlands Zmorph, Poland USA China

Food printed Cake, pasta

References [39]

Chocolate

[40]

Jelly

[41]

Hummus

[42]

Chocolate, cookies

[43]

Chocolate, marzipan and pastry Pancake Chocolate layouts Cookies, cakes and cupcakes Pancake Pasta Chocolate sweets, cookies Chocolate Chocolate

[44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [22]

Inkjet Printing

The inkjet-based printer generates pressure using a thermal or piezoelectric process, allowing the droplet to emerge from the nozzle [52]. It is commonly used to fill, graphical deposition, or decorate the tops of cakes, pizzas, cookies, chocolate, and other baked foods [32, 52]. Since it can only handle low viscous liquids, so it cannot create complex shapes or structures. De Grood Innovations is a leading Dutch company that specializes in liquid-based food products [53]. The printer was given the name FoodJet, which uses the droplet technique to decorate the food products [54, 55].

4.6

FoodJet Printer

The key distinguishing feature of the FoodJet printer is that its nozzle is significantly larger than other 3D printers. The nozzle materials do not mix with the food; instead, the food material is extruded as a separate layer that is more appealing to the eye. FoodJet intends to equip the printer with several heads and a conveyor belt to deliver many products in one go which can be seen in Fig. 4.2. It will also increase the

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Fig. 4.2 Food jet printer (a type of inkjet printer) [56]

nozzle’s capacity to extrude 500 drops per second. Furthermore, it has reduced the printing time and increased the precision of the design fabrication process. The machine is easy to maintain and clean [54]. A few of the printed foods using the FoodJet Printer include chocolate, sugar, sugar icing, cupcakes, muffles, wafers, doughs, purees, jellies, and other confections [55]. Under the PERFORMANCE initiative, the company is aiming to develop food products that will aim to satisfy the elderly people having the chewing problem [54]. Another machine that is manufactured by using the inkjet method is filament six-head 3D by TNO.

4.6.1

Binder Jetting

The binder jetting process uses powder as the raw material. In this process, a powder layer is uniformly added to a fabrication platform, and the powder is then settled with the aid of a binding agent. Various layers of powder are added to one another using this method [56]. The viscosity and density of the ink must be consistent to prevent food from spreading. The binder jet is a time-efficient and economic process. This technique is widely used in various projects involving edible food products like a mixture of sugar and starch powder that can be used to create personalized shapes [57]. The example is the Sugar Lab in the United States, which in 2013 produced intricate cake structures using a sugar-flavored binder [34]. ChefJet printer, developed by the 3D system, is the most popular binder jetting printer in the market [58].

4 Food Printing: Unfolding a New Paradigm for Designer and User

4.6.1.1

55

ChefJet Printer

ChefJet has expanded the spectrum for culinary professionals and is no longer limited to the kitchen and engineering nerds [59]. The materials used for printing include vanilla, chocolate, mint, watermelon. The primitive food products printed using ChefJet are sweet with attractive geometrical shapes. The machine is available in two variants ChefJet (8.8.6 in. long), and ChefJet Pro (10.14.8 in. long) with a price range of about $5000 and $10,000, respectively [58, 59]. The first-generation printer is monochrome, while the second one can print colors. Figure 4.3 represents the ChefJet printer. Fujifilm Dimatix, USA, is another example of a machine that is based on the binder jetting technique.

4.6.2

Products

Using additive manufacturing techniques, various kinds of food products are formed with customized nutritional values and designs [3]. The above-discussed techniques of 3D printing involving extrusion, inkjet printing, and binder jetting printing are used to make market-ready food products. 3D Food printing technology is still in its developing phase, so few food products are made using these techniques; some of these food products made using printing are discussed below.

Fig. 4.3 Displayed image of ChefJet printer (incorporates binder jetting technology) [60]

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Chocolate

The ingredients of chocolate are primarily in the liquid state (cocoa butter syrup), and that is easy input to the extrusion-based process. The geometrical accuracy of the chocolate deposition is difficult to control by the critical parameters, including the nozzle height, nozzle diameter, speed of movement, and extrusion. Hao et al. [61] mentioned the nozzle aperture size and the nozzle height of 1.25 mm and 2.9 mm, respectively, for the excellent bonding between the layers while printing to maintain the optimum geometry of the chocolate. The printed part images are shown in Fig. 4.4, where the rate of extrusion and axis moment rate was set to 253 in the ChocALM software for faster building rate. However, there is still a need for improvement in precisely managing the deposition of the layers and hanging complex geometries. Few other chocolates, printed products are mentioned in Table 4.2.

4.6.2.2

Cookies

Cookies are in high demand among the various age groups. A cookie is sweet baked food, but now is 3D printed by various methods. Table 4.3 represents the cookies made by the 3D printing methods (extrusion and inkjet). The impact on food shape and printability varies by recipe; for example, cookies lose their shape after baking. Since it melts during baking, the traditional method for making cookies is

Fig. 4.4 The printed complex chocolate shapes [61] Table 4.2 List of various 3D printed chocolates S. no 1.

Process Hot-melt extrusion

2.

Cold extrusion

3.

Sintering and binding

References Manithal et al. [62] Lenaro et al. [63] Karyappa and Hashimoto [64] Mulji et al. [65] Sol et al. [66] 3D Systems [67]

4 Food Printing: Unfolding a New Paradigm for Designer and User Table 4.3 List of 3D printed cookies

S. no. 1.

Process Extrusion

2.

Inkjet

57 References Periard et al. [30] Lipton et al. [68] Grood et al. [69] Kruth et al. [70]

Fig. 4.5 A 3D printed cookie with designed texture [71]

ineffective. Butter, sugar, and yoke are the main ingredients whose concentration affects the shape of the cookies, particularly sugar cookies. According to Lipton et al., increasing the butter content reduces the cookie’s shape stability, and increasing the percentage to 150% of the average makes it even more difficult to keep the shape at room temperature. However, as the yolk concentration rises, the width and length of the cookie remain stable, but the height decreases [68]. Fab@Home 2 used a dual syringe displacement approach as one of the best options for cookies to maintain various complex shapes. During the process, the air trapped in the syringes was used to compress the material, and this entrapped air then causes the material to flow smoothly out of the syringes. Figure 4.5 represents the 3D printed cookie with dedicated shape.

4.6.2.3

Ice Cream

3D printed ice cream is made using the fused deposition method [FDM] [72]. FDM makes use of heated extruders, cooled print chambers, movable print beds, and cryogenic shield gas systems. This unit freezes the ice cream reservoir at 10
F. This frozen ice cream is pushed onto the print bed through the extruder to prevent clogging, and then the extruded ice cream is cooled using liquid nitrogen jets. This

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Fig. 4.6 A typical image of 3D printed ice cream using FDM [73]

procedure takes less than 15 min and uses a serving size of 2.5 D ice cream. Frozen ice cream is extruded onto the print bed and cooled with liquid nitrogen jets to prevent clogging. Some of the parameters that assist in the final printing of ice cream include layer height, traverse velocity, and extruder diameter (Fig. 4.6).

4.6.2.4

Pizza

Pizza is one of the world’s most popular foods. More than five billion pizzas are sold annually around the world, with 350 slices eaten every second. In the traditional process, the preparation of custom pizzas ingredients takes at least 24 h to make, but the printed pizza only takes 30 min. Sauce, dough, and cheese are the three most critical ingredients needed to be taken care of while making the pizza as they are mainly responsible for the physical shape and taste of the pizza. The paste extrusion machine is used to make pizza (shown in Fig. 4.7) using the air pressure technique [75]. Extra water is used to make the pizza base dough, which is then forced through an extruder and topped with sauce and cheese. Before being extruded on the pizza, the cheese is heated to 150
and then allowed to cool on the surface. Few other 3D printed pizza are shown in Table 4.4.

4.6.2.5

Cake

This is another product that can be made by 3D printing techniques. The cake is the most demanded confectionary item on birthdays, anniversaries, and marriages. Nowadays the cakes are decorated with various designs and are made in multiple tiers [78]. One of the examples of 3D printed cake is shown in Fig. 4.8. Apart from the baking cakes can be made by 3D printing where the designs are made in the computer and by using the extruding techniques the multicolor and distinguishable designs can be printed easily. RepRap, CandyFab, and Fab@Home are the few open-sourced 3D printers that can be used to print the cakes. These printers are

4 Food Printing: Unfolding a New Paradigm for Designer and User

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Fig. 4.7 A 3D printed pizza made using extrusion method [74] Table 4.4 List of 3D printed pizza

Fig. 4.8 A 3D printed cake made using extrusion method [79]

S. no. 1. 2.

Process Material extrusion Inkjet

References Steenhuis et al. [76] Nachal et al. [3] Liu et al. [77] Sun et al. [23]

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Table 4.5 List of 3D printed cakes

S. no. 1. 2. 3.

Process Extrusion Inkjet Binder jetting

References Periard et al. [30] Kruth et al. [70] Izdebska et al. [80] Yang et al. [81] Willcocks [82]

calibrated according to the input material and they have different operating mechanisms based on the different hardware setups. Every printer has a different graphical user interface (GUI) which reads the algorithms based on the designs made and finally the cake is printed. Table 4.5 represents the few 3D printed cakes.

4.7

Conclusion

The 3D food printing market has entered previously uncharted territory. It has strengthened the bridge between designer and user through food due to its brilliant food fabrication technique, sustainable and user-friendly approach, and aesthetic qualities. Food is no longer restricted to physical needs; it has evolved into an emotional support system since it satisfies people’s cravings for what they really want at a particular moment. Food is not just an object; it also bears the imprint of care and love, as there are many messages imprinted on food by the designer, such as “Be happy every day,” “You are the greatest,” and so on. This new paradigm in the 3D food industry benefits not only the designers, but also the users by allowing them to develop and enrich their lives, quintessential of which is the Fab@Home system, an open-source platform. The designers take into account the consumer’s level of knowledge and how easily they can operate these items while designing them, so 3D modeling software such as the ChefJet series and Digital cookbook software are now accessible. Therefore, 3D food printing has revolutionized the food processing in multiple ways, through integration of users and producers at various levels of production, encouraging ingenuity in coming up with new products and opening an array of possibilities for cooperation across different sectors and disciplines as well.

References 1. Dankar I, Haddarah A, Omar FE, Sepulcre F, Pujolà M (2018) 3D printing technology: the new era for food customization and elaboration. Trends Food Sci Technol 75:231–242 2. Lipson H, Kurman M (2013) Fabricated: the new world of 3D printing. Wiley 3. Nachal N, Moses JA, Karthik P, Anandharamakrishnan C (2019) Applications of 3D printing in food processing. Food Eng Rev 11:123–141 4. Berman B (2012) 3-D printing: the new industrial revolution. Bus Horiz 55:155–162

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Chapter 5

Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing: Methods, Processing and Nutritional Aspects Mahendra Gunjal, Prasad Rasane, Jyoti Singh, Sawinder Kaur, and Jaspreet Kaur

Abstract Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology or additive manufacturing (AM) revolutions is a relatively recent innovation in food processing industry. This technology is being used to develop food products by creating physical objects directly employing 3D modelling without using any mould. The food processing sector uses 3D food printing techniques widely owing to its multiple advantages like addressing problems in world malnutrition by enhancing the nutritive value of foods, design food processes and simplifying the supply chain. It is comprised of extrusionbased printing, selective laser sintering and inkjet (liquid binding) printing among few popular techniques. The different types of food materials like sugar, chocolates, fruits and vegetables, snacks and gels are used for 3D food manufacturing. The use of 3D food printing in food processing can meet both scientific as well as consumer demands. This chapter discusses the operation and processing methods of 3D food printing along with its application in the food sector. It also elucidates the basic principles of 3D printing and its methods. Keywords 3D food printing · Additive manufacturing · Printable materials · Food components · Printing methods

5.1

Introduction

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also called additive manufacturing (AM), was developed in 1980 and is now applied in various types of industries [1, 2]. It is an additive technique in which multiple layers of material are laid down by a computer control system in order to construct a 3D object such as a 3D model or different electronic data sources [3]. Recently this technology has grown at a faster pace owing to its application in major areas like agriculture, food processing, medical, etc. M. Gunjal · P. Rasane (*) · J. Singh · S. Kaur · J. Kaur Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 K. Sandhu, S. Singh (eds.), Food Printing: 3D Printing in Food Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8121-9_5

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It includes printing prosthetics and dentures, automobile, locomotive industry, healthcare, mechanical, aerospace, and aviation industries [3–6]. The worldwide market for 3D printing is expected to hit US$ 30.19 billion by 2022, expanding at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 28.5% between 2016 and 2022, according to recent market research studies. According to McKinsey, 3D printing will have a $550 billion annual economic impact by 2025 [7]. The 3D food printing also called food layered manufacturing (FLM) process and this technology is very helpful to reduce the time of processing, production cost and workforce requirement [8, 9]. The extruder based printing, sintering printing (SLS), inkjet printing and binder jetting are the types of 3D printing used in food processing sectors [10, 11]. The advantages of 3D printing technology in food processing sectors are that they help to customize the design of foods, simplify the supply chain, personalize and digitalize a broader range of choices food products and material [12]. Now-a-days, there has been an increase in the production of agricultural commodities accompanied by a change in the consumption pattern of individuals. Consumer’s preference has turned towards personalized food items like frosted designs on biscuits, chocolate, lollipops, chewing gum, logos designed with food, letter carving into cookies, and many others. The customized foods are more costly than mass-produced foods due to their good nutritive value and more consumer acceptance. Conventional mass food processing and also modern processing technologies fall short of fulfilling such personalized needs [13, 14]. Safety and labelling are major challenges associated with 3D food printing [15]. The greater bacterial concentrations show when store open environment sample 3D printed, so there is a need for extra precaution like hygiene equipment design process [16]. The average class of consumers doesn’t like 3D printed foods and has a negative attitude towards them because they are afraid of consuming ‘alien foods’ and have a specific aversion to food products that seem to have gone through a range of processing [17, 18]. The chapter covers the methodology used for the 3D printing of foods, the processing aspect and nutritional implications associated with printing foods using this technique.

5.2 5.2.1

Theory of 3D Food Printing Different Methods Used for 3D Food Printing

Various 3D printing techniques have been developed with each its own set of functions. The Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies (ASTM) standard F2792, the 3D printing divided into binding jetting, directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination and vat photopolymerization [19]. Following are some of the methods used in 3D food printing.

5 Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing: Methods, Processing and Nutritional. . .

5.2.2

67

Extrusion-Based Printing

The method of extrusion-based 3D printing is similar to the extrusion process employed in food processing. Both methods help to improve the quality and productivity of processed food products [13]. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is another name for extrusion-based 3D printing. This method was firstly invented by Scott Crump in 1988, and it is an automated, non-laser-based technology for rapid object fabrication using non-toxic materials. It was first developed as a method of plastic products, but now it has been widely used for 3D food printing [20]. For printing of food products like chocolate and soft-materials printing like dough, cheese, mashed potatoes and meat paste; extrusion-based printing is most frequently used [21, 22]. It is a digitally controlled robotic construction method to which food printing generates complex 3D food material through discharge layers onto top surfaces to another layer [23]. The extrusion-based printing in 3D food printing is mostly used for liquid and semi-solid materials because it is friendly to use. The overall system of extrusion-based printing motors is attached with printer heads for coordinate syringe movement and then the next hydraulic piston moves the material from a nozzle with a specific amount of force for layer-by-layer diffusion [24]. Several formulations are necessary for the binding of individual layers like postdeposition cooking and hydrogel formation [9]. The extrusion of soft material process has been used to print 3D structure by mixing and depositing self-supporting layers such as dough, meat paste, processed cheese and soft extrusion materials. The ingredients must have low viscosity enough for it to extrude with a small nozzle but high enough to support the shape after deposit. The rheological modifiers or additives can be used to achieve good rheological characteristics of materials, but they must conform to food safety standards [25]. The making of 3D objects of chocolate with melting extrusion requires a temperature range of 28–40
C [26, 27]. The formulation of chocolate’s selfsupporting layer is difficult due to the dynamic crystallization behaviour of cocoa butter, the fundamental structural ingredient in chocolates and confectionery. Cocoa butter has been found in six distinct crystal polymorphs [28]. The creation of the perfect polymorph from chocolate with the best melting, texture and shelf-life features is required. The pneumatic pump and the encapsulated food cartridge are the two essential components in an air pressure–driven system. The generating air pressure pneumatic pump is used to extrude the food material from the nozzle, and the regulating valves allow multiple extrusion heads with varying extrusion speeds to be employed at the same period. When the extrusion rate is varied, the response time also varies. The liquid materials by air pressure–driven extrusion technique print easily but in semi-solid foods can accumulate mostly on the inner sides of a cartridge and causes it to become blocked. The filtration device is present in a pneumatic pump that helps to sterilize the air medium [29]. The printed food material does not interact directly with the mechanical devices due to the air pressurecontrolled extrusion method so it helps to prevent the contamination of food

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materials. When used on a huge production scale, the extra device is needed to avoid air bubbles while refilling the syringe or cartridge [13]. In screw-based extrusion process, the materials required for 3D food printing are filled in the hopper (cartridge) on the top side is broad and from the bottom is narrow. The food materials are moved downwards continually through a nozzle of extrusion by a screw-driven motor and for the low formation of bubbles it helps. The screwbased extrusion presents with components like screw and cartridge that directly contact food materials so the design material stainless steel is used for autoclaving [29]. The printing of food materials with higher viscosity and higher mechanical strength syringe-based extrusion technology is suited, so it could be used to build complex 3D materials with higher resolutions. One of the important things in air pressure-based extrusion and syringe-based extrusion is that it doesn’t permit the continuous feeding of food ingredients during food printing [30]. The temperature, pressure, extrusion rate, shear force, screw speed and extruder design parameter as well as extruder type are all parameters that have an impact on extrusion-based food printing, but certain other parameters are also taken into consideration, such as stage moving speed of materials and printing layer thickness. The shape, strength and rigidity of the food product are determined by the stage speed, nozzle diameter and extrusion rate. With the individual strength of food materials, there is a risk that some deformation of shape may occur as the food material is applied layer by layer onto one another. The nozzle sizes for printing used should be according to the materials and the end products [30]. The size of the food material to be used, inhomogeneous printing materials, and gradual magnification of internal disturbances from the printhead actuation process are all factors that affect extrusion-based food printing as well as the diameter of nozzle, deposition height and moving speed of materials are factors that affect extrusion rate and quality of final products [26].

5.2.3

Selective Laser Sintering

In this method, making 3D objects requires very little time period by utilizing powder particle materials [2]. In this process, 3D device and an infrared laser is attached to the scanner, and it reflects laser beam onto a printer bed including powder materials resulting in the formation of a solid structure by sinterization [25]. The process involving the formation of different layers continue to proceed until the object fabrication is completed [31]. This technique may be used to apply multiple materials because each layer of a food matrix can contain different food material components [32]. The powdered ingredients like carbohydrates, lipids and starch granules act as raw materials. The selective binding technology depends on powder binding which is achieved by heating of fat and/or sugar in the formulation. The different factors are known to affect the properties of materials like particles diameter, melting temperature, flowability and glass transition temperature, and also processing parameters, including laser types, power, energy, spot diameter and

5 Three-Dimensional (3D) Food Printing: Methods, Processing and Nutritional. . .

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thickness. The post-processing operations are the key factors influencing printing accuracy. This method is not applicable for manufacturing healthy foods because it may result in a significant reduction in nutrient levels, particularly when heat is used to fuse the layers [33].

5.2.4

Inkjet Printing

The inkjet printing method is mostly used for cookies, cakes, pastries, pizzas and fabrication purposes. From this process to obtain surface fillings or decoration of products, the stream of a droplet is discharged by a thermal or piezoelectric head [2, 34]. The droplet size can be manually adjusted depending on the product’s intended use [13]. Continuous and drop-on-demand printing are two methods used in inkjet printing methods. In a continuous process, ink is injected at a constant frequency through a piezoelectric crystal. The conductive agents are used to achieving ink flowability. On the other hand, in the drop-on-demand method, ink is ejected from a head by the pressure generated through the valve. This process shows high resolution and precision, but it is slow compared to the continuous printing method [30]. The different factors affecting printing precision include rheological properties; surface properties; and also processing parameters like temperature, height, rate and nozzle diameter. This kind of technology is used for low viscosity products including icing, jams, gels, chocolate, liquid dough and meat paste [25].

5.2.5

Binder Jetting

The powder material is deposited by a layer-by-layer process and the small droplets (diameter