Britannica Book of the Year 1996

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Britannic^ __ ' ""

^ ^k

of the Year

j.

United Kingdom

^S^_^

France Belgium

Mayjun

Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug. Sept

Oct,

Source, international Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics

In

addition

nounced three

to

interest-rate

fiscal

packages.

cuts,

The

the government

first

one was

in

the aftermath of the Great Hanshin Earthquake, and quickly followed by another one in June.

an-

April in it

was

As both were mod-

and were seen by economists to have had only a limited impact on the weak economy, a third attempt in September

est

to kick start the

package

in

economy came

no

as

surprise. This sixth

three years proposed 14.2 trillion yen

spending.

About one-third was earmarked

projects,

15%

in

new

in 1994).

Although

welcomed the downward

trend.

United Kingdom. Under the impact of higher taxes and interest rates introduced in 1994, combined with a slackening in world economic growth, the pace of economic activity slowed in the U.K. Following a GDP growth of 4% in 1994, the economy expanded at an annual rate of 2.5% in 1995. Concerned with a likely upturn in inflation later in the year, the chancellor of the Exchequer, Kenneth Clarke, and the governor of the Bank of England, Eddie George {see Biographies), extended their policy of preemptive rises in interest rates. The Bank rate went up by 0.5%, to 6.75%, in February. This was the third increase since the previous September. Although the Bank of England urged a further rise in interest rates, Clarke's wait-and-see approach proved to be a more accurate assessment of the underlying trends. Given a rapid slowdown in economic activity, coupled with subdued inflationary pressures, the

changed

its

view

in

Bank of England way for

the autumn, which paved the

lower interest rates before the end of the year.

extra

for public works Kobe, and a smaller amount for land purchase to improve property prices. Given the unresolved problems surrounding the Japanese financial system, trade barriers, and land and tax reform, the long-term effectiveness of the latest package was also questioned. Despite these measures to boost domestic demand, private consumption, in particular retail sales, remained weak. Early in the year, consumption was affected by the Kobe disaster. High unemployment and low wage increases also made consumers cautious. Excluding the effect of the open-

ing of

($129 billion

absolute terms, Japan's trade partners,

Interest Rates:

Long-term

for

months same period in

stores, retail sales during the first nine

of the year were about 1.5%

down from

the

Although the strength of the yen reduced the prices in the shops, it did not encourage consumers to change their spending habits and bring forward into 1995 purchases that they had intended to defer until a 1994.

of imported goods

later date.

The labour market, having begun stalled

in

to improve in late 1994,

early 1995, reflecting the

the economy.

The strong yen

renewed weakness of

increased production costs

and encouraged firms

to shift manufacturing abroad. The unemployment rate in November stood at a record level of 3.2%. At this level 2,170,000 workers were seeking employment. If unemployment were to be defined in the same way as in other industrialized countries, it would be consid-

—

perhaps about 9%. Despite the rise in unemployment, wages rose by nearly 2.5% in 1994, but both overtime working and bonuses declined. Because the inflation rate was close to zero, however, the small increase in wages meant there was erably higher than the official figures suggested

a real rise in earnings, after adjusting for inflation.

Jan Feb, Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug SepI Oct

Source

International

Monetary Fund International Finanaal

Statistics

Economic

The chancellor ernment's

fiscal

also faced a

dilemma in framing the govcame under pressure for

policy because he

substantial tax cuts in the

November 1995 budget to restore The difficulty for

the electoral fortunes of the government.

Clarke was that the public-sector deficit for 1995-96 turned out to be £6 billion higher than the revised target of £23.5 billion. The overshoot was largely due to lower tax revenue, the economic slowdown. In the event, Clarke produced a cautious tax-cutting budget, reducing taxes by £3,250,000,000 less than expected. This was balanced by reflecting

—

reductions in public spending.

The economic slowdown was

caused by a fall in the domestic economy. By the autumn the three-month average growth rate of exports was down to 2%, from 8% at the beginning of the year. The lull in world economic growth was the main cause of this adverse trend. Consumer spending weakened under the cumulative impact of higher taxes and interest rates introduced in the previous years. Retail sales increased by just over 1% in real terms, compared with over 3% in 1994. The weak housing market, a hot summer, and continuing gloom about job security also led consumers to spend less and save more. There was no significant contribution to economic growth from investment spending. Total gross fixed investment rose by an estimated 3%, down from nearly 4% in the previous year. The weakest areas were private housing and new industrial and commercial buildings. Investment into new plant and equipment was more encouraging. Against this background of weaker domestic and external demand, industrial production weakened. For the year as a whole, total output expanded by an average of 2.7% (5% in 1994). As the year drew to a close, however, the underlying growth rate of industrial production was 0.5%, compared with 5.5% at the beginning of the year. largely

exports rather than by developments

The trend

in

the

in

number of unemployed

closely reflected

small decline in unemployment for all of Germany was more than offset by a natural rise in the labour market. Thus, the unemployment rate toward the close of the year stood at about 9.2%, compared with 8.2% the year before. The employment rate in eastern Germany rose faster than in

recent years as a result of higher industrial output in the

Further progress was made in stabilization of prices. After an upward surge about the turn of 1994-95, the inflationary pressures eased. In November the year-on-year east.

consumer prices was

rise in

before) in western

(3.2% a year

As

During the first half of the whole expanded by 2.5% (3% for 1994). The result for the full year was about 2.1% (1.8% in western Germany and 6% in eastern Germany). As the German national account statistics were revamped in 1995 to show GDP components for the first time on a pan-German basis, the early estimates were subject to greater uncertainty than usual. The overall slowdown, however, was unmistakable. Growth in eastern Germany remained stronger than in the west, with investment and manufacturing output the most dynamic components. Because the region was still heavily dependent on transfers and subsidies from western Germany, however, growth in eastern Germany was not yet as the year unfolded.

GDP

in

Germany

as a

self-sustaining.

One

of the main reasons for the economic slowdown

was a loss of competitiveness arising from the relatively high wage settlements and the appreciation of the Deutsche Mark. Wage settlements, at about 4%, were above the inflation rate, but they were partly offset by some productivity gains. The appreciation in the Deutsche Mark, at 6%, was large and potentially more serious. Slower world growth was another cause of this slowdown.

175

A

panded

mentum

Policies

est. Despite higher capacity utilization, manufacturer's investment was targeted at efficiency improvements instead of adding to manufacturing capacity and facilities. Construction activity trends were mixed, too. Industrial and residential construction were comparatively weak in western Germany but buoyant in the east. The volume of exports expanded by about 5%, a little slower than the year before. The loss in competitiveness was to some extent offset by a relatively strong external demand from Germany's main trading partners and by productivity gains. Surprisingly, private consumption recovered in 1995 and grew a little faster than the year before. The squeeze on consumers' disposable income by the reintroduction of the 7.5% Solidarity levy and lower unemployment benefits was partly offset by wages and salaries growing well above the moderating inflation rate. Increased consumer spending went on housing-related expenditures and on holidays. Retail spending remained flat. Against a background of sustained higher economic activity, there was no real improvement in the labour market.

number of people out of work, there was a small increase in unemployment in October. Even so, the unemployment rate of 8.1% was below the previous year's 9%. Both wage and price inflation remained restrained. Average earnings growth remained about 3.5% for most of the year. The headline annual inflation rate peaked at 3.9% in September and fell sharply to 3.2% in October. Germany. The unexpectedly strong economic growth seen in Germany during 1994 continued into 1995 but lost moyear,

Economic

Economic growth was underpinned by growth in investment activity and higher export volumes. Gross capital investment during the year was 6% higher (4.5% in 1994). Investment in machinery and equipment was relatively mod-

the overall economic slowdown. After a steady two-year decline in the

Affairs: National

just

2%

under

Germany and 2.5%

in

(2.8% the year

eastern

Germany

earlier).

the inflationary pressures abated,

money

supply ex-

below the target rate, and economic growth slackened, monetary policy was eased. At the end of March, the Bundesbank cut the discount rate by half a percentage point. This was followed by a similar cut in August, reducing the discount rate to 3.5% and the Lombard rate to 5.5%. The fiscal policy, on the other hand, remained tight. As well

a result of higher taxes (voted the year before), additional

revenue arising from economic upturn, and expenditure restraints, the total public-sector deficit for 1995 shrank to about 100 billion from the previous year's 145 billion. The 1996 budget, approved in the summer, envisaged a 7.6% real reduction in the federal government's spending. Some of these savings were offset by tax cuts forced on the government by the Constitutional Court's decision

DM

DM

that child benefits

Table

and

tax thresholds of those close to the

Standardized Unemployment Rates Selected Developed Countries

III.

% of total

in

labour force

1992

1993

1994

1995'

United Slates

6.6

7.3

6.7

60

Japan

2.1

22

25

2,9

55 32

Germany^

4.2

4 6

6.1

6.9

France

9.4

10.4

11.6

12.5

Country

United

Kingdom

Canada Italy All

developed countries

Seven major countnes alxjve European Union

1991

9.23

11.5

8.8

10.1

10.5

9.6

81

10.3

11.3

11,2

10.3

94

9.9

10.5

10.2

IIS"

67

74

78

120 78

10.2

112

11.1

69

6.5

8.7

9.5

10.6

11.5

114

'October, national definitions. ^Western "Not seasonally adjusted Sources: OECD. The Economist.

Germany

orily,

^September

75

Economic

176

minimum

Affairs: National

Economic

Policies

As

subsistence level were too low.

federal government's deficit

was

a result, the

widen

likely to

in 1996,

the total public-sector deficit, as a proportion of

but

GDP, was

minibudget, introduced in June, raised the standard rate of the value-added tax by 2 percentage points to 20.6%. 10%

A

surcharge was also introduced on corporate tax liabilities and personal wealth taxation. Measures to raise taxes were

expected to remain unchanged at about 2.9%. France. The steady economic recovery experienced in 1994 continued in 1995 but at a slightly weaker pace. As a result, GDP expanded by close to 2.5%, compared with 2.7% in 1994. Against the background of political uncer-

come

from the presidential elections in the spring, that prompted higher interest rates, and a higher tax burden, this was a creditable economic

lyzing the transport system.

tainty arising

currency weakness

accompanied by a cut in government spending. Continuing the drive to reduce government spending, in particular the spiraling social security spending, in

The

sumer spending was not

as important as in the previous

year because of sluggish growth

in

incomes, continuing

high levels of unemployment, and higher taxation. Although

both capacity utilization and industrial output improved during 1995, manufacturers used industrial capacity more efficiently and deferred some of their planned investment. Nonmanufacturing sectors experienced higher levels of new investment.

As

there was no improvement in the price com-

was

petitiveness of French exports, growth

stronger

ment

demand from

in export

volume was

largely

due

to

The 7% improve-

foreign markets.

largely offset by a similar rise in

imports, however.

Unemployment, which had been several years, declined a

little

the government had hoped.

As

in

a source of

concern for

1995 but not as

drew

the year

much

as

to a close, the

unemployment rate stood at 11.5%, marginally down from the 12.2% of the year before. The incoming government of Pres. Jacques Chirac {see Biographies) introduced a package of measures in June providing assistance to the long-term unemployed. Employment subsidies of F 2,000 per month and exemption from social security contributions for two years were the main planks of this program. Independent observers thought that in the absence of higher economic growth. Prime Minister Juppe's target of 700,000 new jobs to be created by this package was far too optimistic. The high level of unemployment was one of the reasons hourly wage rates grew by only 2% during 1995. Although a wage freeze was imposed on the civil servants, built-in contractual increments provided for an automatic 2% rise. Despite repeated protests by the trade unions, the government and the employers did not bend. Against this background, inflation remained subdued; the average rise of 1.8% was largely unchanged from the previous year. Even though there was a change in government, economic policy remained largely unchanged, contrary to references made by Chirac during his election campaign. An "alternative" economic policy, designed to produce faster economic growth and drastically cut unemployment, was soon ditched in favour of an austerity program aimed at cutting the public-sector deficit to ensure that France could join the European economic and monetary union in 1999. Thus, a

IV. Changes In Output Less Developed Countries

Table

% annual

change

Area

gross domestic product

1

1991

1992

1994

1995'

4.9

6.1

62

6.0

04

01

6.8

68

Oil-exporting countries

51

59 39

Non-oil-exponing countries

4.9

6.1

All

less developed countries

1993

-1.0

19

1

8

1

Asia

4.7

6.5

7.0

6.8

Middle East and Europe

20

03

1

4

24

Western Hemisphere

16

0.7

1.3

2.7

Africa '

in real

in

1

9

65 04 70 -03 -0 9

'Estimated.

Sources: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook. October 1995.

0.5% was

November

a

new

in-

levied, together with a

wide-ranging reform of the welfare system. This triggered another wave of protests and strikes from the public-service unions, para-

performance.

The year's economic growth was largely investment-led, with some assistance from export growth. The role of con-

tax of

tightening of the fiscal policy, together with the re-

duction

in

German

of monetary policy.

interest rates, led to a

As

the franc

temporary easing

came under pressure

in

the

autumn, however, largely because of the financial market's concern over the high level of public-sector deficit, shortterm interest rates were raised to defend the currency. This reignited fears that the franc fort strict monetary policy and the accompanying high interest rates could choke off economic growth. The Former Centrally Planned Economies. While the economic decline in the former centrally planned economies •

persisted for the

fifth

consecutive year, the rate

fell

sharply

2%. This compared with 9.5% in 1994, and the prospect was for real growth of over 3.5% in 1996. The performance across the region was by no means uniform. In Central and Eastern Europe, the economy expanded very slightly following a 38% economic decline in 1994. If Belarus and Ukraine were excluded, output showed much stronger growth of 4%, which compared favourably with the better-than-had-been-expected 2.8% advance in 1994. In much of the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, to

however, restructuring and stabilization measures were less advanced, and here there was a contraction of 5.9% following

on from a 16% decline

in 1994.

end of the year that by about 4% durthe 1994 decline of 15%. Russia faced

In Russia there were signs by the

the recession had bottomed. Output ing the year after

fell

adjusting to the requirements of a market-based economy. The breakup of the Soviet Union had disrupted its trade and payments system. Its military and enterprise infrastructure had been dictated by strategic rather than economic considerations, and there were particular problems and costs involved in dismantling them. The most successful individual economies including Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, and Albania were those that were most advanced in their structural reforms. This resulted in strong and productive investment and impressive trade performances. These countries achieved growth rates in the 4-6% range. Overall inflation in the region was expected to average 150%, less than half the 1994 rate. Across the region the performances were mixed. The rate for Central and Eastern Europe once again excluding Belarus and Ukraine, where prices were still soaring by over 700% and 300%, respectively was only 64%, down from 87% in 1994. In the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, where reforms were generally much less advanced, inflation was running at over 200%, with the average being forced up by the very high rates of inflation that persisted in Azerbaijan (464%) and Tajikistan (389%). Nevertheless, this was well down from special difficulties in

—

—

— —

the 1,583% average rate

in

1994.

Consumer price inflation in most countries rose much more slowly than in 1994. Hungary, partly as a result of the March devaluation, and Tajikistan were notable exceptions.

Many of the falls in inflation rates were dramatic, as in Georgia, where prices rose by under 200% after increasing by 7,380% in 1994, and in Armenia, where they declined

Economic

from over 5,000%

to

under 200%. The lowest

inflation

was

experienced by Albania, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Slovenia, where prices were rising at an annual rate of less than 10%.

By the end of 1995, 10 Central and Eastern European (CEECs) had signed association agreements with the European Union (EU). They were Bulgaria, Estonia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The CEECs, which had countries

already received

EU

ECU

assistance worth

38.7 billion

in

1990-94, were told by the European Council that they could join the EU when the necessary economic and political conditions required had been met and when the EU institutions were able to cope with a larger membership. The promise had stimulated liberalization, economic restructuring, and commercial activity. By the end of 1995, more than half the CEECs' trade was with the EU. Early accession to the EU was not expected, however, given EU concerns about sensitive sectors that accounted for 40% of imports from the CEECs. The EU was concerned about the adverse effects on its own industries if it opened its markets completely. A 1995 EU study of the CEECs' agricultural sectors highlighted the difficulties and vulnerabilities, with 25% of the CEEC workforce dependent on agriculture, compared with only 6% in the EU. Despite its greater efficiency, EU prices were much higher, and the group had no intention of abolishing its subsidy mechanism,

common

the

agricultural policy.

end of the Cold War, there were signs countries were gradually being integrated into the global trade and payments system. Until the late 1980s, the state had been responsible for nearly all aspects of activity, but by the end of 1995, the impetus was firmly shifting to the private sector. In many of those countries that had implemented comprehensive and large-scale privatization programs, the private sector accounted for more than half of GDP and employment. In the Czech Republic, for example, the privatization program was almost complete, and some 80% of all assets were in the private sector. Unemployment, at 3%, was by far the lowest in the region and well below Western European levels. Elsewhere, unemployment was often understated, and there was no easy solution in sight. Financial-sector reforms continued to be made, with help from international institutions, but they remained inadequate and an obstacle to enterprise restructuring and investment finance. Banking reforms were under way, with new private banks being established and gaining significant market shares. By the middle of 1995, for example, there were 220 banks in Ukraine, with only two owned by the government. The banking systems remained fragile, however. Local institutions lacked experience in risk evaluation, and the allocation of financial resources and the inappropriate regulation and supervision of the banks reflected this. As a result, many banks became insolvent in 1995. Notably, Six years after the

that

many formerly communist

in

Consumer

Prices

in

%

confidence returned fairly quickly. previous years, the region with the fastest growth rate was Asia, in particular South Asia. This was a welcome offset to the weakness in Japan. Once again, China experienced the fastest rate of growth in the region, but

As

in

as a result of earlier measures, growth stabilized at about

11%, compared with around 10% in 1993. In several

countries

less

developed countries

335

35.8

195 267

43.1

48.1

Oil-exporting countries

19,4

21.0

24 8

30.5

Non-oil-exponing countries

35.2

376 282

45.3

50.0

18.8

27 9

32.9

208

All

Africa

Asia

Middle East and Europe

Western Hemisphere

25.0 7.6

7.1

9.4

13.5

12.0

25.9

257

245

32.3

25 3

129.4

152.7

212.2

226 7

38.2

'Estimated Sources: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook. October 1995.

in

in

1994 and nearly

14%

the region, including South

Korea, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam, GDP grew by over 8%, assisted by a combination of strong export growth, investment, and domestic demand. Hong Kong, Indonesia,

and the Philippines lagged behind the region's growth rate. in India remained intact, and economic output grew by 5.5%, thanks to earlier economic reforms and inflow of capital. Latin America was adversely affected by the financial crisis in Mexico, and overall regional growth slowed to an estimated 1.5% from 4.5% in 1994. Not surprisingly, Mexico and Argentina were particularly affected by a loss of confidence, decline in capital inflows, and restrictive measures that were introduced. The growth rate in both Africa and the Middle East picked up considerably in 1995, despite some weakness in oil prices. The inflation rate continued to moderate among the LDCs, reflecting the worldwide downward trend. The IMF expected a median inflation rate of 8% in 1995, down from 11.5% the year before. Even so, inflation remained high in some countries and regions. In Latin America the regional average was over 30%, but remarkable progress was made

The recovery

in

controlling the hyperinflation in Brazil.

The

overall infla-

was almost as high in the Middle East and Europe. Turkey was the worst problem spot, with an inflation rate over 75%. In Asia inflation remained relatively high at about 12% but was steady, despite high capacity utilization in many export-oriented South Asian countries. Following a sharp improvement in the trade performance tion rate

of the LDCs during 1994, thanks to the rapid expansion in world trade, there was no significant change in their trade or

current-account balances. With the exception of Africa, the debt burden of the LDCs was expected to ease during 1995.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

in 1995.

change from preceding year

177

lived, as

Following a rapid growth

Less Developed Countries

Trade

in August the Russian banking sector suffered a liquidity and confidence crisis. Interbank lending came to a halt and spiraled overnight interest rates to 1,000% a year. In Latvia the largest commercial bank collapsed, and the government took over its management. Throughout the region better supervision and monitoring, as well as appropriate accounting standards, were required. Less Developed Countries. Despite a slowdown in the industrial countries, real economic growth in the LDCs remained strong and averaged an estimated 6%. The rapid pace of economic activity in 1995 was sustained by the ongoing benefits of economic reforms, steady interest rates, export growth, and an inflow of capital funds. The impact of the Mexican financial crisis on capital flows was short-

goods and services Table V. Changes

Affairs: International

IMF

in

in 1994,

the volume of world trade in

the

momentum was

maintained

projections pointed to a growth rate of about

8%, largely unchanged from the previous year's upswing. This represented another year of strong performance, well above the long-term growth rate of 5%. The buoyancy in world trade during 1995 was largely attributed to demand from countries with strong exchange

among

the LDCs, and continued recovery communist countries in Europe. Reflecting the sharp slowdown in economic activity rates in the developed countries, growth in their export volumes fell to about 6.5% from the previous year's 8%. Import rates, rising trade

among

the former

178

Economic

Affairs: International

Exchange and Payments

growth slowed even more and rose by an estimated 7%,

compared with more than

9%

in 1994.

The slowdown

in

the

developed countries as a group was largely offset by a higher volume of trade by the LDCs, however. The export growth of this group as a whole, at 11%, was largely unchanged from the previous year, while their import growth rose from an estimated 8.5% in 1994 to ll%o in 1995. Changes in exchange rates usually affect the trade pattern and flows after a time lag. Consequently, the changes in exchange rates, particularly the weakening of the yen and Deutsche Mark in the second half of the year, did not significantly influence the outcome in 1995. The changes that occurred the previous year and in the opening months of 1995 were more influential. Loss of competitiveness in Japan, as a result of a

15%

appreciation in the trade-

weighted value of the yen during the

first

half of the year

on top of a 7% appreciation in 1994, reduced the volume of export growth from Japan to 2.5% from 5% the year before. The strong yen made imported goods cheaper and accelerated the growth in the volume of imports to over 9%, despite the stagnant economic background. In the early months of the year, the Great Hanshin Earthquake affected exports more than imports because the Kobe port was more important for shipment of exports than handling imports. As in previous years, Japan came under pressure to open its markets, and this prompted imports to grow faster than they would otherwise have done. Conversely, the weakness of the dollar encouraged U.S. exports.

1995, fastest

IMF

estimates pointed to an

9%

11%

increase during

was the growth rate since 1989. As the economic growth

compared with

slowed sharply

in

1994, which, in turn,

in the first half

of the year, imports into the

U.S. faltered, cutting the growth rate to under

10% from

the previous year's 14%.

Export growth

in

ciably for different

Germany and the U.K. slowed apprereasons. German exports were affected

by the strength of the Deutsche Mark, as well as by economic slowdown in the developed countries. The British exports were not so much handicapped by an unfavourable exchange rate but could not escape being dragged down by the economic slowdown experienced by its major trading partners. Although the trading volumes in the other European countries varied less between 1994 and 1995, because of the relative importance of Germany and the U.K., the EU's overall export volumes slowed to 6% (8% in 1994). Import volumes into the EU slowed by a similar amount and declined to 5% from 7.5%. in 1994. Despite the slowdown in the developed world, the pace of export growth from the LDCs was maintained at a high rate of 11%. Coincidentally, imports by the LDCs expanded at a similar rate. Import growth by this group during 1995 was 2.5 percentage points higher as a result of improved imports by Asian countries, including China. Regionally, trade volumes were most buoyant in Asia, with a 13-14% increase over 1994. There was a good upswing in Africa,

8%

volume gains. By contrast, trade in the Middle East and Latin America was subdued. The sharp devaluation and austerity measures in many Latin-American countries following the Mexican crisis drastically reduced too, leading to

the imports into the region.

tant, as oil

is

priced

in dollars,

the decline in the value of

the dollar early in 1995 reduced the effective value of the

LDCs' import revenues. Following the successful conclusion of the Uruguay round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1994,

World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on 1, 1995. Within months of its birth, the U.S. and Japan moved to the brink of a trade war over automobiles, a topic that had not been satisfactorily concluded in the Uruguay the

Jan.

round.

A

of huge

last-minute truce in June avoided the imposition

tariffs

on luxury Japanese cars and enabled both

countries to claim victory. Regulatory changes were agreed

upon. The Japanese market would be opened up for U.S. automobiles, but as a face-saver for the Japanese, there would be no numerical targets. The U.S. announced its own forecasts regarding the impact of the agreement, but the Japanese did not endorse the report. A more important development was the agreement by China to cut its import tariffs so that it could join the WTO.

The agreement was announced at the 18-nation Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) meeting in Osaka, Japan, in November. Chinese Pres. Jiang Zemin told delegates that from 1996 Beijing would reduce its overall tariff level by 30%. Up to 4,000 items were expected to be covered, and average tariffs were projected to decline to about 25%

from 35%. To the disappointment of the Western markets of APEC, notably the U.S. and Australia, insufficient progress was made in an agreement on more liberalism in agricultural China, Japan, South Korea, products. East Asian countries and Taiwan voted to move cautiously and protect their domestic markets. The Western members wanted greater liberalization in order to expand the market for their agri-

—

—

cultural produce.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE AND PAYMENTS

A

an apt description of the sharp 1995. A sharp fall in the value of the dollar against the yen and Deutsche Mark in the opening months was largely reversed in the late summer and early autumn. Against foreign currencies the dollar ended the year close to the levels at the end of 1994 and more in line with the level suggested by the underlying year of two halves

is

variation in exchange rates during

economic

situation.

The turbulence

in

foreign-exchange rates

was caused by a combination of various

in

factors.

the spring

The Mex-

ican crisis following the collapse of the peso at the

end

of 1994 turned sentiment against the dollar. This coincided with signs of a sharp slowdown in the U.S. economy and a continuing current-account deficit. In turn, this put a question mark on the future direction of U.S. interest rates. Yet another adverse development was reduced investment

by Japanese investors

in

dollar-denominated

assets.

Given

the earlier rises in the yen against the dollar, which reduced

the value of Japanese assets in the U.S., this was understandable.

The combination of these adverse developments

triggered a sharp dollar decline against the yen and the

Deutsche Mark. In the spring the dollar fell to a record low of just under 80 against the yen and slightly less than 1.35 against the Deutsche Mark. This represented a swing

17% and 9%,

In spite of a small decline in commodity prices, favourable currency movements in the first half of 1995 enabled the LDCs to improve their terms of trade. According to IMF estimates, the terms of trade of the LDCs as a group improved by 0.2 point, somewhat below the previous year's

August the dollar began to strengthen against the yen and Deutsche Mark as the central banks in all three countries reduced their interest rates. There was also a coordinated intervention on the foreign-exchange markets

0.5-point improvement. Oil exports sufiered a large drop in

in

of

respectively.

In

support of the rising dollar. Following these concerted interest rates, stability returned to foreign-

their terms of trade, largely

moves and lower

traded within a

exchange markets, and during the .second half earlier dollar

because international oil prices narrow range during the year. More impor-

Economic

As the year drew to a close, the dollar about 103 yen and 1.44.

gains were held.

traded

at

DM

During the early summer, when the dollar was at its weak(trade-weighted) was only 1% down on previous year-end levels. The strength of the dollar and the yen was offset by the weakness of the Canadian dollar and the Mexican peso. Both currencies had large weights in the calculation of the effective rate. At the year-end the dollar was showing a small gain on its effective rate. By contrast, during the spring the Deutsche Mark was showing a 5% est, its effective rate

appreciation

in its effective rate

before the

summer

correc-

ended the year still showing a small overall gain. A number of European currencies, including the- Italian lira, the Swedish krona, and the British pound sterling, depreciated against the Deutsche Mark during 1995, particularly in tion. It

Affairs: International

countries concerned.

Exchange and Payments

179

The balances on the current accounts

of the developed countries as a group were projected by the IMF to show a wider deficit in 1995 $19 billion, compared

—

with $6 billion the year before. This was largely due to a wider deficit in the United States and a smaller surplus in Japan. The continued recovery in the U.S. encouraged imports to grow faster than exports and led to a wider trade deficit. The current-account deficit widened as well (IMF

forecasts pointed to $176 billion in

1995,

up from $150 and

billion in 1994), reflecting a larger shortfall in invisibles

The IMF was forecasting a reduction in Japan's balance of payments surplus to $116 billion, compared with $129 billion in 1994. If confirmed, this would be the first transfers.

strong turbulence against the Deutsche Mark. In October

reduction since 1990, but it was unlikely to satisfy demands by the U.S. that Japan open its domestic markets more and increase its transfer payments. The continued buoyancy in global trade enabled the EU to increase its current-account

the French interest rates were raised to defend the franc

surplus to

the early months.

as

fell

it

proposed

The French

on concerns to

franc experienced periods of

adequacy of measures bring down the budget deficit to meet the relating to the

The

distortions in exchange rates in the early

the year did not tive

last

months of

long enough to seriously affect the rela-

competitive positions or the balance of payments of the

projected $52 billion, up from $27 billion

The current-account

deficit

of the

LDCs

as a whole, at

was expected to be smaller than the previous year, continuing the improvement seen in 1994. Higher exports from the Latin-American countries contributed to this improvement. The currencies of these countries declined $64

Maastricht criterion.

a

in 1994.

billion,

FRED CHARTRAND -CANAPRESS

On

the waterfront of Halifax, Nova Scotia, G-7 leaders and aides gather around Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chretien, host of their June meeting. Russian Pres Boris Yeltsin joined the group for the last part of its meeting, which centred on economics but also touched on various political issues.

'*

^^M

Economic

180

Effective

average

Exchanges

Affairs: Stock

Exchange Rates*

rates,

STOCK EXCHANGES

1990 = 100

The !

UnHed states- dollar

1

/

^

^^^_y

/sy'/

-

III

""Nsjl 1 ifl 1

\\/ f

France - Iranc

L

V

y i J

mmm Mil lEE lEEa 1

I--

'

KEEM KbliM __

a

^-

1

{Canada -dollar

1

\\ ^v

MfitiV Ktil-lcB

1
^^

al

J

\V

^/

MtEFW KEHtM KK^B BfiliM

aHiWi KECtni KEEM li.-IiM

'Measure ttie

of

a currency's value

relative to a

Japan - yen

weighted average

of ttie

values of

ttie

country's principal trading partners.

Source

Internalional

Monetary Fund, International Financial

against the dollar, giving

them

Statistics.

a competitive advantage in

exporting to the U.S., Japan, and Europe. Regionally, the current-account deficit in Africa and Asia worsened, while the Middle East and

Europe remained unchanged.

debt of the LDCs was expected by the IMF to rise by 8% in 1995 to $1,852,000,000,000. This was broadly in line with the increase in the previous two years. With the exception of Africa, the debt burden of the LDCs

The

total external

continued to ease as growth growth in debt. This

article

updates

the

in

export earnings outpaced

Macropcedia

Growth and Planning; Government national Trade.

(lEis) articles

Economic

Finance;

Inter-

a slowing

In the event, interest rates

Germany and

after a rise of

/

\

Europe indicated

economy with

inflation

under control. It was expected that economic policy makers would reduce interest rates to support moderating economic activity.

1

investors' perception that global interest

had peaked. In early 1995 economic indicators in North America, the U.K., Australia, and, to a lesser extent, conrates

tinental i

the recovery and the robust rise from the

came down

three times

twice in Japan and the U.S. In the U.K.,

0.5%

in

February, interest rates were held

they were eased down by the government fixed-income securities (bonds) responded to these developments. Sharp rises in bond prices reduced the yields and made equities look more attractive. Prospects of lower interest rates also reduced steady until December,

same amount.

when

Initially,

the attractions of holding cash deposits. Further stimulation

came from a series of corporate takeovers in both the New York and the London stock markets. As in previous cycles, the U.S. led the way, and the positive sentiment spilled over into other markets. Led by technology shares, the Dow Jones industrial average (DJIA) outperformed the rest of the world, setting almost daily new records from June. As the year drew to a close, there was no decline in global investors' enthusiasm for equities, though few expected to see the same superlative gains in the U.S. repeated in 1996. The prospects looked more encouraging (lEis) in Japan, however, than they had for a long time. United States. The stock market had a record-breaking year in 1995 as the bull market continued its longest and strongest performance on record. By year-end the upward move in the S&P 500 index was in its 62nd month, with not so much as a 10% pullback in the process. Stocks were trading at three times book value; dividend yields were at a 100-year low of 2.4%; and the number of initial public offerings (IPOs) reached an all-time high. The price of a seat on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) was back to the pre-October 1987 level of $1 million. There was great enthusiasm for mutual funds and technology stocks, especially biotechnology, which was the year's best Dow Jones industry group. {See Table III.) The DJIA achieved new highs more than 65 times in a steady rise throughout the year. By the close of 1995, the DJIA was up more than 33% from the beginning of the year; the S&P 500 was up nearly 35%; and the National Association of Security Dealers automated quotation (Nasdaq) composite index, with its heavy weighing of technology stocks (especially high tech), was up just under 40%. Low interest rates, low inflation, a healthy economic climate, high corporate profits, and huge pools of liquidity in

Economic the form of net cash inflows into mutual funds helped fuel the bull market. Productivity gains due to radical restructuring and globalization of business were also credited for

some of the upward momentum. Expectations of a lower rate of taxation on realized capital gains in 1996 caused investors to defer selling appreciated securities at the higher tax rates of 1995.

The DJIA began

the year at a level of about 3830, rose

end of the month, dipped slightly after the collapse of Barings PLC, the oldest British investment bank, to 4000 by the

February, declined

in late

War

in early

March

as the dollar hit

low against the Deutsche Mark, and climbed through April, despite falling slightly to about 4200 in mid month as the dollar reached a new low against the Japanese yen. A strong rally kept the upward momentum through July, passing 4700, when the Federal Reserve (Fed) cut the discount rate 0.25%, its first cut in nearly three years. The index fell briefly to 4600 in August and then moved above the 5000 mark on November 21, just nine months after crossing the 4000 barrier. The positive trend continued through the end of the year. The broader averages also gained, with the S&P 500 hitting a record 621.69 before easing to 615.93 at year's end and the NYSE composite index rising to a record 331.17 and ending 1995 at 329.51. Other indexes showed similar increases. {See Table II.) During the first half of 1995, there were concerns that the economy had turned sluggish, and many economists anticipated lower interest rates because of the threat of a recession. These concerns were dissipated in the second half as the growth rate in gross domestic product (GDP) a post-World

II

Affairs: Stock

at

year-end,

1996 was insufficient to support the market. The priceS&P 500 was 15 in 1995, considered high by historical standards. Stock ownership by Americans was valued at about $5 in

trillion in 1995, passing, for the first time, equity in homes, which aggregated approximately $4.5 trillion. This massive shift into the stock market was largely due to a slowing of inflation in house prices and a major flow of cash into mutual funds and retirement plans. There were more than 425 new stock issues in 1995,

collectively raising

more than $26.7

billion in fresh capital

group of corporations. This was below the record of 1993, when there were 543 equity offerings, which raised more than $33.2 billion. The most dramatic IPO was Netscape Communications, a designer of Internetbrowsing computer software, which went public in August at $28 per share and rapidly climbed to $171, or 20 times for a widely diverse

1997's projected revenues. The average gain for 1995's IPOs was 37.4%. More than 25% of all common stocks brought to market were trading below their initial offering prices, however, while roughly 5% remained unchanged. Among the new issues were 227 spin-offs, 29 reverse leveraged buyouts, and 34 U.S. underwritings by foreign entities. Tech-

nology offerings accounted for 164 transactions, or 40% of all new issues floated. The average communications issue rose 114%; computer-equipment offerings averaged a 70%

New York Stock Exchange Common Stock

Index Closing Prices

Stock prices (Dec. 31, 1965 = 50)

many

securities analysts expected that a correction in the equities

market could come from overenthusiasm about the likelihood of an imminent interest-rate reduction and a belief that the single-digit earnings growth likely to be experienced

Table

Selected Majo r World Stock Market Indexes^

1.

Percent

1995 ranged High Low

Country and index Australia,

Sydney

All

Ordinaries

Austria, Credit Aktien

Year-end close

change from 12/31/94

2226

1823

2203

15

395

329

345

-13

Belgium, Brussels BEL20

1560

1272

1559

12

Canada, Toronto Composite

4745

3991

4714

12

Denmark, Copenhagen Stock Exchange Finland,

375

330

366

5

HEX General

2332

1555

1712

-7

GAG 40

2017

1721

1872

France, Paris

Germany, Frankfurt FAZ Aktien

847

709

816

4

10.073

6968

10,073

23

2261

1814

2227

20

681

548

590

-7

20,012

14,485

19,868

1

2834

1448

2791

17

322

265

322

16

Non«ay, Oslo Stock Exchange

1292

1036

1261

10

Composite

2958

2196

2594

-7

All-Singapore

559

473

555

4

Hong Kong, Hang Seng Ireland, Italy,

ISEQ

Milan

Overall

Banca Gomm.

Ital.

Japan, Nikkei Average Mexico, IPG Netherlands, The,

CBS

Philippines, Manila

Singapore,

South

SES

Africa,

All

Share

7991

6222

7987

14

Exchange

320

264

320

12

Sweden, Atfarsvarlden General

1872

1440

1736

18

SBC

1136

871

1132

22

7051

4503

5159

-27

Industrials

Spain, Madrid Stock

Switzerland,

Number

General

Taiwan, Weighted Price

110

100

90

70 60

50 40

1472

1136

1281

-5

Turkey, Istanbul Composite

54,654

24,644

40,025

47

30

United Kingdom, FT-SE 100

3689

2954

3689

20

20

5216

3832

5117

33

735

596

619

Thailand,

Bangkok SET

United States,

World, '

All

MS

Dow Jones

Industrials

Capital International

numbers are rounded

Source: Financial Times.

of shares sold shares

In billions of

80

Johannesburg

'

Based on

181

earnings ratio on the

accelerated.

Despite the euphoria of the bull market

Exchanges

10

daily closing price. Sources: Barron's National Business and Financial Weekly; The Wall Street Journal

Economic

182

New York

Affairs: Stock Exctianges

Stock Exchange Composite Index, 1995

December 15 saw a record one-day volof 653.2 million shares, eclipsing a mark that had stood since the market crash of October 1987. The extraordinary

of 70,844,452,600.

Stock prices (Dec. 31, 1965 = 50)

ume

330

was accounted for by expiring stock options, stock index futures, and options on futures, a so-called triple witching day, and year-end portfolio adjustments. Average

320

daily trading

day's trading

300

V-^

290

ft

280

^TT

270 260 250

volume on the NYSt was a record 346 million up from 291 million a day in 1994. In a reversal of 1994, advances outnumbered declines 2,751 to 788, with 82 of the 3,621 issues traded on the NYSE left unchanged. For the second consecutive year, Telefonos de Mexico was the most active stock. {See Table IV.) Year-to-date bond sales at mid-December were $6,788,205,000, slightly below shares,

f*

310

JI

the prior-year level of $6,959,179,000.

Big Board

TT

LJ

T sfiare

volume

thousands of shares

500,000

475,000 450,000 425,000 400,000 375,000 350,000

Barron's National Business

and

Financial Weekly. The Wall Street Journal

gain in value, wiiile average electronics stocks rose

38%.

Netscape gained 500%.

The top underwriters of new equity issues were Goldman Sachs & Co., with 31 issues valued at $5,632,700,000; Merrill Lynch, with 24 at $3,162,300,000; Morgan Stanley, with 29 at $2,520,000,000; Smith Barney, with 27 at $2,413,800,000; CS First Boston, with 11 at $1,734,200,000; Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette, 23 at $1,570,000,000; Robertson, Stephens & Co., 30 at $1,208,100,000; Alex Brown, 29 at $1,114,300,000; Hambrecht

&

Securities,

16 at $699.1 million.

were

in

Many

Montgomery The major underwritings

Quist, 25 at $781.1 million; and

Trading volume for stocks on the American Stock Exchange (Amex) by mid-December was 4,865,780,300, up 11.6% from the previous year. Out of 1,058 Amex stocks 661 advanced, 375 declined, and 22 held unchanged for the year. Bond sales were ofi" sharply. Nasdaq (6,597 issues) became the largest U.S. stock market on the basis of turnover in 1995, with average daily volume of some 400 million shares, compared with the Big Board's 346 million average. By comparison, the Amex traded an average of only 20 million shares a day. Nasdaq's volume, which was 36% above 1994's average daily volume, was accounted for in large measure by its many technology company shares. Year-to-date volume by mid-December was 98,095,081,900, up from 71,886,448,100 shares traded in the corresponding period of 1994. At year's end 2,898 stocks had advanced, 1,380 had declined, and only 62 were unchanged.

The National Association of

corporations bought back their shares instead of

Interest rates declined during 1995, with a

Financial Times Industrial Ordinary Share Index Annual averages, 1973-95

2,750

2,500 all

2,250

pronounced

in the spread between long- and short-term rates. on 30-year Treasury bonds fell from about 8% in January to under 6% by year-end. Bond investors realized

2,000

when

1,500

reduction yield

significant price appreciation after 1994's bear market,

the price of 30-year Treasuries was

down 22%

at

mid-December were: prime

Key

interest

8.75%; discount rate, 5.25%; three-month Treasury bills, 5.25%; and 30-year Treasury bonds, 6.08%. Municipal bonds averaged 5.7% and telephone bonds 7.25%. A cut in short-term rates by the Fed on December 20 pushed other rates lower and bond prices higher. The yield on 30-year Treasuries fell to 5.95%, the lowest in more than two years. Mid-December year-to-date volume on the NYSE was 84,033,762,400 shares, up 18.6%. from the year-earlier figure rates in

1.750

one point

and yields topped 8.1%. Bullish sentiment was supported by expectations of further rate cuts by the Fed.

(NASD), industry

and the operator of Nasdaq, was under investigation by the Department of Justice and by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) for alleged antitrust violations. An independent committee headed by former U.S. senator Warren

Repurchase announcements through

mid-October soared to a record $72.5 billion, surpassing of 1994's $69 billion.

Securities Dealers

a self-regulatory organization for the brokerage

the fields of technology and health care.

declaring dividends.

The

firms posted record pretax profits in

three quarters of 1995. Pretax earnings for

year earlier. Strong trading activity, asset-management fees, and declining interest rates were factors.

Average daily

Sources

first

firms increased

jimimmmm!.

In

member

member 72% to $5.7 billion from $3.3 billion in 1994. Revenue increased 28% to $68.7 billion from $53.3 billion a

the

1,250

1,000

rate,

750 500

250

Source

Financial Times

Economic

Rudman also issued a report, which led NASD, with Nasdaq being spun

of the

to a reorganization off as

an indepen-

its own board of directors, separate from the regulatory functions of the parent organization. The five regional exchanges Cincinnati (Ohio), Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Pacific traded an aggregate of 36.5 million shares a day but provided significant competition for the larger exchanges by offering better services to

dent subsidiary with

—

—

investors, including superior handling, cleaner trade executions, potentially better pricing,

and longer hours.

money market fund assets rose to $766,390,000,000 by mid-December 1995 from about $640 billion in a steady rise during the course of the year. No-fee fund "supermarkets" evolved that permitted investors to trade mutual funds without incurring commission or transaction fees. Initiated by Charles Schwab & Co., the movement grew rapidly in 1995 with entry into the field by major brokerage firms. The first nine months were Mutual funds had

their best year ever as

the best since 1957, with a year-to-date total rate of return

of 25.2%. Funds specializing

in

health and biotechnology

15.37%, science and technology 14.95%, At mid-October, U.S. stock funds were up 25.34% year-to-date, and U.S. bond funds were up 11.81%. In index options trading, the ranges for underlying indexes at mid-December 1995 were S&P lOO(OEX) dosed at 591.75, up 162.12 or 38.1% from the beginning of the year; the S&P 500(SPX) closed at 616.92, up 34.3%; and the S&P Midcap(MID) closed at 213.38, up 25.9%. The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and the National Futures Association (NFA) studied ways of curbing the incidence of fraud in the sales of futures contracts through "blind" advertisements. The CFTC reviewed its statutory enforcement powers, while the NFA increased its stocks returned

and

Affairs:

Stock Exchanges

183

product concerns, especially those producing pulp and paper; petroleum concerns; and base-metal miners. Industrial companies performed well, but gold-mining stocks declined on average. Total rates of return on Canadian bonds in U.S. dollars were up 20.5%. Because of political uncertainties and a declining growth rate in GDP early in 1995, both Moody's Investors Service and S&P downgraded Canadian government bonds. The government sold bonds at auction without the benefit of a top rating. Following the referendum on the constitution, the bond market rallied. Merger mania swept the Canadian stock market in the forest

third quarter, pushing the value of deals in 1995 to a record

with three months tions in the

first

left.

The value of mergers and

acquisi-

three quarters was Can$64.5 billion, a

76%

increase from the corresponding period of 1994 and well

above the 1994

Can$48.4

full-year record of

top-valued deal announced

in

billion.

The

the third quarter was a hostile

Can$ 1,770,000,000, begun by a Canadian company, the Moore Corp., for Wallace Computer Services, Inc., of Schaumburg, III. Second was the Canadian governtakeover, valued at

financial services 15.37%.

surveillance of

The SEC

member

filed

firms promoting blind pools.

more than 500 enforcement

cases,

Table

II.

Percent

1995 ranged High Low

Dow Jones

5216

3832

5117

20 Transportation

2092

1455

1981

225

182

225

1736

1274

1693

500 Index

622

459

616

Industrials

732

546

721

Utilities

203

150

203

15

change from 12/31/94

Averages

Industrials

30

Utilities

65 Composite Standard & Poor's

all-

NYSE Composite Nasdaq Composite

Amex

Wilshire 1

5000

numbers

are rounded. Source; Wall Street Journal. All

Table

investments to institutional clients, including state and local governments; and, most controversially, preempt "blue sky" laws, under which states police securities and mutual fund sales within their borders. The SEC dropped a proposal to allow companies to delete financial footnotes from annual reports sent to shareholders.

251

330

31

744

1052

40

554

433

548

26

6085

4529

6057

III.

2

33

Based on

daily closing price.

Peilormance Industry

of Selected

Groups

in

Dow Jones

1995 Worst

Best

kers to give investors a prospectus before a stock purchase;

only "suitable"

331

1070

Market Value

or downloaded from an Internet site. Legislation introduced would eliminate controls over how much stock institutional investors could buy on margin; scrap rules that required bro-

recommend

Year-end close

Others

an

time high, in 1995. Among its priorities was a scrutiny of order-flow fees and related order-handling practices on Wall Street because of their potential to reduce competition based on published quotes. The SEC also eased limits on the use of computer technology in communicating with investors, allowing financial documents to be sent via E-mail

free brokers of their duty to

Selected U.S. Stock Market Indexes^

Industry

Percent

Percent change from 12/31/94

Industry

12/31/94

81.5

Trucking

-14.5

Biotechnology

change from

-8.5

Oil drilling

72.4

Steel

Aerospace and defense

70,7

Transportation equipment

-4.6

Banks

67.4

Specialty retailers

-3.6

Semiconductors

645

Coal

2.7

Banks

64.5

Precious metals

3.7

in

in

western slates

eastern states

Source: Wall Street Journal.

Canada. Canadian stocks were up 12%

in 1995, according Stock Index, as contrasted with the DJIA gain of 33.5%. The Toronto Stock Exchange (TSE) index of 300 stocks closed at 4713.5, a gain for the year of 11.8%. The TSE 300 rose from about 4000 in January to within a narrow range of 4600 in July, eased to 4500 in October, and dipped sharply to 4300 before climbing to a high of 4745.1 in early December. Trading during October included the sixth largest one-day decline ever, as the separatists in Quebec gained ground before the separatist ref-

to the

Dow Jones World

erendum, and the

largest single-day increase in eight years,

following the razor-thin victory by the federalists. There

were concerns that the Canadian government might relax its fiscal discipline as its main priority in order to appease the Quebeckers. Corporate profits were up, particularly for

Table

IV.

Most Active U.S. Stocks Volume

in

1995 Volume

of

New

(in

000,000)

Nasdaq

York Stock Exchange

Telefonos de Mexico

1

Micron Technology

1,114.3

,202.4

Motorola

877

Ford Motor

855.8

1

Intel

2,106.3

Microsoft

1,204.2

Novell

1.106.6

Cisco Systems

1,082.1

Compaq

811.9

Wal-Mart

801.7

IBM

780.5

Viacom Var

479.9

Kmart

774.3

Viacom "B

367.7

AT&T

688.0

XCLLtd.

208.1

Merck

654.0

Echo Bay Mining

161.4

Source: Wall Street Journal.

of

shares traded

shares traded (in 000.000)

American Stock Exchange

184

Economic

merit's sale of

of mergers

Affairs: Stock Exclianges

most of

its

stake in Petro-Canada.

the third quarter was

in

46%

The value

higher than a year

The transaction value was $18.5 billion on 260 deals, compared with $12.6 billion on 323 deals in 1994. After a close brush with recession early in the year (GDP, which had grown 4.5% in 1994, fell to about 2%), the Canadian economy appeared likely to resume growing until the end of 1997, according to a report by the Royal Bank of Canada. GDP was expected to rise by 2.2% in 1995 and 2.3% in 1996. The Bank of Canada reduced its overnight before.

lending rate by 25 basis points in July.

The Investment Funds

Institute of

strength of Wall Street, speculation

the dollar, relatively high

wage settlements

a

code that would limit "trailer fees" that kick in only when brokers and other mutual fund salespeople have sold a minimum of a fund. The concern was that there would be

undue incentives to oversell investors. Market sentiment was bullish by year-end, with strong expectations that the Canadian stock market would perform well into 1996 in tandem with its U.S. counterpart. The U.S. accounted for 8% of all Canadian foreign trade, and the two economies were closely integrated, (irving pfeffer) Western Europe. Many European stock exchanges turned in a good performance in 1995. During the first five months of the year. Western European stock markets made little headway. Investor confidence was undermined with the strength of the Deutsche Mark against the dollar. In order to protect their currencies from weakening against the Deutsche Mark, France, Italy, Sweden, and Spain kept their short-term interest rates high. Political uncertainty in

had an adverse impact, as did fears go up again in the U.S. However, beginning in May the sentiment changed, and share prices rose in many markets. This was largely triggered by lower interest rates in Deutsche Mark bloc countries. Another push came from the U.S., where Wall Street was reaching new highs. As measured by the FT/S&P Euro top 100 index, European stock markets as a whole were 12.3% up from the beginning of the year. Some of the best performers were Italy also

that interest rates might

22%, led the Other good performers included Ireland (20%), the U.K. (20%), and Sweden. Austria, with a decline of 13%, was the worst European performer. France was nearly flat. The Lx)ndon Stock Exchange, the largest and the most influential market in Europe, started the year concerned with a poor inflation outlook and the prospect of higher interest rates. The Mexican crisis and the collapse of Barings PLC also afl'ected sentiment. By mid-March the Financial Times Stock Exchange 100 (FT-SE 100) index was close to the psychologically important 3000 level, having been above 31(){) a month earlier and 3066 at the end of 1994. However, peripheral markets. Switzerland, with a gain of

field.

encouraging prospects for corporate profits, export growth, and increasing takeover activity started moving the market higher. It was also encouraged by Wall Street's reaching new highs. By early summer economic statistics pointed to a slowing in the economy but, with inflation not yet under complete control. Chancellor Kenneth Clarke surprised the markets and held interest rates unchanged. Bond prices

were stimulated, and new strength spilled into the equity markets. In mid-June, by the time Prime Minister John Major resigned the Conservative Party leadership, the

FT-SE

cut and the Deutsche

the market rallied, and

Mark weakened

DAX

direction of interest rates in the U.S.

national investors' interests in the

strength and reached 3500, close to an

time high, by August. For the next three months sideways, and

it

all-

drifted

October on concerns that the weakening economy and faltering export growth could reduce corporate profitability in 1996. The market rallied again in

it

fell

a

little

in

November when

late

a prudent budget signaled

against the dollar,

reached a record high of 2317 in mid-September. The summer rally was sustained by a further cut in interest rates and the new highs reached by most foreign stock markets. After that, however, the Index slid to around the 2260 level because of concern about a sharp economic slowdown and poor corporate profitability. It closed the year at 2253.88. The FAZ Aktien Index followed a similar pattern and ended the year at 815.66, up just over 4% for the year. The Paris Bourse experienced a volatile and disappointing year. In the early months of 1995, the French bourse fell steeply as interest rates were temporarily raised in response to a decline in the franc. Subsequent lower interest rates in Germany and France, as the currency turbulence subsided, pushed the CAC 40 Index to the year's high of 2017.27. The optimism surrounding Jacques Chirac's presidential victory in May soon evaporated as it became clear that France's problems were deep seated. The continuation of the franc fort policy effectively kept interest rates too high in France, given the depressed state of the economy. Widespread strikes and protests in December against proposed reductions in pubHc spending and welfare reforms also adversely afi"ected sentiment. The CAC 40 closed the year at 1871.97, just below its level at the beginning of the year. The Nordic countries were among the best performers in Europe. Sweden led the way with an 18% rise. Across the border Norway gained 10%, and Denmark was 5% up on the year. Finland, an earlier star performer, gave up all its gains in the second half of the year. These countries benefited from a combination of global enthusiasm for telecommunications stocks and high prices for paper and forestry products. The performance of the southern European bourses was lacklustre. An economic boom in Spain led by strong export growth pushed share prices up by 12% during 1995. Italy and Portugal performed badly, and share prices fell by around 7% and 14%, respectively. Other Countries. After experiencing considerable volatility, particularly in the opening months, the Asian equity markets, with the exception of Hong Kong, were flat throughout the year as whole. The Japanese market, until the autumn, was held back by pessimism over the economy and the strength of the yen. The FT/S&P Pacific Index (excluding Japan) rose by 6%, in dollar terms, over the year. This lacklustre performance was initially due to shock waves from the Mexican crisis. Interest rates in Hong Kong and Thailand were temporarily raised to defend the Hong Kong dollar and Thai baht from speculative attacks. At the same time, there was substantial selling by local investors. As the

the year. After Major's reelection as party leader, the marits

the engineer-

it

100 had gained 400 points, or 13%', since the lowest point of ket regained

in

ing sector, and a poor outlook for corporate profits drove

the market down. In May, as short-term interest rates were

Canada proposed

sales

France and

were on the way. The continued on further takeovers, and traditional year-end buying buoyed up the market. It ended the year at an all-time high of 3689.30. Among the larger markets on the European continent, Germany and France started the year on a weak note. The German DAX Index fell by 10% to 1910.96 by the end of March. The combination of a strong Deutsche Mark against that lower interest rates

were focused on the

rising

markets

Japan. Little interest was shown

became

clearer, inter-

summer and in

in

the

autumn

the U.S., Europe, and

the Pacific Basin stock

markets. Although economic growth was two to three times as fast as in the developed countries, the risk of overheating

and low growth

in

earnings per share of companies in the (continued on page 186)

rates, and asset By using derivatives, corporations, foreign-exchange traders, and other investors were able to manage, control, and hedge risk.

controls. Volatility in interest rates,

Special Report

exchange

prices created a climate of uncertainty.

The Concern over

Derivatives include such widely accepted products as fu-

and swaps. Standard derivatives contracts size, and delivery terms are traded on exchanges such as the Chicago Board of Trade, the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange, the Marche a Terme des Instruments Financiers (the French exchange), the Singapore International Monetary Exchange, the Deutsche Terminborse (the German exchange), and the Tokyo International Financial Futures Exchange. Once the transaction has taken place, the contractual relationship is between each original counterparty and the exchange or clearing house. Customized contracts those tailored to meet a specific customer's needs are unregulated and traded in over-the-counter (OTC) arrangements. In OTC contracts the counterparties remain exposed to each other for the life of the contract. Debate in the months preceding the collapse of Barings was over how much derivatives were a tool to be used to provide flexibility in an investment portfolio and to reduce the risks being taken on by investment banks and their customers and how much they were becoming a threat to the stability of markets. The debate after the Barings failure focused the attention of investors on risk. The popularity of more complex derivatives contracts waned, while turnover in simple, less complicated futures and options products increased. After several months of panic, which saw a reduction in the volume of derivatives trading and a subsequent tures, options,

those involving standard maturity, contract

Derivatives

—

BY PATRICIA TEHAN

Derivatives had been

acquiring a bad

fore the collapse of the

name even

be-

London-based merchant bank

Barings PLC in February 1995 rocked the world's banking community. But the failure of Barings brought derivatives into the public spotlight after Nicholas Leeson, a 28-year-old trader in Singapore, accumulated losses of over $1 billion by trading futures contracts on Asian markets. Derivatives are contracts that have value that is linked to, or derived from, another asset (known as the underlying asset), which can include stocks, bonds, currencies, interest rates, commodities, and related indexes. Purchasers are essentially wagering on the future performance of that asset. The economic rationale of derivatives is that they provide a means of transferring and spreading risk and of accommodating risk-management needs more accurately and economically than conventional financial instruments. Though they can offer substantial advantages to those seeking to reduce financial exposure to a fall in prices, derivatives also can be very risky. Initial reaction to the Barings debacle was that given the growing use of such products, it would have been only a matter of time before they led to such a disaster. In the 1980s the case of some U.K. local authorities' involvements in options-based derivatives contracts first brought them into bad repute. The highest profile was London's Hammersmith and Fulham council, which suffered

on derivatives contracts as interest rates moved The contracts proved to be unenforceable, however, when the House of Lords ruled that local authorities did not have the power to enter into swaps contracts. There had been some high-profile corporate losses involving derivatives in 1994, involving Procter & Gamble (P&G), huge

losses

against

it.

consumer-products company, Metallgesellschaft and Orange county in southern California. In early 1995 U.S. regulators started to raise concerns about the way derivative products were being sold to investors. This was the issue behind the argument between P&G and Bankers Trust, which designed its investments, and between Orange county and its broker, Merrill Lynch & Co. Despite the bad name that derivatives were beginning to acquire, the collapse of Barings was due to losses caused by a lack of adequate internal controls over an employee's prothe

U.S.

AG of Germany,

prietary trading activities. disasters it

were caused by

The

highly publicized corporate

different circumstances. Ironically,

was the collapse of Barings, caused by trading

in

the

—

reduction of the

number of

players

on some trading

floors,

markets settled down by the end of the year. Meanwhile, institutional and corporate derivatives users took a fresh look at their controls and revised their practices. At a 1994 meeting' in Windsor, England, securities regulators from 16 countries agreed on measures to strengthen supervision of futures exchanges and improve the flow of information across international markets and to ensure that any problems that did arise could be contained locally to prevent an international domino eftect. The initiative, brought about by the Securities and Investments Board of the U.K. and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission of the U.S., recognized that no one market supervisor has the full picture about traders who are operating globally. In a separate move, the Basle Committee of international banking supervisors published proposals designed to help banks avoid losses from adverse market movements. It also joined forces with the International Organization of Securities Commissions to issue derivatives for national regulators.

new joint guidelines on The effect has been a

gradual tightening of monitoring and enforcement.

The horror stories of 1994 and 1995 resulted from imprudent use, lack of understanding, or lack of proper control of derivatives products and activities. In the case of Barings, inappropriate risk exposures were taken without proper guidelines or

management

controls.

There was a complete

market, that served as a means to focus attention on the products and prompted market participants to consider certain national and cross-border issues related to the structure and operation of the international

failure to note

markets for derivatives trading.

players should examine the legal issues, including the nature

tightly controlled futures

new

the level of derivatives trading. In other

cases there was a lack of understanding of the relationship

between

client

and counterparty. All served to

issues in using the derivatives markets.

The

identify

first

was

two that

use

of the relationships between the counterparties, ensuring

has been dramatic over the past 20 years. This growth reflected a globalization of and an increase in volatility in

proper documentation of transactions and ensuring that each side has the authority to deal. The second was a management issue, that those running an organization should have an understanding of risks being taken and be satisfied that proper operational controls are in place.

Derivatives are not a

concept, but growth

in their

—

financial markets, as well as a reduction in foreign-exchange

Patricia

Tehan

is

banking correspondent for The Times, London.

186

Economic

Affairs:

Banking

(continued from page 184)

region reduced their attractions.

Hong Kong's 23%

gain

over the year was in staric contrast to sharp decHnes in some other countries, including Taiwan (down 27%), South Korea

(down 14%), and Thailand (off 5%). Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia bucked the trend and rose by 9%, 4% and 2.5%, respectively, over the year. The Japanese stock market fell sharply from January until July before recovering strongly in response to a weaker yen, lower interest rates, and increased government spending. The poor performance of the Japanese stock market in the first half of 1995 caused the Nikkei 225 Index to plunge to 14,485 in July, a decline of 26% from the level at the beginning of the year. As the Bank of Japan moved to reduce interest rates, the market surged, and it continued to move upward. Its path was eased by the weakness of the yen against the dollar and a third economic stimulus package introduced in September. Surveys also showed that the profits of Japan's top 1,500 nonfinancial businesses improved by 20% in the half year to September. During 1995 the Japanese market was driven by foreign buying. Local investors preferred to sell selectively. The Nikkei approached the year's end on a strong note and closed at 19,868.15, just above its level of a year earlier. Lower interest rates, rapid economic growth, and good demand for commodities helped the Australian market to rise by 15% over the year. The New Zealand stock market benefited less from these trends and rose by just over 12%. The emerging markets were very volatile during 1995. Following a loss of confidence caused by the Mexican crisis in January 1995, equity markets in the emerging markets regained their poise. A good recovery began in March, particularly in Latin America, and continued, albeit at a slower pace. Commodity Prices. The sharp gains seen in commodity prices during 1994 were partly reversed during 1995. Economic slowdown in the developed world and lack of speculative activity were the main reasons for the weakening in commodity prices during the year. The Economist Commodity Price Index of spot prices for 28 internationally traded foodstuffs, nonfood agricultural products, and metals fell by nearly 5% during the first 11 months of the year. In sterling terms the decline was slightly smaller, at 3.5%. The price of crude oil, which is not included in The Economist Index, rose by 8% over the year and was trading at around $17 per barrel in early December. For most of the year, it traded in a narrow range between $16 and $18 a barrel. Oil prices were stronger early in 1995. In response to seasonal demand and anticipated continued recovery in the industriali/.cd countries, it touched $19 per barrel. Prices weakened in the summer, however, as production continued to run ahead of demand and OPEC decided not to change the quotas. A short-lived price recovery gave way to renewed weakness, which continued into the autumn, reflecting below-average seasonal temperatures and lower demand. Following the November meeting of OPEC, the market firmed and oil prices increased by 6%. Both sectors of The Economist Index declined during 1995. The food index fell by 5.5% and the industrials by 3.3%. Lead, with a gain of 15% over the year, was one of the few metals to rise strongly. Reduced exports from the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, coupled with stronger industrial demand, particularly from auto battery manufacturers, boosted prices. Copper, tin, and zinc were broadly steady during 1995 following strong rises the year before. Nickel prices declined by over 10%. Cereal prices increased 10-20%. Bad weather, which disrupted grain production in the U.S. and Russia, was largely

responsible for the upward pressure on prices. The prices of other agricultural commodities were mixed. Coffee prices

25% from the previous year's were not damaged by rainfall than anticipated. Cotton was up by declined by 10% under the weight

peak after the crops in and output was higher 7%, while wool prices of surplus stock. Gold prices in 1994 traded within a range of $374 to $394 per troy ounce and ended the year at $388, barely above the fell

by

Brazil

level

of a year earlier.

(lEis)

This article updates the Macropcvdia article

Markets.

BANKING International.

The

biggest story in international banking in

1995 was the collapse of the London-based merchant bank Barings PLC in late February. Nicholas Leeson, a trader in the 233-year-old bank's Singapore office, had run up losses

of more than $1 billion trading futures contracts on the

Asian markets. Barings management claimed that Leeson was carrying out unauthorized transactions and then covering up his losses in a secret account. Inspectors in Singapore, however, alleged that bank officials, anxious to participate in the lucrative derivatives market, had allowed the 28-yearold trader to use highly risky instruments without adequate supervision. {See Special Report.) In

March Barings was

acquired by a Dutch financial group, Internationale Nederlanden Groep NV. Leeson, who was arrested after fleeing to

Germany, was returned

to Singapore for trial

and sentenced

to 6'/2 years in prison.

Unauthorized trading by a single individual was also blamed for the $1.1 billion in losses accumulated by Daiwa Bank Ltd. of Japan. In September Toshihide Iguchi, a U.S. Treasury bond trader based in New York City, was charged with falsifying records to conceal the deficit, which he had incurred through some 30,000 unauthorized trades over an 11-year period. Unlike Barings, Daiwa, one of the world's 25 largest banks {see Table), was able to absorb the enormous losses. However, state and federal bank regulators discovered that Iguchi had confessed to Daiwa executives two months before U.S. authorities were notified. In November the authorities ordered Daiwa to close its operations in the U.S. within three months, while the Japanese Finance Ministry demanded that the bank cut back all of its international operations.

Bank of Japan announced that it would Hyogo Bank, which had built up $6 billion

In August the liquidate the

in debts through unwise property speculation, rather than arrange a bailout, as had been expected. It was the first time since World War II that the Japanese government had allowed a commercial bank to fail. The government of Fiji

approved a tiixpayer-financed bailout of the National Bank Fiji (NBF). Critics accused politicians of having benefited from the NBF's questionable loan practices. In the United Arab Emirates, the emirs of Ajman and al-Fujayrah agreed to pay $10 million to settle claims against them resulting from the 1991 collapse of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International. In June the Chinese government agreed to allow five foreign banks to open branches in Beijing, including the Bank of Tokyo and Citibank of the U.S. The British banking industry saw several mergers and of

acquisitions in 1995. In

May

S.G.

Warburg accepted

a bid

from Swiss Bank Corp. for its investment banking arm. In September the Bank of Scotland paid $A 900 million to acquire 100% ownership of the Bank of Western Australia. The merger of Lloyds Bank PLC and TSB Group PLC, announced in October, was completed at year's end. The new institution, called Lloyds-TSB Group PLC, would form the largest retail bank in the U.K., with assets of tl5() billion.

(MtLINDA

C-.

shepherd)

Economic

United States. They called the "Goldilocks

economy"

banking industry

—not

in

Banking

Affairs:

187

it

the

too hot,

not too cold, just the right temperature. U.S. banks

made

very

good profits in 1995 as loan losses remained low, borrowing picked up at a modest pace, and their huge bond portfolios increased in value. The big news for banks was a tidal wave of mergers and takeovers. About $73 billion worth of mergers and acquisitions were announced in the U.S. banking community. Fifteen deals

exceeded

$1.1

billion

in

value, including the three largest all time. There were two forces driving the takeover movement: the high stock prices of the acquiring banks, which made it relatively cheap for them

takeovers of

to offer stock to the shareholders

of the banks being taken over,

and the

realization that the

Police escort Nicholas

good

November 23

times of 1995 were unlikely to

to stand

Leeson from the airport in Singapore upon his extradition from Germany on on charges of fraud and forgery. It was alleged that Leeson's activities in in Singapore had led to the collapse of Britain's Barings PLC in February.

trial

trading securities futures

last forever.

JOHN MACDOUGALL—AFP

big

Increasingly,

banks were

hopes of cutting costs by reducing payrolls and In a flurry of activity, deals were announced between First Union Corp. of Charlotte, N.C., and First Fidelity Bancorp of Newark, N.J., and First Chicago Corp. and NBD Bancorp Inc. of Detroit, Mich., among others. The biggest example of this phenomenon in 1995 was the merger of Chase Manhattan Corp. and Chemical Banking Corp., both of New York. The combined bank, which would surpass Citicorp as the nation's largest, with assets of nearly $300 million, would retain the Chase name. There was no question, however, that the transaction was

merging

520,335

paid Chase stockholders worth of Chemical Bank stock in exchange for all their shares. While Wall Street cheered the Chase/ Chemical merger, it was clear that thousands of employees soon would be laid off. Loans to individuals at commercial banks, which had been growing at around 15% a year in 1993 and 1994, increased at a much slower pace in the last part of 1995 and were heading down to an annual rate of 5% to 6% as the year closed. Americans, who had seen little if any growth in income in 1995, were maintaining their standard of living by borrowing more on their credit cards. This effect had to slow down and reverse, and this "reliquification" process was already in sight at the end of 1995. Bankers and the Wall Street investment community were expecting a big increase in loan losses on those credit cards in 1996. In an economic slowdown, the losses could rise from about 3.25% of the

Japan

518.101

credit card loans outstanding to

Japan

510,272

in

closing buildings.

World's 25 Largest Banks* Assets

Bank 1

Country

Dai-lchi

Kangyo Bank

(in

Japan

Bank

U.S.$000,000)

2

Fuji

3

Sumitomo Bank

4

Sakura Bank

Japan

508.736

5

Sanwa Bank

Japan

506,416

a takeover by Chemical, which

about $10

billion

4%

or higher, a significant

Japan

397.057

where net interest margins were only a little over 4% before taxes and other expenses. The growth of bank loans to commerce and industry was also declining. "C & I" loans peaked in May 1995 at an annual rate of 17.7% and by the end of 1995 were about 12% over

Germany

365,774

the year-earlier level.

Japan

333,858

France

328,331

Credit Agricole

France

328.147

13

Tokai Bank

Japan

318,443

14

HSBC

U.K.

315,312

15

Industrial

China

311,866

securities held by banks, this

Bank

6

Mitsubishi

7

Norinchukln Bank

Bank

8

Industrial

9

Deutsche Bank

10

Mitsubishi Trust

11

Credit Lyonnais

12

& Banking

Holdings

& Commercial Bank

Japan

471.968

Japan

443,708

increase in an industry

The other mainstay of bank performed extremely well

in

earnings, the

1995.

The

bond market,

decline in interest

rates led to a rise in the price of bonds. Since U.S. Trea-

20% of the total loans and was a good source of profit. If 1996, however, bond prices could fall,

sury bonds represented around

16

Long-Term Credit Bank

Japan

309,118

interest rates rose in

17

Sumitomo

Japan

306,443

and there was a risk that any inflationary threat could turn bond profits into losses.

Trust

& Banking

& Banking

18

Mitsui Trust

19

Bank

20

ABN Amro

21

Societe Generale

of

China Holdings

Japan

301 ,984

China

291,856

Netherlands

290.686

France

277,914

U.S. banks they

still

may have made good

profits

Banque Nationale de

France

271.548

mergers and acquisitions

Asahi Bank

Japan

268,351

pressures and the need to

24

Daiwa Bank

Japan

262.815

that "Goldilocks" was, in the end, a fairy tale.

25

Dresdner Bank

Germany

257,548

Source: Wall Sireel Journal.

figures are

based on each

This

article

Banking.

1995, but

The record level of was a symptom of competitive reduce costs, and bankers knew

22

•Ranked by assets as determined by Worldscope; company's 1994 fiscal-year results.

1996

faced an uncertain future.

23

Paris

in

in

updates

the

Macropcedia

(JOHN W. DIZARD) Banks and

article

— 188

Economic

Affairs:

Labour-Management Relations

LABOUR-MANAGEMENT RELATIONS economic environment improved in most of the main exception being Japan, which had another iaclclustre year. There was healthy growth in world trade, and inflation was low. Unemployment tended to fall, but it was still high in many countries. Europe. Unemployment was a major concern in the European Union (EU), where in December 1994 the European Council had adopted a five-point plan to improve the functioning of labour markets. The creation of jobs was prominent in the European Commission's Social Action Programme for 1995-97, put forward in April. The program reflected the reaction against the heavy concentration on legislation in recent years and contained few significant new proposals. It was mainly a program of consolidation, of ensuring that existing legislation was implemented, and of providing for analyses and consultation about future work. In the U.K. there were a number of minor disputes and a series of strikes in the railways in the summer, but on the whole it was a quiet year for labour-management relations. The most notable event was the abolition in July of the Department of Employment. There had been a government department for labour matters since 1893 and a full ministry since 1917. The functions of the department were In 1995 the

industrialized countries, the

distributed among other departments, mainly Education which became the Department of Education and Employment and Trade and Industry. In two decisions the European Court of Justice found that the U.K. had failed to implement fully EU directives on large-scale layoffs and workers' acquired rights, which

—

required consultation with workers' representatives. In response the government put forward regulations in October

more employees one establishment during a 90-day period. How to consult was left to the employer, but consultation had to be with employee representatives whether or not the employees were unionized. British law required workers wishing to appeal their dismissal to an industrial tribunal to have at least two years' service with their employer to do so. Two women, dismissed by difi"erent employers and each having only 15 months' service, were refused access to the tribunal. They turned to the courts on the basis that women tended to change jobs more frequently than men and were therefore less likely to have as much as two years' service, which made British law incompatible with EU law on equal treatment. In July the Court of Appeal ruled in favour of this view. The case could go to the highest British court, the House of Lords, which in turn might refer it to the European Court of Justice. In German industry the annual wage round generally

Members

Germany's largest labour union, demonstrate September, after concessions on botfi sides, the workers accepted a 4% wage increase and a two-year job guarantee and in return agreed to more flexibility in working fiours. of IG Metall,

against Volkswagen.

In

requiring such consultation where 20 or

were to be dismissed

at

much strife, but the resultant pay increases by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) as being "disappointingly high." A lengthy scries of negotiations with Volkswagen

passed without

were

criticized

in September with the company's concession of a postdated 4% wage increase and commitment to guaranteeing jobs for its workers in Germany (about 100,000) for

ended

two years.

In return, the

union (IG Metall)

made

conces-

sions increasing the flexibility of working time, though not as extensive as the company had wanted. An important judgment of the Federal Constitutional Court confirmed the government's stance on the interpretation of a section of the Work Promotion Act that refused state temporary jobs and unemployment benefits to employees temporarily laid off on account of a strike in their sector, even if it was not in their region. Unions had counted on benefits being

paid to laid-off

members

to lower their costs in industrial

disputes. In the former communist part of the country, wage rates continued to move closer to those in the west. Unemployment, though still severe and much higher than in the west was declining. In France the main central employers and trade union

—

—

organizations signed a declaration their intention

to establish

in

February expressing

a continuing social dialogue.

in March and were particularly concerned with encouraging employment and with fighting unemployment, which continued to hover around 11% to 12% in spite of an economic recovery that seemed to stall late in the year. Among other matters discussed were the vocational integration of young people, flexibility of working time, and ways to articulate collective bargaining at the national-

Talks started

and enterprise levels. In July the up a joint intervention fund to improve the functioning of the labour market. The fund would be central,

industrywide,

parties agreed to set

—

used particularly to help workers who might wish subject to their employer's agreement to retire early and who had already paid pension contributions for at least 40 years and whose jobs could then be filled by the unemployed. The government also introduced the Employment Initiative Contract to subsidize employers who hired certain classes of people, such as the long-term unemployed. By mid-August 23,000 such contracts had been effected. Beginning in August, however, labour troubles increased. The government proposed to reduce public expenditures, including the costs of civil service pensions and health care and the debts of the railways. Starting with a well-supported one-day strike in October, union opposition grew, with strikes causing massive disruption in November and December and, at one time or another, involving civil servants, workers on the railways and the Paris transport system, and employees in power supply, telecommunications, and schools.

—

Economic

The thorny question of modifying Italy's overly generous pension arrangements was settled, at least for the present, by a comprehensive agreement on May 29 between the government and the three main union confederations. The agreement formed the basis of a law published on August wave of protests against limits on pensions broke out 17. by year's end, however. A series of issues put to a national referendum on June 11 included questions concerning the legal obligation of employers to facilitate the deduction of union dues from pay, when requested by workers, and concerning the representational rights of trade unions in an enterprise. The referendum went in favour of repealing the obligation to deduct union dues and of reducing the monopoly of the three main union confederations as rep-

A

resentative bodies.

The government was

area of employment, promoting

bills

also active in the

to encourage optimal

employment contracts and to create the new National Agency for Employment. In Spain the main trade union and employers confederations agreed in April on the establishment of conciliation, mediation, and arbitration flexibility in

procedures to replace the services run by the state. In an unusual move, Sweden's trade union confederations set an objective of negotiating wage increases in 1995 corresponding to the European norm, considered to be 3.5%. In the event, after gaining annual increases of 3.8% a year in a two-year agreement in the paper and pulp industry and even more in a three-year agreement with hotels and in catering, the unions did better than expected. In the metal industry the union secured a 12-minute cut in the 40hour workweek to be added to vacation time, as well as wage increases. There were also institutional changes; union mergers reduced the number of Swedish Trade Union Confederation affiliates from 23 to 21, but the central employers organizations were unable to merge into a single body. United States. The report of the Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations became available in January 1995. Though the commission made a number of recommendations, the report was widely viewed as a disappointing document that failed to address a number of problems affecting American labour-management relations. Admittedly, any radical proposals would have had little chance of being legislated in the present Congress. The commission's most disputed proposal was one that would ensure that cooperative labour-management bodies could be constituted in the workplace without running afoul of the section of the National Labor Relations Act that forbids company unionism. On March 8, Pres. Bill Clinton signed an executive order sanctioning federal contractors who hired permanent striker replacements. It was an important year for U.S. trade unions. On 12, following lengthy controversy within the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), Pres. Lane Kirkland announced his retirement, after 16 years in office, effective August 1. Thomas R. Donahue, secretary-treasurer, took over the presidency until

June

the election scheduled for October 25, the office against John

J.

when he contested

Sweeney, president of the Service

Employees International Union. Sweeney, a dissident leader in the AFL-CIO, defeated Donahue. The continued decline of U.S. trade union membership in recent years was the major factor prompting a number of union mergers. The mergers included those between the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union, the United Steelworkers of America and the United Rubber Workers of America, and (to be effective by the year 2000) the United Automobile Workers, the United Steelworkers, and the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace

Affairs:

Consumer

Affairs

189

Workers. The Department of Labor estimated that labour contracts for 42% of workers under major agreements would expire or reopen during the year. With employers tending to take a tough line, it was not surprising that a number of negotiations ended in strikes, several of which hinged on meeting the ever-rising costs of health care, while others concerned work rules and antiunion action by employers. Canada. In the populous and industrially important province of Ontario, the conservative government moved to replace significant parts of the industrial relations legislation its New Democratic Party predecessor. The government added new provisions that reversed a ban on the permanent replacement of striking workers and that required secret

of

ballots in cases of certification of a union, in ratifying a collective agreement, or in calling a strike.

London, Ont.,

in

in

December protested

A

general strike

the government's

pro-business policies.

South Africa. The new South Africa stood in need of and much of 1995 was taken up with preparing a comprehensive labour relations measure. Progress was slow and difficult, but agreement was reached by the National Economic Development and Labour Council in July and was carried into law in October as the Labour Relations Act. It provided for a Labour Court, with revised labour legislation,

more refined role than the existing Industrial Court; a Commission for Conciliation, Mediation, and Arbitration; and Workplace Forums (a form of works council). A union demand for centralized collective bargaining was not taken a

up, but the act did

make

provision for bargaining councils. (R.O.

See also Business and Industry Review. This article updates the Macropcedia article

CLARKE)

Work and Em-

ployment.

CONSUMER AFFAIRS Consumer concerns were significantly addressed in 1995 when the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) passed a landmark resolution calling for extensive revision and updating of the 1985 Guidelines for Consumer Protection. The guidelines, which covered consumer safety and product standards and education, provided both a

UN

framework and a benchmark

for governments, particularly

those in less developed countries, to establish a legal basis

consumer protection. The impact made by the guidecould be seen in India, where a consumer forum was set up to resolve problems outside the legal system, and in Eastern Europe and the states of the former Soviet Union, where there was an explosion of activity in consumer affairs. The 10-year anniversary marking the establishment of the guidelines was celebrated on World Consumer Rights Day, held annually on March 15. The 1995 ECOSOC resolution was the most significant broadening of the guidelines in the past decade and was expected to lead to a sustainable level for

lines

of consumption.

The World Trade Organization (WTO), a court set up by Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to arbi-

the 1994 General

opened its doors on Jan. 1, 1995. The WTO, headed by Renato Ruggiero {see Biographies), had several cases in its docket, but none was heard during 1995. Consumers International (formerly the International Organization of Consumers Unions) launched a Consumer trate international trade disputes, officially

Charter for Global Business for transnational corporations. to abide by consumerfriendly standards in such areas as competition, advertising, and environmental impact. Most consumer activity in 1995 took place at the grassroots level and often against great odds. As democratic re-

Those signing the charter would agree

— 190

Economic

Affairs:

Consumer

Affairs

forms and market liberalization spread in Africa, consumer movements also emerged, particularly in Western Africa. Yet Africa as a whole remained mired in deep economic crisis, which had taken its toll on humans through increased malnutrition, reduced social services, lowered incomes, and higher unemployment. The consumer movement working with very limited resources was swamped with issues needing urgent attention. Fewer than 10 African countries had organizations with permanent offices and staffing, and 21 had no identified consumer groups at all. Most of the offices were operating at capacity and were working to open new centres to handle the high volume of consumer complaints. Attempts also were made to assess the impact of economic structural adjustment programs on Africans. In January, 27 consumer leaders from 17 West and Central African countries attended a conference on the subject.

—

—

The African

Consumers International was studying the state of consumer protection legislation in Africa and was in the process of drafting a model consumer protection law, which was expected to be completed by year's end. Eastern Europe also was struggling to build a consumer movement virtually from ground zero. Six years after the fall

Office of

of the Berlin Wall, nearly every country in Eastern and

Central Europe had formed some type of consumer organization.

Macedonia, Armenia, and Georgia joined the group

measures. Nonetheless, consumers fought back; 16 Latin-American countries established national consumer protection laws. In

1995 the governments of Argentina and Colombia added consumer protection to their respective constitutions. In November, with the help of a manual published by Consumers International, more than 100 organizations involved in adult education planned to introduce consumer

education into their curriculum. In Asia the consumer scene was characterized by glaring contrasts both within the region and within individual

Though foreign investment poured into the area, booming growth produced greater economic dispar-

countries.

Asia's

millions of impoverished consumers were confronted by higher prices, unregulated markets, and an influx of substanity;

dard imported goods. As a resuh, more than 60 consumer representatives from Malaysia, India, Thailand, the Philippines,

discuss

and Vietnam attended a conference in Malaysia to "Consumerism in Developing Economies: Agenda

for the Future."

South Pacific, consumers banded together to halt dumping of both toxic wastes and poor-quality food. Since 1992 Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands had passed consumer protection laws, and Western Samoa and Tonga were expected to follow suit by the end of 1995. In the

the

in 1995.

Most countries minimum,

at the

in

Central and Eastern Europe instituted,

basic

consumer protection laws and, with

an eye toward joining the European Union (EU) by the end of the century, many were working hard to bring their laws in line with those of Western Europe. As a sign of how rapidly times were changing, Albania was hoping to have a

consumer protection law in place in 1996. Overall, a major concern was to educate consumers who had little experience with savings and investment so they could make wise investments with their earnings. Newspapers reported numerous scandals in Eastern and Central Europe and the republics of the former Soviet Union, where fraudulent and incompetent banks and financial service companies were operating. Western Europeans faced different problems, many of them related to the EU, which included 15 members after Sweden, Finland, and Austria were admitted in 1995. (Norway rejected membership.) The single market the world's largest trading bloc was intended to remove all trade bar-

—

—

member

countries. Consumer groups, however, continued to confront the European Commission (EC) in areas they felt despite promises of trade liberalizationcontinued to hurt consumers. (For example, automobile distributors were still excluded from EC competition rules and could maintain monopolies across Europe.) In 1995, however, consumer groups scored a victory by persuading the EC to allow competing car manufacturers to advertise where monopolies existed. Consumer organizations lobbied the EC regarding pending legislation about after-sales services and guarantees. Consumer representatives argued that in a single market, guarantees should be honoured across borders guarantees on goods bought in France should be honoured in Spain, and services on products purchased in Germany should be available in the United Kingdom. In Latin America, improving economies and expanding trade signaled an end to a long period of economic isolation and recession. Yet very few benefits appeared to be riers across

—

—

trickling

as poor

Americans lacked access to clean drinking water, while 32% had no electricity and 43% were without drainage or sanitary services. Low-income consumers were especially vulnerable to hazardous or substandard products and such abusive practices as false advertising and adulterated weights and

down

—80

to the 165 million Latin

million of

whom

according to the World Bank.

were

An

Americans

classified

living in dire poverty,

estimated

19%

of Latin

(ALINA TUGEND) In the United States the Federal Aviation Administration

concluded

in

May

1995 that legislative efforts to mandate

the use of child safety seats during air travel for children

under two would not accomplish

its intended goal of saving Strapping children into safety seats as opposed to the more common practice of allowing them to sit on the lap of a parent would increase the cost of flying and cause

—

lives.

—

some

A tral

families to choose less-safe

modes of

travel.

cost-benefit approach to safety regulations

theme

in

year. In July

was a cen-

congressional legislation introduced during the

two major

bills

on regulatory reform

—both

requiring the federal government to provide evidence that the benefits of proposed regulations justified their costs were postponed indefinitely. The new Republican-majority Congress effectively changed the tenor of the policy debate concerning a number of food-, drug-, and pesticide-safety regulations. In

February new meat-inspection regulations proposed

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture recommended instituting Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, an inspection procedure in which key stages of meal produc-

would be targeted to prevent the spread of pathogens. Although the procedure was considered an important advance in food inspection, critics in the industiy charged that imposing it without dismantling the traditional system would raise costs without bringing about a commensurate improvement in safety. At the state level, a groundswell of consumer and physician complaints prompted lawmakers in New Jersey and Maiyland to pass the first state legislation requiring mintion

imum

maternity stays

in

hospitals,

in

some

states

women

were routinely discharged 12 hours after giving birth, down from the typical 2 and 3 days of recovery time traditionally paid for by insurers. Groups such as the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists warned that early discharges presented a health hazard, especially when women and infants went home before complicatit)ns could be ob-

Education

About

191

served or child-care guidance provided. Health insurers and

tors serving in collegiate faculty positions.

managed-care groups maintained that one-day stays with follow-up home-care visits met the needs of most maternity patients. The laws guaranteed women 48-hour stays after delivery and 4 days of hospitalization for deliveries by ce-

individuals held administrative, various other professional,

sarean section.

Action against fraudulent and misleading auto-leasing Maryland, Washington, and New York. Each state passed a law aimed at increasing dealer disclosure of the various costs incurred by consumers in leasing. The Federal Reserve Board also drafted new disclosure standards under the federal law that governed leasing. Law-enforcement officials who were tracking the recent upward growth of auto leasing reported widespread deceptive leasing practices. Frequently, consumers were persuaded to sign leasing agreements that apparently carried low monthly payments, but lessees were not furnished with important basic information such as the amount of principal upon which payments were based. The U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) questioned the reliability of the government's automobile crash-test deals took place in Florida,

scores as a source of

the

New Car

tional

consumer information. The

Assessment Program

Highway

results of

—undertaken by the Na-

Traffic Safety Administration

and widely

dis-

seminated by the news media and consumer publications improved the overall crashworthiness of cars. But the determined that individual car scores were not reliable and could mislead consumers to purchase less-safe cars.

GAO

(peter

l.

spencer)

See also Business and Industry Review: Advertising; Retailing;

The Environment.

Education

4.2 million

and support positions in educational institutions. A judicial ruling on drug testing that could have wider ramifications was handed down by the U.S. Supreme Court, which upheld random drug testing of high-school athletes. The justices ruled that athletes must submit to testing at the beginning of a sports season and to random tests thereafter. Results would be available only to school officials. It was possible that the drug ruling could be applied to

random

testing of

all

students, as part of a school's general

responsibility to protect

young people's well-being. Under

the decision, school officials were not required to have a

drug use, unlike a Fourth requirement for adult testing. specific suspicion of

The high court prayer in school.

Amendment

some issues unsettled with regard to overturned a 1994 ruling by the Court

left It

of Appeals for the 9th Circuit stating that student-initiated prayers during graduation ceremonies were unacceptable

and

left intact

an earlier ruling by the Court of Appeals for

the 5th Circuit that upheld the constitutionality of studentled graduation prayers.

The Supreme Court found that a federal judge had exceeded constitutional limits in a long-standing Missouri desegregation case. The judge had ruled that school officials had to pay additional salaries to minority employees as part of an effort to undo the effects of past segregation. The supervised district had undertaken the most expensive desegregation plan in the U.S. The court ruled that under the Constitution, officials were not bound to pay higher salaries to minorities to meet the requirements of desegregation. The Supreme Court also found that school gun-free zones, authorized in a 1990 federal act, were an unacceptable extension of the interstate

commerce

clause of the

Constitution, a provision that had been used for decades to

news in 1995 included comparisons achievement between countries, plans to increase schooling opportunities, the expansion of private schools, the resolution of ethnic and religious issues, educational transition in Eastern Europe, educational financing, the transfer of credits in higher education, and university promotion practices. Primary and Secondary Education. Downsizing of the U.S. government adversely affected federal education programs, while the number of diflScult tasks facing educators continued to multiply in 1995. Voicing his concern, U.S. Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley noted that the Information Age requires an "Education Age." The new Republican-controlled Congress sought to cut spending in many programs as part of its "Contract with America" (see Special Report) and to return control over most education to the states. The Department of Education was initially in danger of elimination, but Pres. Bill Clinton proposed less-drastic changes in Cabinet-level departments. The president sought to retain adequate federal support for safe and drug-free schools, adult job programs, and AmeriCorps the national-service program. Enrollments in the U.S. for the 1995-96 school year increased at all levels of education. Preschool and kindergarten numbers rose by some 250,000 students to more than 7.7 million. Elementary and secondary enrollments reached 51 million students, surpassing even the peak levels of 1971. The number of minority students was expected to reach 32.8%, a 4.6% increase over the previous year. High-school graduates for the academic year were expected to number

many

Significant educational

extend federal jurisdiction

of educational

(SAT) scores reached their highest levels in many years, especially math scores, which were the highest in 20 years. White and Asian students

—

2.6 million.

There were some three million teachers in U.S. elemenand secondary schools, with a smaller number of educa-

tary

in

areas.

Scholastic Assessment Test

topped the rankings, while minority students continued to make gains. Male students again outscored females, who continued to improve their performance.

Voucher plans to permit public funding of private schools continued to be widely advocated around the nation. The Wisconsin Supreme Court overturned a legislative act that permitted Milwaukee schools to provide up to $3,600 for private, even sectarian, school tuition for families whose annual income was less than $26,000. Pres. Albert Shanker of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) found recent achievement levels reported by the National Center for Education Statistics both "surprising and encouraging." Shanker noted that student course selections and graduation requirements had become more rigorous than they had been a decade previously, when the publication of A Nation at Risk (1983) sounded an education-crisis alarm. The government publication had focused on low educational achievement and called for massive changes, many of which subsequently were implemented, said the veteran AFT leader. Poverty and alcoholism were tied to many school-age children's problems. Researchers from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in conjunction with Emory University, Atlanta, Ga., reported that women in poverty were more likely to have retarded children who would probably have more difficulty in getting an education. CDC researchers also found that the percentage of babies born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) had increased sixfold

between 1979 and 1993.

FAS

babies experience mental re-

192

Education

tardation and central nervous system problems, which their education

Violence

The

in

more difficult. the media remained

make

a nationwide concern.

Television Violence Monitoring Report, based at the

University of California, Los Angeles, claimed that in 1995 motion pictures and children's television programs had more violence than could be found on prime-time television. Harvard University's Robert D. Putnam proposed the idea that the introduction of television notably social

and educational

fabric.

of television led to declines

He

weakened the

nation's

theorized that the advent

in social trust

and group

partic-

which he claimed were crucial to maintaining social and educational standards in a democracy. He held that this decline brought on by TV possibly contributed more to an overall social change in the United States than did such factors as divorce, the rise in the number of working women, and the spread of the welfare state. ipation,

The increase in the numbers of children who did not speak English as their primary language was attributed to the increased number of immigrants to the country. The National Association for Bilingual Education's executive director said that one child in six entered school speaking a language other than English. In 1995 a comparison of educational levels in 21 member nations of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation

OECD

and Development showed that in most countries over half of the adult population had completed secondary

Germany, Switzerland, Norway, and the United more than 80%. In Europe, where 19 of the OECD nations are located, there were marked disparities in educational achievement between northern and southern countries. More than 60% of adults had

earned a high-school diploma in Austria. Finland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, while fewer than one-third had completed high school in Greece (32%), Italy (25%), Spain (25%), Portugal (15%), and Turkey (15%). In only two of the OECD countries had more than one-fifth of the population between ages 25 and 64 completed college The Netherlands (21%) and the United States (24%). A World Bank report urged governments to furnish all

—

citizens with at least six years of schooling as a

means of

stimulating economic growth and reducing poverty in less

developed nations. The report noted that the proportion of children attending school in less developed countries had risen from below 50% in 1960 to 76% in 1995, and it concluded that a still higher proportion of citizens with basic education would be needed to keep pace with predicted shifts in labour markets caused by technological innovations

and economic reform. A variety of sub-Saharan African governments adopted plans to cooperate with other countries to improve educational systems. In one effort research teams from nine nations launched a joint assessment of education sponsored by the Southern African Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality. Participating countries included Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Swaziland, mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The primary aim of the research was to identify the major influences on stu-

school. In

dents" reading achievement. In a separate effort, education

States, the level rose to

ministries in Lesotho and Swaziland sought to become independent of Great Britain's influence over the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate by localizing the assessment of test papers.

JIMMY OORANTES

Students

in

up a large

a southern California school recite the pledge of allegiance. In parts of the U.S., children whose native language was not English made even a majority, of the enrollment in local public schools, which gave rise to disagreements about the best way to teach them.

part, or

Education

In

Kenya

a plan adopted in 1985 to vocationalize educa-

had proved too complicated and too costly to implement; a similar plan was rejected in Botswana. A Nicaraguan study of 6,600 school-age children from 2,500 homes indicated that males took a year longer than females to complete primary school and two years longer to tion at

all

levels

finish secondary school. More than 20% of pupils repeated grades because of poor academic performance or ill health, and the main cause of school delinquency was economic, with the dropout rate for males far higher than that for females. Pupils in Nicaragua were more likely to succeed in

school

they came from homes of married gouples, their had few children, they had attended preschool, and

if

families

they had started school at age

Cuba's economic

five.

contributed to a deterioration of

crisis

the nation's highly centralized school system and discour-

aged an increasing number of qualified people from entering the teaching profession.

The

extent to which technological advances were adopted

in schools

was investigated

in

Great Britain, where a survey

of the popularity of educational broadcasts among 1,500 teachers in 700 British schools revealed that most primary teachers took advantage of television programs but only half used educational radio. In secondary schools television

broadcasts were employed most often for studying geogra-

phy and history and least often for mathematics. Secondary teachers rarely used radio programs, with the exception of modern-language classes, where radio was used fairly often.

The privatization of schools increased in various parts of the world. In Canada increased enrollments in private schools continued into 1995, with many of the students coming from middle-class families

that traditionally

had pa-

quence, schools at all levels of the educational system were obliged to launch cottage industries or other moneymaking ventures to sustain their operations. Mexico's Pres. Ernesto Zedillo pledged that before the close of his administration, all children would have the opportunity to advance through secondary school. This commitment was considered highly optimistic for a country in which 75% of rural pupils traditionally did not complete the six years of primary education. Economic needs were cited as the main cause of high dropout rates, particularly in subsistence-farming regions, where children were needed for their labour. Critics also charged that the primary- and secondary-school curriculum had long been ill-suited to regional needs. Because of this, many pupils found schooling irrelevant and either dropped out or were not motivated to study. This problem also extended to the 10% of pupils in Mexico (nine million) who spoke only an Indian dialect. Malaysia's Prime Minister Datuk Seri Mahathir bin Mohamad had begun to stress the importance of the English language in the country's national curriculum, thereby initiating a shift from the policy of the past three decades, which emphasized the Malaysian national language. He said that knowledge of English was vital to international trade, and he hoped that prestigious overseas universities would consider establishing branches in Malaysia. Datuk Francis Yeoh Sock Ping, a prominent business leader, confirmed that he would like to build a local campus for the University of London, a proposal that until recently would not have

been considered.

A

number of

flicts

and

groups.

countries took steps to resolve racial con-

to ofi"er equal educational opportunities for ethnic

The South African government sought

tronized public schools. Part of the appeal of the private

years of inequality by committing

was their low teacher-student ratios. Economic reforms in Vietnam that created greater wealth for the private sector led to cutbacks in public moneys

child, regardless of racial

institutions

for education,

came

and thus the

drastically

traditional school system be-

underfunded. As a consequence, secondary

schools that charged tuition grew increasingly popular with the country's expanding middle class. Such schools attracted well-qualified teachers

and provided higher-quality educa-

tion than did the impoverished public schools attended by

the rural poor. In Pakistan the network of private schools continued to

expand as a corruption

result of the

in

underfunding of state schools and

the public education system.

Several nations announced plans to expand educational opportunities.

Thailand's government

intended to invest

$1.5 billion toward several educational initiatives, including an extension of

compulsory schooling from

six to

nine

years, a refinancing of private schools outside the capital

of Bangkok, and an increase in the availability of loans for economically disadvantaged students. The purpose was to improve younger workers' skills in order to sustain the city

country's economic

A new education

boom.

China, drafted over 10 years, went The law provided a framework for future legislation and outlined a revised educational system focusing on moral and intellectual development. into effect

law

in

September

1.

Subsequently, the nation's State Education Commission issued regulations governing the establishment of schools jointly operated by Chinese and foreign sponsors. Although no religious aflRliates would be allowed to conduct school, nonreligious groups would be permitted to do so as long as they provided high-quality education as defined in the commission's guidelines. As the government increased its investment in economic development, however, its financial support of education continued to decline. As a conse-

193

itself to

to reverse

furnishing every

background, with 10 years of edu-

cation at government expense. Educational segregation was

and new school-construction plans and improved training for black teachers were announced. Many Australian schools expanded their Asian studies curricula in an attempt to integrate and promote a greater appreciation of Australia's Asian population. Classes in magnet schools included Asian languages, geography, literature, and religious history. Educational authorities in France were criticized by Islamic leaders for not permitting women students to wear head scarves in the public schools. Officials claimed that displaying the traditional Islamic head coverings violated France's law banning religion in schools, even though Catholic students were still allowed to wear crosses. Higher Education. A UNESCO report on higher eduofficially abolished,

cation disclosed that annual attendance in postsecondary

throughout the world grew from 28 million stu1970 to 65 million in 1991 and would continue to increase, reaching 79 million by 1999 and 97 million by 2015. In less developed countries enrollments over the 1970-91 period rose from 7 million to 30 million. The proportion of students at private universities increased, particularly in less developed regions, with the numbers of institutions

dents

in

nondegree and part-time students also rising. According to the report, the financial burden of rapid growth tempted ofliicials to limit spending on higher education. UNESCO's director general, Federico Mayor, warned that yielding to that temptation would simply widen the gap between industrialized and nonindustrialized societies. Sub-Saharan Africa had the fewest educational resources and opportunities of any region. Students in Africa were four times less likely to pursue postsecondary education than those in other less

developed areas and 17 times industrialized countries.

less likely

than those

in

the

Education

194

Public and private postsecondary enrollments in the U.S. were projected to increase slightly, to 15.4 million students. More than half of the students nine million were expected to attend four-year institutions. Two-year colleges were set to enroll an estimated six million. Proprietary schools and postsecondary programs were expecting one million enroUees, and degrees earned were projected to

—

—

Federal officials expected seven million students to receive some type of financial aid by 1996. Spending in the U.S. for public elementary, secondary, and collegiate education was projected to reach $433 billion in 1995. The cost of a private education was predicted to

reach record

levels.

billion, and the head of the U.S. College Board most college students faced a heavily mortgaged future. His assessment was made in response to rising tuition and a decline in available federal grants and loans.

reach $104 said that

Tuition increased

at a

6%

rate for the third year in a row,

an increase greater than the pace of inflation. The annual room and board, books, and personal expenses averaged $19,762 per student at four-year private

cost of tuition,

financial aid

from the federal government and

number of academic programs designed nation's indigenous ethnic groups.

a

growing

precisely for the

Focused on providing

indigenous youths with opportunities to study their own cultures, Canada's first aboriginal higher-education institution, the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, enrolled 1,300 in 1995, most of them women. Former communist nations faced problems of

students

transition.

Russian institutions suffered from insufficient funds; only 3.65% of the national budget was allocated for education in 1995, over 80% of the country's schools lacked proper experimental facilities, the number of students in specialized programs declined, and skilled personnel continued to emigrate. Student admission policies were changing in such institutions as Moscow State University and Plekhanov Russian Academy of Economics, where well-trained, academically apt students from preparatory schools were being admitted without an entrance examination or tuition fee. Critics

charged that such admission practices were unfair to who could not afford to attend quality preparatory

students

schools. In 1995 Romanian academicians were concerned that the quality of higher

education was threatened by the hasty establishment of more than 60 private

up to meet a rapidly risdemand. At the same time, efforts to

universities set

ing

reform the curricula in state universities were hampered by a shortage of funds. In the neighbouring state of Moldova, government leaders endeavoured to astheir

sert

nation's

independence, but

students and faculty members of most of Moldova's 15 higher-education insti-

on strike when the government changed the title of a common university course from "The History of the Romanian People" to "The History of Moldova."

tutions went

New rated

legislation

the

in

Estonia inaugu-

most dramatic changes

in

the nation's six universities since the in Ethiopia stands at her desk to answer a question in mathematics. One of four girls a class of 18 students, she and other children had walked for an hour from their village to reach the school, which offered primary instruction in the Amharic language.

A

schoolgirl

in

ATERIAL VJORLD BY FAITH D'

$9,285 at state colleges. To make matters worse, Congress had been hammering out an agreement to trim billions of dollars from student loan programs as part of its move toward balancing the federal budget by 2002. colleges and

former Russian system was discarded

By 1995 Estonia's universihad revamped their budgetary sysJISIO AND PETER MENZEL TO BE tem and completed their changeover to an American-style structure in which course work was measured by credits earned and bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees were awarded by institutions. Four years after the former Yugoslav republic of Macedo1990.

in

ties

nia achieved independence, representatives of the nation's

By 1995 the European Union's (EU's) plan for transferring academic credits across country borders had resulted

ethnic Albanians announced the establishment of an Albanian-language university in the town of Tetovo. The plan

5,546 students' receiving credit for foreign study pur-

was denounced by government authorities, who felt that Albanians were entitled only to primary and secondary education in their native language. Founders of the university vowed to conduct classes anyway, even if the government

in

sued

in

145 institutions in 18 countries.

The

initial

program

to the subject areas of business administration, chemistry, history, mechanical engineering, and medicine.

was limited

Plans were laid to double the

number of cooperating

insti-

tutions and increase the diversity of disciplines in 1996. Ireland's system of 46 nonunivcrsity postsecondary insti-

refused the institution

official recognition.

In Israel political conflicts raelis

between Palestinians and

continued to disrupt university

life.

tutions adopted a system that permitted students to earn a

Israeli military forces arrested 21 Islamic

national degree by combining studies completed at different

lege near Jerusalem

institutions. 6,()()()

A

national computerized database, containing

registered courses, kept track of

pleted courses, certificates, and degrees. The number of Canada's aboriginal

all

students'

—

com-

peoples Indians higher education increased fourfold over the decade between 1985 and 1995, owing largely to

and

Inuits

—enrolled

in

on charges of

Early

in

Is-

the year,

students at a col-

anti-Israeli

propaganda

and stockpiling weapons. The Israeli civil administration also stopped granting entry permits to Palestinian students, a measure intended to discourage Palestinian nationalistic activism. Because tuition charges doubled at some Palestinian universities in the West Bank, many students were forced to drop out.

Environment: International Environmental Activities

195

military

of Education was accused of contributing to a decline in

members

the quality of teaching in universities by preventing higher

of the Marxist Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) organization had disrupted the educational process. One institution,

education institutions from individually evaluating faculty members. Critics charged that the ministry's strict bureaucratic control over appointments served to keep ineffective professors in their posts and thereby led to a lower quality

Recent emergency

legislation

enabled

Peru's

forces to take control of three universities where

Hermilio Valdizan National University of Huanuco, had been adrift since 1994, when its rector, Abner Chavez Leandro, had confessed to abetting Sendero Luminoso terrorists. Ways to raise revenue in support of higher education were a concern throughout the world. In China financial problems prompted the government to urge universities to generate their

own

funds.

A

shortage of

money

also led in-

admit wealthy, jess-qualified students in preference over poor but talented applicants. The French government's handling of the financial plight of universities drew sharp criticism from university presidents and faculty organizations. The Conference of French University Presidents, representing 83 institutions, charged that the 1995 increase of 5% in research funds and 2.8% in operating expenses was far short of what was needed in view of rapidly growing enrollments. The presidents sought greater latitude in raising money from private sources and recommended a gradual increase in student registration fees, which traditionally had been extremely low. The nation's largest faculty union claimed that inadequate support for basic research, libraries, and undergraduate teaching had reached a crisis level. The union also criticized the government's tightened immigration policy, which resulted particularly Alin a growing number of foreign students gerians being forced to leave France. Requiring students to pay tuition continued to be a controversial issue in Eastern Europe, where the cost of attending a university had long been borne entirely by the government. The Czech Republic's new higher-education law set fees ranging from $95 to $380 per year, depending on which academic specialty a student pursued. In midMarch thousands of Hungarian students demonstrated in Budapest following the government's announcement that tuition would be charged in the fall term. Swiss students protested a tuition increase from $60 to $450 per semester and proposed instead that the needed funds be raised through the savings achieved by the hiring of associate professors rather than full professors. Academics stitutions in several countries to

Switzerland had been

among

the highest paid in the

world, with salaries of associate professors ranging from

$97,000 to $133,000 and of full professors from $121,000 to $166,000. The issue of tuition also set off street demonstrations in Australia,

where protesters demanded

that the

government

abolish fees for graduate students and revoke the deferred-

payment system

that required students to pay about

20%

of

their educational costs.

At the same time, in a bold move the Australian government allotted a record high of U.S. $12 billion for state higher education programs over the 1997-99 period. The funds would equip institutions to serve an additional 11,000 students in regions with growing populations, to provide

appointments patronage rather than on candidates' accomplishments was attacked by delegates at a conference on recruitment and academic promotion in European universities held at the University of Bologna. Speakers claimed that the patronage system, in which assignments were made nationally rather than by individual institutions, damaged the image of Italian academics in international circles and caused Italy to perform poorly in the competition for European Union research grants. In contrast to the Italian model, promotion schemes operating in France, The Netherlands, Austria, and the United Kingdom were said to include continuous assessment of merit in both teaching and research, student evaluations of professors" teaching effectiveness, and faculty-selection committees including representatives from various departments of the university. (JOEL L. BURDIN; ROBERT MURRAY THOMAS) See also Libraries and Museums. This article updates the Macropwdia articles History of Education; Teaching. In Italy the practice of basing professorial

on

political

—

—

in

of instruction.

more research

facilities, to

increase vocational edu-

cation off'erings, and to strengthen the Australian Research

The Environment INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVITIES International Cooperation. The threat of global warming continued to dominate environmental concerns in 1995,

and for the first time, climatologists were confident they had detected conclusive evidence of it. Some progress was made by European countries toward curbing traffic pollution. What was said to be the third largest oil spill ever in the Russian Arctic, caused less damage than had been feared. Most of the oil was contained, and an effective cleanup operation was launched. In June Greenpeace protesters drew worldwide attention to an obsolete oil-storage platform, Brent Spar, which was to have been sunk in the Atlantic Ocean, and succeeded in persuading the owner, the Royal Dutch/Shell Group, to opt instead for disposal on land. Many scientists, however, believed deepsea disposal would have been preferable from an environmental standpoint, and Greenpeace eventually discovered an error in the sampling on which it based its objections. The controversy over what constitutes "safe" disposal lasted throughout the year. {See Sidebar.) At a meeting on toxic-waste exports held in Dakar, Senegal, in March, Denmark offered to serve as host for further discussions on the substances covered by the Basel Convention on international trade in hazardous wastes. This deflected attempts to prevent an extension of the ban agreed upon in 1994 on exports of waste from countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-

recorded,

—

to non-OECD countries to the export of substances intended for recycling. The U.S. government was delaying ratification of the convention until it was amended to permit such shipments, provided the countries involved agreed and the waste was handled by internationally agreed upon and environmentally sound methods. The U.S. Chamber of

Council.

The government's new performance-based funding system led to a transfer of funds from existing institutions to newly established universities. The plan provided nearly $248 million annually to new institutions, on the basis of their success in obtaining research grants from industries, on their levels of publication, and on the number of graduate

ment

students completing their studies.

Commerce

Concern over bureaucratic meddling in the hiring and promotion of professors was voiced in Japan and Italy. At

the $2.2 billion a year the U.S. earned from trade in recyclable materials. In September, however, the 89 signatory

Japanese academics, the nation's Ministry

countries to the convention agreed to the extension, forbid-

a conference of

also

opposed the ban, which

it

said

would

affect

196

Environment: International Environmental Activities

ding the 25

members

OECD

members

to ship wastes to

non-OECD

for recycling after 1997.

At a meeting of members of the OECD held in Paris June, Canada and Australia blocked an agreement, proposed by the U.S. and the European Commission, to reduce the amount of lead in the environment by phasing out lead in such products as gasoline, solder used in food and beverage cans, and paint used on toys and to reduce exposure to lead from paint, ceramics, and crystalware. Australia and Canada favoured a "voluntary action plan" in which the lead-producing industry would finance a database on lead and its health risks and advise governments on ways to reduce exposure. European and U.S. officials said this was inadequate unless incorporated in an agreement committing member states to recognizing the need to reduce exposure. in

United States. In proposals for the fiscal 1996 budget presented to Congress by the White House on February 6, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requested $7.4 billion, $138 million more than its 1995 budget. The Office of Research and Development asked for an $84 million increase, to $630 rnillion,

some of which would come from from elsewhere in the EPA. The

reclassifying research funds

EPA, which

celebrated its 25th anniversary during sought approval for an additional $42 million to be external research grants and $5 million for more student fellowships. On April 18 Vice Pres. Al Gore introduced the

the year,

spent on graduate

National

Environmental Technology Strategy, a document describing environmental progress made in the U.S. since the first Earth Day, in 1970, and setting goals for the 50th, in 2020. On April 22 (Earth Day 1995), 30 environmental groups launched a major campaign opposing congressional plans to weaken environmental regulation. Western Europe. In the European Union (EU), Ritt Bjerregaard, a Social Democrat from Denmark, was appointed environment commissioner in the newly appointed

European Commission announced on Oct. 19, 1994. In November 1994 negotiators for the European Parliament and Council of Ministers agreed on new limits of 35 g per cu m for volatile organic compounds (VOC) released during the loading and unloading of gasoline tankers. The limit would apply initially to new installations but would be phased in at existing plants and garages. Two additional directives being drafted by the Commission would limit VOC emissions at the pump and from solvents, such as those in paint and dry-cleaning fluid. On January 4 the Commission announced a directive reducing by 80% the maximum permitted levels of lead in drinking water. The directive followed a World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation by reducing the limit from 50 to 10 micrograms per litre at a total cost of almost

over 15 years. shipment of high-level radioactive waste to be transported from Europe to Japan sailed from Cherbourg,

$64

billion

The

first

France, on February 23 under commando guard. The cargo, comprising 28 steel 100-ton flasks containing 14 metric tons of Japanese spent reactor fuel that had been reprocessed

Cap De La Hague, was carried on the Greenpeace sought to prevent the shipment, and on February 21 the group was ordered by a Cherbourg court not to approach within five miles of the Pacific Pintail while it was in French waters or to blockade it or interfere and

vitrified

at

Pacific Pintail.

its cargo. On the day the ship sailed, a French tugboat rammed the Greenpeace vessel Moby Dick. Commandos boarded the Moby Dick and a trawler chartered by another environmental group. Twenty Greenpeace protesters on three inflatables were captured by commandos when they tried to approach the Pacific Pintail. On April

with the loading of

25 the Pacific Pintail arrived, to more protests, at Mutsu Ogawara, Japan, near Rokkasho, where its cargo was to be stored for 50 years. In the

German Bundestag

election in October 1994, the

(lower house of Parliament) Greens won 7.3% of the vote,

which entitled them to 49 seats, after a four-year absence from the chamber. In the Land (state) elections held in Mecklenburg- Vorpommern and Thuringia, however, they received fewer votes than the 5% needed to gain seats, despite their ties with the Alliance '90

A

civil rights

court in Liineberg, Germany, ruled in

group.

November 1994

no nuclear waste could be transported from the Phillipsburg power station in Baden-Wiirttemberg to the Gorleben interim storage depository near Hamburg until a decision had been reached on a challenge by local residents to the repository's right to operate. The ruling bought time for the antinuclear movement, which was using opposition to storage at Gorleben in its efforts to prevent the continued use of nuclear power in Germany. Permission was later given for the depository to receive its first consignment of spent fuel rods. After clashes that began on April 22, 6,500 police were brought in on April 25 to disperse demonstrators attempting to block the delivery. Border guards rode on the train carrying the waste, and five helicopters landed more guards inside the Gorleben site to prevent demonstrators from storming the entrance when the gates were opened. Protesters set fire to a railway car, set up a road and rail barricade, pulled up rail track, and threw grappling hooks onto power lines. More than 20 people were injured and that

nearly 200 arrested.

On July 26 Germany introduced a nationwide ban on cars without catalytic converters, which would be enforced when at least three monitoring stations reported ozone levels higher than 240 micrograms per cubic metre. Commuters able to prove they had no other means of transport, vacawere excluded. European Parliament held on September 16-17, the Greens, who were opposed to EU membership, won 17.2% of the vote, which entitled them to tioners,

and commercial

traffic

In the Swedish election for the

four seats.

On Oct. 13, 1994, British Environment Secretary John Gummer published the Environment Agencies Bill, which would combine the National Rivers Authority (NRA), the Inspectorate of Pollution, and local authority waste regulaEnvironmental groups said the bill its requirement that the agency take costs and benefits into account before tors into a single agency.

would weaken

existing legislation because of

exercising

powers.

its

The

NRA

issued a statement that

weak and unable to deliver It was particularly concerned

the proposed agency would be

promises made by ministers. that the agency's duty to conservation would be replaced by a duty to "have regard to the need for conservation" and objected strongly to the requirement that environmental improvement costs be justified in advance by benefits that

would accrue from them.

New

regulations to reduce pollution by vehicles were an27, 1995, by British Transport Secretary

nounced on Feb. Brian

Mawhinney

in

a speech to a conference organized by

the pressure group Transport 2000. Curbside checks would be introduced in 23 cities, covering all types of vehicles. Fail-

ure to comply with the regulations would lead to automatic prosecution and fines of up to £2,500. On June 13 Environment Minister Robert Atkins introduced powers, added as an

amendment

to the

bill,

allowing ministers to instruct

local authorities to establish car-free

zones or

fine drivers

of vehicles without catalytic converters entering cities when pollution levels were high. On July 25 Transport Secretary Sir George Young said spot checks over three months on

Enviroament: International Environmental Activities

more than 46,000 cars, vans, and taxis that the number causing unacceptable

in

23 towns showed

pollution had

more

than halved in a year. Prohibition notices were issued to 7.2% of the 4,203 light freight vehicles tested, 4.5% of cars, 4.1% of trucks, and 2.8% of public service vehicles.

The Environment Act became law on cal authorities to

monitor and curb

July 20, obliging lo-

air pollution.

of targets for substances harmful to health

A

new

set

—including ben-

197

light: Pollution in Eastern Europe.) The third Ministerial Conference of the "Environment for Europe" Process, held in Sofia, Bulg., on October 23-25, addressed environmental

challenges and opportunities facing the region and the

made in improving the European environment. At the conference a "debt for environment" agreement was signed between Bulgaria and Switzerland, under which Switzerland canceled some of the debt owed it by Bulgaria progress

zene, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, ozone,

in

and nitrogen oxides

The conference was attended by environment ministers from 57 countries, including the U.S., Canada, and Japan. Key donor agencies were also represented, including the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the U^J Economic Commission for Europe. An emergency was declared in Russia's northern Komi Republic in October 1994 when rain washed away a dike built to contain oil leaking from a badly corroded 19-year-

—^were being prepared, and the number

of monitoring stations was to be increased from 26 to 36 by the end of 1996.

The

announced a change make random checks at factories. In its annual report, published on July 21, the inspectorate said it responded to 2,200 reports of pollution incidents in 1994—95 and issued 106 prohibition, improvement, and enforcement notices, compared with 56 in 1993-94. Pollution complaints in England and Wales increased 30%. Eastern Europe. Since the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Eastern European countries had begun the arduous task of cleaning up environmental pollution. {See Spotin

British Inspectorate of Pollution

policy to allow teams of inspectors to

return for Bulgarian financial support for environmental

projects in Bulgaria.

old pipeline, spilling nearly 200,000 tons of crude.

Brent Spar During 1995 an abandoned North Sea oil-storage platform known as Brent Spar was at the centre of an international dispute over the safe disposal of waste material. In the spring,

members of

the environmental

group Greenpeace occupied Brent Spar for 23 days to protest the proposed sinking of the rig by its owner, the Royal Dutch/Shell Group. The British government was criticized at the North Sea Protection Conference, held in June in Esbjerg, Den., for granting permission for the platform to be towed from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and sunk in the 2,000-m (6,560-ft)-deep North Feni Ridge, which is part of the Rockall Trough and well clear of the continental shelf. The row erupted again later in June at the Group of Seven summit in

Nova Scotia, when German Chancellor Helmut Kohl raised the subject with British Prime Minister Halifax,

GREENPEACE— GAMMA

LIAISON

Water cannons spray the oil platform Brent Spar in the North Sea after an unnnarked helicopter delivered supplies to two Greenpeace activists. Greenpeace persuaded the Shell Oil Co. abandon plans to dispose of the platform by sinking it.

to

The

from the Arctic to refineries in central Russia, had ruptured in February 1994. When the cleanup halted at the onset of winter, Anatoly Yakovlev, of the Ministry of Protection of the Environment and Natural

pipeline, carrying oil

John Major, and other German ministers discussed

it

with their British counterparts.

The controversy continued cized Greenpeace campaign.

the platform as

it

as part of a well-publi-

Its vessel

moved north of

Altair

shadowed

the Shetland Islands,

and on June 16 two activists boarded it by helicopter. 66-m (218-ft) Greenpeace tug with a helicopter landing pad was also sent into the area. Environmentalists picketed Shell gasoline stations internationally, and in Germany six shots were fired at a Shell station outside Frankfurt and a Hamburg station was firebombed. Shell sales fell 15-20% in Germany. British, Danish, Dutch, and Swiss Shell stations were also picketed. The British government supported Shell, but the company backed down and said the platform would be dismantled on land. In July the Norwegian government agreed to store it for up to a year while Shell found a way to dispose of it, and the platform was taken to Erfjord, a deep inlet on Norway's west coast. As the year progressed, however, the issue proved to be more complex than first thought. Most scientists actually favoured deep-sea disposal, regarding disposal on land as more difficult and potentially environmentally hazardous. At a parliamentary briefing in July, John Krebs, director of the Natural Environment Research

Solo, a

Council, said the platform contained 68,000 metric tons

of concrete ballast chemically similar to rust, 100 tons of bituminous sludge, 30 tons of low-level radioactive scale,

and small amounts of heavy metals and poly-

chlorinated biphenyls, which would pose a negligible life. Greenpeace had claimed that the platform contained some 5,000 tons of crude oil mixed with radioactive waste and other contaminants. On

threat to marine

September 5, Greenpeace admitted its assessment had been incorrect and issued a public apology to Shell. In October an independent study confirmed Shell's original assessment. By year's end, the fate of Brent Spar remained undecided, but the possibility of deep-sea disposal had not been abandoned, (michael allaby)

198

Environment: Environmental Issues

Resources, said the extent of the contamination had not been determined, but the oil was almost entirely contained within a layer of swamp above the permafrost, and isolated from the water table, along a 51-km (1 km = 0.62 mi) stretch of the pipeline. Rivers were not seriously aifected, although a small amount of oil had been detected in the Kolva River. Aleksandr Avdoshin, of the Ministry of Civil Defense, Emergencies, and Natural Disasters, said 80% of the oil had been cleaned up, and there was no risk of polluting the Pechora River basin or the Barents Sea. On the other hand. Valerian Silabok, of the

Committee

for

Nature Protection at Usinsk, said the containment barrier was ineffective, the Pechora had been contaminated, and fishermen were removing large lumps of oil from the river. In April 1995 the World Bank approved loans of $99 million to the Komineft company that managed the pipeline to help mitigate the damage. The cleanup resumed in March 1995, but it was hampered by an early thaw and delays in reinforcing earth dikes to protect the Kolva River. A UN conference on the condition of the Aral Sea opened on Sept. 18, 1995, in Uzbekistan and was attended by delegates from littoral republics. They had inherited from the former Soviet Union financial responsibility for reversing environmental damage in the region. Formerly the fourth largest body of inland water in the world, the Aral Sea had shrunk to about half its original surface area, and its depth had decreased from 69 m (1 m = 3.28 ft) at the deepest point to 54 m, exposing about 36,200 sq km of the bed and almost tripling the salinity of the remaining water. Central America. At a meeting of the American Chemical Society, held in April at Anaheim, Calif., Donald Blake and Sherwood Rowland of the University of California, Irvine, reported that up to 25% of low-level ozone in Mexico City was produced by leaks of liquefied petroleum gas used for heating and cooking. Stopping all these leaks could reduce ozone levels by 25%. Asia and the Pacific. In December 1994 Chinese Premier Li Peng inaugurated the Three Gorges Dam, due to be completed in 2009, on which construction work had already commenced. The dam would power 26 sets of 700-MW turbines with a planned capacity of 18.2 gigawatts.

The

project

was budgeted at $22 billion to $34 billion, not all of which had been raised. Doubts also remained over how more than a million people living in the area to be inundated by the

600-km-long reservoir were to be relocated and how sewage contamination and sedimentation would be minimized in large cities upstream, including Chongqing. There were fears in India in July that a leak of cesium137 and other isotopes from the Tarapur nuclear-wasteimmobilization plant had contaminated wells and ponds around Ghivali, a village of 3,000 people about a kilometre away. The plant had been closed on April 15 when a leak of steam from defective pipes was discovered. Officials said the isotopes would be immobilized in the soil and any contamination would be negligible and harmless.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Climate Change. In September the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate (IPCC) made novel use of a World Wide Web page on the Internet to post a draft of its final report for "peer review." In the draft the panel concluded that the observed increase in global mean temperature of ().3°-0.6° C (0.5°-r F) was unlikely to be entirely due to natural causes. This was the first time climatologists had claimed to have detected a clear sign of global warming. A team led by Thomas Karl at the National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, N.C., combined data gathered since 1910 on summer droughts, wet winters, drenching

rainstorms, and other extremes of weather in the U.S. to

produce

Response Index. Karl reported in April had remained at a high level since the late 1970s. Although the trend to more unsettled weather over a 15year period did not prove global warming had begun, it a Climate

that this

revealed a pattern consistent with that possibility.

On

February

the 1992

(FCCC)

6,

delegates from the countries that signed

UN in

Framework Convention on Climate Change Rio de Janeiro met in New York City to pre-

pare for the

first full post-Rio meeting. That meeting, the Conference of the Parties {i.e., the 116 signatories that had ratified the Rio convention), opened in Berlin on March 28 and lasted two weeks. OPEC countries opposed the setting of targets for fear it would harm their oil revenues, and the 36 members of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) regarded a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by the year 2005 as only a first step. After all-night negotiations, agreement was reached on April 7 on the "Berlin Mandate," which accepted that the target agreed upon at the Rio Summit of returning carbon dioxide emissions to their 1990 levels in the industrialized countries by the year 2000 was inadequate and further reductions would be needed after 2000. A permanent secretariat was to be established in Bonn, Germany, with a staff building to 50 over two years, a £12 million budget over two years, and a negotiating group representing major power blocs, including AOSIS, OPEC, the EU, China, India, and some other less developed countries. The signatories to the FCCC would meet annually, and the negotiating group would report to the 1996 meeting. Firm proposals produced by then would be discussed at the 1997 meeting and, if approved, would become international law by 2000. The IPCC would remain

—

—

the principal advisory body.

Evidence emerged of the climatic effect of atmospheric May another study by Karl found that aerosols reduced temperatures by approximately 0.5° C (0.9° F) over the Northern Hemisphere, about equal to the global warming observed over the past century. A projection by the Hadley Centre for Weather Prediction and Research based at the U.K. Meteorological Office in Bracknell, Berkshire, England, suggested that the sulfate aerosol cooling effect would offset about 30% of greenhouse warming, but with no reduction in emissions, the atmosphere would warm by about 0.2° C (0.36° F) per decade. The combined effect of aerosols, increased mid-level cloudiness produced by them, and greenhouse warming were believed to account for the disparity between changes in maximum and minimum temperatures. Between 1951 and 1990 average daily maximum temperatures at the land surface increased 0.28° C (0.5° F) and average daily minimum temperatures by 0.84° C (1.51° F). Clouds reduce temperatures during the day and aerosols. In

them at night. was reported in March that an iceberg measuring about 78 by 37 km and 200 m thick had broken away from the Larsen Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula. Argentine scientists reported thai there was a 64-km crack in the shelf and that a channel had opened, allowing the circumnavigation of Ross Island at the tip of the peninsula. The calving was believed to be due to rapid warming in recent decades. Robert Crawford of the University of St. Andrews, Scotland, reported on March 22 that Blomstrandhaloya, an Arctic peninsula, had become an island because the ice linking it to the Spitsbergen mainland had melted. He found that flowering plants had colonized a larger area than ever before. Analysis of two consecutive series of data by a team at the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre in Bergen, Norway, reported in August, showed that since 1978 sea ice had been melting around Antarctica, and Arctic pack raise It

Environment: Environmental Issues

was melting

faster than pre2.5-4.3% per decade. Tree-ring studies by Keith Briffa ice

The

University of East AnNorwich, England, and col-

the

at

leagues in Switzerland, the U.S.,

and Russia showed

that

on

nitrogen

10%.

used nitrogen dioxide in the exhaust to oxidize carbon to carbon monoxide over a platinum catalyst, then oxidized carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and reduced

of the climate research institute glia,

90% and

emissions by

oxide emissions by about

viously, at

199

av-

filter

erage Siberian summers over the past 90 years were the warmest

nitrogen dioxide to nitrogen.

for 1,000 years.

pollution

Ozone Layer. The Second European Stratospheric Arctic

ropean

A

different

at

but

levels,

all

in

to

excep-

duration,

the Halley Research Station of

A

report

ture, published in July,

more than

by

Na-

found that

half the prime nature

Europe were being acid rain. The most affected area, where

reserves in

damaged by seriously

for

smog

On

levels

and more bus lanes and cywould be provided. The French Ministry of Environment cle paths

issued more than three times many ozone alerts in 1994 as

the size of Europe. Pollution.

5,

dards,

the preceding year, to twice

World Wide Fund

three city-centre hotels, free

they complied with emission stan-

America had fallen 10-15% since the 1980s and that the Antarctic "ozone hole" had doubled in size

Air

used

the pollution. Pollution forecasts

The World Meteorological Organization reported that ozone levels over Europe and North

the

vehicles

would be displayed publicly, cars would be checked to make sure

of their 1960s val-

ues.

in

except

free and public transport fares would be reduced or waived, depending on the seriousness of

the British Antarctic Survey were

40%

Eu-

several

reached high levels in England and Wales. In central London they were almost double the guideline limits. In Paris on July 25, Police Chief Philippe Massoni asked drivers to leave their cars at home over the weekend to reduce pollution. Mayor Jean Tiberi announced that when heavy pollution was forecast, city parking would be

10 years. Austral spring values at

than

traffic

May

and extent for each of the past

less

to

In an attempt to

minibuses, and delivery vans.

weather had

severity,

cities.

by residents or carrying tourists

caused a polar vortex to form. Thinning of the Antarctic ozone layer, beginning in October and lasting until February, was reported in August to have increased

summer brought

dry alerts

combat pollution, for four hours on the morning of April 10 the centre of Athens was closed to

and Mid-Latitude Experiment found that in the early spring of 1995, ozone levels at 16-18 km above the Arctic and northern Europe were 50% lower than any previously observed. It was not clear how much thinning was due to chemical depletion and how much to the mixing of air masses tionally cold winter

hot,

These two photographs show the effects of warming in Antarctica. The top photo, taken in January 1995, shows Ross Island (upper right), known for at least 100 years to have been connected to the Antarctic Peninsula by an ice shelf, now surrounded by water. The bottom photo, taken in February, shows a large iceberg (centre) that has broken off,

as in

1993 (1,316 against 357). Part of the increase was the result of a growth in the number of monitoring stations from 64 to 90, but even allowing for this the number at least doubled.

Fresh

PHOTOGRAPHS, BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY

Water.

A

The Lindsay Museum

study in

by

Walnut

more than 90% of ecosystems were being damaged, was in from Liverpool, England, to Moscow. The reduction of industrial emissions of sulfur dioxide was reported in September to be producing signs of sulfur

Creek, Calif., reported in late May, found that up to 70% of chemical pollutants in San Francisco Bay originated in ordinary activities rather than from industrial discharges. Pollutants included oil leaked from cars, dust containing copper

a belt stretching

deficiency in vegetation across Europe. Sulfur deposition

from brake pads, and garden

on fields fell by 80% from the late 1970s to 1995. Trees were dying, crop yields were falling, and crop diseases were increasing, with oilseed rape and other brassicas the worst affected. Grain crops, which are more tolerant of sulfur shortage than rape, were starting to show signs of distress. It was also possible that sulfur shortages were causing plants to emit smaller amounts of hydrogen compounds, such as

most extensive ever undertaken in the U.S., reported in September, the U.S. Geological Survey found that water in 9% of all domestic wells and 21% of shallow wells beneath farmland had more than the accepted safety level of 10 mg of nitrate per litre. Previous studies had found only 2.4% of wells exceeding the limit. The survey studied data from 1970 to

hydrogen sulfide, which reduce atmospheric ozone. This might make them more vulnerable to ozone damage and be linked to increasing ozone pollution. Buses in London, Lyons, France, and Dresden, Germany, were reported in November 1994 to be testing exhaustgas filters that might reduce small particulate (PMIO)

1992 and found nitrate levels increasing steadily in all wells where data were comparable throughout the period. Marine Pollution. Russian scientists warned in January that chemical weapons dumped off the British coast after World War II were in danger of leaking from their containers. The British Ministry of Defence said the weapons had

fertilizers

and

pesticides.

In a study of 34,000 water samples, the

Environment: Wildlife Conservation

200

been sealed

at depths of up to 6,000 m southwest of Land's End, 130

and sunk

in ships

four locations: 400

in

km

under

km

248

coast west of the Hebrides.

six

northwest of Northern Ireland, and two sites off the Armed Forces Minister Nicholas Soames said 120,000 tons of material, mainly mustard gas and phosgene, were disposed of between 1945 and 1949 and an additional 25,000 tons of British and German weapons, containing Tabun, were dumped in the Atlantic Ocean between 1955 and 1957. Weapons dumped in the Irish Sea were blamed in March for elevated levels of arsenic found in plaice caught in Liverpool Bay, and 700 containers, some of flares and some of blistering gas, had been washed up on the coasts of the former County Antrim, Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the west coast of Scotland. A European Commission report published on June 14 said that in 1994, 82% of water at 457 British bathing beaches met mandatory EU standards for coliform bacteria. In Germany the figure was 80%, in The Netherlands 63.5%, and in Ireland 100%. This was an improvement for the U.K., from 76% in 1991, but a rise in enteroviruses caused concern. Only 33.7% of British beaches met the more stringent guideline standards, compared with 91% in Greece,

89%

in Ireland,

Pesticides.

and

81%

in Italy.

In 1990 burbot

Yukon, were found

and trout

in

Lake Laberge,

to contain toxaphene, a volatile pesticide

Asia and Latin America, at 10 times Canadian health limits. Some burbot contained up to 2,330 parts per billion. It was reported in July that a Canadian

widely used

in tropical

at the

time of the accident.

among people in

Of

these cases, 170 were

14 and under at the time of the accident and

people over

km from

15. In Pripyat, 3.5

Chernobyl,

cases of thyroid cancer were found in 1990-92

among

14,580 people under 18 at the time of the accident.

(MICHAEL ALLABY)

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION community, the debate over the became both widespread and intense in 1995 as pressures increased on wild animals and their habitats. Conservationists were divided over the issue; some advocated that the sustainable use of a species can be used to ensure its conservation, while others argued that sustainable use can be a guise for exploiting wild animals with no conservation gain. This important issue was the In the wildlife conservation

sustainable use of wild species

focus of several articles published

in Or\'x (the

Journal of

Fauna and Flora International) during the year. The most dramatic example of this split in the conservation world was the case of the African elephant. Countries with elephant populations generally

fall

into

two groups:

those that believe that sales from ivory and other elephant

products should be used to raise revenue for conservation and those that argue that any resumption in trade would result in

an upsurge

in

elephant poaching. Since the ban on

international trade in elephant products

came

into force in

1990, a group of the former exporting countries had pressed

had Convention on Endangered Species of Wild Fauna

for a resumption in carefully controlled trade, but this

study had found that the pesticide resulted from air pollution, not dumping. Levels of toxaphene, polychlorinated

been

biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and heavy metals were higher in

and Flora (CITES). The ninth meeting, held in November 1994, was no exception. South Africa withdrew a proposal that would have allowed it to trade internationally in meat and hides from the hundreds of elephants that had to be culled annually in the Kruger National Park when it became clear that no other elephant range states would support it. Instead, the parties to CITES agreed to set up an intra-

northern than in southern lakes, seemed to be increasing, and according to David Schindler of the University of Al-

—

—

who led the study resulted from biomagnification. Toxic Wastes. Stanford University agreed in October 1994 to pay nearly $1 million in fines for mishandling hazardous-waste materials. The university would pay $460,000 berta,

in penalties to the state, $235,000 in costs, and $300,000 to environmental groups, after admitting liability for 40% of the 1,600 violations of which it had been accused. These involved spills of toxic material, mislabeling of containers, and inadequate waste storage between 1988 and 1992. A new containment technology was being developed in July at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, where compounds includ-

ing trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE) were leaching from a nearby military base. Migrating at one metre every two to three days, they had already forced the

closure of a well supplying to a nearby

25%

of the public water supply

town and were within 300

m

of another well.

The new technique involved sealing the contaminants inside a wall made from steel sheets sunk several metres into the ground and funneling groundwater into a small opening filled with sand mixed with iron filings. The iron would supply electrons to reduce chlorinated compounds, and a corrosion reaction would strip chlorine atoms from such compounds as TCE and PCE, breaking them into harmless ethene and ethane gases. Chernobyl. reported on March 25 that the screening of 70,000 children under the age of 15 had found an incidence of nearly one in 10,000 of thyroid cancer in the Homel region of Belarus, probably due to exposure to iodine-131. There was also a lOO-fold increase in northern Ukraine and an 8-fold increase in the Bryansk and Kaluga

WHO

regions of Russia. In a letter to the British Medical Journal,

Keith Baverstock, a

WHO

radiatit)n scientist,

and

his

colleagues said up to 2.3 million children may have been exposed. By the end of 1993, 418 cases of thyroid cancer

had been diagnosed

in

Ukraine

in

people aged

18

and

resisted at the biennial meetings of the

International Trade in

African assembly to review the issue of ivory stockpiles with the help of the African Elephant Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources Species Survival Commission (lUCN-SSC). On 9, 1995, Kenya burned 10 metric tons of confiscated

Feb.

ivory in a "reaffirmation of

phant." Kenya's

its

management

include culling.

To

elephants, the

Kenya

commitment

to save the ele-

policy for elephants did not

help reduce conflict between people and Wildlife Service established a Prob-

lem Animal Management Unit and adopted an early strike policy on marauding elephants to reduce human deaths. The situation did not improve for the tiger in 1995. Poaching accelerated, and there were extensive, well-organized illegal trade networks operating. Seizures by lawenforcement authorities showed that hundreds of tigers were being killed every year in India alone, primarily for use in traditional Chinese medicines. Peter Jackson, chairman of the lUCN-SSC Cat Specialist Group, said that the tiger would be virtually extinct in the wild by 1999 unless India and other range states declared open war on poachers and illegal traders.

Illegal

wildlife

trade

species adversely. In

continued

to

some countries of

att'ect

many other

the former U.S.S.R.,

poaching escalated, driven by economic problems and made easy by a breakdown in law enforcement and border controls. There were reports of snow leopards and lynx being poached for their skins and of argali (a species of wild sheep) being killed for their horns, as well as an extensive trade in rare amphibians and reptiles. In March poachers killed four mountain gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable I'ark in Uganda, probably to capture a young

Environment: Zoos

animal for the illegal trade. In 1995 only about 600 of these animals were left in the world. Until these deaths, the International Gorilla Conservation Programme (run as a partnership between the African Wildlife Foundation, Fauna and Flora International, and World Wide Fund for Nature) had been pleased to report that during the previous decade not one mountain gorilla was known to have been killed. This

was largely due to the efforts of the program and the commitment to the conservation of the gorillas and their habitat by the governments of Rwanda, Uganda, and Zaire. More deaths followed in August, this time in Zaire, where three more mature gorillas were killed in two separate incidents. A baby also was captured, but it was later found .abandoned and was restored to its family group. The gorillas that died were in two groups that were regularly visited by tourists, and the killings dealt a blow to gorilla-based tourism, which brought in much-needed foreign earnings. Gorilla protection was stepped up, especially in Zaire, where the national park, home to the gorillas, was being severely damaged because of

its

proximity to

Rwandan refugee camps.

In April Oryx carried the results of a survey that found that the saola, or spindlehorn antelope {Pseudoryx nghetinhensis),

also lived

which had been discovered in Vietnam in Laos. Plans were made to

extend conservation areas in its range. On June 16 more than 60 nations signed the Agreement for the Conservation of

Migratory Waterbirds under the Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Conservationists

welcomed

the agreement

but expressed concern that it allowed hunting of some birds that had uncertain conservation status. Several

new

species were described

a mountain goat (Pseudonovibos spiralis) from Vietnam, a nightjar (Caprimulgus solala) from

including

1995,

in

Ethiopia, a nighthawk {Chordelies

viel-

from Brazil, and a pygmy owl {Glaucidum parkeri) from Ecuador. Re-

liardi)

ported extinctions included the river pipefish from South Africa and the Formosan flying fox {Pteropus dasymallus formosus) in Taiwan. The last Spix's

macaw

{Cyanopsitta spixii) in the wild

a male in northern Brazil

—was

a mate (one of 30 or so

in

given

captivity)

hope

that they would breed. followed months of research and preparation by the Spix's in

the

The

release

Macaw Recovery Committee,

led by the

A golden conure {Aratinga guarouba) hatched at Sorocaba Zoo in Brazil, the first time that the endangered species had bred in a zoo. The birds continued to be captured illegally, however, with specimens smuggled out of Brazil fetching Brazilian wildlife authorities.

as

much

as $1,800 each.

The first comprehensive UN report on biodiversity, released on November 14, estimated that there were as many and plant species which only 1,750,000

as 15 million animal in the world, of

had been

identified.

A

minimum

of

5,400 animal species were considered

endangered.

(jacqui m. morris)

JESSIE

in

1992,

201

ZOOS The worst zoo tragedy in U.S. history occurred on Christmas eve when smoke from a fire in the World of Primates building at the Philadelphia Zoo, the nation's oldest, killed

—

six western lowland gorillas (including two inand an unborn fetus), three Bornean orangutans, four white-handed gibbons, six ring-tailed lemurs, two ruffed lemurs, and two mongoose lemurs. All were considered endangered species, and several were among the few remaining wild-born animals. The personal grief of the zoo staff' and the city's zoogoers was overwhelming, but the loss to the primate gene pool was especially catastrophic. In addition, the incident seemed likely to give added momentum to the animal rights activists, who recently had been instrumental in closing the Vancouver, B.C., zoo. In 1995 many "new zoo" programs designed to breed and preserve the various species were in place around the world.

23 primates

fants

The Europaisches Erhaltungszucht Programme (EEP)

co-

ordinated 112 species programs involving 117 species and 137 taxa. They also identified 26 working Taxon Advisory

Groups (TAGs) and 21 studbooks encompassing 29 taxa. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) ad-

COHEN— NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK/SMITHSONIAN

INSTITUTION

Washington, D.C., an animal moves over the Orangutan Transit System. The system permitted movement between the Ape House and a centre for experiments.

At the National Zoological Park

in

— Environment: Botanical Gardens

202

ministered 70 Species Survival Plans (SSPs) covering 117

They

species.

and

also coordinated 43

TAGs, 240 studbooks,

a variety of other scientific advisory groups. In 1995 the

AZA

formed a

field

conservation committee to focus the

Louis, received a grant to support the establishment of

American zoos and aquari-

and germination laboratory. The National Botanic Gardens in Limbe, Cameroon, opened a centre devoted to research and fieldwork based on the larger Mount

attention and energy of North

ums on

field

conservation efforts.

management programs based on the and SSP models were being developed to coordinate worldwide efforts to preserve species. In 1995 the Australian Species Management Program developed a zoo-collectionGlobally, species

EEP

planning software system for international circulation. Despite this emphasis on cooperative species manage-

ment, there was a shift in the overall planning process. Worldwide, there was a limited amount of space available to house the captive-bred animals, and native habitats were disappearing so rapidly that there was no real "wild" in which animals could be reintroduced. In order to address this, researchers began to develop programs that would encompass a more "holistic" approach to conservation of

endangered In

species.

some areas

the holistic approach also called for the

designation of a "flagship species" to represent a specific habitat. This concept is

ecosystem. For example,

if a conservation and education program was based upon the preservation of habitat for the giant panda, in theory not only would the panda be saved but so also would the other plants and animals that inhabit

the ecosystem.

World Zoo Organization (ofUnion of Directors of Zoological

In early October 1995 the

the International

Gardens) published Zoo Future 2005, an action plan derived from the 1995 Futures Search Workshop, held in Cologne, Germany. This innovative document outlined the "ideal future" for a world-class zoo, the constraints and opportunities, an ambitious plan of action, and task assignments. (jane coyle ballentine)

1995

Cameroon

Project.

Botanical gardens in Bonn, Germany, and Goteborg, Sweden, returned 150 clones of the extinct tree Sophora toromiro to Easter Island; the last such tree

emphasis was placed on

developing

networks

had been seen there in 5. toromiro were

1958. Worldwide, individual specimens of identified in a

number of

botanical gardens, increasing the

confirmed number of surviving trees. The Kings Park and Botanic Garden in Perth launched a new A$ 230,000 plan intended to conserve 11 endangered plants in that city and three Eucalyptus species elsewhere in the western part of the country. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, in conjunction with its regional office at Utrecht (Neth.) University Botanic Gardens, launched the Dutch Plant Charter Group as a forum for business and industry to lend support and voice concern for the conservation of plants.

(peter

J.

ATKINSON)

GARDENING In a rare coup, Salvia farinacea Strata, a newly introduced bedding plant, captured the triple crown of flower breeders in 1995. It won both the All-America Selections gold medal and the Fleuroselect (the European-based seed-testing cooperative) gold medal and was named 1996 Plant of the Year by the British Bedding and Pot Plant Association. This well-proportioned plant was 45-61 cm (18-24 in) tall and almost as broad, with thin, smooth foliage typical of its species. Its sweep of the awards was attributed to its entirely

new colour: bicolour flowers, with grayish white calyxes that contained mid-blue corollas just touched with white in the throat.

The All-America bedding

BOTANICAL GARDENS In

a seed-storage

advocated employing an animal that

well-loved by the general public to represent an entire

ficially

The centre would focus on education and conservation of native plant taxa outside their natural habitat. The Missouri Botanical Garden, St. botanical garden in Nairobi, Kenya.

plant winner was a cultivar:

Petunia Fantasy Pink Morn, which represented a new class of petunias called "milliflora." The pink flowers with creamy

resolution involved the creation of a Planta

white throats were small, 2.5-3.8 cm (1-1'/:: in), but in scale with dwarf plants that naturally grow only 30 cm (12 in) high and up to 45 cm (18 in) across. The natural growth habit of dwarfs was prized by growers, who were able to avoid the use of growth retardants to prevent crowding and stretching during plant production. This easy commercial production was not considered an referred to as pack performance

work

indicator of actual garden performance; however, garden

among

botanical gardens and organizations involved in the

research and protection of plants. That theme pervaded fourth International Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress, which was organized by Botanic Gardens Con-

the

servation International and held in Perth, Australia. At the

Planta Europa meeting in Hyeres, France, the principal to coordinate efi"orts to save

Europa NetEurope's wild plants and

—

Network was improve the effectiveness of botanical gardens in New Zealand. Celebrations were held marking the 50th anniversary of the Main Botanical Garden of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow. It was founded in April 1945 as a methodological and coordinating centre for the country's botanical gardens. In January a large electrical storm inflicted considerable damage on the Mt. Coot-tha Botanic Gardens, Brisbane, Australia; more than 100 mature trees were uprooted or snapped. In July the Montreal Botanic Gardens was the site of the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta annual conference, which highlighted the progress made in the biodiversity of plants in public gardens and ways in which public gardens could attract larger and more

maintenance probably would be minimized. Fleuroselect, which would also include pack performance as a criterion for future awards, decided to expand its testing program to North America but in a nonvoting form. The organization also announced that it would hold its 1996 meeting in California, the first time the event would convene outside Europe. Two other Fleuroselect gold medal winners were Ammobium alatum Bikini, rewarded for its compact habit, and Petunia x hybrida Lavender Storm, chosen for its tolerance

diverse audiences.

gardens.

their habitats.

formed

The Auckland

Plant Collection

to create a structure to

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, near London, secured £1.5 million from the Ministry of Agriculture to redevelop

the deteriorating Jodrell Laboratory and herbaceous green-

houses. Plans were developed to establish a

new

national

of rainy weather.

The Perennial Plant Association named Perovskia atriplicommonly known as Russian sage, its Plant of the Year. The specimen had a long growing season and light

cifolia,

blue flowers that added a striking ornamental effect

to

An Australian study that tracked the worldwide purchase of garden products found that middle-aged married couples with relatively high incomes purchased the largest number of garden products and did their shopping

at

independent

Fashions

garden centres, while retirees made the highest dollar volume of purchases at mass-market discount stores. In the U.S., where enthusiasm for gardening continued to grow, gardeners "chatted over the fence" by using such online services as America Online, Prodigy, and CompuServe. Such new software programs as Key Home Gardener, Design Your Own Home-Landscape, Landscape Design, FLOWERscape, Mum's the Word, and Better Homes and Gardens Complete Guide to Gardening moved gardening into the high-tech world of home computers. While some of the programs concentrated on hardscape aspects of landscape design (fences, patios, and decks), others focused on the plants themselves and included a database of hundreds of ornamentals, vegetables, trees, shrubs, herbs, and grasses. In Central and Eastern Europe the well-established practice of community gardening came into conflict with land privatization. In the Czech Republic many long-established garden communities found that their plots rested on land scheduled to be returned to those who owned the property before communist governments seized it. In Prague, where real estate values were high, those who had had ownership restored to them and wished to sell were not in a position to settle

with

of the current occupants.

all

insecurity for gardeners,

plot for food, to

The problem created their community

who depended on

and headaches for the government, which had

accommodate all interests. (shepherd ogden; kay melchisedech olson)

See also Agriculture and Food Supplies; Business and Industry Review: Energy; Life Sciences. This article updates the Macropcedia articles

Conservation of

Natural Resources; Gardening and Horticulture.

Academy Awards ceremony in Los Angeles, actress Uma Thurman wore a long lavender gown fashioned by Prada, the Milanese design house. Viscountess Linley appeared at Ascot in a lace dress made by French designer Herve Leger. In New York City, British actress Elizabeth Hurley wore a simple yellow Gianni Versace fitted couture suit to the ceremony at which she accepted the contract to represent Estee Lauder cosmetics. For the July 1 wedding in London of Marie-Chantal Miller and Crown Prince Pavlos of Greece, Valentino made 62 outfits for the wedding party, including the bridal gown. At the international shows it was clear that many designers had run out of original ideas after they delivered a chaotic series of ready-to-wear designs for spring/summer 1995. Though sharply tailored clothes could be found on runways in every fashion capital, refined, feminine looks were overpowered by gimmicky fads not fashion. The glamour of the '70s, an inspiration for autumn/winter 1994, was still a popular theme in Milan, where Bianca Jaggerstyle tuxedo suits, tube tops, and tight trousers appeared. Mariuccia Mandelli, the designer behind the Krizia line, celebrated 40 years in fashion by reviving the hot pants (short shorts) that she had made fashionable in the early '70s. Giorgio Armani in Milan and Valentino in Paris also reinvented them. Other retro influences included knee-length skirts and flimsy floral mid-calf-length tea dresses from the '40s. The design duo Dolce & Gabbana revived underwear as outerwear, pairing pencil skirts with bustiers. Also prominent was the corset, which appeared underneath sheer organza blouses as an evening look. Its structured shape also provided the basis for jackets and evening dresses.

—

In

Fashions Conservative chic

—the new

look for

and feminine

a pretty, elegant,

tailored yet luxurious clothes.

of 1994 was

still

new emphasis on

women

in

1995

style that featured

—was

simply

The dressed-up glamour look

popular but with a significant change

—

and early

Audrey Hepburn, model Suzy Parker, Princess Grace Kelly, and U.S. first lady Jacqueline Kennedy. Models Kristen McMenamy and Kate Moss, former grunge torchbearers, looked groomed and metamorphosed in the ubiquitous look a fitted, figure-hugging suit matched with such accessories as satin gloves, small earrings, a cabochon brooch, and a clutch purse. The deep red lipstick of 1994 was replaced by a shade of coral. Though some viewed conservative chic as a reaction to a political shift to the right in the West, the new mood was more a reflection of a change within the industry. For the '60s

as

actress

—

first

time

in

Paris

a

record 81

three decades, haute couture (the very costly

custom-made designs shown twice yearly in Paris) became the barometer of fashion change. Traditionally, styles worn on the street were the work of ready-to-wear designers. A renewed interest in the craft of couture accompanied the big news of the year Hubert de Givenchy's retirement after 43 years as designer in chief of his eponymous Paris fashion house. Givenchy's replacement, announced in July, was the 35-year-old Paris-based British designer John Galliano. His designs, mainly favoured by young women, would presumably attract a younger clientele to haute couture, traditionally patronized by older women. Even before Galliano's appointment, haute couture fashions were worn by young high-profile women. At the

—

international

designers unveiled

spring/summer collections, which resulted in fashion confusion. Retro styles borrowed from every decade of the 20th century mixed with elements of '70s glamour and bizarre manifestations of classic tailoring. Jean-Paul Gaultier mixed denim with early 20th-century tailoring, producing a Pygmalion-styled full-length frilled skirt and fitted jacket. Rifat

—

—

refinement.

At the Paris spring/summer haute couture shows, models parading down nearly every catwalk appeared in clothes reminiscent of those worn by such style icons of the 1950s

203

This Shetland coat from Prada's autumn/ winter line exemplifies

the sharply tailored style of

its

1995 fashions.

With traditional styling

combined

with

modern

sleekness, Prada continued to be highly influential. P

LINDBERGH— PHADA/GRAZIA NERI SRL

— 204

—

Fashions

Ozbek designed a neck

corset in rhinestones.

Underneath

At

mood

the autumn/winter men's collection, fashion's

Vivienne Westwood's knee-length wool and pique cotton skirts were metal "bum cages," her reinterpretation of the Victorian bustle. A number of designers in New York and Paris experimented with futuristic themes. Prada delivered such accessories as a clear-plastic purse in the shape of a shopping bag and shoes with high heels made from Perspex, both reminiscent of the space-age styles introduced by Andre Courreges in the late '60s. The London-based Canadian-born shoe designer Patrick Cox reintroduced jellies inexpensive, clear-plastic sandals popular in the early '80s adding high heels and glitter effects. Expanding on this theme, designers shaped traditional styles such as pantsuits and evening dresses from such high-

Decadent styles, deemed downright camp by many fashion critics, dominated runways in Milan, Florence, and Paris. Billowing shirts, big dark "Jackie O." sunglasses, floral silk head scarves knotted at the neck, and frilly shirts were the feminine influences designers felt were right for the '90s man. The focus changed during the international women's ready-to-wear shows for autumn/winter '95. Model Claudia Schiffer appeared on the cover of Time magazine in a fitted off'-white Versace skirt suit, displaying the "simply beautiful classics" designers had produced. Fashion's autumn/winter ready-to-wear designs were sensible and uncomplicated and followed the sober mood of

tech and synthetic fabrics as plastic, laminates, Lurex, and

the haute couture shows.

vinyl.

Donna Karan made

a

prom

dress from olefin-treated

paper (the same material used for FedEx envelopes), and Jil Sander used silk as lining for an iridescent nylon pantsuit. The international men's wear spring/summer collections delivered a range of upbeat but unorthodox clothes, with an emphasis on colour and texture. Casual looks such as trousers, sweaters, and jean jackets were made from satin, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and terry cloth. Pastel shades powder blue, candy floss pink, and light yellow appeared alongside stronger colours red, blue, and lemon yellow. Slim suits were cut from an iridescent fabric known as twotone. Such designers as Armani, Sonia Rykiel, Gaultier, and Dries van Noten produced the boxer-style zoofsuit, which

—

—

of frivolity

showed no

of abating.

sign

The

fitted skirt suit

reappeared

alongside the "boxy suit," an equally slim but squarely lored style. Both were more popular than pantsuits.

tai-

Winter coats and suits appeared in strong shades of camel, and navy, as well as tones of lavender and burnt orange. The designers that had experimented with high-tech fabrics just a season before opted for the pure, classic materials couturiers favoured cashmere, taff'eta, gazar, radzimir, and Harris Tweed. The stiletto, the shoe of 1994, was replaced by a demure low, slim heel a copy of the look Audrey Hepburn wore in the 1954 film Sabrina. A Breakfast at red,

—

—

Tijfany's-style cocktail dress,

made

in

light

shades of satin

and basic black, was the option for evening. In Milan and New York, mod was the inspiration for

'40s revival in women's wear, with its sixbutton double-breasted jacket. A general lack of consumer confidence in the West combined with news that women were losing all interest in

who copied the neat, clean style of dressing popularized by British middle-class youth during the '60s. Authentic mod looks such as hipster belts, mid-calf go-go

European women who disliked such elements of glamour as high heels and accessories, cast a scare

tailored pantsuits

throughout the industry. Though Clueless, a film about a crew of clothes-crazy Beverly Hills, Calif., teenage girls, was viewed as a sign that young people cared about high-fashion designs. Women's Wear Daily reported that U.S. teenagers were buying basics: overalls, flannel shirts, and backpacks. Shops selling such items the Gap, Urban Outfitters, and Eddie Bauer were quite popular among young people. As spring arrived, U.S. department stores reported a slump in the sale of dresses, due to both the cool weather and the new knee-length skirt, which was unpopular. Fortune claimed that a lack of strong, saleable fashion ideas had hurt retailers such as the Limited and Broadway. Department stores Bloomingdale's and Bergdorf Goodman reported that the sartorial elements of glamour satin clothes, kneelength slip skirts, corset jackets, and patent leather accessories intimidated female customers. Prada, controlled by Miuccia Prada and known as "the Gap for the superrich," was the choice for high-spending customers, both men and women. Prada was the first designer to use Pocono nylon (the material of military tents) to make such fashion items as handbags, trench coats, and knee-length skirts. Designers Donna Karan and Calvin Klein also used nylon. Prada, proclaiming that "dressing truly bad is an exclusive art," presented a collection that flew in the face of highfashion glamour. Idiosyncratic elements of style that could be labeled "bad taste" were prominent on Prada's seasonal runways: plastic handbags, white leather shoes for winter, and colour combinations of orange and brown. Her look proved popular; fashion magazines depicted high-profile actors, models, fashion editors, and photographers wearing the company's sharply tailored, stark styles adorned with Prada accessories. Prada's expansion throughout the year

produced by Versace and Calvin Klein, respectively. The hairdresser Garren cut Linda Evangelista's hair into a shape similar to the five-point geometric bob, a haircut

complemented the

fashion, especially

—

—

—

—

—

also reflected

its

popularity.

worth of $210 million.

—

The company reported

a net

designers

boots, checkerboard prints, collarless coats, and narrow-

Marc

were introduced by Gucci, Prada, and

Jacobs, as well as by Istante and

CK,

the diffusion

lines

originated in 1964 by Vidal Sassoon.

Leather, once reserved for hard-edged clothes worn by motorcyclists,

became

Leather appeared black

— and

a mainstay of the

in gentle

Anna

soft cuts.

colours Sui

new mod wardrobe.

—snow white and matte

made

black leather cocktail

dresses and white leather collarless coats.

Helmut Lang

created sexy belted trench coats from leather, and Karan

produced them for her DKNY line. Early reports on the sale of refined clothes were positive. Bloomingdale's and Saks Fifth Avenue both reported that sales of designer fashions were up from the previous year. The conservative mood stymied Calvin Klein's ad campaign for his signature line of jeans. He and photographer Steven Meisel had devised a print and television ad campaign that featured young male and female models (some nonprofessional) posing in suggestive positions. In August under pressure from retailers, TV stations, and watchdog groups Klein withdrew the campaign. Maurizio Gucci grandnephew of Guccio Gucci, the founder of the Italian fashion house of that name was assassinated in Milan by an unknown gunman. He was the last family member to work for Gucci before Investcorp, a Bahrain-based investment group, purchased it in 1993.

—

—

Maurizio's cousin Paolo died estate.

He had

left

—

in

October, leaving a tangled 1987 and declared

the family firm in

bankruptcy. The deaths underscored the financial ties this

difficul-

once family-run business had faced.

(bronwyn cosgrave) See also Business and Industry Review: Apparel. This article updates the Macropcedia article

Adornment.

Dress

and

Health and Disease

Health and Disease Celebrities attracted international attention to a variety of

medical causes

in

1995.

The announcement in late 1994 Ronald Reagan was suffering led to the establishment of a new

that former U.S. president

from Alzheimer's disease institute to conduct research into this brain disorder. Baseball legend Mickey Mantle's liver transplant and subsequent death promoted public awareness of the acute need for donor organs and the ethical issues involved in deciding who is to receive them. (See Obituaries.) Superman star Christopher Reeve's paralysis following a fall from a horse publicized the devastating consequences of spinal cord injuries. The murder trial of former football great O.J. Simpson focused attention on the problem of domestic violence.

A

deadly tickborne

illness

known

as

human

granulocytic

was reported in the United States, an outbreak of the killer Ebola virus surfaced in Zaire, and health officials from Central and South America launched an emergency ehrlichiosis

plan to combat a major epidemic of dengue hemorrhagic fever, which is spread by the Aedes aegypti mosquito.

Chronic diseases continued to take the greatest toll in the industrialized world, however. A mid-decade report from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services found that Americans were making progress in some respects (living longer, smoking less, and cutting deaths from heart disease, stroke, and alcohol-related automobile crashes) but that setbacks had occurred in efforts to reduce obesity and in the prevention of violence, teen pregnancy, and deaths from pneumonia and influenza. Genetics. The Human Genome Project, an international effort to identify and analyze the 100,000 or so genes that make up the entire human genetic complement, was progressing faster than expected. Laboratories in the U.S., France, and Britain reported that detailed mapping efforts already had determined the approximate location of about 75% of the human genes, and more than 50% had been sequenced {i.e., broken down into their constituent parts). Experts predicted that 99% of the genome may be sequenced by the year 2002. The first-ever sequencing of the full genome of a free-living organism, the infectious bacterium Hemophilus influenzae, was reported by J. Craig Venter {see Biographies) and co-workers. Efforts to isolate specific disease-related genes also raced ahead. Researchers at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio reported that the BRCAl gene, isolated in 1994 in women with a family history of breast cancer, also plays a role in the

form of the

more common nonfamilial

Another study found that a significant proportion of Ashkenazi, or Eastern European, Jews carry a particular mutation of BRCAl that puts them at a much greater than average risk of breast and ovarian cancer. British scientists announced in December the discovery of a second gene linked to breast cancer, BRCAl. Still another piece of the breast cancer puzzle may have been supplied by the discovery of the gene defect responsible for ataxia disease.

telangiectasia (AT),

order.

AT

first

a progressive, fatal neurological dis-

becomes apparent

toddlers. Afi'ected individuals,

as an unsteady gait in

who have two

copies of the

mutated gene, usually die in their teens or 20s. Carriers those who inherit only one copy of the mutated gene have three to five times the normal risk of cancer, and women who carry the mutated gene may have as much as six times the normal risk of breast cancer. About 1% of the U.S. population 2.5 million people may be carriers. Back-to-back reports identified two genes responsible for early-onset forms of Alzheimer's disease, which tend to run

—

—

—

205

in families. A University of Toronto team announced in June that a gene on chromosome 14 appears to be responsible for as many as 80% of familial cases. In August investigators from Seattle, Wash., and Boston simultaneously reported that a similar gene on chromosome 1 may account for most other such cases. Scientists hoped these findings would speed the understanding of all forms of Alzheimer's

disease.

In

New York

who cloned an

City, Rockefeller University investigators,

obesity gene in 1994, reported in July 1995

gene dramatically reduced mice after only two weeks of treatment. Additional research published in October suggested that the protein, dubbed leptin (from the Greek root leptos, "thin"), that the protein product of the

body weight

in

plays a role in regulating fat storage in the body.

The

first

clear evidence that a

gene plays a role

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus that usually develops in later

life,

(NIDDM),

in

non-

a disorder

was announced by

re-

searchers in France. Scientists in Sweden, France, and the U.S. reported in August that they had pinpointed another

gene that was associated with both obesity and earlier-thanusual onset of

NIDDM

Dean Hamer and

in

some

populations.

his colleagues at the National Institutes

of Health (NIH) confirmed and extended their 1993 work suggesting that a particular region of the X chromosome influences the development of homosexuality in males. Other "finds" included the gene believed responsible for Batten disease, the

most

common

neurodegenerative disorder

af-

a mutation that increases susceptibility to venous thrombosis (blood clots in the veins); and two genes flicting children;

known as long QT syndrome. Pioneering gene therapy protocols were evaluated and found to have produced mixed results. Treatment of a rare condition called adenosine deaminase deficiency was beneficial, while no therapeutic improvements were seen in pathat cause the heart disorder

Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Cardiovascular Disease. Although heart transplantation is an accepted procedure, its success is compromised in some recipients by the development of high blood cholesterol levels. Elevated cholesterol, in turn, may cause fatty deposits, blocking the coronary arteries and producing the symptoms that necessitated the operation in the first place. Researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, showed that the cholesterol-lowering drug pravastatin markedly reduces the risk of restenosis {i.e., renarrowing of the arteries) after heart transplantation. Patients given pravastatin had much lower cholesterol levels a year after transplantation than those not receiving the drug. They tients with cystic fibrosis or

were also much

less likely to reject their

their survival rate

was

new

hearts,

and

significantly higher.

Several studies raised concerns about the safety of calcium channel blocking drugs used in treating millions of patients in the U.S. and elsewhere with hypertension (high blood

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute issued a warning in September that one of these drugs, short-acting nifedipine, should be used with great caution, if at all, but declared that more research was needed on other calcium channel blockers. Evidence of the role of diet in cardiovascular disease continued to accumulate. A University of Washington study pressure) and certain heart disorders.

showed

that eating as

little

as

one serving per week of

"fatty" fish, such as salmon, tuna, or mackerel, can reduce

the risk of cardiac arrest. These kinds of fish are rich in

omega-3

fatty acids.

Another report from the same

tion concluded that folic acid, a

B

vitamin already

institu-

known

to play a part in preventing birth defects, also helps pre-

vent coronary heart disease. Paralleling an earlier finding

206

Health and Disease

S^ lip

spt

H Both of these mice have a defect

mouse on

If ob (for "obesity") gene. body weight in four and a

of the

the right lost nearly half

its

normal ob gene, the obesity were not yet clear, however.

After daily injections with leptin, the protein product of the half

weeks. The implications

for

human

JOHN SHOLTIS, THE ROCKEFELLER UNIVERSITY NEW YORK, NEW YORK

in women, a report by investigators at Harvard Medical School demonstrated that men who eat a diet high in fruits and vegetables have a significantly reduced risk of stroke

Although there was a 20% increase in TB incidence among immigrants from countries with high TB rates, new cases rose by 74% among people born in The Netherlands.

compared with men who consume

A study in New York City, a locale hard hit by the recent resurgence of TB, suggested that in that city, at least, the

less

of these antioxidant-

rich foods.

Cancer.

A

February by the National Cannew cancer cases in the U.S. had risen nearly 19% in men and 12% in women from the mid-1970s to the early '90s, largely because of more widespread early detection of prostate and breast cancers and increased incidence of smoking-related lung cancers. The rates of several less common cancers, such as nonHodgkin's lymphoma and skin, kidney, testicular, and brain cancers, also had increased. The form of leukemia known as adult T-cell leukemialymphoma, which is associated with a virus similar to the one that causes AIDS, is one of the most difficult cancers to treat. In 1995, however, studies in several hospitals in both France and the U.S. showed that alpha interferon, combined with zidovudine (which is also used to combat AIDS), was effective even in patients in whom conventional therapies had failed. Infectious Diseases. The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) increased in several countries, especially among economically disadvantaged groups. Research in England and Wales established that TB cases had risen by 35% in the poorest tenth of the population over four years and by 13% in the next two-tenths; there was no change in incidence among the remaining 70%» of the population. Investigators concluded that socioeconomic factors (such as crowded living conditions) were the major reason for the increase, the immigration of infected persons making only a minor report issued

in

cer Institute found that the rate of

contribution.

Physicians

in

The Netherlands expressed concern

that

TB

was spreading more rapidly than expected from high-

risk

groups to the general population. The number of cases in Amsterdam in 1995 rose by 37*"^ over the pre-

reported

vious year's total to reach the highest figure since

19ftf».

may have been

turned; reported cases had declined over a two-year period. Reasons for the change included measures to reduce the spread of infection in institutions such as jails and to ensure that patients complete tide

by

21%

the prolonged (up to one year) course of drug treatment.

Failure to complete antibiotic therapy was a factor continued spread of the disease, as well as in the

in

rise

the

of

drug-resistant strains of the tubercle bacillus. Strains of the bacillus insensitive to once-effective anti-

posed ongoing problems, howwas the emergence in New York

biotics such as streptomycin

ever. Especially alarming

City of organisms resistant to fluoroquinolones erto effective against tubercle bacilli that had

—drugs

become

hithresis-

tant to other agents.

The emergence of that causes

drug-resistant forms of a bacterium pneumonia. Streptococcus pneumoniae, aroused

particular concern

in

the U.S.

A

survey

in

metropolitan

showed that a quarter of the strains isolated from both children and adults suflering from invasive pneumonia were resistant to penicillin, formerly the first-choice antibiotic for this disease. This finding prompted calls for more widespread use of the vaccine against pncuinonui. Studies published during the year confirmed thai combination therapy is more effective than monotherapy {i.e., use of a single drug) in combating HIV. Scientists at WellAtlanta, Ga.,

,S'.

come Research Laboratories in Kent, England, found that when the drugs AZT (zidovudine) and 3TC (lamivudine) were administered together, they were far more efl'ectivc in reducing the level of circulating virus particles and protecting vulnerable immune cells than either drug used singly. Patients were also less likely to develop drug resistance. In

November 3TC was approved name Hpivir.

trade

for sale in the U.S.

under the

Health and Disease

A new class of anti-HIV drugs, called protease inhibitors, was showing promise in clinical trials. These agents attack the virus at a different stage in like

AZT.

In a finding that

its

life

based on a 1992 government survey of 12 to 21

showed

more

that

than one-fourth were current smokers, one-fourth said they

AIDS

had indulged in "binge drinking" (five or more drinks in a row), one in 10 had smoked marijuana, and one in 7 had carried a weapon in the previous month. Six out of 10 never-married youths had engaged in sexual intercourse. In August the administration of Pres. Bill Clinton launched an unprecedented attack on teen smoking, proposing curbs on advertising and vending machine sales and mandating new antismoking education campaigns. Tobacco companies responded by taking the government to court. Women and Infants. An international consensus emerged as to the most effective way of dealing with eclampsia

had implications

for both

Mac-

farlane Burnet Centre for Medical Research in Victoria,

November that they had found a genetically weakened strain of HIV in a small cluster of patients who remained healthy despite having been

Australia, reported in Science in

more than

in July

more than 10,000 youths aged

cycle than drugs

vaccine and drug therapy research, researchers at the

infected for

published

207

a decade.

Health Behaviours. Male former smokers gain about 4.5 kg (10 lb) and females 5 kg (11 lb) in the decade after they quit, but according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the decline in smoking in recent years accounted for less than one-fourth of the overall weight gain in the U.S. population in the 1980s. During this period the proportion of Americans who were overweight rose nearly 10% in men and 8% in women. U.S. teenagers were engaging in unhealthy behaviours in greater numbers than before and at ever-younger ages. Data

the occurrence of convulsions (not attributable to a condition such as epilepsy) in

women who

develop high blood

pressure during pregnancy. In what the British Medical Journal described as "the most important obstetric

trial

of the

20th century," researchers at 23 centres in eight countries assessed the different therapies currently in use worldwide

New, Resurgent, and Surprising Viruses The

smallest of the microbes, the viruses, provoked the

greatest concern in 1995. Australian scientists reported in

April that they had identified the cause of a puz-

zling 1994 outbreak that killed several horses trainer.

The

culprit

was

a

new

virus, a

and

member

their

of the

family that includes the measles virus and the organism

responsible for canine distemper.

epidemic of Ebola virus in Africa prompted increased awareness of the potential dangers of so-called hot viruses, which cause deadly and virtually untreatable diseases in humans and other animals. Between January and April, 189 people in southwestern Zaire developed an acute illness marked by fever, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea. About a third of them died. Epidemiologists from the World Health Organization (WHO) soon incriminated the Ebola virus and initiated CHRISTOPHE CALAIS—GAMMA UAISON In

the hospital

began

in April,

in

Kikwit

where

Zaire's outbreak of the Ebola virus

patients try to protect themselves by covering their

was only

the fourth recorded outbreak of the virulent disease, which killed as many as 90% of those who contracted It

to prevent further spread of the infection.

WHO

By August, when announced that the epidemic was over, 315 people had become ill, and 77% of them were dead. In 1989 a fatal disease among laboratory monkeys imported into the U.S. from the Philippines had been linked to an Ebola-type virus. In their search for the

An

faces.

measures

it.

origin of the Zaire outbreak, the

WHO

investigators

captured over 3,000 birds, rodents, and other animals, plus several thousand insects, but failed to pinpoint the source of the virus. Firm evidence of a link between primates and Ebola virus infection in humans did come to light, however. In May French scientists reported that they had isolated a new strain of the virus from a researcher who became infected in Cote d'lvoire while performing an autopsy on a chimpanzee. The troop in the wild to which the animal belonged had recently been decimated by a hemorrhagic disease similar to that caused in humans by the Ebola virus. That even relatively familiar viruses are capable of surprises was underlined by a report from Sweden of the mysterious spread of hepatitis C virus among 37 patients in a hospital ward. Although this virus is usually transmitted by intravenous drug abuse or through contaminated blood or donor organs, the Swedish scientists were convinced that it had not been spread via the usual routes or as a result of any lapse in hygiene. They concluded that the virus had been transmitted by some other, as-yet-unrecognized route possibly through the air. Another surprise in 1995 was the publication of research from London and Glasgow, Scotland, indicating that childhood diabetes is related to infection with Coxsackie B viruses (relatives of the poliovirus). Although diabetes involves a genetic predisposition, environmental factors are also thought to play a role. The researchers found the genetic material of Coxsackie viruses in blood samples from 9 of 14 children at the onset of diabetes but in only 2 of 45 healthy children. This finding did not prove causation but was highly

—

suggestive.

(Bernard dixon)

— Health and Disease: Mental Health

208

and concluded that magnesium sulfate (rather than the formerly widely used phenytoin or diazepam) should be the treatment of choice in the future. In the wake of complaints that the medical problems of

women had

received short shift in the past, basic and clinical

women's health continued to grow. Harvard Medical School study of more than 115,000

In additional developments worthy of note: • Investigators at Boston University School of Medicine found that excessive vitamin A intake more than 10,000 international units per day (the amount found in two to

—

three multivitamin

pills)

—

pregnancy increases the

early in

research in the field of

risk

A

• Epidemiologists comparing 200 infants who had died of sudden infant death syndrome, or SIDS, with 200 healthy controls found that exposure to secondhand smoke was strongly associated with sudden unexplained death in other-

women found

that even being mildly to moderately over-

of birth defects.

is hazardous to health. In this study a gain of 6.8-9.1 kg (15-20 lb) after age 18 was associated with an increased risk of heart attack in later life. Even being of "average"

wise healthy babies.

weight increased a woman's risk of dying prematurely. As a result of these and other data, government agencies were

• study from the University of Kentucky suggested that soy protein can lower elevated blood cholesterol levels, es-

revising

pecially levels of

weight

A

—downward—the weight guidelines for

three-year

NIH

study of healthy

adults.

women aged

45 to 64 found that taking any one of four hormone regimens significantly increased blood levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), the "good" cholesterol, and decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL), the harmful form.

been shown

HDL

increases had

reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, the number one killer of men and women alike in most Western countries. Women who took estrogen alone (as opposed to a combination of estrogen and progestin) had to

A

•

An NIH

trial

LDL. demonstrated that daily doses of hydroxy-

urea, a drug used for

some

years to treat certain cancers,

reduced the number of painful episodes in patients with sickle-cell disease. Those taking the drug also required fewer hospitalizations and fewer transfusions than significantly

their untreated counterparts.

• One of the

largest studies ever to evaluate air quality in

the U.S. concluded that the risk of death was

those cities with the dirtiest

air.

15%

The higher death

higher in

rates

were

the greatest heart benefits but were also at increased risk

attributed to the respiratory effects of microscopic particles

women who still had a uterus were advised to opt for combination therapy. Studies evaluating the breast cancer risk of hormone replacement therapy came to conflicting conclusions. Data

automobile exhaust and industrial emissions. • A team led by scientists at Yale University School of Medicine confirmed what many had long suspected that men and women think differently. The Yale investigators used functional magnetic resonance imaging to compare the brain function of men and women while reading; they found that male and female subjects used different parts of their brains while performing the task. • A report from Denmark indicated that drinking wine but not beer or liquor reduces the incidence of deaths from all causes. The beneficial effects were particularly evident with respect to mortality from cardiovascular disease. • Scientists at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City announced that they had slowed the growth of prostate cancer in laboratory mice by cutting the amount of fat in the animals' diets. They reduced the percentage of fat the mice consumed by nearly half, to 21%. (The average American diet is about 36% fat.) • The first vaccine to prevent chicken pox was licensed for use in the U.S. The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices of the U.S. Public Health Service recommended that all children be immunized between 12 and 18 months

of uterine cancer. Thus,

from the Nurses' Health Study, a long-term epidemiological investigation of more than 100,000 female nurses, found a slightly increased rate of breast cancer among women who used hormones for five or more years after menopause. A smaller study published almost simultaneously found no link

between hormone use and breast cancer. A survey commissioned by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation found that the number of U.S. doctors, particularly younger ones, willing to do surgical abortions was declining. Overall only about one-third of practicing obste-

trician-gynecologists said they currently

performed such pro-

cedures. These findings gave added impetus to the search for

nonsurgical approaches to ending early-stage pregnancies.

September the New York City-based Population Councompleted the clinical part of a U.S. study that could clear the way for government approval of mifepristone, or In

cil

RU

486, an abortifacient drug already used extensively in

Europe. Calling

it

a

"silent

Medical Association physicians

violent

(AMA)

epidemic,"

issued

new

the

American

guidelines to help

become more involved in preventing and treating The AMA said that about 6 out of 10 female

sexual assault.

victims were under age assaults

18,

and three-quarters of sexual

were committed by someone known

to the victim,

such as a friend, acquaintance, partner, or family member. Male victims represented only about 5% of reported sexual assaults.

Other Developments. A clue to understanding and treatsyndrome (CFS), a puzzling condition most common in young women but also found in men and women of all ages and occasionally reported in localized outbreaks, came from two small studies at Johns Hopkins ing chronic fatigue

in

—

—

of age.

MENTAL HEALTH Depression, suicide, suicidal behaviours, and other psychosocial

disorders were

all

increasing rapidly

among young

people throughout Europe and North America, according to a major international survey conducted in 1995. The study group, chaired by Sir Michael Rutter of the Institute of Psychiatry at the University of London, could find no clear explanation for this growing problem, which was accompanied by similar trends in alcohol and drug dependence. Virtually the only area of mental health that did not show unambiguously worsening figures among teenagers

was

that of eating disorders.

The survey

also indicated that

Md. Doctors identified an abnormality in blood pressure regulation, known as neurally mediated hypotension, that may increase an individual's vulnerability

the incidence of suicide, substance abuse, and crime was

CFS. Preliminary results suggested that drugs to treat the abnormality and increased salt in the diet could help reduce CFS symptoms. A larger government-funded study was planned for 1996. (BERNARD DIXON; CRISTINE RUSSELL)

among

Hospital

to

in

Baltimore,

particularly high

disorders,

and

among

males, whereas depression, eating

suicidal behaviours

were especially prevalent

females; however, the male and female rates for

depression, substance abuse, suicidal behaviours, and crime

were beginning to converge.

From

appeared no more United Nations head-

a global perspective, the outlook

optimistic. In a report issued in

May

at

209

Health and Disease: Veterinary Medicine

New York City, a team of health authorities from 30 countries warned that increasing rates of mental illness in less developed countries threatened the social stability of the Third World. The group cited not only neuropsychiatric disorders such as epilepsy and schizophrenia but also behavioral problems such as substance abuse and violence. It noted that war and political upheaval were responsible for an increased risk of depression, anxiety disorders, and other forms of mental distress among the world's more than 40 million refugees and displaced persons. Concern about rising suicide rates among men under 35 quarters in

Europe prompted researchers

in

in

Helsinki, Finland, to

assess the incidence of mental disorders in such individuals.

more of these men had compared with those aged 35-59 who had committed suicide. The latter had higher rates of alcohol dependence and depression. The prevalence of psychotic disorders in the under-35 age group was much higher (25%) than in previous studies in similar groups in Canada (9%) and in Sweden and the U.S. (17%). However, the prevalence of personality disorders (43%) was about the same as in earlier surveys conducted elsewhere.

The

results

showed

in

Edinburgh reported a disturbing trend

the rate of suicide during the

in

28 days after discharge from psychiatric hospitals in Scotland during the years 196892. They found that although the incidence of suicide had declined by

40% among

among female

first

discharged male patients, the rate

patients had almost trebled.

The

investigators

pointed out that this development had occurred during a period when mental health services had changed from largely institutional to

number of by 60%. the

A

predominantly community-based programs, psychiatric beds for adults having declined

strong association between suicide and parasuicide (an

act of self-injury not motivated

by a genuine desire to die)

emerged from work carried out in Bristol, England. Despite the difference in motivation between the two types of acts, socioeconomic deprivation emerged as a common element. A report by the Royal College of Psychiatrists and Royal College of Physicians of London focused on the importance of paying attention to the psychological needs and difficulties

of medical patients. People with appreciable physical

illness

have

at least

twice the rate of psychiatric disorder of

the population at large, yet

appropriate services to

many

assist

hospitals

fail

to provide

with these problems, which

include depression, mood disorders, and cognitive impairment. In addition to citing direct benefits to the patient, the report included evidence from the U.S. of economic benefits for example, orthopedic patients in the U.S. who received psychiatric counseling had shorter hospital stays than those not offered such assistance. The report advocated

—

integrated physical and psychiatric care for

all

patients with

significant physical illness.

Research published during the year contributed to the understanding of auditory verbal hallucinations ("hearing voices") in patients with schizophrenia. psychiatrists

and neurologists

in

The

New York

became

active.

cinators and the controls

may

simply be unaware of having them.

(BERNARD DIXON) Mental Disor-

This article updates the Macropcedia article ders and Their Treatment.

Japan was host to the 1995 World Veterinary Congress in September. The event, which was opened in Yokohama by Emperor Akihito, attracted representatives from 82 countries. The emperor noted that veterinary scientists, with their deep understanding of and rich experience with animals, had provided "many suggestions regarding the optimal relationship between human beings and animals." Speakers included Jean Blancou of the International Office of Epizootics, who reviewed the often devastating consequences of past disease outbreaks associated with the movement of animals between countries. As international trade in animals and animal products was likely to increase as a result of the newly established World Trade Organization, Blancou observed, a strengthening of veterinary surveillance arrangements and increased research on animal vaccines were called for. At the World Small Animal Veterinary Association Congress, which was held concurrently, the association's president, Peter Bedford of London, announced that the group's Eastern Europe continuing education program, which aimed to update veterinarians in former Eastern bloc countries, would be extended to help less developed nations elsewhere.

Bovine viral diarrhea is a disorder that affects cattle worldwide and has serious adverse effects on health and productivity. The virus is passed from dam to fetus in the womb, and the calf is born with the infection. Calves often show no signs of disease until they acquire a form of the virus that rapidly causes mucosal disease and death. In the absence of any effective treatment, vaccination of female cattle before they are bred has been recognized as the route to control. Live vaccines have been developed and used in some countries, including the U.S., but have not eradicated the problem. In 1995 a new inactivated vaccine was shown to protect heifers exposed to the virus, and calves subsequently born to them, unlike control animals, were free from infection. The production of identical calves potentially would be valuable to the livestock industry by increasing the

number

of offspring from high-quality parents and to scientific re-

and cell-division techniques have been used to this end, but the maximum number of calves produced by these methods was three. In 1995, however, W.H. Johnson and colleagues at the University of Guelph, Ont., succeeded in producing four identical calves from a single embryo. The embryo was divided at the fourcell stage and transferred to two recipients, which resulted in the births of two sets of identical twins four genetically

The procedure showed

when

VETERINARY MEDICINE

search by providing genetically identical animals for compar-

that

they were asked to "think

There were differences, however, when the were asked to imagine sentences being spoken in another person's voice^a task that required them to both subjects

sources, or they

investigators,

there were no diff"erences in blood flow between the halluin sentences."

in monitoring inner speech. Those who are affected may misperceive such verbal thoughts as coming from external

City and Lon-

don, used brain scanning to study patients with schizophrenia who complained of hearing voices. They also studied schizophrenics who did not hear voices, as well as a group of normal, healthy individuals (controls). The scans were designed to reveal alterations in blood flow as various parts of the brain

gested that a predisposition to "hearing voices" is associated with a failure to activate areas of the brain that play a role

that significantly

suffered from a psychotic illness,

Researchers

generate and monitor so-called inner speech. In the latter case one brain region in the hallucinators functioned normally, but abnormally low responses occurred in two other regions, which were activated in both the controls and the nonhallucinating schizophrenics. This finding strongly sug-

ative studies. Embryo-transfer

—

identical animals.

(edward boden)

See also Life Sciences: Molecular Biology. This article updates the Macropcedia articles Diagnosis

and

Therapeutics; Disease; Infectious Diseases; Medicine.

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement

210

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement LAW There were two dominant themes in international law in 1995: adjudication and the United Nations. In the background was the steady development of regional economic

World Trade Organization's new Dispute Settlement Body was completed by the swearing in of the seven members of its appellate body in mid-December. The newly created Court of Conciliation and Arbitration of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe held its first meeting in Geneva in May. The entry into force of the Law of the Sea Convention in November 1994 paved the way for

Law members of

the establishment of the International Tribunal for the

of the Sea, with the parties agreeing that the

organizations, as well as treaties containing laws governing

the tribunal would be appointed in August 1996 and hold

the conduct of private parties. In spite of the occasional

their

eruption of violence between nations and the insistent re-

U.S. proposal at the

fusal of the U.S. to subordinate itself to international struc-

tures or to external adjudication, a powerful impression

was emerging

members of tional law

that the old sovereign separateness of the

the family of nations, on which classic interna-

had been based, was being diluted

as part of the

process of constructing a genuine world order. In addition, international law

was

altering

its

character to

become more

of a mix of public and private law, matching the change

in

international conflict from military to political-economic.

By mid- 1995 the InternaCourt of Justice had a load of 13 pending cases, including two requests for advisory opinions, submitted by the World Health Organization and by the UN General Assembly, on the legality of the use of nuclear weapons. International Adjudication.

tional

Of

the 13 cases,

one involved the lawfulness of Indonesia's

occupation of Timor Timur (the former Portuguese colony of East Timor). Portugal claimed that Indonesia was not entitled to conclude a treaty on behalf of Timor Timur. The court, however, held that it had no jurisdiction and dismissed the case. The decision by France to carry out a series of nuclear tests between September 1995 and May 1996 on Mururoa atoll in the Pacific led to an action brought in August by New Zealand, seeking an examination of its legality in accordance with the court's 1974 judgment in the Nuclear Tests Case between the same parties. That case had involved atmospheric tests, whereas the present test series was to be carried out underground. Because there was no link between the 1974 undertaking and the present tests, the court said that it had no jurisdiction to consider the matter, and the action was dismissed.

The court accepted jurisdiction in Qatar v. Bahrain in February 1995, following an interim judgment the previous July, in a case related to maritime limits. Despite Bahrain's objections, the court held that it had jurisdiction over the dispute and that the relevant texts allowed either party to make a unilateral application, so Bahrain's consent was not necessary. The other cases pending before the court included Iran v. U.S. (aerial incident of July 3, 1988), GuineaBissau V. Senegal (sea boundaries), Libya v. U.K. and Libya V. U.S. (Lockerbie air disaster), Iran v. U.S. (oil platforms), Hungary v. Slovakia (Gabcikovo-Nagymaros river diversion), Cameroon v. Nigeria (land and sea boundaries), Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (genocide), and Spain v. Canada

first

organizational session the following October.

Group of Seven summit

A

mid- 1995 for an international bankruptcy court did not, however, find broad favour. The established European courts continued to work through their ever-increasing caseloads. The Court of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) lost three of its members at the beginning of the year when Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the European Union, but the court continued with its 1994 judges (except for the Finnish president, who became a judge on the European Court of Justice) until the end of June 1995 in order to clear up outstanding cases. Thereafter, it was reconstituted with only three judges (Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein, the last having joined the European Economic Area and hence the EFTA Court two months earlier). The court also moved its headquarters to Luxembourg. Other Issues. That not all disputes were susceptible to peaceful means of settlement was shown when a sudden border war flared up between Peru and Ecuador in January over a 77-km (48-mi) stretch of disputed land along the Cenepa River. The hostilities, which involved ground and air troops, were ended by a treaty signed in Brasilia, Brazil, on February 17 providing for negotiations toward a definitive agreement on the frontier. Tension also increased during the first half of the year between China and the Philippines in relation to the long-running dispute regarding sovereignty over the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea. {See Spotlight: The Spat over the Spratlys.) Growing concern over the effects of antipersonnel mines left strewn over battle areas, which kill and injure civilians for years after the end of hostilities, found expression in a large number of resolutions and proposals. The one serious attempt to deal with the problem, by banning their manufacture and use, was discussed at a UN conference in Vienna during October, but there was no agreement. Other events of the year included a memorandum of understanding issued in March on an interorganizational program for the management of chemicals that was stimulated by the UN Conference on Environment and Development. Russia adopted a new law on international treaties in June, and a treaty was signed

in

in

April between Cambodia,

Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam on cooperation for the sustainable development of the

Mekong

International Criminal Courts.

River basin.

The

International

War

replaced Sir Robert Jennings on his retirement. Another

Crimes Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, established at The Hague in 1994, began work in earnest during 1995. The trial of the one defendant who was actually in custody, Dushan Tadic, which was to have started in November, was postponed to May 1996 at the request of his counsel in order for defense witnesses located in Bosnia and Herzegovina to be contacted. The tribunal began public hearings

highly respected veteran of the court, Roberto Ago, died

of witnesses

during the year and was replaced by Luigi Ferrari-Bravo, who had been head of the Italian legal team at the Euro-

ration for the issuing of international arrest warrants, to

(fishery jurisdiction).

Like the rest of the United Nations, the court celebrated anniversary in 1995. It renewed the mandate of its

its 5()th

special

1997.

The

judge, Rosalyn Higgins,

who

chamber on environmental matters

court received

its first

woman

pean Court of Justice. Apart from the already-existing regional ber of

new

initiatives

came

until

tribunals, a

numThe

to fruition during the year.

in

connection with other suspects

in

prepa-

include Radovan Karadzic and Gen. Ratko Mladic, the civil and military leaders, respectively, of the Bosnian Serbs, and Dario Kordic and Gen. Tihomir Blaskic, leaders in Croat-

held Bosnia.

The

tribunal expressed fears that the financial

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement

United Nations as a whole was facing view of the high expenses involved in tracking down witnesses and difficulties that the

would

affect the tribunals efficacy, particularly in

defendants.

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda was running about a year later than the Bosnia tribunal. With the same prosecutor, Richard Goldstone, and the same appellate body, it was formally inaugurated in The Hague in June. Its operational premises were relocated to Arusha, Tanzania, where, having adopted its rules of procedure, it

211

because conjugal visits, for example, broke the Moreover, if trials were not televised, many argued, there would be less need to shield a jury from the media, since television tended to generate an excessive amount of other media interest. In addition, some experts claimed that televised trials encouraged posturing by lawyers and judges and thus inevitably lengthened proceedings. More important decisions from a legal point of view were handed down by tribunals in various countries. As usual, isolation

seal.

these cases centred

on questions of sex and age discrimina-

expected to be ready to hold hearings by the end of the year. By the end of the autumn, it was facing difficulties over funding, bureaucratic cooperation, and inexperienced

and politics. Only one prominent case involving abortion was handed down in 1995. The Supreme Court of Ireland rendered an

governments were being less coand one, Kenya, was openly hostile, refusing to hand over any Rwandan suspects and threatening to arrest any tribunal investigator entering the country to serve a summons on behalf of the tribunal. A number of prosecutions for war crimes in Bosnia and Ethiopia took place before national courts. The New Zealand International War Crimes Tribunal Act of 1995 provided for assistance not only to the two tribunals on Bosnia and Rwanda but also to any other ad hoc tribunal

advisory opinion to the country's president that the Regulation of Information Act, dealing with providing information for abortion services abroad, was constitutional. The court

investigators. In addition,

operative,

that the

UN

Security Council might institute in connec-

tion with other violations of international humanitarian law.

Proposals for a permanent international criminal coort continued to be made, based on the draft statute for a criminal

produced by the International Law Commission in (NEVILLE MARCH HUNNINGS) Other Court Decisions. People around the world in 1995 watched the televised trial of former football star O.J. Simpson, who was found not guilty of charges that he had murdered his former wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her acquaintance Ronald Goldman. The verdict was celebrated by many black Americans and condemned by a majority of whites, but there was general agreement that the state of race relations in the U.S. had been highlighted by the case. The racial composition of the jury convinced many in the legal community from the start that conviction would not be possible, no matter how strong the evidence of guilt, estribunal

1993.

tion, civil rights, the regulation of business,

was permissible in Ireland when had been established as a matter of probability that the life of the pregnant woman could be saved only by a termination of the pregnancy. In U.S. v. X-Citement Video, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of also ruled that abortion it

the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation Act, which banned the interstate shipment of child pornography. A majority on the court found that the act required proof of "scienter" that is, knowledge by the defendant that the person performing the pornographic act was a minor and that it was reasonable to read the statute as containing such

—

—

a requirement. In R.

V.

Ministry of Defence, ex parte Smith, an Engl-sh

divisional court held that the policy of dismissing

uals

from the armed

homosex-

forces, while not related to national

security, was, nevertheless, not

unreasonable and did not

violate English constitutional principles or Article 8 of the

European Convention on Court, in Hurley

v.

Human

a blow to claimants of

The U.S. Supreme Gay Group, also dealt

Rights.

Irish-American

homosexual

rights by declaring un-

constitutional a Massachusetts law that required a private

parade sponsor to include, as marching units, organizations of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals. The court said that the law violated the free-speech rights of the sponsor, in this case an

pecially after testimony indicated deep-

seated racism in the Los Angeles Police

NAJLAH FEANNY— SABA

Department. Whatever the correctness of this view, it convinced some that justice might be better served by adoption of the approach taken in most

A crew

European countries of letting a pane! of judges decide at least major criminal cases.

In the Simpson case the jury was sequestered from family members and the public so as to shield it from media

coverage.

The confinement

lasted 266

days, believed to be a record in the U.S.

Some

legal

scholars

blamed the long

confinement for the quick verdict, with deliberations lasting only four hours. In

view the jury was tired of the case to get it over with as quickly as possible. Others, however, were of the opinion that the jury had decided the case long before it ended and had this

and wanted

no need

to sort

through the mountain it. In any case,

of evidence entrusted to

many

scholars believed that sequestra-

was a bad idea that rarely, if ever, should be used. They pointed out that tion

it

did not necessarily provide airtight

prepares

for

work on an

programs must be

The U.S. Supreme Court in 1995 by ruling that federal as well as state

airport construction project.

restricted the interpretation of affirmative action law

limited to the correction of specific

wrongs suffered

in

the past.

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement: Crime

212

who

association of people

Saint Patrick's

Day

traditionally organized Boston's

parade.

In another significant case, the Japanese Court of

Grand

Bench, with 5 dissents out of the 15 judges, held constitutional a civil code provision that limited inheritance for illegitimate children to one-half of that available to legiti-

mate children.

UN

The Human Rights Committee handed down three important civil rights decisions in 1995. In Kome v. Senegal held that the pretrial detention of a person for more it than four years by the Senegalese government violated Ar9 of the International

ticle

Covenant on

Civil

and

Political

Rights (ICCPR), which guaranteed freedom of expression.

and Aurik v. Netherlands, the committee ruled The Netherlands' refusal to allow a Dutch national to change his name violated the right to privacy guaranteed by Article 17 of the ICCPR. Finally, it decided in Lansman In Coeriel that

V.

Finland that Finland had not violated Article 27 of the

ICCPR, which guaranteed the right of minorities to enjoy their own culture, when it granted a license to a company to

do quarrying on a mountain

that

had

religious

and other

cultural significance for a minority group.

Meanwhile, the U.S. Supreme Court resolved several nocivil rights cases during the year. The most important of the decisions may have been in Adarand Constructors V. Pena. The case concerned the constitutional validity of federal contracts that were required to contain provisions table

giving financial incentives for hiring subcontractors certified

and economically disadvantaged individuals, presuming that such individuals included minorities found by the Small Business Administration to be disadvantaged. The court held that "strict scrutiny" must be exercised when any classification imposed by the federal, state, or local government was based on race. That is to say, such a classification was constitutional only if it was narrowly tailored to further a compelling government interest. Under this test the court held that the contracts in question were unconstitutional. In Harris v. Alabama the court ruled that an Alabama law allowing judges to impose the death sentence in spite of a as small businesses controlled by socially

recommendation of life imprisonment was constituIn Mclntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, it ruled a statute barring anonymous campaign literature was

jury's

tional.

that

unconstitutional.

In

Veronia School District

v.

Acton,

the

court held that a school's policy requiring drug testing of

students

who

participated in athletic programs did not vio-

Square Review Board

late the U.S. Constitution. In Capitol V.

Pinette, it

tribunals.

In

Hiro Balani

Spain,

v.

the

ECHR

held that

Spain had violated Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which guaranteed the right to a fair trial, by the failure of its Supreme Court to give a reasoned decision when it handed down its ruling on the merits of the case. Legal experts

noted that while

the U.S. appellate

in

courts were required to deliver long, written opinions justifying their decisions, the practice in

The

ECHR

Europe was

different.

stated that the obligation of appellate courts to

give reasoned decisions varied according to the kind of case

involved and other circumstances, but require such decisions relevant,

evidence.

Israel clarified

David Geva

stated

in

a

when

it

apparently would

the applicant's submission was

precise

manner, and supported by

views on the

its

in

the case of

The Walt Disney Corporation that there was copyright infringement by an Israeli cartoonist who used the character Donald Duck in a comic book. The cartoonist had contended that his use of the Disney character was satirical criticism and thus within fair use. The court emphatically recognized the fair use exemption, but it found that the requirements had not been met in this case since the use was commercial and did not constitute criticism. In Publishers Association v. Commission, the European Court of Justice struck down the Net Book Agreement promulgated by the U.K. under which standard conditions were set for the sale of books at fixed prices. It held that the arrangement violated competition rules of the European Union. The U.S. Supreme Court resolved an issue that had pitted the insurance industry against commercial banks. Under banking legislation, largely enacted through the lobbying efforts of insurance companies, national banks were prohibited from selling insurance. In NationsBank v. Variable Annuity Life Insurance Co., the hotly debated question arose whether annuities were insurance for purposes of the exclusion. In a victory for commercial banks, the court ruled that annuities were not insurance and that they could be sold by v.

national banks.

The frequent-flyer programs of U.S. airlines, under which passengers could receive free tickets and other benefits, came under attack. In the past few years, some carriers had canceled or curtailed the programs retroactively, with the number of

lawsuits were filed against them. contended that their actions were legal under the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. The U.S. Supreme Court held in American Airlines v. IVolens that the federal statute did not shield the airlines from actions for breach of contract but did protect them from claims result that a

The

airlines, in turn,

of fraud.

The

Supreme Court

U.S.

in

1995 also dealt with two

and congressional reTerm Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, it declared unconstitutional an Arkansas law that denied ballot access to congressional candidates who had been elected to two terms in the Senate or three terms in the House of Repsensitive political issues,

term

limits

districting. In U.S.

resentatives.

The

decision, however, did not prohibit the

from imposing term limits on those running for state office. In Miller v. Johnson the court held that a Georgia redistricting plan based predominantly on race violated the states

equal protection clause of the Constitution.

(WILLIAM

held that Ohio had violated the Constitution

it

denied an application by the Ku Klux Klan to display an unattended cross on the statehouse square. Although it was less active in 1995 than in previous years, the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) handed down a decision that, in the view of many legal experts, could have far-reaching importance for Europe's judicial

when

The Supreme Court of

protection of intellectual property by holding

D.

HAWKLAND)

See also World Afl'airs: Multinational and Regional Organizations; United Nations. This article updates the Macropcedia articles Constitutional

Law; International Law.

CRIME Terrorism.

homa

On

April

19,

1995, a

City, Okla., destroyed

any

bomb

explosion

illusion

in

Okla-

that the world's

most powerful nation was immune from the scourge of domestic terrorism. The bomb, placed in a truck parked outside a federal office building, ripped the structure apart and left 169 dead and more than 500 injured. The two prime suspects turned out to be former U.S. Army comrades Timothy J. McVeigh and Terry L. Nichols. In August a federal grand jury indicted both men on bombing and murder charges that were punishable by death. A third man. Michael Fortier, pleaded guilty to lesser charges and was expected to become a key government witness. The alleged participants in the bombing were believed to have links to self-styled

right-wing paramilitary groups.

The Oklahoma

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement: Crime

213

bombing occurred on the second anniversary date of Waco, Texas, in which some 80 members of the Branch Davidians, a reUgious cuh,

Northern Ireland the cease-fire Catholic and Protestant paramilitary organizations continued to hold, but peace talks with the

had died. On October

British government to resolve the long-standing conflict remained deadlocked. War Crimes. A Bosnian Serb, Dusan Tadic, became the first defendant to face an international war crimes hearing since the Niirnberg and Tokyo trials at the end of World War II. Appearing in The Hague in April 1995 before a UN

City

the FBI's ending of the siege at

what seemed to be a further domestic terrorist attack, an Amtraic passenger train derailed in a remote part of the Arizona desert, reportedly as a result of track sabotage. One person was killed and some 100 injured. A note found at the scene said that the attack was the work of the Sons of the Gestapo and referred to the federal siege at Waco and to another at Ruby Ridge, Idaho. In Japan the members of the religious cult Aum Shinrikyo (Supreme Truth) were accused of having masterminded the worst terrorist attack in that nation's history. The group was said to have been responsible for the March 20 release of sarin, a deadly nerve gas, in the Tokyo subway during the morning rush hour. Twelve people died as a result of the gas attack, and more than 5,500 were injured. Subsequent police raids on premises occupied by cult members uncovered large caches of chemicals capable of being used to manufacture poison gas and explosives. Japanese authorities prepared a case against more than 100 cult members, including leader Shoko Asahara, held on suspicion of involvement in the subway attack and a number of related incidents. The commuter train system in Paris was also the target of terrorist attacks. On July 25 a bomb exploded during the evening rush hour on a crowded train near Notre-Dame cathedral. The blast killed 7 people and injured more than 80. Another bombing of a Paris commuter train, on October 17, injured 29 people. Between July and late September, further bombs were planted in Paris and other locations, all seemingly designed to cause casualties and fear among civilians during the peak months of the European tourist season. A group of Algerian Islamic militants claimed responsibility. In late September French police claimed the first major success in their hunt for the bombers when security forces killed Khaled Kelkal, an Algerian fugitive who was said to have been involved in at least three of the 9, in

terrorist incidents.

In Algeria the struggle between Islamic militant groups and the military-backed government for control of the

country continued unabated. Since the violent revolt bein early 1992 with the cancellation by the military of

gan

elections that the Islamic

movement seemed

certain to win,

more than 30,000 people were believed to have been killed, with security officers, government officials, foreigners, and prominent

citizens the main targets of the militants. Islamic fundamentalist groups also continued their terrorist activities in the Middle East. On June 26 Pres. Hosni Mubarak

of Egypt survived an assassination attempt

in the

Ethiopian

Addis Ababa. Egypt blamed the fundamentalist government of The Sudan, but responsibility was claimed by the Islamic Group, an Egyptian terrorist organization. In New York City on October 1, Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman and nine codefendents were convicted of conspiracy to destroy U.S. targets and to kill Mubarak. A right-wing Israeli man was charged with the assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin on November 4 in Tel Aviv. capital,

A

series

of deadly suicide

bombing

attacks,

against soldiers and civilians in Israel and the

the fundamentalist groups

Hamas and

ongoing peace

Gaza

directed Strip by

Islamic Jihad, failed

between the Palestine October PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat, in an attempt to end the attacks, sent a new truce proposal to leaders of the militant groups to derail the

Liberation Organization

talks

(PLO) and

Israel. In

spite of Rabin's death. In

declared by

Roman

tribunal established by the Security Council in 1993 to deal with violations of international humanitarian law in former Yugoslavia, Tadic pleaded not guilty to a list of charges

and torture of Muslims and Croats during Serb "ethnic cleansing" campaigns in the Bosnian region of Prijedor. Following a hearing before one of the members of the tribunal, Tadic was detained at a Dutch prison. that included the murder, rape,

In July the tribunal issued 24 new indictments against alleged war criminals, including Bosnian Serb leader Radovan

Karadzic and the Bosnian Serb army commander, Gen. Ratko Mladic. Despite these indictments, 22 issued earlier, and 6 more indictments in November, Tadic remained the only defendant to be held in custody.

Drug Trafficking. In August 1995, responding to strong pressure from the U.S. government, Colombian police captured Miguel Rodriguez Orejuela, reputed to be the second in command in the world's most powerful cocaine supply group, the Cali cartel.

Rodriguez was the sixth cartel leader to be arrested over a two-month period. The Colombian government itself, however, was shaken by allegations brought by Prosecutor General Alfonso Valdivieso {see Biographies) of drug-related corruption that reached into the office of Pres. Ernesto Samper Pizano. U.S. and Latin-American experts reported that Mexican drug groups, who for years had acted as transshippers for

were now operating as independent enColombia, where the Medellin and Cali cartels had built up a huge cocaine supply business through the use of violence and bribes, Mexican criminal organizations were

Colombian tities.

As

cartels,

in

operating in a similar way with the protection of members of the government, police, and judiciary. In an attempt to curb the flow of narcotics across the border with Mexico, U.S. customs officials announced

in February the start of Operation Hard Line, a new antidrug push to increase agent strength on the border by 20%. Extra surveillance equipment was also to be brought in.

Murder and Other Violence. In May 1995 the FBI reported that the U.S. crime rate had dropped 3% overall in 1994, posting a decline for the third year in a row. Violent crimes reported to the police fell by 4%. Many large U.S. cities saw their murder rates decline by more than 10%. Accelerating a four-year trend, the murder rate in New York City over the first six months of 1995 plunged to its lowest level in 25 years. Other crimes were also down over

same period, including robbery, with a 22% decrease. Criminologists urged caution in interpreting these figures, the

however.

The U.S. was not alone in reporting a decreasing rate of crime. In Canada the Department of Justice reported in

5%

August that the nation's crime

rate

had dropped by

consecutive annual decrease, while in September the British government hailed figures revealing the biggest drop in crime in the 20th century. Recorded in 1994, its third

following the signing of an accord with the Israeli govern-

crimes in England and Wales had fallen by 10% in the twoyear period ended June 1995, with the number of violent offenses down for the first time in nearly 50 years.

ment to expand Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank. seemed by year's end that the peace process continued

Observed live on television by millions in the U.S. and around the globe, the trial of former football player and

It

in

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement: Crime

214

television

and movie

figure O.J.

Simpson

in

Lx)s

attracted unprecedented interest. Following nine

Angeles

months of

testimony, during which the jury had been sequestered, they

took

less

than four hours to reach a verdict, announced

on October

3,

finding

Simpson not

guilty of the killing of

former wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her companion Ronald Goldman on June 12, 1994. The trial included taperecorded claims of brutality, fabrication of evidence, and abuse of minorities made by a prosecution witness, former Los Angeles detective Mark Fuhrman. It was a stark reminder of the gulf between blacks and whites in U.S. society, with the majority of African-Americans believing, unlike their white counterparts, that Simpson was the victim of a police conspiracy to link him to the killings. In another much-publicized U.S. trial, in July Susan Smith was sentenced to life in prison for the drowning of her two young sons in South Carolina in 1994. The FBI continued its manhunt for the serial mail bomber and killer known as the Unabomber. The Unabomber was believed responsible for 16 bombings since 1978 that had killed 3 people and injured 23, many of them seriously. His latest victim was Gilbert Murray, a timber industry executive, who was killed by a parcel bomb in Sacramento, Calif., on April 24. That bomb and four letters, including one addressed to the New York Times, was sent on April 20, the day after the Oklahoma City bombing. The Unabomber subsequently sent a 35,000-word manifesto to the New York Times and Washington Post expounding his views on the evils of modern society and calling for a revolution against his

the industrial-technological world. to

end

his

The Unabomber vowed

campaign if one of the papers published manifesto. In September the Washington Post published his terror

The rape

in

September of a 12-year-old girl by three in Okinawa sparked anger among

U.S. servicemen based

the Japanese, much of it triggered by the fact that although both the Americans and Japanese agreed that a crime had been committed, the U.S. military did not immediately allow Japanese police to take the alleged offenders into custody. Following the issue of a formal indictment as required under the Status of Forces Agreement governing the presence of U.S. military forces in Japan, the three servicemen were handed over to Japanese prosecutors. Political Crime and Espionage. In September 1995 Giulio Andreotti, the Christian Democratic leader who was Italy's prime minister in seven governments, went on trial in Palermo on charges that he had acted as a protector and friend to the Sicilian Mafia during his years in power. In November additional charges were brought against him. The prosecution's case against Andreotti was believed to rely substantially upon evidence that had been given by several Mafia turncoats, or pentiti, who had broken their vows of silence in return for leniency. Italian authorities also contin-

ued their efforts to bring other former prominent politicians, businessmen, and government officials to justice as part of the far-reaching Operation Clean Hands, an anticorruption investigation launched by prosecuting magistrates in Milan in February 1992. Since that time more than 700 persons had been sent to trial in connection with bribes paid for

government contracts.

The

secretary-general of

NATO,

Willy Claes, resigned his

post in October following revelations of a corruption scandal in Belgium. A special Belgian parliamentary commission was considering whether Claes should face charges related to his involvement, as the country's economic affairs minis-

alleged kickbacks paid in 1988 by an Italian

company

the entire manifesto at the request of the U.S. attorney gen-

ter, in

and the director of the FBI, while the New York Times published excerpts. Critics argued that publication would lead to copycat requests and allowed the government to dictate what was printed in the nation's media; supporters suggested that publication might assist in the capture of the

to the ruling Flemish Socialist Party to secure a contract to

eral

Unabomber.

supply the Belgian army with 48 helicopters. Claes denied

any knowledge of the

BF

50 million bribe. came under threat during the year as a flood of candidates with criminal records sought election to all levels of government in order to evade Russia's fledgling democracy

VLADISLAV USTieV— GAMMA LIAISON

Mourners lay flowers on the coffin of Vladislav Listyev, a popular Russian television journalist and head of the state-run television system, murdered, apparently by hired killers, on March 1. Murder and other violent crimes were sweeping Russia.

who was

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement: Prisons and Penology

More than 230 elected Russian officials were reported to have been investigated in the previous two years for criminal offenses as serious as murder. In almost 160 cases prosecutors said that they had enough evidence to file charges against the elected officials, but the politicians were prosecution.

protected by parliamentary immunity. The State Duma, the lower house of the Russian parliament, began a crackdown to rid itself of the worst offenders in its midst. White Collar Crime and Theft. Fraud and malfeasance led to the collapse in February 1995 of Britain's oldest

the infamous Sicilian-based Corleonese Mafia clan.

became the new silence,

turncoats.

were said

Members

futures market. (See

Economic Affairs:

it's

Singapore

billion

in

the

Special Report.)

According to a Bank of England report, Leeson was able to conceal the losses from his employers as they turned a blind eye to what they believed was a risky yet highly profitable trading operation. Just prior to the collapse, Leeson fled Singapore, but he was detained on March 2 by German police in Frankfurt aboard a flight bound for London. Leeson was extradited and pleaded guilty to reduced charges. He was sentenced to over six years in prison.

One

of the world's biggest financial corporations, Daiwa Ltd. of Japan, suffered one of history's largest fraud

Bank

losses in

September. Authorities charged Toshihide Iguchi,

at the bank's New York City branch, with having falsified records to conceal $L1 billion in losses incurred through 30,000 unauthorized trades over the previous 11 years. Iguchi pleaded guilty in October as senior officials of the bank were implicated. In November the government

a

bond trader

banned operations by the bank Finance Ministry ordered Daiwa

in

the U.S., and Japan's

to curtail

its

international

operations.

LAW ENFORCEMENT In the

ment

wake of the Oklahoma

officials in

City bombing, law-enforce-

the U.S. began to review the security

mea-

sures taken to protect vulnerable targets against possible terrorist attack. In May 1995 security at the White House was heightened by the closing of Pennsylvania Avenue in front of the building to deter would-be truck bombers. Questions also were raised about the adequacy of measures to monitor domestic groups that advocated violence. At U.S. Senate hearings, FBI Director Louis Freeh claimed that for two decades the agency had been at a disadvantage with regard to such groups. "We have no intelligence or background information on them until their violent talk becomes deadly action," he said. Freeh said that the agency needed a broader interpretation of existing laws and regulations, including guidelines dating from the 1970s that barred the

have resulted in

in close to

1,000 Mafiosi

return for their collaboration with

of the European Union signed a convention in

to

losses of over $1

campaign did not work, and break omerta, the Mafia code of

terror

prosecutors.

the British royal

had accumulated

to

applying for protection

July opening the

receivership after Nicholas Leeson, a trader in

The

laws, designed to

bank. Barings PLC.

office,

was

thought that the Mafia's aim was to frighten Italians into supporting a relaxation of tough anti-Mafia laws passed in 1992, which included legal benefits to Mafia members who

merchant

The bank, which included members of family among its clients, was forced into

It

215

come

dropped Europol

way

its

EU's police agency, The move came after France

for Europol, the

into full operation.

hard-line opposition to providing powers to

to collect

and analyze criminal intelligence outside

the control of national police forces. While further hurdles

remained to be cleared regarding the scope of the superpowers that the EU's Court of Justice would have over Europol, the agency was now able to conduct its own investigation of drug cartels, car-theft syndicates, and other forms of organized crime within Europe. EU members also agreed, at Spain's urging, that Europol's mandate should be extended in the near future to cover international terrorism. visory

New Delhi reported considerable success with newly established Anti-Eve-Teasing Squad, designed to prevent a host of sexual harassment offenses ranging from catcalls to physical assault. Members of the squad, working undercover on New Delhi's vastly overcrowded buses, apprehended many gropers, pinchers, and molesters Police in

their

who made travel for commuting women a daily nightmare. The squad was just one of a number of policing innovations used by South Asian police to combat a dramatic increase in crime against women. In New Delhi alone the number of rapes and molestation cases reported to police by women had nearly doubled over the previous five years. The trend reflected dramatic changes in conservative South Asian societies, where until recently women had held few professional jobs and seldom ventured out alone. The use of advanced technology to assist in the detection of crime took a major step forward with the establishment in Britain of a national library of

new and

DNA

profiles. In April, using

controversial powers, British police began the rou-

tine collection of blood, saliva,

and hair samples from any

suspect charged with or even warned for an imprisonable offense. The British government said that the DNA library would have five million entries by the year 2000. DNA samples would then be widely available for matching with bodily fluids found at a crime scene. Police were enthusiastic about the advance in forensic science, which was described as the most significant step forward since the establishment of fingerprint databases more than a century earlier. (DUNCAN CHAPPELL)

surveillance or infiltration of domestic organizations unless

there was a "reasonable indication" they were prepared to resort to violence to achieve their goals. The guidelines had

been written

in

response to FBI excesses under the long

J. Edgar Hoover. Law-enforcement officials in Italy reported success in their struggle to break the power of the Mafia. In June they arrested Leoluca Bagarella, a convicted murderer and one of the country's most sought-after criminals who was accused of being responsible for some of the most striking Mafia crimes of recent years. These included the 1992 bombing that killed anti-Mafia magistrate Giovanni Falcone, his wife, and three bodyguards and the bombing in 1993 of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, in which five people died. The Florence bombing was believed to have been part of a Mafia terror campaign that followed the arrest in January 1993 of Salvatore ("the Beast") Riina, the alleged head of

stewardship of

PRISONS AND PENOLOGY Internationally, the scope of criminal law

was widened and

the sentencing powers of the courts strengthened during 1995.

As

a result, criminal justice systems were placed under

Romania instituted prison sentences of between one and five years for various homosexual acts and imprisoned, for up to three years, those who flew foreign national flags or played national anthems of other states. Iraq added to its list of punishments branding and ever-increasing strain.

the amputation of hands, feet, and ears and televised before-and-after images of the punishment, mainly to deter desertion from the army. In the U.S. 30 states acted upon

or were considering "three strikes and you're out" sentencing provisions that typically ensured life imprisonment for

an offender convicted of a third felony. In a California referendum voters strongly backed such a proposition, even

— 216

Law, Crime, and Law Enforcement: Prisons and Penology

though

it

would cause the percentage of

state funds allo-

and with

little

ventilation.

At Kresty Prison, St. Petersburg, accommodations designed for

cated to the state prison system to double within eight years.

some 8,000 were

Alabama

3,500. Conditions at a special unit of the Korydallos Psychi-

restored the chain gang, a practice that had been

abolished

some 30

years earlier. Prisoners were manacled

groups of

with 2.4-m (8-ft) lengths of chain as they worked alongside state highways. In October 1995 together

in

five

the Washington state judge

who

in

1994 suspended the

sentences of two Native American teenagers on charges of

robbery and assault and gave a Native American tribal court a chance to rehabilitate them revoked his decision. After hearing conflicting testimony on the eifectiveness of their banishment to separate corners of an uninhabited island olf the Alaskan coast, he sent the two to prison (for 55 and 31 months, with each earning a 12-month credit for time Prison populations worldwide continued

grow; the number of those incarcerated between 1991 and 1994 rose in 13 of 14 Eastern and Central European countries, with to

populations doubling in the Czech Republic and Belarus. Russia and the U.S. again had the world's largest prison pop-

in

Centre in Greece were so abysmal that the government it. That country's prisons held 6,700 inmates in a system designed for 3,900. In the U.S. a federal judge condemned ill treatment of prisoners at the "supermax" Pelican Bay facility in California. There, naked men were confined in tiny metal cages during bitter weather, while others were handcuffed wrists-to-ankles for up to 19 hours in that "hogtied" position. The world's worst conditions were undoubtedly found in Rwanda, where 23,000 Hutu prisoners, many of them under investigation for the massacre of Tutsi, were forced to stand in space designed to hold 4,000. atric

closed

new

In 1995 a

served).

jailed

facility in

most secure prison ever serving

life

Florence, Colo., was called the

built.

In January three prisoners

sentences escaped from Parkhurst top-security

prison in Britain shortly after a critical report had been issued

on a breakout by

six

men

(five

convicted for terrorist offenses) from

of

whom

had been

Whitemoor Prison

four months earlier.

A

Severe crowding and other appalling prison conditions were reported worldwide. Amnesty International, reporting

prison in Algeria

95 prisoners and 4 officers dead.

on Mongolia, attributed one-third of 90 prisoner deaths in the first nine months of 1994 to starvation. Bulgarian pris-

offenses

ulations, with rates per 100,000 of

590 and 555, respectively.

Death Penalty.

—ranging

left

mutiny

in

February

In 1994 in China,

from bicycle

where

at the

as

Serkadji

many

as 65

theft to political dissent

were punishable by death, authorities reported that 1,991 prisoners had been executed, though the number was believed to be much higher. Several prostitutes were ex-

UN

ecuted just prior to the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women,

which was held in Beijing. In May two refugees testified before a U.S. Senate committee that the Chinese authorities systematically

removed

or-

gans from executed prisoners in order to sell them for medical transplants. They also reported that some executions were arranged in order to meet particular transplant

demands. In Iran were put to

a reported 139 persons

death during 1994, but the actual figure was thought to be much higher. In Bangladesh the buying and selling of

women and

children

became

a capital

offense, while in Nigeria a dramatic

number of by firing squad. In the U.S. where 56 people were put to death in 1995 New Vork became the 38th state since 1976 to adopt capital increase occurred in the

executions

—

—

punishment; 10 types of murder were Being held Kigali line

but

for court

up

appearances on charges

to receive food rations.

was holding many times

MALCOLM LINTON

that

of genocide, inmates

The disease-ridden

number, was

typical in

in

facility, vi^hich

an overcrowded prison

was

Rwanda's prisons.

BLACK STAR

ons were overflowing and operating with minimal levels of sanitation. At the Stara Zagora penitentiary, cells were dark and grossly overcrowded. In Cambodia a UN-sponsored centre found that prisoners were frequently shackled and kept in darkened solitary confinement for lengthy periods; many were reportedly dying from malnutrition and other diseases. In Phnom Penh prison, inmates were held in large rooms with only one open latrine and water trough for their use. The Combinado del Este prison in Cuba, with a capacity of 3,000, reportedly held over 5,000 prisoners. The Glendiary prison in Barbados, with a capacity of 245, held 724 men and women, often for lengthy periods without light

built to

in

house 2,000

punishable by lethal injection. In March the hanging of a Filipina

Singapore prompted a serithat country and the Philippines. In Singapore 32 people

maid ous

in

rift

between

were executed in 1994, many of them for drug-related offenses, and it was seen that ancient penalties were still sometimes imposed when a man who had been convicted of rape in Somalia was put to death by stoning. Two Christians in Pakistan, one of them a 14-year-old, were acquitted on appeal after having been sentenced to death for blasphemy. Though capital punishment became the mandatory sentence for blasphemy in 1991, the only other person so convicted had had his sentence overturned in 1994. In South Africa opponents of capita! punishment welcomed the unanimous decision of an 11-member constitutional court in June to declare the death penalty for murder

Libraries and

More than 1,000 persons had been hanged country during the past two years, and some 450 persons were on death row at the time of the court's decision.

Museums: Libraries

217

unconstitutional. in that

I

'Hi:

I

(ANDREW RUTHERFORD) t)t>
-*^

to

supply the

World

Affairs:

Finland

403

instituted a largely ceremonial presidency, vesting executive

power in the prime minister elected by the National Assembly. Assembly elections were held in May in most of the counti-y but were postponed to June in the east. They were, however, boycotted by the four major opposition groupings and contested by only three small opposition parties. The conduct of the elections was reported by foreign observers to have been fair, but there was little challenge to the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a multiethnic grouping whose constituent parties won 493 of the 548 seats. Only in Addis Ababa, where 10 of the 23 seats were won by iodependents, was government

FIJI

The republic of

Sitiveni

November 1994

In

the government initiated a review of biased constitution, but early submissions in-

Fiji's racially

dicated

little

Sitiveni

Rabuka

The new Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was The new president, Negasso Gidada, was a Christian Oromo from the Welega

occasions

region of western Ethiopia

who had

served as minister of

information in the outgoing transitional government. The outgoing president, Meles Zenawi, became prime minister and head of government. The 17-member Council of Ministers

was

carefully selected to reflect the ethnic balance of

the country, with four each for

Oromo and Amhara, two

each for Tigray (including the prime minister) and Gurage, and one each for five smaller groups. New regional assemblies were also elected in May and June and were likewise controlled by the EPRDF. The

powers from the central government to the rebecame a reality. For example, in the large region surrounding Addis Ababa, Oromifa increas-

transfer of

gions increasingly

Oromo

Amharic as the language of administration. number of leading members of Meles Zenawi's Tigray

km

Rabuka.

control seriously contested.

formally established on August 22.

occupies an island group

in the South (7,055 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 791,000. Cap.: Suva. Monetary unit: Fiji dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of F$1.41 to U.S. $1 (F$2.22 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara; prime minister, Fiji

Ocean. Area: 18,272 sq

Pacific

Rabuka

in

willingness to

compromise. Prime Minister

reconstituted his government on several

1995 to cope with divisions within the coalition.

also initiated court action to overturn the findings

of a commission that implicated him

in improper governwas alleged that the National Bank of Fiji had issued unauthorized and unsecured loans, had failed to insure secured assets, had not been properly audited, and had a shortfall in funds of F$80 million. The 1995 government budget projected a deficit of F$62 million (2.5% of gross domestic product) from revenue of F$694 million. Income tax on those with low incomes was decreased, but indirect taxes on alcohol, tobacco, and motor vehicles increased. In 1994 a record amount of sugar (516,589 metric tons) was exported. Economic growth for 1995 was projected at 2.7%. A government plan to allow the immigration of 28,000

ment

dealings.

It

Hong Kong Chinese who

could pay U.S. $130,000 aroused

ingly replaced

strong criticism.

A

ment of plutonium through the region and the renewal of French nuclear testing. (barrie macdonald)

People's Liberation Front were posted back to Tigray.

The

trials

of

human May 1995

members of

the former regime charged with

which had been adjourned until to allow both sides to prepare their cases, were further postponed until later in the year. Attempts to secure the extradition of the ousted dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam from his refuge in Zimbabwe were unsuccessful. At the same time, alleged human rights abuses by the new regime, though not remotely approaching those committed by the old one, continued to attract international attention. There was some harassment of journalists, though the press continued to be more independent than under previous governments, and Amnesty International condemned the arrest in June of five opposition politicians on what it described as "slender and dubious evidence of conspiracy." The government's standing in Africa was reflected in the election of Meles Zenawi as chairman of the Organization of African Unity in June. Relations with Eritrea, which had separated from Ethiopia in 1993, continued to be close, but those with the Islamist military regime in The Sudan deteriorated rapidly. Ethiopia accused The Sudan of complicity in the attempted assassination of Pres. Hosni Mubarak of Egypt in Addis Ababa in June; it subsequently ordered the reduction of the Sudanese diplomatic staff from 15 to 4, denied Sudan Airways landing rights in Addis Ababa, and closed the Sudanese consulate at Gambela in southwestern serious

rights abuses,

Ethiopia.

The economy grew by about 5.4% in 1994, supported by continuing aid inflows and a boom in world coffee prices. Progress was made on privatizing 144 state-owned businesses, half of those being transferred to their employees. Following the 1994 harvest, an overall food deficit of one million tons of grain was estimated for 1995, 85% of this being met from food aid and the remainder from commercial

purchases.

(Christopher s. clapham) Eastern Africa:

This article updates the Macropcedia article Ethiopia.

Fiji

also protested Japan's

proposed ship-

This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Fiji.

FINLAND The

republic of Finland is in northern Europe, on the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland. Area: 338,145 sq km (130,559 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 5,101,000. Cap.: Helsinki. Monetary unit: Finnish markka, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 4.31

markkaa

to U.S. $1 (6.81

markkaa = £1

1995, Martti Ahtisaari; prime ministers,

April

13,

sterling). President in

Esko Aho and, from

Paavo Lipponen.

Finland joined the European Union 1995.

The impact of

was softened by

its

(EU)

entry into the

at the start of

EU's

single

market

special subsidies for Finland's cold-climate

farming. Finland was also allowed, on the grounds of public health, to retain part of

its

state

monopoly on the

sale

of alcoholic beverages, a lucrative source of government revenue. Pres. Martti Ahtisaari said that Finland, despite accession

EU, would retain its observer status on the Western European Union and would not assume WEU full membership, a move that might imply eventual membership in NATO. He also warned the West against isolating Russia, saying that democracy there would not take root unless given time. In a departure from his country's former practice of avoiding open criticism of its powerful neighbour, however, he also pointed to the environmental risks to Europe of Russia's polluting industries and possibly unsafe atomic power stations, several of which lay close to the border between Russia and Finland. to the

moved toward accepting a proposal by Ahtiand Prime Minister Paavo Lipponen that Finland set up a rapid deployment force that could be made available Parliament

saari

for crisis situations involving the for

Cooperation and Security

in

UN or the Organization Europe. Finland had tra-

404

World

Affairs:

France

the UN with troops meant only for Lipponen also announced that Finland would

ditionally provided

poHce

duties.

be among the

first

countries in the

EU

to accede to

other things, to lead to a single EU currency. In general elections in March, the Social Democratic Party, led by Lipponen, displaced the rural-based Centre Party as the biggest group in Parliament. Lipponen formed and headed a majority coalition government excluding the centrists but retaining the conservative National Coalition

among

and Swedish People's parties and bringing into office the Green Union and the Left-Wing Alliance, an organization of former communists. The Centre Party had been a part of almost all governments since World War H, including a lengthy period when it was largely responsible for maintaining relations with the Soviet Union.

In October the government proposed a plan to reduce unemployment, which was about 17%. Inflation fell to about 1% according to the central bank. The two big Finnish commercial banks, Kansallis-Osake-Pankki and Union Bank of Finland, merged during the year to form the Merita Bank. They announced a recovery from losses accumulated in recent years, during which they were forced to accept a still-outstanding loan from the government. Mergers also

took place

the forestry industry, a key export sector that

in

reported big

(edward

profits.

m.

summerhill)

FRANCE

A

republic of western Europe, France includes the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea and has coastlines on the English Channel, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 543,965 sq km (210,026 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 58,172,000. Cap.: Paris. Monetary unit: franc, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of F 5.01 to U.S. $1 (F 7.93 = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1995, Frangois Mitterrand and, from May 17, Jacques Chirac; prime ministers, fidouard Balladur and, from May 17, Alain Juppe.

The year 1995 was ment in France as

a time of mixed hope and bewilderthe election of the candidate for the

neo-GauUist Rally for the Republic (RPR), Jacques Chirac (see Biographies), to the presidency drew hundreds of

thousands of rejoicing well-wishers into the streets on the night of

May

7.

Six

months

later his perceived failure to

make good on campaign promises to reduce unemployment and homelessness sent many of the same voters marching again

—demonstrating against welfare cuts during the three-

and mail strike that paralyzed the country in November and December. Chirac's first 100 days began well with his forceful call for action to bring peace to war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina at the European Union's (EU's) June summit in Cannes. This laid the groundwork for the U.S.-led NATO interven-

week

transport, public utilities,

tion later in the year. Chirac's initiative, as well as the fact

that for the past four years France largest military contingent to the

UN

had contributed the forces in former

Yu-

(70% of troops on the ground), was acknowledged with the choice of Paris for the signing of the Bosnia peace agreement on December 14. Part of the international goodgoslavia

the new French president had earned swiftly vanished, however, when he announced that France would resume nuclear testing in the South Pacific. There was little real opposition in France to the tests, as opposed to massive protests throughout the world. The civil war that for three years had been tearing apart Algeria, France's former colony, traveled across the Mediterranean as Algerian Islamic fundamentalist terrorism hit Paris and several provincial towns with a .series of bloody

will

bombings

in

1995, causing scores of casualties.

France Elects a President

its

economic and monetary union, a scheme that was intended,

In January 1995 conservative Prime Minister Edouard Balladur felt fairly confident that he could easily win the forthcoming presidential election and succeed Frangois Mitterrand, the ailing Socialist who had held the job for

two consecutive seven-year terms. Jacques Delors,

the outgoing Socialist president of the

European Com-

who had been

tipped as the most popular candidate, had decided not to run, which left the Socialist Party (PS) in disarray. Former prime minister Jacques mission,

Chirac (see Biographies), now the mayor of Paris and head of the neo-Gaullist Rally for the Republic, the party to which Balladur belonged, had pushed Balladur forward for prime minister in 1993 in order to devote himself to preparations for this election. At the start of 1995, however, Chirac, making his third run for the presidency, was seen as yesterday's man, barely polling 17% against Bahadur's 55%. Balladur's high popularity ratings had survived a series of crises in 1994, and he looked set to weather new student strikes over a proposed university reform announced on Dec. 29, 1994, and suspended on Feb. 10, 1995. On January 18 Balladur declared his candidacy, and on February 13 he formally launched his campaign. This final confirmation that he was running against his old political mentor Chirac gave rise to calls of "treason" among many GauUists and, as it turned out, voters. Within days Balladur's high standing in the polls started an inexorable slide, harmed by the loss of

image as a "selfless servant of the state" who had that he would not run. Meanwhile, Chirac's relentless campaigning throughout France started bearing fruit. He spoke on social themes, such as unemployment and homelessness, and appeared as the opponent of the establishment embodied by Balladur. By early March, Chirac's political image had been transformed from old tired politico to his

vowed

new

people's advocate.

On

February 3 a nationwide vote among PS members gave Lionel Jospin a 65.8% majority over the party's first secretary, Henri Emmanuelli, making Jospin the main opposition candidate. The Communist candidate, the relatively unknown Robert Hue, had declared as early

as

September 1994. The

rest

of the field in-

cluded National Front leader Jean-Marie Le Pen, the anti-European Union and pro-life campaigner Philippe de Villiers, the unknown retired businessman Jacques Cheminade, the Green candidate Dominique Voynet,

and the Trotskyist candidate Arlette Laguiller, who was running for the fourth time since 1974. Laguiller's obvious sincerity and loyalty to her lifelong ideals earned her respect and sympathy far beyond party lines; ultimately she polled 5.3% of the vote in the first round, more than either Villiers or Voynet. Balladur's progressive fall from grace was hastened by a political scandal involving Interior Minister Charles Pasqua. The division of the conservative vote between

Chirac and Balladur caused Jospin to

come

in first in

round on April 23, polling 23.3% of the vote, while Chirac scored 20.84% and Balladur won 18.58%. Balladur immediately called on his supporters to vote for Chirac, who was elected president in the runoff on May 7 with 52.64% of the vote against 47.36% for the

first

Jospin.

(anne-elisabeth moutet)

World

Even though the recession had ended two years before and economic growth was stable at 2% of gross domestic product, the country's mood remained pessimistic. Consumer spending lagged for most of the year, then dropped by more than half

in

the key pre-Christmas period. This

was mostly as a result of public-sector strikes triggered by Prime Minister Alain Juppe's announcement of a series of structural reforms to overhaul the heavily indebted and extremely generous social security, health, and welfare system. Domestic Affairs. Edouard Bahadur had been the darling of the polls for his entire two-year

stint as prime minister, and he remained well ahead until February 13, when he formally launched his presidential campaign. In the event, he came in third in the first round and threw his support to his mentor and rival, Chirac. (See Sidebar.) On February 10 the flight from France of Didier Schuller,

a corrupt

official in charge of social housing in Interior Minister Charles Pasqua's constituency, revealed a covert operation to wrongly accuse of blackmail the father-in-law of a judge investigating major misappropriation of funds by

some of Pasqua's

closest political allies, so that the judge, Eric Halphen, would be taken off the case. Regular disclosure of financial scandals also contributed to the growing

atmosphere of public exasperation. Bernard Tapie, the embattled tycoon and former minister for inner cities, was declared bankrupt by the commercial tribunal of Paris on March 31 and was sentenced to two years in jail (14 months suspended) on November 28 for fixing a game of his former football club, Olympique Marseille, against the Valenciennes team. At year's end he still faced four different indictments for financial misdeeds. After Chirac's election the emphasis of the scandals

seemed

to switch

from the old guard to the new presiOn June 28 the wellweekly Le Canard Enchaine reported that

dent's associates, especially to Juppe.

informed satirical both Juppe and his elder son, Laurent, rented City of Parisowned apartments in the best part of town at about 40% below market price. On July 5 the paper revealed that Juppes' daughter, half-brother, and first wife enjoyed similar housing. Dogged by polemic and a court case brought against him by a taxpayers association (it was dropped in October), the prime minister saw his popularity ratings fall to 12% in November, an all-time low for any Cabinet minister of the Fifth Republic. On July 3 Judge Halphen held for interrogation the treasurer of the RPR in connection with alleged misappropriation of RPR social housing money to fund the president's campaign. In June municipal elections saw for the first time the victory of extreme-right National Front candidates in three major southeastern towns Toulon, Marignane, and Orange elected on a xenophobic law-and-order platform. In Toulon the new mayor, Jean-Marie Le Chevallier, vowed that the city's social services and subsidies would go only to French-born residents. The election results confirmed

—

—

the weakening of the traditional parties, while the nists

confirmed their progress

at close to

10%

Commu-

of the vote

nationally.

On

July 16 in a speech

up of Jews by French

commemorating the rounding World War II

police during the

Nazi occupation of France, Chirac formally acknowledged the "faults" of France and its role in the extermination of Jews, something his predecessor, Pres. Frangois Mitterrand (who had served at Vichy and been decorated by Marshal Philippe Petain), had always refused to do. On July 25 a bomb exploded in the Metro at Saint Michel station in the afternoon rush hour, killing seven and injuring more than 80 people. This was the beginning of a bloody bombing campaign by terrorists allegedly from the

fundamentalist

Armed

Islamic

Affairs:

France

Group (GIA), based

in

405

Alge-

On

August 17 another bomb exploded on the ChampsElysees, injuring 17 people. Bombs were discovered before they could explode on a high-speed-railroad track near Lyon on August 26 and in a public toilet near a marketplace in Paris on September 4. More bombs were detonated, usually on public transport, bringing the total toll of the terrorism wave to as many as 10 dead and some 170 injured. The new interior minister, Jean-Louis Debre, instituted a series of stiff security measures under the name "Plan Vigipirate," and France unilaterally decided to delay by six months the enforcement of the Schengen agreement to lift all border controls between 14 countries of the EU. October 10 was a day of a general strike in the civil services in protest against a pay freeze decreed by Juppe. The strike was also supported by students at Rouen University, who were demanding additional scholarship loan credits and more professors. They were soon joined by 22 other universities in France. The government finally granted F 9 million extra credits on October 30, together with the promise of an overhaul of the overcrowded state university ria.

system.

On November

7,

sign of purposeful change,

of the 12

women

trying to jolt the country by a

Juppe called a Cabinet

reshuffle;

ministers he initially appointed, only 4

remained. Hardly had the students started trickling back to their classrooms than the prime minister announced his projected reform of the money-hemorrhaging social security and national health system, as well as across-the-board budget cuts, including lower pension benefits for state employees and an austerity plan for the loss-making SNCF, the state railways, with job cuts and line closures. On November 24 the railway workers went on strike, followed by other public transport employees. The post office, utilities, schools, banks, and social security employees followed suit, paralyzing the country until mid-December. Juppe gave up on the railways and pension reform but held fast on the social security overhaul. Tlie Economy. The year was one of moderate growth (about 2%) and low consumer spending and ended in disarray, with the cost of the three-week December strikes estimated at F 20 billion in lost tax revenue and input in the economy. Figures published on January 20 showed that inflation had been only 1.6% in 1994. On March 17 Balladur's economy and finance minister, Edmond Alphandery, announced a second plan to save the state-owned Credit Lyonnais and write off some F 50 billion in bad debts over five years with state funds. On March 22 France's other two ,

GYORI— SYGMA

A

victim of the bombing of a commuter train in central Paris on July 25 receives emergency treatment. The bombing was only the first

a number of similar incidents, attributed to Algerian terrorists, that occurred throughout France during the summer and fall. of

World

406

Affairs:

France

major banks, the privatized Societe Generale and Banque Nationale de Paris, formally protested the plan at the Competition and Fair Trade Office of the European Commission in Brussels.

During the presidential campaign, some of Chirac's parBanque de France governor, Jean-Claude Trichet, of causing high unemployment through his use of strict monetary policies (the franc fort). The franc fell against the Deutsche Mark on April 18 to a low of F 3.54. Chirac's election sent the franc back up again, to F 3.43, a sign of confidence from international markets. On August 25 Juppe ousted his avowedly freetrading economy and finance minister, Alain Madelin, for criticizing "privileges" (job security and higher pensions) enjoyed by four million employees of the state. The franc dropped as low as F 3.58 for a few days, then slowly rose again as the new minister, Jean Arthuis, made it clear that he too was committed to budget cuts. Foreign Affairs. On September 5 France proceeded to tisans accused the Balladur-appointed

of a series of

set off the first

Mururoa

at

atoll

five

nuclear weapons tests

the South Pacific.

in

The

international

outcry was great. Anti-French demonstrations took place in

New

Australia,

Zealand, the U.S., Japan, and

many

of the

New

Zealand and Chile recalled their ambassadors. This was the culmination of a reprobation campaign that had started when the newly elected Chirac announced on June 13 that the tests, which had been interrupted by Mitterrand in 1992, were needed for technical reasons before France could sign the nuclear nonproliferation treaty of 1996. Following the second test, held on October 2, the 16-nation South Pacific Forum suspended official links Pacific islands.

with Paris.

After the violent protests that nearly paralyzed the government in 1994, 1995 proved to be one of compromise and cooperation between Pres. Omar Bongo's Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG) and the opposition parties. A new electoral code requiring a complete revision of the voters list was agreed upon. All parties urged their members to back the new constitution in a referendum on July 23. Approximately 63.5% of the electorate voted in the referendum, 96.5% of whom approved the constitution. New presidential and legislative elections were scheduled for early 1997. The government stepped up its campaign to control im-

migration, setting a deadline of February 15 for illegal aliens to regularize their status.

association and to establish a In April President

OPEC est,

5()th-annivcrsary celebrations.

The announcement

of what could be seen as an "endorsement" by France

caused an uproar terrorist threats

in

was eventually canceled. Sec also Dependent

soil

—

and more from the GIA. The meeting

the Algerian opposition

on French

(anne-elisabeth moutet)

Stales.

GABON

new job

classification rating

Bongo threatened

was increased. Neither

his visit to

the matter nor the September

to

withdraw from

visit

to

Kuwait for

Gabon

talks

of

on

OPEC's

secretary-general resolved the issue. The introduction of a value-added tax on April 1 resulted in a huge leap in the price of consumer goods, forcing the government in August

GAMBIA, THE

UN's

A

unless Gabon's production quota, the cartel's small-

meeting in Paris of EU and NATO defense and British Prime Minister John Major pushed through the creation of a multinational Rapid Reaction Force to be made up of crack troops and equipment from NATO and EU armies. At the EU summit that began June 26 at Cannes (the last of the six-month French EU presidency), Chirac pressed for a five-point European initiative to get the siege of Sarajevo lifted and for a partition of Bosnia to be negotiated on the basis of allotting 51% of the area to Muslims and Croats and 49% to Serbs, all points that eventually were covered at the peace talks in Dayton, Ohio. France's other major foreign policy concern was Algeria, where presidential elections with universal suffrage were to be held for the first time ever in November. On October 22 Chirac was to meet with Algerian Pres. Liamine Zeroual (who was reelected) in New York City on the occasion of the

since the

million.

system.

Gabon.

at a

1

Television and radio journalists staged a series of strikes beginning in March. Protesting the government's placement of patronage workers in their ranks, the strikers threatened to block publicity for the constitutional referendum. Broadcasts resumed on June 30 after the government agreed to integrate the patronage employees into the journalists

in Sarajevo in April, Balladur stated that "the question of French withdrawal from Bosnia was now in order." In

June

do so

CFAF

groups.

to

ministers, Chirac

able to

new marriage bill proposed by the government that would make polygamy easier drew fierce protests from women's

French commitment to continued involvement in Bosnia and Herzegovina changed radically after the election of Chirac. After two French soldiers were killed by snipers

early

Few were

cost of a residence permit had risen to

impose price controls on basic foodstuffs.

(nancy ELLEN LAWLER) Central Africa:

This article updates the Macropcedia article

A

republic and member of the Commonwealth, The Gambia extends from the Atlantic Ocean along the lower Gambia River in West Africa; it is surrounded by Senegal. Area: 10,689 sq km (4,127 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 1,115,000. Cap.: Banjul. Monetary unit: dalasi, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 9.65 dalasis to U.S. $1 (15.26 dalasis = £1 sterling). Chairman of the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council in 1995, Capt. Yahya Jammeh.

Two members Council

of the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling who had opposed plans to hand power back to

than originally intended led an attempt in January 1995. The two, Sana Sabally (vice-chairman of the Council) and

civilian rule earlier

to overthrow the

Capt.

government

Capt. Sadibu Hydara, minister of the interior, failed

in their

attempt, and they were arrested by the head of the govern-

ment, Capt. Yahya Jammeh.

Donor countries exerted pressure throughout the year to persuade The Gambia to return to civilian rule, and on March 20 Jammeh announced a Cabinet reshuffle in an exercise to convince outsiders that he would soon restore such a government. But the following day Fafa Idrissa M'baye, who had just been dismissed as minister of justice and attorney general, was arrested for advocating an early return to civilian rule.

Gabon

a republic of central Africa, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 267,667 sq km (l(B,.^47 sq mi). Pop.; (1995 est.): 1,156,000. is

Cap.: Libreville. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Ocl. 6, 1995) a par value of CFAF 100 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 501.49 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 792.78 = £1 sterling). President in

1995.

Omar Bongo;

prime minister, Paulin Obamc-Nguema.

In

November

the junta reportedly extended the

power of

the security forces to detain suspected opponents without

charge for up to three months. As many as 40 people had been detained for a week in October. (guy Arnold) This article updates the Macropa-dia article Western Africa: The Gambia.

World

Aifairs:

Germany

407

GEORGIA A

republic of Transcaucasia, Georgia borders Russia on the north and northeast, Azerbaijan on the southeast, Armenia and Turkey on the south, and the Black Sea on the west. Area: 69,492 sq km (26,831 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 5,514,000. Cap.: Tbilisi. Monetary unit: lari, with (Oct. 4, 1995) a free rate of 1.30 lari = U.S. $1 (2.07 lari = £1 sterling); the lari replaced the Georgian coupon (a transitional currency) from September million coupons. Head of state in 1995 25 at a rate of 1 lari = (chairman of Parliament, and from November 26, president), Eduard A. Shevardnadze; prime minister to October 5, Otar Patsatsia, and secretary of state from December 8, Niko Lekishvili. 1

After three years of

civil

war, rampant crime, and economic

collapse, in 1995 the situation in

Georgia began to

stabilize.

Parliament Chairman Eduard Shevardnadze escaped an assassination attempt and finally succeeded in neutralizing those political figures who helped his return to Georgia in 1992 but had since become rivals. Two of these, former prime minister Tengiz Sigua and former defense minister Tengiz Kitovani, were arrested in January after making a symbolic march on the breakaway western region of Abkhazia with the aim of forcing the region back under central government control. The series of political assassinations that began in 1993 continued during the first half of the year. Shevardnadze himself suffered only minor injuries in late August when a car bomb exploded as his motorcade was leaving the Parliament building in Tbilisi. The Georgian security service chief, Igor Giorgadze, was held responsible for this and several previous terrorist incidents and fled to Russia. In August Parliament finally endorsed a new constitution that defined Georgia as a presidential republic. Presidential and parliamentary elections were scheduled for November 5. Shevardnadze was elected president with about 73% of the vote, defeating five rival candidates, including his successor

Georgian Communist Party first secretary, Dzhumber Paand hard-line communist Panteleimon Giorgadze (Igor's father). Similarly, Shevardnadze's Union of Citizens of Georgia gained a 124-seat majority in the new 235-seat as

A Georgian

weapon near

soldier registers his

DAVID TUBNLEY -DETROIT FREE PRESS/BLACK bTAR

Abkhazia federal on the Abkhazian port of Sukhumi in October. Peacekeepers from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe prevented violence in South Ossetia, but only minimal progress was made toward a political settlement there. In March an agreement was signed giving Russia the discuss a Russian draft settlement giving status within Georgia,

Moscow imposed

in his

Dzhaba

charges of involvement

in

loseliani,

who

failed

mid-November on the August car bomb attack on

bid for reelection, was arrested

in

Shevardnadze. In in

late

November Shevardnadze implemented changes

the structure of executive power, replacing the post of

prime minister with that of secretary of state. He then formed a new government, retaining the former ministers for economics and defense but appointing as foreign minister former deputy prime minister Irakli Menagharishvili. The stringent fiscal and monetary policy adopted in December 1994 brought hyperinflation under control, and by late February the interim currency, the coupon, had gained in value against the dollar. A new currency, the lari, was introduced in September and maintained its value, thanks in part to a second International Monetary Fund loan. Greater political stability stimulated an increase in industrial output of

20%

during the

first 1 1

months of

the year.

The

decision

October to export some oil from Azerbaijan via Georgia engendered hopes of an economic upswing. The standoft' between the central government in Tbilisi and the breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in

The apparent inability of the Russian peacekeeping force stationed in Abkhazia to prevent reprisals against the Georgian population there in the early part of the year induced Georgian politicians to demand their withdrawal. Angered by the Abkhazian leadership's expressions of support for Chechnya and their repeated refusal to continued.

a naval blockade

right to maintain three military bases in Georgia; a further

agreement on economic cooperation was signed in September. At the same time, Georgia sought to expand economic ties with neighbouring Turkey and Iran. bilateral

(ELIZABETH FULLER)

tiashvili,

Parliament. Paramilitary leader

the border with Abkhazia.

Despite the 1993 cease-fire between the breakaway province and the Georgian government and despite the presence of Russian troops and UN observers, sporadic and vicious fighting continued to break out.

This article updates the Macropccdiu article Georgia.

Transcaucasia:

GERMANY Germany is in central Europe, on the North and Baltic seas. Area: 356,974 sq km (137,828 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 81,912,OOO. Cap. designate, Berlin; scat of government, Bonn. Monetary 1.43 unit: Deutsche Mark, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of to U.S. $1 (DM 2.26 = £1 steding). President in 1995, Roman Herzog; chancellor, Helmut Kohl.

DM

For the Federal Republic of Germany the year 1995 brought World War II and a long moment of contemplation and reflection about its identity as a democratic nation. Was May 8 the day of unconditional surrender or the day of liberation? Was the so-called zero hour of the year 1945 really a fresh start in every respect? And what now was the balance in Germany between a selfrestraint imposed by its history and the growing creative impulses of a country that had such size and influence? the 50th anniversary of the end of

The days of remembrance of the concentration camps and of the victory over the Nazi regime started with the commemoration of

the

anniversary of the

liberation

of

Germany as well as elsewhere, many believed that the Germany that came into being after 1945 was prepared to remember its Auschwitz on January

27.

At these ceremonies,

in

and never to forget. January 27 was henceforth to be day of remembrance in Germany. The 50th anniversary of the end of the war was given

past

an

official

greater resonance by the lOOth birthday of Ernst Jiinger,

World

408

Affairs:

Germany

who won

a militarist

the medal Pour

Merite

le

1918

in

but later broke with the Nazis. The celebration, which was attended by Pres. Roman Herzog and Chancellor Helmut Kohl, was seen to poignantly reflect the breaks and continuities of a full century as well as the most recent 50 years

German

of

history.

Domestic ally

heavy

Affairs.

Germany skidded

rainfall that

had begun

in

into 1995 on unusuDecember, continued

and led to the so-called floods of the century.

into January,

—

among them the Rhine, the Moselle, the Main, the Danube, the Fulda, and the Saar overflowed their banks and flooded vast regions containing many villages and cities. Even the federal capital of Bonn was partly underwater, but the political life of Parliament and government agencies continued unimpeded. There were some significant developments in the structure of the political parties that could have considerable short- and long-term consequences. For the Free Democratic Party (FDP), the Numerous

rivers

—

centrist coalition partner of the ruling conservative Christian

Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU), the downturn that began in 1994 continued. At the state elections in Bremen and North Rhine-Westphalia (both on

May

14)

as well

as

(October

Berlin

in

22),

the loss of

votes was so severe that the party did not reach the

members

threshold needed to send

to the parliaments.

5%

Only

Hessen on February 19 did they qualify for parliamen-

in

tary representation. Thus, to a great extent the party lost

parliamentary basis on both the federal and the state This shock was accompanied by major shake-ups in the party. The leader of the FDP, Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel, had to resign because of these repeated failures, its

levels.

and Wolfgang Gerhardt from Hessen was chosen leader

The FDP lost force in Germany

the party conference in June.

its

third .strongest political

to the

Alliance

A

'90,

the party of the environmental

further shock to the ruling coalition

when

at

status as the

Greens/

movement.

came

in

December

the minister of justice, Sabine Leutheusser-Schnar-

renberger, resigned after her party, the

FDP, abandoned

its

opposition to proposed legislation that would have allowed electronic surveillance of suspected criminals.

probably be replaced by another was expected to survive.

As she would

FDP member,

the coalition

loss

weakened the SPD more than majority in North Rhine-Westphalia. The

the leadership

of their

the in-

Rudolf Scharping's style of leadership began early in January and escalated over the summer into a power struggle between Scharping, the party leader, and Gerhard Schroder, the prime minister of Lower Saxony, who also was the SPD's official spokesman for economic affairs. The difierences of opinion were aired publicly and raised questions not only about party leadership but also about the SPD's economic positions. Schroder had for the time being been stripped of his political power in the national party, but the conflict that had reached so deeply into the SPD had by no means come to an end. On November 16 Oskar Lafontaine was chosen SPD leader at the party conference in Mannheim. Scharping remained leader of the ternal criticism of

within

ruling

CDU/CSU

benefited

the opposition, which

from

these

quarrels

tended to cover up Kohl's

weaknesses.

The

won

representation

in

Germany, had

the Bundestag (lower house of

continuing strength in the new broke with Stalinist ideas and structures in its party conference in late January; the reformist wing of the party gained a clear majority, and the communist minority in the party could not win a single seat on the party's executive committee. There was an unusual consensus evident among the

Parliament) because of federal states. But the

its

PDS

Bundestag when a bill was passed in June with an overwhelming majority more than two-thirds voted for a joint motion that after decades of confrontations settled the question of the legality of abortion. Abortion within the first 12 weeks of pregnancy was no longer a crime, but the woman had to undergo counseling at an appropriate centre before an abortion could be performed. The asylum laws were once again a significant political issue. Turkish actions against the Kurdish minority in Turkey resulted in a growing criticism among Germans of the practice of too quickly deporting asylum seekers to their native countries. The protest against the asylum policy of the government led more and more church groups to give sanctuary to people whose petitions for asylum had been rejected. A judgment of the Federal Constitutional Court on the constitutionality of the asylum laws was expected in the spring of 1996. Dissatisfaction on the part of foreigners resident in Germany, most of whom were Turkish, led to the formation of the Democratic Party of Germany in the fall of 1995. The party intended to campaign for changes in the country's electoral system and citizenship law. Two decisions by the Constitutional Court caused a great deal of public discussion for many weeks. On May 23 it ruled that former East German spies and their bosses generally cannot be prosecuted for treason only some clearly defined exceptions to this ruling were possible. Then, in August, on the grounds that education and cultural affairs lie within the responsibility of the federal government, the court declared unconstitutional a requirement of the Bavarian state government that a crucifix had to be displayed in every classroom in Bavarian elementary schools. Especially parties in the

—

—

—

in

conservative, heavily

whether Christianity along with

its

Roman

Catholic, and traditional

itself

Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), the successor

would disappear from public

life

symbol.

On December 13 the Bavarian state Parliament, in response to the ruling, passed a law requiring that crucifixes be displayed in all classrooms in the state as a reflection of "the historical and cultural character of Bavaria." The law, which was open to constitutional challenge, required school principals to reach an "amicable agreement" with parents

who

objected to the

new

law.

Another symbol, this one of German history, disappeared from public view at least temporarily: the Reichstag building. This building, which was built under Kaiser Wilhelm II and burned shortly after the Nazis gained power, was wrapped in silver polypropylene fabric by installation artist Christo and his wife, Jeanne-Claude. {See Biographies.) The Bundestag had finally approved the action after it had been planned for years. Contrary to all skepticism about public acceptance of the work, the project became an immense success. More than two million visitors went to view the wrapped building. The annual award of the peace prize of the German book trade at the Frankfurt

parliamentary delegation.

The

also

Bavaria, the court order provoked excited debates over

Under the leadership of figures like Joschka Fischer (see Biographies), the Greens were able to improve their results in every election, and in North Rhine-Westphalia, the most populous federal state, they became the coalition partner of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), which had lost its overall majority. Nevertheless, conflicts and clashes

among

party to the communists in the former East

Book

Fair led to fierce criticism

soon after the recipient was named in May. The prize was awarded to 73-ycar-old Annemarie Schimmel. a professor emeritus of Oriental studies at the University of Bonn, on the grounds that she had fostered understanding between

World the Islamic and the Christian worlds through her extensive academic and journaHstic writings. Critics accused her of

showing too much understanding for Islamic fundamentalism and of endorsing the death sentence passed on novelist Salman Rushdie by the Iranian ayatoUahs. Although the candidate repeatedly denied these accusations, in early September 100 distinguished writers and scientists among them Giinter Grass (see Biographies) and Jiirgen Habermas wrote in protest against the award. The Economy. The economic recovery, which had already progressed markedly in 1994, continued in 1995. Gross domestic product grew by 2..8% in 1994, and the annual economic report issued by the government on January 27 forecast a growth of 3% for 1995 and a noticeable increase in exports based on a strengthened competitiveness. Labour demanded a share of the profits of the thriving economy, which led to long and tough wage negotiations. IG Metall, Germany's largest trade union, demanded a pay increase of 6% in addition to the 35-hour workweek that in 1990 had been agreed on for 1995. The employers rejected these de-

—

—

Affairs:

Germany

409

Deutsche Bundesbank to lower the discount rate and the repurchase rate in March. These, and the Lombard rate, were lowered in August. In December the Lombard rate and the discount rate were lowered again, to 5% and 3%, respectively. The principal economic discussion of the year was over the means to secure and improve Germany's economic condition. Topics revolved around modernization, taxation, the public sector, and working hours. The key items were simplification of the tax system and tax relief, consolidation of the federal and state budgets, the welfare state, a lean public sector, and flexible work time. Foreign Affairs. Relations with Russia, and especially the personal relationship between Chancellor Kohl and Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin, were strained by the deployment of Russian troops in Chechnya. Despite the fact that Kohl avoided led the

serious criticism of the Russian policy, he nevertheless dis-

tanced himself several times from the Russian actions. In a unanimous resolution of the Bundestag on January 20,

mands without making a concrete counteroffer. Numerous warning strikes and demonstrations followed, and 88.36% of the trade union membership eventually voted in favour of industrial action. In early March the two parties reached agreement on a contract that would be valid for the next two years. Wages would increase by nearly 4% over the life of the contract, and the workweek in the steel and engineering industries was reduced to 35 hours beginning in October 1995. These pay increases set a guideline for the wage negotiations in most other industrial sectors. For example, the wage settlement for the public sector signed in May was 3.2% plus a one-time payment of 140, and in September the huge Volkswagen company agreed to an increase of 4% as of January 1996. The demands of the unions for a reduction in working hours were aimed at reducing the

DM

unemployment rate. The employers, on the other hand, had called for flexibility in setting work time. In the automobile industry, as in other sectors, settlements were reached in which job security was to be maintained through such flexible arrangements. Unemployment was somewhat lower in January, at 3.8 million, than in the previous year, persistent

still about 10% and fell during the year by only a few tenths of a percent. At the end of January, Chancellor Kohl met with representatives of the industry and the unions to discuss unemployment and employment policies. The participants agreed to raise 3 billion to provide jobs to 180,000 of the longterm unemployed over the next four years. In connection

but the unemployment rate was

A foreigner works in

Germany.

It

in

the pouring of concrete at a construction project that in Berlin alone there were as many

was estimated

as 50,000 Gastarbeiter native

Germans,

(

"guest workers")

particularly

in

construction, while

many

manual labourers, remained unemployed.

AD VAN DENDEREN

DM

all

parties joined in passing a resolution holding that Rus-

with this concern over long-term unemployment, various

sia's right to territorial integrity

charitable organizations and the Catholic and Protestant

within the framework of the Russian constitution and the

churches also called for action against the increasing poverty

principles of international law

within affluent

German society. The the new federal states

fall

in

unemployment

in the east than in the was greater in west, though the unemployment rate in the east was much higher, as was the rate of economic growth.

Despite notable gains of their economies, the

new

fed-

were still dependent on capital transfer from the former West Germany. The audit office of the European Union caused quite a stir in February when it charged that the enormous funds were not always being spent wisely but were sometimes wasted. eral states

Growth in important sectors of the economy came under pressure from the appreciation of the Deutsche Mark. At the same time, the Deutsche Mark increased in value against other hard currencies and became increasingly important as a reserve currency and more attractive to foreign investors. This international strength coupled with a decline in inflation and positive developments in the money supply

could be maintained only

and human

rights.

partners in the European Union, the government

With in

its

Bonn

agreed that sanctions should not be imposed on Russia because of its actions in Chechnya. Russian Defense Minister Pavel Grachev, who had planned to visit Germany for political talks, was disinvited by his German counterpart, Volker Riihe, because of Grachev's remarks about human rights abuses in Chechnya. In an official state ceremony in Berlin on May 8, Germany commemorated the end of the Nazi regime. Representatives only of the four former allied nations had been invited as foreign guests: French Pres. Franqois Mitterrand, U.S. Vice Pres. Al Gore, British Prime Minister John Major, and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin. Vehement protests issued from Poland, where World War II had begun with the German invasion in 1939, because it had not been invited. In compensation, the Polish foreign minister,

Wladyslaw Bartoszewski, was invited as the only foreigner.

World ARairs: Germanv

410

Flooding threatens the buildings in Cologne's old city at the end of January. Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, and France all suffered from severe flooding early in the year, blamed partly on changes in land use and partly on the failure to strengthen Hollands dikes. JORN SACKERMANN— DAS FOTOARCHIVE/BLACK STAR

meeting of the Bundestag and tiie Bunchamber of the Parhament). U.S. Pres. Bill CHnton, President Mitterrand, Prime Minister Major, and Chancellor Kohl were all invited by President Yeltsin

would be expected

to address a joint

that they

desrat (the second

rebuilding former Yugoslavia.

to a

ceremony

The out on the

in

Moscow

principles of future

March

German

13

by Pres.

that

marked the same occasion.

German

foreign policy were set

Roman Hcrzog in an He held

Society for Foreign Affairs.

address to that within

the framework of a strengthened partnership with the U.S.

and the completion of European

Germany must be The new and larger Germany

unity,

not only an object but a subject of international politics. "Berlin Republic," as he called the

must be prepared to articand it must also be prepared to use military' power in concert with other democracies. The principles, which mirrored the attitude of the ruling coalition, were put into action for the first time on June .30, when the Bundestag voted to deploy German troops in Bosnia and Herzegovina under NATO command. For the first time since the Bundeswehr (the German armed forces) was founded 40 years earlier, German soldiers were that resulted

ulate

its

from

unification,

own economic and

security interests,

active in battle conditions outside the territory of

members. Some members of the voted

in

SPD and

NATO

Cireen deputies

favour of this decision, despite the fact that these mission in former

parties disapproved of an operational

Yugoslavia and wanted to accept a mission only under UN Bundeswehr troops outside member states had provoked wide the territory of

auspices. The question of using

NATO

SPD ever since the Federal ConstituCourt judged that German troops could take part in international peacekeeping missions without restrictions, as long as Parliament voted in favour of them. The question could now be considered resolved. An unresolved question was touched upon when Kohl discussion within the tional

warned the other members of the

EU

on November 24

to bear

much of

the cost of

The events oil rig

in connection with the planned sinking of the Brent Spar in June and the protests against the French

underground nuclear

German

tests

on Mururoa

atoll

showed

that

foreign policy, and foreign policy generally, was no

longer a matter only of parliaments and governments. The protests and appeals for a boycott against the Royal Dutch/ Shell Group led by the international environmental group

Greenpeace, which had an especially strong backing in Germany, met with such an enthusiastic response that important politicians of all parties, including Chancellor Kohl, joined in. Kohl's appeal not to sink the rig in deep water was opposed by British Prime Minister Major. Shell abandoned the sinking because of the pressure and opted for disposal ashore. Greenpeace also started a campaign against the resumption of French nuclear testing, and numerous politicians again joined the protests. The federal government in spite tried not to take sides too openly and took care of its support for the protests not to annoy the French government, particularly after Jacques Chirac became president. The desire of both sides was to avoid friction in the special relationship between France and Germany. Kohl's visit to South Africa and Namibia in mid-September awakened memories of a time long earlier when Germany was a colonial power in present-day Namibia, where there still was a strong German presence and intluencc. The chancellor promised both countries a privileged place on the list of recipients of German aid to less deveUiped countries. Kohl, who was accompanied by the minister for economic cooperation and development, Carl-Dieter Spranger, emphasized that Germany would help not only with financial aid but also with assistance in the development of a system of education, particularly vocational training on the Cierman (ROHiiRT sigll) model.

—

—

World

GHANA A

West Africa and member of the Commonwealth, on the Gulf of Guinea. Area: 238,533 sq km (92,098 Pop. (1995 est.): 16,472,000. Cap.: Accra. Monetary

republic of

Ghana sq mi).

lies

unit: cedi, with (Oct. 6,

1995) a free rate of 1,315 cedis to U.S. £1 sterling). Chairman of the Provisional National Defense Council and president in 1995, Jerry John Rawlings. $1 (2,079 cedis

=

Kwesi Botchwey, Ghana's minister of finance, presented the 1995 budget at the beginning of February; he set a growth target of 5% for the year and sought to reduce the rate of inflation by 25%. The 1994 budget had yielded an $80 million surplus (after two deficit years). The prices of gasoline and kerosene were increased by 25%, and the minimum wage was increased from 790 cedis a month to 1,200 as of February 1. During the first 11 days of May, the government was shaken by demonstrations against the 17.5% value-added tax that had been introduced as part of the 1995 budget. The violence led to five deaths and forced Botchwey to scrap the new measures in June and replace them with the former sales tax. After 13 years as finance minister, Botch-

wey resigned

in July.

On

February 8 Pres. Jerry Rawlings granted an amnesty to a number of prisoners to mark the second anniversary of Ghana's Fourth Republic. There was a renewal of ethnic violence in the north during March between the Konkomba and an alliance of the Namumba, Dagomba, and Gonja, and about 100 people were killed; the situation was potentially more dangerous than in 1994 because both sides had acquired automatic weapons. Peace moves were supervised by the minister of defense, Mahama Iddrissu, and a joint committee of Konkomba and Namumba was formed. The government set aside $1.2 million to aid an estimated 200,000 people who had been displaced in the conflict since it began in 1994. In July Rawlings made an official and successful state visit to Britain, and later that month, prior to serving as host of the annual Economic Community of West African States meeting in Accra, he also made a surprise visit to Togo for talks with Pres. Gnassingbe Eyadema. Relations between the two countries had not been good. By late September the various opposition parties were beginning to prepare for the presidential and parliamentary elections scheduled for 1996.

This article updates the Macropcedia article

(guy ARNOLD) Western Africa:

Ghana.

GREECE The

republic of Greece occupies the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and several adjoining island groups in southeastern Europe, in and between the Ionian and Aegean seas. Area: 131,957 sq km (50,949 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 10,493,000. Cap.: Athens. Monetary unit: drachma, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 234.67 drachmas to U.S. $1 (370.97 drachmas = £1 sterling). Presidents in 1995, Konstantinos Karamanlis and, from March 10, Kostis Stefanopoulos; prime minister, Andreas Papandreou.

socialist

411

minister of justice resigned, accusing the prime minister's entourage of unwarranted interference; in August a Pasok deputy was ousted from the party for publicly deploring the role of the prime minister's wife, which led Pasok cadres to openly urge a change of leadership, in September, Industry Minister Kostas Simitis resigned, stating that he refused to be a yes-man. His departure prompted a Cabinet reshuffle on September 15 that purged those of doubtful loyalty to Papandreou. When the second five-year term of Pres. Konstantinos Karamanlis was due to expire in May, Papandreou decided to support the candidate proposed by the small Political Spring party, Kostis Stefanopoulos, a respected former

The post was largely ceremonial. Papandreou had been hospitalized for pneumonia in November, and his health continued to deteriorate during the rest of 1995. He underwent dialysis treatments as his kidneys began to fail, and by late December his breathing was being continually assisted by a respirator. Because he had not named a successor, political uncertainty was widespread throughout Greece and all of Europe. Political uncertainty was all the more unwelcome in a politician.

year

when

the finance minister, Alexandros Papadopoulos,

pushed through unpopular

fiscal reforms and enforced a budgetary discipline. By April year-on-year inflation had dropped to single digits for the first time in 23 years; by the end of September it stood at 8.4%. The parity of the drachma remained remarkably stable, and interest rates on state bonds fell by 3.25 points to 14.25% in October. Nonetheless, the basic structure of the economy remained weak. The public debt stood at 115% of gross domestic

tight

product, the trade balance sagged, and there were delays privatization.

in

The government wavered between pledges of

social justice and the need to abide by the European Union's convergence program in order to bring Greece's economy in line with the rest of the EU by 1999. This required massive layoff's to

make

ailing state enterprises solvent

to attract private investors.

The prospect of

enough

early elections,

which would tempt parties to forsake austerity in favour of votes, discouraged serious buyers. Major infrastructure projects that would have lowered the unemployment rate, which had soared above 10%, suffered further delays during the year. The $2.5 billion contract for a major international airport for Athens was signed in August, though, and was promptly ratified by Parliament. The United States government actively intervened to ease tensions between Greece and its neighbours. Following pressure from Washington, in February the Albanian regime

Greek minority party Omonia convicted of subversion. Greek police later arrested a band of seven armed extremists and charged them with conspiring to disrupt relations with Albania. released five leaders of the

who had been

A

committee prepared a draft friendship and cooperation treaty, but when the Albanian foreign minister, Alfred Sereki, paid a return visit to Athens early in September, the talks broke down over a Greek proposal regarding Greek

joint

in

Albania.

An

government of

Andreas Papandreou to rectify the course of the economy and mend fences in the Balkans, political uncertainty pre-

Greece

luxury villa for her, the so-called pink villa scandal. Criticism came mainly from within Papandrcou's own party, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (Pasok). In February the

minority schools

Despite some bold moves by the

Affairs:

lic

13,

interim agreement with the former Yugoslav repubof Macedonia was signed in New York on September

thanks to American mediation. The accord did not

vailed throughout 1995 as a result of the prime minister's

resolve the conflict over the

weakening physical condition. Papandreou, who publicly thanked his wife, Dimitra, for helping him recover from critical heart surgery in 1988, shrugged off outraged protests over the construction of a

Greeks

name Macedonia, which

said implied territorial claims

the

on the adjacent Greek

province of the same name. Both sides eventually pledged to respect each other's frontiers and territorial integrity. The former Yugoslav republic formally declared that nothing in

412

its

World

Affairs:

Grenada

constitution should be construed as implying revanchism

against

Greece or any intention

internal affairs. flag the

It

to interfere in Greece's

further agreed to replace

on

its

national

image of the so-called Star of Vergina, an ancient

Macedonian emblem associated with

Philip

II,

father of

GUATEMALA A

republic of Central America, Guatemala has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 108,889 sq km (42,042 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 10,621,000. Cap.: Guatemala City.

Monetary unit: quetzal, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 5.92 quetzales to U.S. $1 (9.36 quetzales = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Ramiro de Leon Carpio.

Alexander the Great. In return, Greece agreed to lift its trade embargo imposed 19 months earlier. An assassination attempt against Macedonian Pres. Kiro Gligorov on October 3 came just as delegations from the two countries were meeting in Athens to implement the interim agreement. Any motives for the attempt were unknown, and both sides expressed hope that the outrage would not hamper their

vative National

efforts to restore relations.

Guatemala

Tensions with Turkey, the main foreign policy problem for Greece, persisted despite U.S. efforts to assist in resolving them. A meeting between Foreign Minister Karolos Papoulias and his Turkish counterpart, Erdal Inonu, in New York at the end of September simply underlined the sharp differences that divided the two countries. Those differences had been intensified by Greece's ratification of the Law of the Sea convention, which prompted the Turkish National

nearly twice as

Guatemalans went for a

new

to the polls in

November 1995

to vote

president. Alvaro Arzii, candidate of the conser-

Advancement Party and former mayor of

City, finished first with

many

about

42%

of the votes,

as his nearest rival, Alfonso Portillo of

the right-wing Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG). Because no candidate received a majority of the votes, a runoff between Arzii and Portillo was scheduled for Jan. 7, 1996.

Economist Jorge Luis Gonzalez del Valle, the candidate of

Assembly to give the Ankara government authorization to use force if Greece extended its territorial waters in the Aegean Sea from 6 to 12 mi. The Greeks dismissed Turkey's calls

for a diplomatic dialogue as a ploy to placate the

European Parliament, which refused to ratify a EU-Turkey customs union unless Turkey drastically improved its human rights record. (mario modiano)

GRENADA A

constitutional

monarchy within the Commonwealth, Grenada

.

dependency, the Southern Grenadines) is in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Area: 344 sq km (133 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 92,000. Cap.: Saint George's. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a par value of EC$2.70 to U.S. $1 (with

its

(free rate of EC$4.27 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1995, Reginald Palmer; prime ministers, Nicholas Brathwaite, George Brizan from February 1, and, from June 22, Keith Mitchell.

In

June 1995 the incumbent National Democratic Congress

(NDC) government

lost

the general election to the

New

National Party (NNP), and Keith Mitchell, a 47-year-old at Howard University, Washnew prime minister. The NNP won

former mathematics lecturer ington, D.C.,

became

the

Col. Julio Roberto Alpirez, accused of being a paid informant for the CIA and of involvement in two murders, answers questions at a news conference. In September a Guatemalan military tribunal acquitted Alpirez of one of the murders. MOISES CASTILLO— LATIN FOCUS

8 of the 15 parliamentary seats. Five were retained by the

NDC, and two went

to the

led by Sir Eric Gairy, in

1979,

when

Grenada United Labour Party, minister of Grenada New Jewel Movement, headed

who was prime

the left-wing

by Maurice Bishop, overthrew the government. victory

February when it signed an assistance treaty with Britain that provided for the tracing, freezing, and confiscation of the assets of drug pushers. A series of strikes in key foreign exchange-earning industries, including hotels, sugar, and cocoa, took place in March and April. A more serious threat was posed to the nutmeg industry by the sustained fall in prices on world markets. Grenada and Indonesia were the world's main nutmeg suppliers, and the two got together in May to continue efforts begun in 1994 to stabilize the price and encourage greater use of nutmeg. World demand had fallen to 9,000 metric tons in 1994, compared with production of 14,000 metric tons.

(DAVID RENWICK) This article updates the Macropa'dia article The Grenada.

West

new

left-wing coalition, the

Indies:

New Guatemala

Democratic

Front, finished a surprising fourth in the field of 19.

As

in

1990, retired general Efrain Rios Montt's bid to be

FRG was blocked by the Supreme Elecbecause his previous presidency, in 1982-83, had been achieved as a result of a military coup. The FRG had been victorious in the 1994 congressional elections, and in January 1995 Rios Montt was named president of the Congress. Later in the year, however, the party's popularity plummeted, and several key members deserted it. In August the Supreme Court stripped Rfos Montt and three other FRG congressmen of their immunity from prosecution so that they could be tried on charges of wiretapping, document forgery, and usurpation of powers. Peace negotiations between the government and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity failed to keep to the schedule agreed upon at the beginning of the year. The talks were attectcd by the elections and the perceived weakness of the government, combined with reluctance to pursue them on the part of the army and entrenched interests such as large landowners. The United Nations Mission for Guatemala reported that the lack of punishment continued to be the most serious obstacle to achieving respect the candidate of the

no doubt owed something to its promise to abolish the income tax. The tax had been dropped in 1986 but was reintroduced by the NDC in 1994. Grenada stepped up its fight against drug trafficking in

The NNP's

a

toral Tribunal

World for

human

of torture,

rights in illegal

Guatemala and described

specific cases

detention, extrajudicial killings, and ob-

on the 570 human rights cases the three months ended May 21.

ernment and the country's principal trade union resulted a

struction of justice, based

reported to

it

in

This article updates the Macropcedia

(SARAH CAMERON) article Central Amer-

ica: Guatemala.

GUINEA The

republic of Guinea is located in West Africa, on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 245,857 sq km (94,926 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 6.7 million (excluding -500,000-600,000 refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone). Cap.: Conakry. Monetary unit:

Guinean

GF 992.70 £1 sterling). President in 1995, Gen.

franc, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of

to U.S. $1

(GF

1,569

=

Lansana Conte.

Preparations for the often-postponed legislative elections

dominated 1995. The Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally, which finished last in the 1993 elections, suffered a further setback when a breakaway faction formed the Democratic Party of Guinea-Ahmed Sekou Toure (PDG-AST) in January. Subsequently, the opposition parties regrouped.

Most important, three opposition

formed an alliance in April with the Rally of the Guinean People, led by Alpha Conde. That same month, after the government published its new electoral code banning Guineans living abroad from voting, various opposition groups organized demonstrations and threatened to boycott the elections. In May the opposition National Democratic Union of Guinea agreed to cooperate with the PDG-AST. Each of the opposition coalitions agreed to present one parties

Bissau to bring to an end a period of mutual hostility between the two countries. Pres. Joao Bernardo Vieira and Diouf issued a statement promising better economic relations between the two countries and signed an accord to share equally the offshore mineral and energy resources on their joint continental shelf. The two nations agreed to joint exploitation of an offshore oilfield that straddles their territorial waters. They also reaffirmed a 20-year agreement that committed them to joint management and exploitation of their maritime zones. In August, Kumba lala, the defeated candidate in the 1994 presidential elections, denounced the government for entering into preferential relations with France. He also accused the government of causing an increase in prices, especially for rice, and denounced its record on human rights. This article updates the Macropcedia article Guinea-Bissau.

(guy ARNOLD) Western Africa:

GUYANA

A

republic and

member

of the

Commonwealth, Guyana is on the Atlantic Ocean.

situated in northeastern South America,

km (83,044 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 770,000. Cap.: Georgetown. Monetary unit: Guyana dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) an official rate of G$143.80 to U.S. $1 (G$227.33 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Cheddi Jagan; prime minister, Sam Hinds. Area: 215,083 sq

The government agreed

in

March 1995

to set

up an

activist

(PUP) won

Rodney was blown up by a bomb concealed

seats

On

were taken by other parties July

6,

allied with the

PUP.

opposition parties formed the Coordination

of the Democratic Opposition

(CODEM)

and, charging the

government with widespread vote fraud, announced that they would not take their 37 seats. Conte refused to negotiate with CODEM, insisting that such matters were the concern of the legislature and the judiciary. In September CODEM ended its boycott, and the opposition deputies took their seats. Real gross domestic product was expected to grow by 4.9% in 1995, although the inflation rate was likely to be higher than the government's target of 4%. In recognition of Guinea's improved economic performance, the Paris Club canceled $85 million of the nation's external debt and rescheduled repayments of another $85 million.

(nancy ELLEN LAWLER) Western Africa:

This article updates the Macropcedia article Guinea.

GUINEA-BISSAU

A

republic of

West

Africa, Guinea-Bissau lies on the Atlantic km (13,948 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.):

Ocean. Area: 36,125 sq

1,073,000. Cap.: Bissau. Monetary unit: Guinea-Bissau peso, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 16,036 pesos to U.S. $1 (28,513 pesos = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Joao Bernardo Vieira; prime minister, Manuel Satumino da Costa.

in

50% increase in the minimum salary for the public sector. On June 12 Pres. Abdou Diouf of Senegal visited Guinea-

candidate list for each district. Despite these maneuvers, however, Pres. Lansana Conte's Party for Unity and Progress 71 of the 114 seats on June 11, and 5 additional

413

Affairs: Haiti

oflficial

inquiry into the death in 1980 of the opposition political

Walter Rodney, a historian of international repute. in

a radio

and it was widely believed at the time that the government, headed by Forbes Burnham, was involved. The inquiry was to be conducted by an international commission. As part of its anticorruption drive, the government decided in April that it would require all public employees, including Pres. Cheddi Jagan, to declare their assets and liabilities to an independent tribunal. In July it was announced that six privatization deals would be completed by the end of the year. Entities to be sold included a government-owned pharmaceutical company and a mortgage bank. The Canadian company Alcan announced it would purchase as much as 300,000 metric tons of bauxite over the next three years. The contract was scheduled to take effect in March 1996 so that the company would have time to procure the spare parts needed for production. Guyana's worst environmental disaster took place in Autransmitter,

when a retaining wall for Omai gold mine collapsed and

gust

a storage

pond

at the giant

m

allowed 2.3 million cu (3 million cu yd) of cyanide waste to contaminate parts of the Essequibo River, a major source of water and fish for tens of thousands of people. commission of inquiry was set up,

A

and the Canadian company that owned the mine offered compensation to those aff^ected. (david renwick)

HAITI The

In mid-January 1995 the International Monetary Fund approved a number of loans equivalent to $14 million to Guinea-Bissau to extend over a three-year period in support of the government's economic reform program. The first loan of $5 million was to be disbursed in semiannual installments. On October 10 negotiations between the gov-

republic of Haiti occupies the western one-third of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Area: 27,700 sq km (10,695 sq mi). Pop.

(1995 est.): 6,589,000. Cap.: Port-au-Prince. Monetary unit: gourde, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 19 gourdes to U.S. $1 (30.04 gourdes = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Jean-Bertrand Aristide; prime ministers, Smarck Michel and, from November 7, Claudette Werleigh.

414

World

Affairs:

Honduras

ijsfi1^' H

'

Wf-

K ^H

''2^^^^^^l

'i

m^Q,

HL-

mfPlbh

^H

H M i^ H HIK ^H HiH ^^^^r

^^tNl

^hHI

(for those seats that did not receive a majority in the

round).

Many

cott the elections

first

that the president's Lavalas

control of the electoral machinery.

round of the

elections, contested by 10.500

candidates, supporters of Lavalas swept the board. Voter

turnout was low,

less

than 50%, although

90%

of the 3.7

had registered to vote. Charging that the vote had been marked by fraud and a heavy pro-Aristide bias in the Provisional Electoral Council, the major opposition parties and many of the smaller groups decided to boycott the second round of the elections. President Aristide admitted that the elections could have been administered million electorate

'

p 1 ImUM1^11

JHH

home, a 15-mlnute walk away. In 1995 a number of international and regional agencies approved economic development programs for Haiti, where the living standards of most of the people remained extremely low. Haitian children carry water from

a water hole to

better and. after talks with the opposition parties, dismissed

the president of the Provisional Electoral Council.

was

of the seats theretofore decided.

Alter the second round, on September dates held 68 of the 83 seats

and 17 of the 27 seats

in

in

the

Lavalas candi-

17,

Chamber

of Deputies

the Senate. His party's victory

notwithstanding, Aristide insisted that he would retire from

1996 despite

office in

January 1995 U.S. commanders certified that a secure and stable environment had been achieved in Haiti since the mihtary occupation of the nation began in September 1994, which thus allowed the 6,000 U.S. troops to be replaced by a UN force of the same size. Security was nevertheless fragile. In the absence of a trained police force and a working justice system, robberies and shootings were frequent, and there were several murders daily. People continued to flee the country by boat, but most were repatriated by U.S. authorities. In August more than 100 Haitian migrants were thrown overboard and drt)wned when an overcrowded boat began to sink on its way to The Bahamas. At the end of January a $1 billion aid package was approved in Paris, but the money was slow in reaching Haiti, which led to resentment at the delay. The International Finance Corporation agreed to oversee the unpopular privatization of 9 of Haiti's 33 state enterprises, with the proceeds to be used for improving rural roads, hospitals, pension funds, and education. The International Monetary Fund offered a $31 million standby facility, with economic targets including annual inflation of 15%, growth of gross domestic product of 4.5%, and an increase in foreign reserves of $45 million during the year. The Inter-American Development Bank disbursed loans of $30 million for balance of payments support and $5.8 million for infrastructural development and a grant of $600,000 for the implementation of government projects. In May the Paris Club of creditor countries agreed to cancel $75 million of bilateral debt, with the remainder to be rescheduled over 23 years. In February Pres. Jean-Bertrand Aristide weakened the Haitian army's power by retiring all 43 of its officers who held a rank above major. The president said in April that he would ask the legislature to amend the constitution in order to abolish the army. The Provisional Electoral Council announced that elections would be held in two rounds, on June 4 and June 25, for the 83-member Chamber of Deputies, for 18 of the 27 Senate seats, and for about 2,000 local council posts and 100 mayoralties. However, amid rising political dissension both within the government and in the opposition, the first round was delayed until June 25, with a second round on July 23

It

decided that there would be reruns of the first round in many areas, with the second round not held until September. Reruns took place on August 13 and were orderly, although voter turnout was less than 33%. Most opposition candidates ignored the boycott order of their parties, but the Lavalas coalition again swept the board, winning all 34

their

MAGGIE STEBEH -MATERIAL WORLD WOMEN'S PROJECT

In

and claimed

movement had taken In the

first

of the opposition parties threatened to boy-

calls for his

term to be extended.

Two

candidates were announced for the presidential elections, scheduled to be held by the end of the year: Ernst Verdieu. the former social affairs minister and head of the Haitian branch of the Caritas aid agency, and Leon Jeune, the former deputy justice minister. Though an official tally of the December election was not immediately available, Aristide's handpicked successor, Rene Preval, was the winner by a landslide. High U.S. officials met with Preval after the balloting to discuss extending the stay of

UN

troops in Haiti.

(sarah cameron) The West Indies;

This article updates the Macropa-dia article Haiti.

HONDURAS A

republic of Central America. Honduras has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 12.492 sq km (43,433 sq mi). Pop. (IW.S est.): .S.5I2.()(I(). Cap.: Tegucigalpa. Monetary unit: Icmpira, with (Oct. (i, 19')5) a free rate of '^.47 lempiras to U.S. $1 (15.40 Icmpiras = tl slcriiniz). President in 1995, Carlos Roberto Reina. 1

In January 1995 the civilian-run Criminal Investigations Unit began operations, replacing the secret police, the National Investigation Unit, which was disbanded in 1994. The new force, initially of 1.500 agents, was trained by the Israeli police and the FBI of the U.S. Though the military remained involved in police work, the Legislative Assembly began the constitutional reform process to change control of the Public Security Forces from military to civilian hands. The police and the armed forces discussed ways in which they could combat the rising crime wave, which was claiming about 50 lives a day, as well as stem the trafficking of arms and drugs

through Honduran

territory.

The

constitutional reform to

abolish obligatory militai"y service, approved b\ the previous in 1994. was ratified by the new Congress in April by 125 votes to 3. Pres. Carlos Ri)berto Reina's election campaign promise of a "moral revolution" and an anticorruption drive was put into effect by the courts with several notable investigations.

Congress

In

January the

sister

of the foreign minister was arrested for

selling oflicial passports; in April the minister.

Ernesto Paz

World Aguilar, a close friend of Reina, resigned from the Cabinet,

August he and six other government officials were detained in prison on fraud charges related to the sale of official passports. The Supreme Court of Justice revoked the immunity granted to former president Rafael Leonardo Callejas so that he could answer charges relating to the falsification of documents and misappropriation of funds. President Reina himself was investigated over the inapproand

in

priate use of state funds to resolve a private labour dispute.

This article updates the Macropci'dia ica: Honduras.

(SARAH CAMERON) article Central Amer-

HUNGARY A

republic, Hungary is a landlocked state in central Europe. Area: 93,030 sq km (35,919 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 10,231,000. Cap.: Budapest. Monetary unit: forint, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 131.49 forints to U.S. $1 (207.86 forints

President in 1995,

Arpad Goncz; prime

=

minister,

£1 sterling).

Gyula Horn.

—

Three areas dominated the Hungarian scene in 1995 the economy, the stability of the coalition, and foreign relations. To the credit of the coalition, made up of the communist successors the Hungarian Socialist Party (HSP) and the left-liberal Alliance of Free Democrats in March the prime minister, Gyula Horn, finally decided to grasp the nettle and to introduce a far-reaching austerity package. The package was brought in by the new minister of finance, Lajos Bokros, and came to be known as the Bokros package. It was profoundly unpopular. Essentially, it was aimed at trimming the budget deficit by cutting back on government expenditure through introducing new taxes, scrapping allowances, and charging fees in certain circumstances. Furthermore, the Hungarian currency, the forint, would undergo creeping monthly devaluation, aimed at reducing its value against the Deutsche Mark by up to 20% over a year. The central problem was that Hungary had been living beyond its means for many years and subsidizing this through foreign credits. In 1995 the day of reckoning had arrived, not least because the country's deficit had reached about $3 billion, giving Hungary the highest per capita debt in Europe. The popularity of the government plummeted; the main beneficiary was the right-wing Independent Smallholders' Party. It was generally estimated, however, that eventually the coalition would regain its standing, though this would take time. It was notable that the government, not least the prime minister, had not been particularly successful in attempting to sell the Bokros package to the public. If anything, it was imposed with hardly any explanation. The austerity package was a bitter pill to swa:llow for the

—

left

of the

HSP

—

as well.

The HSP regarded

itself as a social-

and cutting welfare benefits was painful indeed. Several ministers resigned, and the left of the party spent a good deal of time grumbling. According to some estimates, anything up to a quarter of the HSP parliamentary caucus could not be relied on to vote for austerity measures. It was to placate the left that Horn sought to promote the trade union leader, Sandor Nagy, to a senior position in the government in August. But this move, which had not been coordinated with the Free Democrats, nearly destroyed the coalition entirely. The role of the Free Democrats was to provide Horn with the necessary votes to get the austerity package through against his own left wing, but otherwise he had little time for them; he had, after all, been raised as a communist politician, and the subtleties of coalition politics did not figure high in communist politicking. ist

party,

Affairs: Iceland

415

The attempt

to impose a trade union leader on the coalihad the Free Democrats up in arms, and they made the rescinding of the appointment an issue of confidence. tion

Eventually Horn retreated, having thereby lost face with both his left wing and his coalition partner. The general feeling, however, was that the coalition would struggle on, despite the near-constant friction.

Matters were made worse for the coalition by intervention from an unexpected quarter the Constitutional Court. Under Hungary's improvised constitution the old communist document as amended the court had extraordinarily wide powers of supemsion and revision. By the end of the year, itfhiid brought in well over 10 decisions striking down as unconstitutional various parts of the measures put forward in the Bokros package. Bokros tendered his resignation, but he was persuaded to stay on. When all was said and done, the government seemed determined to continue its policies, despite their unpopularity. Whatever the political fallout from the austerity package, early figures indicated that its economic effect was beginning to show positive results, with the Hungarian economy very slowly coming out

—

—

—

of the doldrums. In foreign policy

Hungary pursued the options

elaborated since the

fall

of

communism

that

it

had

—closer integration

with the West and attempts to find ways of improving con-

Hungarian minorities in the neighbouring Unlike the centre-right coalition that lost power in 1994, the present coalition was determined to bring home major successes in both areas. In the event, it did not

ditions for the states.

manage to do so. Its difficulty with Western integration was that the terms, pace, and date were under the West's control, and Western leaders, despite verbal declarations to the contrary, gave the integration of the postcommunist states a low priority. Horn made a number of statements in which he argued that early membership of the Central European states in NATO and the European Union would be beneficial to the security of Europe as a whole; this met with polite indifference.

There was an equal lack of success with the neighbouring The coalition prided itself on its professionalism and sold itself to the Hungarian electorate as being better placed states.

to solve the minority issue than

its

nationalist-minded pre-

was unable to find negotiating partners in either Slovakia or Romania, where the presence of the ethnic Hungarians was seen as a major threat. (GEORGE SHOPFLIN) decessor. Unfortunately,

it

ICELAND Iceland is an island republic in the North Atlantic Ocean, near the Arctic Circle. Area: 102,819 sq km (39,699 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 269,000. Cap.: Reykjavfk. Monetary unit: Icelandic krona, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a tree rate of 64.78 kronur to U.S. $1 (102.38 kronur = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Vigdis Finnbogadottir;

prime minister, Davfd Oddsson.

Pres. Vigdfs Finnbogadottir announced at the initial session of the Althing, Iceland's national legislature, that she would

not run for the presidency again when her term expired in mid-1996. She took office in 1980, the fourth president of the republic since its establishment in 1944. Elections to the Althing took place on April 8. Of the 63 seats being contested, the Independence Party won 25, one fewer than in the 1991 election; the Progressive Party won 15, a gain of two. The People's Alliance won nine seats, the same as in 1991, and the Social Democratic Party won seven, a loss of three. The Women's Alliance returned three, two fewer than in 1991, and a new party, the People's

Movement, won four

seats.

As

a result of the election, the

416

World

Affairs: India

government coalition of the past four years, composed of the Independence Party and the Social Democratic Party, had a majority of only one vote in the new Althing. This was too small for the Independence Party, which therefore switched coalition partners and took in the farmer-backed Progressive Party. The new coalition consisted of 40 members out of the total of 63

The

Icelandic

in

the Althing.

economy picked up

in

1995 after having

grown very slowly in recent years. Gross domestic product was estimated to have increased by 3%, primarily because of a 3% growth in exports and a rise in domestic demand. Inflation was estimated to be below 2%, remarkable for Iceland after

its

long history of high inflation.

Unemployment

Iceland's dispute with

Norway and Russia over

Sea continued without solution

fishing in 1995.

Icelandic vessels continued to fish in a small area between

the 2()()-mi exclusive economic zones of Norway, Svalbard,

and Russia, taking advantage of fish stocks that, after being depleted several years earlier, had been carefully husbanded back to health by Norway and Russia. Toward the end of the year, there were indications that the matter could be solved through diplomatic negotiations. Heavy snows in the early months of 1995 hit the northern part of the country, particularly the northwestern peninsula.

On

January 16 an avalanche fell on the village of Sudavik, On October 26 another avalanche killed 20 persons in the fishing village of Flateyri. killing 14 persons.

(bjorn matthiasson)

INDU A

chief minister for a sixth time.

There was

change of government

in

Uttar Pradesh.

The Bahujan Samaj Party broke away from

the Samajwadi

also a

Party and formed a government under Mayawati with the

was about 5%. rights in the Barents

Corp. to build a $2.8 billion power project on grounds of The deal was renegotiated, and Enron agreed to reduce the cost of the second phase by $300 million. In Bihar the Janata Dal under Laloo Prasad Yadav was swept back to power. Congress (I) had the satisfaction of wresting the Orissa Assembly from the Janata Dal, winning 80 out of 147 seats and forming a ministry led by Janki Ballabh Patnaik. It also retained power in Arunachal Pradesh, where Geegong Apang remained chief minister. In Manipur, Rishang Keishing of Congress (I) was sworn in as overpricing.

and member of the India is situated on a peninsula extending into the Indian Ocean, with the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east. Area: 3,165.5% sq km (1.222,243 sq mi), including the Indian-administered portion of Jammu and Kashmir. Pop. (1995 est): 935.7 million, including Indianadministered Jammu and Kashmir. Cap.: New Delhi. Monetary unii: Indian rupee, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of Rs 33.90 to U.S. $1 (Rs 53.59 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Shankar federal republic of southern Asia

Commonwealth,

Dayal Sharma; prime minister, P.V. Narasimha Rao.

support of the BJP. The government lasted just over four months. The BJP withdrew, and presidential rule was promulgated. In Andhra Pradesh, N.T. Rama Rao's ministry

was toppled in a family revolt, and his son-in-law, M. Chandrababu Naidu, took away the majority in the Telugu Desam Party to form the government on September 1. The BJP had problems in its stronghold in Gujarat when Shankersinh Vaghela and 46 legislators rebelled against Keshubhai Patel and a new BJP Cabinet was sworn in under Suresh Mehta. In Kerala, Congress (I), bowing to the pressure of its partners in the United Democratic Front, replaced K. Karunakaran with A.K. Antony as chief minister in March. The Punjab chief minister, Beant Singh, was assassinated in a bomb explosion on August 31, shattering the belief that terrorist activity had been put down in the state. Harcharan Singh Brar was the new chief minister. Separatist activity continued in Jammu and Kashmir, and the government's plans to hold elections in the state were negated by the Election Commission because of a fear of violence. The 535-year-old shrine of Nooruddin Noorani at Charar-i-Sharif was burned down by militants on May 11 after a prolonged engagement with security forces. Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao reshuffled his Council of Ministers three times during the year,

in

February, June,

and September. Pranab Kumar Mukherjee was given the

Among those inducted into the Cabinet were A.R. Antulay (Health), Madhav Rao Scindia (Human Resource Development) and K. Karunakaran (Industry). P. Chidambaram returned as minister of state for External Affairs portfolio.

Domestic Affairs. In 1995, with elections to the Lok Sabha (House of the People) due early in 1996, the major political parties did not appear to be in fighting trim. The Indian National Congress (I) underwent another split, with former minister Arjun Singh, who was expelled, being joined by Narain Dutt Tiwari to form a rival Congress party in May.

The Bharatiya Janata

Party (BJP), reputed for discipline,

was also riven by dissension. The National Front-Left Front alliance was badly damaged with the breakup of the Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh and squabbles in the Communist Party of India (Marxist). In June a new political party for members of the lower castes was launched by Phoolan Devi, "the Bandit Ouecn." {See Biographus.) The outlook for the non-Congress parties had been brighter in March-April when, in elections to assemblies in five states. Congress (I) lost power in two major states, Maharashtra and Gujarat, and fared poorly in another big state. Bihar. The BJP won 121 out of 182 seats in the Ciujarat Assembly and formed a government under Keshubhai Patel. In Maharashtra it teamed up with another Hindu chauvinist party, the Shiv Sena, and the coalition won I3S out of 2HH seats, compared with SI by Congress (I), and formed a government led by Manohar Joshi of the Shiv Sena. Among the first acts of the new government were the renaming of Bombay as Mumbai and the abolition of the state minorities commission. Within five months it had also canceled the agreement with the U.S. company Enron

commerce. Three major welfare schemes were launched from midAugust: a national social assistance scheme for persons over age 65. a school meal plan to benefit 10 million children, and a group insurance scheme, together costing Rs 39 billion annually. The prime minister also announced a plan to 1

build 10 million rural houses.

The Indian constitution was amended through the 78th protection to certain land laws of states. Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act

amendment to give The Terrorist and lapsed, and the

government introduced

criminal law to cleal I'he

more

a

bill

jected his

amend

the

chief election commissioner. T.N. Seshan. continued

to be in the news. His petition challenging the

of two

to

efiectively with terrorism.

appointment

more members to the election commission was reby the Supreme Court, which advised him to mend

ways and reach decisions

in

the commission by con.sen-

sus or majority. In another judgment, the court directed the

government

an independent authority t\)r alloThe court also ruled that the conversit)n of a Hindu to another religion (e.fi.. Islam) to contract a second marriage was illegal. The court asked the government to consider the feasibility of a uniform civil code but (continued on page 418) to appoint

cating airwaves.

The

edge these claims. This means, among

ideals of secularism have always been important, though precarious, in South Asia. Be-

other things, that Muslims would not be allowed to live as they do now, un-

own code of personal laws. though a secular state, allows Muslims and Hindus to live according to a code of personal laws based on their religion.) This has made the

cause of its diverse population, the region has long been a theatre of conflict between religious communities. Even when the threat of conflict has been

der their (India,

centred around ethnicity or caste, political parties and governments have sometimes appealed to religious considerations to distract attention

Muslim community particularly defenon the matter of this code, which many Muslims now believe is the only

sive

from

these other forms of conflict. In

all

thing that can preserve their cultural

such

circumstances it is secularism that has been eroded. In 1993 conflict between Hindus

identity. This attitude gives popular currency to the Hindutva claim that

and Muslims in northern India came to a head with the destruction of the mosque at Ayodhya and took on a scale and significance not witnessed

years of British rule and by the "pseu-

communal

since the

Muslims were pampered during the dosecular" state of postindependence India.

Perhaps the most significant event

troubles during

relevant to secularism

the creation of Pakistan in 1947.

in

The partition left India with a sizable Muslim population (10-12% of the whole) who did not become citizens of the new state of Pakistan, and this population has recently come under an attack from a Hindu nationalist majoritarian movement known as Hindutva. The parliamentary party explicitly committed is

to a policy of opposition to the

Muslim minorities

the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), but

it

has important

extraparliamentary support from bodies that propagandize for

Hindu dominance. This group of

organizations,

is

larly the

a

Hindu nation and

Muslims, may

live

RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS

IN

that minorities in in

the past year

India only

if

it,

harashtra, in alliance with a militant regional party called

Shiv Sena. This newly elected government has already pro-

posed a

particu-

they acknowl-

SOUTH ASIA JAMMU AND KASHMIR

code for Muslims, on the grounds that this federal state legislation. At the federal level,

legislation to abolish a separate civil

move

Muslims

that

resist

matter is not subject to however, the Supreme Court ruled earlier that conversion by Hindu men to Islam as a means of marrying more than one

women was

known

as the sangh parivar, has a distinctive ideology that claims

India

in

was the election of the BJP to power in India's most prosperous state, Ma-

the partition period that culminated

prohibited.

Muslim popuKashmir, the government led by Mulyalam Singh

In Uttar Pradesh, the state with the largest

lation after

when a party of the Untouchable community Bahujan Samaj Party withdrew its support and formed an alliance with the BJP. This shows how the condi-

Yadav

fell

called the

tion of secularism in India

is

influenced by the question of

government had assumed that Hindutva was movement of upper-caste Hindus with no support among

caste. Singh's

a

the Untouchables, but the defection of the that

some groups

will

BSP

indicates

put aside economic concerns

when

jockeying for immediate political power.

Secularism

Pakistan

in

is

an issue of the extent to which

the official religion, Islam, will be allowed to dominate the

and the chief problem in Pakistan at present is threats government of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto from an increasingly Islamic and conservative army. In Bangladesh there was an Islamist outcry against Taslima Nasrin's feminist novel Lajja, which expressed sympathy for the plight of the Hindu minority in the country. A similar situation surfaced in India with the publication of Salman Rushdie's new novel. The Moor's Last Sigh, which satirizes a leader of the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra. The ongoing civil war in Sri Lanka between the Sinhalese majority, mostly Bhuddist, and the Hindu Tamil separatists in the north seems no closer to resolution, but in Nepal most people prefer making the new multiparty democracy work, and there are few who wish for a return to the absolutist Hindu monarchy. In spite of such groups as the "guru busters" of Calcutta, which agitate against religious influence in India, and groups that want to preserve a multireligious state, the secular commitment to free expression of religious dissent will no doubt continue to be under some attack and strain in the countries state,

International

boundanes

INDIAN

Disputed boundaries

OCEAN

Line of control

MAHARASHTRA

STATE,

India

SRI

LANKA

to the

of southern Asia BUDDHISTS HINDUS MUSLIMS

SIKHS

Political

Religious minorities

subdivision

Akeel Bilgrami

boundaries

Religious majorities

1^

Centers of conflict

versity.

is

in the

near future.

professor of philosophy

New York

Postcolonial Politics

at

Columbia Uni-

City and the author of the forthcoming

and Cultural

Identity.

418

World

Affairs: Indonesia

(continued from page 416) later clarified that this

observation.

A

special judge in

New

Delhi convicted 43 persons of of-

fenses committed during the anti-Sikh riots following Indira

A judge in Baroda awarded Sena members, and a Bombay judge held 166 persons guilty for their part in the HinduMuslim riots of 1993. {See Special Report: Secularism in Gandhi's assassination life

sentences to

in 19S4.

13 Shiv

South Asia.

Former prime minister Morarji Desai died in April, a few weeks after his 9yth birthday. {See Obituaries.) In August, Sonia Gandhi (see Biographies), Rajiv Gandhi's widow, expressed regret over the government's slowness in investigating her husband's assassination in 1991. It was the Italian-born Gandhi's first public statement since the event. The Economy. An official estimate placed the growth rate in 1994-9? at 5.3% and the increase in exports at 27%. Several state-owned industries made public equity offerings, but the government's plan to award contracts for different telecommunications services met political and legal obstacles. The value of the rupee fell sharply in October, but the reserve bank was able to stabilize exchange rates. The stock market plunged in November. Presenting the federal budget on March 15, Finance Minister Manmohan Singh announced increases of 12% and 14.6%, respectively, in the allocations for education and agriculture. Import duties were cut, especially on metals, electrical parts, paper, chemicals, and drugs. Revenue receipts for 1995-96 were placed at Rs 1,()()7,870,0(KU)U0, BARTOLOMEW

Rs 663.640,000,000, and expenditure at Rs 1,721.510.000,000, leaving a budgetary deficit of Rs 50 billion. The provision for defense was Rs 255 billion, a rise of Rs 25 billion over the previous year. The annua! inflation rate stood at 8.23%' during the week ended November 11. Foreign Affairs. Relations with Pakistan remained uneasy, with India continuing to accuse Pakistan of aiding and abetting Kashmiri and Punjabi separatists and Pakistan alleging Indian help to antigovernment elements in Sind. The move in the U.S. Congress in September to resume arms supplies to Pakistan was viewed in India as encouraging an arms race in the subcontinent. By an agreement reached with China, both countries began withdrawing troops along the border in August. The South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation, at a meeting held in New Delhi in May, decided to launch a South Asia Preferential Trade Arrangement from capital receipts at

was not advice but rather a passing

-

Kashmiri separatists demand freedom from Indian rule after fire destroyed much of the town of Charar-i-Sharif in May. In the second of two fires in one week, a 15th-century Muslim shrine dedicated to the patron saint of Kashmir burned to the ground.

December

8.

Prime Minister Rao participated in the World Social Summit in Denmark in March and the 5()th anniversary of the trips

UN

to

in New York City in October. He also made Maldives, France, Malaysia, Turkmenistan, Kyr-

and Ghana. Pres. Shankar Dayal Sharma paid visits to Trinidad and Tobago. Chile, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. Among important visitors to India were Pres. Nelson Mandela of South Africa; Pres. Hashemi Rafsanjani of Iran; the presidents of Turkey. Italy. Pakistan. Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Mali; the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Nepal, and Denmark; and the king of Bhutan. During Rafsanjani's visit a tripartite agreement was signed between Iran, Turkmenistan, and India to provide road-andrail access for Indian trade with Central Asia through Iran. India rejected the call to sign the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty after 174 nations resolved at a conference in New York City in May to extend the treaty indefinitely. The government maintained that the extension perpetuated the discriminatory aspects of the treaty and provided legitimacy to the nuclear arsenals of nuclear weapons states. It gyzstan, Egypt, Burkina Faso.

reiterated

resolve to

its

work

for elimination of

all

nuclear

weapons. India also staked a claim for a permanent seat the enlarged

UN

in

Security Council. (H.Y.

SHARADA PRASAD)

INDONESIA

A

republic of Southeast Asia, Indonesia consists of the major

islands of Sumatra. Java.

Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Celebes (Indonesian: Sulawesi), and Irian .lava (West New sinaller islands and islets. Area: 1,919,317 sq km (741.032 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 195.283,000.

Guinea) and more than 13.000

Cap.: Jakarta. Monetary unit: rupiah, with (Oct. 6. 1995) a free rate of 2,26S rupiah to U.S. $1 (3.585 rupiah = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Suharto.

Speculation about a successor to President Suharto subsided in 1995. but grumbling from an increasingly well-educated

and well-off middle class that wanted more openness in government grew louder. Suharto, whose 28-year rule made him one of the world's most resilient leaders, still had a firm grip on the levers of power. Most expected him to seek and win another five-year term in 1998. At celebrations for the country's 5()th anniversary of independence on August 17, Suharto said, "This is a time ior more transparency." The government's actions, however, did not always live up to his promises. Just before

Independence Day. Suharto ordered the rewho had been jailed nearly

lease of three political prisoners

30 years earlier lor their roles in the 1965 upheaval that eventually led to Sukarno's ouster and brought Suharto to power. The go\ernment also piomised to remove a stigma

World

from the national former detainees.

some 1.3 announced

identification cards of In

May

the president

million a plan

to reduce the parliamentary seats allotted to the military

from 100 to 75 beginning in 1997. This reduction seemed symbolic to some and did not end the armed forces' constitutionally guaranteed role in political and social affairs, however. Government supporters contended that the military's diminished presence in the parliament was a sign that

democracy was being broadened. With an eye toward the mid-1997 national elections for the 500-member legislature, information minister and Suharto

Harmoko

loyalist

traversed the country to boost

the standing of Golkar, the nation's most potent politi-

Members

of the other two legal political parties, the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI) and the cal organization.

Muslim-based United Development Party (PPP), asked the government in June to explain Harmoko's early rush to the hustings, implicitly questioning the fairness of the govern-

ment's practices. Critics contended that Jakarta made life tough for the opposition in other ways as well. One vocal parliamentarian was disowned by Golkar in February, and the

PPP

its members in March. PDI officials government was attempting to block the rise of which was led by Sukarno's daughter Megawati

expelled one of

said that the their party,

Sukarnoputri.

Amid the electioneering, Indonesia's justice system delivered three rulings that led some civil liberties advocates to suggest that the courts might be asserting their independence.

Harmoko

said he

court's verdicts. In

of three

members

would appeal one of the lower

March Harmoko had ordered

the arrest

of the Alliance of Independent Journal-

a group

formed after the 1994 banning of three popular September the government banned the pubhshed memoires of Oei Tjoe Tat, the former assistant to ists,

publications. In

The list of those forbidden to speak in Abdurrahman Wahid {see Biographies),

President Sukarno. public included

419

Affairs: Iran

leader of the nation's largest Islamic organization.

The Supreme Court in May exonerated six persons imprisoned for the 1993 killing of labour activist Marsinah. Critics had long viewed the convicts as scapegoats forced to confess to a crime that many blamed on the military. Another prominent labour activist, Muchtar Pakpahan, was released from a four-year jail term in May. Strikes organized in April 1994 by his independent labour group in Medan, Sumatra, had led to rioting in which one person died. Dissidents claimed that the military had stepped up its campaign to crush the popular separatist movement in the former Portuguese colony of East Timor. After an army inquiry into the killing of six civilians there in January, two soldiers were court-martialed. The army was also checking claims that troops murdered 17 independence activists in

IRAN The

Islamic Republic of Iran is in southwestern Asia on the Caspian and Arabian seas and the Persian Gulf. Area: 1,638,057 sq km (632,457 sq mi). Pop. (est., excluding about 1.6 million Afghan refugees): 6 1,271, ()()(). Cap.: Tehran. Monetary unit:

Iranian

rial,

with (Oct. 6, 1995) a fixed rate of 3,000 rials to U.S. = £1 sterling). Rahbar (spiritual leader) in 1995,

$f (4,742 rials

Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei; president, Hojatolislam All

Akbar Hashemi

In

1995

the

Rafsanjani.

Islamic regime

in

economic hardship but domestic

Iran

endured a year of

political quiescence.

On

January 20 Iran's outstanding nonclerical political figure, Mehdi Bazargan, died. {See obituaries.) He was the country's first prime minister following the 1979 revolution and the only surviving secular leader accepted by the Islamic regime. His death left a marked gap in the ranks of the opposition, since few other Iranians had been permitted publicly to attack the regime with impunity. Ahmad Khomeini, son of the late Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, died on March 17. He represented an uncompromising face of the Islamic revolution, but his departure was not expected to significantly weaken the hard-line wing of the regime. A major challenge to the authority of the government came in June when the trial began of officials accused of embezzling funds from the state-owned Bank Saderat. One of the defendants was Morteza Rafiqdoust, brother of Mohsen Rafiqdoust, the powerful head of the Foundation of the Oppressed (Bonyad Mostazafin & Janbazan). The trial added to public disquiet over allegations that officials in the Islamic Republic had consistently taken illicit pecuniary advantage of their positions. In July a senior mullah, Ayatollah Mahdavi Kani, resigned as secretary-general of the Society of Combatant Clerics, which suggested a trend toward a weakening of the direct role of senior religious leaders in political life. In August two bomb attacks occurred in Tehran, and in Ahvaz an oil pipeline was damaged in a separate incident. These bombings indicated that terrorism against the regime had not been entirely suppressed. In foreign affairs the country

remained a pariah

state.

Relations with the U.S. worsened as a result of an executive

order by Pres. Bill Clinton in May that placed a ban on U.S. trade with Iran. Although allies of the U.S. did not adopt similar trade sanctions, other issues, such as the death sentence levied against novelist Salman Rushdie, gave cause for concern. An initiative by the European Union (EU) in June to get this death threat revoked failed, but the Iranian authorities noticeably played down the matter during the year. Nonetheless, the Norwegian ambassador was withdrawn from Tehran because of dift'erences with Iran on

the economy, which grew at about

Commercial relations between the EU and Iran improved. In the Middle Eastern arena Iran continued to be regarded with suspicion. Tehran was entirely opposed to the IsraeliPalestinian peace settlement and maintained its moral and

flation rose to nearly

material support for Islamic fundamentalist causes across

an island province Indonesian archipelago. Irian Jaya,

in

the far eastern part of the

tension had little effect on economic growth. conditions and strong investment continued to drive

Political

Boom

8% in 1995, though in10%. Approved foreign investment for

months totaled $33.5 billion, 40% more than was approved in all of 1994. The current account for the first quarter of the year jumped 29% owing to greater imports of services. In May the government reduced tariffs on a range of goods and set a timetable for further reductions. Just a week before independence celebrations, Indonesia's first domestically produced aircraft successfully completed its maiden flight; it was vindication for B.J. Habibie, minister for research and technology, whose high-tech development plans had been criticized as wasteful and misguided. (SUSAN BERFIELD) the

first five

the Rushdie affair.

states

the region. Iran kept up a strong backing for the territorial integrity of Iraq despite

Saddam

its

reservations concerning Iraqi

The

defection from Iraq of two of Hussein's politically powerful sons-in-law and their families

leader to

Hussein.

Jordan was not welcomed

in Iran. It

lude to greater U.S. intervention

in

was seen

as a pre-

Iraq and possibly the

unwelcome emergence there of a pro-U.S. government. The domestic economy fared badly in 1995. Oil production ran at some 3.6 million bbl per day. The annual budget forecast oil revenues for the fiscal year from March 1995 to March 1996 at approximately $15 billion, with actual re-

420

Iraqi

World

Affairs: Iraq

mothers wait with

from leukemia, In the hope of being able to get medicine and treatment at a Baghdad hospital. since 1990, continued to produce shortages and to make life difficult for many Iraqis.

their children, suffering

economic sanctions against

Iraq, in force

UN

1995. Agricultural production suffered, despite an

Sporadic food shortages were reported, and the ration allotment for the population was lowered. The government raised interest rates and introduced another bond issue in an attempt to reduce soaring inflation, estimated at a rate of 250% a year. The World Health Organization reported that health care and water-treatment systems had collapsed, with some resulting spread of disease. On May 17 a violent rebellion against the regime by the Sunni Muslim tribes of Dulaim took place in and around the city of ar-Ramadi. Sparked by the execution of a Dulaimi air force general for conspiracy, the unsuccessful revolt left thousands killed, wounded, or imprisoned. It was the first time that important elements in the country's Sunni centre, considered the regime's strongest base of support, had challenged the Baghdad government in such a direct and bloody way. Relations with Iran improved, but a number of issues stood in the way of better ties. Iraq claimed that Iran held several thousand Iraqi prisoners of war, while Iran was dissatisfied with the refuge Iraq gave to a major group opposing the regime in Tehran. In March some 35,000 Turkish army units with heavy armaments and air support crossed the Iraqi border and penetrated deep into northern Iraq. Their objective was to halt attacks across the frontier by the Kurdish Workers' Party (PKK) from their bases inside northern Iraq. The Turks subsequently declared the operation a success and withdrew their forces, but some attacks continued. Fighting continued between Kurdish factions in northern Iraq in a zone uncontrolled by the Baghdad government but under air protection by U.S., U.K., and French forces under UN mandate. The two main Kurdish parties, the Kurdish

increase in the purchase price of agricultural commodities.

Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan,

first half of that period meeting the budgetary Other economic indicators were less promising. The currency came under great stress, partly as a result of the U.S. trade sanctions, and there was a marked fall in the value of the rial on the black market, which dropped at one stage to 6,000 rials to the U.S. dollar, against the

ceipts in the target.

of 1,750 rials, used for the import of essential commodities. (The fixed rate of 3,000 rials was used for all other foreign transactions.) Attempts to ban privatesector dealings in foreign currency and to fix the rial at a official rate

stable rate

were

largely ineffectual

and triggered a reshuffle

of Pres. Hojatolislam Rafsanjani's Cabinet

in August. In58.8%, according to the central bank, and even higher in practice. Iran's foreign borrowing was at last brought under control but in total stood at more than $30 billion, according to British banking sources. Despite some improvement in exports of non-oil goods to $4 billion a year, the overall foreign exchange position was risky, and the government remained unable to initiate economic recovery for a population increasingly disillusioned with rising prices and deteriorating living standards, (keith s. mclachlan)

flation rose to

IRAQ

A

republic of southwestern Asia, Iraq has a short coastline on the Persian Gulf. Area: 435,052 sq km (167,975 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 20,413,000. Cap.: Baghdad. Monetary unit: Iraqi dinar, with (Oct. 12, 1995) a black-market rate of 2,600 dinars to U.S. $1 (4,095 dinars = £1 sterling). President and prime minister in 1995, Saddam Hussein.

UN

sanctions continued to take a heavy

people

in

toll

on the

Iraqi

World

feuded over leadership in the north and control over land and customs revenues collected from truck traffic passing from Turkey through northern Iraq to Baghdad or Iran. The U.S., attempting to mediate the dispute, met twice in Ireland with representatives of the parties, Turkish representatives, and the Iraq National Congress, an umbrella opposition group to which the Kurdish parties belonged. On August 11 the parties reached an agreement to share the revenues and to reconvene the previously elected Kurdish congress. Fresh fighting was reported between the two parties after that. A second meeting on September 12-15 ended without any additional progress. On August 8 Jordan announced that two of Saddam Hussein's sons-in-law and their wives had been granted political asylum in Amman. The defection of Lieut. Gen. Hussein Kamel Hasan al-Majid was a particularly serious blow to the regime. Kamel had been minister of industry and minerals, head of the military industrial organization, and the man responsible for the development of Iraq's chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons program. Baghdad tried to deflect the damage by accusing Kamel of being a CIA agent, responsible for withholding sensitive information on these programs from the UN. Kamel's defection prompted Baghdad to invite Rolf Ekeus, head of the UN Special Commission (Unscom), to Baghdad, where he was given a huge cache of documents supposedly hidden by Kamel.

Ekeus announced

it

would take months

to study the doc-

uments, which might delay the time when Unscom could declare Iraq in compliance with resolutions. The defections gave rise to a flurry of intense diplomatic activity. King Hussein of Jordan distanced himself from Saddam Hussein, and both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, encouraged by the U.S., made some efforts to mend ties with Jordan, broken when that country sympathized with Iraq during the Persian Gulf War.

UN

On October 15 Saddam Hussein held a national referendum in which he was confirmed as president for seven more years with 99.96% of the vote. There were reports late in the year that Iraqi troops were massing on the Kuwaiti border.

(louay bahri)

IRELAND The

republic of Ireland, separated from Great Britain by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel, shares its island with Northern Ireland to the northeast. Area: 70,285

sq

km

(27,137 sq mi). Pop. (1995

Monetary

unit: Irish

pound

est.): 3,590,000. Cap.: Dublin. (punt), with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free

rate of £lr 0.62 to U.S. $1 (£Ir 0.98

1995,

Mary Robinson; prime

=

minister,

£1 sterling). President in

John Bruton.

was feared

Affairs: Ireland

421

new government, under the leaderJohn Bruton, would not sustain the Northern Ireland peace process. His political views were markedly different from those of his predecessor, Albert Reynolds; Bruton was more sympathetic to the Unionists (those favouring the continued unification of Northern Ireland and Great Britain). He established an excellent working relationship with the British prime minister, John Major, but also maintained and strengthened ties with John Hume and Gerry Adams, leaders in Northern Ireland of the movement It

that the

ship of Prime Minister

to reunify with Ireland.

Bruton also showed foresight in canceling a late summer summit meeting with Major because, in his judgment, there was an unbridgeable gap between the expectations by Republicans (those advocating the union of Northern Ireland with Ireland) of early all-party talks and the Unionist opposition to all-party talks without the decommissioning of arms by paramilitary organizations (chiefly the Irish Republican Army). The continuing difficulties of the peace

process revolved around the issue of decommissioning arms as a precondition of such talks. The visit of U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton in late November and early December acted as an incentive for all parties to find a formula that would resolve the arms issue. But progress was slow and difficult, and few expected the pace to quicken dramatically, in spite of the

optimism generated by the president's visit. The benefits of the peace were real enough, however. They were felt in many areas, especially tourism. During his historic official visit to Dublin in late May and early June, Prince Charles emphasized the need to enforce the links and friendships between Britain and Ireland. His visit marked a step forward in Anglo-Irish relations, and its success prompted hopes for an official visit by Queen Elizabeth II in the near future. Opposition to Prince Charles was limited to a small and peaceful demonstration in the city centre.

During the year the Roman Catholic Church was rocked by several serious allegations of sexual abuse of children by priests. It was revealed that in more than one case, large sums of money had been paid to the alleged victim by the abuser. In one case in the Dublin diocese, there was a cover-up of both the abuse and the fact that money had been lent to the priest to pay off his victim. The archbishop, Desmond Connell, in a public broadcast, explained that he had taken the money from diocesan funds to lend to the priest. This caused widespread dismay and outrage. It also prompted calls for priests who were alleged sexual abusers to be reported to the police in the same way as were members of the public and not to be dealt with by church

had been the case in the past. Supreme Court ruled that controversial legislation allowing physicians and clinics to provide women with the names and addresses of foreign abortion clinics was constitutional. This was a major victory for the government and a severe blow to the antiabortion groups, which had mounted a strong campaign against it. It also strengthened the government's hand as it prepared for the Referendum on Divorce on November 24. Requiring an amendment to the constitution, it would allow for divorce if the spouses had lived apart for a period of four years and if there was no reasonable prospect of a reconciliation. The referendum was passed by a majority of 50.28% to 49.72%. Antidivorce groups subsequently threatened to initiate a court challenge authorities, as

Despite gloomy predictions at the beginning of the year, Ireland enjoyed political and economic stability in 1995 as the three-party coalition government, consisting of Fine Gael, Labour, and Democratic Left, held together well. The budget, introduced in February, benefited employers, small firms, and low-paid workers and set the rate of economic growth at 5.25%. In June the minister for finance announced that public service recruitment was to be severely curtailed in order to hold spending growth below the 2% ceiling. This decision was reinforced by better-than-expected Exchequer

figures for the third quarter of the year,

indicating that

the government was on course to stay below target casts

its borrowing and improve the outlook for the 1996 budget. Fore-

made

at the

beginning of the year that an investment

boom, helped by the impending European recovery, would increase employment by more than 100,000 over the next years were not borne out by end-of-year figures, which showed unemployment largely unchanged at 279,100.

In

May

the

of the referendum's constitutionality. The 1995 Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to the Irish poet Seamus Heaney. (See Nobel Prizes.)

(mavis ARNOLD)

five

See also United Kingdom.

422

World

Affairs: Israel

ISRAEL

A

republic of southwestern Asia, Israel is situated on the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 20,400 sq km (7,876 sq mi), not including territory occupied in the June 1967 war. Pop. (1995 est.): 5,385,000. Cap.: Jerusalem (but see Israel table in World Data section). Monetary unit: New (Israeli) sheqel, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 3.01 sheqalim to U.S. $1 (4.76 sheqaiim = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Ezer Weizman; prime ministers, Yitzhak Rabin and, from November 4 (acting), Shimon Peres.

The assassination followed months of religious and rightwing incitement against Rabin and his peace policies and reflected a deep divide within Israeli society. The immediate effect was a closing of ranks and a moderation of the tone of political debate. Tensions persisted, however, as the left accused the right of having helped create a climate of violence and the right charged that the left was using the assassination for political gain.

The

assassination

was followed by a spontaneous outpour-

ing of grief as over a million Israelis filed past the slain prime

The year 1995 saw great strides in peacemaking overshadowed by the most radical act of political violence in Israel's history. The assassination of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin {see Obituaries) by a Jewish religious fanatic on November 4 shocked the nation to the core and made a mockery of the widely believed axiom that a Jew would never kill another Jew over politics. The confessed assassin, 25-year-old Yigal Amir, shot the prime minister as he walked to his car after a peace rally in TelAviv. Amir said his motive was to destroy a peace process that violated religious law. Extremist rabbis had reportedly ruled that the prime minister deserved to die because the Israeli-Palestinian accords entailed giving up parts of the sacred land of Israel and allegedly put Jewish lives at risk. Within days a state commission of inquiry was set up to look into the security lapse that enabled the killer to get within

members of

centimetres of his target. Several leading

Israel's

much-vaunted General Security Service,

the Shin Bet, resigned.

Gaza number of

minister's coffin. The funeral was attended by world leaders from over 80 countries, including Pres. Hosni Mubarak of Egypt, King Hussein of Jordan, and representatives from four other Arab states. For days tens of thousands of young Israelis gathered at the graveside, outside the family home, and in the square where the prime minister was killed, lighting candles in his memory and singing peace songs. Rabin's partner in peacemaking. Foreign Minister Shimon Peres, took over as acting prime minister and pledged to do all he could to accelerate the peace process. Differences of emphasis and style quickly emerged, most importantly in the negotiations with Syria. Where Rabin had insisted on focusing on security arrangements for the strategic Golan Heights after an Israeli withdrawal, Peres proposed tackling all outstanding problems simultaneously. The security focus had spawned a Washington meeting on June 27-29 between the Israeli and Syrian army chiefs of staff, which ended in deadlock over Israel's insistence on a land-based early warning system on the Golan. Syrian

pass a checkpoint on their way to work in Israel. Because of suicide bombings, the Israeli government work in Israel, which increased the already high rate of unemployment in Gaza.

Palestinian labourers from the

Strip

dramatically reduced the

Palestinians allowed to

World Pres. Hafez al-Assad refused to renew the talks until Israel withdrew its demand. The assassination changed fundamental attitudes and seemed to convince the Syrians of the genuineness of Israel's peacemaking overtures. Peres proposed a "grand peace" based on Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights in return for full normalization of relations with Syria and the

As

and Jordan moved

Affairs: Israel

423

and Egypt hegemony, clashing over the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT), due for renewal in April. Mubarak persistently criticized Israel's undeclared and unmonitored nuclear potential and Israel

embarked on

closer,

Israel

a subtle competition for regional

receiving a positive response from Assad, Clinton pledged

threatened to block ratification of the NPT unless Israel signed. Israel argued it would do so only after reaching bilateral agreements on nuclear arms limitation with all Middle Eastern countries. Under intense U.S. pressure, the Egyptians backed down, and the treaty was renewed for an

intensified U.S. involvement in the

indefinite period without Israel's signing.

rest of the

his

new

Arab world. On December 1 Peres spelled out summit with U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton. After 1

ideas at a

The major breakthrough

On September

tinians.

their historic

Jn

peacemaking process.

1995 was with the Pales-

two years and two weeks after handshake on the White House lawn, Rabin 28,

and Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasir Arafat signed an agreement to extend Palestinian self-rule from the Gaza Strip and Jericho to the rest of the West Bank. This second interim agreement provided for Israeli withdrawal from seven West Bank towns, prepared the way for Palestinian elections, and set in motion the machinery for ending Israel's 28-year-long military occupation. Negotiations were extremely complex because of the need to guarantee the security of roughly 140,000 Jewish settlers in the areas being handed over to Palestinian control. The

was to divide the territory into three categories towns under Palestinian control, villages under joint control, and Jewish settlements and all other territory under Israeli and to build a system of roads enabling Jewish control settlers to bypass major Palestinian population centres. The accord took well over a year to negotiate and was finalized only on September 24 after an intensive weeklong session between Peres and Arafat at Taba, Egypt. On October 6 the Israeli Knesset (parliament) approved the agreement 61-59. Implementation began almost immediately with the handover of the civil administration building in Salfit and the release of about 900 Palestinian prisoners on October 10. In November the Israeli army withdrew from Janin and then in December from Tulkarm, Nabulus, Qalqilyah, Ram Allah, and Bethlehem. Hebron was due to be evacuated in March 1996. The interim agreement was made possible by the deferment of negotiations on the sensitive issues of final borders, Palestinian refugees, Jewish settlements, and Jerusalem. "Final status" talks were scheduled to begin in May 1996. On April 27 the Israeli government approved the expropriation of about 53 ha (130 ac) of mainly Arab land in Jerusalem. The Palestinians complained to the Arab League and the UN, where the U.S. found itself having to veto a Security Council resolution against Israel. On May 22, its survival threatened by a no-confidence motion introduced by two mainly Arab left-wing parties and somewhat idiosyncratically supported by the right-wing opposition, the Israeli government suspended its expropriation plans. In October the U.S. Congress endorsed Israel's position on Jerusalem as its capital and passed a bill obligating the administration to move the U.S. embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem by May 1999, the target date for completion of solution

—

final status

negotiations with the Palestinians.

and Jordan built on the peace treaty they had signed the previous October. Over 80,000 Israeli tourists visited Jordan, and significant steps were taken to solve the common water shortage. On June 5 King Hussein, Rabin, and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl met on the border at Naharayim, Israel, to expedite plans for dams, desalination plants, and new water pipelines the Germans had agreed to help finance. In December, after a Peres-Hussein summit in Amman, Jordan, it was announced that Israel would upgrade Jordanian frontline F-16 fighter planes. In 1995 Israel

Israel demonstrated further military potential when it launched its first spy satellite, Ofek 3, on April 5. Apart from the contribution to intelligence gathering, the launch indicated a high level of ground-to-ground missile technology. In a dramatic accentuation of shifting regional and global relations, Israel and Russia established low-level military ties. December saw the first visit to Israel by a Russian defense minister and the signing of a military memorandum of understanding. Throughout the year military clashes between Israeli forces and the Iranian-backed Hezbollah Islamic fundamentalists in southern Lebanon were an almost daily occurrence. On several occasions the Hezbollah responded to Israeli military pressure by firing rockets at civilians across the border in northern Israel. An attack in late November stopped abruptly after the U.S. urged Syria to rein the Hezbollah in, which indicated that in the context of a peace agreement with Syria and Lebanon, the Syrians would be able to guarantee quiet on Israel's northern border. Inside Israel and the occupied territories, the fundamentalist Hamas and Islamic Jihad kept up a campaign of terror designed to torpedo the peace process with the Palestinians. Suicide bombings at Bayt Lid in January, Kefar Darom and Netzarim in April, Ramat Gan in July, and Jerusalem in August claimed 40 lives and fueled Israeli opposition arguments and demonstrations. To stop would-be bombers, Rabin imposed periodic closures on Gaza and the West Bank, denying thousands of Palestinian workers access to their jobs in Israel. But where previously the Palestinians had tended to blame Israel for the economic hardship caused by the closures, they began to blame the bombers, and the radicals lost ground. The

when

Islamic Jihad suffered a further setback

its

Damascus-

based leader, Fathi Shiqaqi, was assassinated in Malta on October 26. The peace process and the continuing immigration from Russia and the former Soviet republics had a major impact on the economy, which grew for a second successive year by nearly 7%. Business production was up by 8%, personal spending rose by 4%, and inflation was down from 14.5% to about 8.5%. The major economic problem the country faced was a spiraling trade deficit, up to $10 billion and nearly double the figure four years earlier. Most of that deficit was in trade with Europe, expected to grow both ways after Israel became an associate member of the European Union in mid-November. In June the government allocated $560 million for a new terminal at Ben-Gurion International Airport.

The construction was

part of a $1.9

package for developing trade infrastructure and transforming Israel into a major axis for regional trade and billion

transportation. In late

October

Israel

and nearly

Eastern countries convened in the 1994 economic conference

all

Amman

the other Middle for a follow-up to

in Casablanca, Morocco. It was decided to set up a Middle East investment bank in Cairo, and Israel concluded a major natural gas deal with Qatar. (leslie d. susser)

424

World

Affairs: Italy

and replace them with funds

ITALY

up through

built

individual

contributions. Leaders of industry criticized the extended

A

republic of southern Europe, Italy occupies the Apennine Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, and a number of smaller islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 301,309 sq km (116,336 sq mi). Pop. (1W5 est.): 57,386,000. Cap.: Rome. Monetary unit: Italian lira, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 1,617 lire to U.S. $1 (2,557 lire = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Oscar Luigi Scalfaro; prime ministers, Silvio Berlusconi and, from January 17,

Lamberto

Dini.

Three well-known former prime ministers were called upon to answer to alleged criminal offenses in Italy in 1995, a year in which the country was ruled by an unelected government. Scandal also left its mark during the year. One of the accused was Silvio Berlusconi, business tycoon and Italy's biggest media magnate, who resigned as prime

December 1994

minister in

partner but stayed on

in

after the defection of a coalition

a caretaker capacity until mid-

command

a

parliamentary majority, Pres. Oscar Luigi Scalfaro swore a stopgap government of nonpoiiticians to replace him.

in

Januaiy. Unable to find a successor able to

time frame as ineffectual. They thought the same of the draft of Dini's budget unveiled in September, which aimed at

cutting the public-sector deficit through spending cuts

and by

raising extra revenue, partly

through yet another

clampdown on rampant tax evasion. Spectacular moves by the judiciary began

in July

when

Milan issued an international arrest warrant for Bettino Craxi, a former Socialist prime minister living stylishly in self-imposed exile in Tunisia and already declared a fugitive from justice. The warrant was issued by a court trying Craxi and others for having taken bribes during work on Milan's underground railway, one of a score of corruption charges laid against him. Other warrants followed, but Craxi's lawyers argued he was a political refugee and thus protected under the extradition treaty between Italy and Tunisia. Tunisia remained silent.

judges

in

Next, Giulio Andreotti, seven times a Christian

Demo-

a four-point program: a cure to slim Italy's massive deficit, pension reform, a new regional election system, and mea-

prime minister and a perennial symbol of Italian politics for more than 40 years, was put on trial in Palermo, Sicily, in September, accused of criminal association with the Mafia. The trial was expected to last at least two years, with 90,000 pages of written testimony and some 400 witnesses. The prosecution declared in court it would prove that for 24 years Andreotti had stood by a pact with the Mafia, protecting and abetting its criminal activities and expansion; in return, the Mafia had boosted Andreotti's personal political clout by "arranging" electoral support in Sicily for his own clan within the (later dissolved) Christian Democratic Party. The prosecutors added that they would show that a key go-between used by Andreotti was a former mayor of Palermo, named Salvatore Lima, who was assassinated by the Mafia in 1992. Andreotti stated his innocence, denying the existence of any real evidence against him. He dismissed with contempt most of the testimony as based on the word of unreliable pentiti. former Mafia henchmen turned police informers. A much-publicized claim by one of them was that in 1987 he had watched Andreotti at a secret meeting plant a ritual Mafia-style kiss on the cheek of Salvatore ("Toto") Riina, the Mafia boss of bosses, who was arrested

sures to ensure fair play during electoral campaigns through

in 1993.

It

Lamberto Dini, a former director-general of the Bank of Italy and international economist, of known rightist

was

led by

leanings.

On January 25 Dini presented a compact government of 20 technocrats, not one of whom was an elected deputy. (Neither was Dini.) His team immediately won a parliamentary vote of confidence by 302 votes to 39, mainly thanks to the support of the communist Democratic Party of the Left

(PDS) and smaller centre groups.

who

A

total of

270 deputies

abstained belonged to Berlusconi's rightist

Alliance, the big winner of the

March 1994

Freedom

national elec-

tions. Dini's Cabinet continued to be supported by the losers of those elections throughout the year. Critics branded the

curious situation "undemocratic" and accused Dini of being "the president's man."

Hounded

by Berlusconi and partners crying for quick

elections, Dini pledged to

bow

new

out after the completion of

cratic

the media. Regional elections in April strengthened Dini's

hand since

his

PDS and

centrist allies seized 9 of the

15

councils at stake. This led Scalfaro to put off any idea of

Giulio Andreotti (right),

early elections. Returns

times, confers with lawyers at his

second round of municipal and provincial elections in May confirmed the shift. In June a referendum sponsored by Berlusconi's left-wing enemies in the hope of destroying his near monopoly of commercial television in Italy backfired. Some 57% of the voters rejected a proposal to prevent anyone from owning

more than one

More than 55%

TV

from

a

channel. (Berlusconi

also vetoed a suggested

owned

who had been prime trial in

criminal association with the Mafia.

development

in

the effort to

The

minister of

Palermo, trial

was

rid Italian politics

Sicily,

seven on charges

Italy

of

the most spectacular

of corruption.

three.)

ban on advertise-

ments during the showing of films on television, while some nothing wrong in one advertising agency (such

56% saw

as Berlusconi's) being allowed to sell screen time for three

The chastened PDS complained that its opponent had won through manipulating the media he controlled. Many predicted that the most lasting change engineered by Dini would be his scheme for dismantling Italy's lavish,

channels.

antiquated pensions system, a generator of debts estimated at $44 billion a year. Pension reform had dehed gcwern-

mcnts

for

two decades. Worked out

in

conjunction with

the trade unions and adopted by Parliament

in August, the promised cornerstone of an undertaking to repair Italy's financial credibility abroad. It was due to come into effect gradually by the year 2012. The basic idea was to abolish pensions as state handouts tagged to wage levels

revamp was

a

(

World In the state's otherwise lacklustre contest with the Mafia

main success was the capture on June 24 of Leoluca Bagarella, Riina's successor and brother-inlaw. Bagarella was the convicted killer of the chief of the Palermo Flying Squad, Boris Giuliano, in 1979 and the presumed master-executioner of Giovanni Falcone, a pugitself in

1995,

nacious judge

its

who

led a fruitful fight against the

Mafia until 1992, when a segment of highway exploded beneath his car. Police were stupefied to discover that Bagarella's hideout was a luxury apartment overlooking the heavily guarded home of two anti-Maha judges who had helped set the trap that caught him. Picked up soon afterward was Natale D'Emanuele, the alleged financial wizard behind the Mafia in Catania.

He was

in lucrative

control of

all

local funeral

and police said he used hearses and coffins to traffic arms throughout Italy. Serafino Fama, a lawyer who had defended local Mafia figures, was gunned down in Catania in November. Judges again snatched headlines in October when they ordered Berlusconi himself to stand trial for corruption, along with his brother Paolo and nine others. The charge, arising from a matter first aired a year previously, was that he rites,

in

tacitly

sanctioned bribes of some $2 million to state finance

police to buy their indulgence over the bookkeeping of four

companies within

huge business conglomerate, Fininvest. Berlusconi claimed he was unaware of the payoffs, already acknowledged by his brother, and wrote off the trial, set for January 1996, as the outcome of a campaign of persecution against him and Fininvest waged by Milanese judges as a his

The judges firmly rejected Berlusconi's while the latter vowed that no trial would deter

political vendetta.

accusations,

him from

fighting to lead the country again.

Berlusconi's indictment

came

against the

murky back-

ground of a year marked by repeated investigations into the past conduct of the "pool" of Milan judges who had probed Berlusconi's affairs, the same men who three years previously had launched the resounding Operation Clean Hands anticorruption campaign that brought down the old, post- World War II order in Italy. The judges were grilled by inspectors dispatched by Dini's justice minister, Filippo Mancuso, who in October was stripped of his post by Scalfaro after a Senate vote of no confidence in the minister, moved by the left wing, for undue interference in the judiciary. Berlusconi and his Freedom Alliance retaliated with a vote of no confidence in Dini's government, which survived the challenge on October 26 by a margin of 19 votes (310 to 291), thanks to a pledge by the prime minister that he would resign before year's end. The pledge prompted a group of 24 orthodox communist deputies to withdraw a threat to vote against Dini. In early cessfully

argued that

extended beyond Jan.

his 1,

December Dini

suc-

government's mandate should be 1996,

when

Italy

would assume the

presidency of the European Union.

By then the Milan judges had come under scrutiny by the Supreme Council of the Magistracy in Rome, and a fellow judge from Brescia, Fabio Salamone, had interrogated the most flamboyant member of the Milan "pool," Antonio Di Pietro, on the circumstances of his unexplained resignation in December 1994. Salamone later warned Cesare Previti, defense minister under Berlusconi, that he and two others were under suspicion for having forced Di Pietro to quit. Most Italians came to believe in an attempt to eliminate the "inconvenient" Milan pool. Other magistrates examined renewed scandals brought on by the end of summer. First, there was an uproar over a discovery that many prominent political and other figures had paid only token rents for years in spacious housing owned by state or local bodies. A cleanup was ordered, and

the

PDS

leader,

Affairs:

Jamaica

Massimo D'Alema, announced

425

a change of

address.

Next,

it

transpired that out of seven million Italians draw-

ing disability pensions,

many were doing so illegally. In the first came officially to light,

Post Office, where the racket

94 out of 100 employees taken on as "invalids" were found to be healthy. Computer checks on a larger scale quickly

brought an army of some 28,000 "invalids" into the sights of the judiciary. Many more were suspected of being in hiding. Main cogs in the fraud included bribed officials or doctors, some of whom participated by resuscitating the medical records of the dead. In

Rome

a significant event

ter a 2 1 -year delay

—of

the

first

was the inauguration

mosque

in

—

af-

the capital of

Christendom, designed by the noted Italian architect Paolo Portoghesi and funded mainly by Saudi Arabia. It became a beacon for an estimated 700,000 Muslims in Italy. By 1995 Muslims constituted the second biggest religious community in

the country, after

During the year

Roman

Italy

Catholics.

served as the springboard for

NATO

land-based air operations over Bosnia and Herzegovina, with some 300 planes making sorties from 17 airfields. Italy tardily contributed 14 fighters and 5 transport planes to the

which prompted Scalfaro to inquire of military chiefs about the apparently inadequate state of Italy's military

effort,

(derek wilson)

readiness.

JAMAICA

A

constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth, Jamaica occupies an island in the Caribbean Sea. Area: 10,991 sq km (4,244 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 2,520,000. Cap.: Kingston. Monetary unit: Jamaica dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of J$35.75 to U.S. $1 (J$56.52 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1995, Howard Cooke; prime minister,

Percival

J.

Patterson.

Prime Minister Percival Patterson began the year by reducing the size of his Cabinet from 17 to 15 members. The changes were designed to strengthen the People's National Party government as it prepared for the next general election. In March former prime minister Edward Seaga, leader of the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP), survived an attempt by party dissidents to have him step down and make way for someone who, they felt, would increase their chance of regaining control of the government. In a special poll Seaga won 78.8% of the votes cast by representatives of JLP party groups. Seaga had said that he would relinquish the party leadership if his support fell below 70%. He had been at the helm of the JLP since 1974. The two main political parties agreed in principle in August to a

new

voter-registration system

recommended by

the

Electoral Advisory Committee.

A third political party, the National Democratic Movement, was formed on October 29 by Bruce Golding, who had resigned as JLP chairman in February so that he could align himself with the anti-Seaga forces. Opinion polls suggest that a third party could seriously challenge the JLP in the next election. In a bid to maintain investor confidence in the country's

one of the fastest-growing sectors of the economy, the government agreed in June to bail out depositors of the failed Blaise Building Society and merchant banking group. Following a slip in the value of the Jamaica dollar to J$41 = U.S. $1 in November, Patterson announced financial system,

Bank (david renwick)

stabilization measures, including intervention by the

of Jamaica.

This article updates the Macropcedia article Jamaica.

The West Indies:

426

World

Affairs:

Japan

their children

A

constitutional monarchy in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Japan comprises an archipelago with four main islands (Hoickaido, Honshu. Kyushu, and Shii^oku). the Ryukyus (including Okinawa), and lesser adjacent islands. Area: 377,800 sq km (U5.869 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 125,362,000. Cap.: Tokyo. Monetary unit; yen, with (Oct. 12, 1995) a free rate of 100 yen to U.S. Si (160 yen = £1 sterling). Emperor. Akihito; prime minister in 1995, Tomiichi Murayama.

law, the

Public clear

damage

in

Hyogo

government outlawed

on April

9,

when

Aum

with

dissatisfaction

Shinrikyo.

established

local elections

became

parties

were held to choose

Democratic Party of Japan (SDPJ) sufits history. Yukio Aoshima, an author tied to no party, became governor of Tokyo by defeating the candidate backed by most of the major parties. Fulfilling a campaign promise, he promptly announced cancellation of the World City Expo Tokyo "96, even though the city had already spent $250 million on the project. After comedian "Knock" Yokoyama rode a tidal wave of dissent to score an upset in Osaka, he announced that as governor he would generally use his real name, Isamu Yamada. On May 27 the SDPJ approved plans to disband and reorganize as a "democratic-liberal" group, pledged to support a "mature .society." In an election held in July for half (126) the seats in the (upper) House of Councillors, the socialists absorbed

Murayama's

Social

fered the most stinging defeat in

by a series of gas attacks, mounted by a fringe religious sect, on subway and rail lines. Domestic Affairs. Early on the morning of January 17, an earthquake centred on Awaji Island, 20 km (12.4 mi) southwest of Kobe, devastated the Hanshin region. Highways and rail lines were severely damaged, at least 100,000 buildings were destroyed, and 900,000 homes were without Early estimates of

from the

prefectural governors and assemblies. In assembly elections

In 1995 Japanese confidence was shaken by two disasters, one natural and the other of human origin. The Great Hanshin Earthquake (named after the Kobe-Osaka region) claimed about 6,000 lives and caused extensive damage to buildings and infrastructure. Later the nation was frightened

electricity.

who had

represented families attempting to recover cult. Ashara's trial began on October 26, and on December 14, on the basis of an antisubversion

a lawyer

JAPAN

prefecture

They won only 16 seats, giving them, with The coalition, however, retained

additional losses.

carryovers, a total of 38.

LDP

New

ranged from $95 billion to $150 billion (about 13-21% of the national budget for fiscal year 1994). The government's slow response to the crisis was widely criticized. On January 23 Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama acknowledged "shortcomings" in the government's emergency management

a majority because the

system.

was given 13 portfolios, the SDPJ 5, and Sakigake 2. No woman was appointed to the Cabinet. A newspaper poll in September indicated that the Cabinet's public approval rating had fallen to a record low of 22%. On September 25 Ryutaro Hashimoto, well known to U.S. trade negotiators, was formally elected president of the LDP. Many expected him to become Japan's next prime minister. At year's end

Within si,x months after the quake, about 40,000 temporary houses had been built for more than 300,000 homeless people. Reconstruction, expected to take up to four years, continued to dominate budget discussions. Some economists, however, noted that construction work might provide a stimulus to the lagging economy.

Two months

after the earthquake,

fered another blow.

On March

Japanese morale

suf-

15 three briefcases containing

Sakigake controlled its total to 56 seats.

3.

held 110 seats and

Party

The opposition Shinshinto increased

On August the

8 Murayama reshuffled the Cabinet to reflect new balance of power within his coalition. The LDP

Shinshinto chose Ichiro

seemed

likely to

Ozawa

as party leader, a

move

that

be welcomed by Japanese businessmen as

and small fans were discovered in a Tokyo subway station before the devices could be activated. Five days later, at the height of the morning rush hour, fumes were detected at Tsukiji Station in the centre of Tokyo and in 15 stations on the busy Hibiya, Marunouchi, and Chiyoda subway lines. Twelve passengers were killed and 5,500 sickened, many of whom had to be hospitalized. In June 1994 a similar attack had killed 7 and injured 200 in Matsumoto. Investigation centred on a "new religion," whose members denied involvement. The group called itself Aum Shinrikyo (Supreme Truth) and was ollicially recognized in 1989. It was founded by Chizuo Matsumoto, who had assumed the name Shoko Asahara (see BiOGRAi'Hihs), a legally blind former yoga instructor and pharmacist. Aum Shinrikyo had an estimated 10,000 followers in Japan and branch chapters

well as Japan's foreign partners.

abroad.

suhiro Nakasone declared that such a statement would be "inappropriate." On June 9 the lower house, with 70 mem-

a strange liquid

Within days of the Tokyo gas incidents, more than 2,000 Aum offices in Tokyo and its laboratory headquarters at Kamikuishiki, Yamanashi prefecture. They seized numerous canisters of toxic chemicals used to manufacture sarin, the nerve gas that had been identified as the substance used in the subway attacks. Lethal chemical devices were also found in Yokohama rail stations and police officers raided

at

Shinjuku, the busiest

rail

and subway transfer point

in

Tokyo.

On May

16

Asahara and 16 other

cult leaders

were

ar-

rested in nationwide raids. Although Asahara denied that his sect had been involved in the gas attacks, five followers later confessed to participation in the

and implicated the

sect in the prior

Matsumoto

abduction and

incident killing of

Throughout 1995 the country's leaders agonized over how mark the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II in the Pacific. They seemed not to know how to respond when victim nations revived memories of the sufferings they endured as a result of Japanese aggression. On April 7 the Cabinet announced the establishment of a privatesector Asian Peace and Friendship Fund for Women. With a government subsidy of $23.5 million, it was designed to express "remorse" to non-Japanese "ctimf'ort women." who had been forced to serve as prostitutes for Japan's military to

during the war. In May Sakigake threatened to withdraw from tiie coalition if the LDP continued to oppose a clear apology and a

no-war resolution

in

the Diet.

Former prime minister Ya-

bers absent, passed a resolution expressing "deep remorse" for "acts of aggression," particularly in Asia, and pledging adherence to Japan's no-war constitution. 'The upper house took no action. On August 15 Murayama became the first prime minister to use the word omihi (unambiguously, "apology") in a statement made bet\)re. and separated from. Emperor Akihito"s presiding over the annual memorial to the war dead. The Kcononiy. In December 1994 the Cabinet had proposed an austere budget of $709.9 billion for fiscal 1995, a relleclion of sluggish tax revenues. The sum was 2.9""^ lower than that of 1994, the first decline in 40 years. Only billion) official development assistance (ODA, up Vr to $1 1

World

Affairs:

Japan

427

Foreign Affairs. Despite the domestic recession, which had begun in 1991, Japan retained its position as the world's eminent creditor nation. The Ministry of Finance announced that at the end of 1994, net overseas assets (government and business holdings abroad, minus debts) totaled a record $689 billion. A swelling current account surplus, which reached $125 billion in the fiscal year ended March 31, added to the credits. Ryutaro Hahsimoto, head of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), outlined a plan to reduce the surplus to

1%

of

GDP

by 1998.

During 1994 Japan had disbursed $13.3 billion in ODA (up 7.2% from 1993 in yen terms). It remained the largest foreign aid provider for the fourth year in a row. China received $1,480,000,000, and in September MITI announced that for fiscal 1996 it would seek $33 million for the AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. APEC, a new grouping of 18 Pacific Basin nations, met in November in Osaka. Although ties with the U.S. remained the core of Japan's foreign policy, Asia had top priority in the realm of aid.

Japan and the U.S. continued to experience friction in On January 11 Murayama attended a summit meeting in Washington. His call for a "creative partnership" was countered by Pres. Bill Clinton's emphasis on the need to reduce Japan's trade surplus. He singled out the automobile industry, which, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce, made up 59% of the $62.7 billion American trade deficit with Japan. On May 8 Hashimoto informed Murayama that talks with U.S. trade representative Mickey Kan tor had failed. On May 16, when Kantor announced a plan to impose tariffs totaling $5.9 billion on 13 Japanese luxury-car imports, Hashimoto promptly threatened to file complaints with the new World Trade Organization (WTO). The trade dispute dominated discussion among lobbyists at the Group of Seven summit meeting held in mid-June in Halifax, Nova Scotia, even though the formal meetings took no account of details. Japanese officials appeared satisfied with the outcome. Although they failed to win condemnation of "unilateralism" (their code word for sanctions), the communique supported the and opposed "protectionism." Japan and the U.S. reached an llth-hour agreement on June 28, thereby avoiding the imposition of U.S. tariff's. Clinton immediately claimed victory, predicting that Japan's purchase of auto parts would reach $9 billion in three years. Hashimoto also declared victory because the Japanese government had no responsibility to meet specific trade relations.

Investigators wear gas masks as they sort through chemicals removed from a laboratory maintained by Aum Shinrikyo in Yamanashi prefecture in Japan. The religious cult was charged with having used the nerve gas sarin in attacks in the Tokyo subway on March 20. KVOOO NEWS SERVICE

and defense (up 1% to $47.2 billion) showed increases. On February 27 the House of Representatives approved the budget in record time and added a supplementary $10.2 billion package to expedite restoration in the Hanshin area. The House of Councillors concurred on March 22. In April the value of the U.S. dollar had fallen to 80.75 yen in Tokyo, the lowest level since modern exchange rates were established. The yen's sharp rise foreshadowed a deepening recession in Japan because its exports would become more costly. On April 14 the government announced that it was taking the "maximum measures possible" to stem the yen's rise. These included an early supplemental budget for fiscal 1995 and increased expenditures on public works. The Diet approved the extra $32 billion budget on May 19, including funds for reconstruction in the quake areas ($16.8 billion) and for additional security ($400 million) in the wake of the rail and subway gas attacks. Meanwhile, the Bank of Japan had cut the official discount rate to a historic low of 1%, but the impact was minimal. The government announced a further stimulus on June 27, front-loading public works expenditures. Yet another followed on September 20 and provided $142 billion, the largest stimulus package ever. On September 8 the Bank of Japan again lowered the discount rate, to a record low of 0.5%, to prevent further deflationary conditions. Mindful of the fraud and scandal surrounding the New York branch of Daiwa Bank Ltd. earlier in the year (see Economic Affairs: Banking), on December 26 Finance Minister Masayoshi Takemura announced tighter controls on banks. Three days later Kyosuke Shinozawa, Takemura's top deputy and Japan's chief financial officer, resigned in order to draw fire away from his boss and to improve morale in the ministry.

WTO

numerical targets.

Trade friction with the U.S. also affected aviation. On June 19 the U.S. Department of Transportation threatened sanctions after Tokyo denied requests by Federal Express to carry its cargoes to other Asian airports via Japan. The dispute involved "beyond rights" of both nations. On July 20, after Japan broke off the talks, a last-minute accord was reached.

A

from the stationing of on the island of Okinaof both the U.S. and their

different kind of tension arose

some 29,000 U.S.

military personnel

wa. Local residents were U.S. forces

in

critical

Tokyo for agreeing to base 75% of the Japan on their island, which accounted for

own government

in

1% of Japan's land area. On September 29 three U.S.

only

servicemen were indicted in for the abduction and rape of a young Okinawan girl. Gen. Charles C. Krulak, commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps, flew out from Washington to lead a "day of reflection" with troops, and U.S. Secretary of Defense William Perry formally apologized for the incident on November 1. The governor of Okinawa continued to press for revisions to the Status of Forces Agreement the prefectural capital of

Naha

428

World

Affairs:

Japan

governing U.S. servicemen, particularly those off duty, but in late November Murayama pledged to seek renewal of the leases on property for the U.S. bases. In May Murayama became the first Japanese leader to visit the Marco Polo Bridge (outside Beijing), the site of the 1937 clash that triggered the Sino-Japanese War. On May 3, in a meeting with Chinese Premier Li Peng, Murayama reiterated his remorse over "aggression and colonial rule," which caused "unbearable suffering" in Asia. He urged a more active Chinese role in the U.S.-North Korea talks on nuclear weapons but received no clear answer to a request for Beijing's suspension of its own weapons experiments. Shortly after the visit, China carried out another nuclear test, the 42nd in a series. Japan's foreign minister summoned China's ambassador to protest another test in August. A few

country was subjugated by superior military force. Japan had relinquished control over Korea at the end of World War II, and the Tokyo-Seoul normalization agreement of

days later he called on the U.S., Russia, and Great Britain to continue their moratorium on nuclear trials, even though the Chinese and French were determined to test nuclear

document

devices.

On

August 29 Tokyo cut grants

to

China from

1994 to $5.2 million in 1995. Loans and humanitarian aid, however, would be continued. The Chinese Foreign Ministry promptly responded by reviving demands for war reparations, which they had renounced in the normalization declaration of 1972. During the year, remarks by officials in Tokyo damaged Japan's image in both Koreas. On June 3 former foreign minister Michio Watanabe declared that Korea had "harmoniously" become a Japanese colony by accepting the 1910 treaty. South Korean Prime Minister Lee Hong Koo promptly protested. Koreans were of one mind that their $80.4 million in

PHILUP JONES GRIFFITHS-

fiscal

in

On

5, however, Murayama he stated in the Diet that the 1910 treaty had been signed in a "legally valid" way, he was bitterly criticized in both North and South Korea. Cabinet minister Takami Eto resigned on November 13 for

15. (See

Obituaries.)

elaborated on the theme.

October

When

a similarly ill-considered remark he had made.

Meanwhile, North Korea continued to be the only Asian country without formal ties to Japan. On March 30 in Pyongyang, a delegation representing Japan's governing coalition parties and leaders of the Korean Workers' Party signed a calling for resumption of normalization talks. On 29 Japan pledged aid in the form of rice shipments, so long as the dialogue between the two sides continued. On April 17 Do Muoi, general secretary of Vietnam's Commu-

May

Tokyo, where he received pledges of a $700 million loan and a S36 million grant. A peace treaty with Russia still awaited settlement of the persistent Kuril Islands territorial dispute. In a two-day meeting in Tokyo in March, the foreign ministers of the two nist Party, arrived in

countries discussed but did not resolve the issue. Signifi-

new state of Ukraine were Tokyo, Murayama greeted Pres. Leonid Kuchma and pledged $200 million to help Ukraine develop a market-oriented economy. (aRDATH W. BURKS)

cantly, Japan's relations with the

more

fruitful.

On March

23

in

MAGNUM

Citizens of Hiroshima burn Incense

Ceremonies

1965 had invalidated the 1910 treaty. Watanabe retracted few months before his death on September

his statement a

in

Peace Memorial Park as

the Japanese city and elsewhere

in

many

commemoration of the dropping of the atomic bomb on Aug. 1995 helped mark the 50th anniversary of the end of World War

part of their

nations

in

II

6,

1945.

World

Affairs:

Kazakhstan

429

JORDAN

A

constitutional monarchy, Jordan is located in southwestern Asia and has a short coastline on the Gulf of Aqaba. Area: 89,246 sq km (34,458 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 4,187,000 (including Palestinian refugees estimated to number nearly 1.2 million). Cap.: Amman. Monetary unit: Jordan dinar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) an official rate of 0.70 dinar to U.S. $1 (1.11 dinars = £1 sterling). King, Hussein I; prime ministers in 1995, 'Abd as-Salam al-Majali and, from January 8, Sharif Zaid ibn Shaker.

Jordan faced a year of criticaj adjustment in 1995. In the its peace agreement with Israel in October 1994, Amman resumed its former warm relationship with the U.S. and restored ambassadorial ties with Saudi Arabia after four years of alienation. There was a rapprochement with Qatar, and even relations with Kuwait were thawing. On the other hand, Jordan distanced itself from Iraq; in August King Hussein granted asylum to two top-level Iraqi defectors, both sons-in-law of Iraqi Pres. Saddam Hussein, and their wives and children. At the end of November, King Hussein's envoy met with Sunni, Shi'ite, and Kurdish Iraqi opposition leaders in Lx)ndon and urged them to form a united front. Despite a controversy at the end of 1994 over the proposed Jordanian guardianship of Islamic holy places in Jerusalem, Jordan and the Palestine National Authority signed a formal cooperation agreement in January. On November 6 King Hussein arrived in Jerusalem for the first time since the city came under Israeli control in 1967 in order to deliver a personal eulogy at the funeral of slain Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin {see Obituaries), with whom he reportedly had shared a longtime private friendship. The Jordanian public was disoriented by the abruptness with which the peace agreement had come about and was disappointed as few of the expected economic benefits of

wake of

the treaty materialized quickly.

The

Islamic

single strongest bloc in the parliament) treaty,

and the government resorted

movement

(the

opposed the peace to

allegedly

high-

handed tactics in securing the parliament's endorsement of the agreement and of subsequent economic cooperation accords with Israel, which were perceived to be unilaterally concessionary on Jordan's part. The newly formed Cabinet of Prime Minister Sharif Zaid ibn Shaker, who was recalled to office in January, lost

ning

in

May

its

liberal credentials after the

ban-

of an opposition conference organized by the

Islamic Action Front, which prompted the resignation of one Cabinet minister. The electoral strength of the Islamists appeared to weaken in nationwide municipal elections in July, and in December, Leith Shubailat, a maverick Islamist and vocal critic of the peace accord, was arrested. The government proceeded cautiously with plans for privatization, tax reform, foreign debt reduction, lower tariffs,

and increased foreign investment. Gross domestic product in 1995 was estimated at 4.5 billion dinars, reflecting a 6% growth rate. Inflation was under control as a result of tight monetary and fiscal policy. Merchandise exports rose an estimated 12.3% to $1.6 billion, but the trade gap was set to expand to $2.1 billion, and the current account deficit was expected to rise to $560 million. The Middle East and North Africa Economic Summit was held in Amman at the end of October. Jordan's main goals for the conference were to secure financing for a variety of industrial, tourist, telecommunications, and transport projects. Perhaps the most important achievement of the conference, however, was the declaration of intent to establish a Bank for Economic Co-operation and Development in the Middle East and North Africa. (JENAB TUTUNJi)

group expelled from Libya, wait on a permission to travel to the Gaza Strip. The expulsion Muammar al-Qaddafi was seen as a reaction to Arab-Israeli agreements in the Middle East. Palestinian children, part of a

bus

in

Jordan

for

of Palestinians by Libyan leader

KAZAKHSTAN

A

republic of Central Asia, Kazakhstan borders Russia on the west and north, China on the east, Kyrgyzstan on the southeast, Uzbekistan and the Aral Sea on the south, and Turkmenistan and the Caspian Sea on the southwest. Area: 2,717,300 sq km (1,049,200 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 16,669,000. Cap.: Almaty (formerly Alma-Ata); capital-designate: Aqmola (formerly Tselinograd). Monetary unit: tenge, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 61.37 tenge = U.S. $1 (97.01 tenge = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Nursultan Nazarbayev; prime minister, Akezhan Kazhegeldin.

In 1995 Kazakhstan took major steps in the direction of au-

who hoped Westernwould develop in the largest country in Central Asia. Foreign investors still saw Kazakhstan as one of the most promising areas in the Commonwealth of Independent States, largely on the strength of its rich endowment of natural resources and the government's commitment to rapid introduction of a market economy. The government was reportedly considering selling a stake in the development of the Tengiz oil field to the Mobil Corp., and in November the huge state-owned Karmet steelworks was sold to a British-based company, thoritarianism that disappointed those

style

democracy and a

civil

society

Ispat International.

The country's first constitutional crisis began in March when Kazakhstan's Constitutional Court declared the 1994 parliamentary elections illegal. The parliament was forced to resign, and Pres. Nursultan Nazarbayev announced that he would rule by decree until new elections could be held.

Shortly after the dissolution of the parliament, a consulta-

Assembly of the Peoples of Kazakhstan that had been handpicked by the president called for a nationwide referendum on the extension of Nazarbayev's term in office to the end of December 2000. Some critics saw this as an attempt by Nazarbayev to avoid standing for reelection in 1996 and facing possible defeat at the hands of citizens angered over the effects his economic reforms had on their standard of living. Others attributed it to the president's already-demonstrated taste for running the country without tive

interference. Official results of the referendum that was held on April 29 indicated near-unanimous support for the extension of Nazarbayev's term. Two months later he introduced a draft constitution that would greatly expand the powers of the

430

World

Affairs:

Kenva

It was immediately attacked by the Constitutional Court, the trade unions, and various opposition groups as being undemocratic and inimical to the creation of a

president.

society. Leaders of Kazakhstan's large Russian community asserted that Nazarbayev's proposed constitution gave unfair advantages to ethnic Kazakhs. In late December Nazarbayev decreed that he had the right on his own initiative to remove any minister or replace the entire government. The leadership's response was to revise the draft, abolishing the Constitutional Court, which had earned a solid civil

reputation for law.

Among

its

the

commitment first

to establishing the rule of

decrees issued by the president

af-

was a restriction on demonstrations and rallies. Nazarbayev defended his growing authoritarianism by citing the need to counter the increase in criminality that had accompanied the advent of a market economy. Nazarbayev likened his rule to that of ter the dissolution of the parliament

former French president Charles de Gaulle, arguing that greater presidential powers would be the key to a democratic society. Despite the protests, 89% of those who voted

August 30 referendum approved the new constitution. Elections for a new Senate were held on December 5, and a second round of voting for the lower house took place on in the

December

(bess

23.

This article updates the Macropa'dia article Kazakhstan.

brown)

Central Asia:

KENYA A

republic and member of the Commonwealth, Kenya is in eastern Africa, on the Indian Ocean. Area: 582,646 sq km (224,961 sq mi), including 1 1,230 sq km of inland water. Pop. (1995 est.): 28,626,000. Cap.: Nairobi. Monetary unit: Kenya shilling, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 55.58 shillings to U.S. $1 (87.86 shillings = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Daniel arap Moi.

Street children of

Kenya.

It

meet

downtown Nairobi, capital many as 50,000 children lived on the

to sniff glue in a park In

was estimated

that as

streets of the capital city, only

one

problems faced by the African

nation.

of the serious

mittee announced the result of

its

economic and

social

inquiries into the scandal

surrounding the payment by the government of vast sums of compensation to a jewelry export company to encourage what had proved to be nonexistent exports. Far from owing money to the government, they had concluded, the company's owner was actually owed 2.1 billion shillings in arrears of compensation. As a result, the chairman of the committee, Kijana Wamalwa, leader of the Forum for Restoration of Democracy-Kenya opposition party, found his party deeply divided and himself challenged for the leadership by Raila Odinga, son of Oginga Odinga, who had undertaken private

some of those he believed responsible for the Would-be foreign importers were also disturbed by six-month ban imposed on imported cereals that were

suits against

The government faced 1995 with

cautious optimism after

donor countries, meeting on Dec. 8, 1994, had praised its economic reforms, its introduction of multiparty democracy, and its promotion of human rights. A promise of financial assistance amounting to $800 million demonstrated their goodwill. Pres. Daniel arap Moi's new year address echoed this progressive note with the announcement that he would invite experts from the West to help him in assessing the views of the people regarding a

new

constitution.

The

Finance Ministry also declared that the sale of the government's share in a number of unprofitable companies was among its main priorities. At the same time, the Nairobi stock exchange was opened to foreign investors for the first time in 30 years. The chief executives of the railway corporations of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda further announced that in pursuance of the agreements reached at a meeting of the heads of state of their three countries in Kampala, Uganda, in 1994, they would adopt common fares and har-

monize

staff training.

The optimism generated by

these policies soon began

to fade. Foreign investors did not

pour

their

money

into

the country, because they were permitted to invest only

Kenyan-owned companies and even there only

mum

of

20%

in

to a maxi-

of share capital. Tribal clashes again threat-

ened the peace of the country after 2,000 Kikuyu farmers were forcibly relocated from the Rift Valley at the end of 1994, and in January scores of people were injured when police broke up a meeting to mark the first anniversaiy of the death of the longtime critic of the government Oginga Odinga. Riots broke out between Nubian and I.uo tribesmen in Kibera, a large Nairobi slum, in October. There was loud protest, too,

in

March wiien

Ihc public accounts corn-

scandal. a

deemed

to threaten

home

production.

Dismayed by what they saw as a resurgence of corruption and human rights abuse and a reluctance on the part of the government to implement promised economic reforms, donor countries called an emergency meeting for July 24. an attempt to calm their fears, the finance minister, Musalia Mudavadi, published conciliatory proposals in his budget on June 15. They included the immediate rescinding of the ban on foreign cereal imports, the raising of the ceiling on the purchase of shares by foreign investors to 40%, the privatization of Kenya Airways by the end of the year, and the targeting of other important companies for privatization in the near future. His efforts proved successful. The donor countries commended his endeavour to stabilize the economy. They were less pleased by reports of delays in the implementation of multiparty government, reflected in President Moi's attacks upon Richard Leakey for trying In

up a new opposition Amnesty Internationals

to set

with

recent

human

rights

donors meeting, led

These events, together upon the government's record, delivered on the eve of the the donor countries to express their party.

attack

particular concern.

The government did not relish these criticisms, regardthem as an unwarranted intrusion into the affairs of a scwereign slate. The adverse comments of a British minister. Baroness Chalker, during a visit to Kenya in July brought a brusque rejoinder from the Kenyan authorities. (KhNNKTH INCiHAM) ing

This article updates the Macropa'dia article

Kenva.

Easthrn Akrica:

World restart

KIRIBATI

A

republic

(Ocean

Ocean and member of the comprises the Gilbert Islands, Banaba

the western Pacific

in

Commonwealth,

Kiribati

Island), the Line Islands,

and the Phoenix Islands. Area: (313 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 80,400. Cap.: Bairiki, on Tarawa. Monetary unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of $A 1.31 to U.S. $1 ($A 2.08 = £1 sterling). President (beretiicnti) in 1995, Tcburoro Tito. 811 sq

km

Teburoro

In 1995 Pres.

ted

itself to

Tito's

the abolition of

new administration commit^hool fees for junior-high-

school students, a significant increase

in

the price paid to

producers for copra, and a substantial raise

in

public-sector

salaries. Tito also rejected the privatization policies

predecessors.

The new government faced

of his

a constitutional

when

the performance of the chief justice was publicly and he was suspended from office by the president. Further court action saw the issue resolved, and the crisis

criticized

chief justice resigned. In

March the

leaders of a subregional grouping compris-

ing Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, for the

its

The main

first

time to consider matters of

and Tuvalu met

common

concern

especially the expansion of a regional air service, coopera-

and the marketing of copra. Tito indicated that Kiribati wanted a larger share and higher returns tion over fisheries,

from the tuna

treaty between the U.S. and South Pacific government expressed concern to Japan over the shipment of plutonium through the region and severed diplomatic relations with France over the resumption of nuclear testing. (barrie macdonald)

countries. His

This article updates the Macropccclia article Pacific Islands:

nuclear program sticking point

the reactors

if

Affairs: Korea,

Republic of

431

concessions were not granted.

seemed

to be U.S. insistence that

come from South Korea. An agreement

calling

from Japan, South Korea, and the U.S. was finally signed on December 15. During the year North Korea and the U.S. made cautious moves toward ending their long enmity. The U.S. lifted its trade embargo, and the first investment mission visited the country in February. As part of the October 1994 accord, the two sides agreed to move toward establishing some kind of informal relationship, probably in the form of liaisonfor contributions

level offices in

each other's capital.

Pyongyang had reportedly even dropped its opposition to the stationing of U.S. troops in South Korea. This was seen as part of a yearlong effort by North Korea to undo the Panmunjon peace arrangements and sign a formal peace treaty with the U.S. Washington insisted that Pyongyang

make peace with the south. The status of Kim Jong II, son and successor of the late dictator Kim 11 Sung, continued to cast a cloud over North first

Korean

affairs.

Several

auspicious

dates passed without

the younger Kim's assuming the vacant titles of president

and secretary-general of the Korean Workers' (communist) Party. He was seen in public only rarely. Most analysts, however, believed that Kim Jong II was in charge and was slowly but carefully consolidating his power. In October he promoted army Chief of Staff" Gen. Choe Gwang to defense minister. He replaced Marshal O Jin U, an influential Kim supporter who had died in February. Also in October, a 10.7-m (35-fl) granite monument of Kim Jong II was unveiled in Pyongyang. (george t. crowell) This article updates the Macropcedia article Korea: North Korea.

Kiribati.

KOREA, DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF

A

socialist republic of northeastern Asia on the northern half of the peninsula of Korea, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) borders the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, and the Republic of Korea at roughly the 38th parallel. Area: 122,762 sq km (47,399 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 23,487,000. Cap.: Pyongyang. Monetary unit: won, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 2.15 won to U.S. $1 (3.40 won = £1 steding). President in 1995, Kim Jong 11 (designated); chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier), Kang Song San.

Severe flooding aggravated North Korea's food shortages in 1995. Heavy rains and a typhoon during the summer reportedly affected five million people, nearly a quarter of the population. The government made a rare appeal for foreign assistance, asking for food

and clothing.

A UN

team

visiting

the North reported that 1.9 million tons of crops had been

and that many irrigation systems had been damaged. Pyongyang had earlier asked for emergency food aid to cover a projected harvest shortfall. Japan contributed 300,000 tons of rice and South Korea 150,000 tons. For several years defectors and visitors had spoken of shortages, of official exhortations to eat only twice a day, and even of food riots. In December the UN World Food Programme warned of the possibility of widespread famine. lost

In January the U.S. sent 50,000 tons of fuel oil generate electricity, part of a 1994 agreement to international dispute over North Korea's suspected weapons program. Pyongyang pledged to freeze all ects, which involved operation of a five-megawatt

to help

end an nuclear its

proj-

nuclear

plant and construction of two others. In exchange, the U.S. promised to arrange for North Korea to acquire two modern

nuclear power reactors worth over $4 billion. Throughout the year the two sides haggled over details implementing the agreement, with the North periodically threatening to

Workers

in South Korea load nee for shipment to North Korea. With the country experiencing what apparently were serious food shortages, the North Korean government signed an agreement on June 21 to accept emergency shipments of food from South Korea.

KOREA, REPUBLIC OF

A

republic of northeastern Asia on the southern half of the peninsula of Korea, the Republic of Korea (South Korea) borders the Sea of Japan, the Korea Strait, the Yellow Sea, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea at roughly the 38th parallel. Area: 99,392 sq km (38,375 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 44,834,000. Cap.: Seoul. Monetary unit: won, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 768.60 won to U.S. SI (1,215 won = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Kim Young Sam; prime ministers, Lee Hong Koo and, from December 18, Lee Soo Song.

South Koreans confronted the dark side of their reTwo former presidents, Chun Doo Hwan (198088) and Roh Tae Woo (1988-93), were arrested and indicted In 1995

cent past.

432

World

Affairs:

Korea, Republic of

12, 1979, coup Both were then senior army

for insurrection for their part in the Dec.

Chun

that brought

to power.

Roh provided the troops that tipped the balance toward Chun. Eight years later Roh narrowly won the presidency himself in South Korea's first modern democratic election. Roh stunned the nation when on October 27 he went on television and tearfully confessed to having amassed a political slush fund of approximately $650 million. Most Koreans had assumed that "donations" were a normal part of politics. They were nevertheless shocked at the sheer size of the fund and the fact that Roh admitted that he had kept more than $200 million of it for his own use. Prosecutors later accused Roh of having taken $369 million in bribes from the large business conglomerates called chaebols. Roh admitted taking the payments but denied that they were bribes. If convicted of the several charges, both former presidents technically could receive the death penalty, although that was considered unlikely. Eight leaders of some of South Korea's biggest business ventures, including the chairmen of Daewoo, Samsung, and Hanbo, were also indicted for having given Roh money or laundered it for him. The unfolding scandal was another blow to Pres. Kim Young Sam, who was already suftering from falling popularity and electoral reverses. His main political rival, the veteran campaigner Kim Dae Jung, quickly acknowledged that he had received about $2.5 million from Roh's fund, implying that the other Kim, being a member of Roh's own party, must have received much more. The president denied it. On June 27, 1995, South Koreans went to the polls in a historic election. For the first time since Park Chung Hee seized power in 1961, local and provincial government officials were elected rather than appointed. Some 5,700 politicians, including 15 governors or mayors of major cities, were chosen in what was considered a fair election. The outcome was a disaster for Pres. Kim Young Sam's Democratic Liberal Party (DLP), which won only 5 of the top 15 posts. The main opposition, the centre-left Democratic Party, took over control of Seoul, the capital, by winning not only the mayor's office but 23 of the city's 25 wards as well. Even the new right-wing United Liberal Democrats, formed after Kim Jong Pil quit as chairman of the DLP, managed to win three governorships. generals.

The litical

election results significantly altered the nation's po-

landscape.

president

in

When Kim was

elected in 1992

three decades not to

—

come from

—the

first

the ranks of

it seemed to permanently relegate to the sidetwo of the country's most prominent politicians: Kim Jong Pil, who opted to join the ruling coalition, and Kim Dae Jung, who retired from politics to form a foundation

the military lines

dedicated to reunifying Korea. Within months of taking office, popularity soar to

90%,

the highest

Kim Young Sam saw mark ever recorded

his

for a

,

for president for the fourth time in 1997.

well

DLP,

as

in

April 1996.

many

If

voters once again re-

believed they would, especially in

wake of the scandal, pressure could mount to change South Korea's presidential form of government to a parliamentary system. Trying to distance itself from the scandal, the ruling party in December changed its name to the New Korea Party. Kim's popularity also suffered from a series of man-made disasters, which seemed to call attention to a seamy side of South Korea's rush toward economic development. The worst was the collapse of the Sampoong Department Store in Seoul on June 29, which took the lives of more than 500 shoppers and store clerks. This, however, was only the worst the

number of recent accidents that killed more than 1,000 people and caused billions of dollars in damage. On April 28 a gas explosion tore through the heart of Taegu, South Korea's third largest city, killing more than 100 people. In October 1994 the Songsu Bridge spanning the Han River in Seoul had collapsed. Corruption appeared to be the root cause of many of these disasters. Five builders were arrested and charged with direct or indirect responsibility for the Taegu disaster. Korean authorities also arrested the founder of Sampoong after evidence emerged that local bureaucrats had been bribed to approve the addition of an unplanned fifth story, which caused the collapse of the entire structure. Ironically, the accident occurred only two days after voters ousted the mayor of Seoul and 23 of the 25 ward administrators. Many of Korea's world-class construction corporations concentrated on prestige projects in other countries and were therefore unable to handle all of the country's infrastructure needs. With millions of people pouring into the of a

cities

new

and

their sprawling industrial suburbs, the

demand

for

construction was often met by small and medium-sized

firms. The tragedy that occurred at the Sampoong building confirmed the seriousness of the problem.

Labour troubles surfaced in the wake of efforts to priKorea Telecom (KT), the telephone company that was 80% owned by the state. When 64 union leaders were fired or demoted for encouraging unrest, 13 took refuge in a Roman Catholic cathedral and a Buddhist temple. Nevertheless, after a two-week standoff, police raided the vatize

premises in an unprecedented violation of church sanctuary. South Korea made little progress toward reconciliation with North Korea during the year. The highly touted summit meeting between the presidents of the two Koreas was postponed indefinitely after the death of Kim II Sung in 1994. In May Seoul approved two pilot investment projects in North Korea. Daewoo Corp. planned to spend $5 million

making

shirts, jackets,

and

travel bags,

and Kohap

Ltd., a

trading company, was also prepared to invest millions pro-

South Korean president. In 1995, however, halfway through his five-year term, Kim no longer had the same appeal. His reform initiatives appeared to be more cosmetic than real, and corruption was as deeply rooted as ever. With Kims rating at about 3(V'/f political analysts interpreted the June 27 election as an implicit affirmation by voters that Kim Dae Jung was not far off target when he made reference to "two and a half years of misrule and blunders." After the June election Kim Dae Jung came out of retirement and in September launched a new party, the National Congress for New Politics. Most assemblymen from the Democratic Party promptly joined its ranks. Kim Dae Jung remarked that he had not made up his mind about running

depend on how

Assembly elections jected the

his candidates did

A in

decision could the

National

ducing plastic bottles, textiles, and garments. South Korea had lifted a ban on direct trade with an investment in the

North

in

November

1994.

Relations with Japan took on an acrimonious air because 1995 marked the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II. It was a reminder of the years during which Korea had been occupied by Japan. Michio Watanabe (see Obituaries), a former Japanese Cabinet minister, sparked a riot in Seoul when he remarked that the Koreans had "harmoniously" signed the treaty annexing the country to Japan

in

1910.

As

if

to exorcise

the

memories associated with

35 years of occupation. South Korea began demolishing an imposing building in downtown Seoul that had been erected by Japan as a palace for

its

then governor-general.

(GEORGE This article Korea.

updates the Macropcedia

article

T.

CROWELL)

Korea: South

World

KUWAIT

Laos

433

Parliamentary elections on February 5 resulted in only 13 new 105-seat bicameral parliament because there were so many candidates registered in most constituencies. A runoff on February 19 filled most of the rest of the seats, with 8 of Kyrgyzstan's 13 registered parties represented in the legislature. By mid-April relations beseats being filled in the

A constitutional

monarchy (emirate), Kuwait is in the northeastern Arabian Peninsula, on the Persian Gulf. Area: 17,818 sq km (6,880 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 1,691,000. Cap.: Kuwait City. Monetary

unit: Kuwaiti dinar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a controlled rate of 0.30 dinar to U.S. $1 (0.47 dinar = £1 sterling). Emir, Sheikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir as-Sabah; prime minister in 1995,

Crown

Affairs:

Prince Sheikh Saad al-Abdullah as-Salim as-Sabah.

tween Pres. Askar Akayev and the parliament were strained, its authority by refusing to confirm some of Akayev's ministerial appointments and as the legislature sought to establish

defying the president's wishes

During 1995 Kuwait avoided acute new problems and made progress toward resolving sortie of its chronic difficulties. Others remained to trouble citizens and policy makers in the future. The October 1994 Iraqi military buildup provoked the U.S. and Great Britain to hold military exercises in Kuwait and urge the UN not to lift the sanctions it had imposed on Iraq. These rapid responses to Iraqi provocations eased Kuwaitis' fears, but efforts by Russia and France to lift the UN sanctions highlighted Kuwait's dependence on extraregional military intervention. Arms purchases from Western allies weakened Kuwait's economy without enabling the country to defend itself. As the clock ran down on Kuwait's military treaties with former coalition partners, its strategic vulnerability remained unchanged. The domestic economy showed strength, but the lack of clear policies hampered growth. The drain on the treasury from arms purchases and the September compromise between the government and the National Assembly on the most recent plan to resolve the nation's lingering debt crisis compounded the problem. The compromise received the endorsement of the crown prince, reputed to be among the largest debtors.

The construction industry and the stock market enjoyed minibooms. Privatization measures were greeted enthusiastically by Kuwaiti investors, although knowledgeable observers were concerned about the lack of planning and hints

The

in

other ways.

referendum on extending Akayev's term in office resurfaced throughout the year and was finally squelched in September when the Legislative Assembly, the house of parliament that remained in permanent session, issue of a

December 24

set

Opon Akayev to step down during the campaign, as his incumbency was seen as giving as the date for a presidential election.

position parties called electoral

him an unfair advantage. His chief rival for the presidency, former parliament chairman Medetkan Sherimkulov, challenged the election date and referred the question to the courts. Turnout was high (82%), and Akayev won a convincing

60%

of the votes.

September heads of state from six countries, including Pakistan and Turkey, gathered in Kyrgyzstan to celebrate the millennium of the Kyrgyz national epic, the Manas. In

(BESS This article updates the Macropcedia article

brown)

Central Asia:

Kyrgyzstan.

LAOS

A

landlocked republic, Laos is in the northern part of the Indochinese Peninsula. Area: 236,800 sq km (91,429 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 4,882,000. Cap.: Vientiane (Viangchan). Monetary unit: kip, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a controlled rate of 920 kip to U.S. $1 (1,454 kip

=

£1 steding). President

Phoumsavan; prime

minister.

Laotian Foreign

Minister Somsavat

in

1995,

Nouhak

Gen. Khamtai Siphandon.

of insider trading. Oil industry recovery continued, with pro-

duction averaging two million barrels per day. Repayment of Kuwait's $5.5 billion foreign loan to finance postwar

delegates

at

reconstruction proceeded on schedule.

Southeast Asian Nations

was made on the resolution of structural deficits. The 1995-96 budget included no new taxes. A "defense tax" might have been feasible following the 1994 Iraqi scare, but no action was taken. Strategic insecurity and persistent polarization between the head of government and the national legislature foreshadowed continuing conflicts and an acrimonious election year in 1996.

July and early

Little progress

(MARY ANN TETREAULT)

training seminars

landlocked republic of Central Asia, Kyrgyzstan borders

km

(76,600 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 4,483,000. Cap.: Bishkek. unit: som, with (Oct. 4, 1995) a free rate of 10.86 som U.S. $1 (17.26 som = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Askar

Monetary

=

Akayev; prime minister, Apas Djumagulov.

Independent States (CIS); the economic decline that had characterized its first years of independence had almost stopped. A report from the International Monetary Fund issued in

May

stated that Kyrgyzstan led the states of the

market reforms. This assessment led to a pledge by international donors of $680 million in credits in 1995 and 1996. in

at

the

ASEAN

secretariat

in

Jakarta,

A visit by Pres. Nouhak Phoumsavan to Myanmar (Burma) May

continued to improve relations between the neighstates, both of which were turning away from socialism. Agreements were reached on trade, transport, and agricultural cooperation. A border demarcation pact signed the previous year was ratified. The following week Winston Lord, U.S. assistant secretary of state for East Asian and Pacific affairs, arrived in Vientiane, where he announced the lifting of a ban on U.S. aid. the

It

had been

in

place since

Vietnam War.

Laos joined Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam a commission to manage the resources of the Mekong River. Because China and Myanmar did not attend the first meeting in Phnom Penh, no effective policies could be implemented. Laos announced that it would join the 128 other nations supporting the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Eighteen areas of natural forest totaling 2.5 million ha (6.2 million ac) were designated protected areas. It was acknowledged that Laos lacked both the funds and the trained personnel to In April

Kyrgyzstan approached the end of 1995 with a currency that was one of the most stable in the Commonwealth of

CIS

in late

bouring

Kazakhstan to the north, China to the southeast, Tajikistan to the south and west, and Uzbekistan to the west. Area: 198,500 sq

held in Brunei

Indon. in

A

(ASEAN)

August when he announced that Laos would seek full membership within two years. It was recognized that financial and logistic assistance would have to be extended to Laos, which would otherwise be unable to attend some 200 ASEAN meetings each year or to employ translators. Later in the year, Laotian diplomats began attending

This article updates the Macropcedia article Arabia: Kuwait.

KYRGYZSTAN

Lengsavat surprised

the ministerial meeting of the Association of

in

setting

up

434

World

Affairs: Latvia

moved toward a more comprehensive solution Middle East conflict in 1995, the Lebanese government was concerned with continued violence in southern Lebanon, the appointment of a new Cabinet, and renewed

As

implement the program effectively, however. Both Vietnam and Thailand pressed Laos to give priority to building Road 9, which would connect Thailand's Savanakhet province to the city of Quang Tri in Vietnam. Laos, however, favoured Road 8, which led to the Vietnamese port of Vinh. Laos's economy was troubled by the progressive weakness of the kip. This accentuated the trade deficit and caused rising prices of imported goods, especially oil products. Because the government was reluctant to allow retail prices to climb, higher inflation and a larger budget deficit resulted, which thus made Laos less attractive to foreign investors. Some confidence was restored in August when the Asian Development Bank granted an interest-free loan of $20 million for urban infrastructure. (Robert woodrow) This article updates the Macropcedia article Southeast Asia:

mandate of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). In the wake of the negotiations between Israel and Palestine in Oslo, Norway, violence resumed in southern Lebanon between pro-Iranian Hezbollah forces and Israeli troops and militia from the South Lebanese Army (SLA) in Israel's "security zone." Though the sporadic conflict in southern Lebanon was fought according to rules agreed to in 1993 between Syria and the U.S., the war had taken many Lebanese and Israeli

Laos.

lives.

the region

to the

efforts in the reconstruction of Beirut.

On

UN

January 30 the

Security

Council

adopted a

resolution to extend the

Several incidents, including an Israeli blockade of the southern Lebanese coast from February 8 through March 9, attacks by Hezbollah guerrillas on Israel, and Israeli

LATVIA

retaliatory raids,

A

republic of northern Europe, Latvia is on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Area: 64,610 sq km (24,946 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 2,515,000. Cap.: Riga. Monetary unit: lats, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 0.54 lats to U.S. $1 (0.85 lats = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Guntis Ulmanis; chairman of the Saeima (parliament), Anatolijs Gorbunovs; prime ministers. Maris Gailis and, from December 21, Andris Skele.

left

the 150,000 residents of the region

insecure. Similarly, the goals of the Hezbollah continued to

be the removal of Israeli troops from southern Lebanon and the postponement of any Israeli negotiations with Syria. Anticipating the possibility of an Israeli-Syrian agreement in

became a bona fide participant in members still in the National

1992, the Hezl5ollah

Lebanese Assembly

politics,

with eight

1995. Syria

in

remained a dominant Lebanon.

force, with

Latvia was beset by serious economic problems and internal

35,000 troops stationed

in 1995 but made progress in achieving important foreign policy goals. The lack of proper control over commercial banks resulted in the issuance of bad loans that led to the bankruptcies of many

The future of the Palestinians in Lebanon was unsure. The UN Relief and Works Agency estimated that some

political disarray

some of

its

commercial banks, including the country's largest, Banka Baltija. The government's failure to collect projected tax revenues resulted in a growing budget deficit that threatened to surpass the limit agreed to with the International Monetary Fund. Compounding the problem, the govern-

ment issued

state treasury bills

made them

rates

whose very high

interest

overly attractive to banks, which led to

a credit shortage for local industries.

The

privatization of

apartment buildings had to be put off until 1996. The parliamentary elections on September 30-October

did not result in a clear winner; nine parties received be-

tween 5% and 16% of the vote. The National Conciliation Bloc (NIB), formed by three leftist parties and a right extremist party, elected the parliament leadership on November 7. The formation of a government was more difficult, for neither the rightist National Bloc (NB) nor the NIB was able to get the majority vote needed to form a Cabinet. To avoid new elections, two leftist parties then joined forces with the NB to elect the nonparty businessman Andris Skele prime minister on December 21. After having been admitted to the Council of Europe in February, on June 12 Latvia signed an associate membership agreement with the European Union, and four months later it submitted a formal membership application. Latvian units participated in both naval and ground exercises of NATO's Partnership for Peace program. (saulius a. girnius) This article updates the Macropcvdia article Baltic Statks: l.aivia.

LEBANON A

Lebanon is situated on the km (3,950 sq mi). Pop. 3.009,000 (including Palestinian refugees estimated to number nearly 340.000). Cap.: Beirut. Monetar\' unit: Ix-banese pound, with (Oct. 6, IW5) a free rate of LL 1.609 to U.S. SI (LL 2,544 = i\ sterling). President in 1995. Llias Hrawi: prime minister, Rafiq al-Hariri. republic of soiithwcslcrn Asia,

Mediti.ir:uic:in Sea. Area: 10,2.30 sq

(1995

csi.):

338,000 Palestinians were denied

civil rights by the Lebanese encouraged to move, and denied work permits in Lebanon. Of the hundreds of Palestinians deported by Libya in September who attempted a return to Lebanon, only those few who held Lebanese residence permits were

authorities,

allowed reentry. On June 24 former Maronite Christian leader Samir Geagea was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of his sons.

rival,

The

Dany Chamoun, and Chamoun's

wife and two

verdict underscored the Maronite defeat in the

had beset Lebanon since 1975. The balance now shifted to the Muslims. Maronite political leadership had all but disappeared: the former commander of the Lebanese army, Michel Aoun, was in exile in France, and the Maronite patriarch, Nasrallah Sfeir, did

civil 1

in

war

that

of political power

not take an active political role. Christians seemed to fear that the elections in 1996

power

would

reflect a shift in

Lebanon's

structure.

Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri resigned on May 19 only be reappointed by Pres. Elias Hrawi on May 21. Hariri, prime mover of the "Horizon 2000" project of Beirut urban renewal, requested a new Cabinet and advocated an amendment to the constitution that would allow the president to extend his six-year term for three additional years in the hope of providing the stability necessary for a massive reconstruction of Beirut. Although discussion of the new amendment was opposed by Nabih Berri, the Shi'ite speaker of the National Assembly, a compromise was reached in mid-May, and the amendment passed on October 19. Hariri was able to appoint a new Cabinet on May 25. Most of the posts remained unchanged, including Fares Bouez (minister of foreign and expatriate aftairs), Michel Murr (minister of the interior), and Mohsen Dalloui (minister of national defense). New appointments included the former head of the Council for Development and Reconstruction, al-FadI Chalaq (minister of posts and telecommunications). Prime Minister Hariri's goal to reestablish Lebanon as the financial market centre of the Middle East moved a step to

World

Affairs:

m:^.rjm.'.

I

^f

Lesotho

'-

-

435

"»« 'ff'l

i*

f

!

"^±

Archaeologists excavate a 2,500 year-old Phoenician town in the centre of Beirut. The discovery of Canaanite, Phoenician, Byzantine, and remains, which some people demanded be preserved, was making attempts to rebuild the Lebanese capital more difficult.

forward with the reopening of the stock mari\

Ppl:AND

to severe

DataareforallsoecliM, «»«gbs 'Only overall damage shown, ^Kaliningrad only

^Wroclaw of export earnings, with tuna as the second source of export income. Tourism, however, was more important as a source of income than either petroleum or tuna. Britain

was Seychelles' principal

trading partner for both imports and exports.

Seychelles continued its attempt to establish the archipelago as an international business centre. New laws were passed that provided tax breaks and reductions in offshore licensing fees. A law passed in November granting

—

immunity from prosecution in criminal proceedings including extradition in exchange for a $10 million investment in the Seychelles drew the attention of world law-enforcement agencies. The government also announced plans to move away from a welfare state by requiring payment for services that were once free. During 1994 Seychelles had implemented similar measures to improve the economy. Taxes on luxury goods were increased to discourage imports, and the port of Mahe was privatized, which resulted in the replacement of the state-owned Union Lighterage Co. by four

—

firms specializing in separate activities

ship handling, and cargo handling.

—ship

engineering,

(guy arnoi.d)

Ihis article updates the MIrrop/rdia article Si y( in

i

iiis.

This article updates the Maciopcedia article

Western Africa:

Sierra Leone.

CHRIS

BROWN SABA

Women

in a displaced persons camp in Sierra Leone take their cliildren them to the fields. Fighting between a rebel group and the military government in 1995 had an especially severe effect on civilians, with tens of thousands killed and hundreds of thousands made homeless.

with

World

SINGAPORE Singapore, a republic of Soutiieast Asia and member of the Commonwealth, consists of the island of Singapore and 58 nearby islets, at the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula. Area: 641 sq km (247 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 2,989,000. Monetary unit: Singapore dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of S$1.43 to U.S. $1 (S$2.26 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Ong Teng Cheong;

prime minister,

Goh Chok Tong.

In late February 1995 Britain's 233-year-old Barings PLC collapsed after running up losses of over $1 billion in futures trading on the Singapore International Monetary Exchange.

Barings trader Nicholas Leeson fled Singapore and was later arrested in Frankfurt, Germany, (see Economic Affairs: Banking.) Relations with the Philippines were strained in March Filipino maid Flor Contemplacion was executed for

when

the 1991 murders of fellow domestic Delia

Maga and

a local

boy under Maga's care. Many in the Philippines contended that Contemplacion was innocent, but Singapore denied Manila's request to postpone the hanging pending further

As anti-Singapore

investigation.

protests raged, the Philip-

ambassador. After U.S. forensic experts performed an autopsy on the exhumed remains of Maga and confirmed Singapore's medical report that Maga had died by strangulation, Philippine Pres. Fidel V. Ramos accepted the findings and declared the matter closed. In his newspaper column, U.S. commentator William Safire berated Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., for awarding an honorary degree to Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong. Condemning what he said was Singapore's lack of freedom of expression, Safire challenged Goh to participate in a forum that would feature Singaporean opposition figures. Singapore responded with an invitation for Safire to debate Goh on the prime minister's home turf. The columpines recalled

its

refused, suggesting instead that Goh take on exiled opposition politician Francis Seow, while Safire would meet Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew in Switzerland. nist

With new

when

for-

mer Cabinet minister Tony Tan returned to government in August as his deputy. Lee, whose decision to step aside in 1990 had led to Goh's appointment as prime minister, had indicated that he preferred Pres.

Ong Teng Cheong

Tan

to succeed him. In October,

flew to the U.S. for medical consul-

tations after cancer, previously diagnosed in 1992, recurred.

The economy continued

to perform strongly, with growth dropping below 2%. Strong demand for electronics kept export growth in double digits. The government continued to encourage businessmen to venture (alejandro reyes) abroad.

above

8%

and

inflation

This article updates the Macropcedia article

Southeast Asia:

Singapore.

SLOVAKIA Slovakia is a landlocked state in central Europe. Area: 49,036 sq (18,933 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 5,355,000. Cap.: Bratislava. Monetary unit: Slovak koruna, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 29.60 koruny to U.S. $1 (46.80 koruny = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Michal Kovac; prime minister, Vladimir Meciar.

km

Three domestic sources of power were not under Prime Minister Vladimir Meciar's control in 1995, and his policies appeared designed to minimize their significance. The first of these was the parliamentary opposition, possibly the easiest target because it had never fully recovered from having lost the 1994 elections. Meciar's second target was the pres-

467

ident, Michal Kovac. Kovac had played a very active role in engineering Meciar's removal in 1994, and Meciar was implacable in his determination to oust him. There were votes in the National Council criticizing Kovac, he was snubbed,

and then additional pressure was put on him through his The younger Kovac was wanted by the German authorities in connection with a corruption investigation, and in the autumn he was kidnapped, almost certainly by the Slovak intelligence service, forced into a car, and driven over the border into Austria, where the Austrian authorities released him on bail while he awaited possible extradition to Germany. Kovac held out, but the pressure was taking son.

its toll.

The

third target,

and

Meciar had the full-throated

in this

backing of the opposition Slovak Nationalist Party as well as of many members of his own party, was the Hungarian minority. The government moved on several occasions to curtail the rights of the Hungarians in education, for example, and in the legality of bilingualism in local government which the minority viewed with considerable distress.

—

—

Under some Western

pressure,

Slovakia and Hungary

signed a bilateral security treaty, which provided for minority rights. Bratislava

had

to ratify it at the end of earned Meciar significant Then, as a concession to the

still

the year and, indeed, signing attacks from the nationalists.

it

Meciar agreed to introduce a new law on the Slovak language, overtly nationalist in intent. By promoting Slovak as the unique language of the state, the law upset nationalists,

the Hungarians greatly, but their campaign against the law

found no echo even among democratic-minded Slovaks,

who ended up

voting for the law.

The growing encroachment on the freedom of

civil

society

was attracting the attention of the West. Both the European Union and the United States protested in the autumn, warning the Slovak government that it was running the risk of being excluded from the West. The Slovak authorities' response was to opt for isolation and, equally, for intensified, if pointless, relationships with Ukraine and Russia. (GEORGE SCHOPFLIN)

polls required by April 1997, the question of

the prime minister's political future resurfaced

Affairs: Slovenia

This article updates the Macropcedia article

vak Republics:

Czech and Slo-

Slovakia.

SLOVENIA

A

republic of the extreme northwestern Balkans, Slovenia borders Austria to the north, Hungary to the east, Croatia to the southeast and south, the Adriatic Sea to the southwest, and Italy to the west. Area: 20,255 sq km (7,820 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.):

Monetary unit: tolar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 122.93 tolarji to U.S. $1 (194.34 tolarji = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Milan Kucan; prime minister, Janez 1,971,000. Cap.: Ljubljana.

Drnovsek.

Although Slovenia's aspirations to join the European Union (EU) continued to be frustrated in 1995 by Italy's opposition, the country maintained a steady rate of economic progress. There was hope for progress on EU membership in March, after Italy lifted its veto on talks, and on May 19 the European Commission approved the terms of Slovenia's associate membership. Then Italy called for further changes to the 1975 Osimo Treaty and the 1983 Rome Agreement between Italy and Yugoslavia (of which Slovenia was then a part) and insisted on material compensation for Italians displaced in the 1945 border adjustments as preconditions for agreeing to further EU talks. Italy further demanded that Italian citizens have the right to buy property in Slovenia. Pres. Milan Kucan visited Brussels on November 30, but Italy

continued to

insist

on

its

Slovenia's association with the

preconditions, and talks on

EU made no further progress.

World

468

Affairs:

Solomon Islands to 18 over former governor-general Sir

Mamaloni's

coalition, the

Group

Baddeley Devesi. and

for National Unity

Reconciliation, promised to increase the size of Parliament

and

to extend

its

term

to five years.

The new government vowed on investment

in

to place renewed emphasis production, to encourage the privatization

of the public sector, and to increase trade.

It

also effectively

halved taxes on the export of round logs and persisted

On April 3, 1995, the government Pavuvu Island would be cleared of timber, despite the objections of residents, who would be relocated. These policies amounted to a reversal of Hilly's attempt to control the logging industry, which he had seen as a source of corruption and improper influence in government. The government faced significant economic difficulties. In August the central bank accused the government of defaulting on debt-servicing obligations. (barrie macdonald)

with logging projects.

announced

that

This article updates the Macropcedia

Solomon

article

Pacific Islands:

Islands.

SOMALU A woman tends a

field

near Celje planted

Slovenia's extensive agricultural industry field

crops, livestock,

and

fruits

in

hops. The privatization of

—which was diversified among of those —

and was the most productive began in 1992.

of the republics of the former Yugoslavia CHRIS ANDERSON

-

AURORA

On December

6 Prime Minister Janez Drnovsek acknowl-

had reached an impasse. Nonetheless, full member of the Central European Free Trade Agreement in September, and relations edged

that the talks

Situated in the Horn of northeastern Africa, Somalia lies on the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Area: 637,000 sq km (246,000 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 6,734,000 (excluding Somali refugees in neighbouring countries estimated to number about 500,000). Cap.: Mogadishu. Monetary unit: Somali shilling, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 2,620 Somali shillings to U.S. $1 (4,142 Somali shillings = £1 sterling). Somalia had no functioning

government

in 1995.

Slovenia was voted a

NATO continued to develop within the Partnership Peace program. U.S. Defense Secretary William Perry

with for

visited Slovenia

on September

16.

In June Slovenia agreed with a consortium of nearly 300

banks to assume responsibility for 18% of the total debt of $4.7 billion owed to the banks by former Yugoslavia. Relations with Croatia remained tense mainly because of the continuing dispute over the territorial waters of the

On November

of Piran.

Bay

30 Slovenia recognized Yugoslavia.

Relations between the government and the country's Ro-

man

Catholic Church deteriorated sharply in

1995.

The

church demanded the return of property nationalized under the

communist regime.

Slovenia registered

growth

inflation

in

rate

gross domestic product

was 11%.

Its

exports,

$6,180,000,000 for the January-September 1995 period increased by 26.1% over the corresponding period in 1994.

at

In the same period, Slovene imports, at $7 billion, were 35.2% higher than in 1994. For January-September Slovenia's trade deficit was $804 million, compared with $266 million in the first nine months of 1994. The tolar became fully convertible on Sept. I, 1995. (k.f. cviic)

This article updates the Macropcedia article

Balkan States:

Slovenia.

constitutional

the

Solomon

monarchy and member of the Commonwealth,

Islands comprises a 1,450-km (9()0-mi) chain of

islands anil atolls in the western Pacific

sq

km

(l(),y.S4

Monetary

unit;

minister,

II;

Ocean. Area: 28,370

sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 382,000. Cap.: Honiara.

Solomon

Islands dollar, with (Oct.

free rate of SI$3.40 to U.S. $1 (SI$5.38

Elizabeth

governor-general

in 1995,

6,

1995) a

= £1 sterling). Queen, Moses Pitakaka; prime

Solomon Mamaloni.

After Prime Minister Francis Billy Hilly was forced to resign in

October 1994, Solomon Mamaloni was recalled to office term as prime minister, with a majority of 29

for his third

and

port,

and

the factions of Gen. val,

its

split between Farah Aydid and his ri-

hinterland remained

Muhammad

the nominal national president, Ali

Mahdi Muhammad.

whole country through his own alliance of clan and faction groupings: Aydid with the Somali National Alliance (SNA) and Ali Mahdi with the Somali Salvation Alliance (SSA). Northeastern Somalia and the port of Boosaaso were controlled by the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF). In the far south the valley of the Jubba River with its plantations remained divided between the forces of Gen. Muhammad Said Hersi ("Morgan") in the port of Kismaayo and those of Col. Ah-

Each was attempting

mad Omar

SOLOMON ISLANDS A

UNOSOM

capital

5%

The annual

1995.

in

Jan. 2, 1995, Somalia's former dictator Muhammad Siad Barre {see Obituaries) died in exile in Nigeria. In the country that he left in fragments, the last of the United II (UN Operation Nations intervention force in Somalia) was evacuated in March, covered by an international flotilla led by 1,800 U.S. marines. Fears that the withdrawal would lead to the widespread renewal of civil war were not realized, though local conflicts continued; trade and economic life appeared to be recovering. Nevertheless, the country remained divided; besides the breakaway "Republic of Somaliland" in the north, there were several de facto independent areas. Mogadishu, the

On

to unite the

Jess in the hinterland, while in the fertile plain

between the Jubba and Shcbeli rivers, the Rahanwayn group of clans set up a supreme council in the town of Baydhabo to administer the region. Aydid's position was threatened by a split with his former right-hand man, the millionaire businessman Osman Hassan Ali ("Ato"), who became an ally of Ali Mahdi. In June Aydid's United Somali Congress voted to replace him as SNA chairman with Ato. In response, a meeting of Aydid's supporters elected him president of all of Somalia (in direct rivalry to Ali Mahdi). Following this, Aydid attempted to consolidate his power throughout the south. In mid-September his forces took Baydhabo; Rahanwayn forces counterattacked, and fighting continued into December.

World

breakaway Somaliland the government of Pres. Ibrahim Egal repelled attacks by the opposition led by his predecessor 'Abd ar-Rahman Ahmad Ali "Tur," who favoured reunion with Somalia and joined forces with Aydid's SNA; by March Egal appeared to be in control. In January Somaliland introduced its own currency. In September representatives from all parties met in JidIn the

Muhammad

dah, Saudi Arabia, at the latest of many peace conferences and resolved to set up a national government. Aydid, though invited, did not attend.

r. luling) Eastern Africa:

(Virginia

This article updates the Macropcedia article Somalia.

SOUTH AFRICA South Africa, a member of the Commonwealth, occupies the southern tip of Africa, with the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Indian Ocean to the east. Area: 1,219,080 sq km (470,689 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 41,465,000. Executive cap., Pretoria; judicial cap., Bloemfontein; legislative cap.. Cape Town. Monetary unit: South African rand, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of R 3.66 to U.S. $1 (R 5.79 = £1 sterling); the dual exchange rate system introduced in 1979 was abolished on March 13, 1995. State president in 1995, Nelson Mandela.

Domestic Affairs. Opening Parliament in February 1995, Pres. Nelson Mandela threatened battle against the "forces of anarchy and chaos." He called for the country to become "investor-friendly," warning that freedom did not mean license and that the government did not have the means to meet the demands on it. People must rid themselves, he said, of the "culture of entitlement." A campaign was instituted to try to break the boycott of rent and service payments, estimated to involve 80% of black township resi-

Mandela also continued his policy of racial reconciliaholding a lunch for the wives of former presidents and prime ministers together with those of liberation movement leaders and taking tea with Betsie Verwoerd, widow of a leading architect of apartheid, Hendrik Verwoerd. Mandela dents. tion,

expressed his sympathy for the Freedom Front's idea of an Afrikaner volkstaat because "compromise is something very important" in nation building.

Implementation of the government's reconstruction and development program proceeded slowly, owing to limited financial resources, bureaucratic inertia, and delayed transference of powers to provincial and local governments. Plans were, however, proposed for a publicly funded and universally accessible primary health care system, and a program of state subsidies for housing for the poor was initiated. A new framework for national education was legislated. In October it was reported that more than 300 rural water projects, benefiting 3.5 million people, and improvements of more than 600 municipal services were completed or would be within the next 18 months. The year was punctuated by tensions between the parties constituting the government of national unity, particularly as local elections approached in November. The issues revolved particularly around the relative powers of central government and provinces. The National Party (NP) became torn by conflict over how to carve an independent profile as a party of opposition to the dominant African National Congress (ANC) while continuing to serve in the government, conflict that was resolved only by the authority of its leader, Deputy Pres. F.W. de Klerk. In January, to the anger of the NP, the ANC denied the validity of the indemnity granted just before the April 1994 election by the NP government in secret to 3,500 policemen and two former Cabinet ministers. It said that their cases had to be considered by the Truth and Conciliation Commission, which was established during the year. In the same

Affairs:

South Africa

469

month, in an atmosphere of wildcat strikes by black police and accusations of white racism in the police, police chief Johan van der Merwe resigned and was replaced by George Fivaz, who pledged himself to reform in the police force, including the demilitarization of ranks. Concern about the nation's rising crime rate mounted during the year, and the government imposed tougher bail conditions on criminals. The newly established Constitutional Court controversially abolished the death penalty on June 6. The trial of former security policeman Col. Eugene de Kock on 121 charges of murder, kidnapping, fraud, and theft produced further evidence of past police involvement in assassinations and the fomenting of political violence. Prominent Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) leaders were alleged to have been in the pay of the security police. A secret report of the Goldstone Commission to President de Klerk in 1994 was published that alleged the security police had been "involved for many years in the most serious criminal conduct including murder, fraud, blackmail, and a huge operation of dishonest political disinformation." Prominent former policemen criticized the report for a lack of facts. In pursuit of the goal of

maximum autonomy

for the

KwaZulu/Natal province. Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi, IFP leader and home affairs minister, was elected chairman of the KwaZulu/Natal House of Traditional Leaders in January against the opposition of King Goodwill Zwelithini,

who

—

to the consternation of other traditional leaders in

—

KwaZulu/Natal had distanced himself from the IFP. Both the ANC and King Goodwill declared this House unconstitutionally established. The IFP walked out of Parliament in February, alleging that the ANC had broken its 1994 pledge to international mediation regarding the form of the South African state and restoration of the Zulu kingdom. The ANC claimed that these were matters for decision by the Constitutional Assembly (both houses of Parliament meeting to draw up a final constitution). The IFP returned to Parliament but withdrew in April from participation in the Constitutional Assembly and later from an intergovernmental forum of regional premiers. Buthelezi accused the

ANC

of attempting to establish a "one-party

ANC

hegemony"

response accused the IFP of advocating secession of KwaZulu/Natal. In response to calls by Buthelezi for the Zulu people to "rise and resist" central government. President Mandela in May threatened to cut government funds to KwaZulu/ Natal and stepped up the army and police presence in the in

the country; the

in

Mandela claimed Buthelezi was fomenting viowas calling for peaceful mass resistance. In June Mandela admitted that in March province.

lence, while Buthelezi claimed he

1994 he had given guards at the ANC headquarters in Johannesburg "shoot to kill" orders in self-defense against an IFP demonstration, which had resulted in deaths. To the anger of the IFP, Parliament passed legislation authorizing payment of the salaries of traditional leaders by the central government rather than the provinces. In the KwaZulu/ Natal legislature, the IFP tried to secure the passage of a provincial constitution described as "highly confederal,"

army and sovereignty over terribut could not secure the necessary two-thirds

including provision for an torial waters,

this. There was evidence of tension between and moderates in the IFP, the latter favouring greater cooperation with the ANC in government. In the months prior to the April 1994 election, death tolls of 300 persons a month due to political violence were being recorded in Natal. They declined in the months following the election to a low of 57 in March 1995 but began to increase again thereafter, to about 70 a month. There were nearly 80 deaths in one week in July and 55 in one week in

majority for hard-liners

World

470

Affairs:

South Africa

ANC

of a "culture August. Accusations were made by the of immunity" in KwaZulu/Natal and of failure to prosecute perpetrators of violence. In June a special investigative unit secured the arrest of the IFP's deputy secretary-general. Zakhele Khumalo, and two police officers on 13 counts of

murder committed

in

1987.

Local elections held on November 1, except in certain parts of the Western Cape and Natal, resulted in substantial

gains for the

ANC.

In the

NP-governed Western Cape,

the elections were delayed because of a dispute with the

government over whether the populous African township Khayelitsha should be included in the Tygerberg area or with central Cape Town. The controversy was taken to the Constitutional Court, where it escalated into a dispute over the relative powers of central and provincial governments. A draft constitution presented by Cyril Ramaphosa, the chairman of the Constitutional Assembly, on November 22 would give the regional governments more power in the South African federal structure through a new upper chamber of Parliament. A Labour Relations Act guaranteeing the right to strike was passed. It contained the innovative idea of workplace forums as arenas of management-worker cooperation. The

Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), the National Congress of Trade Unions, and the Federation of South African Labour Unions engaged in demonstrations and a half-day general strike in June to secure more favourable terms for workers in the act. The final version of the act was described by COSATU's general secretary,

Sam

Shilowa, as a "quantum leap for workers."

Workdays

1995 were the lowest in many years. There were, however, wildcat strikes by nurses and lo.st

in

industrial strikes in

a strike in four provinces by municipal workers

demanding

higher pay.

Winnie Mandela, the estranged wife of President Mandela, criticized the

ANC

for overindulgence in racial rec-

onciliation at the expense of the masses. In February,

leaders of the

ANC

Women's League

Mandela was absent

in

West

resigned in protest

Africa, her

LOUISE

GUBB— JB

PICTURES

11

against her conduct as president of the League. In March,

while

South African schoolchildren receive a government-subsidized lunch, consisting of a sandwich and a drink of milk or orange juice. Providing education for black South Africans, millions of v(/hom lived in poverty, remained one of the country's most pressing problems.

home was

raided by police looking for evidence of financial misdealing.

She was dismissed on March 27 as deputy minister of arts, culture, science, and technology. Though the dismissal was reversed in court on a technicality, she resigned on April 17. During the year President Mandela instituted divorce

The Economy. The economic upswing

that

began

in

May

1993 continued, strongly in the second half of 1994 and more weakly in the first half of 1995. Gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 2.3% in 1994— the first year since 1988

—

tions in

had exceeded population growth and by 1.5% in quarter of 1995 and 0.8% in the second, pulled down by poor performances in agriculture and mining. GDP growth for 1995 was predicted at 2.8-3%. The upswing was fueled by gross domestic fixed investment (GDFI), which grew by 7% in 1994 (the first year of growth since 1989) and by 5% in the first quarter and 8% in the second quarter of 1995. GDFI was expected to grow by more than 10% in

interests.

1995 overall. In 1994 this represented a few big investments by private companies, but in 1995 it was becoming more widely distributed. Official estimates put unemployment at about 4.7 million, one-third of the economically active population. Between 1990 and 1994 formal-sector employment shrank by 8%. Despite the upswing, it declined by 0.5% in 1994 to 7,410,-

proceedings against her. The Rev. Allan Boesak, former leader of the Western

Cape

ANC

and ambassador-designate to the United NaGeneva, was accused by donors to DanChurch Aid of unlawfully enriching himself at the expense of the Foundation for Peace and Justice, which he headed. He resigned his appointment as ambassador in February. Amid similar cases of alleged corruption, the ANC drew up a code of financial conduct for its parliamentarians, requiring them to reveal their own and their families' business

At a conference in April, the South African Communist (SACP) reported 50,000 members, 50 of them serving as ANC members of Parliament or government ministers Party

and three as provincial premiers of the nine provinces. Two prominent SACP leaders, Joe Slovo and Harry Gwala, died during the year. {Sec Obituariks.) In one of the country's worst-ever mining disasters, more than 100 miners tiled at Vaal Reefs gold mine in May when a runaway underground locomotive fell on top of an elevator carrying them down a shaft. The Rugby Union World Cup was staged in the country in May and June and was won by the South African team, the Springboks.

that

the

it

first

000 jobs, but growth was anticipated in 1995. The upswing continued to stimulate imports of capital goods. A surplus on the current account of the balance of payments of R 500 million in the first half of 1994 was transformed into a deficit of R 2.1 billion for the year overall. During the first half of 1995, the deficit was R 5.6 billion, which led to estimates of an annualized deficit of R 8 billion-R 10 billion. Net capital inflows of R 8.8 billion in the second half of 1994 (compared with an outflow of R 3.8 billion in the first half) and of R 9.8 billion in the first half of 1995 allowed this deficit to be sustainable. At the end of June, gross foreign exchange reserves were

World

R 15.2 billion, about six weeks of exports. The governor of the reserve bank expressed concern that much of the capital inflow was short-term and warned that the upswing was exposing the insufficiency of domestic savings and the nation's low labour productivity. The dual rand (financial and commercial), an exchange control measure, was abolished in March without substantially affecting the value of the currency. In June a series of measures liberalizing trade were introduced, with phased major reductions in tariff protection barriers and the scrapping of the local content requirements

in

the automobile

Affairs:

Spain

471

SPAIN

A constitutional

monarchy of southwestern Europe with on the Bay of Biscay, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea, Spain shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal; it includes the Balearic and Canary island groups, in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, respectively, and enclaves in northern Morocco. Area: 504,783 sq km (194,898 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 39,188,000. Cap.: Madrid. Monetary unit: Spanish

coastlines

peseta, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 123.75 pesetas to U.S. $1 (195.63 pesetas = £1 sterling). King, Juan Carlos I; prime

minister in 1995, Felipe Gonzalez Marquez.

industry.

The

budget wholly drawn up by the government of 46.7% of spending to social services (compared with 44% in 1994-95). Education received 26%, the largest amount, and the allocation for housing and urban upgrading, at 2.7%, was more than doubled from 1994-95. Interest payments on debt accounted for 18.6% of spending, the second largest amount. Military spending was cut by 11.7% to R 9.8 billion, which represented a continuing decline since 1989. A decision on whether to purchase four new corvettes for the navy was postponed by the Cabinet. The budget's deficit before borrowing was projected at 5.8% first

national unity allocated

of

GDP, compared with 6.4%) in 1994-95. Consumer price inflation reached a low of 7.1%

1994, averaged

9%

in April

whole (the lowest since 1972), increased to 11% by June 1995, and fell to 6.4% in September, the lowest rate in 23 years. The money supply increased at rates

which increased

for 1994 as a

deemed

excessive by the reserve bank,

banks from 13% in September 1994 to 15% at the end of June 1995. Foreign Affairs. South Africa had planned during the year to place more emphasis on "south-south" relations: with countries in southern Africa and Asia. Criticism, however, emerged concerning the lacklustre qualities of Foreign Affairs Minister Alfred Nzo and the failure to provide the moral leadership expected of the Mandela presidency and to replace staff of the former government. This criticism focused particularly on the failure to criticize the human rights records of such governments as Indonesia, Nigeria, Kenya, and The Sudan and on the decision to store oil for the Iranian government. Despite urging by the Organization of African Unity to commit its army to peacekeeping forces in Africa, the new government insisted that its priorities were domestic. In

Angola mines

it

its

interest charges to other

oft'ered to provide

laid in that nation's

criticized for at the

UN

its

demolition specialists to detect civil war. South Africa was

long

support for the "Big Five" nuclear powers

nuclear nonproliferation summit in April but

responded that

its

package of proposals for strengthening

the operation of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty had

been accepted by the conference.

The Cameron Commission investigated the clandestine weapons to other nations by the government-owned

sales of

Armscor, which had occurred under the former government. It recommended that arms sales be based on the country's "commitment to democracy, human rights, and international peace and security," and a list of countries to which arms sales were permissible was prepared. Control over such sales was transferred from Armscor to a Cabinet committee. Armscor obtained contracts to supply arms to UN forces in Rwanda and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The European Union on March 29 agreed to reduce trade tariffs on South African goods during the next 10 years. South Africa would also receive ECU 500 million in

(martin legassick) Macropcedia article Southern Africa:

aid over the next four years.

This article updates the South Africa.

Expectations that after 13 years Prime Minister Felipe GonMarquez was rapidly nearing the end of his tenure in

zalez

dominated politics in 1995 as an increasingly wobbly government lost key parliamentary support amid growing scandals. Gonzalez, Europe's second longest governing leader, after Helmut Kohl of Germany, pledged to call elections on March 3, 1996, a year ahead of schedule, while steadfastly defending his record and that of his government. Gonzalez agreed to lead the party again himself. The widely shared perception that the Socialist era would soon give way to a government led by the conservative Popular Party had a major impact on the lingering conflict in Spain's three northeastern Basque provinces. The armed Basque separatist group, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), showed signs of changing strategy with the assassination on January 23 of Gregorio Ordofiez, a leader of the Popular office

Socialist

Party in Guipiizcoa province. Of the roughly 800 deaths during ETA's 27-year-old independence campaign, all but a handful had been military or police officers. ETA's failed assassination attempt

on April 19 against Jose Maria Aznar,

the Popular Party's intended candidate for prime minister,

was followed by

ETA

demands

to negotiate

determination. Violence flared up

anew

in

Basque

self-

December

as

bombings attributed to ETA killed six civilian naval employees in Madrid on December 11, a shopper in a department store in Valencia on December 16, and an army major in Leon on December 22. While both the government and the opposition roundly rejected talks with aratists

gave

official

in

ETA,

rise to

the country's fight against the sep-

continuing scandal.

A

former

the Basque country, Ricardo Garcia

nea, and a former chief of state security,

were

Socialist

Dambore-

Rafael Vera,

and questioned on February 17 in connection with the shadowy Anti-Terrorist Liberation Group (GAL), which judicial investigations tied to Spanish security forces. Damborenea later told a court that Gonzalez himself had been responsible for GAL, which killed 27 people in southern France between 1983 and 1987 in the so-called dirty war against ETA. The newspaper El Mundo published documents in October indicating that French border officials had been paid by the Spanish Ministry of the Interior to help track down ETA guerrilla squads across the border. In late November the Cortes (parliament) lifted the immunity of Jose Barrionuevo, a former minister of the interior, so he could be questioned about GAL. Spaniards' attention was shifted abroad when Canadian authorities seized the Spanish trawler Estai on March 9 on the high seas off Newfoundland, claiming to be defending stocks from overfishing to the point of depletion. After Spanish warships had been sent to defend the fishing fleet, weeks of bitter dispute between Canada and the European Union (EU) ended in an agreement to lower the Spanish jailed

fishermen's halibut catch in the

On March

Grand Banks.

wedding in 89 years, the marriage in Seville of the Infanta Elena to banker Jaime de Marichalar, captivated the country and highlighted the 18 Spain's

first

royal

472

World

Affairs: Sri

Lanka

popularity of the restored

Bourbon monarchy. King Juan

Carlos and Queen Sofia welcomed the heir to the throne, Prince Felipe, back from two years of graduate study in the United States to assume an increasingly prominent role in the family's official engagements.

Benefiting from the Socialists' troubles, the Popular Party comfortably won regional and municipal elections on May 28, taking charge of 10 of 13 regional governments and winning a plurality in 42 of 52 provincial capitals. An increase of 10% in the PP's results over the previous election (1991) put the conservatives five points ahead of the Socialists and in

the lead for the

first

time.

Long-standing efforts to direct more of Europe's attention southward reached their zenith during Spain's six-month presidency of the EU that began July 1. Throughout the spring and summer, unrest hit Spanish ports as some 600 fishing boats were idled because of stalled negotiations on an EU fishing treaty with Morocco. In Madrid a political

was made to accept Rabat's EU's catch in Moroccan waters. Concessions were also made on granting Morocco access to EU agricultural markets, which thereby would put it in competition with Europe's home-grown fruit and vegetables, in order to help strengthen ties between North Africa and southern Europe. Spain's most ambitious initiative under its EU presidency was the Mediterranean Conference held November 28-29 in Barcelona, in which 12 North African and Middle Eastern countries met with the 15 EU nations to discuss aid, trade, and cultural and political relations. Gonzalez' principal political passion had always been foreign affairs, and the prime minister repeatedly cited Spain's incumbency in rather than economic decision

demands

for severe cuts in the

EU presidency as a key reason why the country should not schedule early elections during 1995. He was willing to hold the elections, he said, following an EU-U.S. summit in the

December

EU

summit

and the final which Spain hoped to

Colombo burn out of control after being set by Tamil guerrillas on October 20. The guerrillas struck tfie oil in Sri Lanka at the same time government troops were launching

Oil-storage tanks near

on

fire

facility

an attack

SRI

to take control of the Tamil stronghold of Jaffna.

LANKA

A

republic and member of the Commonwealth, Sri Lanka occupies an island in the Indian Ocean off the southeast coast of peninsular India. Area: 65,610 sq km (25,332 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 18,090,000. Legislative cap., Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte; administrative cap., Colombo. Monetary' unit: Sri Lanka rupee, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of SL Rs 52.10 to U.S. $1 (SL Rs 82.36 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Chandrika Kumaratunga; prime minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike.

to redefine transatlantic relations in

Madrid

that

month,

in

influence the future course of the union.

Opposition parties, however, saw Spain's prospects ently, particularly

its

differ-

economic ones. Though the economy

had been recovering strongly since late 1994, investors remained doubtful about Spain's ability to meet criteria for the EU's single currency by 1997, as government spending and inflation remained wide of its targets. Market pressure on the peseta forced a 7% devaluation on March 6. Unemployment barely declined from a European high of over 21%, and inflation seemed unlikely to come in within the government's 3.5%' target. By the time the Socialists came to sound out other parties about the upcoming budget in the summer, pressure on Gonzalez from the GAL case, as well as other scandals, was leading even his allies to conclude there was little to gain from supporting him. The Catalan nationalist grouping Convergence and Union, which had provided the minority Socialists with a working parliamentary majority since Gonzalez' party won 159 of 350 seats in the most recent national election in June 1993, withdrew its support from the government in July. Rather than lend their votes to a noconfidencc motion that would bring down the government, the Catalans decided in October to join with the Popular Party in defeating the government's proposed 1996 budget. It was the Socialists' first parliamentary defeat since taking ottice in 1982 and the first time a budget had been rejected under Spain's post-Franco democracy. In December Foreign Minister Javier Solana Madariaga was appointed NATO secretary-general; he was replaced by Carlos Westendorp, a career diplomat.

(GARY ABRAMSON)

The

12-year-old civil conflict between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), who demanded an independent state for the two million Tamils, continued to be a major preoccupation for Pres. Chandrika Kumaratunga in 1995. Upon her election in 1994, Kumaratunga had pledged that she would seek a peaceful solution to the civil war, which by late 1995 had already

claimed close to 50,000 lives. In January 1995 the government and the LTTE agreed to a truce, the first one in five years, opening the way for talks. Expectations were high as Canada, The Netherlands, and Norway sent monitors to supervise the cease-fire. The Colombo government sweetened the truce with a SL Rs 40 billion rehabilitation plan for the northern region, where the Tamils were concentrated. Public opinion, including that of Tamils living in LJTE-controlled areas, supported the talks.

The LTTE

unilaterally

ended the truce on April

19,

accusing the government of having failed to meet its demands, which included dismantling the Sri Lankan army

camp

Pooneryn (located southwest of the LTFE's Jaffna lifting of the government's trade embargo with the Tamil north. In a series of bold guerrilla attacks in April and May, the LTTE dealt severe military blows against the government armed forces. With the aim of regaining the initiative, the military at

stronghold) and a complete

its biggest offensive in eight years in July. OpLeap Forward ran into serious trouble after a week, however, when it was confronted with daring LTTE

launched

eration

counterattacks.

On

August 3 Kumaratunga unveiled a plan that would Lanka into a federation of eight regions, each with considerable powers. The central government would be left turn Sri

World with control over defense, foreign

economic

affairs,

and international

To be

accepted the plan would require the support of two-thirds of Parliament and a favourable vote in a national referendum. The Tamils in Parliament supported the plan, but the opposition United National relations.

Party was lukewarm to it. The LTTE responded by vowing to pursue a "protracted conflict." Undaunted, the government approved a $100 million weapons purchase, determined to deal the LTTE a military blow before resuming talks. In October the government launched another offensive, causing both sides hundreds of casualties and forcing up to 300,000 people to flee the fighting. As government forces

closed in on

Jaff'na,

the

LTTE

entire city of 140,000, using the

government

depopulated the Tamil refugees as a shield

forcefully

Government forces captured a deserted Jaffna on December 5, with the remaining inhabitants, numbering only 400, sheltering in the Catholic church. The LTTE rejected a government amnesty offer, emphasizing their determination to carry on with sporadic attacks throughout the month. On December 31, however, against

LTTE

the

artillery fire.

offered to resume peace talks, in the presence of

foreign mediators,

if

government troops would leave

Jaffna.

(CLAUDE RAKISITS)

SUDAN, THE

A

republic of North Africa,

Red est.):

The Sudan has

km

Sea. Area: 2,503.890 sq

a coastline on the (966,757 sq mi). Pop. (1995

28,098,000. Executive cap., Khartoum; legislative cap.,

Omdurman. Monetary a free rate of

Sd 75

the Sudanese

pound

units:

Sudanese dinar, with (Oct.

to U.S. $1

(Sd 118.57

=

6, 1995) £1 sterling), and

(the former sole unit of currency circulating

with the Sudanese dinar at a rate of 10 pounds = President of the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation, president, and prime minister in 1995, Lieut. in parallel

Sd

1).

Gen.

Omar Hassan Ahmad

al-Bashir.

At the beginning of January first

stock exchange

in

1995,

The Sudan opened

its

an attempt to attract much-needed

Affairs:

Sudan, The

473

investment. With the country having a public debt

in the region of $16 billion and few donors willing to continue

however, its economic and financial problems remained acute. Already formally suspended from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), The Sudan was on the verge of complete expulsion when it saved the day by resuming payment of arrears on its debts. The Sudan's minister of finance, Abdalla Hassan Ahmad, was concerned that the burden of finding $7 million a month to service the country's debt was unsustainable and sought emergency talks with the IMF in August. The IMF was unsympathetic, declaring that it would review the position in the light of their support,

future progress. In July, Canada's Arakis Energy Corp. introduced a ray

when it announced that it had arranged the financing of an oil project in the centre of the country. It was estimated that the project, from which the government of hope

would receive

50%

net exporter of

oil

of

all profits,

would make The Sudan

a

within two years.

The Sudan's reputation among Western enhanced by the

arrest

nations was not on May 16 of former prime minister

Sadiq al-Mahdi, overthrown in 1989 by the present military government. He was released toward the end of August. Meanwhile, in June relations with Egypt, never very good, were further strained when Egyptian Pres. Hosni Mubarak accused The Sudan of involvement in an attempt to assassinate him when he was arriving at an Organization of African Unity conference in Addis Ababa, Eth. Although some investigators claimed that the assassination squad was composed of Egyptian extremists, the charges of Sudanese complicity led to skirmishes along the disputed Egypt-Sudan border near the Red Sea. There was further bad news in July when the London-based human rights group African Rights charged the government with having undertaken a campaign of genocide against the Nuba people in southern Kordofan; in September riot police were called upon to quell unrest in

Khartoum.

(kenneth ingham)

SEBASTIAO SALGADO

People wait for their food allotment in return for dirt they transported for construction of a hospital at a refugee camp in the southern part Sudan. In 1995 the animist and Christian south continued to suffer at the hands of the country's oppressive Muslim military government.

of

The

World

474

Affairs:

Suriname

abandoned

SURINAME The

it

when

northern South America, on the km (63,251 sq mi), not including a 17,635-sq km area disputed with Guyana. Pop. (1995 est.): 430,000. Cap.: Paramaribo. Monetary unit: Suriname guilder, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 492 guilders to U.S. $1 (777.80 guilders = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Ronald Venetiaan; prime minister, Jules Adjodhia. republic of Suriname

is

in

Atlantic Ocean. Area: 163,820 sq

On Jan. 10, 1995, information was leaked that Desi Bouterse, former military leader and president of Suriname, had shared in the bribes from Dutch trade companies that in 1993 had cost several high-ranking officials their jobs. Despite these charges, Bouterse announced in February that he was preparing for a political comeback in the presidential elections of 1996.

For the first time after a long period of recession, signs of economic recovery were seen in June. The new president of

Andre Telting, received much of the credit By ending inflationary financing, he succeeded in reducing the inflation rate, which in the previous year had reached a record 470%. A meeting of Amerindian and Bush Negro leaders took

federations and officers should they

Swaziland.

SWEDEN A

constitutional monarchy of northern Europe, Sweden occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian Peninsula, with coastlines on the North and Baltic seas and the Gulf of Bothnia. Area: 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 8,826,000. Cap.: Stockholm. Monetary unit: Swedish krona, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 7.03 kronor to U.S. $1 (11.11 kroner = £1 sterling). King, Carl XVI Gustaf; prime minister in 1995, Ingvar Carlsson.

Sweden entered in a significant

in August; both groups lived in the interior of Suriname. Two items were on the agenda: the disturbance of the environment by a Canadian gold-mining company and by an Indonesian logging firm and the lack of a welfare policy for the two generally impoverished groups. During the meeting a new organization, the Higher Authority in the Rural territories (HGB), was formed. The HGB demanded that no more concessions for gold mining and logging be

in

the interior region.

On November

25, Suriname celebrated 20 years of independence from The Netherlands. (klaas j. hoeksema)

SWAZILAND Swaziland is a landlocked monarchy of southern Africa and a member of the Commonwealth. Area: 17,364 sq km (6,704 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 913,000. Administrative cap., Mbabane; royal

and

legislative cap.,

Lobamba. Monetary

unit: lilangeni

emalangeni), at par with the South African rand, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 3.66 emalangeni to U.S. $1 (5.79 emalangeni = f I sterling). King, Mswati III; prime minister in 1995, Prince Jameson Mbilini Dlamini. (plural:

On Feb. 6, 1995, a fire swept through the national House of Assembly; the Swaziland Youth Congress claimed responsibility for the incident, which followed other fires at the homes of the deputy prime minister and the vice-chancellor of the University of Swaziland. A magistrate's court and government vehicles had also been targets of arson. These attacks coincided with hunger strikes by students protesting the election procedures for the students' council. On March

2 the finance minister, Isaac Shabangu (later

dismissed by King Mswati III), presented his budget for 1995-96. This assumed revenues and grants totaling about 1,430,000,000 emalangeni, as opposed to predicted expen-

excluding redemption of loans, of emalangeni. diture,

1,515,000,000

A two-day general strike was called in March by the Swaziland Federation of Trade Unions (SFTU) to force the government to act upon a list of 27 demands, including the reemployment of dismissed workers. As a result, Mbabane and other towns were shut down on March 13-14. At Manzini approximately 40,000 people attended a rally to support the strike action. Industrial unrest continued, and the SFTU called for another strike on July 17 but then

meetings that lead

work stoppages. Unions were also obliged to consult the government before applying for membership in international bodies, a measure that implied that the SFTU was under foreign influence. (guy Arnold) This article updates the Macropcedia article Southern Africa:

the central bank,

place

call

its power on trade union

to

for this.

granted

the government strengthened

against the unions by establishing penalties

the

European Union (EU) on

break with

stance in foreign

affairs.

its It

Jan.

traditionally aloof

joined the

EU

1,

1995,

and neutral

alongside

its

Nordic neighbour Finland as well as Austria, expanding the union from 12 to 15 members. Although a net contributor to EU budgets, Sweden hoped to enhance the country's influence in Europe and increase inward investment. One early Swedish initiative was a move to get employment targets included in EU economic strategy at the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference on the union's future. Relations with France went sour, however, after Sweden vociferously opposed the French decision to carry out nuclear tests in the South Pacific. For many Swedes the first months in the EU were a disappointment. They did not see any early visible benefits from membership, such as lower food prices or big regional aid programs. A backlash made itself felt in elections for the country's 22 seats in the European Parliament in September. The anti-EU left and environment parties gained 30.1% of the vote almost triple their support in the country's 1994 general election. By contrast, the three parties that unequivocally supported the EU polled only 32%, and the ruling Social Democrats, whose party was split on the issue, gained just 28.1% in its worst election result since 1911. At just 41.3% of the electorate, the turnout was the lowest ever recorded in a Swedish election. It was a difticult year for the Social Democrats, who had formed a minority government after winning elections in

—

September 1994. In the early months of the year, the party announced a series of spending cuts and tax increases to restore the health of the state's deficit-ridden finances.

number of benefits,

the measures, including a cut

in

A

unemployment

were deeply unpopular with the rank and

file

as

well as with the party's traditional allies in the strong trade

union movement. Business leaders objected to the higher taxes. In April the Social Democrats began to cooperate with the Centre Party to gain a parliamentary majority. This was an informal pact rather than a coalition. In August Ingvar Carlsson said he would step down as leader of the Social Democrats and prime minister in March 1996. The party leadership had hoped for a smooth succession, with the mantle of power passing to Mona Sahlin, Carlsson's 38-year-old deputy. Sahlin's candidacy ran into serious trouble in October, however, when she admitted using a government credit card for private purposes.

The

public prosecutor launched a preliminary inquiry into the

matter to sec

if

breach of trust or fraud had occurred.

The name of another possible candidate for prime minister. Finance Minister Goran Pcrsson, emerged in December.

World

There was better news on the economy as the recovery began in 1994 continued into 1995. Gross domestic

that

product (GDP) rose more than 3% during the year, mainly because of a strong performance by the country's big exporters. Inflation peaked above 3% at midyear but then began to ease. The country also regained the confidence of international

At the

financial markets.

sharply and

bond

start

of the year, the krona sank

yields rose as

Sweden became caught up

the turbulence that followed the crisis over the Mexican peso. From April onward, however, market analysts became convinced that the country was doing enough to tackle its in

80%

GDP, and cut its budget and bond yields dropped sharply. In October Carlsson said economic growth was stronger than expected and the country would stabilize its debt as a proportion of GDP in 1995, a year ahead of an earlier forecast. Unemployment remained a serious blight; around 12% of the workforce was affected, including those debt, which climbed above deficit.

The krona gained

in training

of

strength,

limelight in

June when he became the EU's peace medi-

the world track and field championships in Goteborg, the biggest global sporting event of the year.

(CHRISTOPHER BROWN-HUMES)

SWITZERLAND landlocked federal state in west central Europe, Switzerland consists of a confederation of 26 cantons (6 of which are demicantons). Area: 41,285 sq km (15,940 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 7,039,000. Administrative cap., Bern; judicial cap., Lausanne. unit: Swiss franc, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of

1.15 to U.S. $1

(Sw F

1.82

=

disadvantaged by the soaring Swiss franc in its function as a safe-haven currency. With the high franc hitting tourism, hoteliers reported their worst year in decades; some even

began to quote firm prices advance bookings.

—

—

—

a half years, called for political renewal within the

French francs or dollars for

and periodic renegotiation of wage Scope for concessions was extremely narrow, the parties were increasingly intractable, and some employees accepted reduced pay to keep their jobs. The construction industry, emerging from the doldrums, heard its main trade union observe, "We have the funds to afford it," and assert that 1996 could see "a real strike" as compared with the occasional tentative examples rate no-strike clauses levels,

came under

strain as well.

—

After calling repeatedly for brakes on excessive government spending induced by the "euphoric years" of boom. Finance Minister Otto Stich, in office for more then a decade, resigned. He handed over his portfolio on Novem-

Kaspar Villiger. As defense minister since 1989, had adroitly presided over introducing the "Army 95" plan, which trimmed the ranks of the militia-type citizen army from 600,000 to 400,000 men and restricted liability for service to ages 20-42. The family and friends of Paul Griininger, police chief at St. Gallen who was dismissed from his post in 1940, finally succeeded in having the orig1

to

inal verdict

81,

quashed. Griininger,

had been pronounced

order

in

who

died

in

guilty of disobeying a

1972

at

age

government

1938 not to allow more Jewish refugees to enter

Switzerland. His disobedience saved the lives of

some 3,000

people who would otherwise have been sent to Nazi extermination camps. (ALAN MCGREGOR)

SYRIA

A

is on the Mediterranean (71,498 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 14,313,000. Cap.: Damascus. Monetary unit: Syrian pound, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a par value (official rate) of LS 11.22 to U.S. $1 (LS 17.74 = £1 sterling) and a "primary trade" rate of LS 41.95 to U.S. $1 (LS 66.32 = £1 steding). President in 1995, Gen. Hafez al-Assad; prime minister, Mahmoud Zuabi.

republic of southwestern Asia, Syria

Sea. Area: 185,180 sq

km

new

helping the coalition government formulate policies, including association with the EU. in

Late in the year a Max Schmidheiny Foundation "White Paper" said bluntly that revitalizing the Swiss economy necessitated more work for less money in facing up to Asian competition in export markets. The analysis opposed the concept of increased productivity ensuring shorter working hours and more leisure, as well as the idea of job sharing to reduce unemployment. In calling for privatization of postal, telecommunications, and railway services, it also supported the principle of free movement of persons across frontiers

EU.

in

Villiger

Although voter turnout was only 42%, the outcome of the general elections held once every four years on Oct. 22, 1995, showed a wind of change, or at very least a breeze, in Switzerland. Chief beneficiaries were the Social Democrats, who gained a dozen additional parliamentary seats, putting them on top with 54. On the right the Swiss People's Party took four more seats, giving it 29. If poles apart on major issues, such as social services and unemployment, financial policies, and possible membership in the European Union (EU), the two parties in the coalition government had stated their aims more clearly, and with more verve, than the two other coalition parties, the Radicals (45 seats, up one) and the Christian Democrats (34, down 2). Most of the eight minority parties found themselves deprived of one or more seats, the hardest hit being the Green Party, which lost five seats, leaving it with nine. A group of 31 parliamentarians Socialists, Radicals, Christian Democrats, and Greens which had been meeting discreetly for two and

within the

—

ber

£1 steding). President in

1995, Kaspar Villiger.

parliament

—

of recent years.

A

—

under half the European 4%. It was still a nagging worry, however, especially in French-speaking Swiss Romande, where it was around 5.5%, more than double the level in German-speaking Switzerland. With many enterprises restructuring in their drive for improved competitiveness, sizable layoff's were commonplace. Forecasts for 1996 held little prospect of a brisk economic upturn. According to an official study, the total of 150,000 unemployed compared with 180,000 at the trough of the recent depression and a mere 17,500 in 1989 could be reduced to a hard-core 60,000 by the year 2000 if the gross national product growth rate could be kept at no less than 2.25%. This was regarded as a realistic projection, provided exports were not further rate, well

Switzerland's collective labour contracts, which incorpo-

ator in former Yugoslavia. In August the country staged

Monetary

475

average, decreased over the year to about

schemes.

Carl Bildt, former prime minister and leader of the Moderate (conservative) Party, stepped into the international

Sw F

The unemployment

Affairs: Syria

Despite persistent speculation that Syria and Israel were on the verge of concluding an agreement regarding the future

of the Golan Heights, Syria remained adamant throughout

1995 that Israel had to promise to return not only

all of the occupied in June 1967 but also several disputed enclaves around Lake Tiberias before it would normalize relations with the Jewish state. At the beginning of April, Syrian officials proposed that demilitarized zones of equal size be established on both sides of the pre-1967 border. An Israeli spokesperson dismissed the proposal on the grounds that the western zone would stretch "halfway to Haifa." When the United States in mid-May vetoed a United Na-

territory

it

476

World

Affairs:

Taiwan

tions Security Council resolution

condemning

Israel for con-

fiscating Palestinian lands outside Jerusalem, Syrian

Foreign

Minister Farouk ash-Shara told reporters that the U.S. had

abandoned

its

role as an honest broker

and thus could not

TAIWAN Taiwan, which consists of the island of Taiwan and surrounding islands off the coast of China, is the seat of the Republic of China (Nationalist China). Area: 36,179 sq km (13,969 sq mi), including the island of Taiwan and its 86 outlying islands, 22 in the Taiwan group and 64 in the Pescadores group. Pop. (1995 est.): 21,268,000. (Area and population figures include the Quemoy and Matsu groups, which are administered as an occupied part

be expected to police any agreement concerning the Golan. Syria and Israel came closest to compromise at the end of June, when the Syrian chief of staff, Lieut. Gen. Hikmat ashShihabi, met his Israeli counterpart in Washington, D.C., to discuss mutually acceptable security arrangements along the Golan front. The generals provisionally agreed that Israel would dismantle its network of forward listening posts and depend instead upon surveillance aircraft to provide the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) with tactical intelligence. As soon as the two chiefs of staflf returned home, however, Israel announced that it planned to maintain a military presence inside the Golan indefinitely. The Israeli government's outright rejection of the bargain that had been hammered out by its own senior military commander convinced Syria that there was little to be gained from continuing negotiations. As a result, Syrian officials adopted a much less flexible posture toward both Israeli representatives and U.S.

During Taiwan's past decade of democratic development, its once frigid relationship with the People's Republic of China improved significantly even though tension persisted. By 1995 thousands of businesses on Taiwan had invested an estimated $22 billion in mainland enterprises, making Taiwan the second largest investor, after Hong Kong. In 1995 China also cast a long shadow on the future of Taiwan itself. Enraged by Lee Teng-hui's unofficial June

mediators.

visit

Relations between Syria and Israel deteriorated further

when

mid-October Hezbollah guerrillas ambushed an Israeli armoured column in southern Lebanon, killing six Israeli soldiers, and then raided a fortified outpost garrisoned by the Israeli-sponsored South Lebanon Army. Israel's foreign minister, Shimon Peres, quickly blamed Syrian forces in

for allowing such operations to take place. Peres told a

radio audience on October 15 that Syria had an obligation to prevent the conflict in Lebanon from escalating. These

sentiments were echoed by Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (see Obituaries), while other Israeli officials warned that the

IDF would

retaliate against

both Hezbollah and

supporters at times and places of their

own

its

choosing. For

its part, Syria denied that forces under Syrian control had anything to do with the attacks and suggested that festering resentment over the prolongation of Israel's "aggressive

of Fujian [Fukien] province.) Cap.: Taipei. Monetary unit: New Taiwan dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of NT$26.90 to U.S. $1 (NT$42.52 = £1 steding). President in 1995, Lee Tenghui; president of the Executive Yuan (premier). Lien Chan.

to the U.S. to attend an alumni reunion at Cornell

denounced Washington for and threatened military action against

University, Ithaca, N.Y., Beijing

permitting the

Taiwan.

It

visit

charged that Lee, the president of the Republic

of China on Taiwan, was covertly guiding the island toward

independence. In July and August, attempting to frighten Lee's supporters, China conducted a series of long-rangemissile tests in waters 140 km (90 mi) north of Taiwan and suspended the cross-strait talks. This sabre rattling caused Taiwan's stock market to plunge, but Lee's political stock was hardly affected. Taiwan raised its defense budget by 20% to acquire more advanced defensive aircraft and missiles and paraded its own military might in October. Public attention, in any case, had already shifted to the

December

As

elections for the Legislative Yuan.

in

past

the dominant issues were domestic and local, in-

years,

cluding alleged government

mismanagement of state-funded

Lebanon led inhabitants of southern villages to take up arms against the IDF and its Lebanese clients. Following the assassination of Rabin in November, Syrian

development projects, official corruption, and government favouritism toward big business. The elections marked a

Pres.

Hafez al-Assad continued the hard-line stance toward Israel. Still, Syria was feeling somewhat isolated among the Arab states, and there was a perception that now was the time for talks with the Israelis. Assad agreed to resume the dialogue, and Syrian officials began a week of preparatory meetings with Israel in the U.S. on December 31. Meanwhile, the Syrian leadership moved to consolidate ties to Egypt and the Arab Gulf states. In April Syria joined Egypt in arguing that the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty should not be renewed until Israel agreed to sign the pact. When Hussein Kamil al-Majid, a high-ranking Iraqi official, defected to Jordan at the beginning of August, Assad flew to Cairo to confer personally with Egyptian Pres. Hosni Mubarak. Assad told reporters following the meeting that the defector was not "as big as the media have made him out to be," and there was virtually no chance that the Iraqi regime would collapse anytime soon. The two presidents

(KMT), marginal

took the occasion to reiterate their common opposition to outside interference in the domestic politics of Iraq.

which was competing for the first time in The KMT's popular vote slipped from 53% to 46%; the DPP's inched upward from 31% to 33%, and the New Party, which had broken off from the KMT in 1993, received almost 13%. This translated into 85 KMT seats in the new Legislative Yuan, a decline of 1 1 from 1992, 54 DPP seats (-i-4), and 21 New Party seats ( + 7). In August Lee announced his decision to run for reelection in March 1996, when Taiwan voters would directly elect a president for the first time. Lee chose Premier Lien Chan as his vice presidential running mate. Law professor Peng Ming-min, a veteran of the democracy movement, was selected by the DPP to carry its banner; his running mate would be Frank Hsieh. By December the presidential race had generated unexpected excitement. The team of Lin Yang-kang and former premier Hau Pei-tsun both KMT vice-chairmen— announced that they would enter the pres-

policy" toward

Inside

Syria

itself,

officials

promulgated measures de-

signed to encourage the expansion of private enterprise.

Such key industries

as electricity generation,

cotton gin-

cement production, and pharmaceuticals manufacturing were opened to private investors. The government at the beginning of April rescinded its longstanding ban on the possession and use of credit cards issued by overseas banks. (kred h. lawson) ning, sugar refining,

further decline

the fortunes of the ruling

in

Kuomintang

gains by the chief opposition Democratic

Progressive Party (DPP), and a surprising surge of support for the

New

Legislative

Party,

Yuan

elections.

—

idential race as independents, a

KMT

move

that

prompted the

memberships. The New Party, for its part, announced that it would support the Lin-Hau ticket. Others who declared their intention to run as independents included Chen Li-an, a former president of the Control Yuan, who teamed up with Wang Ching-feng. Taiwan's economy in 1995 grew 6.4%, a shade better than the previous year. In the first three quarters, exports and to revoke their party

World

A Taiwanese

soldier stands

Chinese shelled the CHRIS

guard over an array

island, 2.3

km

of

Affairs: Tajikistan

loudspeakers that were once used to broadcast to the mainland from Quemoy Island. and despite the fact that it was later opened to tourists, it remained heavily fortified.

In

477

1958 the

(1.4 mi) offshore,

STOWERS— PANOS PICTURES

imports surged by 22.8% and 27.5% respectively. Taiwan enjoyed a positive trade balance of $6.9 billion through November. The nation's trade and investment increasingly turned toward Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Taiwan's per capita gross national product exceeded $12,000 per annum, un-

employment was virtually nonexistent, and consumer prices were stable, with inflation a low 2.5%. Taiwan accelerated its efforts to rejoin the United Nabut China's stubborn opposition again stopped this The long-term problem of how to reconcile Taiwan's de facto independence with China's determination to reestablish control over the island was tions,

effort well short of success.

thrown into sharper relief in 1995, but no viable solution to this problem presented itself. (steven i. levine)

TAJIKISTAN

A

landlocked republic of Central Asia, Tajikistan borders Kyrgyzstan on the north, Uzbekistan on the north and west, on the south, and China on the east. Area: 143,100 sq km (55,300 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 5,832,000. Cap.: Dushanbe. Monetary unit: Tajik ruble (new currency introduced May 10, 1995, to replace the at par value [interim] Tajik ruble and Russian ruble at a rate of 1 Tajik ruble to 100 Russian rubles; on May 15 the Tajik ruble became sole legal tender), with (Oct. 4, 1995) a free rate of 44.90 Tajik rubles to U.S. $1 (71.35 Tajik rubles = £1 sterling). Chief of state in 1995 (president of the National Assembly), Imomali Rakhmonov; prime minister, Jamshed Karimov. AJFghanistan

Sporadic fighting continued in Tajikistan throughout 1995 despite efforts by the United Nations and individual states alike to obtain a settlement of the three-year-old civil war.

Increasingly, clashes

between government troops and the

forces of the Islamic opposition occurred in the interior of

the country rather than on the border between Tajikistan

and Afghanistan, where the opposition had its headquarters. On February 26 the first post-Soviet parliamentary elections were held in Tajikistan. Voter turnout was high, even in regions that had been opposition strongholds. The Islamic opposition in exile rejected the election results on the grounds that not all parties could take part and that the opposition had been denied freedom of the press. Among the first actions of the new parliament was a vote for a

new

currency, the Tajik ruble, to replace the Russian ruble.

Tajikistan

had hoped for a monetary union with Russia, but officials were reluctant to link their coun-

Russian financial

economy so closely with that of war-ravaged Tajikistan. Despite the extension of a fragile cease-fire arranged in late 1994 between government and opposition troops, the level of fighting on the Tajik-Afghan border increased sharply in April, shortly before UN-sponsored talks began try's

in

Moscow between

Tajik government and opposition repre-

round of peace negotiawere nearly derailed at the start by Russian Foreign Minister Audrey Kozyrev, who warned the opposition that Russia would not tolerate further attacks on its peacekeeping troops in Tajikistan. The opposition, deeply offended, condemned his remarks as interference in sentatives to set a date for a fourth tions.

The Moscow

talks

internal Tajik affairs.

At the Moscow talks a date was set in May for the fourth round of negotiations, which were preceded by a meeting between Tajik Pres. Imomali Rakhmonov and Islamic opposition chief Said Abdullo Nuri in Kabul, Afghanistan, the first face-to-face meeting of the leaders of the two sides

World

478

Affairs:

Tanzania

For Tanzania, 1995 opened on a gloomy economic note. After the nation's chief donor countries had decided in November 1994 to suspend aid because of serious fraud over the noncollection of customs duties, the governor of

bank informed the National Assembly in Janmade more severe by heavy expenditure and borrowing. He stated that unless government borrowing from commercial banks was curtailed, it would gravely damage the economic recovery program. In June, however. Finance Minister Jakaya Kikwete introduced a budget that won praise from the International Monetary Fund. Particular commendation was accorded to proposals for narrowing the budget deficit and for cutting company the central

uary that inflation was being

taxes.

On March

thousands of Rwandan refugees

with

31,

threatening to pour into the country and join those in

ready overcrowded camps, northwestern border.

For most first

politicians the

it

became necessary

al-

to close the

main focus of attention was the

multiparty election since independence for

members of

the National Assembly and for president. This took place in

October. Former president Julius Nyerere threw the weight of his reputation behind the ruling Revolutionary Party of

Tanzania (CCM), arguing that the other contenders needed

more

political experience.

Elections in Zanzibar and 22, a

week before those on

Civic United Front

omy is

led

away

blindfolded after fiaving

been caugfit

trying to

cross the Afghiani-Tajik border illegally. Russian troops continued to fielp patrol Tajikistan's border witfi Afghanistan, where Islamic rebels opposed to the Tajik government maintained their headquarters. MOflKOVIN— WOSTOK PHESS/MIR

the Tajik conflict. Despite this encouraging prologue,

in

the negotiations, held little

Almaty, Kazakhstan, resulted

in

in

progress on the constitutional issues dividing the two

Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, two of the states that Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) peacekeeping contingent in Tajikistan, let it be known that they were considering withdrawing their forces sides.

contributed troops to the

no solution to the conflict was found. A fifth round of peace negotiations between the government and opposition was scheduled to begin on September 18, but it was postponed indefinitely when the two sides were unable to agree on a venue for the talks. In August if

Islamic opposition chief Nuri agreed to extend the ceaseuntil mid-November, but sporadic fighting continued between opposition troops and Russian peacekeepers on fire

the Tajik-Afghan border, with the

commander

troops accusing the opposition of "terrorist"

of the CIS

activities.

(BESS TTiis article

updates the Macropa'dia

article

brown)

Central Asia:

held on October

(CCW) campaigned

The opposition

for greater auton-

were known, brought charges of vote rigging and called for a recount. The contest was expected to be close and proved to be so. In the legislative elections the CCM won 25 seats against 23 for the CCW, while the CCM candidate for the presidency, the incumbent, Salmin Amour, triumphed by less than 0.5% of the votes cast. The opposition National Convention for Construction and Reform-Mageuzi party threatened briefly to boycott the mainland elections unless a recount took place in Zanzibar, but it was maladministration rather than malpractice that brought chaos on October 29. Polling stations did not open at the appointed time; there were delays in supplying voting papers; and would-be voters were left waiting in the rain. The chairman of the national electoral commission, Lewis Makame, concluded that the voting in Dar es Salaam had to be declared null and void and that the elections should be repeated during the following week. To avoid a similar situation in the rest of the country, he decided to extend the voting period for an additional two days. The CCM was declared victorious, Benjamin Mkapa was elected president, and Frederick Sumaye became prime minister. (KtiNNETH INGHAM) This article updates the Macropa'dia article Eastern Africa: the

A man

Pemba were

the mainland.

for the islands, but even before the results

CCW

Tanzania.

Tajikistan.

THAILAND

TANZANIA

Thailand

is a constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia, on the the Gulf of Thailand. Area: 513.115 sq km (198,115 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 58,791.000. Cap.: Bangkok. Monetary unit: baht, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 25.12 baht to U.S. $1 (.39,70 baht = £1 sterling). King, Bhumihol Adulyadcj; prime ministers in 1995, Chuan Leckpai and, from

Andaman Sea and republic of Tanzania, a member of the Commonwealth, consists of Tanganyika, on the east coast of Africa, and Zanzibar, just off the coast in the Indian Ocean, which includes

The

Zanzibar Island, Pemba Island, and small sq

km

islets.

Area: 942,799

(.164,017 sq mi). Pop. (199.S est.): 28,072,()()(). Cap.:

government in process of Ijeing transferred from Dar es Salaam: legislature meets in Dodoma, the new capital. !Vlonctar>' unit: Tanzania shilling, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 600 shillings to U.S. $1 (948.54 shillings

=

£1 sterling). Presidents in 1995,

Hassan Mwinyi and, from November 2.'^, Benjamin William Mkapa; prime ministers, Cleopa Msuya and, from November 28, Frederick Tulway Sumayc.

Ali

July 13,

Banharn Silpa-archa.

During the

first

Party, leading

parliamentary session of 1995, the Democrat

component

embroiled

in

the ruling five-party coalition,

found

itself

of

members, of land reserved

its

parliamentarians,

in

many

scandal over the granting, to

of

whom

some

Opposition were also accused of illicit for the poor.

World dealings, focused

on the

the legislative process.

issue to the point of paralyzing

The Righteous Force

Party's exit

from the government in May deprived the coalition of its majority. Facing a certain vote of no confidence, Prime Minister

Chuan Leekpai, himself untainted by

called a general election for July

2.

the scandals,

Twelve parties contested

391 multiple-member constituencies. When the opposition Thai Nation Party gained 25% of the seats, 3% more than leader, Banharn Silpa-archa, claimed the form a government. His seven-party, 233member coalition included Chart Thai, New Aspiration, Righteous Force, and smaller parties. Within hours of victory, Banharn was engulfed in crisis. The U.S. State Department warned that relations with Washington would deteriorate if two leading Chart Thai members, whom the U.S. had accused of links to the drug trade, were included in the Cabinet. As a result, deputy leader Vatana Asavahame, who had expected to be named to the powerful post of interior minister, and Narong Wongwan, whose appointment as prime minister had been blocked for similar reasons in 1992, were left out of the Cabinet presented to King Bhumibol Adulyadej. In October former foreign minister Thanat Khoman, appointed to inquire into the issue, called the U.S. accusations "unwarranted and dishonourable." The exclusion of the two men accentuated bitter factional rivalries and prevented Banharn, a rural magnate famed for his mastery of political patronage, from

the Democrats,

its

right to try to

exercising firm control.

The

and public opinion polls expressed strong disapproval of the Cabinet, which contained ministers investigated for corruption after the 1991 army coup. In an ominous development that upset the stock market, an army radio program in August declared that the nation looked forward to the day when it had a brave leader. Banharn retorted that coups were "obsolete." In an address on August 17, even Thailand's revered king appeared to be critical when he warned that politicians should concentrate on the needs of the country. Chaovalit Yongchaiyuth, deputy prime minister, defense minister, and a former army commander, was a major figure on the political scene. His New Aspiration Party, wrenched by dissension before the election, emerged as a cohesive force. Chaovalit exerted unprecedented sway over military appointments in press

Affairs:

Togo

479

the traditionally self-regulating army. In the always sensitive

annual promotions

he replaced military leaders with

list,

men close to himself. Gen. Pramon Phalasin became army commander and assured the nation that he would keep politics. Respected statesman and politician Kukrit Pramoj died on October 9. {See Obituaries.) By October months of flooding in 66 of Thailand's 76 provinces had claimed more than 200 lives, damaged the rice crop, and caused weeks of traffic disruption in Bangkok. Banharn's economic program, while retaining many budgetary and monetary policies of the Chuan government,

out of

called for very large expenditure signs

of a

maintained

slowdown its

vigour.

the

in

As

last

on

rural roads.

quarter,

the

Despite

economy

a result of continued overseas

November stood at an impressive $36 billion, notwithstanding a current account deficit that was running at $8.5 billion. Inflation was edging up to 6.5%, but central bank officials considered this level manageable. Expected gross national product growth of 8.3% looked set to put the country once again among the best performers in the world. In September Chaovalit strengthened neighbourly ties with visits to both Myanmar (Burma) and Cambodia. investor confidence, foreign reserves in

(ROBERT WOODROW) Southeast Asia:

This article updates the Maaopa'dia article Thailand.

TOGO A

republic of West Africa, Togo is situated on the Bight of Benin. Area: 56,785 sq km (21,925 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 4,138,000. Cap.: Lome. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a par value of CFAF 100 to the French franc and a free rate of CFAF 501.49 to U.S. $1 (CFAF 792.78 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Gen. Gnassingbe Eyadema; prime minister, Edem Kodjo.

In

1994

Yao Agboyibo,

Committee

for

leader of the opposition Action

Renewal (CAR), had announced a boycott

of the legislature to protest voting irregularities in the February elections of that year. As a result, Togo's government remained virtually paralyzed for the first eight months of 1995. On April 26, the eve of Togo's independence day

Eyadema's call for reconcilwas ignored. The protracted boycott finally ended in late August, after the CAR received assurances from Eyadema and Prime Minister Edem Kodjo that an independent electoral commission would be established for all

celebrations, Pres. Gnassingbe iation

FUMINORI

SATO— IMPACT VISUALS

A Myanmar (Burmese) set

up

After

in

rebel

Thailand by the

All

weaves a basket in a temporary camp Burma Students' Democratic Front.

Myanmar government forces captured their jungle stronghold of in January, many rebels fled to the neighbouring country.

Manerplaw

future elections.

Meeting with representatives of Amnesty International in March, Kodjo expressed regret over violations of human rights that had occurred during the turbulent years (199193) of Togo's transition to democracy. Full diplomatic relations with Ghana were restored in July, and Togo's first ambassador since 1982 was appointed. Citing improved political conditions, the European Union, after a three-year suspension, renewed aid to Togo in March. In July severe flooding in Lome left an estimated 150,000 people homeless. Three weeks of heavy rains during September brought massive destruction to entire villages, roads, and bridges, especially in the northern and central regions. At least 21,000 more people lost their homes. Despite these disasters, the economy showed overall improvement during the year. Agricultural production grew, Lome's port traffic revived, government revenues rose by 96%, and civil service salaries were paid regularly.

(nancy ELLEN LAWLER) Western Africa:

This article updates the Macropcedia article Togo.

480

World

Affairs:

Tonga the

TONGA A

UNC

struction,

and member of the Commonwealth, islands split into three main groups Fiji. Area: 750 sq km (290 sq mi). 100,000. Cap.: Nuku'alofa. Monetai^ unit:

constitutional monarciiy

Tonga comprises about 170 in the Pacific Ocean east of

Pop. (1995 est.): pa'anga, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 1.31 pa'anga (T$) to U.S. $1 (2.08 pa'anga = £1 sterling). King, Taufa'ahau Tupou IV; prime minister in 1995, Baron Vaea.

There was continuing

form a government. Panday, the first Trinidadian of Indian descent to hold the office, was sworn in as prime minister on November 9. (david renwick) This article updates the Macropcedia article The West Indies: Trinidad and Tobago.

TUNISIA

A political

controversy

in

teamed up with the National Alliance for Reconwhich had held on to the two Tobago seats, to

1995 over

commoner challenges to the power of King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV and his nominees in Tongan politics. The king's

republic of North Africa, Tunisia

lies

on the Mediterranean

km (63,378 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 8,896,000. Cap.: Tunis. Monetary unit: Tunisian dinar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 0.95 dinar to U.S. $1 (1.49 dinars = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Gen. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali; prime minister, Hamed Karoui. Sea. Area: 164,150 sq

statement that he thought Western-style democracy or some form of power sharing between the monarch and the people was inevitable was subsequently modified. In May Cecil Cocker, the minister of finance, was forced to resign over

Tunisia's foreign relations during 1995 were

alleged sexual harassment incidents at an Asian Develop-

the negotiations for and the implications of the

ment Bank conference in Auckland, N.Z. The cultivation of squash for export remained focus of economic interest, with the government

ciation

a major setting a

quota of 17,000 tons for export to Japan, Tonga's major market for squash. Discontented growers who had planted for a U.S. order that subsequently collapsed unsuccessfully petitioned the king for an increase of 3,000 tons. In 1994 tourism grew by 11.3%, with most of the growth coming from Tonga's traditional tourist markets Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. Tonga rejected an application from Japanese interests for the revival of whaling in Tongan waters and, with other members of the South Pacific Forum, condemned the resumption of French nuclear testing. (BARRIE MACDONALD)

—

This article updates the Macropcedia article Pacific Islands: Tonga.

republic and

Tobago

member

consists of

to create a multilateral industrial

area in the Mediterranean basin.

and

financial free-trade

The agreement, which was

signed on July 17, provided for a 12-year transition period before Tunisia would be fully integrated into the European

Economic Area

in

regard to industrial goods and for future

negotiations to bring agricultural products and services into the agreement.

Although Tunisian potential of the

officials

were enthusiastic about the

new agreement

to transform the Tunisian

economy, there were acute anxieties over the medium-term consequences.

An EU

report suggested that without sub-

stantial transitional help, as

nies either

would be forced

many

compawould face

as 4,000 Tunisian

into bankruptcy or

The Tunisian government was seeking 2.2 over the next five years to cover such costs and was looking toward Europe for up to 80% of these

severe difficulties.

funds.

of the Commonwealth, Trinidad and

two islands

new AssoAgreement signed with the European Union (EU), the first of a new generation of such agreements designed

billion dinars

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

A

dominated by

in the

On

Caribbean Sea off the coast

the domestic front, the Tunisian government contin-

and opposition move-

of Venezuela. Area: 5,128 sq km (1,980 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 1,265,000. Cap.: Port of Spain. Monetary unit: Trinidad and Tobago dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of TT$5.70 to U.S. $1 (TT$9.02 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Noor Mohammed Hassanali; prime ministers, Patrick Manning and, from November 9, Basdeo Panday.

ued

The

Tunisian Islamic Front, during arrests of Algerian Islamist supporters in Paris in June. The movement, allegedly operating from Lx)ndon, was accused of collusion with the Armed Islamic Group (GIA), Algeria's feared Islamist terrorist movement; the GIA attacked Tunisian border patrols

illicit-drug-related criminal activity that bedeviled Trinidad and Tobago for most of 1995 took a particularly

vicious turn in June

when unknown gunmen

assassinated

Selwyn Richardson, who had established a reputation as an anticorruption fighter while serving as attorney general from 1981 to 1991. In July and August the country came close to a constitutional crisis when the speaker of the House of Represen-

Occah Seapaul, refused Prime Minister Patrick Manning

tatives,

testimony

in a

to resign at the request of after she gave questionable

court matter. Instead, she chose a confronta-

approach and began suspending government memendangering its parliamentary majority. Manning invoked a state of emergency and put the speaker under house arrest; the government then introduced a bill in the legislature providing for the removal of a speaker. With the economic situation improving. Manning decided to call a general election in early November, one year ahead of time. His gamble did not pay ofl, however. His

to feel threatened by dissident

ments. Although the influence of the exiled Nahda movement was diminishing, the authorities continued to perceive

and complained repeatedly to the government over the status of the movement's leader, Rachid Ghannouchi, as a political refugee in London. The French government uncovered a new clandestine group, the it

to be a real threat

British

in February, killing at least six Tunisian soldiers, in a move designed to warn Tunisia against supporting the Algerian

government

in its

campaign against the

The Tunisian government's demonstrated again

Mouada,

in

Islamists.

intolerance of opposition was

October with the

arrest of

the leader of the Democratic Socialist

Mohamed

Movement,

tional

Tunisia's most respected opposition party, on the grounds

bers, thus

that he

People's National

Movement

retained only

17 of the

21

had won in the previous election, and the United National Congress (UNC), led by Basdeo Panday, also won 17. Manning said that he would not enter a coalition, and

seats

it

had been

in

contact with a foreign power (Libya)

because he had complained about repression in an open letter to Pres. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali. His objections arose from the conduct of the municipal elections in May. in which his party failed to obtain control of municipalities where it had expected to do well and saw, as a result, government manipulation of the vote. In reality, the Ben Ali regime had little to fear from the opposition, as its (george joffe) economic record continued to be good. but

in reality

This article updates the Macropcedia article Innisia.

North Africa:

World

TURKEY A

republic of Asia Minor and southeastern Europe, Turkey has on the Aegean, Black, and Mediterranean seas. Area: 779,452 sq km (300,948 sq mi), including 23,764 sq km in Eucoastlines

rope. Pop. (1995 est.): 62,526,000. Cap.: Ankara. Monetary unit: Turkish lira, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 50,093 liras to

U.S. $1 (79,189

liras

=

£1 sterling). President in 1995, Suleyman

Demirel; prime minister, Tansu

Prime Minister Tansu

cal crises in 1995, but in

(due originally

in

left

elections

the pro-Islamic Welfare

Party as the single largest bloc, with 158 of the 550 seats.

The

leader of the Welfare Party, Necmettin Erbakan, had based the election campaign on opposition to secularism in Turkish political life. He had decried "the yoke of the West" and promised to create Islamic counterparts to NATO and the European Union. Ciller remained at the head of a caretaker government as her centre-right True Path Party

(DYP)

negotiated with

its

archrival centre-right

Motherland

Party to prevent the Islamists from taking power. The ruling coalition of Ciller's DYP and the centre-left social

formed a minority administration,

democratic parties had been threatened repeatedly by

the attempts of the social democrats to assert themselves

and regain some of the popular support lost by their acquiescence in unpopular government decisions. On February 18 the Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) and the smaller Republican People's Party (CHP) voted to merge, adopting the latter's name. Hikmet Cetin, a former foreign minister, was elected to the leadership of the united party, replacing Murat Karayalcin, while the former SHP leader, Erdal Inonu, became foreign minister when the CHP team

481

relying on,

among

others,

Alpaslan Turkes, leader of the extreme right-wing Nationalist Action Party, and Bulent Ecevit, leader of the left-wing nationalist

port

December parliamentary

October 1996)

Turkey

of ministers was reshuffled on March 27. At a party convention on September 10, Cetin lost the leadership to Deniz Baykal, the leader of the CHP before the merger. Ten days later Baykal withdrew his support from the coalition. Ciller

Ciller.

Ciller survived a succession of politi-

Affairs:

when

Democratic Left Party. Ecevit withdrew

his sup-

Ciller failed to resolve a strike of public-sector

workers, and the minority government, which took office on October 5, was defeated in a vote of confidence on October 15. The following day the prime minister patched up her differences with Baykal and agreed to revive the

DYP-CHP

on October 30, after parliament had scheduled elections on December 24 and passed an electoral law accommodating changes in the constitution, which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, gave the vote to Turks living abroad, and increased the size of the parliament from 450 to 550 members. The constitutional amendments, which also increased trade-union rights and widened political participation, sought

coalition.

The new government took

oflice

ineet the demands for democratic reforms voiced by European Union foreign ministers on March 6 when they agreed to implement a customs union with Turkey on Jan. 1, 1996. The decision was approved by the European Parliament at its meeting on December 13. On October 26 four of the imprisoned deputies of the dissolved Democracy Party, which championed the views of radical Kurdish nationalists, were freed on appeal, but the to

court confirmed the sentences of 15 years' imprisonment passed on four others convicted of involvement in the armed

campaign waged by the Kurdish Workers" Party (PKK). The death toll since the start of the insurgency in 1984 exceeded

resident of the ancient town of Hasankeyf. in the mountains of eastern Turkey, mounts his mule for a trip to the local market. Archaeologists were attempting to save the historic site from flooding that would result from an irrigation and hydroelectric project along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

A

World

482

Affairs:

Turkmenistan

20,000 by the end of 1995. On March 20 Turkish forces launched a major incursion into Kurdish areas of northern Iraq and destroyed PKK camps before withdrawing two

months later. They returned in smaller numbers in the autumn in an effort to end the fighting between rival militias and establish some security in the area.

The

decision by the Azerbaijani

oil

consortium to ex-

—

he was the first Central Asian have his term of office extended into the next century and calling for new presidential elections. The Turkmen opposition headquartered in Moscow denied involvement, and some Russian observers speculated that the protest may have been organized with the help of RusNiyazov's dictatorial rule

head of

state to

—

sian officials

annoyed

at

Niyazov's pro-Iranian bent.

port early production through both Russia and Georgia

was hailed as a victory by Turkey, which intended to link the Georgian route to the existing pipeline from Iraq to the Gulf of Iskenderun. U.S.-Turkish cooperation, which made this decision possible, was further reinforced when, at U.S. prompting, NATO launched air strikes against Bosnian Serbs, a course long advocated by Turkey. Pres. Suleyman Demirel, who visited the Turkish contingent in Bosnia and Herzegovina in March, reached agreements with Bosnia and Croatia when he attended a UN meeting in October. Both Demirel and Ciller cultivated relations with the Turkic CenAsian countries. Visits to all these republics, as well as and Mongolia, led up to the Turkic summit in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, in August. Before leaving the scene, the minority government settral

(BESS This article updates the Macropcedia article Turkmenistan.

brown)

Central Asia:

TUVALU

A

constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth, Tuvalu comprises nine main islands and their associated islets and reefs in the western Pacific Ocean. Area: 24.4 sq km (9.4 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 9.400. Cap.: Fongafale, on Funafuti Atoll. Monetary unit: Australian dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of

to U.S. $1

($A

ernor-general

2.08

in

=

£1 steding). Queen, Elizabeth

II;

1995, Tulaga Manuella; prime minister,

$A

1.31

gov-

Kamuta

Laatasi.

to Tajikistan

tled the public-sector strike, at the cost of $1.3 billion in

At the annual Independence Day celebrations in October 1995, a new flag, which deleted the Union Jack, was flown

wage

publicly for the

and pensions also were had dropped sharply as a result of the austerity program introduced in April 1994, which had led to a record drop of 6*7? in the gross national product increases. Civil service salaries

raised. Living standards

(GNP)

in 1994.

however, the

After stagnating in the first quarter of 1995, jumped by 12% in the second quarter.

GNP

The

foreign trade deficit doubled to over $6 billion in the seven months of the year, while consumer prices rose by 52% by the end of September. The government imposed first

a levy on foreign supplier credits while negotiating new performance targets with the International Mt)nctary Fund, which had backed the austerity program.

(ANDREW MANGO)

TURKMENISTAN

A

republic of Central Asia, Turkmenistan borders Uzbekistan on the northeast, Kazakhstan on the northwest, the Caspian Sea on the west, Iran on the southwest, and Afghanistan on the southeast. Area: 488,100 sq

km

(188,500 sq mi). Pop. (1995

est.):

Ashgabat (formerly Ashkhabad). Monetary unit: manat, with (Oct. 4, 1995) an oflicial rate of 200 manat to U.S. $1 (316.18 manat = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Saparmurad

4,081,000. Cap.:

first

time. Suggestions of a republican fu-

would involve severing links with the met with little enthusiasm, however. Tuvalu's capacity to patrol its large exclusive economic zone was improved with the gift of a patrol vessel from Australia and with the related construction of a national coordinating centre and support workshop. The gift would be supported by a detachment of Australian naval personnel and a guaranteed future refit to extend the life of the vessel. Prime Minister Kamuta Laatasi visited Tokyo for talks on overseas development assistance and attended meetings of the Pacific Islands Development Program in Honolulu. A major urban-planning project for Funafuti and for Vaitupu had been initiated by the Asian Development Bank. In March Laatasi attended the inaugural meeting of a ture for Tuvalu, which British crown,

new

regional subgrouping of Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Tuvalu, which was intended to foster cooperation in economic development, civil aviation, and other matters. Tuvalu joined other South Pacific Forum states in condemning French nuclear testing, (barrie macdonald) This article updates the Maaopcedia article Pacific Islands: Tuvalu.

Niyazov.

UGANDA In January 1995 Turkmenistan, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan,

and Russia agreed on the financing of a pipeline to enable Turkmenistan to export its natural gas to Western Europe via Iran and Turkey. A separate agreement with Iran provided for the construction of a pipeline to furnish Turkmen gas to Iran. Turkmenistan's neighbours were concerned over its tics to Iran but were unable to persuade Saparmurad Niyazov to reorient his foreign policy. In October the U.S. company Unocal and Delta Oil Co. of Saudi Arabia announced plans to build a $3 billion

the closeness of

A

member of the Commonwealth, located in eastern Africa. Area: 241,040 sq km (93,070 sq mi), including 44,000 sq km of inland water. Pop. (1995 est.): 18,659,000. Cap.: Kampala. Monetary unit: Uganda shilling, with (Oct. 6. 1995) a priority rate of 995 shillings to U.S. $1 (1,573 shillings = £1 sterling). President in 1995. Yoweri Museveni; landlocked republic and

Uganda

is

prime minister, Kintu Musoke.

Pres.

pipeline to Pakistan via Afghanistan, while an Argentine

company. Bridas, reported the gas

field at

discover)' of a

major natural

Yashiar, east of Ashgabat.

Niyazov continued to ignore foreign attempts to pressure into changing his human rights policies at home. In May he asserted that his stewardship of the country had resulted in no budget deficit despite social guarantees such as free water, gas, and electricity lor citizens. Me did not mention that these things were not widely available. On July 12 a crowd of 3()0-5()() people staged a demonstration the first since independence in Ashgabat protesting

him

—

—

October 1995 the International Monetary Fund granted million to Uganda to assist in implementing the country's program of economic reform over the next three years. The offer reflected the growing confidence of donor countries and institutions in the government's ability to maintain its economic stability. Earlier in the year donor countries canceled 67% of Uganda's official bilateral debt and rescheduled the remaining 33%. In July creditor countries meeting in Paris agreed to further increases in In

$175

funding.

This favourable climate of opinion was due to a number of factors. Inflation had fallen during the previous 12 months from 16% to 5%. largely as a result of a decline

World

Affairs:

Ukraine

483

food prices after the ending of a period of drougfit. Moreover, although the income from coffee, the country's main export earner, was less than expected because of the collapse of world prices in July, gross domestic product was in

expected to grow by 5%. The government had also shown its determination to reduce unnecessary expenditure by making cuts in the civil service

and the armed

forces.

Encouraged

by these indicators, foreign investors brought new capital to the country, and there was a marked increase in business activity. Tourism, too, was beginning to revive, at least in the south and west, and three

in

also,

effort to

new hotels opened Entebbe airport was being rehabilitated in an

attract

more

1995;

international airlines.

These developments could not disguise the a country generously

endowed with

fact

that

natural resources re-

mained one of the poorest, dependent for the foreseeable future on external aid and with no immediate prospect of reducing the poverty of the majority of the population.

The U.S.

also had misgivings about the way in which Pres. Yoweri Museveni had set his face against reintroducing multiparty democracy, but other Western nations, which had pressed for multiparty elections elsewhere in Africa, appeared to accept the president's claim that a multiplicity of political parties would encourage tribal divisions. Support for Museveni's stand on that issue came from Uganda's Constituent Assembly in June when it voted 199 to 68 to years.

prolong the existing system for an additional

The 68 votes came

five

primarily from representatives of

the eastern and northern parts of the country.

The new announced by the Constituent Assembly on October 8 legalized the ban on parties but called for nonparty parliamentary and presidential elections in 1996. Among those opposed to a multiparty system were some, particularly among the inhabitants of the kingdoms of the south and west, who preferred a federal form of government. More extreme opposition to the government persisted in the north, particularly from a group calling itself the Lord's Resistance Army, which, the government maintained, was aided and abetted by The Sudan. In April a Sudanese diplomat's house in Kampala was searched for weapons, and although nothing of significance was found, it was announced that diplomatic relations with The Sudan would be severed. Museveni further promised to pursue relentlessly any rebels attempting to prolong their armed struggle in the north. He later also affirmed that there would be no pardon for the former dictator, Idi Amin, still living in exile in Saudi Arabia. Under Amin, the president said, hundreds of thousands of Ugandans had lost their lives. constitution

(KENNETH INGHAM) This article updates the Macropoedia article Uganda.

Eastern Africa:

UKRAINE republic in eastern Europe, Ukraine borders Russia to the north and east, the Black Sea to the south, Romania and to the southwest,

and Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland

to

the west. Area: 603,700 sq km (233,100 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 52,003,000. Cap.: Kiev. Monetary unit: karbovanets (Ukrainian coupon), with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 172,000 karbovantsy = U.S. $1 (271,915 karbovantsy = £1 steding). President in 1995, Leonid Kuchma; prime ministers, Vitaly Masol and, acting from March 1 and otficial from June 8, Yevhen Marchuk.

The year 1995 could be described as a year of stabilizing trends in Ukraine. The country improved its international profile as a result of its acceptance on October 18 into the Council of Europe and because of its decision, late in the year, to close the

Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Relations

with the United States also remained warm. U.S. Pres.

recently returned from Russia or Central Asia to their ancestral homeland, were living without official authorization and in substandard

conditions. MOHKOVKIN -WOSTOK PRESS/MIR

Clinton's

visit

to Kiev in

May was

followed by Prime Minis-

Yevhen Marchuk's trip to Washington in September. At the same time, Ukraine limited its commitment to the Commonwealth of Independent States, noting at a meetter

mid-October that it firmly opposed the Europe into two blocs and rejected the notion of Ukraine as a buffer state between NATO and the CIS. ing in Tbilisi in

division of

Earlier in the year, Ukraine had asserted that the role of

CIS should be to decide matters of mutual economic concern rather than political and military issues. During a visit of Belarusian Pres. Alyaksandr Lukashenka to Kiev on September 23-24, Ukraine refused to accept the idea of a three-way customs union and implicitly rebuffed the Belarusian president's support for a "Slavic triangle." On February 8 Ukraine and Russia initialed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, but the final signatures were never provided. First, in February, the two sides differed on the issue of dual citizenship, and later they disagreed over the Russian desire to maintain the city of Sevastopol as the home base exclusively of the Russian part of the Black Sea Fleet. The latter issue was ostensibly resolved at a meeting of the respective presidents, Leonid Kuchma and Boris Yeltsin, at Sochi, Russia, on June 8-9. Sevastopol was designated as the Russian base, and the two sides agreed to divide the fleet, with Russia receiving 82% of the ships. Nonetheless, other issues, including Yeltsin's illness and disagreements over the Crimea, served to delay the signing of the

the treaty indefinitely.

A

Moldova

Tatar man works at building a liouse for his family in Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula. Tfiousands of Crimean Tatars, many of them

A

Bill

Ukraine firmly asserted its authority over the recalciCrimean Peninsula on March 17, abolishing the post of the separatist Crimean president, Yury Meshkov. The Ukrainian parliament also annulled the Crimean constitution and instituted direct rule from Kiev. The Crimea responded defiantly at first, resolving to hold a referendum on autonomy in June, but subsequently gave in to pressure from Kiev. The summer in Crimea was marred by violence in which four Crimean Tatars were killed, evidently by organized crime elements. The Tatars were also the subject of a major Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe conference that noted that 100,000 out of 250,000 on the peninsula were living in extreme conditions, without adequate shelter, and with very high rates of infant mortrant

484

World

tality.

Affairs:

Some

homeland

United Arab Emirates

who returned to their ancestral November 1991 were not yet eligible for

70,000 Tatars

after

Ukrainian citizenship and were

effectively disenfranchised

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Consisting of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubayy, al-Fujayrah, Ra's alal-Qaywayn, the United Arab Khaymah, ash-Shariqah, and Emirates is a federation of seven largely autonomous emirates located on the eastern Arabian Peninsula. Area: 83,600 sq km (32,280 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 2,925,000. Cap.: Abu Dhabi. Monetary unit: United Arab Emirates dirham, with (Oct. 6, 1995) an official rate of 3.67 dirhams to U.S. $1 (5.81 dirhams = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Sheikh Zaid ibn Sultan an-

Umm

until 1996.

The key event

in

Ukrainian domestic politics was a com-

promise reached between the president and the legislature over the division of powers (the so-called Power Bill). Following a vote of no confidence by the parliament on April 3, and strong opposition from the parliamentary left faction, the two sides reached an unexpected compromise on

Nahayan; prime minister, Sheikh Maktum ibn Rashid

al-

The agreement canceled President Kuchma's plans for a plebiscite on the Power Bill but implemented a Law on State Power that omitted both the parliament's right to

Maktum.

impeach the president and the

Rashid al-Maktum, appointed his younger brother. Sheikh Muhammad, as crown prince of Dubayy and Sheikh Muhammad's older brother. Sheikh Hamdan, as deputy ruler. Also in January, the Supreme Petroleum Council in Abu Dhabi approved a plan by the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company for a major expansion of the Ruwais Refinery that would

June

7.

latter's right to dissolve

the

legislature.

A

new government was appointed on July 3 with 27 new Marchuk, who was named prime minister on June

officials.

was the dominant figure. On October 11 the parliament new government program aimed at gradual economic reform, an anticipated 0.6% rise in industrial output in 1996, and a state budget deficit to be limited to 6%. Economic performance in 1995 was mixed. Inflation stood at 21.2% in January, dropped to 4.6% in May, and then rose to 14% in September. The karbovanets appeared more stable than it had been (giving rise to speculation that the hryvnya currency would at last be introduced), but then it collapsed against the dollar in August, from 152,000 to 167,700 (and to 179,400 at year's end) and over 200,000 on the black market. Plans to close 19 unprofitable mines led to a brief coal strike in the Donbass region in October, while unemployment in real figures (including hidden unemployment) was estimated at almost four million, or about 15% of the workforce. Progress toward economic reform was, however, sufficient for the International Monetary Fund to 8,

issued a

provide three standby loans during the course of the year. The protracted discussions with the Group of Seven (G-7) major industrial countries over the closure of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant were finally resolved on December 20. In April President Kuchma had declared that the station would be closed by the year 2000, but Ukraine's decision was based on the premise that the West would assist with the construction of a thermal power station in the region. A figure of approximately $4 billion was cited by Ukraine to cover these developments. On September 25-27, G-7 experts suggested a figure of $1,440,000,000 and rejected the

notion of a thermal station in favour of modernization of Ukraine's entire energy structure. The final agreement was signed in Ottawa by Yury Kostenko, the Ukrainian minister of the environment, and Sheila Copps, Canadian deputy prime minister. (Canada held the rotating chairmanship of the

G-7

in

1995.)

It

called for $2.3 billion in assistance to

Chernobyl station by the year 2000, construct two safer nuclear power stations, and assist Ukraine in developing its energy sector. Ukraine's economic decline in recent years exacerbated the health situation within the country. On July 19, 256 cases of cholera were reported in Mykolayiv region, while in October hepatitis B infection killed 8 people and afflicted nearly 1,000 in Dnepropetrovsk and surrounding areas. Thyclose the

roid cancer rates rose fivefold in children in the

wake of

the Chernobyl disaster of 1986, while infant mortality in

Ukraine was among the highest in Europe. The country was plagued by social problems, including a notable expansion of organized crime, while living standards continued to fall,

albeit less catastrophically than in recent years.

Gross

12% between January and

June,

domestic product

fell

compared with 24%

in

by

the

first six

months of 1994. (DAVID R. MARPLES)

In January 1995 the ruler of Dubayy, Sheikh

increase

its

Maktum

capacity to 400,000 bbl per day. In addition,

a petrochemical plant (300,000 tons per year)

same locale. The United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) adopted

considered

ibn

in

was being

the

a budget

of $4.9 billion for 1995. Oil production continued at close to the quota of 2,161,000 bbl per day set by

OPEC. U.A.E

banks continued to show profits in 1995. On January 31 a Luxembourg court approved terms of a settlement in the Bank of Credit and Commerce International case whereby bank creditors would receive from Abu Dhabi the $1.8 billion settlement first agreed upon in 1994. No progress was achieved in the dispute with Iran over the islands of Greater and Lesser Tunbs and Abu Musa, which remained under Iranian occupation. Military ties with the U.S. continued to develop after the signing in July 1994 of a defense cooperation agreement. A defense agreement with France was signed in January 1995. Saudi Arabian plans to develop a major oil field near the U.A.E. border led to high-level discussions between the two nations. The Saudi-U.A.E. Border Agreement concluded in August 1974 (jamal a. sa'd) was deposited with the United Nations. This article updates the Macropcedia article Arabia: United Arab Emirates.

UNITED KINGDOM

A

constitutional monarchy in northwestern Europe and member of the Commonwealth, the United Kingdom comprises the island of Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) and Northern Ireland, together with many small islands. Area: 244,110 sq km (94,251 sq mi), including 3,218 sq km of inland water but excluding the crown dependencies of the Channel Islands and Isle of Man. Pop. (1995 est.): 58,586,000. Cap.: London. Monetary unit: pound sterling, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of £0.63 to U.S. $1 (U.S. $1.58 = £1 sterling). Queen, Elizabeth II; prime minister in 1995,

John Major.

Domestic Affairs. Despite presiding over a growing economy with low inffation and falling unemployment, a reduction in reported crime, and sustained peace in Northern Ireland, the Conservative government of Prime Minister John Maremained deeply unpopular throughout 1995. Mounting speculation about Major's own position prompted him to call a special parliamentary party election in which he was

jor

duly reelected as leader of the Conservative Party, although more than one in four Tory MPs voted against him. Evidence of public dissatisfaction with the government

was everywhere. Most opinion polls through the year showed that the main opposition Labour Party commanded twice

much support as the Conservatives. In May support for the Conservatives in elections to district and city councils as

World slipped to

25%

—the

party's lowest ever in a nationwide

Affairs:

United Kingdom

485

election.

Following his confirmation as party leader and the Cabinet reshuffle. Major's public popularity rose slightly, but Labour

the

retained

The scale of Conservative losses was so great that party emerged from these local elections with fewer

and controlling fewer councils, in British local government than either Labour or the Liberal Democrats. The Conservatives also lost two by-elections heavily, falling from first to third place both at Perth and Kinross in Scotland (in May; won by the separatist Scottish National Party) and at Littleborough and Saddleworth in northern England (in July; won by the Liberal Democrats). These losses reduced the Conservatives' majority to nine in the 651-member House of. Commons. In October, Alan Howarth, a former government minister, resigned from the Conservative Party and joined Labour the first MP ever to transfer directly from Conservative to Labour. In December Emma Nicholson, a former vice-chairman of the councillors,

—

Conservative Party, also switched sides; she joined the LibDemocrats. These defections reduced the government's majority to five. eral

On June 22 Major responded to mounting criticism of his leadership by resigning as leader of the Conservative Party and announcing his intention to stand in the consequent He

challenged his opponents to "put up or shut up." His aim was to demonstrate that his critics inside the party were in a small minority and thereby to reassert his authority. On June 26 John Redwood, the secretary of state for Wales, resigned from Major's Cabinet and announced his candidacy. Redwood was a right-wing enthusiast of free competition, low taxes, and reduced government spending; a election.

of European integration; and an opponent of plans for He sought to appeal to other Conservative MPs the electorate in the party's leadership

critic

a single currency for Europe. elections

— —by claiming that the party could not win the next

general election under Major. Redwood's campaign slogan

was "No change means no chance." In the event, Major won the support of 218 MPs to Redwood's 89; 22 other

MPs

abstained or spoiled their ballot papers. Major's victory put an end to speculation about the Conservative leadership, at least for the time being, even though his margin of victory was not as decisive as his campaign

team had hoped.

On

the day following his victory. Major

reshaped his Cabinet. His most significant appointment was that of Michael Heseltine as deputy prime minister. Heseltine was one of his party's most flamboyant MPs and arguably its most effective orator. He had long harboured his own ambitions to lead the party; his challenge to Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in November 1990 had led directly to her downfall and Major's elevation. During the leadership election, Heseltine had urged his own followers to back Major; his appointment as deputy prime minister was his reward. It also meant that should Major stand down for any reason before the next election, Heseltine would be well placed to grasp the prize he had always sought. Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd decided to retire from the government during the July reshuffle. Major replaced Hurd with Malcolm Rifkind, formerly defense secretary. (See Biographies.) The new defense secretary, Michael Portillo, shared Redwood's outlook on Europe, taxation, and government spending, but he had remained in Major's Cabinet during the leadership contest rather than resign. Jonathan Aitken also resigned from the Cabinet following allegations that during the 1980s he had been a director of a company, BMARC, that circumvented the U.K.'s embargo on the sale of arms to Iran. Aitken denied that he had knowledge of any illegality by BMARC, but his presence in Major's Cabinet impeded the Conservatives' attempts to fend off charges that the government turned a blind eye to "sleaze" (dubious personal behaviour) by ministers.

its

commanding

poll lead

throughout the second

half of 1995.

Meanwhile, Labour itself had continued to shed its leftwing image in an attempt to convince voters of its more centrist credentials. Tony Blair, who had been elected Labour's new leader in July 1994, persuaded a special conference of his party on April 29 to adopt a new statement of aims and values. By a margin of 65% to 35%, the conference agreed to discard the old Clause 4 of the party's constitution, which committed Labour to seeking "the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange." That commitment, which dated from 1918, was replaced by an ambition to create a society "in which power, wealth and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few," and where "the enterprise of the market and rigour of competition are joined with the forces of partnership and co-operation." This explicit embrace of the market system, combined with Blair's repudiation of ideological socialism, represented a significant moment in the evolution of the Labour Party or, as Blair increasingly described it, "New Labour."

—

On May 11 a government-appointed committee, chaired by Lord Nolan, published its first report on standards of conduct in public life. The committee had been established in October 1994 following a series of financial scandals, mostly minor but mainly involving Conservative MPs. The Nolan committee recommended that MPs (other than ministers) continue to be allowed to earn money outside Parliament but that these earnings be regulated by a new code of conduct and that details of all contracts, consultancies, and payments be published. Nolan also recommended changes to the way in which ministers appointed members to nongovernmental public bodies ("quangos"), and to the rules under which civil servants were allowed to accept work in the private sector after leaving government service. The government accepted most of Nolan's recommendations but advised MPs to reject disclosure of the details and amounts

of outside earnings. Twenty-three Conservative the opposition and voted for

full

MPs

joined

disclosure, however,

and

the government was defeated by a majority of 51.

One continuing problem for the government through 1995 concerned prison security. In January three dangerous prisoners escaped from Parkhurst Prison on the Isle of Wight, off the coast of southern England. They had managed

to obtain a

copy of the master key to make their

escape. Although the prisoners were caught after five days,

—coming four months a breakout by from top prison Cambridgeshire—provoked widespread concern about the their escape

after

just

five Irish terrorist prisoners

a

security

in

management of

Britain's prisons. This concern was intenFebruary by a report by the government's chief inspector of prisons. Judge Stephen Tumim, who described conditions in Leeds Prison, one of the largest in the country, as an "affront to dignity." In October a report of an official inquiry by a retired army general. Sir John Learmont, into the Parkhurst breakout sified

in

management of the Prison Service in forthright Howard, the home secretary, responded by dismissing the service's director-general, Derek Lewis. Lewis responded by suing Howard for unfair dismissal and accriticized the

terms. Michael

cusing the

home

secretary of intervening improperly in the

day-to-day running of the service, thus making for

him

and

to

do

his

resisted loud

job properly.

Howard

it

impossible

rejected this charge

demands from the opposition

parties for

his resignation.

A

major confrontation between the environmental group

486

World

Affairs:

United Kingdom

Greenpeace and the Royal Dutch/Shell Group occurred

inflationary pressure. Retail prices rose by

during the year when Shell sought to dispose of its Brent Spar North Sea oil-storage platform. Germany's Chancellor Helmut Kohl also criticized the British government's sup-

though toward the top end

Environment: Sidebar.) The continuing drama of the royal family's personal troubles took a new twist as the marriage of Prince Charles port for Shell. {See

and Diana, Princess of Wales, finally collapsed in full public On November 20, just under three years after the couple's formal separation, Diana gave an hour-long interview on BBC television during which she admitted adultery (with a former guards officer, James Hewitt) and cast doubts on view.

the fitness of Prince Charles to become king. The public debate that followed the interview brought to a head the issue

of whether the prince and princess should formally seek a divorce, which would, among other things, have the effect of preventing Diana from becoming queen upon Charles's ascent to the throne.

announced

On December

Queen

20 Buckingham Palace

had advised the prince to begin divorce proceedings. The following day Charles made clear his intention to become king in due course and not to remarry for the foreseeable future. This dampened that

Elizabeth

II

speculation that Charles intended to take the controversial step of marrying Camilla Parker-Bowles, with

previously admitted having an

During 1995 the all

he had

adults bought at least its first

fell

—

inside, al-

by 300,000 to 2.2 million.

These achievements, however, produced few political rewards for the Conservative government. Tax increases announced in 1993 and 1994 were still being implemented in early 1995; many large companies continued to cut back on their workforce, especially white-collar and management staff. The result was persistent middle-class insecurity. This helped to prevent the stagnant housing market from recovering. Average house prices across the U.K. remained 20% lower than their peak in 1989. By late 1995 more than one million homeowners suffered from "negative equity"; that is, their mortgage debt exceeded the value of their home. The smooth running of the economy was not helped by a dispute during the early months of the year between Eddie George, the governor of the Bank of England {see Biographies), and Kenneth Clarke, the chancellor of the Exchequer. George wanted to put the fight against inflation above everything else and sought to raise interest rates to prevent the economy from overheating. Clarke did not want to discourage borrowing, investment, or the fragile housing

market and resisted any increase

in

the base rate above

the 6.75% agreed in February (itself a

0.5% increase on

new record as the week an estimated 75%

use his formal authority as chancellor to overrule George. Clarke was subsequently seen by most economists to have

one of the £1 lottery tickets or 12 months the national lottery,

been right growth slowed anyway, but the spectacle of the governor being directly overruled on monetary policy did nothing to soothe frayed nerves in the financial markets. There were other signs of economic weakness. Government borrowing had been projected to fall from £35 billion in 1994-95 to £23 billion in 1995-96. At the end of 1995, however, borrowing was persisting at the same rate as a year earlier, mainly because the slowdown in economic growth caused tax revenues to fall short of their expected levels. Moreover, as the year progressed, there was mounting evidence of a rise in Britain's balance of payments deficit.

British people set a

scratch cards. During

Unemployment

3.5%

the government's target range

the rate at the end of 1994). In the end, Clarke had to

aft'air.

world's keenest lottery players. Each

of

whom

of 1--^%.

of.

which began in November 1994, exceeded all expectations by raising more than £4 billion. Half of this money went in prizes, with the jackpot reaching £20 million in some weeks. The other half was divided between administration and taxes (22%) and money for good causes (28%). The Economy. The U.K. achieved its third consecutive year of steady economic growth and low inflation in 1995. Gross domestic product rose by 2.5% slightly less than in 1994 but at a rate that was deemed less likely to cause

—

—

MARTIN MCCULLOUGH— PRESS ASSOCIATION

A

truck burns during disturbances that broke out In Belfast

for killing

a teenage

girl in

1990. Overall, however, violence

after the release of a British soldier who had served four years of a Northern Ireland in 1995 was much below the levels of previous years.

on July 3 in

life

sentence

World Against this background, Clarke sought to fashion his annual budget, presented on November 28, in a manner that would appeal to both voters and the financial markets. He reduced public spending (although protecting the health and education budgets) and also reduced the standard rate of income tax by 1% to 24%. He reinforced his policy with a quarter-point cut in interest rates in December the first reduction in almost two years. By taking no economic risks, Clarke achieved no immediate political benefits; the Conservatives remained as far behind Labour directly after the budget as they had been before. On February 26 one of Britain's oldest banks. Barings

—

PLC, collapsed following massive

losses incurred on the Special Report: Economic Affairs. ) The government blamed the collapse on the activities of a single "rogue" trader on Barings' Singapore staff, Nicholas Leeson, who was subsequently detained in Germany. In a report on July 18, the Board of Banking Supervision concluded that Barings had suffered from serious failures of interna! management, but opposition parties

futures market in Singapore. {See

called for tougher external regulation in order to protect

the wider reputation of the City of

November

London

the government announced

extradition of Leeson,

who was

to face criminal charges

it

in

the future. In

would not seek the

then returned to Singapore

and was subsequently sentenced

to

a prison term of bVi years.

Foreign Affairs. The United Kingdom's relations with rest of the European Union (EU) remained tense throughout 1995, although Major believed that events were the

gradually moving his

of in

way on monetary union. At a meeting heads of government in Formentor, Malaga, Spain, September, Major said that "few, perhaps very few" EU

EU

states

would meet the Maastricht Treaty's economic conver-

—

gence conditions by 1999; as a result, Britain if it exercised its opt-out and decided not to join a single currency would not be alone. Major said that if an inner group of EU states insisted on introducing a single currency, a two-speed Europe would be inevitable and should be planned for. Major also repeated his intention to resist any widening of the powers of the EU at the intergovernmental conference,

due to

start in 1996.

Major warned

the respect of people throughout

that the

Europe

EU if it

—

would

lose

leaped too

ahead of public opinion. In May the government announced its intention to send a further 6,700 troops to Bosnia and Herzegovina, to add to the 4,400 already taking part in the 25,000-strong United Nations peacekeeping force. Major announced that Britain's forces had two objectives: to distribute humanitarian aid and to prevent a wider conflagration across the Balkans. His far

announcement

attracted all-party support in the

Commons, although both Labour and

the Liberal

House of

Democrats

urged tougher action against the Bosnian Serb forces. Following the peace agreement in November, Major announced that British troops would play a significant role in peacekeeping efforts in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Hong Kong. Britain negotiated its first substantive agreement with China on the future of the colony after control passed to China in 1997. On June 9 the two countries agreed to establish a new Court of Final Appeal with limited powers. Sensitive "acts of state" issues, such as those concerning defense and foreign affairs, would be referred to Beijing. Britain and China also reached agreement on the financing of a new airport for Hong Kong, to be opened in 1998. Meanwhile, a new Legislative Council was elected on September 17, but only about 35% of Hong Kong's electors took part in the election. (See Dependent States, above.) Northern Ireland. Following the cease-fires in 1994, Northern Ireland remained at peace throughout 1995, al-

Affairs:

United Kingdom

487

though only slow progress was made toward a lasting political settlement. On February 22 the British and Irish governments presented a framework document setting out some agreed proposals for the future of the province. These included the establishment of a new assembly for Northern Ireland with 90 members elected by proportional representation; a directly elected three-member panel to oversee the work of the assembly; a new cross-border body of members of the Irish Dail (parliament) and Northern Ireland assembly to deal with issues of shared concern; an end to Ireland's claim, in art. 2 of the constitution, to regard Northern Ireland as part of its "national territory"; and confirmation by the United Kingdom government that any change in the constitutional position of Northern Ireland would require the consent of a majority of

its

people.

Gerry Adams, president of Sinn Fein, the political wing of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), welcomed the framework document, saying, "Its ethos is for one Ireland and an allIreland arrangement." The two main unionist parties shared this analysis and, consequently, rejected the document. They announced their intention to boycott any talks based on the document's provisions. Separately, the British government said that Sinn Fein could take part

roundtable talks only if it started to weapons. Sinn Fein said that it would be willing to discuss handing in its weapons as part of an overall peace agreement, but not before. Nevertheless, a number of bilateral meetings were held between the Sinn Fein leadership and government officials. On May 24 Adams met Sir Patrick Mayhew, Britain's Northern Ireland secretary, in Washington, D.C., when both attended an Irish-U.S. invest-

decommission

in

its

ment conference. Nevertheless, with the unionists refusing to join roundtable talks

and Sinn Fein barred from them, no substantive made during the rest of 1995. Apart from

progress was

a few isolated incidents, however, the cease-fire continued

One consequence was a sharp increase in confidence, investment, and employment in the province as it benefited from a substantial "peace dividend." The British to hold.

government also sought to reduce tension by withdrawing two army battalions from Northern Ireland and gradually releasing convicted terrorists from prison. On August 28 James Molyneaux announced his resignation after 16 years as leader of the Ulster Unionist Party.

On September

8 the party elected David Trimble as his suc-

former law lecturer, was regarded as the most hard-line of the main candidates. In his early weeks as leader, however, Trimble went to some lengths to open up a dialogue with both London and Dublin. On November 28 Major and John Bruton, Ireland's prime minister, announced a new agreement between the two governments on the next stage of the peace process. On the most contentious issue, the decommissioning of the IRA arsenal, they agreed to establish a three-member international commission, chaired by former U.S. senator George Mitchell, to consult and deliberate on ways of breaking the deadlock. Major and Bruton agreed that if the commission found that the IRA and Protestant paramilitary bodies had "a clear commitment" to disarm as part of the peace process, then they would be able to take part in preparatory talks in early 1996 aimed at clearing the ground for full allcessor. Trimble, a

party negotiations.

Two

days later U.S. Pres.

Bill

Clinton

Northern Ireland, where he was given an immense ovation from both the nationalist and unionist communities for his contribution to the peace process. In return, Clinton said that the people of Northern Ireland were "making a miracle." (peter kellner) See also Commonwealth of Nations; Dependent States. visited

World

488

Affairs:

United States

am, tearing the front off the nine-story structure and leaving 168 people dead, including 19 children. In addition, a nurse was killed during rescue efforts. The tmck had contained homemade explosives, a mixture of diesel fuel and ammonium nitrate. The man who was allegedly responsible for the bomb was a former member of the U.S. Army and a veteran of the Persian Gulf War, Timothy J. McVeigh, a fringe member of a heavily armed American after 9

UNITED STATES The United

States of America is a federal republic composed of 50 states. Area: 9,372,571 sq km (3,618,770 sq mi), including 205,856 sq km of inland water but excluding the 156,492 sq km of the Great Lakes that lie within U.S. boundaries. Pop. (1995 est.): 263,057,000. Cap.: Washington, D.C. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of U.S. $1.58 to £1 sterling. President in 1995, Bill Clinton.

By

all

rights 1995 should have

marked a

political nadir for

Bill Clinton. As a result of the 1994 congressional he had become chief executive in what amounted, in U.S. terms, to a minority government. Control of the legislative agenda shifted to Congress, dominated, for the first time in 40 years, by Republicans, and especially to the combative speaker of the House of Representatives, Newt Gingrich. (See Biographies.) A massive rollback of welfare legislation and federal dominance was set in motion as the Republicans moved to fulfill the conservative "Contract with America" within their first 100 days in office. {See Special Report.) The president seemed reduced to the role of a bystander. Defections from the Democratic Party continued

U.S. Pres. elections,

Democrats switched parties after the elections. Nonetheless, by the end of the year, the president, while giving considerable ground, had managed to achieve more of a stalemate with Congress than many had believed apace;

in all, five

possible.

In

November the

president's veto of the Republican budget

employees and shut down government days. Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin nimbly raided

led to a standoff that idled 800,000

so-called nonessential functions of the federal for six

selected federal pension funds in the interim to forestall

on the government's obligations, while the two sides reached accommodation on such issues as the target of balancing the budget in seven years, as Republicans demanded. The president and the Congress remained far apart on the specifics of how to achieve that aim, however, with Republicans looking for more than $1 trillion in spending cuts, largely from social welfare programs, along with $245 billion in tax relief, spearheaded by a $50()-per-child tax default

Along with the tax issue, one of the central disagreements was over controlling Medicare and Medicaid costs. The Republicans wanted to save $270 billion over seven years by cutting back increases in Medicare spending from 10% to 7% annually. Clinton deemed that unacceptable and proposed savings of $124 billion. On Medicaid, Congress was determined to make cutbacks in spending, convert the remainder into block grants to the states, and allow each state to set eligibility requirements. The president was determined to keep Medicaid as an entitlement. When agreement was not reached by mid-December, those parts of the government not yet funded were again forced to shut down while the president and congressional leaders attempted to work out a compromi.se. This time some 280,000 government employees were furloughed, and thousands who did government work on a contract basis also were not paid. In spite of a series of meetings between Clinton and top congressional leaders, no solution to the impasse had been credit.

subculture of "militia" that espoused antigovernment views.

His alleged coconspirator was Terry Lynn Nichols, a farmer from Herington, Kan. Both men were charged with offenses that carried the death penalty.

The Oklahoma bombing drew

attention to a radical de-

gree of disaffection with the government

number of

treme form, the disaffected

militia

members who expressed

100,000

in

general and a

federal agencies in particular. In

its

hostility

to

the federal

some form of federal police such groups disclaimed anything to do with the

ticipation of either invasion or state. All

Oklahoma

City bombing.

all militia members were opposed to gun-control laws, like the 1994 federal assault weapons ban, and many saw the antigun actions of the FBI and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms as being, in the words of a National Rifle Association official, the work of "jack-booted government thugs" intent on tearing down what they saw as the Second Amendment's guarantee of the right to bear arms. In particular, they saw the 1993 siege in Waco, Texas, of the Branch Davidian compound, in which 82 cult members died, as being evidence of a sinister and cold-blooded federal government attitude

Like McVeigh, however, almost

virulently

toward like-minded dissidents. Authorities investigating the Oklahoma tragedy were convinced that the date of the crime the anniversary of the federal raid at Waco was no

—

—

coincidence.

At a

series of congressional hearings.

Reno

Attorney General

her endorsement of the assault on Waco, but she did not convince many skeptics. The FBI, however, took a more self-critical view in another case that had aroused a similar furor: the 1992 attempt to arrest a

Janet

heavily

justified

armed Idaho man named Randall Weaver, a be-

white racial separatism, at his mountain cabin. After Weaver's 14-year-old son was killed in the clash, an FBI sharpshooter killed Weaver's wife as she stood behind a door with their 10-month-old daughter in her arms. Three years after the firefight. the agency paid Weaver and his liever

in

surviving children $3.1

million

in

a civil settlement.

Potts's involvement in a

change of the rules of engagement

at the shoot-out.

The

were only the most highly charged manifesencroachments of the federal government that also showed itself in hostility to those wearing its civil uniforms, from the FBI to the Bureau of Land Management and the Forestry Service. The militias

tation of a deep-rooted anger with the

among many members

anger led to a sense of siege

federal bureaucracy. In .some parts of the country

in

Oklahoma

City, Okla.. erupted shortly

FBI

Director Louis Freeh also suspended his close friend and the number two man at the FBI, Larry Potts, while probing

reached by the time the year ended. Bipartisan attempts by

Federal Building

ex-

government, believed in foreign conspiracies to erode the sovereignty or even the territory of the nation, and often stored food and arms and practiced military training in an-

senate leaders to reach a compromise failed to gain backing

from hard-line Republicans in the House of Representatives. American Disaffection. While the budget dominated headlines, the forces swirling in the American political cauldron in 1995 were more dramatically epitomized in an event far from Washington, D.C. The country was stunned on April 19 when a rented truck parked outside the Alfred P. Murrah

most

movement claimed about

of the

— notably the West, where feelings ran high against federal control of certain jurisdictions — some as much as 80% of the land in

federal oflicials refused to be seen in their

work clothes

for

Others faced lawsuits and even disobedience from state oflicials, who claimed that they, rather than federal authorities, should claim ownership of fear of attracting sniper

such public property.

fire.

World

Much

like the fringe

anti-Vietnam

1970s, the antigovernment terrorism

War and

Affairs:

United States

489

radicalism of the civil

of 1995 represented the overheated froth of a

disobedience

much broader

and more moderate consensus— that government, particularly the federal government, had taken more than its share of resources and political space and had to be reduced. The consensus, however, was coupled with a continuing sense of disquiet and uncertainty about the future that gave a sharp edge to the national debate in many arenas, including the jostling leading up to the 1996 elections. Anti-Washington sentiment and a desire for leadership outside the traditional mold powered a deep groundswell of support for the idea of a presidential candidacy by Gen. Colin Powell, a black man who had retired as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Powell,

who

declared himself a Republican, evenhowever, leaving Senate Majority

tually declined to run,

Leader Robert Dole as the Republican front-runner, but it also fueled renewed candidacies by Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot, who announced the Independence Party as his political vehicle, and by the nativist conservative Patrick Buchanan, a combative orator with a strong anti-immigrant and anti-free-trade platform. Both of the dissident candidates reflected an isolationist uncertainty about the U.S. political and economic role in the world that paralleled the domestic uncertainty. The Economy. There was considerable uncertainty on the economic front. For the first time since 1992, in July the Federal Reserve Board (Fed) announced a cut in shortterm interest rates, from 6% to 5.75%. Chairman Alan Greenspan and the Fed's Open Market Committee then

made

another, year-end rate cut, to 5.5%.

tions signaled that the

produced renewed demands

for tighter restrictions

together a $50 billion international credit arrangement that included $20 billion worth of U.S. guarantees, and Congress

grudgingly went along with the

ternational standards the bailout

in

interest-rate hikes.

Growth

for 1995 appeared to be

headed for the 2.5% level that Greenspan deemed optimal. The unemployment rate was hovering in the range of 5.4%, and inflation seemed likely to be no more than 2.5% for the year. Flat retail sales and weakness in a number of leading indicators, however, gave some warning of slightly lower growth in early 1996. Meanwhile, in the midst of the budget battle, the Dow Jones industrial average rose past 5,000 after having pushed through 4,000 early in the year. Low interest rates, the prospect of reduced government spending, and a welter of high-performing high-tech issues had a lot to do with the performance, as did a continuing wave of mergers and acquisitions. Hikes in stock prices and merger mania went hand in hand with economies of scale, however, and the continuing globalization of the U.S. economy produced pink

and fear alongside the bullishness. Typical of the paradox was the behaviour of AT&T, a profitable $75 billion megalith, which announced that it would break itself into three separate companies and shed 78,000 jobs. In the atmosphere of uncertainty amid fast-changing economic forces, many Americans found it easy to believe that stability was indeed eroding and that their government was not doing enough to stem the advantages wielded by foreign countries that "gained" the jobs lost at home. Mindful of the sentiment, the Clinton administration used the threat of 100% tariffs on luxury-car imports to pressure the Japanese into expanding their North American auto production and buying more U.S.-made parts and also threatened China with $1 billion in tariffs to force the government into policing the rights of U.S. manufacturers of such often-pirated goods as computer software. One of Clinton's earlier international economic initiatives came back to haunt him, however. When the Mexican peso collapsed in December 1994, the U.S. had rushed to bail

on immigration.

out its partner in the hard-won North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The administration helped to cobble

ac-

manage through seven previous

slips

migrant worker in the Imperial Valley of California protects her face from the sun and dust. With the collapse of the peso and the Mexican economy, the numbers of Mexicans entering the U.S. increased, which

Greenspan's view, had landing that he had tried to

economy,

achieved the so-called soft

The Fed

A

in

stemming a

financial

fiscal legerdemain. By inwas a considerable success hemorrhage from Mexico and in

restoring investment confidence.

The

country's living stan-

and labour costs swooned, however. Purchases of foreign-made goods, especially from the U.S., collapsed, while exports, boosted by a cheap peso, took off. The result was that after years of enjoying trade surpluses with Mexico, the U.S. suddenly found itself running a deficit, and a number of U.S. companies announced that they would forsake the U.S. for the cheaper labour available there. At the same time, the number of Mexicans entering the U.S. illegally in search of work took a strong upward hike. One effect of the Mexican crisis was a likely halt to further expansion of NAFTA. A more dramatic effect was the boost that Mexico's plight gave to opponents of immigration to the U.S., both nationally and in states like California that were particularly hard hit by the influx. In the 1994 elections California residents had already given approval to Proposition 187, a measure that would deny schooling and dards, currency values,

other benefits to the children of illegal immigrants. The proposition was endorsed by Gov. Pete Wilson, but parts of the measure, notably the schooling ban, were declared unconstitutional by a federal judge. Meanwhile, the U.S. Congress also seemed intent on cutting back benefits to legal immigrants as part of its budget tightening. In a bow to the same anti-immigrant sentiments, the Clinton admin-

announced

would end the policy of giving and would instead return them to their homeland. Developments in Government. President Clinton had long been notorious in his critics' eyes for trimming sails to suit whatever political breezes were blowing, but the new Republican majority in Congress made that tendency a sometimes helpful tool of statecraft. While it caused considerable anguish in left-wing Democratic circles, the president, who was the native of a region where states' rights were still a shibboleth, found it easier to accept many of the decentralizing iniistration

Cuban boat people

that

it

special status as political refugees

490

World

Affairs:

United States

Republican legislators. On the other hand, the seemed capable of taking advantage of splits in his opponents' ranks. He was able, for example, to head off some cutbacks in the Environmental Protection Agency, long a demon of many Republicans, after a number of more moderate Senate Republicans reconsidered the measure. In the midst of the new federal diffidence toward expandtiatives of the

president also

ing or defending

its

reach,

Some were

more

initiatives

emerged from

than reactionary, like the decision of Alabama to restore prison road gangs and bring back leg irons (though other states concurred with the notion of a tougher prison regimen less aimed at catering to prisoner comfort). On issues of broader import, however, the states.

many

states

nothing

less

had shown the way

in

endorsing programs of

voucher-driven education and "workfare" for welfare recipients, but many also began to tackle other areas. One of the touchiest and most explosive issues was race-based preferment. In California, Governor Wilson signed an executive

order that abolished almost all affirmative action policies. (President Clinton ordered a review of federal affirmative action policies but then declared that most should continue.) The issue of race, perhaps the most sensitive tissue in the body politic, seemed to be undergoing a different kind of examination on each side of the black-white divide. While whites debated affirmative action, the largest black demonlarger than the 1963 stration in Washington, D.C.'s history march led by Martin Luther King, Jr. took place under the auspices of the black separatist Ix)uis Farrakhan, head

— —

of the Nation of Islam. The "Million Man March" was a powerful demonstration of the concerns of black males

about family disintegration and personal responsibility and endorsed personal and spiritual, rather than governmental, solutions to such ills. The demonstration also gave a powerful boost to the standing of Farrakhan, hitherto considered a mesmerizing but marginal racial demagogue. Race also played an underlying role in the trial of O.J. Simpson, a black television pitchman and former football star, for the slaying of his white former wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and her acquaintance Ronald Goldman. Simpson was acquitted after less than four hours of jury delibera-

The trial's turning points were the fiery, racially tinged address of Simpson defense counsel Johnnie Cochran and

tion.

the discrediting of the Los Angeles police detective

Fuhrman, an investigator of the

slaying

who

Mark

had, long before

boasted to an interviewer of his racial prejudice and his planting of evidence to convict other alleged criminals. Enthusiasm or dismay at the trial outcome seemed to split largely along racial lines, which reinforced the notion that blacks and whites had entirely different views about the nature of the justice .system. In looking anew at afliirmative action, both federal and state governments were following the lead of the Supreme Court. In 1995 the court agreed that affirmative action programs had to meet tests of strict judicial scrutiny to be constitutional. By a 5-4 vote the justices also struck down a Georgia statute that allowed the gerrymandering of elec-

the

trial,

toral districts to

compensate

setback for homosexual

for past racial segregation. In a

activists,

the court ruled that private

parades such as Boston's St. Patrick's Day celebration could exclude those it did not want to participate. In a decision that could prove to be one of the more farreaching of its term, the court set a limit on the federal government's ability to use the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution to impinge on meitters otherwise outside

its

jurisdiction.

The

clause,

which became a corner-

the era of Franklin D. Roosevelt, had been used to justify everything from food standards to civil rights investigations. In overturning the federal Gun-

stone of federal activism

in

Free School Zones Act of 1990, which used the clause to declare the possession of firearms around education sites to be a federal crime, the justices ended its infinite elasticity. On the other hand, the court agreed that no limits could be set on reelection to Congress without a constitutional amendment, a blow to the term-limits movement. In another development relating to interstate commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), once the most powerful bureaucracy in Washington, closed its doors at the end of the year. As of the first day of 1996, it would be no longer in existence. Established in 1887 to curb the power of the railroad "robber barons," the commission at one time had the power to regulate almost everything that across state lines. The deregulation of transportation 1980s had deprived the ICC of most of its reason for existing, but it had survived several attempts to close it. The

moved in the

remaining employees and commissioners were transferred to the

Department of Transportation.

The House on

gifts

from

of Representatives passed a nearly total ban lobbyists,

stringent Senate ban.

following

The measure

in

the

did

wake of

little,

a less

however, to

stem the most questionable source of money for influence, donations to political action committees, and other devices that congressmen used to finance their political survival. House Speaker Gingrich, who had earlier given up a multimillion-dollar book advance from communications mogul Rupert Murdoch, whose vast holdings were much affected by federal oversight, drew a House ethics investigation after questions were raised about his alleged use of GOPAC, a not-for-profit organization, to funnel money to Republican causes. Congress proved itself tough on matters of legislators' sexual behaviour. Sen. Robert Packwood, a Republican who headed the Finance Committee, resigned after the Senate Ethics Committee voted for his expulsion. Packwood had been charged with sexual harassment by 19 women, including a 17-year-old.

On

the most high-profile ethics issue, the turgid White-

water scandal,

little

insight

was gleaned. Much of the focus

of congressional concern had long since shifted from the original property deal, which took place long before the

Clintons reached Washington, to the behaviour of administration officials after the July 1993 suicide of Vincent Foster, the White House counsel and overseer of the Clintons'

personal finances. Deputy Attorney General Philip

Hyman

committee that his department had been forced to stand by while White House Counselor Bernard Nussbaum entered Foster's office and took files

told a Senate investigating

related to the Clinton family's personal affairs.

The senators

were intrigued by telephone logs that showed long conversations between Hillary Rodham Clinton and two of the intruders immediately after the entry. After initially balking. President Clinton agreed at the end of the year to turn over to Senate investigators notes from meetings on the matter. Foreign Affairs. Nothing a president docs is likely to affect the feelings of the American people as much as his decision to send U.S. troops into harm's way. In this. Clinton crossed the Rubicon with his Bosnian policy. The war in the Balkans between Serbs. Croats, and Muslims had been a frustration and a challenge to U.S. diplomacy since its inception. A Vietnam-era protester who had not served in the military, Clinton was sensitive to the difficulty, frequently underlined by his military advisers, in becoming involved in a civil war in a country where American hightech superiority might count for little and the possibility of casualties was high. The scale of the Balkan atrocities perhaps 25(),0()() killed and 3 million displaced in "ethnic and the inability of European allies in NATO cleansing" to find a solution prompted Clinton to act. however.

—

World

Members building

of

in

a

militia

organization

in IVIichigan

Oklahoma, which directed

United States

A man with ties to such a group was charged with the bombing movement and its conspiracy theories and hostility toward the government.

salute the American flag^

attention to the militia

Affairs:

of

491

a federal

MAHK PETERSON— SABA

At first Clinton did so rhetorically, urging a relatively safe bombing campaign against the Bosnian Serbs considered the chief aggressors as a way of halting the war. This did not suit American allies, who pointed out that the U.S. had no UN peacekeeping troops on the ground to worry about. Eventually, however, when the Bosnian Serbs began

—

—

overrunning protected "safe areas" and killing or expelling Muslim inhabitants, Clinton acted, with unhappy results. As NATO aircraft bombed Bosnian Serb artillery positions, the Serbs took over 300 UN peacekeepers hostage and threat-

ened to kill them if the bombing did not stop. In August a sudden Croatian military offensive regained by the Serbs. The offensive, it turned out, was the result of a covert U.S. retraining and reorganizing of the army of Croatian Pres. Franjo Tudjman, part of a policy advocated by Assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke, who had emerged as the maestro of Balkan realpolitik. The next important stage was to bring together Tudjman with Serbian Pres. Slobodan Milosevic and Bosnian Pres. Alija Izetbegovic at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base territory previously taken

near Dayton, Ohio, for talks in November that ended after three weeks with a fragile treaty. The agreement was to be overseen by a 60,000-member NATO force that would keep the enemies apart along 4-km (2.5-m) cease-fire zones. In the long run, the U.S. would train the weaker Muslim army to underpin the peace with a credible balance of power.

The peace accord was

a dramatic vindication of the U.S.'s

role as the only remaining

superpower and a huge

political

Clinton as he entered an election year. Despite assurances that the troops would depart from Bosnia and Herzegovina within a year and would be able to respond with maximum force if attacked, the likelihood of at least risk for

some U.S.

casualties seemed high, and no vital U.S. interest appeared to be served. Public opinion polls registered a

great deal of opposition, but Clinton received support for

from his likely presidential rival, Senator Dole. Other prominent Republicans attacked him for the risky his initiative

venture.

Twenty years after the end of the Vietnam War, Clinton extended diplomatic recognition to Hanoi. The action was greeted with protest by disaffected U.S. military veterans, but it was hailed by American business, which rushed in to make deals long available to European and Asian competitors. Skeptics also growled as the U.S. and North Korea signed a deal in which the U.S. provided two nuclear reactors in exchange for an agreement by the economically battered regime of Kim Jong II that it would dismantle its nuclear enrichment program, widely seen as a prelude to acquiring nuclear weapons. Under congressional pressure, Clinton reversed a decadeold policy that had kept Taiwan's head of state, Pres. Lee Teng-hui, from setting foot on U.S. soil, a bow to China's claim to be the sole legitimate government. The administration decided to allow Lee to visit his alma mater, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., to receive an honorary degree. The action led to strong statements from China about subversive American intentions, the punitive awarding of lucrative automotive contracts to non-American firms, and a tougher stance toward selected dissidents. China's continuing desire to gain entry to the world trading community, however, made it unlikely that the U.S. gesture would permanently mar relations with the world's most populous nation.

(GEORGE RUSSELL) See also Dependent

States.

by Congress.

Special Report

The House

version passed, but owing to the

substantively different configuration of the Senate

bill,

the

were sent to conference in June 1995. The Taking Back Our Streets Act was the House Republicans' crime-fighting measure (H.R. 3). It shifted federal spending from crime-prevention programs to prison construction, called for hiring more police officers, and limited the appeal rights of death-row inmates. The House Judiciary Committee divided H.R. 3 into smaller bills, all of which passed. The Senate began hearings on its bill (S. 3) on July

bills

The "Contract" with America BY NINA MASSEN

27, 1995.

Responsibility Act was a welfare-reform bill capping welfare spending, encouraging a reduction in illegitimacy by prohibiting welfare benefits to mothers under 18, and creating several large block grants for the states for items such as child care, school meals, and nutrition for young children. Additions to the bill allowed for childsupport enforcement and a capped food-stamp-entitlement program. The House bill (H.R. 4) passed on March 24, 1995. A watered-down version of the bill was passed by the Senate after nearly 100 hours of debate on Sept. 19, 1995. The Family Reinforcement Act was drafted to provide tax breaks for child adoption and elder care, toughen penalties for child pornographers, and protect the privacy rights of minors and their parents. Bills encompassing this legislation passed the House on April 4, 1995, followed by Senate

The Personal

aimed

Fortified with a significant electoral victory on Day 1994, Republican leader Newt Gingrich, speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives,

Election the

new

initiated

a 10-point legislative program called the "Contract with America," a mix of promises to repeal existing statutes and promises to enact new legislation that was based on a document signed the previous September by many Republican candidates. The agenda targeted a vast array of areas in which government action was to be enhanced, redirected, or eliminated. The scope of the mandate was equaled only by the speed with which the speaker and his House colleagues promised that the package would be enacted: a

mere 100

days.

at

The Contract was headline news for much of the first 100 days of the new Congress. There was debate over the

passage two days

substantive merits of the individual pieces of the legislative package as well as discussion of whether the 10 planks,

provide tax relief for middle-income families by providing a $500-per-child tax credit, reform the so-called marriage penalty, and authorize more flexible individual retirement accounts (IRAs). The House passed H.R. 6 in early April 1995, whereas the Senate bill entered hearings on June

taken as a whole, would create a fundamentally new relationship between the federal government, the states, and

the electorate. Proponents and opponents of the Contract recognized that even if the House passed each of the 10 planks, the ultimate success of the Contract lay with the

Senate, the president, and ultimately the voters, would have to approve of the measures.

all

of

whom

What was absent from the debate, however, was any discussion of whether the Contract was in fact a legal contract. Was the title selected to fit neatly into the nine-secondsound-bite style of 20th-century American politics, or was it a throwback to Jean-Jacques Rousseau's 18th-century social contract? If the term contract was to be taken literally,

then a routine application of traditional contract principles raised the possibility that the Contract, regardless of any substantive merit, did not embody a meeting of the minds

between the governing and the governed. The 10 parts of the Contract with America were variously to try to capture the essence of the legislation the Fiscal Responsibility Act, for example. As the 10 parts wound their way through the legislative process, fulfillment titled

of each basic plank required passage of a group of splinter bills. In the end, however, all but one of the 10 initial

—the

measures

Citizen Legislature Act

—was

approved by

House in 100 days, by April 13, 1995. The Fiscal Responsibility Act contained two budgetary reforms: a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget and a permanent line-item veto. As initially posed, the balanced budget bill (H.J. Res. 1) would be an amendment to the Constitution to require that the federal budget

the

be balanced by the year 2002 or two years after enactment of the amendment, whichever was later. The bill passed the

House but

failed in the Senate.

The

line-item veto

bill

(H.R. 2) would give the president the authority to veto specific portions of appropriations acts, unless overridden

The main goals of the National Security Restoration Act were twofold: to prohibit further cuts in defense spending to finance social-spending programs and to prohibit the use of American troops in UN operations under foreign control. The bill (H.R. 7) passed the House on Feb. 16, 1995. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee began hearings on the Senate bill on March 21, 1995. The Senior Citizens' Fairness Act was intended to relieve the financial burdens of the American elderly by permitting them to earn up to $30,000 per year without losing Social Security benefits, repealing the 1993 law that Social Security benefits subject to

an attorney and author who

lives in Westchester,

N.

Y.

income

made 85%

of

tax for middle-

and upper-income persons, and granting a tax incentive to encourage the purchase of long-term-care insurance. The House passed the bill, and the Senate version went into hearings on June 19, 1995. The Job Creation and Wage Enhancement Act was actually several bills that sought to reduce the capital-gains tax, strengthen individuals' property rights, reduce governmental red tape, and overhaul the governmental regulatory process. Four bills, not including the capital-gains reduction, were passed as H.R. 9 and were referred to the Senate on March 9, 1995. (H.R. 1215, which included a decrease in capitalgains taxes, passed the House on April 5.) The Common Sense Legal Reforms Act (H.R. 10) en-

compassed a number of

legal

reforms, including limiting

punitive damages, instituting a modified "loser pays" rule to

discourage litigation, and limiting product manufacturers' liability. Portions of the bill, which was split into several provisions, were passed by both the House and the Senate, whereas other provisions were calendared in the Senate.

House would have limited the number of terms of House and Senate members. The measure failed in

The

is

to

19, 1995.

joint

Nina Massen

later.

The American Dream Restoration Act was intended

final bill,

resolution

the Citizen Legislature Act. was a that

both chambers. Thus, only two contract proposals actually received congressional approval before the 100 days were up: a bill curtailing the ability of Congress to impose "unfunded mandates" on the states and legislation making the House and Senate subject to health, safety, labour, and civil rights laws.

promised that they would usher through the House a legislative platform that reflected the issues of most concern to the electorate if the American public promised to elect them

November. The first difficulty, though, is determining whether the offer was definite as to the essential terms and whether it was communicated to the to those seats in in

At the end of the 100 days, the House Republicans celebrated the fulfillment of their part of the bargain while House Democrats challenged that appraisal or warned that Republican successes did not bode well for the country.

offerees, the voting public.

most of "the country" did not know that they were parties to a contract. A New York Times/CBS News poll of 1,089 adults conducted April 1-4, 1995, found that only 38% had read or heard anything about it. In a USA Today-CNN-GaWup poll of 1,015 adults on March 2729, 1995, 47% of those polled said that they were unaware of proposals contained in the Contract with America. This raised the question of whether a contract existed at all. A contract is a legally enforceable agreement in which

was consideration supporting the Contract that is, an exchange of something of value for a promise of performance. Arguably, the voters gave up the right to elect another candidate on the promise that the House Republicans candidates would come through with their promise, but it is not clear what consideration sup-

Polls indicated that

the parties manifest an intention to contract,

commonly

referred to as a "meeting of the minds." There are two basic types of contracts: bilateral

and

unilateral,

and most

contracts are bilateral, which requires an exchange of

mu-

The

lack of

communication

is

best evidenced by the poll results referred to above, which

indicate that

tracted for. is

most voters did not know what they had con-

More important from

a legal perspective, there

a question of whether there

—

ported the House Republican promise in the first instance. Furthermore, as the Contract with America was presented

form after the election, it is arguable that, at was only past consideration supporting the Contract, because once the House Republicans were elected, they had a preexisting duty to heed the mandate of their in

final

its

best, there

constituencies. In the absence of consideration, there

is

not

between the promisor and the promisee. (A unilateral contract, on the other hand, is one in which the offer anticipates performance rather than a reciprocal promise.) Formation of a contract requires mutual assent, consideration, and the absence of any legal or factual bar

a contract but a

to the creation of the contract.

It is also arguable that the Contract unenforceable because the American public made a "unilateral mistake" (a mistake or misunderstanding as to the terms or effect of a contract, made by one of the parties to it but not by the other) in accepting the offer. Although unilateral mistake is usually insufficient to prevent formation of a contract, there is an exception that could apply here. When the unmistaken party (the House Republicans) knows or has reason to know of the mistake made by the other party (the electorate), the unmistaken party would not be permitted to take advantage of the offer. The media spectacle surrounding the announcement of the Contract and its completion by the House, as promised, in 100 days has faded. To be sure, the close of 1995 provided two opportunities for the resuscitation of the Contract with America the budget debate, with its partial shutdowns of the government, and the upcoming 1996 presidential election and the Contract played its part. In the budget debate, polls indicated that voters were not willing to sacrifice Medicare, on top of the pullback of federal entitlements, to achieve a balanced budget or substantial tax reductions. On the election front, the Contract was now a litmus test against which declared and undeclared candidates were to be measured. Even here, though, a candidate's adherence to the 10 planks of the original Contract might turn out to be less important than his or her stand on such issues as abortion or school prayer. Thus, the Contract with America has become much more, and much less, than it was when first announced. As a legislative agenda comprising 10 specific planks, it has all but disappeared from the landscape. On the other hand, the Contract with America has become a code word defining adherence to Republican ideological orthodoxy. From a legal perspective, however, one has reason to doubt the legitimacy and enforceability of the undertaking, owing to the absence of a meeting of the minds. History will show whether the Contract with America was a revolution or a media ploy, but the law does not need to wait that long whatever it is, or will become, in a legal sense the Contract with America is not a contract at all.

tual promises

Mutual assent

consists of an offer

—which

can be man-

and acceptance. There must be certainty in its essential terms, and the offer must be communicated to the offeree. Acceptance is the manifestation of assent to the terms of the offer. It follows that knowledge of the offer is required before there can be a valid acceptance, and silence is rarely an acceptance. In a bilateral contract, acceptance

is

mani-

fested by the exchange of a counterpromise. (In a unilateral

contract an offer can be accepted by undertaking the desired performance.)

Moreover, there must be consideration, or something of value exchanged for the other party's promise, for a con-

be enforceable. For example, consideration can be doing something, or promising to do something, one is otherwise not legally obligated to do. It follows that past consideration that is, the performance of an already existing duty does not suflSce, on the theory that one cannot bargain for something that is already accomplished. Thus, the performance of a preexisting duty is not consideration. When these basic principles are applied to the Contract with America, it is questionable whether a legal contract exists at all. If the Contract is a unilateral one, then there must have been an offer and acceptance by means of performance of the desired act. The difficulty is that the House Republicans appear to have made the offer to the American public to enact the 10-point platform but then performed it themselves. The promisor and the promisee were the same tract to

—

—

entity.

On

the other hand,

electorate that

candidates for to elect tract."

you

in

it

is

conceivable that

made the unilateral House seats, to the

it

was the

offer to the Republican

effect that "we promise exchange for your performance of the Con-

This scenario

is

legally plausible but unrealistic, given

more than

half of the citizens questioned could not identify or situate the Contract with America, an essential

that

term of any contract. The Contract with America goes a little farther as a bilateral contract. The exchange of mutual promises could be that the Republican candidates for election to the House

for a legal or factual bar,

one might question whether

the parties had legal capacity to contract, particularly given the fact that most Americans subsequently stated that they either did not

not

by a promise, an undertaking, or a commitment

ifested

As

gift.

know

its

is

—

—

—

know

they were party to a contract or did

contents.

In

the United States and Canada,

Religious Crimes outlawed tribal religions and established Courts of Indian Offenses, staffed by cooperative

ernment's

Code

tribal cultures exist in a delicate,

somewhat precarious balance relto the power and interests of the dominant European cultures. Now, however, national policy in both countries seems to be moving in a ative

direction that favours

—the

commodates tive American

—or

to

Museum

tribes. in

in its ful

in

deemed

ob-

The Navajo Nation

property of the Oneida Nation York. The Field Museum of

Chicago responded

bead

wampum

belt

and recog-

nized the right of the

Pawnee

Oklahoma

two other

to possess

tribe in

significant pieces in

its

col-

Elk Standing Village Bundle and the Big Black Meteorite Bundle. Such transfers of culturally significant materials represent a dramatic change in public policy. For many years the American Indian peoples of both the United States and Canada were perceived as a vanishing race unfortunate, but inevitable, victims of Western civilization's march toward perfection. Today these tribes are not usually depicted as teetering on the brink of cultural or physical extinction. In fact, many members of U.S. Indian tribes and Canada's First Nations actively engage in cultural nurturing and revitalization, including new emphasis on tribal government, identification of stable sources for group economic well-being, and encouragement of the use of indigenous languages. There is also increased concern about the preservation of sacred sites and the repatriation of sacred lection, the Little

—

objects.

The Indian developed

in

com-

religions proved unsuccessful. Although those religions often bent to the winds of change, the old belief systems did not break. Today organized religions such as the Native American Church enjoy broad, intertribal support. Other forms of worship, linked to the land and a belief in myriad spiritual forces, also thrive. The legal battles surrounding the preservation of sacred sites and repatriation tribal

similarly to the Oneidas' claim to a shell

re-

instilling

Ultimately, both U.S. and Canadian efforts to eradicate or control

New

in

fol-

mon, property.

mask

possession was in fact the right-

Natural History

deleterious to

spect for private, as opposed to

Ariz., stip-

False Face

and pursuits." The

ceremonies among Northwest Pacific Coast tribes because the practice was

museums agreed

wooden

"adopting and following

lowing year the Canadian Indian Act banned communal potlatch giveaway

promotion of NaDuring 1995,

Window Rock,

ulated that a

Indians in

civilized habits

at least ac-

to repatriate culturally sensitive jects

"progressive" tribe members, to aid

heritage.

for example, several

Indian

virtually

policies of the U.S. and Canada have long tandem. In 1883, for example, the U.S. gov-

of sacred objects have so far largely taken place

in

though developments are keenly watched by the ples of

Canada

the U.S.,

tribal

peo-

as well.

Religions throughout the world hold certain geographic locations sacred to their systems of belief.

Hopi, a Puebloan people

who have

Many among

the

lived in northeastern Ari-

zona since prehistoric times, think of the San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff as the home of the kachinas, supernatural beings who help bring rain to their arid fields. Likewise, Hopi make pilgrimages to the sipapu, a site near the confluence of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers in the Grand Canyon, believing their ancestors emerged at that spot after

escaping from a flood that inundated their previous home below the earth's crust. Some American Indian sacred sites are located on tribal land, still

some on government

others on private property.

No

matter where a

land,

and

site is lo-

cated, however,

its care and condition remain of paramount concern to believers. Understandably, many Hopi resent the presence of ski operations on the San Francisco Peaks.

Likewise, the vitality of a tribal religion depends on control of the objects

it

its

holds sacred. Basically, repatriation

involves the return to tribal control of such culturally sensi-

human remains that may have been recovered during archaeological investigations and physical paraphernalia intimately entwined in the tapestry of indigenous religion. Examples include the Lakota's White Buffalo Calf tive items as

Woman

pipe, the Arapaho's flat pipe,

sacred arrows

—

all

and the Cheyenne's

currently un.der tribal control.

Although museums and governmental institutions in North America have sometimes dealt with Indians' concern about sacred sites and objects in a casual and ad hoc fashion, the U.S. legal code is undergoing fundamental changes in response to mounting pressures from tribal peoples. In 1978, reversing the long-standing policy of persecuting, or at best ignoring, tribal religions, the U.S. Congress passed the

American Indian Religious Freedom Act. AIRFA commits the federal government to protecting and preserving "for American Indians their inherent right of freedom to believe, express, and exercise the traditional religions including but not limited to access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects, and the freedom to worship through ceremonials and traditional rites." The Archaeological Resources .

.

.

Protection Act of 1979 restricts the removal of "archaeological resources on public lands and Indian lands," categorizing

such materials as "an accessible and irreplaceable part of the Nation's heritage." In some jurisdictions the legal protection now has been extended to cover artifacts on private land as well. This may be leading in the direction of Roman

which held that recovered objects of antiquity were the property of the entire nation. Although this is not yet the position of the U.S. or Canadian government, the concept appears to be gaining some currency in both nations. law,

Through the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990, U.S. law addresses not only human remains (also covered in the National Mu-

seum of

the

American Indian Act of

1989, which focuses

on

the return of remains housed at the Smithsonian Institution)

but "sacred objects" as well, defined as "ceremonial objects which are needed by traditional Native American religious leaders for the practice of traditional Native American religions by their present day adherents." also defines "cultural patrimony" as "an object having ongoing

NAGPRA

or cultural importance central to the Native American group or culture itself, rather than property owned by an individual Native American, and which, therefore, cannot be alienated, appropriated, or conveyed historical, traditional,

by any individual regardless of whether or not the individual is a member of the Indian tribe." Because ownership is communal, an object of cultural patrimony is "considered inalienable by such Native American group at the time the object was separated from such group."

NAGPRA allows tribes to press claims for the repatriation of certain categories of objects from any institution receiving federal funds. There is no statute of limitations. Some

NAGPRA

of the objects returned to tribal control under include: a Hopi Koyemsi (Mudhead) mask, a bandolier used in

the Navajo

Enemyway ceremony,

carvings, the Elk

several

Zuni war god

Tongue Beaver Bundle of

the Blackfeet,

and 31,651 funerary objects sacred to the Pawnee. The repatriation of objects under NAGPRA remains controversial, but sacred sites issues are perhaps even more difficult to resolve, especially

when

the sites in question are

no longer under tribal control. In United States v. Sioitx Nation of Indians (1980), for example, the U.S. Supreme Court

A young Nez Perce woman

stands on ancestral land in Idaho and gazes toward the sky. Like other American Indian peoples, the Nez Perce have begun to nurture their traditional culture, which includes speaking indigenous languages and preserving sacred sites.

PHIL

BOHGES

ruled that the government's 1877 acquisition of the Black

South Dakota from the seven Lakota tribes Although the Lakota were offered substantial monetary compensation, all seven tribal governments refused to accept payment, insisting upon the return of the land they regard as a holy place. As far as the Lakota are concerned, the issue remains unresolved. Conflicts over sites of religious significance can occur between tribes as well or even divide a single tribe. Some Navajo in northern Arizona, for example, revere sites in the Chuska Mountains, while others work for the tribe's logging company that harvests timber in the Chuskas. Strip-mining of coal on Black Mesa, another site of spiritual significance, is offensive to some Navajo despite support for the mining corporation by the Navajo tribal government. One might expect the First Amendment to the U.S. ConHills region of

was

extralegal.

—

some protection to sacred places, but has not been the case to date. In Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association (1987), the Supreme Court announced that the government's use of federal land thought of as sacred by an Indian tribe does not impose an onerous burden on the free exercise of religion, even if stitution to provide this

that use results in the physical destruction of the site.

the freedom of religion issue

ceptions about sacred

sites.

lies at

As

Still,

the core of tribal per-

the Lyng case implies, this

something of an ambiguous area

in U.S. law, a condition almost certainly attributable to the fact that Indian religions were long grouped with superstitions. This view seems to be losing favour, although Euro-American conceptions of property rights will require considerable adjustment to acis

commodate

the spiritual needs and claims of the continent's

oldest inhabitants.

Ron McCoy

is

director of the Center for Great Plains Stud-

Emporia (Kansas) State University and is the author of Kiowa Memories: Images from Indian Territory, 1880. ies at

496

World

State

Affairs:

and Local

United States

Affairs

The

U.S. states were at the epicentre of national policy debates during 1995. The

Republican Congress attempted to transfer responsibility back to state and local levels. Although budget disagreements at year-end prevented any substantial transfer of federal funding to states via block grants, the trend toward increased state powers during the year was unmistakable.

The

states

continued

their

leadership

role in devising innovative answers to so-

concerns, from welfare to corrections to health care. The crackdown on crime continued to have repercussions, with state prison populations topping the one million mark for the first time. A strong national economy and conservative-trending politics led to record state tax cuts during the year. Affirmative action was challenged in California, the nation's most populous state, and measures allo,wing the carrying of concealed weapons were approved in several states, but the enthusiasm for limiting the terms of public officials stalled. Party Strengths. After two consecutive years of substantial advances, Republicans failed to make additional major gains in 1995 state elections. Persistent party switching, particularly in the South, however, gave the Republicans control of more state legislative chambers at year-end than at any other time since the early 1930s. In November gubernatorial balloting Republicans wrested away one additional governorship, in Louisiana, boosting their total to 31. Democrats had 18 governorships at year-end, with one (Maine) held by an cial

independent.

Democrats gained an edge in limited offyear legislative elections. In the most closely watched balloting. Democrats thwarted a Republican assault on both of Virginia's legislative chambers, although Republicans did manage a tie in the state Senate. Going into 1995, Republicans controlled both houses in 20 legislatures, with Democrats having two-house majorities in 19. Party switches during the year reduced the Democrats' control to \1 states. Following the November balloting. Republicans had control of legislatures in

19 states

and Democrats in (Nebraska had a

with 14 states split. unicameral, nonpartisan legislature.) Ciovernment Structures and Powers. Federalism the distribution of power between Washington, D.C., and the states enjoyed a resurgence in 1995. Governors, state legislators, the Republican Congress, and the nation's courts all participated. The United States Supreme Court gave states victories in such areas as health care spending, welfare, school desegregation, prisoner lawsuits, and parole policy. For its part. Congress moved toward giving back the responsibility and funding, via block grants, to states in areas such as welfare, Medicaid, and job training. Larly in the year. Congress overwhelmingly approved a law curbing "unfunded mandates," federal laws imposed on states without funds for their enforcement. State officials lobbied Washington virtually nonstop during the year lor fewer strings on 16,

—

—

Governors were compromise on Medicaid grants, the health program for low-income citizens. Both congressional and state Republicans generally favoured federally assisted programs.

particularly active in seeking a

block grants for such programs. Democrats were less enthusiastic, worrying that states would abandon support for the poor. No significant changes were instituted, however, largely because of unresolved disagreements with Pres. Bill Clinton. The states were affected by the two partial federal shutdowns over the budget late in the year. Fearing the loss of revenue from tourism, Arizona Gov. Fife Symington, for

example, sent National Guard troops to the Grand Canyon in November in an attempt to reopen the national park, shuttered in the budget fight. A month later Arizona and New Mexico averted a second lockout by using state funds to keep furloughed federal park workers on the job at the Grand Canyon and Carlsbad Caverns. In a startling 5-4 ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the Gun-Free School Zone Act of 1990 as an unconstitutional federal infringement on state powers. It was the first time since 1935 that the high court had thrown out a federal law on the grounds that the Congress had exceeded its authority under the

when

commerce

clause.

Even

however, the Supreme Court's reasoning heartened advocates of federalism. In another 5-4 decision invalidating 23 state laws setting term limits for Congress, a solid minority maintained that states must be allowed to exercise all powers not specifically withheld from them by the states

lost,

the Constitution. a

The trend toward federalism produced number of developments with major in-

fluences on everyday

lives. After Congress repealed the speed-limit mandate on states in November, for example, only five (Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, New Jersey, and Rhode Island) opted to retain the 55-

mph limit in nonurban areas. Most states went to 65 or 70 mph as a new limit, but Nevada and Wyoming immediately allowed 75 mph. Montana abolished daytime speed limits entirely but kept a

65-mph

limit at

night.

At year-end. Congress banned states from taxing the pension income of former residents living in other states. BRIAN PLONKA

A

The

five-year trend toward imposing term on public officials seemed to stall during 1995. Not only did the Supreme Court

limits

attempts to cap congres-

invalidate state sional terms, but

no new

state legislatures

joined the 23 states that previously had imposed limits. In the only general balloting on the idea, Mississippi voters in November rejected a proposal to limit the terms of most state officials. North Carolina joined the other 49 states in granting veto authority to its governor. "The constitutional

amendment was

subject to ratification by

state voters in 1996.

Oregon enacted a law requiring special elections to be held via mail balloting. At year-end, filling an open U.S. Senate seat, Oregon staged the nation's first congressional election

Although

conducted entirely by mail. worried about possible

critics

electioneering misconduct, no serious fraud complaints were reported. Maryland legislators rebelled after Gov.

Glendening promised professional team owners substantial concessions for relocating teams to Maryland. After the governor offered to pay $78 million for road improvements in Prince Georges county for the Washington Redskins and to build a $200 million stadium in Baltimore rent-free for the Cleveland Browns, legislators ordered renegotiations. Finances. Buoyed by an expanding economy and spurred by Republican political Parris

football

advances, the states cut taxes by $1.1 billion during 1995, the biggest aggregate state tax cut in a decade. Combined with previously enacted cuts, the overall tax liability of residents fell by $3.1 billion during the year, a record drop. The reduction in taxes would have been even greater, analysts said, except for fears about the effects of federal deficit reduction and of the devolution of greater responsibilities to the states.

Personal income levies were the source of the bulk of state tax cuts. Arizona, Delaware, and New Jersey cut personal income rates, while the top rates in California and New York fell under previous

COPLEY NEWS SERVICE

home, one of the ways medical providers were trying to cut costs. Proposals to slow the growth of Medicare and to convert Medicaid into a state block-grant program met with strong resistance from groups advocating lor the elderly and the poor. patient receives care at

World

—

A

legislation. number of states including Arizona, Delaware, Iowa, Michigan, North Carolina, and Ohio increased personal exemptions and standard deductions. Connecticut also granted a personal credit for property taxes, while Iowa and Virginia increased their pension exclusions for re-

—

and New York expanded its earned income credit for low-income workers. Montana and Oregon authorized large personal income tax rebates during the year. Business taxes were reduced in three states; Michigan and Pennsylvania trimmed major corporate taxes, while Oregon also provided business tax rebates. Only three Hawaii, South Dakota, and Verstates tirees,

mont

— —authorized

creases,

significant overall tax in-

and some of

their levies

were

offset

by local tax reductions.

Although several

extended health care provider taxes that were due to expire, three states Illinois, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island reduced levies on Medicaid providers. Sales tax changes were minor, with Kansas and Washington providing additional exemptions and South Dakota broadening its sales tax base in order to

—

states

—

provide property tax

relief.

Among were

excise tax actions, cigarette taxes raised in Arizona (by voter initiative),

Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin. Washington's cigarette tax rose to 81.5 cents per pack on July 1, the highest in the U.S. New Mexico and New York reduced motor fuels taxes, and Oregon reduced trucker taxes, while Connecticut boosted its gas levy. North Carolina repealed its intangibles tax. Utah and Washington reduced statewide property taxes. Idaho, South Carolina, and Wisconsin provided local property tax relief by putting more state funds into schools. Pennsylvania repealed an inheritance tax on surviving spouses, and Kentucky began a four-year phaseout of its inheritance tax.

Education. In December a coalition of 21 western state governors announced plans for developing a "virtual university" over the next decade. Students would have access to classroom and teaching materials via computers, television, the Internet, and other high-tech devices, making long-distance learning a reality. Alabama approved a new education law specifically allowing educators to impose corporal punishment. Health and Welfare. As the U.S. Congress deliberated over reform of the welfare system, widely judged a failure nationwide, states continued to create innovative solutions on their own. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire joined Indi-

ana and Wisconsin in tough new legislation requiring the poor to work. The new laws required all able-bodied welfare recipients with no children under age six to work, granted credits to businesses hiring them, and assigned public service duties if jobs were not available. Arkansas, Maryland, New Jersey, New typically

minimum

hospital care.

dated the provision of

The new laws man48 hours of normal birth and

at least

hospital care following a

96 hours following a cesarean section. Similar laws were pending in eight other states. Montana, New Mexico, Utah, and West Virginia joined nine other states approving medical savings accounts. The accounts were designed to reduce health care consumption by making consumers responsible for their own health payments.

A

federal court invalidated a state law allowing Oregon doctors to prescribe lethal doses of medication for dying patients. The judge declared that the law, approved by state voters in 1994, violated the U.S. Constitution's equal protection clause. Reversing a 20-year national trend, Washington became the first state to toughen its law on runaway youngsters. The new measure allowed police to pick up runaways and return them to their parents, required schools to report all truancies, and permitted parents to commit their children for drug or mental health care. Most states had previously decriminalized running away, leaving parents without legal recourse. Massachusetts began putting the names and pictures of individuals in arrears on child-support payments on the Internet. The state's revenue department had previously sponsored a successful "Ten Most Wanted" poster campaign. Maryland joined California, Utah, Ver-

mont, and Washington in banning smoking in most workplaces. Massachusetts joined Florida, Minnesota, Mississippi, and

West

year-end. Ethics. Arkansas Gov. Jim Guy Tucker was indicted on June 7 by a federal grand jury on three felony counts alleging conspiracy to defraud the Internal Revenue Service and Small Business Administration

over cable television contracts. Tucker was charged again on August 17 on an additional fraud count alleging loan laundering to deceive state and federal authorities. The charges were pressed by an independent counsel investigating the role of present and former Arkansas officials and bankers

Whitewater affair. Joseph Salema, chief of staff to former New Jersey governor James Florio, pleaded guilty on February 23 to one count in a kickback payment scheme to direct municipal bond business. In Florida, a former Escambia county commissioner was among in the so-called

March 3 to bribery Former Pennsylvania attorney general Ernie Preate was sentenced to 14 months in prison on December 15 those pleading guilty on in a similar case.

after pleading guilty to felony mail fraud.

Preate was accused of having failed to report $20,000 in campaign contributions from video poker operators. Minnesota's Democrat-Farmer-Labor Party was jolted during the fall when six state representatives and two state senators were arrested on various unrelated charges ranging from domestic assault and shoplifting to felony drunk driving and fraud. One

and assets. When critics noted that college coaches were specifically exempted, Alabama's governor promised remedial legisla-

they had served their sentences, was invalidated by a federal court on the grounds that it punished an offender twice for a single crime. Ohio voters approved a measure requiring the governor to consult with parole authorities before cutting any prison sentences. Pennsylvania voters allowed children to testify via videotape or television

tion in 1996.

in

highly charged cases.

Alabama

legisla-

unique law requiring rape victims to pay up to $200 for a forensic tors repealed a

examination. States continued to ease restrictions on concealed weapons. Following action in

—

a dozen states, only eight states Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Nebraska, New

Mexico, Ohio, and Wisconsin

— now

gen-

After 18 consecutive years of legislative approval followed by gubernatorial vetoes. New York in March became the 38th state to provide for capital punishment. States executed 56 convicts during 1995, the high-

New Jer-

death over the same period, however, which left some 3,100 inmates on death row at

Laws and Justice. Washington state's sexual predator law, the first in the nation to keep sex criminals in confinement after

A

techniques by approving "patient protection acts" to preserve the choice of doctors. The Arkansas law was particularly tough, allowing any person under managed-care to go to "any willing provider" of medical

Maryland and

497

defendant, charged with 24 counts of conspiracy, bribery, mail fraud, and theft, offered a novel defense; Sen. Harold ("Skip") Finn claimed that the federal government could not legally prosecute him because he was a Native American. federal judge rejected the argument. new ethics law in Alabama required all public employees making $50,000 or more to publicly report all outside income, debts,

York, Oregon, and Wyoming moved to combat excessive managed-care cost-saving

sey required health insurers to provide new mothers and their children with specified

United States

Virginia in suing the tobacco industry to recover $1 billion in state-paid health costs. federal appeals court overturned a Colorado constitutional amendment that prohibited the state from funding abortions except in cases where the mother's life was at risk. The state had to pay for abortions as long as it accepted federal Medicaid money, the court ruled.

from carguns for self-protection. Florida had led the trend with a 1987 law, and gun enthusiasts noted that the state's homicide rate had dropped significantly in the ensuing eight years.

services. Statutes in

Affairs:

erally prohibited private citizens

rying concealed

est total since capital

punishment was

rein-

stated by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1976. Nearly 200 individuals were sentenced to

A

A

Prisons. Accelerated state

prison con-

open new beds. Acthe U.S. Department of Justice,

struction continued to

cording to

the number of state prisoners surged by 9.1% during the year to reach 1,004,608 at midyear. The jump, the largest annual increase in the nation's history, meant that the U.S. was locking up a larger percentage its residents than any other nation. Inmate growth was attributed to stiff mandatory sentences for violent and drug crimes, toughened parole rules, and an increased likelihood of being imprisoned once arrested. A 1995 Department of Jus-

of

tice study showed that 104 of every 1,000 persons arrested for drug offenses went to prison, compared with only 19 of every

1,000 in 1980. In part because federal and state sentencing guidelines mandated stifTer sentences for crack cocaine, used mainly by blacks,

than for powder cocaine, used mostly by civil rights groups charged racial discrimination in the faster growth of minority inmates. Only 13% of the U.S. population was black, but blacks accounted for nearly half of the nation's prisoner population. Some 6.8% of all black male adults were in prison or jail at midyear, compared with less than 1% of white male adults. whites,

498

World

Affairs:

United States

Rights. Federal courts continued wrestle with the constitutionality of black-majority congressional districts drawn to ensure minority representation, but no clear guidelines emerged. Judges threw out black-majority districts in Georgia, North Carolina, and Texas on the grounds that they were drawn primarily for racial reaCivil

to

sons.

new

The U.S. Supreme Court heard two cases in the fall, however, and experts

awaited more definitive rulings

For the

first

in

1996.

time, substantial opposition

to the concept of affirmative action

emerged

Several stales joined President research on the effectiveness of affirmative action programs. California Gov. Pete Wilson banned most affirmative action hiring and contracting by slate agencies, pushed the University of California to drop admissions policies that favoured applicants according to race, and in the states.

Clinton

in initiating

even sued

Prisoners in Alabanna have tlieir leg irons adjusted before beginning work on a chain gang along a highway. Not since the 1980s had a U.S. state shackled prisoners with leg irons, but Alabama officials pledged to crack down on criminals and problem prisoners and also wanted to cut costs. DONNA BINDER IMPACT VISUALS

Another study showed that at midyear a record 2.9 million adults were on probation and another 690,000 on parole following a prison sentence. Probation and parole populations nationwide had tripled since 1980. The beginnings of a backlash against spiraling convict populations were evident during the year, however. New York's newly elected Republican Gov. George Pataki successfully proposed repealing a mandatory prison law for drug convictions. Seventeen other states enacted presumptive sentencing rules designed to ensure that prison beds went first to violent offenders. Another trend involved making prison life as unpleasant as possible. Arizona. Florida, and Mississippi joined Alabama in reinstituting high-profile, well-publicized chain gangs for inmate work. More than a dozen approved regulations restricting prisoner access to amenities such as weight-lifting equipment, television, and telephones. states

California

became

the

first

state to prohibit

inmates from being interviewed by journalists. Five states restricted tobacco use by prisoners, and Kansas, Oregon, Texas, and

Utah banned smoking altogether. Reacting to what was perceived calating

abuse of the

as es-

process,

the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that most state prisoner lawsuits complaining about the '"ordinary incidents of prison life should be dismissed. The ruling promised to reduce the more than 30,()()() federal suits filed annually by state prisoners, most of which were considered a costly nuisance by legal

"

administrators.

A

rights activists.

The Environment. California put the brakes on antismog regulations that would have required automakers to sell more than 20,000 electric-powered cars per year in the state starting in

nationwide trend toward contracting

out correctional facility construction and operation to private firms continued during the year. Tiiirty-two states

during the year. Legislators in Florida and New York approved proposals to set up casino gambling in selected areas, subject to voter approval in 1996. Several problems arose in gambling, however. Prominent Louisiana legislators were subpoenaed in a federal probe of alleged payoffs to protect gambling interests, and in Mississippi eight persons were indicted on charges of fixing blackjack games. Casino gambling bills were rejected in Alabama and Pennsylvania, and the proposed expansion of riverboat gambling to the Chicago area stalled in the Illinois legislature. Governors in Michigan and Texas rejected the expansion of gambling in their states. Backers of a Washington state initiative to allow video poker and slot machines in American Indian casinos came up with a unique selling point; they offered to share 10% of all profits with everyone who voted in the November election, or an estimated $100 per voter every year. In a resulting backlash, critics charged gaming proponents with trying to buy votes, and the measure was defeated. The Alaska legislature allowed organizers of the Iditarod sled dog race to stage a fund-raising sweepstakes. Sponsors of the $2 million annual race were fewer in recent years because of protests from animal

had established

statutory authority to contract for private corrections by year-end, and nearly 50,000 prisoners were being held in 88 secure adult facilities run by private companies. Advocates said that privatization, growing by an estimated 25% per year, was already saving taxpayers at least $150 million annually. (iambling. Proponents of slate-sanctioned games of chance had mixed luck

1998.

The

reversal

came

domestic and foreign manufacturers complained that the best available battery technology did not allow sufficient after both

range.

Several states tangled with the federal

government over a tough new centralized emissions testing regulation imposed under the 1990 Clean Air Act. Connecticut, Maine, New Jersey, New York, and Texas

his

own

slate

government

clude "multiracial" as a classification for people having parents of different races. "Other" was no longer to be used. federal appeals court ordered South Carolina to establish a comparable, separate collegiate program for women or else to enroll a woman at the Citadel, a state-supported military school. The woman was admitted, but after encountering difficulty with the rigorous physical drills, she dropped out. California became the first state prohibiting employers from refusing to allow employees to wear pants solely on the basis of their sex. By a 53^7% margin, Maine voters rejected a ballot initiative prohibiting state laws that protected homosexuals as a group. The bill's sponsors said that they were outspent 12-1 by out-of-state gay rights groups, but the winners hailed the result as a rejection of right-wing discrimination. Consumer Protection. Massachusetts joined Maryland and Vermont in requiring that consumers receive free access to their credit reports. The new Massachusetts law held providers of credit information legally liable for mistakes on a report. About 20 states now had some type of credit-report-

A

ing regulation.

5^

In a decision, the U.S. Supreme upheld a Florida law prohibiting lawyers from sending sales letters to accident victims or their relatives within 30 days of the mishap. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, writing for the majority, justified the law as preventing lawyers from "engaging

Court

in

conduct that

is universally regarded Hawaii became the 25th

...

stale to require that

densome

the details of defects in property.

testing that

compliance.

put the slates into

it

particularly controversial. Some academics charged that the number of black and Hispanic students at the university's Los Angeles and Berkeley campuses would drop significantly, while Asians would increase. Michigan approved a law requiring that state education and employment forms in-

forcing the Environmental Protection Agency to allow simpler, less burrebelled,

to rid

of racial preferences, goals, and set-asides. Wilson acted while running as a Republican presidential candidate, and critics accused him of pandering to conservatives. Even so, complaints by whites and a more conservative political climate put affirmative action on the defensive during much of the year. TTie ban on taking race or sex into account in hiring, promotions, or admissions at the University of California was

as depU)rable."

home (DAVID

sellers disclose

C.

BECKWITH)

World

Affairs:

Uzbekistan

499

URUGUAY A

republic of eastern South America, Uruguay lies on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 176,215 sq km (68,037 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 3,186,000. Cap.: Montevideo. Monetary unit: peso uruguayo, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 6.60 pesos uruguayos to U.S. $1 (10.43 pesos in 1995,

uruguayos = £1

Luis Alberto Lacalle and, from

sterling). Presidents

March

1,

Julio

Maria

Sanguinetti.

Having won the November 1994 elections with a majority 1%, Julio Maria. Sanguinetti of the centreright Colorado Party took office as president of Uruguay on March 1, 1995. In one of his first acts as president, Sanguinetti proposed sweeping constitutional and economic of less than

The

de lemas, a long-established electoral sysnumber of candidates to run for president, was to be replaced by a party-based system of primary reforms.

tem

ley

that allows any

and national elections. Sanguinetti, along with the left-wing Broad Front and the Social Democratic New Space parties, believed that the change would reduce the legislative factionalism that had thwarted previous moves to tackle the country's trade gap and its social security burden. In June the minister of economy and finance, Luis Mosca, announced a five-year austerity budget aimed at reducing inflation, which was 45% in 1994, and cutting government spending from 35% of gross domestic product (GDP) to 30%. His policies, many of which had been unsuccessfully attempted by the outgoing National (Blanco) Party government, centred on tax increases and pension reforms since the cost of pensions had risen from 10% of GDP in 1990 to an estimated 15% in 1995. The general workers confederation staged a 24-hour strike protesting a bill that would postpone the retirement age and introduce a pension system based on personal savings. Further cuts included a reduction in public-sector employment and a privatization program. Mosca hoped to reduce Uruguay's trade deficit of $600 million by means of exports to Argentina and Brazil. Despite Uruguay's objections, the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur), consisting of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, became operational on Jan. 1, 1995. (cherry AUSTIN)

UZBEKISTAN

A

republic of Central Asia, Uzbekistan borders the Aral Sea to the north, Kazakhstan to the north and west, Turkmenistan to the southwest, Afghanistan to the south,

and Tajikistan and

Kyrgyzstan to the east. Area: 447,400 sq km (172,700 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 22,886,000. Cap.: Tashkent (Uzbek: Toshkent). Monetary unit: sum, with (Oct. 4, 1995) a free rate of 33.80 sumy to U.S. $1 (53.72 sumy = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Islam Karimov; prime minister, Abdulhashim Mutalov.

Throughout 1995 Uzbekistan's diplomatic representatives in the West made notable eiforts to overcome the negative impression created in earlier years by their country's poor human rights record and the slow pace of market reform. Fearful of increasingly close Iranian ties with neighbouring

~.-l.

the balcony of a palace, next to a mosaic-covered wall, In the Uzbek town of Khiva. Like the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara, Khiva was in danger of losing many of its historic buildings unless the money to restore them properly could be found. HECTOR MATA— AFP

Uzbekistan's new parliament, the Olii Majlis (Supreme Assembly), elected in December 1994 and January 1995, proposed a referendum on extending Pres. Islam Karimov's term in office until 2000 in order to maintain political stability. The referendum, on March 26, produced an overwhelming vote in favour of the president. A few days after the referendum, the Supreme Court sentenced several activists of the banned opposition Erk (Freedom) Democratic Party to jail terms ranging from 5 to 12 years on charges of seeking to overthrow the existing order. Protests by foreign human rights groups against the sentences and other human rights violations by the Uzbek

had little Karimov refused Nazarbaev's scheme authorities

to

endorse Kazakh

for a Eurasian

Pres.

Nursultan

Union comprising the

the creation of a "common Turkestan," a union of Central Asian states, to counter outside pressure on Central Asia, warning that unnamed powers could "conquer us one by one." Foreign observers concluded that his chief concern was the rise of imperialist sentiment in Russia. This concern did not prevent Karimov from expressing an interest in joining the customs union of Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan that

went into force

in 1995.

Uzbekistan remained the main provider of foreign aid to civil-war-torn Tajikistan after the Russian Federation, but persistent reports throughout the year indicated that the Uzbek leadership was increasingly nervous at the presence of some 25,000 Russian troops on Tajik soil as part of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) peacekeeping contingent stationed in that country. In early April Kari-

mov

the U.S. trade

when he

3.5% of the gross national product, with a significant reduction in the unemployment rate. One of the major foreign deals of the year was an agreement on Japanese credits for the development of the Kokdumalak oil and gas field.

effect.

successor states to the U.S.S.R. Although relations with Russia remained cordial, in May the Uzbek leader called for

Tajikistan

and Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan actively supported embargo against Iran. In January Uzbekistan received a $74 million loan to help the country stabilize its currency and accelerate privatization. The International Monetary Fund noted that the inflation rate had been halved and the budget deficit cut to

JrT

A woman stands on

infuriated the

neocommunist government of Tajikistan them that he planned to meet with

failed to notify

the deputy head of the Tajik Islamic opposition prior to the start

of talks between opposition and government represen-

tatives in

Moscow. For Karimov

this

was

a

major reversal

of policy, as he had been one of the chief supporters of

armed CIS

resistance to Islamic forces in Tajikistan since

the beginning of the

civil

war

in 1992.

This article updates the Macropcedia article Uzbekistan.

(bess

brown)

Central Asia:

World

500

Vanuatu

Affairs:

VANUATU

VENEZUELA

republic of Vanuatu, a member of the Commonweahh, comprises 12 main islands and some 60 smaller ones in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Area: 12,190 sq km (4,707 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 168,000. Cap.: Vila. Monetary unit: vatu, with

A republic of northern

The

1995) a free rate of 112.30 vatu to U.S. $1 (172.53 £1 sterling). President in 1995, Jean-Marie Leye; prime minister, Maxime Carlot Korman. (Oct.

6.

=

vatu

South America, Venezuela lies on the Caribbean Sea. Area: 912,050 sq km (352,144 sq mi). Pop. (1995

Monetary unit: bolivar, with 1995) an official (fixed) rate of 170 bolivares to U.S. $1 (268.75 bolivares = £1 sterling). President in 1995 Rafael Caldera.

est.):

21,844,000. Cap.: Caracas.

(Oct.

6,

The year 1995 began

as 1994

had ended; following the colGrupo Latino Americano,

1994 the government sought a Supreme Court ruling on controversial uses of the president's judicial power. In mid- 1995 Supreme Court Judge Robert Kent resigned, claiming that the chief justice was too closely linked to the

lapse of a major financial group,

government and was acting in its interest. In 1994 the government had restructured the provincial councils, and after subsequent elections two councils each were controlled by the Unity Front (UF), the Vanuatu National United Party (VNUP), and the Union of Moderate Parties (UMP).'The November elections gave no party a majority. The UF took 20 of the 50 seats, the UMP 17, and

Banco Union and Banco Federal, almost collapsed at the same time but were rescued by private bailout packages. By the end of August, 18 of the 41 private banks that had existed at the beginning of 1994 had been taken over by the government, and an estimated 70% of commercial bank deposits were under government control.

Late

the

in

VNUP

Tax

were the subject of debate

businesses seeking the offshore companies.

same

A 4%

in

1995, with local

tax advantages that applied to

turnover tax went into effect on

import, export, and retail businesses on April

When

French nuclear testing resumed

1.

September, the South Pacific Forum in their condemnation, on the grounds that (barrie macdonald) it was France's domestic matter.

Vanuatu refused

to join the other

in

members of

This article updates the Macropeedia article Pacific Islands: Vanuatu.

VATICAN CITY STATE The independent

sovereignty of Vatican City State is surrounded by but is not part of Rome. As a state with territorial limits, it is properly distinguished from the Holy See, which constitutes the worldwide administrative and legislative body for the Roman Catholic Church. Area: 44 ha (109 ac). Pop. (1995 est.): 1,000. As sovereign pontiff, John Paul II is the chief of state. Vatican City is administered by a pontifical commission of five cardinals headed by the secretary of state, in 1995 Angelo Cardinal Sodano.

The year 1995 began with a powerful expression of support for Pope John Paul li during his visit to the Philippines, where

half a million faithful gathered for

mass with the Holy

Father. This titanic display of sympathy belied troubled relaRoman Catholic country, which had

tions with Asia's largest

implemented family-planning methods with the teachings of the

Roman

that

were

in

contrast

Catholic hierarchy.

moral issues punctuated the entire year, and felt compelled to require that its 1,-350 lay employees endorse a code allowing them to be sacked for such moral lapses as abortion and divorce.

Concern

even

at

December, January saw the

failure of three

more banks,

leading to state intervention in Banco Italo-Venezolano, Banco Profesional, and Banco Principal. Two other banks.

Rodriguez and Pres. Rafael Caldera appointed Luis Ratal Matos Azocar as his replacement. Although a recent political opponent of Caldera, Azocar supported the president in the face of growing Cabinet divisions over economic policy. Not only did the president win support for the retention of government controls, but he also won greater-than-normal powers from Congress with three new bills. The new exchange regime bill imposed severe penalties for breaking exchange controls; the consumer protection law established price controls and state intervention in the affairs of private business; and the finance emergency law allowed direct control of the banking system. These laws also allowed Caldera to restore the constitutional rights that had been suspended at the end of June 1994 in an attempt to prevent capital flight and seize assets from fugitive bankers. Although inflation figures for the first seven months of 1995 were an improvement on the previous year 25.5% compared with 37.6% inflationary pressure remained high owing to price controls. The government's target of 40% annual inflation looked increasingly unrealistic, and by September the annual figure had been set at 57%. An antiinflation pact agreed to between government, unions, and the main employers confederation fell apart when it became In early February, Finance Minister Julio Sosa

resigned,

9.

issues

in

for

home

the Holy Sec

issue was the ordination of women, on which the pope's ban was reasserted. The Vatican maintained a high profile in world affairs, including visits by the pope to the U.S., Sri Lanka, Slovakia, and a host of other countries. After the slaying of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (see Obituaries) in November, the pontiff received Rabin's widow, as well as

Another doctrinal

the representative of the Palestine Liberation Organization, order to discuss problems for peace in the Middle East.

in

was another positive financial year for the Holy See, which continued the recent trend of operating in the black (Gregory o. smith) after years of budgetary worries. It

See also Religion: Roman Catholic Church. This article updates the Micropivdia article Vatican City.

—

—

apparent that the government's revised budget proposals to reduce the growing deficit. Ocepre, the government's budget office, forecast a 1995 deficit of $5.4 billion, or 6.9% of gross domestic product (GDP), but only $3.8 billion was allocated for debt servicing in the 1995 budget plan. Some efforts were made to cut government expenditure, namely, by not increasing publicsector wages in line with inflation. Two weeks before unions were asked to accept a pay freeze, however. Congress voted itself a 46% pay increase, which only encouraged unions to

would prove inadequate

demand

a doubling of the

Labour tensions grew strike

by

minimum wage. steadily throughout

air traffic controllers

was ended by

the year.

A

military inter-

vention, and court employees paralyzed the entire judicial

system for weeks during an industrial action that ended in August. Social unrest grew, and disturbances became a frequent occurrence in all major cities as a consequence of rising food prices and shortages of basic goods. On September 10 the government risked further public disquiet when it raised gasoline prices. The average cost more than doubled but was still below production cost of 10.5 bolivares per litre

(26 cents per gallon).

Revenue from the state-owned Venezuela (PDVSA),

fell

oil

company, Petroleos de

sharply as a percentage of

GDP

World despite stronger-than-expected world oil prices and output volumes. This was due to the fact that most of PDVSA's income was in U.S. dollars and the bolivar had appreciated in real terms because of the fixed exchange rate. The government's efforts to attract foreign investments through privatization continued to prove unsuccessful. Then,

Venezuela allowed foreign equity and investment exploration and production for the first time since the nationalization of the petroleum industry in 1976. Congress approved a model profit-sharing contract under in July, in oil

which

PDVSA

would be able

to call for international ten-

ders on exploring and develo_ping 10 areas containing light

and medium crude

reserves. This

agreement would allow

the establishment of joint ventures with private companies to develop

and produce from these

The December

and half the mayoralties at stake going to the opposition Democratic Action. The government responded by devaluing the bolfvar by 41%, from 170 to the dollar to 290. Finance Minister Azocar said he hoped this action would help Venezuela secure $3 billion in financial support from the International Monetary Fund. (alan murphy) party.

The

socialist republic of Vietnam occupies the eastern part of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia and is bounded on the south and east by the South China Sea. Area: 331,041 sq km (127,816 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 74,545,000. Cap.: Hanoi. Monetary unit: dong, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 11,014 dong to U.S. $1 (17,412 dong = £1 steding). President in 1995,

Le Due Anh; prime minister,

Vo Van

A series of milestones made continued to undo

its

Kiet.

1995 a pivotal year for Vietnam isolation. On January

decades of

28 Vietnam and the U.S. opened liaison offices other's capital,

501

were putting some 40 years of animosity behind them.

about 2,200 American soldiers still considered missing in action in Southeast Asia had not yet been accounted for. Perhaps of greater immediate significance to the nation was Vietnam's admission as a full member into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) on July 28. Ironically, the all-capitalist grouping of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand was formed in 1967 partly to counter what were perceived to be expansionist threats posed by the communist nation. Vietnam was expected to have enhanced opportunities for investment and trade with ASEAN, which already accounted for about a quarter of its trade. Vietnam also signed a his-

on the management of the Mekong Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand with China and Myanmar (Burma) as observers signed the Agreement on Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the River. Vietnam,

—

Mekong

River Basin

in April.

clause accord outlined

how

to develop

Among

mechanisms

—

other things, the 42-

for settling disputes

and share the resources of the

on

strategically

located river. anniversaries. The counlooked back to April 30, 1975, when communist forces from the north marched into Saigon, effectively ending the Vietnam War, in which millions of Vietnamese died. Former U.S. defense secretary Robert McNamara said in his 1995 memoirs that he and other U.S. officials had been "terribly wrong" in key decisions affecting the war. The Vietnamese government, however, placed far greater emphasis on the nation's 50th anniversary of independence. On September 2 the country commemorated nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh's 1945 declaration of independence. During the celebration Pres. Le Due Anh remarked, "All of our great victories in the wars of resistance and all important achievements of the reform process demonstrate that our way is right and our future is bright." The economy continued on its expansionist path, growing at a 9.5% annual rate. Among new joint ventures, the largest was a $1.2 billion pledge by the South Korean conglomerate

Vietnam marked two important

try

VIETNAM

it

Vietnam

Pres. Bill Clinton, however, reiterated the U.S. concern that

toric multilateral pact

areas.

3 elections reflected the unpopularity of

the Caldera government, with 13 of the 22 governorships

as

saries

Affairs:

and on August

in

each

5 they formally established

diplomatic relations. Warren Christopher, the

first

U.S. sec-

opening of the U.S. embassy. This was a clear sign that the former adverretary of state to visit Hanoi, attended the

HANS KEMP— ASIAWEEK

Workers make repairs by hand on Vietnam's main north-soutln road. Willi the establishment of full diplomatic relations with the U.S. and the entry Vietnam into ASEAN in 1995, it was expected that outside investment in the country, accompanied by modernization, would accelerate.

mt^'

of

502

World

Affairs:

Western Samoa

Vietnam Reemerges

On

April 30, 1995, amid colourful billboards, bustling cafes, and roaring motorbikes, the Vietnamese people

nam and developed fled the country

had both devastated and unified their nation. As Communist Party members and invited guests watched a grand parade move through Ho Chi Minh City, once known as Saigon, they had reason to feel both thrilled and uneasy. These conflicting sentiments were visible everywhere as Vietnamese sought to release their pentup energy and realize their potential while not forgetting that the freedom they enjoyed had been secured by communist soldiers. Since the institution of doi moi (economic renovation) in 1986, Vietnam's economy had thrived. While it was still among the poorest of the less developed nations (its gross national product per capita was $220), it had had more than 8% annual growth for the previous four years. Inflation had fallen from 700% in 1986 to 14.4% in 1995. Land reforms that gave more control and greater profits to farmers had been a tremendous success. A nation that once could barely feed itself was now the world's third largest exporter of rice. Vietnam's liberal investment laws, moreover, had triggered an enormous influx of money from neighbouring nations. With the end of the U.S. trade embargo in 1994 and the restoration of normal diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Vietnam in 1995, there was great promise of even more foreign investment. Chrysler planned to build cars there, Mobil Oil was searching for petroleum offshore, and Coca-Cola was the country's trendiest drink. Finally, with financial incentives from both Viet-

Daewoo

to build an industrial park near Hanoi.

Still,

busi-

ness complaints about official corruption and complicated bureaucracy became so widespread they were reported to

have scared potential investors away. In one typical case in September, Total SA of France said it would pull out of a proposed oil-refinery project north of Ho Chi Minh City, formerly called Saigon. Businessmen, however, saw the adoption of a landmark civil code as an indication that Vietnam was moving away from government by decree and

toward the rule of law. The code was due to come into effect on July 1, 1996. Though the country had taken huge strides toward liberalizing its central-command economy since it began the doi moi (economic renovation) process in 1986, there was no complementary movement toward political reform. The Communist Party, which remained the only legal political entity, continued to crack down on individuals who openly supported political or religious pluralism. While calling for more openness. President Anh remarked that "hostile forces" compelled the party to strengthen its leadership over the "government, over the entire political system, and over the renovation process."

One

of the high-profile instances

which the government demonstrated its iron grip was the case of Thich Ouang Do, a leader of the outlawed United Buddhist Church of Vietnam. He and five others were arrested in January and later sentenced to as much as five years in prison for "sabotaging religious solidarity" by organizing a flood-relief mission without government perin

mission. This article updates the Macropcvdia article yietnam.

(STEVEN frank) Southeast Asia:

many boat people who

All this positive growth, however, carried with

celebrated the 20th anniversary of the end of a war that

nations,

had returned home. it

a

deep concern about unintended and undesirable consequences. Within the government there was heated debate about privatizing the economy and opening markets to outsiders. Many hard-line communists feared that the power and autonomy that they fought so hard for would be lost with the emergence of free markets. Such fears had already led to several setbacks for Vietnam's new economy. The conversion of agricultural land for industrial use had been stopped, and so had borrowing against land values. The government's uncertain long-term commitment to open trade had scared

many

ofl"

potential investors.

The progress of

the past decade had also deeply affected the culture

of Vietnam. There was an unrestrained mania for all things Western, and the prospect of growing wealthy had, for example, tempted both students and teachers to seek well-paying jobs in the business sector. Viet-

nam's future would largely depend on who succeeded Communist Party leader Do Muoi and Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet. Perhaps the most important development in Vietnam during the year was its admission into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations in July. By linking its own economic strategies with those of non-

communist Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei and pursuing peaceful relations with other nations, it had shown that, as popular T-shirts in Ho Chi Minh City declared, "Vietnam is a (james hennelly) country, not a war."

WESTERN SAMOA A

constitutional monarchy and member of the Commonwealth, Western Samoa occupies an island group in the South Pacific Ocean. Area: 2,831 sq km (1,093 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 166,000. Cap.: Apia. Monetary unit: Western Samoa tala, with

(Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 2.50 tala to U.S. $1 (3.95 tala = £1 Head of state {O le Ao o le Malo) in 1995, Malietoa

sterling).

Tanumafili

II;

prime minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana.

some 80,000 signew value-added goods and services

In February 1995, after a petition (with

natures) opposing the

government laid seditwo leaders of Tumua ma Pule, an organization of traditional chiefs and orators. The case was dismissed by the Supreme Court in June. An Audit Office report, severely critical of the government and alleging mismanagement and corruption, led to the dismissal of the tax

was submitted

to Parliament, the

tion charges against

auditor-general.

6%

contraction in 1994, the government anticeconomic growth in 1995 and 1996. Inflation, 18.4% in 1994, was expected to be less than 10% in 1995. The government took control of Polynesian Airlines and injected $30 million to keep the company afloat. Two-thirds of aircraft leases were terminated, and route sharing with Air New Zealand was introduced as part of a recovery plan. Western Samoa joined other South Pacific Forum nations

After a

ipated

in

5%

protesting against the resumption of French nuclear test-

ing in the region.

(barrie

macdonald)

This article updates the Macropivdia article Pacific Islands: Western Samoa.

World

them

YEMEN A

republic of the southwestern Arabian Peninsula, Yemen has on the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Arabian

coastlines

km (203,850 sq mi), including 55,871 sq of undemarcated area bordered by Saudi Arabia and claimed by the former Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen). Pop. (1995 est.): 13,058,000. Cap.: San'a'. Monetary unit: Yemen Rial, with (Oct. 6, 1995) an official par value of YRls 50 to U.S. $1 (YRls 79.04 = £1 sterling) and a free market rate of YRls 140 to U.S. $1 (YRls 221.32 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Maj. Gen. Ali Abdallah Salih; prime minister, 'Abd al-Aziz 'Abd al-Ghani. Sea. Area: 527,970 sq

km

Despite tensions, Yemen retained its national unity throughout 1995. Eleven parties agreed in February to a document establishing

new alliance, the Opposition Democratic March the minister of defense declared that the of the northern and southern armed forces had a

Coalition. In

integration

been "successfully completed." In June a Cabinet reshuffle further consolidated the power of the president, Maj. Gen. Ali Abdallah Salih, by tipping the balance of the coalition government in favour of his General People's Congress over the Yemeni Alliance for Reform. Border tensions with Saudi Arabia, which had heated up in December 1994 and January 1995, led to the signing in February of a memorandum of understanding. The parties renewed their commitment to the agreement signed in atTa'if, Saudi Arabia, in 1934 and established joint committees to arrive at definitive boundaries and promote bilateral ties. There were subsequent talks, and in June President Salih met with King Fahd. Later in the year, however, there were further border clashes. Agreement was reached defining the boundaries with Oman. In December Yemen accused Eritrea of "armed aggression" for landing forces on the Hanish Islands in the Red Sea. After fighting in the area was followed by a cease-fire, the Eritreans continued to hold one of the islands at year-end. Estimated daily oil production averaged 340,000 bbl in 1995. The World Bank granted an economic recovery credit of $80 million in December as various free-market reforms began to get under way. (jamal a. sa'd) This article updates the Macropcedia article Arabia: Yemen.

YUGOSLAVIA

A

federal republic comprising the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, Yugoslavia borders Hungary to the north, Romania to

the northeast, Bulgaria to the southeast, Macedonia and Albania to the south, the Adriatic Sea to the southwest, and Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina to the west. Area: 102,173 sq km

(39,449 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 10,555,000. Cap.: Belgrade. Monetary unit: new dinar (second), with (Oct. 6, 1995) a par value equal to the Deutsche Mark (free rates of 1.42 new dinars [second] = U.S. $1 and 2.25 new dinars [second] = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Zoran Lilic; prime minister, Radoje Kontic.

Slobodan Milosevic, regarded by many war in former Yugoslavia, continued to play a key role in the peace process in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995. As before, his main concern seemed to be the lifting of UN sanctions imposed on Yugoslavia in May 1992 because of its involvement in the Bosnian war. Meanwhile, Milosevic continued to maintain a firm grip on power at home in Serbia and, to lesser degree, in Montenegro. During the first half of 1995, Yugoslavia continued to supply military aid and personnel to the Serbs of western Slavonia and the self-declared "Serb Republic of Krajina" in Croatia. In response to appeals from Croatian Serbs for more soldiers, the Yugoslav authorities rounded up able-bodied Serbs from Croatia living in Serbia and sent Serbia's president,

as the principal instigator of the

Aifairs: Yugoslavia

503

to the Serb-controlled regions of Croatia. Politically,

however, Yugoslavia continued to distance itself from the Croatian Serbs and their policy of close cooperation with the Bosnian Serb leaders, Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic. Yugoslavia made no attempt to go to the aid of Serbs of western Slavonia in May or the Serbs of the Krajina in August when Croatia recaptured these areas in lightning military actions. Some Serb refugees were allowed to enter Yugoslavia and were typically sent either to Kosovo province, largely populated by the Albanian minority, or to Vojvodina, where they were given the homes of Croats and Hungarians who had fled or been expelled. In June Milosevic played a key role in the release of hostages who had been captured by Bosnian Serbs following NATO raids on arms dumps near Pale, the Bosnian Serb headquarters near Sarajevo. Milosevic sent Jovica Stanisic, his chief of secret police, to put pressure on Karadzic and Mladic to release the hostages. They were all released by June 18. On November 28 Milosevic carried out a purge of pro-Karadzic members of his own party, including the

UN

party's vice president,

Borislav Jovic, his close ally from

the last days of former Yugoslavia, and Mihailo Markovic, Milosevic's chief ideologue in the Socialist Party of Serbia

(SPS), the recycled League of

published a diary late

in

Communists of

Serbia. Jovic

the year that was extremely unflat-

and suggested that he deA similar purge had the organs of the mass media,

tering of the Serbian president

began the war

liberately

in

Yugoslavia.

been carried out earlier in where heads of radio and television as well as of some of the most important newspapers, such as the daily Politika, were replaced by people more attuned to Milosevic's policy in

Bosnia.

The Bosnian

Serbs' military actions in July, the bloody conquest of Srebrenica and Zepa, the threat to Gorazde, and the military push in the Bihac area all contributed to the marginalization of the Serbian political opposition. Meanwhile, Milosevic seemed to be attempting, with the aid of his wife, Mirjana Markovic, who led a small party called the United Yugoslav Left, to take Serbia away from a policy of overt nationalism. Often by precipitating scandals or using other means of pressure, pro-government people were slowly taking over constituencies where the opposition

had won

in

1993.

The most

radical nationalist

of Milosevic's, Vojislav Seselj, an erstwhile

ally,

opponent had been

imprisoned following an incident engineered by the secret pohce. His parliamentary immunity was lifted during a nocturnal session of the parliament, and he was quickly packed off to prison. Opinion polls, even in the small independent Belgrade press, showed Milosevic by far the most popular politician in the country.

His popularity

in

Serbia increased

still

further in the

wake of the U.S. -brokered negotiations at Dayton, Ohio, in November at which he was seen to be playing a key role, negotiating on behalf of the Bosnian Serbs. Milosevic's greatest triumph in the eyes of war-weary Serbs was the lifting of sanctions by the United States after the signing of the

Balkan accords in Paris on December 14. Throughout the year the constituent republic of Montenegro demonstrated irritation

the

with Serbian policies.

roundup of Serb troops

It

refused to cooperate in

to fight in Croatian territories,

and it viewed Serbia's refusal to recognize Croatia unless it ceded the strategic Prevlaka promontory (at the entrance to the Yugoslav Gulf of Kotor naval base) as a potential threat to Montenegro's postwar relations with Croatia. In October Montenegro withheld payment of customs duties and taxes to the federal government as a protest against its nonpayment of Montenegrin pensions and disability benefits. One of the most prominent figures from the Tito era, Milovan

World

504

Affairs: Zaire

and writer hailing from Montenegro, died

the refugees, which prompted the prime minister to ask

age of 83. Industrial production in Yugoslavia in January-November 1995 was 4.6% higher than in the corresponding period of 1994 but 48.5% lower than in 1991. Inflation was running (k.f. cviic) at an annual rate of 114%.

the refugees to return home. The government was gravely concerned about the security problems created by the existence of the camps and was dissatisfied with the inadequate provisions made for the refugees by the international community. When the UN Security Council resolved on August 16 to end its embargo on the sale of arms to Rwanda, the government protested. It argued that this could only lead to attacks on the camps by Rwandan soldiers seeking reprisals against those responsible for the massacres in Rwanda that had led to the revolution there. Zaire's response was to begin the forcible repatriation of refugees on August 19. This caused an international outcry,

Djilas, a dissident

on April 20

at the

This article updates the Macropcedia article

Balkan States:

Yugoslavia.

ZAIRE The

republic of Zaire

coastline

located in central Africa with a short

is

on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,344,858 sq

km

(905,354

sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 43,901,000 (excluding 1.1 million Rwandan refugees). Cap.: Kinshasa. Monetary unit: new za'i're, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 5,422 new zaires to U.S. $1

new

(8,572

Seko;

Wa

first

zaires state

=

£1 sterling). President in 1995,

Mobutu Sese

commissioner (prime minister), Joseph Kengo

Dondo.

in the camps recognized had encouraged many of the

but representatives of aid agencies that the government's action

refugees

who wanted

ously, they

to go home to say so openly. Previhad been afraid to act because of rumours that

they would be arrested or killed the In his 1995

New Year

message, Pres.

a result,

24 to transform the expulsion program into a scheme for voluntary repatriation, an offer that the government readily

to political confusion.

Soon afterward

began between government representatives and members of the Sacred Union of the Radical Opposition and Allies (USORAS), which led to an announcement of cooperation by opposition leader and former prime minister Etienne Tshisekedi on January 7. The press was more

members

As

depended

of the national legislature of

devoting more time to political squabbles than to legislative and by January 27 USORAS was demanding that the Supreme Court annul the appointment of Kengo Wa

business,

(kenneth ingham) Central Africa:

accepted.

This article updates the Macropcedia article

direct talks

skeptical, accusing

they did so.

Mobutu Sese Seko

said that the future prosperity of the country

upon putting an end

if

UN High Commissioner for Refugees offered on August

Zaire.

ZAMBIA

A

landlocked republic and member of the Commonwealth, Zamis in eastern Africa. Area: 752,614 sq km (290,586 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 9,456,000. Cap.: Lusaka. Monetary unit: kwacha, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 941 kwacha to U.S. $1 (1,489 kwacha = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Frederick Chiluba. bia

Dondo

as prime minister. Yet it was Kengo's appointment encouraged foreign governments, including the U.S., to look more favourably on relations with Zaire. Meanwhile, none appeared capable of halting or even of slowing down the galloping inflation that had driven the majority of people to rely on barter. The prime minister's efforts to bring the banks back into operation were foundering owing to a

Concern for the political stability of the country was pushed aside in May by news of deaths from the Ebola virus in Kikwit, 500 km (310 mi) east of Kinshasa. The outbreak, the origin of which remained obscure, was quickly contained, and fewer than 300 people died from the disease. The speed with which the infection overwhelmed its victims and the dreadful nature of its progress caused

With yet another prolonged period of drought causing acute shortages of food in the southern half of the country and with the output of copper continuing to fall though the effect of this was partially offset by the increase in world prices Zambia started 1995 in a beleaguered condition. The decline in copper production, coupled with the reopening of trade with South Africa and peace in Mozambique, also resulted in a serious reduction in traffic on the Tanzam railway and led to proposals to reduce the workforce from 6,600 to 4,000. By the admission of Minister of Commerce Dipak Patel in July, 5.5 million of Zambia's 9.5 million people were living in abject poverty. Accusations that after 40 months in office his government still had not formulated a policy for agriculture, together

widespread disquiet, however.

with charges of corruption leveled against his administra-

that

shortage of cash. briefly

The announcement

the

that

transitional

government

would continue in oflice for an additional two years because it was impossible to arrange elections in time to meet the deadline previously set gave rise to another wave of unrest. Clashes on July 29 between security forces and demonstrators loyal to the memory of assassinated former prime minister Patrice civilians

Lumumba

and one police

resulted in the deaths of nine

officer.

Leaders of

USORAS,

while

Lumumbist cause, insisted that the clashes would not deter them from conducting a campaign to oust Kengo Wa Dondo and to reinstate dissociating themselves from the

Tshisekedi as prime minister.

A

rally called to

launch the

campaign on August 6 took place peacefully. Later in August attention became focused on the more than one million refugees from Rwanda and Burundi who were living in camps just inside the country's eastern border. The local population had for some time complained of food shortages in the region and said that the refugees were cutting down vast numbers of trees to use for firewood and as building materials. In June and July more than 100 Zaireans were reported to have been killed in clashes with

—

—

tion, led Pres.

Frederick Chiluba to take drastic action.

On

members of

the

February 9 he ordered

all his

ministers and

National Assembly to declare their assets within 48 hours.

He had

already dismissed his minister of lands, Chuulu

-

Kalima, for gross indiscipline and irresponsibility. He followed this, a few weeks later, by sacking the governor of the Bank of Zambia, Dominic Mulaisho, when the value of the kwacha suddenly and inexplicably fell by more than

I

20% and and

after criticism that the

bank had

failed to foresee

forestall the crisis that led to the failure of

BIAO, Zambia's

Meridien

fourth largest commercial bank. Chiluba

economic recovery could not be expccted as long as the country was burdened with a crushing international debt, the servicing of which cost 40% of the also pointed out that

gross national product.

The

'

president's actions did not put an

end

to sniping by

the opposition, including the charge (firmly denied) that he

was born in Zaire and therefore not entitled to hold office in Zambia. When on June 28 former president Kenneth Kaunda was again elected leader of the opposition United (continued on page 506)

_

1

The momentum

Francophone community, or a Lusophone (Portuguese) grouping. Japan became one of the largest aid-donor

for democrati-

zation continued to sweep sub-

Saharan Africa, but with varyThe outlook for economic recovery, however, reing degrees of success.

countries and, with the two Koreas, substantially

expanded trade

The OAU,

mained unpromising. Although 41 of the 48 governments in the region had committed them-

revivified by

tary-general, Salim

Ahmed

liamentary systems, by year's end only 9 could be judged to have met the cri-

Ababa, a decision was made

an open society;

specialized military units in

another 21 qualified as "semidemoor transitional democracies. The number of single-party or military regimes shrank to 9 from about 36 in the previous year. With the end of the civil wars in Angola and

five

—Sudan,

or

to just

transformation.

The Sudan between

fundamentalist military regime and rebel groups

the Islamic in the

non-

Muslim southern region spilled across the borders. Four of The Sudan's neighbours Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya agreed on a strategy to bring down the government in Khartoum. The two precipitating causes of this unprece-

—

dented decision were the abortive attempt to assassinate the Egyptian president, Hosni Mubarak, when he went to attend the summit meeting of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in Addis Ababa, Eth., and allegations that the Sudanese National Islamic Front was engaged in spreading Islamic fundamentalism to Eritrea and Ethiopia. The defeated Rwandan government accused Uganda of arming the

Rwandan Patriotic Front. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War opened up a new chapter in black Africa's relations with Western Europe and North America. In the absence of Cold War politics, African concerns were what came to successful

be described as the "marginalization" of the continent i.e., that Western interest in the continent would decline and, at the same time, economic aid would dwindle as more economic support was provided to Russia and Eastern Europe. Regional governments, with the exception of South Africa, had entered into agreements with the World Bank and the International

Monetary Fund

in

support of structural ad-

justment programs. Despite some criticism, many prominent Africans especially those opposed to their governments welcomed the terms imposed by donor countries, making the provision of aid conditional upon good governance and

—

respect for human rights. Fears that the European Union would not renew the favourable terms under the Lome Convention proved to be unjustified when a new agreement was signed in November. The peace process in the Middle East also contributed to ending the difficult choice between siding with Israel or the Arab world. By year's end almost all regional governments had restored their diplomatic and economic ties with Israel. Moreover, almost all the governments in the region main-

tained close links with the

Commonwealth of

The summit

previous policy of non-

states. A proposal submitted by the United Kingdom and Nigeria, reflecting the consensus of 15 United Nations members, outlined the kind

serious

rific in the continent's postcolonial experience. South Africa continued to be the flagship of the region's democratic

—

its

UN

dealing with

intervention in the internal conflicts of

—

in

in

up

member

member

Rwanda, and, again, Liberia, where civil war seemed to be finding renewed vigour at year's end. There was also a significant decline in the number of successful military coups only one (The Gambia). The mass killings of Tutsi in Rwanda in 1994 were the most hor-

war

operations

also diluted

the

civil

OAU

conflicts in the continent.

Somalia, Sierra Leone,

The prolonged

to set

countries to be available for either

cratic"

Mozambique, the number of armed conflicts had dropped

secre-

Salim, was

beginning to play a more active role in mediation and peacekeeping operations. At its 1995 summit in Addis

selves to establishing multiparty par-

teria for pluralism in

relations. its

Nations, the

of help the international community should offer to strengthen the OAU's capability for peacekeeping. The outbreak of an Ebola epidemic in Zaire early in the year caused widespread concern because of the mystery of its cause and the high fatality rate among its victims. The virus claimed 244 lives out of 315 reported cases. The out-

break ended as suddenly as it began, with little more known about the virus than was known before its latest occurrence. Both the Ebola virus and HIV helped focus attention on the paucity of health services in Zaire and other African countries. Between 1985 and 1995, the number of persons infected with HIV rose from 1.5 million to more than 10 million; more than 1% of the 15-49-year age group was HIV-positive, and an estimated one million more were expected to contract the virus in each of the years following 1995. More than half the region's population of about 560 million had no access to public health services, and almost two-thirds had no safe drinking water.

Sub-Saharan Africa's population constituted

10%

world's total, but the region produced only slightly

1%

of the

more than

of the world's gross domestic product. In the region's 24

income in 1989 was less than $400 per person, while in the remaining 23 countries the average was even lower. The level of poverty continued to decline, with average incomes falling by 15% in the 1980s. Despite the support of international finance institutions, a survey of its impact showed little evidence of improvement in the first half of the decade. According to the United Nations, economic growth remained blocked despite considerable improvements in a few of the better-off countries. The World Bank forecast that sub-Saharan Africa's exports would grow only 3% a year to the year 2000, which was below the growth of population. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development estimated that in the coming years the average annual growth in aid funds was unlikely to exceed the modest performance of 2%, whereas the World Bank warned that unless this figure was doubled, the financial gap in the region was set to widen even further. Foreign debt in sub-Saharan Africa tripled from $56 billion to $173 billion between 1980 and 1990, and although debt relief for some of the poorest countries eased their debt-repayment burden to some extent, the total debt in fact increased to $176 billion by 1991 and was still increasing. better-off countries, average

Colin

Legum

is

the editor of Third World Reports and con-

sulting editor of the Africa

Contemporary Record.

506

World

Zimbabwe

Affairs:

(continued from page 504)

the finance

National Independence Party, he, too, was accused of having been president of the country for five years before renouncing his Malawian citizenship. A threat to deport him from Zambia was dropped, ahhough a clause in the

there had been

country's proposed for the presidency

Zambians by

his

absence

public spending.

Other factors that adversely affected the country's economic

constitution, stating that candidates

citizens whose parents were both presented a further obstacle to Kaunda's

equal to the annual gross domestic product, which caused 23% of the budget to be earmarked for interest payments.

new

(kenneth ingham)

hoped-for comeback.

This article updates the Macropcedia article

Southern Africa:

The general change the

election, held in April, did not appreciably

situation.

Owing

in

part to a boycott by sev-

opposition parties, which claimed that the electoral system was unfairly weighted against them, the governing eral

Zambia.

ZIMBABWE

A

Bernard Chidzero. In

some mismanagement of

prospects were not easily dealt with. Continuing drought led to food shortages and to a wheat crop that was barely a third of the 1994 harvest. Also, the national debt was almost

must be

birth,

minister,

of the Commonwealth, Zimbabwe is a landlocked state in eastern Africa. Area: 390,757 sq km (150,872 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 11,261,000. Cap.: Harare. Monetary unit: Zimbabwe dollar, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of Z$8.85 to U.S. $1 (Z$14 = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Robert republic and

member

Mugabe.

Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANUPF) won all but two seats in the House of Assembly. The new minister of finance, Ariston Chambati, recognized that the credibility of his July budget would depend upon "a high degree of political commitment and fiscal discipline." Though he died of meningitis in October, Chambati had imposed a virtual standstill on public spending, increased on a number of consumer goods, and reduced import duties on spare parts and industrial components. Increases in the tobacco crop and in the output of gold provided grounds the two main foreign currency earners for optimism. Also encouraging was a deal in April involving three of the world's largest mining companies, which opened the way for Zimbabwe to become the second biggest producer of platinum. In October Ndabaningi Sithole, leader of the ZANUNdonga and one of the only two non-ZANU-PF members of the House of Assembly was arrested in connection with an alleged plot to assassinate President Mugabe. Critics of Mugabe believed that the arrest was the result of Sithole's announcement that he would be a candidate in the presidential election in 1996 and was, consequently, a further manifestation of Mugabe's refusal to allow any opposition. taxes

A

meeting of Zimbabwe's donor countries, scheduled to in February 1995, was postponed until March to give the government time to "put its books in order." Although there were fears that donors were becoming impatient at the slow rate at which the country was implementing the financial reforms required by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, the latter agreed on March 10 to ratify disbursements to Zimbabwe of $792 million, an increase of $175 million over the amount already committed. The donor countries praised the government for its efforts to carry out the reforms. Those efforts had not met with uniform approval inside Zimbabwe. New excise taxes and the threat of a new surcharge on profits and income aroused considerable criticism, which led Pres. Robert Mugabe to express his anger at the severity of the measures his government was having to take to meet the requirements of the IMF and the World Bank. The situation was not helped by the lengthy illness of take place in Paris

—

(KENNETH INGHAM) Southern Africa:

This article updates the Macropcedia article

Zimbabwe.

ALEXANDER JOE- AFP

A

farmer

because

in

Zimbabwe stands

in

of continuing drought,

a field amid crops that have dried up. Shortages of food in the east African country were made worse and famine threatened to be added to Zimbabwe's many economic problems

in

1

995

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The

selection

from the

article

Balkan

States:

Bosnia and Herzegovina: History has been revised to include recent developments in that region. The revision of Italy: History, Italy Since 1870, covers the

period up to the end of World War II. The selection Cultural Life from Russia has been revised to treat the topic in a manner somewhat more historical than previously, and the article Tokyo- Yokohama

Metropolitan Area

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Balkan States Bosnia and Herzegovina Ancient and medieval periods. When the Romans extended their conquests into the territory of modem Bosnia during the 2nd and 1st centuries bc, the people they encountered there belonged mainly to Illyrian tribes. During the 4th and 5th centuries ad, Roman armies suffered heavy defeats in this region at the hands of invading Goths. When the Goths were eventually driven out of the Balkans by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in the early 6th century, the Bosnian territory became, notionally at least, part of the Byzantine Empire. Slavs began to settle in this territory during the 6th century. A second wave of Slavs in the 7th century included two powerful tribes, the Croats and the Serbs; Croats probably covered most of central, western, and northern Bosnia, while Serbs extended into the Drina River valley and modem Herzegovina. During the 11th and 12th centuries Bosnia experienced rule by Byzantium through Croatian or Serb intermediaries, incorporation into a Serb kingdom, rule by Hungary, and a brief period of renewed Byzantine mle. After the death of the emperor Manuel I Comnenus in 1180, Byzantine mle fell away but govemment by Croatia or Hungary was not restored: a Bosnian territory thus became, for the first time, an independent entity. A Bosnian state of some kind existed during most of the period from 1180 to 1463, despite periodic aggres-

kingdom of Hungary, which maintained a theoretical claim to sovereignty over Bosnia. Bosnia enjoyed periods of power and independence, especially under three prominent mlers: Ban Kulin (1180sion from the neighbouring

1204),

Ban Stjepan Kotromanic (1322-53), and King

Tvrtko I (1353-91). Under Kotromanic, Bosnia expanded southward, incorporating the principality of Hum (modem Herzegovina). During the reign of Tvrtko I, Bosnia expanded farther south and acquired a portion of the Dalmatian coast. However, for most of the medieval period, Bosnia was mainly a landlocked state, isolated and protected by its impenetrable terrain. One consequence of this isolation was the development of a distinctive Bosnian church. After the division between Roman and Eastem Orthodox Christianity, most of the Bosnian territory had been Roman Catholic, but during the long period of isolation from Rome the Bosnian church fell into de facto schism, electing its own leaders from among the heads of the monastic houses. A combination of poor theological training, lax observances, and Eastem Orthodox practices led to frequent complaints from neighbouring areas, beginning in the 1 1 90s, that the Bosnian church was infected with heresy. In 1203 a papal legate was sent to investigate these charges, and Ban Kulin gathered a special council at Bolino Polje (near modern Zenica), where the church leaders signed a declaration undertaking a series of reforms. The extent to which these reforms were observed is very uncertain, since over the following century the church in Bosnia became increasingly

507

The Bosnian church

508

Balkan States the official view from Rome was that the church had fallen into heresy, from which its members needed to be converted. Although many historians have argued that the Bosnian church adopted the extreme dualist heresy of the Bulgarian Bogomils, modern scholarship has indicated that the Bosnian church should be considered an essentially nonheretical branch of the Catholic church, based in monastic houses in which some Eastern Orthodox practices also were observed. During the 14th century the Franciscans established a network of friaries in Bosnia and spent more than a century trying to convert members of the Bosnian church to mainstream Catholicism. In 1459 this campaign received the full support of the Bosnian king, Stjepan Tomas, who summoned the clergy of the Bosnian church and ordered them to convert to Catholicism or leave the kingdom. When most of the clergy converted, the back of the Bosnian church was broken. The final decades of the medieval Bosnian state were troubled by civil war, Hungarian interference, and the threat of Turkish invasion. The nobleman Stefan Vukcic engaged in tactical alliances against the Bosnian rulers, establishing his own rule over the territory of Hum and giving himself the title herceg (duke), from which the name Herzegovina is derived. Turkish forces captured an important part of central Bosnia in 1448, centred on the settlement of Vrhbosna, which they developed into the city of Sarajevo. In 1463 they conquered most of the rest of Bosnia proper. Ottoman Bosnia. Bosnia was rapidly absorbed into the isolated.

By 1340

entire Bosnian

Ottoman Empire and was divided

into military-adminis-

(from Turkish sancak, "banner"). In 1580 a broad area covering modem Bosnia and some surrounding areas of Croatia and Serbia was given the full status of an eyalel. or constituent province of the empire. Bosnia enjoyed this status as a distinct entity throughout the rest of the Ottoman period. The Bosnian eyalel was governed by a vizier and administered through a network of junior pashas and local judges. Land was distributed according to the Ottoman feudal system, in which the holder of a timar (estate) had to report for military duty, bringing and supporting other soldiers. A wide range of taxes was imposed, including the harac. a graduated poll tax on non-Muslims. The notorious system trative districts, or sanjaks

also introduced, under which Chriswere taken off for training in the imperial administration and the Janissary corps, an elite army division. In all these respects, conditions in Bosnia were similar to those in the other conquered areas of Europe. In one crucial way, however, Bosnia differed from the other Balkan lands (except, later, Albania): a large part of the native population converted to Islam. This was a gradual development; it took more than a hundred years for Muslims to become an absolute majority. The lack of a strong, unified Christian church in Bosnia enabled Islam to spread. The motives that inclined Bosnians to adopt Islam were partly economic: the prosperous cities of Sarajevo and Mostar were mainly Muslim, and it was not possible to lead a full civic life there without converting to Islam. Other motives included the privileged legal status enjoyed by Muslims and, possibly, a desire to avoid the harac. though Muslims were subject, unlike Christians, both to the alms tax and to the duties of general military service. During the period of Islamicization, the Ottomans encouraged settlement in northern and western Bosnia; many of the settlers were Vlachs, members of a largely Serbian Orthodox Balkan population. Major wars affecting Bosnia took place almost every two generations throughout the Ottoman period. In the Habsburg-Ottoman war of 1683-99, Austria reconquered Ottoman Hungary and Slavonia, sending a flood of Muslim refugees into Bosnia. In 1697 a small Austrian army under Prince Eugene of Savoy marched into the heart of Bosnia, put Sarajevo to the torch, and hurried back to Austrian territory, taking thousands of Catholic Bosnians. In the next major war (1714-18) Austria joined forces with Venice; at the Treaty of Passarowitz (Pozarevac) in 1718, Venetian-ruled Dalmatia was allowed to extend its territory inland, reaching a line that since then has formed

called

Jevfimw was

tian children

Conversion to Islam

part of the southwestern border of Bosnia. Austria invaded Bosnia again in 1736 but was repelled by local forces; at

the subsequent peace settlement, Austria gave up its claim to the territory south of the Sava River. This settlement formed the basis of the northern border of modem Bosnia.

The chronic fighting weakened Bosnia. War necessitated increased taxation, causing tax revolts. Forced conscription and frequent plague epidemics led to a relative reduction in the Muslim population, which contributed its manpower to Ottoman campaigns throughout the empire and may have

suffered disproportionately

from the

effects

of plague in the cities. Nevertheless, Ottoman Bosnia was not permanently sunk in misery. Descriptions of Sarajevo by visiting travelers portray it as one of the wonders of the Balkans, with

fountains, bridges, schools, libraries,

and mosques. Fine mosques were also built in towns such as Foca and Banja Luka. (Many of these buildings were systematically demolished by Serb forces in 199293.) Numerous works of poetry, philosophy, and theology were written. The cities of Sarajevo and Mostar, where such urban culture flourished, enjoyed a large degree of autonomy under elected officials. Real local power passed increasingly into the hands of a type of hereditary official (unique to the Bosnian eyalet) known as a kapetan. The existence of these powerful local institutions meant that Bosnia was well equipped to resist the reforming measures that the Ottoman sultans began to issue in the early 19th century. When Sultan Mahmud II reformed the military in 1826 and abolished the Janissary corps, the reform was fiercely resisted by local Janissaries in Bosnia. In 1831 a charismatic young kapetan called Husein seized power in Bosnia, imprisoning the vizier in Travnik. With an army of 25,000 men, Husein then marched into Kosovo to negotiate with the Ottoman grand vizier, demanding local autonomy for Bosnia and an end to the reform process there. During these final decades of Ottoman mle, Muslims were violently expelled from Serbia; the rise of Serbia as a quasi-autonomous Christian province made Bosnian Muslims feel more isolated and vulnerable, and the increasing role of foreign powers (especially Austria and Russia) as "protectors" of the interests of Christians in the Balkans also raised their suspicions. Bosnian landowners, feeling that they could no longer trust the Ottoman authorities in Constantinople (now Istanbul) to maintain their power, frequently turned to more repressive measures against their Christian subjects.

However, two Bosnian governors succeeded in forcing through some of the sultan's reforms and curbing local resistance. The first of these, Omer-pasa Latas, crushed a major rebellion in 1850-51 and revoked the separate status of Herzegovina. The second, Topal Osman-pasa, introduced a new method of military conscription in 1865 and a completely new administrative system in 1866, dividing Bosnia into seven sanjaks and establishing a consultative assembly. Tax demands on Bosnian peasants continued to grow. In 1875 a revolt against the state tax collectors began among Christian peasants in the Nevesinje region of Herzegovina; unrest soon spread. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire in 1876, and Russia came into the war on their behalf in the following year. When the Serbo-Turkish War ended in 1878, the other great powers of Europe intervened at the Congress of Berlin to counterbalance Russia's new influence in the Balkans. The congress decided that Bosnia and Herzegovina, while remaining notionally under Turkish sovereignty,

would be occupied and governed by Austria-Hungary. In 1878 Austro-Hungarian troops took control of Bosnia, overcoming vigorous resistance from local Bosnian forces; they also occupied the neighbouring sanjak of Novi Pazar, which had been one of the seven Bosnian sanjaks in the late

Ottoman

period.

Bosnia under Austro-Hungarian rule. Bosnia was governed by a special joint commission under the Common Ministry of Finance. The Ottoman administrative division of Bosnia was preserved, and Ottoman laws were only gradually replaced or supplemented. This policy of gradualism was the most striking aspect of Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia under the Common Finance Minister Benjamin Kallay, who directed Bosnian policy from 1882 to

Ottoman reforms

Balkan States 1903. Kallay's rule was extremely active.

A

public works program was initiated, and by 1907 Bosnia had a welldeveloped infrastructure, including an extensive railway and road network. However, Kallay failed in his central political project:

developing a Bosnian national consciousness to insulate the people of Bosnia from the growing movements of Croatian, Serbian, and Yugoslav ("South Slav") nationalism. Catholic and Orthodox people of Bosnia had begun by the mid- 19th century to identify themselves as "Croats" and "Serbs." During the first decade of the 20th century, "national organizations" of Muslims, Serbs, and Croats were set up that functioned as embryonic political parties. In response, Kallay's successor, Istvan, Baron von Burian, granted a degree of autonomy in religious affairs to both

Muslims and the Serbs. In October 1908 nationalist feeling was strongly aroused by the sudden announcement that Bosnia would be fully the

annexed by Austria-Hungary. Inside Bosnia, one effect of this change was beneficial: Burian felt able to promote

Assassi:

I

nation of

Francis

Ferdinand

democratic institutions, introducing a parliament there (with limited powers) in 1910. But the bitter resentment that the annexation caused among Serb and South Slav nationalists led to the growth of revolutionary groups and secret societies dedicated to the overthrow of Habsburg rule. One of these, Mlada Bosna ("Young Bosnia"), was especially active in Bosnian schools and universities. Tension was heightened by the First Balkan War of 191213, in which Serbia expanded southward, driving Turkish forces out of Kosovo, Novi Pazar, and Macedonia. In May 1913 the military governor of Bosnia, General Oskar Potiorek, declared a state of emergency, dissolving the parliament, closing down Serb cultural associations, and suspending the civil courts. The heir to the Habsburg throne. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, traveled to Bosnia to review a military exercise. He entered Sarajevo and was killed there on June 28, 1914, by a young assassin from the Mlada Bosna organization, Gavrilo Princip, who had received some assistance from inside Serbia. Austria-

Hungary declared war on Serbia one month later, precipWorld War I. Bosnia was under military rule throughout World War I, and repressive measures were applied to those Bosnian Serbs whose loyalty was suspect. At the end of the war, Bosnian politicians from each of the three main communities followed the political leaders of Croatia and Slovenia in throwing off Habsburg rule and joining in the creation itating

of a new South Slav

state, the

Kingdom of

Serbs, Croats,

and Slovenes. Bosnia in the Yugoslav kingdom. When the constitution of this new state was finally settled in June 1921, Bosnia retained no formal status of its own; however, its outline was preserved on the map, in the form of six oblasti (provinces) corresponding to the sanjaks (excluding that of Novi Pazar) of the late Ottoman period. Serfdom was abolished, though Bosnia remained something of a social and political backwater in the Yugoslav kingdom. In the territorial division of 1929, Bosnia was divided between four other administrative districts and thus was wiped off the map. Further adjustments were made in 1939, with the creation of a special Croatian territory within Yugoslavia that included portions of Bosnian territory. Two years later, after the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia, the entire

Bosnian

territory

was absorbed into the puppet

state

known as the Independent State of Croatia. The killing that took place in Bosnia between 1941 and 1945 was

terrible in

both scale and complexity. The

Ustasa, the fascist movement that ruled Croatia during the war, exterminated most of Bosnia's 14,000 Jews and massacred Serbs on a large scale: more than 100,000 Serbs from Bosnia died in this way, roughly half in death camps. Two organized resistance movements emerged, a

Serb royalist force known as the Chetniks, led by Draza Mihailovic, and a communist Partisan force (including Serbs, Croats, and Muslims) led by Josip Broz Tito. The sharply divergent aims of the two movements resulted in a civil war. Royalist forces turned increasingly to German Italian forces for assistance and committed atrocities against Bosnian Muslims; some Bosnian Muslims joined

and

509

an SS division that operated in northern and eastern Bosnia for six months during 1944, exacting reprisals against the local Serb population. The Partisans liberated Sarajevo in April 1945 and declared a "people's govern-

ment"

for

Bosnia

later that

month.

It is estimated that Bosnia during the war was 164,000 Serbs, 75,000 Muslims, and 64,000 Croats. Bosnia in conununist Yugoslavia. In 1946 the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina became one of the constituent republics of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. Life in Bosnia underwent all the social, economic, and political changes that were imposed on the whole of Yugoslavia by its new communist government, but Bosnia was particularly affected by the abolition of many traditional Muslim institutions. However, a change of official policy in the 1960s led to the acceptance of "Muslim" as a term denoting a national identity. By 1971 Muslims formed the largest single component of the Bosnian population. During the next 20 years the Serb and Croat populations fell in absolute terms as the relative backwardness of the Bosnian economy led many Serbs and Croats to emigrate. During the 1980s the rapid decline of the Yugoslav economy led to widespread public dissatisfaction with the political system. This attitude, together with the manipulation of nationalist feelings by politicians, destabilized Yugoslav politics. Independent political parties began to appear in 1988; multiparty elections were held in Slovenia and Croatia in early 1990. When elections were held in Bosnia in December 1990, new parties representing the three national communities gained seats in rough propor-

the total

number of deaths

tion to their populations.

in

A tripartite coalition government

was formed, with the Muslim

politician Alija Izetbegovic leading a joint presidency. Growing tensions both inside and outside Bosnia, however, made cooperation with the Serb party, led by Radovan Karadzic, increasingly difficult. In 1991 several self-styled "Serb Autonomous Regions"

were declared in areas of Bosnia with large Serb populations. In August the Serb party began boycotting the Bosnian presidency meetings; in October it removed its deputies from the Bosnian assembly and set up a "Serb National Assembly" in Banja Luka. By then full-scale war had broken out in Croatia, and the breakup of Yugoslavia was under way. When the European Community (EC) recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia in December, it invited Bosnia to apply for recognition also. A referendum on independence was held on Feb. 29March 1, 1992, although Karadzic's party obstructed voting in many Serb-populated areas. Nearly two-thirds of the electorate cast a vote; almost all voted for independence. Independence and war. Attempts by EC negotiators to promote a new division of Bosnia into ethnic "cantons" during February and March 1992 failed. When Bosnia's independence was recognized by the United States and the EC on April 7, Serb paramilitary forces immediately began firing on Sarajevo, and the bombardment of the city by heavy artillery began soon thereafter. During April many of the towns in eastern Bosnia with large Muslim populations were attacked by a combination of paramilitary forces and Yugoslav army units. Most of the local Muslim population was expelled from these areas, the first victims in Bosnia of a process described as "ethnic cleansing." Within six weeks, a coordinated offensive by the Yugoslav army, Serbian paramilitary groups, and local Bosnian Serb forces left roughly two-thirds of Bosnian territory under Serb control. From the summer of 1992, the military situation remained fairly static. A hastily assembled Bosnian government army, together with some better-prepared Croat forces, held the front lines for the rest of that year, though its power was gradually eroded in parts of eastern Bosnia. The Bosnian government was weakened militarily by an international arms embargo and by a conflict with Croat forces, which broke out on a large scale in February 1993. The United Nations (UN) refused to intervene militarily in the war but sent troops to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid; this mandate was later extended to the protection of a number of UN-declared "safe areas." Meanwhile, the international community continued, with-

The breakup of Yugoslavia

510

Italy

out success, to encourage the combatants to reach a negotiated settlement. A series of peace proposals based on a division of Bosnia along ethnic lines failed, largely because of the Serbs' refusal to accept territorial concessions. An

agreement signed in March 1994, which ended the conflict between the Bosnian government and Bosnian Croats, created a Croat-Muslim federation within Bosnia and a confederal arrangement between that federation and the Republic of Croatia. Throughout 1994 a so-called contact group (representing Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and

the United States) tried to arrange a settlement on the basis of a Bosnia divided between the Croat-Muslim federation, which would control 5 1 percent of the land, and

who would hold the remainder. This proposal was accepted with reluctance by the Bosnian government but rejected by the Serbs, who controlled more than 70 percent of Bosnian territory. It was estimated that by the end of 1994 at least 200,000 people had died and more than 2,000,000 had been driven from their homes. (NOEL R. MALCOLM) the Serbs,

Italy Italy since

1870

DEVELOPMENTS FROM

TO

1870

1914

system, 1870-87. After the conquest of Rome in 1870, Italian politicians settled down to manage the economy, to build up the counin the telling phrase of the try's military power, and Piedmontese author and statesman Massimo d'Azeglio Politics

and the

political

—

Popular disaffection remained high, had been introduced in 1869. Governments of the '"right" remained in office, first under Giovanni Lanza (to 1873) and then under Marco Minghetti (1873-76). The "right" was not an organized party but a group of patriotic, mostly northern, landowners committed to a strong currency and free trade. Under both prime ministers the main domestic task was to balance the budget. Minghetti eventually managed this, but raising taxes and squeezing expenditure had made the "right" unpopular, and its candidates did badly in the 1874 elections. In March 1876 the Minghetti government fell when its Tuscan supporters refused to support a state takeover of the railways. Italy was then ruled for many years by governments of the "left, which were usually led by Agostino Depretis (until his death in 1887). The deputies of the "left," heirs of the Risorgimento's democratic tradition, were more anticlerical, more frequently members of the middle class (many of them were lawyers), more often from the south, and less concerned about the value of money than the rentier "right had been. They were, however, splintered into various groups, and factional disputes soon became endemic. "Left" governments abolished the grist tax (1883) and made two years' primary education comto

"make

Italians."

especially because of the grist tax that

The end of govern-

ment by the "right"

"

"

pulsory (1877).

A main achievement of the "left" government was the widening of the suffrage in 1882. The voting age was reduced to 21 (from 25); the requirement to pay 40 lire in direct taxes per annum was halved and abolished altogether for those with two years' schooling. The electorate thus increased from approximately 500,000 to 2,000,000 men, including now many urban artisans, especially in the north where schools were more common. Within a few years modern political parties were founded and won scats in northern Italy, but southern constituencies remained dominated by elite groups of lawyers and local notables, often linked to prominent landowners. Local government was also very significant, and there were often bitter disputes among local factions. The 8,300odd local municipalities (conuini) were in charge of primary schools and most welfare services, raised much of their own revenue, and appointed their own staff. The central government tried to control them by appointing the mayors and also by giving veto powers over municipal decisions to provincial bodies that were strongly influenced by the provincial prefect, a government official.

The

prefect frequently dissolved councils for alleged

and replaced them with a government "commissioner" until new elections were held. This power was often used when local council leaders opfinancial or legal abuses

posed government candidates at parliamentary elections. However, government attempts to control local government were never really successful. The prefects had to make sure government candidates would win the next parliamentary elections, and so they had to conciliate, not bully, local elites, including the mayors and municipal councillors. Corruption was therefore often left unchecked. National governments became remarkably dependent on local power-holders. Depretis himself won over ("transformed") deputies and kept his governments in office by distributing patronage and favours to local notables. Trasformismo soon became the normal way of conducting parliamentary business, for there were few serious disputes between the leading politicians. The constitutional settlement of 1861 was accepted by virtually all of them; foreign and colonial policy was not contentious and, in any case, was conducted by foreign ministers and prime ministers without much reference to Parliament. In 1881 the government was greatly annoyed by the French occupation of Tunisia, and in the following year, in order to avoid diplomatic isolation, Italy joined the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This was essentially a defensive alliance guaranteeing German and Austrian support against any attack by France, Italy's main rival in the Mediterranean. However, it encouraged Italy's first real colonial venture, the takeover of the Red Sea port of Massawa (Mitsiwa) in 1885. Southern politicians favoured colonial expansion as an outlet for surplus population and agricultural produce; northern ones wanted Italy to

be a great power, saw the army as an essential guarantor of public order, and supported high military spending the army and navy ministries spent more than all other ministries combined between 1862 and 1913. Forces of opposition. The political elite may have agreed on most issues, but there was plenty of opposition in the country. Most men owned guns, and violent crime was common: there were 3,000 murders a year, many of them a result of vendettas or blood feuds. Brigands were still active in parts of the southern mainland in the 1870s, and banditry was still common in the mountainous zones of Sardinia. In the towns, rioting was frequent; more than 250 people were killed in riots against the grist tax in 1869, and similar riots against local taxes or for land and jobs continued well into the 20th century. The strikes of the 1880s especially by agricultural labourers in Mantua province much alarmed respectable opinion. Anarchists were active in the Romagna and parts of the south and occasionally attempted to carry out insurrections, as at Matese in 1877, or to kill the king, as Giovanni Passanante attempted to do in 1878.

— —

However, the anarchist leader

in

the

Romagna, An-

drea Costa, soon converted to socialist ideas. In 1881 he founded the Revolutionary Socialist Party of Romagna (later the Italian Revolutionary Socialist Party), which preached eventual revolution but also agitated for such issues as universal suflJ'rage and labour and welfare legislation: in 1882. on the new suffrage, Costa became Italy's first socialist deputy. In Lombardy a moderate, labouroriented Italian Workers' Party was founded in 1885,

1

Italy

which helped to organize the Po Valley peasantry into "leagues" and labour cooperatives. The northern labour movement unions, mutual aid societies, and cooperatives—became infused with either revolutionary or re-

—

formist socialist ideas.

Republican opposition also survived, particularly in cenlong after Mazzini's death in 1872. Republicans ran many of the mutual aid societies and cooperatives. They opposed strikes, nationalizations, and the class struggle but strongly favoured social protective legislation and civil rights. Some of them, including Matteo Renato Imbriani, also advocated an active "irredentist" foreign poltral Italy,

—that

is, a policy that aimed to liberate Italians living Habsburg territory; in particular they wanted to wrest Trento and Trieste from Austrian control. They regarded the Triple Alliance and colonial expansionism as inimical to Italian interests and as expressions of Italy's monarchical and conservative political institutions. Perhaps the most serious opposition force in the country was the Roman Catholic church. The Risorgimento had

icy in

deprived the church of the Papal States, including Rome itself, and of much of its income. Its previous virtual monopoly of education and welfare had been overthrown, and compulsory state education was deliberately secular. Many religious orders had been disbanded; monasteries and convents had become public buildings, used by the state. In the south, particularly, ecclesiastical organization had relied heavily on monks and friars and could barely continue to function. Bishops were not allowed to receive their revenues and take up their posts without royal approval, which was often refused. The pope himself was permitted, by the state's "Law of Guarantees" of 1871, to retain only the Vatican and Lateran palaces as well as Castelgandolfo. Pius IX denounced the new usurping state, forbade Catholics to vote at parliamentary elections or to become candidates, and appointed a new generation of "intransigent" bishops. New laymen's organizations were founded; the Opera dei Congressi, with committees at parish level, became the focus of Catholic resistance to the new state. It organized cooperatives, welfare insurance, credit

banks and mutual aid

societies, as well as a host

of local journals and campaigns against Liberal "lay" proposals (such as a divorce law). Church and state remained mutually suspicious, particularly in the Veneto region, where "regionalist" opposition to centralizing government

and peasant

hostility to landlords and free trade were both mobilized effectively by the Catholic social movement. Land reform. The main issue of political debate in late 19th-century Italy was land. Liberal governments insisted that the municipalities should sell off most of the common land to private owners at least 740,000 acres (about 300,000 hectares) were sold by 1880 in southern Italy alone, and more was occupied illegally. Another 1,250,000 acres of ecclesiastical estates were similarly sold, often at extremely low prices. Overall, at least 5,000,000 acres were transferred. In some regions, including Piedmont,

—

Liguria, and Sardinia, the sales did set up a "propertyowning democracy" that is, a large number of rural people became small landowners, albeit with scattered strips that made improvement unprofitable. The sales also introduced people to the market economy, as they had to repay

—

their mortgages in cash as well as find money for high land taxes. Small ownership did not become widespread in most other regions, despite the land sales; peasants who did acquire land were often forced to sell it again to meet tax debts or interest payments. However, land transfers did often create a nonnoble rural middle class that owned an adequate amount of land or extensive flocks and could

dominate local politics; this was particularly true in the former Papal States of central Italy. Privatization of the commons also had serious environmental and social consequences. Much common land was woodland, bought up and felled by speculators who could sell timber to railway companies (for sleepers) or to mines roof support). Deforestation became widespread: Sardinia, for example, lost four-fifths of its trees in the 19th century. The results included soil erosion, landslides, stagnant water in valley bottoms, and increased malaria the greatest scourge of rural Italy, which in turn prevented (for

—

much

fertile low-lying land from being cultivated. Furthermore, the state also abolished traditional rights such as grazing and wood-gathering on the remaining unsold common land. Millions of households that had relied on access to this land to provide fuel for heating and cooking or pasture for their pigs were suddenly forced either to suffer real poverty or to break the law. Protectionism. Most agricultural land in Italy was used to grow grain, especially wheat. In the early 1880s world wheat prices fell by one-third, and the incomes of the larger and more prosperous farmers (who grew for the market rather than for their own consumption) collapsed. As landowners were the most powerful pressure group in the country and were strongly represented in Parliament, their demands for protectionism became irresistible. Tariff protection was also favoured by the most prominent wool and cotton manufacturers of northern Italy, and these industries were second only to the silk industry

importance and numbers employed. Some tariff protec40 percent) had, in fact, already been given to textiles and other light industries in 1878, but employers naturally wanted more, particularly after the restoration of gold convertibility in 1883 in effect revalued the lira. Moreover, in the 1880s Italy also acquired a steel industry (Terni Steelworks, founded 1886), which was designed to build warships and railways but sold to subsidized industries and was itself unable to survive without protection. All this meant the rise of a strong protectionist lobby, based on large landowners and textile manufacturers and linked to powerful steel and naval interests. Social changes. In 1871 there were 26.8 million Italians. Both birth and death rates were high, and almost half the children bom alive died before the age of five. As time went on, both rates gradually declined the first because of later marriages, the second because of improved housing, sanitation, and diet. Most people worked in agriculture but often lived in hill towns to avoid malaria or bandits; however, living in the countryside began to be more common later in the 19th century. Large-scale transatlantic emigration began in the 1880s; in 1888 more than 200,000 Italians went to the Americas in search of jobs, 10 times as many as a decade previously. Most emigrants, whether bound for the Americas or for other parts of Europe, were northerners, often seasonal migrants from hill areas of peasant ownership, where jobs were scarce and where younger sons who stayed behind had little prospect of marriage. But even in 1888 more than a quarter of the emigrants were southerners, and the great exodus of southern emigrants to both North and South America was just about to begin. Most people (68.8 percent in 1871) were illiterate and usually spoke only dialect. Illiteracy was in

tion (up to

—

common among women, peasants, and southThe compulsory schooling law of 1877 was widely

particularly erners.

ignored in practice; in any case,

it

provided for only two

years of schooling, not enough to guarantee the ability to read and count. Conscripts were likely to be taught to read during military service, but only one-quarter of the

age group was actually called up into the army. Italian education was more successful at the secondary level in the towns: the "technical schools" and "technical institutes" taught science, engineering, and accounting and had high prestige among urban parents. As for the universities, they essentially trained lawyers and doctors, both professions

which supply considerably exceeded demand. Domestic policies. On the Crispi era, 1887-1900. death of Depretis in 1887 the Sicilian and former Mazzinian Francesco Crispi became prime minister and pursued a policy of administrative reforms at home and expansion abroad. His main domestic achievement was to extend the suffrage at local elections to all males over the age of 2 in

The

who

paid

five lire

per

annum

3.5 million people. This

tables"

The

who had

was a

meet

blow

— that

is,

to

to the local "no-

previously controlled local government.

larger councils (after

permitted to choose their to

in local taxes real

in public.

The

1896,

all

councils) were also

own mayors and were

Crispi

government

required

also brought

system of administrative law for time, through the provincial councils (giuntas) and the Council of State. The charities were reformed; the in a reasonably effective

the

first

511

512

Italy

was excluded from running them, and the funds were often diverted to more secular purposes. The minister of justice, Giuseppe Zanardelli, promulgated a new code of criminal law that abolished the death penalty and clergy

legalized strikes unless violence or intimidation occurred. However, the most important act of Crispi's first gov-

The

tariff

of 1887

ernment was the new tariff of 1887. It was a response to demands from northern steel and textile interests, from farmers (also mainly from the north) faced with imports of cheap American grain or Asian rice, and from social reformers eager to secure legislative measures that employers could afford. A duty of 50 lire per ton was placed on imported wheat by 1888, and later it went higher still; food prices rose sharply, provoking considerable unrest. Similar measures protected steel, shipbuilding, and texItaly's largest trading partner was France, and the French retaliated against Italian goods. A "tariff war" began between the two countries and continued until 1898. Franco-Italian trade was more than halved, and entire sectors of Italian agriculture, including wine, silk, cattle, and olive oil, collapsed overnight as their markets were cut off. When excess food supplies drove all agricultural prices down, even grain growers failed to benefit from the new tariff. Moreover, the crisis helped to drag down many of Italy's banks, including one of the largest, the Banca tiles.

Romana. Resulting inquiries revealed that the bank had made interest-free loans to leading politicians, including Crispi himself and former treasury minister Giovanni Gio-

who was prime minister from May 1892 to November 1893. Politicians needed the money to finance their election expenses and to run or bribe newspapers. The Banca

litti,

The Sicilian

fasci

Romana scandal was the first of many famous Italian corruption scandals, and, like the others, it discredited the whole political system. Crispi's colonial policy brought additional Colonialism. blows. The Italian settlement at Massawa soon led to conflict with the neighbouring Ethiopians, who in 1887 killed 500 Italian troops at Dogali. Peace was made at Wichale in 1889, and Crispi expanded the Italian possessions along the Red Sea to include most of present-day Eritrea and southern Somalia. In 1895 the Italians annexed a large portion of the province of Tigray, and war with Ethiopia began again. In March 1896 the Italian army was overwhelmed at the Battle of Adwa: about 5,000 Italian troops were killed. This disaster forced Crispi to resign and ended any further colonial adventures for some years. It was widely seen in Italy as a disgrace to the whole political system and to Italy's aspirations to great-power status; it would have to be avenged in the future. Years of crisis. Economic hardship and political corruption at home, together with military failure abroad, provoked riots and uprisings throughout the country. In the early 1890s the "Sicilian fasci" (normally peasant leagues organized by urban socialists) led successful strikes and land occupations until Crispi, in January 1894, used the army to restore order. The fasci\ leaders were imprisoned, and the

movement soon

collapsed. At the

same

time, an anarchist insurrection in Lunigiana was also suppressed by martial law. Further riots occurred in 1898,

towns, over the high price of bread and over At least 80 people were killed in Milan by the troops, whose commander was shortly afterward decorated by the king. Government repression also took the form of attempting to govern without Parliament (as Crispi did in 1895), of dissolving opposition associations and unions (as the government of Antonio Starabba, Marquis di Rudini, did in 1897), and of attempting to push through restrictions on civil liberties by royal decree, without parliamentary approval (as both the di Rudini and the Luigi Pclloux governments tried to do in 1898-99). Repression soon led to a constitutional crisis. Conservative politicians, notably Baron Sidney Sonnino in 1897, argued that the Italian Parliament was corrupt and unfit to govern and that the king should provide strong executive rule, according to the letter of the 1848 Statute

mainly

civil

in

liberties.

(Statute). Most moderate Liberals rejected this argument. The campaign for constitutional government was led by

and the "Radical" group in Parliament, 1890s strongly denounced bank scandals, tariff

Felice Cavallotti

who

in the

protectionism, colonial wars, and the Triple Alliance. The Radicals were a northern, anticlerical, moralistic group that denounced the corruption of the south (Crispi was the first southern prime minister), of the monarchy, and of the Roman establishment and strongly favoured wider civil liberties and army reform. In 1900, after months of bitter parliamentary dispute and obstructionism, Pelloux called a general election to resolve the constitutional issue; the Left triumphed; the Radicals won 34 seats, and their allies, the Republicans, won a further 28 out of a total of 557. (The two groups had had 51 seats between them in the previous Parliament.) Furthermore, in 1892 a

young Milanese lawyer, Filippo found the Italian Socialist Party among the various socialist and labour groups of northern and central Italy and Sicily. The new party was mainly social democratic, heavily influenced by the German model: it preached the class struggle and aspired to parliamentary representation and state socialism. Formally Marxist, it envisaged a long period of "evolution" before an eventual Turati,

had helped

to

"revolutionary" transformation of society. Crispi dissolved the party in 1894, but it revived in the late 1890s and won 32 seats in 1900. While its deputies worked closely with the Radicals to secure constitutional liberties and social reforms, ordinary party members were often much more revolutionary in their aims. Other socialist organizations,

such as trade unions and cooperatives, also grew in the 1890s and by 1900 were significant in the newly industrializing economy of northern Italy. They campaigned for concrete short-term gains on wages and working conditions and were usually more "reformist" than the party. The GioUtti era, 1900-14. The elections of June 1900 marked the defeat of the Pelloux government and of attempts to impose illiberal laws. The following month King Umberto I was assassinated by an anarchist. The new king, Victor Emmanuel III, favoured a return to constitutional government, as did the governments led by Pel-

Giuseppe Saracco, Giuseppe Zanardelli, and Giovanni Giolitti, the last-named most often holding the office of prime minister between 1903 and 1914. His policy was to defuse popular discontent by social reforms and public works and to conciliate the major organized opposition groups in the country, the Socialists and the loux's successors,

Roman

Catholics.

Domestic

policies.

The

social reforms passed in these

years included laws prohibiting child labour, establishing a compulsory maternity fund and compulsory rest days, and limiting the working day of women to 1 1 hours. Central

governments also subsidized municipal welfare schemes such as orphanages and old people's homes and encouraged municipal transport, housing, and water and sewage schemes especially in northern Italy, where the municipalities could afford such innovations. Often these schemes were pioneered by Catholic- or Socialist-dominated local councils which entrusted the management to their "own" cooperatives; government approval of "municipal socialism" was much resented by local businessmen and taxpayers. Moreover, Giolitti's governments allowed trade unions to operate freely and generally avoided interfer-

—

ing in private-sector labour disputes

— another

source of

middle-class resentment. Giolitti

enjoyed Radical support, and his governments

often included Radical deputies.

He

also received the tacit

support of moderate Socialist deputies and union leaders.

Trade unionism grew rapidly

after 1900, not only in industry

in the

but

new atmosphere

among

the agricul-

Po Valley and Puglia; the various Socialist-led unions formed a General Confederation of Labour in 1906. Some unions depended heavily on public works schemes subsidized by government; others, such as

General Confederation of

the Federation of Agricultural Labourers (Federterra), re-

Labour

tural labourers of the

on Giolitti's reform legislation favouring cooperatives and on contracts provided by Socialist councils. All the major Socialist institutions became reliant on government willingness not to repress them; in turn, they gave up any attempt to overthrow the government. However, the Socialist Party in the country was dominated by revolutionary views from 1904 to 1908 and was always more militant than its leaders. Moreover, there was also a powlied

Italy

group of revolutionary syndicalists, who broke away from the Socialist Party in 1907 but still controlled many unions, especially in Liguria. This popular militancy enerful

sured that Socialist deputies could not compromise too openly with Giolitti or accept posts in his governments. The Catholics, too, had founded trade unions and workers'

cooperatives, as well as mutual aid societies

and

rural

banks, throughout northern Italy in the 1890s. These associations were particularly strong among the peasantry of Lombardy and Piedmont and among the largely female textile workers, and they, too, controlled many local councils. In 1897-98 most Catholic associations were dissolved di Rudini government, but later governments permitted them to be refounded in return for tacit support against socialism. This .support even became overt at parliamentary elections in 1904 and 1909 the papal prohibition on Catholics voting {non expedit) was lifted in many constituencies, and Catholics were permitted to vote for Liberal candidates in order to keep Socialists out. The old "intransigents" of the Opera dei Congressi, deeply hostile to a united Italy, were replaced early in the century by a new generation of "clerico-moderate" leaders favoured by Pius X, who even dissolved the Opera dei Congressi in 1904 and brought the Catholic lay movement under the bishops. The clerico-moderates gave Giolitti their support, but they too could not enter government or even operate as a lay party independent of the bishops or the Vatican. Economic developments. Giolitti's political dominance

by the

—

had rested on

Italy's rapid economic growth after the mid1890s. Industrial production probably doubled between 1896 and 1913. The tariff dispute with France was settled in 1898. Cotton remained the largest industry, but by 1914 Italy had also acquired for military reasons a large, pro-

—

—

tected steel industry, together with extensive shipbuilding

yards in Liguria. The railways were nationalized in 1905, and this stimulated demand for rolling stock and engines. Hydroelectricity from the Alps provided cheap, renewable energy for the factories of the northern "industrial triangle" (Lombardy, Liguria, and Piedmont). Moreover, a major new industry automobile production developed, in which Italy did not have to compete against established interests elsewhere. Fiat, founded in Turin in 1899 by Giovanni Agnelli, soon became one of Europe's largest producers and exporters of automobiles and also made

—

—

buses, trucks, airplanes, and military vehicles. The state finances were healthy, and the balance of payments was boosted by remittances from the enormous numbers of

emigrants in Europe and the Americas. Agriculture was still the dominant sector of the economy, providing jobs for almost 60 percent of employed adults in 1911. It, too, enjoyed a boom, partly because of state-subsidized land reclamation and irrigation schemes (particularly in the Po Valley) and partly because of continued high tariff protection on grains, which gave ample incentive to produce more food on suitable land. Wheat production rose by about one-third in these years. In central Italy,

sugar beet production, another heavily protected

sector, stimulated a

new

refining industry.

other regions and in 1906 to the entire south. In practice, the legislation had little impact, as World War I interrupted any progress. However, it was the first time that funds derived from taxes paid by the prosperous north were used by central government agencies to stimulate economic activity in the south or, at least, to win votes for supporters of central politicians. Continuing southern poverty stimulated mass emigration from Sicily and the southern mainland, averaging more than 500,000 people per year from about 1901 onward and rising to 900,000 in 1913, mainly to North and South America. About half of the migrants to the New World returned later, bringing new values as well as new money. Some southerners crossed the Atlantic twice a year, moving to seasonal agricultural work in Argentina. In the north most emigration was seasonal, to other European countries; but many rural dwellers migrated within Italy to jobs in the expanding industrial cities. Migrants were usually young, male, unskilled, and illiterate. They tended to come from areas of small farms and peasant landown-

—

where there were no trade unions able to protect and where people married late. Health and education. The other major social changes in these years, apart from emigration, were those brought about by the decline in serious illnesses and in illiteracy. Improved water supplies and sewerage meant fewer cholera epidemics though these still occurred at times, as at Barletta in 1910-12. Malaria, a major scourge of the

ership,

the rural poor

—

rural south, declined sharply as quinine

became widely

available after 1900. Pellagra, a vitamin-deficiency disease

endemic among the northern peasantry, rapidly declined as diets improved. By 1901, for the first time, a majority (51.3 percent) of Italians could read and write. Emigrants needed to be able to write home, and so they had an incentive to learn. In 1911 the primary schools were removed from municipal control poor communes had not been and were able to build schools or to enforce attendance henceforth run and financed by the central government.

—

—

Millions of people now spoke Italian, having learned it in school or in the army or needing to use it as a lingua franca in the cities. A common language, common education, and common experience of military service had begun, by 1914, to "make Italians" but religion, social class, and local loyalties still greatly divided them.

—

WORLD WAR AND FASCISM War and its aftermath. Conduct I

On

of the war.

Gio-

March 1914 a new government was formed by the more conservative Antonio Salandra. In June came "Red Week," a period of widespread rioting litti's

resignation in

Romagna and the Marche, which was precipiby the killing of three antimilitarist demonstrators at Ancona. When World War I broke out in August, the Salandra government stayed neutral and began to negotiate with both sides a policy described by Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino as "sacred egoism." The Austrians eventhroughout tated

—

tually agreed to grant Trentino to Italy, but the Entente

made a more generous offer, not only Trentino but also South Tyrol, Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, and northern Dalmatia. The Italians accepted this offer at the secret Treaty of London (April 1915) and joined the war against Austria-Hungary (France, Britain, and Russia)

Economic growth, however, was heavily concentrated in the north. The south languished, and income there was less than half that in the north. The southern economy was arguably linked more closely to northern Europe and South America (to which it exported wine, olive oil, fruit, and labour) than to northern Italy. Southern produce needed markets abroad, and the south was very badly hit by the tariff war with France. Moreover, the southerners

promising

were widely held, by the positivist school of anthropology fashionable in the 1890s and later, to be more criminal than northerners and even racially degenerate— an argument that lent racial overtones to the debate on "southern backwardness." Southern politicians soon began demanding, and when in ofl&ce securing, tax relief and development schemes,

as did

which provided, among other things, roads, schools, and irrigation. In 1897 the first "special law" provided Italy's poorest region, Sardinia, with cheaper credit and some funds for irrigation and reforestation; Sardinia's leading politician, Francesco Cocco Ortu, was minister of agriculture. Later laws extended similar or greater benefits to

513

a

Italy

month later, hoping for major territorial gains. The negotiations, conducted by the foreign and prime

ministers and a handful of diplomats, had been kept secret.

The majority of deputies, meanwhile, favoured

neutrality,

former prime minister Giolitti, the major opposition groups (Catholics and Socialists), and most of the population. War, therefore, was supported only by the conservatives in government, by the Nationalist Association, a group formed in 1910 by Enrico Corradini and others to support Italian expansionism, by some Liberals who saw it as the culmination of the Risorgimento's fight for national unity, by Republicans and reformist Socialists who thought they were fighting for national liberation, and by

—

including Besyndicalists and extremist Socialists nito Mussolini, editor of the Socialist Party newspaper who thought the war would bring about the overthrow of

some

capitalism. Mussolini

was soon expelled from the

Socialist

Supporters of the war

Party, but with help from the Entente he

managed

to

pro-war newspaper, // popolo d'ltalia. In April-May 1915 the government, helped by noisy demonstrations by pro-war activists, pushed through its war policy despite the opposition of the majority in Parliament and in the country. Neither Giolitti nor any other "neutralist" could form a government without renouncing

found

his

own

alternative,

the Treaty of Lxjndon, betraying Italy's new allies, compromising the king. In June 1916, after a series of military failures,

and

dominated by

Diplomatic and economic failures soon undermined

Salandra government resigned. The new prime minister was Paolo Boselli, who in turn resigned after a military disaster at Caporetto in October 1917, which enabled the Austrians to occupy much of the Veneto in 1917-18. The war was deeply unpopular both among the troops mostly conscript peasants, who were undernourished and and among fighting for a cause few could understand the civilian population back home, which included almost one million workers in arms factories who were also subject to military discipline. Serious bread riots took place among the industrial workers of Turin in August 1917, and the defeat at Caporetto was widely attributed to poor morale and "defeatism." After November 1917 a more "democratic" government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando rallied the country to defend its frontiers and

middle-class confidence in government, especially as Giolitti also imposed taxes on war profits. In 1919 propor-

division.

The

and Nationalists now dewhere the Giolittian majority had never

victorious patriots

tested Parliament,

supported the war; the returning veterans also regarded Catholics and Socialists as defeatists and most industrial workers as "shirkers" (imhoscati). These divisions greatly weakened the postwar political regime. Furthermore, the pro-war groups were themselves bitterly divided when the Italy, at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-20), try to secure the terms of the Treaty of London, as Foreign Minister Sonnino urged, or should it support U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and adhere to that is, be willing to accept the "principle of nationality" less territory in the Adriatic region, as the Left Liberals and Republicans advocated? In the Treaty of SaintGermain (1919), Italy was granted Trentino, Trieste, (the

war ended. Should

—

Fiume

Socialist Party,

the workplace.

appointed a new army commander, Armando Diaz. Diaz made welfare concessions to the troops and fought a far more defensive campaign until October 1918, when, in the closing stages of the war, the Italians won a final, decisive victory at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The cost of victory. Italy won the war, therefore, but at a huge cost: 600,000 dead and a legacy of bitterness and

nunzio's capture of

The

"maximalist" wing, proclaimed the need for immediate revolution, as had recently occurred in Russia. The postwar governments of Nitti (1919-20) and his successors Giolitti (1920-21), Ivanoe Bonomi (1921-22), and Luigi Facta (February-October 1922) were weak and could do little except urge industrialists and landowners to make concessions not only on pay but even on "control" of its

the

—

D'An-

staging sit-down strikes.

German-speaking) South Tyrol, and Istria. But Dalmatia was excluded, despite the Treaty of London, as was Fiume (now Rijeka), a Croatian port largely inhabited by Italian speakers, which Sonnino had also decided to claim; so, too, were any colonial territories in Africa or Asia and any claim on Albania. Nationalists therefore argued that Italy had been robbed of its rightful gains ("a mutilated victory"). Orlando resigned in June 1919. When the new government of the Radical leader Francesco Saverio Nitti was also unsuccessful in foreign affairs, the flamboyant poet Gabrielc D'Annunzio led a group of volunteer "legionaries" to Fiume in September and captured the city himself. Fiume became a centre of nationalist agitation for more than a year, and D'Annunzio was dislodged only in December 1920, when Fiume became, briefly, an independent republic.

Economic and political crisis. Italy was faced with serious postwar economic problems. Wartime governments had printed money to pay for arms, and inflation became deep-rooted: by the end of 1920 the lira was worth only one-sixth of its 1913 value. Savings became worthless, and landowners found themselves receiving insignificant rents. Meanwhile the major arms and shipbuilding firms went bankrupt after the war for lack of government orders. Unemployment rose to two million, as returning for work. Peasants, organized by exservicemen's groups or Catholic leagues, seized land for themselves; agricultural labourers went on strike at harvest time. Trade unions, now operating again, pressed for higher wages, and strikes became routine, including those in the public services. 1 hroughout September 1920 most of the northern Italian factories were occupied by workers

soldiers searched

representation was introduced for parliamentary The result, in the new Parliament elected in November 1919, was that the Socialists, with 30 percent of the vote, won 156 seats and the new (Catholic) Italian tional

elections.

Popular Party, with more than 20 percent of the vote, 100 two parties dominated northern and central Italy. Giolitti had to bring the Popular Party into his government in 1920 and make many concessions to peasant

seats; these

guarantees to squatters and giving the Ministry of Agriculture to the Catholics. Furthermore, the two "subversive" parties won control of almost interests, including giving

half the municipalities in the

autumn of

1920, ensuring

that Socialist or Catholic cooperatives would be given all local public works contracts. And in January 1921 the

away to found the Italian increased middle-class alarm. The politirise of Mussolini. cal crisis of the postwar years provided an opportunity for militant, patriotic movements, including those of exservicemen and former assault troops, radical students, left

wing of the

Socialists split

Communist Party, which The Fascist era. The

and former pro-war agitators. D'Annunzio one such movement, but the ex-Socialist journalist Benito Mussolini soon became even more prominent, founding his Fasci di Combattimento ("Fighting Leagues") in Milan in March 1919. It was initially unsuccessftil, but local Fascist groups were soon founded in Emilia and Tuscany and by autumn 1920 were busy not only breaking up strikes but also dismantling Socialist and Catholic labour unions and peasants' cooperatives and ex-syndicalists, in

Fiume

led

overthrowing newly elected local councils. Within a few

squad leaders controlled most The Fascists had become a major political force, backed not only by landowners but also by many members of the urban middle class, including students, shopkeepers, and clerical workers. In May 1921, when Prime Minister Giolitti called new elections, 35 Fascists were elected to Parliament as part of a government "block of 275 deputies. In October Mussolini abandoned republicanism, and in November he formed

months paramilitary

Fascist

of the rural areas of central

Italy.

"

his

movement

into a proper political party, the National

which by this time was well-financed and extremely disparate: local bosses remained paramount in their areas. The Fascists also or-

Fascist Party (PNF), if ill-disciplined

ganized their own trade unions, the Fascist "syndicates," in order to replace Socialist or Catholic organizations, to provide mass membership, and to control labour. Mussolini maneuvered brilliantly in the next few months, and the Liberal political establishment sought to conciliate

him and

The police, the army, and sympathized with Fascist disrupunions. Mussolini, as "duce" (leader) of

the Fascist thugs.

much of the middle tion of Socialist

fascism, gradually

class

made himself indispensable

major anti-Fascist protest Confederation of Labour

in

Rome.

A

by the Socialist-led in August 1922, soon collapsed, strengthening Mussolini's bargaining position even further. In October 1922 he organized a "March on Rome' by Fascist supporters. Prime Minister Facta asked the king to declare martial law, but Victor Emmanuel III eventually refused in order to avoid possible army disloyalty or even a possible civil war. Instead, he asked Mussolini to form a government, hoping to tame him by constitutional means. Mussolini became prime minister, therefore, in a more or less constitutional manner. He was appointed by the king, and he headed a coalition government that included Nationalists. Liberals, and even (until April 1923) two Catholic ministers from the Popular Party. For 18 months he ruled through the usual government machinery and strike, called

Mussolini's

March on

Rome

Italy

pursued a policy of "normalization." The squads were incorporated into an official Voluntary Militia for National Security. Ordinary middle-class job seekers flooded into the Fascist Party,

making

it

more

respectable

and

amenable; the Nationalists also merged their organization into it, bringing with them much respectable backing in the south. In 1923 the electoral law was changed once more, so that a group of parties with the largest vote even if only 25 percent of the total would receive an absolute majority of the seats. This enabled the Fascists to attract most of the old Liberal deputies into a "national alliance." In April 1924 elections were held under this system; the Fascist-dominated bloc won 64 percent of the votes and 374 seats, doing particularly well in the south. The opposition parties— by now including the Popular Party remained divided but won a majority of the votes in northern Italy. The Socialists, indeed, had by this time

—

—

Communists, the Socialists, and the reformist Socialists. None of them had much influence. The Popular Party was being disowned by the Vatican, and its leader, Luigi Sturzo, resigned at the Vatisplit into three rival parties: the

can's request.

The end of constitutional rule. Mussolini's success as leader of a "normalizing" constitutional government with widespread support did not last long. When the new Parliament met, Giacomo Matteotti, leader of the reformist Socialists,

denounced the recent

elections as a

sham and

claimed there had been widespread intimidation of opposition voters. On June 10, 1924, Matteotti disappeared. He was later found to have been murdered by Fascist thugs

by the assistant to Mussolini's press office, Amerigo Dumini. A great crisis of confidence ensued. Mussolini was suspected of personal complicity and of having ordered the murder in order to eliminate a troublesome opponent. The press denounced the government, and the opposition parties walked out of Parliament. However, Mussolini still had a majority in Parliament, and the king backed him. But by autumn his Liberal supporters were drifting away, and in any case the "normalization" led

Mussolini's

policy infuriated Fascist extremists in the country. They demanded a showdown, and Mussolini who was too

speech

weak by

in the

Chamber of Deputies

—

—

time to rule by constitutional means had to agree. On Jan. 3, 1925, he made a famous speech in the Chamber of Deputies accepting responsibility for fascism and promising a tough crackdown on dissenters. The king this

made no move. During the next two years Mussolini disbanded most of and conventional safeguards against government autocracy. Free speech and free association disappeared; opposition parties and unions were dissolved and their leaders forced into exile. At the local level, appointed podestas replaced elected mayors and councils. Freemasonry was outlawed a real blow to most nonCatholic anti-Fascists. A Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State, run by militia and army officers, was set up to try anti-Fascist "subversives"; it imprisoned or sent to exile on remote islands thousands of political opponents, including the Communist leader Antonio Gramsci, and it imposed 31 death penalties. However, the repression was carried out essentially by the old state institutions, such as the police and army, not by Fascist bodies. The prefects Italy's constitutional

—

mostly

still

career civil servants

— retained their traditional

dominance over local government, and the new podesta was nearly always a landowner or retired army officer rather than a Fascist enthusiast. The Fascist party itself was soon swamped by more than a million job seekers and clerical workers, and thousands of the original Fascists were purged. The party, and the militia, soon had little to do except engage in propaganda and parades. The Fascist regime was mostly run by the traditional elites in the military and civilian bureaucracy, which were linked, as previously, to landowners and the court. That said, it was much more authoritarian and also much more nationalistic and interventionist than the Liberal governments had been. Fascist indoctrination was never really successful, but the press was tightly censored, cinema newsreels were largely government propaganda, and the regime controlled the

new

radio broadcasting.

It

also ran

semicompulsory Fascist

515

youth movements, and new textbooks were imposed on the schools. The government also provided mass leisure activities, such as sports, concerts, and seaside holidays, which were genuinely popular. Anti-Fascist movements. For a long time organized anti-Fascist movements remained weak, divided, and illegal and had no access to press or radio. The Communists were soon the most significant of these movements, as they had an underground organization and some Russian support and finance, but even they had 7,000 members at most and had great difficulty in spreading their propaganda in Italy. New anti-Fascist groups were founded occasionally, but the secret police soon cracked down on them. Apart from the Communists, only Justice and Liberty, an alliance of Republicans, Democrats, and reformist Socialists founded by Carlo Rosselli and others in 1929,

managed to build up a clandestine organization in Italy. Most prominent anti-Fascists were in prison, in "confinement" on remote islands, or in exile and had little contact with Italian reality. The only strong non-Fascist organization in the country was the Roman Catholic church. The Vatican implicitly supported Mussolini in the early years and was rewarded in February 1929 by the Lateran Treaty, which settled the "Roman question" at last. Vatican City became an independent state, Italy paid a large financial indemnity to the pope for taking over his pre- 1870 lands, and a concordat granted the church many privileges in Italy, including recognition of church weddings as valid in civil law, religious education in secondary as well as in primary schools, and freedom for the lay Catholic organizations in Catholic Action. However, the government soon began curbing Catholic Action, seeing it as a front for antiFascist activity by former members of the Popular Party. The Catholic youth organizations were closed for a time in 1931. When they reopened, they had to avoid sports, but, even so, they grew considerably in the 1930s. They were a serious rival to the Fascist youth bodies and trained a new generation that often managed to avoid Fascist indoctrination. The 1929 concordat remained in force until the 1980s and was the legal basis for church dominance of Italian society after World War II. Anti-Fascist feeling became more widespread after the mid- 1930s. Italy sent "volunteer" militiamen to fight on Francisco Franco's side in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), but they were defeated in 1937 at the Battle of Guadalajara. Italy's increasingly close alliance with Adolf Hitler's Germany was also resented and feared, even by many Fascists. So, too, was the sudden decision to impose anti-Semitic laws in 1938: Jews were condemned as unpatriotic, excluded from government jobs, and forbidden to marry "Aryans." It

—

had become

government was likely European war, as indeed it

clear that the Fascist

to involve Italy in a disastrous

did in 1940.

Economic policy. Fascist intervention in the economy was designed for prestige and to boost military strength. In the early years the Fascists compromised with the business establishment and rescued failing banks. However, in 1926 the lira was suddenly revalued for political reasons, and Italy suffered all the usual consequences of an overvalued currency. Exports fell sharply, unemployment rose, wages were frozen or even cut, and prices feU. The steel, electricity, and chemical industries expanded, for their markets were domestic, and they were helped by cheaper raw material imports; industries producing textiles, food, and vehicles, which were reliant on foreign markets, declined.

When

the Great Depression

came

after 1929, these de-

flationary processes were accentuated.

The

leading banks,

which had

had

to be rescued

lent heavily to industry,

in the early 1930s, as did nies.

Two new

many

large industrial

compa-

state-run holding companies, the Italian

Industrial Finance Institute (Istituto Mobiliare Italiano;

IMI) and the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale; IRI), were set up to bail out failing firms and to provide capital for new industrial investment; they also provided trained managers

and

effective financial supervision. Italy thus acquired a huge, state-owned industrial sector, which was especially important in banking, steel, shipping, armaments, and the

The Lateran Treaty

516

Italy

supply of hydroelectricity. However, these firms were not nationalized; they operated in the market as private companies and still had many private shareholders. In the long term they gave Italy a modern infrastructure including roads and cheap energy a sounder financial sector, and

—

—

some

The

Fascist

syndicates

efficient

modern

industries

in

expanding sectors

such as chemicals and synthetic fibres. Most industrial development, and most workers, remained in northern Italy, although by this time large steelmaking and shipbuilding plants had been started at Naples and Taranto. After October 1925 the Fascist syndicates, or trade unions, were the sole recognized negotiators for workers' interests. Strikes and lockouts became illegal, and wages fell between 1927 and 1934, but the syndicates had considerable political influence. They secured a shorter working week (40 hours in November 1934), higher welfare benefits (such as family allowances, also introduced in 1934), and public works schemes, and they also helped run leisure and social activities. Most industrial jobs were protected throughout the depression, and the syndicates remained fairly popular until World War II. In 1934 the Fascists also set up "corporations" mixed bodies of syndicalists and employers to decide labour disputes and supervise wage settlements. Despite much rhetoric and propaganda about them, they had little impact in practice and virtually none on industrial management or economic policy making.

—

—

In agricultural policy the government aimed at self-sufficiency by encouraging grain production ("the battle for wheat"). A high tariff was reimposed on imported wheat, and grain prices were kept artificially high. Production rose sharply as northern farmers used more chemical fertilizers. In much of the south the climate was unsuitable for growing wheat, but vineyards and olive groves were nonetheless plowed up. The real beneficiaries of this policy were the large farmers of the Po Valley and of the southern latifundia. These men also benefited most from the government's land-reclamation schemes, forming their own consortia and receiving government money to drain or irrigate their own land. Moreover, during the depression they could buy land cheaply from the smaller landowners because many of the peasants who had acquired land during and after World War I were forced to sell after 1926. After Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935-36, the Italian economy was subjected to sanctions by the League of Nations. This led to a more extensive drive for selfsufficiency ("autarchy"); imports were replaced where possible by native products, and most exports were diverted to Germany and Switzerland or to Africa. Ethiopia, once conquered, became a vast drain on resources. Government intervention and licensing became more marked, with official cartels and quasi-monopolies encouraged; resources were shifted, from above, to heavy industr>' and armaments. All this led to budget deficits, big tax increases, and capital levies, which were hugely resented because they were mainly needed to pay for wars in Africa and Spain. Resented, too, was the obvious corruption of the Fascist governing clique, without whose permits available at a price nothing could be done. The various conservative groups, including those in the army, the civil service, the law, and the church, which in the mid- 1920s had looked to Fascism to protect their interests, realized by the late 1930s

—

—

was unreliable and withdrew their support. American restrictions, European recession, and Fascist economic nationalism combined to curtail emigration drastically in the 1930s, from more than 600,000 people per annum before 1914 to fewer than 50,000 per annum. The closing of emigration outlets hit the south particularly badly. As they could not go abroad, rural Italians moved to the cities: Rome doubled in size between 1921 and 1940, and northern cities became full of southern immigrants. Moreover, government policy encouraged populathat Fascism

Declining emigration

tion growth by providing tax incentives to have children

and excluding the childless from public jobs. Admittedly, all this had little effect before 1937: Italians married later than ever and had fewer children than previously, so much so that in several northern and central regions the birth rate dropped below replacement level in the 1930s. Foreign polity. Fascist foreign policy became more expansionist as time went on. In particular, Mussolini aimed

at acquiring territory in Africa

and

in the Mediterranean,

which he termed "mare nostrum" ("our

sea").

Even

in

invaded the Greek island of Corfu to avenge the murder of four Italian nationals forming part of an international boundary delegation. During the next decade he played the European statesman, and in 1924 he reached an agreement with Yugoslavia that gave Fiume to Italy. He also continued to strengthen the Italian hold on Libya, to build up the armed forces, and to plan further expansion in Africa 1923, in his

first

year in

office,

he

briefly

in Ethiopia, where the defeat at Adwa in needed to be avenged. In October 1935 Italy finally invaded Ethiopia and by May 1936 had conquered the country. However, the war antagonized the British and French governments, led to sanctions by the League of Nations, and isolated Italy diplomatically. Mussolini moved into Hitler's orbit, hoping that German backing would frighten the British and French into granting fur-

particularly

1896

still

The policy was unsuccessftil: no more territory was acquired in Africa. Furthermore, Italy became a junior partner in the "Rome-Berlin Axis," and in 1938 Mussolini had to accept Hitler's annexation of Austria, bringing the German Reich right up to the ther concessions to Italy.

May

1939 Mussolini entered a formal which further reduced his scope for maneuvering. Even so, when the Germans unexpectedly invaded Poland in September 1939, Mussolini insisted on remaining neutral. Italian border. In

military alliance with Hitler, the "Pact of Steel,"

World War II. Military disaster. Only in June 1940, when France was about to fall and the war seemed virtually over, did Italy join the

war on Germany's

side,

hoping for territorial spoils. Italy's initial attack on the French Alps in June 1940 was soon cut short by the Franco-German armistice. The real war for Italy began only in October, when Mussolini attacked Greece in a still

campaign that obliged the Germans, in 1941, to rescue the Italian forces and take over Greece themselves.

disastrous

The Germans

also had to lend support in the hard-fought campaigns of North Africa, where eventually the decisive second battle of el-Alamein (October 1942) destroyed the Italian position and led to the surrender of the whole of Italy's North African forces in May 1943. Meanwhile, the Italians had lost their extensive empire in eastern Africa, including Ethiopia, early in 1941; and their 250,000 troops in Russia, sent to help the

German

invaders, suffered un-

war was an almost unrelieved disasters. The main reason was poor

told hardships. In short, the

succession of military equipment. Italy had few tanks or antitank guns; clothing, food, vehicles, and fuel were all scarce; and supplies could not safely be taken to North Africa or Russia. Italian factories could not produce weapons without steel, coal, or oil, and, even when raw materials were available, production was limited because the northern Italian factories were subject to heavy Allied bombing, especially in 1942-43. Bombing, indeed, was one of the causes of the first major strikes since 1925. In March 1943 the leading factories in Milan and Turin stopped work in order to secure evacuation allowances for workers' families. By this time civilian morale was clearly very low, food shortages were endemic, and hundreds of thousands of people had fled to the countryside. Government propaganda was ineffective, and Italians could easily hear more accurate news on Radio Vatican or even Radio London. In Friuli-Venezia Giulia, as in Italian-occupied Slovenia and Croatia, the local Slav population supported armed resistance move-

ments, and anti-Italian terrorism was widespread. The movements cautiously revived in 1942-43. The Communists helped to organize strikes, the leading Roman Catholics formed a Christian Democratic Party in 1943, and a new Party of Action was founded in January 1943, mainly by republicans and Radicals. By this time most of the leading clandestine parties were more willing to work together to overthrow fascism; in April 1943 they signed an agreement to do so. By the summer of 1943 the Italian position was hopeless. Northern and eastern Africa had been lost, the northern Italian cities were being regularly bombed, war production was minimal, and morale had collapsed. Court circles began sounding out Allied terms, which of course included anti-Fascist

Mounting opposition to the

war

Russia the ouster of Mussolini. In July 1943 the Allies invaded Sicily, and within a few weeks they controlled the island. On July 24-25 the Fascist Grand Council met in Rome

and passed a motion asking constitutional

powers— that

the king to

is,

resume

his full

to dismiss Mussolini.

The

king did so the same day and installed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as prime minister. The army took over the key

Rome, the duce was arrested, Fascist institutions were dissolved.

positions in

End

and the main

as puppet ruler of the "Italian Social Republic," a lastditch Fascist regime based in Salo on Lake Garda. He,

had

influence on events or even on his own and army. He spent his last months railing against the king for dismissing him and protesting against German dominance. At the end of April 1945 he fled toward Switzeriand but was captured by Communist partisans at Dongo and shot; his body was then brought back too,

little

police forces

for public display in Milan.

of the regime.

Badoglio assured the Germans that the war would continue, but he also attempted, rather feebly, to reach armistice terms with the Allies. An armistice was eventually agreed on, and U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Allied commander in chief in the Mediterranean, announced it pn Sept. 8, 1943. The Germans immediately took over Rome; they had already, in the previous few weeks, taken over most of central and northem Italy. The Italian army, left without orders even to defend Rome, disintegrated. The king and his government fled south to Brindisi, leaving Rome to the Germans. Italy became a war zone: for 18 months the Allies and Germans fought each other up the peninsula, wreaking untold devastation throughout the land. The Allies took Naples in October 1943 but reached Rome only in June 1944, Florence in August, and the northern cities in April 1945. The south was ruled by the Allies, and Badoglio's government, although it declared war on Germany in October 1943, had very little influence on events. The antiFascist parties, who detested Badoglio and wanted the king

government until April 1944, when the Communist Party leader Palmiro Togliatti agreed to do so. When Rome was liberated, Victor Emmanuel was replaced by his son, Umberto, as "lieutenant general of the realm," and the leading anti-Fascist parties formed a "government" led by the reformist Socialist to abdicate, refused to join the

who had been prime minister in 1921meantime the Germans had rescued Mussolini mountain prison and restored him in the north

The partisans. After September 1943 partisan groups were active throughout northern and much of central Italy. Often they were former soldiers cut off" from home and still in possession of their weapons; many were young men fleeing from Mussolini's attempts to conscript them; others were urban evacuees or released prisoners of war. They were most active in summer in the hills, where they were usually supported by the peasants, and they tied down thousands of German troops. There were also terrorist groups in the cities and major strikes in industrial war production. The Communist Party, very small in 1943 (around 5,000 mem-

areas sabotaging

although

still

bers), led the largest

50,000 by

The new Party of Action was

also very active in the Resistance, with about a quarter of all partisan units; it had a strong commitment to radical political change (including the change to a republic and a purge of officials) as well as to military victory. The Christian Democrats had roughly 20,000 partisans, and both Socialists and Liberals had significant armed bands in some areas. Partisans of different political persuasions normally worked together in local Committees of National Liberation (CLNs), which coordinated strategy, administered liberated areas, and appointed new officials. Above all, they organized the uprisings in the northern cities, including Milan in April 1945, which fell

22. In the

laid the basis for

his

(at least

1944). Success in the Resistance transformed the Communists into a major force in postwar Italian politics.

Ivanoe Bonomi,

from

group of partisans

summer

to the partisans before Allied troops arrived.

postwar

They thus

political collaboration.

(martin CLARK)

Russia Cultural Ufe

homilies.

At

from the

late

one great secular work was produced as The Song of Igor's Campaign, which dates 12th century and describes a fafled Russian

least

well: the epic

THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE Russia's unique and vibrant culture developed,

as did

military expedition against the neighbouring Polovtsy. Ev-

from a complicated interplay of native and borrowings from a wide variety of foreign cultures. In the Kievan period (c. 10thI3th century) the borrowings were primarily from Eastern Orthodox Byzantine culture. During the Muscovite period (c. 14th- 17th century) the Slavic and Byzantine cultural substrates were enriched and modified by Asiatic influences carried by the Mongol hordes. Finally, in the mod-

idence also exists (primarily in the form of church records of suppression) of a thriving popular culture based on

the country

itself,

Slavic cultural material

em period

(since the 18th century) the cultural heritage of

westem Europe was added to the Russian melting pot. The Kievan period. Although many traces of the Slavic culture that existed in the territories of Kievan Rus survived beyond its Christianization (which occurred, according to the Russian Primary Chronicle, in ad 988), the cultural system that organized the lives of the early Slavs is far from being understood. From the 10th century on, however, enough material has survived to give a reasonable portrait of Old Russian cultural life. High culture in Kievan Rus was primarily ecclesiastical. The level of

was low, and artistic composition was undertaken almost exclusively by monks. The earliest literary works to have circulated were translations from Greek into Old Church Slavonic (a South Slavic dialect that was, in this period, close enough to Old Russian to be understandable). By the 11th century, however, Russian monks were producing original works (on Byzantine models), primarily in the genres of saints' lives, historical chronicles, and literacy

pre-Christian traditions centring around harvest, marriage,

and death rituals. The most important aspects of Kievan culture for the development of modern Russian culture, however, were not literary or folkloric but rather artistic and architectural. The early Slavic rulers expressed their religious piety and displayed their wealth through the constmction of stone churches, at first in Byzantine style (like the 11th-century Cathedral of St. Sophia that still stands in Kiev, Ukraine) and later in a distinctive Russian style (best preserved today in churches in and around the city of Vladimir, to the east of Moscow). The interiors of many of these churches were omately decorated with frescoes and icons. The Muscovite period. The Mongol (Tatar) invasions of the 1230s decimated Kievan Rus. By the time Russian political and cultural life began to recover in the 14th century, a new centre had arisen: Muscovy (Moscow). Continuity with Kiev was provided by the Orthodox church, which had acted as a beacon of national life during the period of Tatar domination and which continued birth,

to play the central role in

Russian cultural

life

into the

17th century. As a result, Russian cultural development in the Muscovite period was quite different from that of western Europe, which at this time was experiencing the secularization of society and the rediscovery of the clas-

517

518

Russia sical cultural heritage that

characterized the Renaissance.

At first, the literary genres employed by Muscovite writers were the same as those that had dominated in Kiev. The most remarkable literary monuments of the Muscovite

came before. Most noteworthy is the correspondence between Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible and Prince Audrey Kurbsky during the 1560s and '70s. Kurbsky, a former general in Ivan's army, period, however, are unlike anything that

defected to Poland, from where he sent a letter critical of the tsar's regime. Ivan's diatribes in response are both wonderful expressions of outraged pride and literary tours de force, combining the highest style of Muscovite hagiographic writing with pithy and vulgar attacks on his enemy. Similarly vigorous in style is the first full-scale in Russian literature. The Life of the ArchAvvakum. by Himself (c. 1672-75). As in the Kievan period, however, the most significant cultural achievements of Muscovy were not in literature but rather in the visual arts and architecture. The Moscow

autobiography priest

school of icon painting produced great masters,

Icon painting

among

them Audrey Rublyov (whose "Old Testament Trinity," now in Moscow's State Tretyakov Gallery, is among the most beautiful icons ever painted). Russian architects continued to design and build impressive churches, including the celebrated Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed on Moscow's Red Square. St. Basil's is a perfect example of the confluence of Byzantine and Asiatic cultural streams that characterizes Muscovite culture.

The emergence of modern Russian culture. The gradual turn of Russia toward western Europe that began in the 17th century led to an almost total reorientation of Russian interests during the reign of Peter I the Great (1694-1725). Although Peter was not particularly interested in cultural questions, the influx of Western ideas and the weakening of the Orthodox church led to a cultural renaissance in the reigns of his successors. In the late 1730s the poets Mikhail Lomonosov and Vasily Trediakovsky carried out reforms as far-reaching as those of Peter. They adapted German syllabo-tonic versification to Russian, developing the system of "classical" metres that prevails in Russian poetry to this day. In the 1740s, in imitation of French Neoclassicism, Aleksandr Sumarokov wrote the first Russian stage tragedies. In the course of the century, Russian writers assimilated all the European genres; much of their work was derivative, but the comedies of Denis Fonvizin and the powerful solemn odes of Gavrila Derzhavin were and have remained part of the active Russian cultural heritage. Prose fiction made its appearance at the end of the century in the works of the sentimentalist Nikolay Karamzin. By the beginning of the 19th century, after a 75-year European cultural apprenticeship, Russia was ready to produce fully original cultural work. original

turn to prose was signaled in the work of Pushkin, whose Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin (1831), The Queen of Spades (1834), and The Captain's Daughter (1836) all appeared before his death in 1837. Also in the 1830s the first publications appeared by Nikolay Gogol, a comic writer of Ukrainian origin, whose grotesquely hilarious oeuvre includes the story "The Nose," the play The Government Inspector (both 1836), and the epic novel Dead Souls (1842). Although Gogol was known in his own day primarily as a satirist, he now is appreciated as a verbal magician, whose works seem akin to the absurdists of the 20th century. One final burst of poetic energy appeared in the late 1830s in the verse of Mikhail Lermontov, known also as the author of the first Russian psychological novel,

A Hero

of Our Time (1840). In the 1840s the axis of Russian literature shifted decisively from the personal and Romantic to the civic and a shift presided over by the great Russian literary Vissarion Belinsky. Belinsky caUed for a literature concerned with current social problems, although he never expected it to give up the aesthetic function entirely. By the end of the 1840s, Belinsky's ideas had triumphed. Early works of Russian realism include Ivan Goncharov's antiromantic novel A Common Story ( 1 847) and Fyodor realistic,

critic

Dostoyevsky's Poor Folk (1846). From the 1840s until the turn of the 20th century, the realist novel was the dominant genre in Russian literature. Realism was not, however, a monolithic movement. In the early period, the favoured method was the "physiological sketch," often depicting a typical member of the downtrodden classes: quintessential examples are found in Ivan Turgenev's 1852 collection A Sportsman's Sketches. In these beautifully crafted stories,

Zhukovsky's 1802 translation of Thomas Gray's -4/7 Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard ushered in a vogue for the personal, elegiac mode that was soon amplified in the work of Konstantin Batyushkov. Prince Pyotr Vyazemsky, and the young Aleksandr Pushkin. Although there was a call for civic-oriented poetry in the late 1810s and early '20s, most of the strongest poets followed Zhukovsky's lyrical path. The mature Pushkin of the 1820s, however, went his own way, producing a scries of masterpieces that foundation for his eventual recognition as Russia's is the equivalent of Shakespeare for English readers or Dante for Italians); these works include the "Byronic" long poems The Prisoner of the Caucasus (1820-21) and The Gypsies (1824), the "novel in verse" Yevgeny Onegin (published 1833), and the "Shakespearean" tragedy Boris Godunov (1825), laid the

national poet (Pushkin, for Russians,

as well as exquisite lyrical verse.

The

rise

prose

of

During the 1830s there was a gradual decline in poetry and a rise of prose. This shift coincided with a change in literary institutions: the aristocratic salon, which had been the seedbed for Russian literature, was gradually supplanted by the monthly "thick journals," the editors and critics of which became Russia's tastemakers. The

life

serfs as seen

Sons (1862),

in which generational and class conflict in the period of Alexander II's reforms is described through the interactions of the Kirsanov family (father, son, and uncle) with the young "nihilist" Bazarov.

The two other great realists of the 19th century were Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo Tolstoy. Dostoyevsky, who was arrested in 1849 for his involvement in a socialist reading group, reentered the literary scene in the late 1850s.

While in prison, he experienced a religious conversion, and his novels of the 1860s and '70s are suffused with messianic Orthodox ideas. Dostoyevsky's major novels Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1868-69), The Possessed (1872), and The Brothers Karamazov (187980)

The 19th century. The first quarter of the 19th century was dominated by romantic poetry. Vasily Literature.

Turgenev describes the

through the eyes of a Turgenevlike narrator. The power of Turgenev's artistic depiction was credited with convincing Tsar Alexander II of the need to emancipate the serfs. Turgenev followed Sketches with a series of novels, each of which was felt by contemporaries to have captured the essence of Russian society at the time it appeared. The most celebrated is Fathers and of Russian

— are

filled

with riveting, often unstable characters and

dramatic scenes. While Dostoyevsky delves into the psychology of men and women at the edge, Tolstoy's novels treat the everyday existence of normal people. In both War and Peace (1865-69) and Anna Karenina (187577) Tolstoy draws beautifully nuanced portraits filled with deep psychological and sociological insight. By the early 1880s, the hegemony of the realist novel was waning. What was to replace the novel, however, was unclear. Russian poetry, notwithstanding the civic verse of Nikolay Nekrasov and the subtle lyrics of Afanasy Fet, had not played a central role in the literary process since the 1 830s, and drama, despite the able work of Aleksandr Ostrovsky, was a marginal literary activity for most writers. The only major prose writer to appear in the 1880s

and

'90s was Anton Chekhov, short story. In his greatest stories

whose

specialty

was the

— including "The Man in

"The Lady with a Lapdog" (1899), "The Darting" (1899), and "In the Ravine" (1900)— Chekhov manages to attain all the power of his great predecessors in a remarkably compact form. Toward the end of his career, Chekhov also became known for his dramatic work, including such pillars of the world theatrical repertoire as Uncle Vanya (1897) and The Cherry Orchard (1903). Chekhov's heirs in the area of short fiction were the lowera Case" (1898),

class writer

Maksim Gorky (who

later

would become the

Dostoyevsky and Tolstoy

Russia

dean of Soviet

and the

aristocrat Ivan Bunin (who emigrated after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and reletters)

ceived the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1933). The 20th century. The turn of the century ushered in a new renaissance in Russian poetry and drama, a "Silver Age" that rivaled, and in some respects surpassed, the Pushkinian "Golden Age." The civic orientation that

had dominated Russian literature since the 1 840s was, for moment, abandoned. The avant-garde's new cry was "art for art's sake," and the new idols were the French the

The first, "decadent" generation of Russian Symbolists included the poets Valery Bryusov, Konstantin Balmont, and Zinaida Gippius. The second, more mystically and apocalyptically oriented generation included Aleksandr Blok (perhaps the most talented lyric poet Russia ever produced), the poet and theoretician Vyacheslav Ivanov, and the poet and prose writer Andrey Bely. The Symbolists remained ascendant until 1910, when internal dissension led to the collapse of the movement. The period just before and immediately following the 1917 Revolution was marked by the work of six spectacSymbolists.

ularly talented, diflScult poets.

Anna Akhmatova's

brief,

brought her fame at the outset of her career, but later in life she produced such longer works as Requiem, her memorial to the victims of Joseph Stalin's purges. The Futurists Velimir Khlebnikov and Vladimir Mayakovsky engaged in innovative experiments to free poetic discourse from the fetters of tradition. Marina Tsvetayeva was a great poetic experimenter as well. She produced much of her major work as an emigre but returned to the Soviet Union in 1939, only to commit suicide there in 1941. Boris Pasternak, who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958, produced lyrics of great depth and power in this period, and Osip Mandelshtam brought his great erudition to the creation of some of the most beautiful and haunting lyric poems in the Russian language. Many of the writers who began to publish immediately after the Revolution turned to prose, particularly the short story and the novella. Some were inspired by the recent Revolution and Russian Civil War, including Boris Pilnyak (The Naked Year [1922]), Isaak Babel (Red Cavalry [1926]), and Mikhail Sholokhov, who won the Nobel Prize in 1965 for his writings. Others described life in the new Soviet Union with varying degrees of mordant sarcasm; the short stories of Mikhail Zoshchenko, the comic novels of Ilya Ilf and Yevgeny Petrov, and the short novel Envy (1927) by Yury Olesha fall into this category. The first decade after the Revolution also was a time of significant advances in literary theory and criticism, which changed methods of literary study throughout the world. Members of the Moscow Linguistic Circle and of the Society for the Study of Poetic Language (OPOYAZ) in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) combined to create Formalist literary criticism, a movement that concentrated on analyzing the internal structure of literary texts. At the same time, the theorist Mikhail Bakhtin began to develop a sophisticated criticism concerned with ethical problems and ways of representing them, especially in his favorite finely chiseled lyrics

genre, the novel.

By the late 1920s the period of Soviet experimentation had ended. Censorship became much stricter, and many of the best writers were silenced. During the late 1920s and the '30s there appeared what became known as the classics of Socialist Realism, a literary method that in 1934 was declared to be the only acceptable one for Soviet Fyodor Gladkov's writers. A few among these classics

—

Cement (1925), Nikolay Ostrovsky's How the Steel Was Tempered (1932-34), and Valentin Katayev's Time, Forward! (1932) have retained some literary interest. The

—

masterpieces of this period, however, did not fit the canons of Socialist Realism and were not published until many years later. They include Mikhail Bulgakov's grotesquely funny The Master and Margarita (1966-67) and Andrey Platonov's dark pictures of rural and semi-urban Russia,

The Foundation /'/V ( 1 973) and Chevengur (1972). New writers and trends appeared during the "thaw" period of the 1950s and early 1960s. The vibrant young poetic voices of Joseph Brodsky, Yevgeny Yevtushenko, and Andrey Voznesensky were heard. Aleksandr Solzhe-

519

nitsyn emerged from a Soviet prison camp to shock the U.S.S.R. and the world with his story One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962). "Youth" prose on the model of J.D. Salinger appeared as well, in the work of Vasily

Aksyonov and Vladimir Voynovich. By the late 1960s, however, most of these writers had again been silenced. Brodsky, Aksyonov, Voynovich, and Solzhenitsyn were forced to leave the country by 1980, and the best writing was again unpublishable. Practically the only decent writing acceptable for publication from the late 1960s through the mid-1980s came from the "village prose" writers (the best include the novelist Valentin Rasputin and the shortstory writer Vasily Shukshin), who treated the clash of rural traditions with modern life in a realistic idiom. Somewhat apart stands the morally complex fiction of Yury

"Village

prose"

Trifonov (The House on the Embankment [1976]). Nevertheless, as with the 1930s and '40s, the most important literature of this period first appeared outside the Soviet Union. Notable writers include Varlam Shalamov, author of exquisitely artistic stories that chronicled the horrors of the Gulag; Andrey Sinyavsky, whose complex novel Goodnight! appeared in Europe in 1984, long after he had been forced to emigrate from the U.S.S.R.; and Venedikt Yerofeyev, whose grotesque latter-day picaresque MoscowPetushki published in a clandestine (samizdat) edition in 1968 is a minor classic. The literature that first appeared in the 1980s has yet to stand the test of time, but it appears that most of the best work published was in poetry as in the work of conceptualists like Dmitry Prigov and in the meta-metaphoric poetry of Aleksey Parshchikov, Olga Sedakova, Ilya Ku-

—

—

—

and others. Music. The 19th century. Secular music on a Western model appeared later than did Westernized literature in Russia. Although a few works of interest have survived from the 18th century, the "father" of modern Russian classical music, Mikhail Glinka, worked in the second tik,

quarter of the 19th century. Glinka created a Russian national music by grafting Russian melodies onto Euro-

pean harmonies. His patriotic A Life for the Tsar (1836) and his Pushkin-inspired Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842) are the oldest Russian operas that remain in the standard repertoire.

By the second half of the 19th century, an active Ruslife was in place. Like so many other areas of Russian culture, music was split into Westernizer and Slavophile (nationalist) camps. The principal composer of the former was Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky, whose symphonies, overtures, ballets, and operas combined a careful European craftsmanship with a judicious use of native melodies. The Slavophile camp called for a more national music that would be based not merely on native melodies but also on the harmonic system of the Russian folk song. Although to the musical Westernizers' ears the work of the nationalists sounded barbaric, the major compositions of the Slavophile composers Aleksandr Borodin, Modest Mussorgsky, and Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov have become sian musical

staples of the international repertoire, just as

have those

of Tchaikovsky. The 20th century.

In the immediate pre-Revolutionary major Russian composers emerged: Aleksandr Scriabin, Sergey Rachmaninoff, and Igor Stravinsky. Scriabin was a piano virtuoso and mystic whose compositions were close in spirit to Symbolist literature. Rachmaninoff, also a major pianist, is known primarily for his lyrical piano works. Stravinsky, who began as a student of Rimsky-Korsakov, quickly outgrew his teacher and, in the course of the century, produced a dazzling string of groundbreaking works in a wide variety of styles, including the ballets Petrushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913). Stravinsky emigrated in 1914, Rachmaninoff folperiod, three

lowing after the Revolution. Soviet music was dominated by two major composers: Dmitry Shostakovich and Sergey Prokofiev. Both composed in a wide variety of styles and genres, and (even though Shostakovich in particular had serious problems with the artistic authorities) both were able to remain

productive even during the worst years of Stalinism. Shostakovich is known primarily for his 15 symphonies.

Shostakovich and

Prokofiev

520

Russia although he also produced masterpieces of chamber sic,

mu-

opera, and ballet. Prokofiev's best-known works are

Romeo and

and his score for Sergey Eisenstein's film Alexander Nevsky (1938), although he, too, wrote a wide variety of chamber music, orchestral music, and opera. Among contemporary composers, the complex work of Alfred Schnittke is highly valued and frequently perfomed. Popular culture also produced many renowned performers. Particularly notable is the legacy of two balladeers composers who perform their own songs to guitar accompaniment. The raspy-voiced actor and musician Vladimir Vysotsky, whose songs circulated on thousands of bootleg cassettes throughout the 1960s and '70s, was perhaps the best-known performer in the U.S.S.R. until his death in 1980. The Georgian Bulat Okudzhava has an almost equally loyal following. The pop singer Alia Pugacheva drew large audiences in the 1970s, and the rock bands Aquarium (Akvarium) and Kino became quite popular his ballet

music

for

Juliet (1935-36)

in the 1980s.

In the area of classical musical performance, Soviet conservatories turned out generations of world-renowned soloists.

Among

the best-known were the violinists

David

Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer, the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, the pianists Svyatoslav Richter and Emil Gilels, and the vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya. The visual arts. The 1 9th century. Like music, the visual arts were slower to develop along European lines than was literature in Russia. The 18th and early 19th centuries did not produce any great Russian painters, with the exception of the portraitist Dmitry Levitsky. In the 1830s the Russian Academy of Arts (which had been founded in 1757) began sending Russian painters abroad for training. Among the most gifted of these were Aleksandr Ivanov and Karl Bryullov: both are known for

Romantic historical canvases. A truly national tradition did not begin, however, until the 1870s with the appearance of the "Itinerants." Although their work is not well known outside Russia, the serene landscapes of Isaac Levitan, the expressive portraits of Ivan Kramskoy and Ilya Repin, and the socially oriented genre paintings of Vladimir Makovsky, Vasily Perov, and Repin deserve an international reputation. The 20th century. As was the case with literature, there was a burst of creativity in the visual arts in the years just before the 1917 Revolution. Russian painters interacted frequently with their European counterparts and played a major role in the European art scene. This period was marked by a turning away from realism to primitivism, symbolism, and abstract painting. The careers of such major artists as Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Natalya Goncharova, Mikhail Larionov, Kazimir Malevich, and Vladimir Tatlin all began in the immediate pre-Revolutionary years.

Construetivism

As in literature, the 1920s were a period of continued experimentation. Perhaps the most noteworthy movement was Constructivism. Led by El Lissitzky and Aleksandr Rodchenko, the Constructivists favoured strict geometrical forms and crisp graphic design. Many also became actively involved in the task of creating living spaces and forms of daily life, working in such fields as furniture, ceramic, and clothing design and architecture. Non-Constructivist artists, including Pavel Filonov and Mariya Ender, also produced major works in this period. By the end of the 1920s, however, the same pressures that confronted experimental writing were brought to bear on the visual arts. A return to the classics of realism was decreed, and the great painters of the early 1920s found themselves increasingly isolated. Eventually their works were removed from museums, and in many cases the artists themselves were almost completely forgotten. It was not until the late 1980s that the greatest works of Russian art of the 20th century were again made available to the public. Experimental art was replaced by countless pictures of Lenin, as, for example, Isaak Brodsky's "Lenin at the Smolny" (1930), and by a seemingly unending string of rose-tinted Socialist Realist depictions of everyday life bearing titles like "The Tractor Drivers' Supper" (1951).

The

visual arts took longer to recover

years than did literature. '70s that a

It

new group of

was not artists,

from the

Stalinist

and worked

until the 1960s

all

of

whom

"underground," appeared. Major artists included Ernst Neizvestny, Ilya Kabakov, Mikhail Shemyakin, and Erik Bulatov. They employed techniques as varied as primitivism, hyperrealism, grotesque, and abstraction, but they shared a common distaste for the canons of Socialist Realism. By the late 1980s a large number of them had emigrated.

The performing

The 19th century. The dramatic were entirely under government control until the end of the 19th century. Actors and dancers were government employees and often were treated badly. Nevertheless, theatrical life was quite active throughout the century. From an international perspective, however, the greatest success of the Russian theatre was in the area of classical ballet. Since the 1820s, Russian dancers have and

arts.

ballet theatres

reigned supreme on the ballet stage. Many great choreographers, even those of non-Russian origin, worked for the Russian Imperial Theatres, including Marius Petipa, who

choreographed Tchaikovsky's ballets Swan Lake and The Sleeping Beauty. The 20th century. Two directors and one producer dominated Russian theatrical life in the first decades of the 20th century: the producer was Sergey Diaghilev, and the directors were Konstantin Stanislavsky and Vsevolod Meyerhold. Together with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Stanislavsky founded the Moscow Art Theatre (later called the Moscow Academic Art Theatre) in 1898. Stanislavsky's insistence on historical accuracy, exact realism, and intense psychological preparation by his actors led to a string of successful productions from the beginning of the century into the 1930s. The theatre was known particularly for its productions of the plays of Anton Chekhov, whose The Seagull (1896) was the hit of the theatre's inaugural season. Meyerhold was one of Stanislavsky's students, but he broke with his master's insistence on realism. He welcomed the Revolution and put his considerable talent and energy into creating a new theatre for the new state. Throughout the 1920s and into the '30s he staged brilliant, inventive productions, both of contemporary drama and of the classics. However, his iconoclastic style fell out of favour in the 1930s, and he was arrested and executed in 1940. Diaghilev was a brilliant organizer and impresario whose innovative Ballets Russes premiered many of the most significant ballets of the first quarter of the century. Although the company was based primarily in Paris, Diaghilev employed major Russian composers (particularly Stravinsky), artists (e.g., Alexandre Benois, Goncharova, and Larionov), and dancers (including Vaslav Nijinsky and Tamara Karsavina) in his legendary company. Ballet was one of the great successes of the Soviet period as well, not because of any innovations but because the great troupes of the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow and the Kirov Theatre in Leningrad were able to preserve the traditions of classical dance that had been perfected in preRevolutionary Russia. The Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including the incomparable Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and MikhaU Baryshnikov. Another extremely successful area of theatrical performance was puppet theatre. The State Central Puppet Theater founded by Sergey Obraztsov in Moscow continues to give delightful performances for patrons of all ages. The same can be said for the spectacular presentations of the

Moscow

State Circus.

The Soviet cinema, too, was a hotbed immediate post-Revolutionary period. Its most celebrated director was Sergey Eisenstein (a student of Meyerhold), whose great films include Battleship Potemkin (1925) and Alexander Nevsky (1938). Film did Motion

pictures.

of invention

in the

not escape the strictures of Socialist Realism, but a few War 11 films in this style were artistically successful, including The Cranes are Flying (1957; directed by Mikhail Kalatozov) and Ballad of a Soldier (1959; directed by Grigory Chukhrai). A number of successful film versions of classic texts were made in the 1950s and

post-World

Moscow Art Theatre

Tokyo- Yokohama Metropolitan Area '60s, particularly Grigory Kozintsev's spectacular versions

of Russian

oi Hamlet (1964) and King Lear (1971). The 1960s and '70s produced a few great directors and artistically successful films. Two standouts were Andrey Tarkovsky (Andrey Rublev [1966] and Minor [1974]) and the Georgian-born Armenian Sergey Paradzhanov (Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors [1964] and The Colour of Pomegranates [1969]).

tersburg, the former tsarist palaces at Pavlovsk, Pushkin,

CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS The press and media. Russian 19th-century journalism was extremely vigorous, with newspapers and monthly "fat" journals being the most important forums. Daily newspapers and monthly journals of all political and artistic stripes continued to appear in the immediate aftermath of the Revolution. However, most independent newspapers were eliminated by the early 1920s. What remained were the ubiquitous daily duo of Pravda ("Truth") and Izvestiya ("News"). Journals were in a somewhat better position, especially those that published mostly works of literature. Periodicals like Krasnaya nov ("Red Virgin Soil") and LEF ("The Left Front of Art") published much significant literature in the 1920s. In the 1960s the journal Novy mir revived this tradition. In the 1980s it was joined by a revitalized Ogonyok ("Spark"). Radio and television from the time of their appearance in the Soviet Union were heavily dominated by the party apparatus and were seen as primary tools for propaganda. Until the mid-1980s most television programming consisted of either direct or indirect propaganda spiced with high art (e.g., filmed concerts and plays) and occasional grade-B thrillers. In the period of glasnost, television was a leader in innovative programming, helping to create the situation in which the Soviet state was destroyed. Museums. Some of the greatest museums in the world can be found in the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. In Moscow the Pushkin Fine Arts Museum houses treasures of western European art, while the Tretyakov Gallery has a strong collection of Russian art. In St. Petersburg the Hermitage is one of the great art museums of the world, and the Russian Museum has wonderful examples

art.

In addition, in the suburbs outside

St.

Pe-

museums. Moscow, was founded in 1755. Throughout the 19thcentury and into the 20th, Russian universities in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kazan produced world-class scholars, notably the mathematician Nikolay Lobachevsky and the chemist Dmitry

and Petrodvorets have been restored Universities.

as

Russia's oldest university, in

Mendeleyev. Although universities suffered severely during the Stalinist purges, a number of universities have continued to provide high-quality education, particularly in the sciences. The most important include Moscow M.V. Lomonosov State University, St. Petersburg State University,

and Novosibirsk

State University.

SPORTS AND RECREATION Sports played a major role in the Soviet state in the postWorld War II period. The achievements of Soviet athletes in the international arena, particularly in the Olympic Games, were a source of great national pride. Although athletes were technically amateurs, they were well supported by the Sports State Committee. In team sports winthe U.S.S.R. was especially successful in ice hockey ning numerous world championships and Olympic gold

—

medals

— volleyball,

and

later basketball. Soviet

gymnasts

and track-and-field athletes (male and female), weight lifters, wrestlers, and boxers were consistently among the best in the world. Even after the collapse of the Soviet empire, Russian athletes have continued to dominate international competition in these areas.

On

the

amateur

level, the lack

and equipfrom but jogging, soccer, and of

facilities

ment have prevented many average Russian

citizens

participating in sporting activities, fishing have been popular. Finally,

many Russians are avid chess players, and the country has produced most of the greatest players of the 20th century. (ANDREW

B.

WACHTEL)

data on the land and people of Russia, see the Britannica World Data section in the britannica

For

statistical

BOOK OF THE YEAR.

Tokyo-Yokohama Metropolitan Area ThemonlyTokyo- YokohamaTokyo—

metropolitan

called Greater

is

area

— com-

a huge metropoli-

tan complex along the northern and western shores of Tokyo Bay, on the Pacific coast of the island of Honshu, central Japan. At its centre is the metropolitan prefecture, or metropolis (to), of Tokyo. The three prefectures (ken) bordering it— Saitama on the north, Chiba on the east, and Kanagawa on the south— may be said to make up the remainder of the complex, but there is more than one definition of Greater Tokyo, and large numbers of people live

beyond the four prefectures and commute

to

work

in the region.

The expression "city of Tokyo" usually refers to the 23 wards (ku) that constitute the

city proper. In 1943,

how-

ever, this city ceased to exist as an administrative unit and was subsumed within the larger Tokyo metropolis,

which includes rural and mountainous regions west of the city and the Izu Islands stretching southward from the mouth of Tokyo Bay and Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands some 500 miles (800 kilometres) to the southeast in the Pacific Ocean. There are three other major cities within the complex. Yokohama, about 20 miles southwest of Tokyo, is the second largest city in Japan. The industrial Yokohama. city of Kawasaki lies between Tokyo and Both Yokohama and Kawasaki are in Kanagawa prefecthe ture. Chiba, in Chiba prefecture east of Tokyo on northeast coast of the bay,

is

also heavily industrialized.

521

Tokyo (Japanese: Tokyo), meaning "Eastern Capital," was the name given to the city of Edo when the seat of the imperial family was moved there from Kyoto ("Capital City") in 1868.

This

article is

Physical and

divided into the following sections:

human geography

The landscape Site

Climate

Layout

The people The economy Industry

Commerce and

finance

Transportation Administration and social conditions

Government Services

Housing Cultural History

life

The premodem period The Meiji period (1868-1912) The region since 1912 Bibliography

Olympic participa-

tion

522

Tokyo- Yokohama Metropolitan Area Physical and

The

human geography

shift

may be

taken as a concise summary of what has Edo became Tokyo. origins along the Sumida estuary, the city has

transpired since

THE LANDSCAPE Site. The old

From

of Edo occupied alluvial and reclaimed lands along and to the east of the Sumida River (which flows just east of central Tokyo) and hills to the west of the river. The site was chosen for strategic reasons. It commands the southern approaches to the Kanto Plain, the largest in Japan. Saitama is mostly flat, and in Kanagawa hills prevail, though both prefectures give way to mountains along their inland extremities, as also does Tokyo. Much of the mercantile centre of Edo was reclaimed from the Sumida estuary, which reached to the grounds of the premodern castle (now the imperial palace). Two other rivers of note in the region are the Tama, the lower reaches of which form the eastern boundary between Tokyo and Kanagawa prefectures; and the Tone, the main course of which lies some distance north of Tokyo. The Tone is the second longest river in Japan, and its drainage basin is the largest. Before the 17th century it flowed through what is now Tokyo and into the bay, but for flood control the TOkugawa shogunate diverted it. The main mouth of the Tone is now at the northeastern comer of Chiba prefecture, although a minor branch, the Edo River, continues to flow into the bay and forms the boundary between Tokyo and Chiba prefectures. The Sumida, of different origins, continued to flood the city until the Arakawa Drainage Channel, roughly parallel to the Sumida and a short distance to the east of it, was put through in the years before the 1923 earthquake. The eastern districts, because they lie on unconsolidated, geologically unstable land and because they have been the more crowded and less affluent parts of the city, have been prone to disaster. They were almost completely destroyed by the earthquake of 1923 and the aerial bombings of 1945. The palace lies at the boundary between the flatlands and the more prosperous and geologically stable hilly regions. city

— the

The Low

The

City and High City

the mercantile culture of Edo.

flatlands

City, has

—

Downtown, or Low City dominated The hilly Uptown, or High

been increasingly dominant

in the

20th century.

CHIBA

P..l.c.u.es

iKiib Waids Prslecture boundAntts

Oiv

mai

limits

Maiof roads

Other roads

^—

Railroads Shir>li«nsen railroJHl

-.»

Mor\orail

Points of intprp^t

Q]

its

spread in all directions, even into the bay. Reclamation has been continuous and since 1950 has been so extensive that the reclaimed lands are the centre of highly imaginative, perhaps somewhat dreamy, schemes for the future. This is inevitable, since most of the rest of Tokyo metropolitan prefecture is now full of people and since vast tracts of suburbia lie beyond the authority of the prefectural government. The general direction of movement for this constantly moving city has been westward. Until 1991 City Hall, which might more properly be called the Prefectural Office, was near the old centre of the city, just east of the palace and within the outer moat of Edo Castle. In 1991 it moved to a part of Shinjuku, a western "satellite centre" that was not fully within the city limits until 1932. The new site is nearer the population centre of the prefecture than the old. By 1932 the city limits were no longer realistic. Twenty new wards were added around the old 15, and Tokyo suddenly became the second (or perhaps third) largest city in the world. It does not matter so much now that the 23 wards, to which the 35 were reduced in 1947, no longer contain the city, because the "ward part" has no administrative significance. A popular saying had it that Edo ended at what is now the campus of the University of Tokyo, to the north of the palace. It would not take an hour for a good walker to go the distance from the old mercantile centre, east of the palace and castle, to the university. A walk today to the farthest northern suburbs would take the best of walkers many hours. Climate. Although Tokyo lies somewhat farther south than Washington, D.C., the two cities have similar climates. In both the one really uncomfortable season is the summer, when humidity is extreme, and the temperature may rise to above 100° F (38° C). On most August days in Tokyo it rises to near 90° F (32° C), and it is not the heat but the humidity, near saturation, that matters. The winters are brisk but not savagely cold. Heavy snowstorms usually come in early spring and quickly melt away. The temperature sometimes drops below freezing but only slightly. Winter is the sunniest season of the year and has the cleanest air. It is the only season when one would not be startled to see Mount Fuji from a high building near the centre of the city. Spring and autumn are delightful, though the weather tends to be more turbulent than in Washington. There are rainy periods in early summer and early autumn. The latter is associated with typhoons, the Pacific equivalent of the hurricane. It is a rare year in which one or more does not strike the region. The flowers of spring and the leaves of autumn have been endlessly and justly celebrated in Japanese poetry. May, with its peonies, azaleas, wisteria, and dogwood, is the most flowery month, although the more famous cherry blossoms come early in April. Plums, camellias, and witch hazel bloom yet earlier. At no time of the year, even the "dead" of winter, is the city without outdoor blossoms. Western visitors of the Layout. Centre and satellites. 19th century described Edo and Tokyo as not so much a city as a collection of villages. This characterization is found, for instance, in one of the most detailed of these early accounts, by an American who accompanied Ulysses S. Grant on his visit to the city in 1879. Doubtless it was accurate a century and some decades ago, and it still obtains today, though "cities" might now be a more appropriate word than "villages." Most people would probably still put the centre of Tokyo much where the centre of Edo was, immediately to the east of the palace. Marunouchi, inside the outer castle moat (now filled in), is the entrepreneurial hub of the city and of Japan; it is where the prefectural offices were until 1991. Farther east, immediately beyond the avenue built on the filled-in moat, there has been a shift. Nihombashi, the "Japan Bridge" that was (and still is) considered the starting point for roads to the provinces, was the unchallenged mercantile centre of Edo. Today Ginza, farther south, is more important, even though it is not the largest

Tokyo- Yokohama Metropolitan Area Kasumigaseki, immediately to the south of the palace, has been the bureaucratic centre of retail district in the city.

the city since shortly after it became the imperial capital. Located there and in neighbouring districts to the west are the main offices of the national government, including the National Diet Building and the prime minister's residence. For the rest of Tokyo, there has been a huge proliferation of what are called "satellite centres," the largest of them every bit as deserving of the name city as are Kawasaki and

Chiba. Shinjuku is the largest and is the main retail and entertainment district in the city and in the land. More people pass through Shinjuku railway station, on their way from and to home in the sprawling western suburbs, than through any other station in Japan and, quite possibly, in and perhaps catching up because of the world. Second its popularity among teenagers is Shibuya, to the south; and third is Ikebukuro, to the north. All three lie along the western arc of the Yamanote Line, the railway that circles much of the main part of the city. They bespeak the general tendency of the city to move westward. There are others, such as Ueno, a short distance west of the Sumida, and Nakano, west of Shinjuku; and to the number might be added central Yokohama, even though Yokohama is a separate city and not a satellite centre. Its traditional role as the port for greater Tokyo having declined, it is asserting its independence as a hub for shopping, conventions, and the like. The beautification of the nondescript waterfront has been a conspicuous success. Though Chinese are numerous in such Tokyo centres as Shinjuku, Yokohama is alone among them in having a genuine and vibrant Chinatown. Despite disasters and modernization, Street patterns. the street pattern of central Tokyo resembles that of Edo. Old streets have been widened and new streets cut through, but after both of its great modem disasters, in 1923 and 1945, the city pulled itself together in much the same shape that it had had before. The old centre of the city is essentially a cobweb, with the palace grounds at its centre, reflecting the defensive arrangement of the castle town. The old flatlands to the east are in a grid pattern, with the grids not ideally joining one another. One might expect the plan of a city to become more rational as it expands and planners start exerting themselves. This has not been true of Tokyo, and still less is it true of the suburbs that lie beyond the prefectural boundaries. There really is no plan and no pattern, except, in a rudimentary sense, the old cobweb. Streets wander along

—

Yokohama

—

and ridges, and one can often sense in them what the disorder of the old paddy fields must have been. The cobweb survives in main arteries that radiate out from the centre, leaving the old city through post stations called the Five Mouths. The most important of these was Shinagawa, to the south, first of the 53 stages on the

valleys

Tokaido (the main coastal road to Kyoto) celebrated in the woodblock prints of Hiroshige and others. It is still situated on the oldest and most important highway to Yokohama and beyond. The old highway to the mountainous province of Kai (modern Yamanashi prefecture) passes through Shinjuku, directly west of the palace. To the northwest, not as important as it once was, is Itabashi, through which passes the old inland road to Kyoto. More than one highway departed for the north through Senju,

which had two of the Five Mouths. is like the western part of Tokyo, confusing— more consistently confusing, even, than Tokyo. Motorists, defeated by its random streets, have been known to descend from their automobiles and look for the North Star, though the air is seldom clear enough to reveal it. The city is for the most part hilly,

Most of Yokohama

which

is

to say,

and, confronted with a hill, a Japanese road or street tends to wander off in search of a detour. Only a limited band to the south and west of the original Yokohama railway terminus (now Sakuragi-cho station) and the harbour area are in something like a grid pattern. One looks in vain for traces of the old Kanagawa post station in Yokohama and is similarly frustrated with re-

gard to the one that was in Kawasaki, farther north toward Tokyo. Probably because it lost its castle some centuries ago, Chiba wears the aspect of a medieval castle town less

523

than does Tokyo: a visitor to the city has to be told where the castle was.

Green space.

Mists,

upon one another

and man-made, so

natural

Tokyo

pile

view from one of the Shinjuku skyscrapers is not likely, on an average day, to go very far. When it does, one may be surprised at the amount of greenery. Osaka is an ashen city by comparison, and even Kyoto, the ancient capital, is wanting in the wide and beautiful parks that are scattered throughout Tokyo. The cemeteries are also wide, verdant, and beautiful. Grave viewing can be a satisfying pastime. The traditional pattern for viewing the flowers and grasses of the seasons has shown remarkable powers of survival, The famous places of Edo were mostly in the northern and eastern districts, and they are so situated in Tokyo as weU. In spite of disasters and crowding, the flatlands and the hills along their immediate fringes are still where the blossom-viewing crowds gather. In this phenomenon may be found, indeed, the only regard in which the old Low City has held its own against the growing cultural hegemony of the High City. There are famous new places, to be sure, such as the iris gardens of the Meiji Shrine, said to have been designed by the Meiji emperor himself; and such blossoms as the camellia and the chrysanthemum are to be seen everywhere. For the first in the annual procession of important blossoms, the plum, most people go to the Yushima Shrine, near Ueno Park. Ueno Park itself, along with the Sumida embankment, was the most famous place in Edo for cherry blossoms. It remains the most famous of Tokyo in the

skies that the

Blossom viewing

Ueno also contains a renowned peony garden. Probably the most famous of peony gardens is at Nishiarai Daishi temple, north of the Ara River. The best-known azalea garden is at the Nezu Shrine, just north of the University of Tokyo. For wisteria one can do no better than the Kameido shrine, in the eastern suburbs until 1932. As beautiful as the iris garden at the Meiji Shrine are those at Horikiri and Mizumoto, in the eastern part of the city. For the lotuses of full summer it is Ueno again. Then as well.

come chrysanthemums and autumn

foliage, the latter best

viewed in the mountains. The parks of Yokohama are newer than those of Tokyo, but there are fine ones. The most popular, Yamashita, is on land reclaimed from the bay with debris from the 1923 earthquake. The Sankei Garden, some distance south of the city centre, was built and presented to the city by a 19th-century silk merchant. The park once reposed by the bay, but reclamation has put it inland some distance and in some measure lessened its beauty. It contains a collection of fine old buildings moved from elsewhere. The lands between Sakuragi-cho and the harbour were once grim docks and warehouses. Now they are like a field of densely blooming wildflowers, the impression of wildness being carefully cultivated. Tamed nature in parks, gardens, temBuilding sts'les. ples, and cemeteries aside, it cannot be said that Tokyo is a beautiful city. Physically, it is among the newest cities in the world: almost nothing is as much as a century old. Disaster helps explain this fact, but it is not the only reason. Traditionally, the Japanese have not built for durability. Buildings are torn

down

at a rate that

would

be remarkable in most places and is next to unbelievable in a country that thinks itself strapped for resources. So almost everything is new, and rebuilding seems to result inevitably in something less distinguished than what was replaced. The view from a moderately high window will most commonly look out on several dozens of buildings, all of which are in unimaginative modem styles. Skyscrapers are a relatively recent phenomenon, dating only from the completion (1968) of the 36-story Kasumigaseki Building just south of the government ministries. Until then, aesthetic and engineering considerations had kept buildings to a maximum of about 10 stories, but there soon blossomed a number of high-rise stmctures, all purported by their builders to be earthquake-resistant. The largest cluster of skyscrapers rises to the west of Shinjuku station, although Yokohama boasts the tallest building in Japan: the 70-story Landmark Tower, completed in 1993. Surviving pockets of wooden stmctures from perhaps the

Skyscrapers

524

Tokyo-Yokohama Metropolitan Area turn of the 20th century, as well as the xylographic art of Edo, tell us that Tokyo must once have been a very pleasing city in the severe, monochrome manner held by many to be peculiarly Japanese. The pockets will soon go, to be replaced by cheaper, perhaps more comfortable, certainly uglier modem things. The city still contains a scattering of buildings in premodern European styles, including a rather fine Queen Anne building in the Kasumigaseki bureaucratic quarter; but cracker-box modem has been overwhelmingly favoured since World War II. To let these facts prey on one's mind is to overlook a very important point: that an ugly face can also be a very

Finance has been more conservative geographically than has management, with Nihombashi, the commercial and financial centre of Edo, as its main seat. Located there are the Bank of Japan and the Tokyo Stock Exchange, Japan's two most important financial institutions. The latter is much busier than the Osaka Stock Exchange, but this may be somewhat misleading: a very large proportion of stocks are in intercompany holdings that do not go on the market. This arrangement is a defense against hostile takeovers and also a continuing assurance of cooperation among the members of the giant conglomerates; but it makes the stock market easily manipulatable and less than

animated and endearing

market forces. During the 1980s, as Japan was emerging as an economic superpower, Tokyo suddenly found itself a global financial centre. This remarkable growth rate came to be called the "bubble economy." The expression refers to speculation in general, but most particularly to land speculation and to Tokyo, where land prices have been the most outrageously exorbitant in the country. By the early 1990s, however, overinflated stock and land prices led

—

THE PEOPLE The most striking Tokyo is that it is

ideally subject to

face.

about the population of Greater The four prefectures of the metropolitan area contain one-fourth of all the people in Japan. The population of the 23 wards of Tokyo is stabilized at roughly eight million, while that of outlying fact

so large.

regions continues to grow rapidly. Two other cities within the complex, Yokohama and Kawasaki, have populations of more than a million. The average age for Tokyoites is well under that for the

a city of young people, and they the very young are a little afraid of Shinjuku and its gangs, the streets on the whole are safe. So, Tokyo is filled with young people nudging past one another not in automobiles but on sidewalks; in this regard, not many cities can be its equal. It conveys a sense of irresistible vitality. It may be quiet and unpeopled in the hours before and after dawn, but at other hours none of the bustling centres is without its crowds. Ordinary neighbourhoods are quieter than they once were, because more people are indoors watching television notably baseball (the national sport) during the season. Nonetheless, the pedestrian crowds continue to be far more widely diffused rest

of the nation.

flood the streets.

It is

Though

—

The attraction

of Tokyo

than in any American city. The origins of the Tokyo populace are mostly in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Japan's other great megalopolis, centred upon Osaka, draws from the south and west. It is reasonable to ask why masses of people continue to pour in who know full well how crowded it already is and how trying it can be, especially for the newcomer. It is dangerous to generalize about national traits, but one may hazard a simple answer: the Japanese love to be where everyone is, and there are nearly as many people in one conurbation or the other as everywhere else in Japan put together. Although Yokohama has passed Osaka in population, the latter is still considered Japan's "second" city. Osaka is the focal point of its conurbation, while Yokohama is

Tokyo. Yokohama retains its when it was Japan's chief entrepot with the West, even though its foreign community is much smaller than it once was. Tokyo, in spite of a substantial foreign population and its world-class status, has considerably less of a cosmopolitan feel than a largely a

bedroom town

for

international flavour from the days

city

such as

New

York.

THE ECONOMY Since the war Tokyo has taken over from Osaka the role of leading industrial centre in the country. The region has a highly diversified manufacturing base. Heavy industries such as metals, chemicals, machinery, transportation equipment, and oil refining are concentrated in Chiba, Kawasaki, and Yokohama. Tokyo proper is strongly inclined toward light industry. Most of Japan's Industry.

—

—

books and much of its electronic equipment, for instance, are produced there. Commerce and finance. More noteworthy than the concentration of industry is the concentration of management and finance in and near Tokyo. Even companies with factories elsewhere maintain large offices in Tokyo, and the proper corporate location is Marunouchi. There proximity is a good reason for keeping a Tokyo office although a chumminess between to government offices managers and bureaucrats is thought by many to be not

—

entirely healthy.

—

to a "bursting" of the bubble, so curious a

phenomenon

word "bubble" seems in doubt. The English word is most commonly used, and when it is put into Japanese (awa) the rendition is "foam" rather than "bubble." What has happened does seem more like a subsidence of foam than a thorough burst of that the Japanese grasp of the

a bubble. Transportation. The emergence of modem Tokyo came at the beginning of the transportation revolution of the late 19th century. The first railroad in Japan was put through from Tokyo to Yokohama in 1872. The city continues to be the most important transportation centre in the country. The busiest rail stations are those accommodating commuters to the western suburbs, but the traveler who wishes to go considerable distances by rail usually leaves from Tokyo station, in Mamnouchi, or Ueno station, a couple of miles to the north. Only since 1991 has it been possible to take a Shinkansen express train to northem Japan from Tokyo station, as Ueno was the traditional

terminus for northbound

Most international

travel.

travel

is

through the highly inconve-

nient airport at Narita, in Chiba prefecture, at least an rail from central Tokyo. Opened in 1978, the has been at the centre of controversy since its inception, mainly because of opposition by landowners to the appropriation of their property. The older, smaller, and rather more convenient airport at Haneda, near the Tama River, accommodates domestic travel and a few intemational flights. Yokohama still is the most important port in the region, the other major ports being Chiba, Kawasaki, and Tokyo. Tokyo's streets are flooded not only with people but also with vehicles, and traffic can become almost gridlocked at busy times and in busy places. There is a good system of roads and express highways in the city and region, but it is woefully inadequate for the crush of traffic. A splendid network of subways and commuter rail lines provides an alternative to the automobile.

hour by facility

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS Government. The two most populous prefectures of Japan, Tokyo and Osaka, are the two smallest in area. Though somewhat larger than Osaka, Tokyo occupies roughly a third of the premodern province of Musashi, the remainder of which is in Saitama prefecture. Tokyo and Osaka were two of the three urban prefectures (./") established in 1872, the third being Kyoto. The thinking seems to have been that the two should be just that, metropolitan complexes each essentially a city and its suburbs and the smaller they were, the more easily they could be controlled. Kyoto, which was not expected to grow like the other two and did not, was not so treated. The expansion of the city in 1932 made the city limits

—

—

coincide with the prefectural boundaries in all directions but the west, where lay the "county part" of the prefecture, as distinguished from the "ward part." The amalgamation of city and prefecture and establishment of the metropolitan prefecture in 1943 made the largest municipality in

Tokyo- Yokohama Metropolitan Area the land the only one without a mayor. The county part now consists largely of incorporated cities, all of which

make land near the

525

several centres affordable to the middle

class.

have mayors. Legislative

authority in the metropolis rests wdth the

Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly, consisting of 127 members elected to 4-year terms. The principal elected official is the prefectural governor, who has authority over a number of administrative commissions and commissioners, including the fire department and those for public works. Each of the 23 wards has a popularly elected council and ward head, with limited authority over local matters. Services. Edo had a sophisticated, though inadequate, system of aqueducts. Three principal ones brought water from the highlands to the west of the city. Many houses

and

had wells, which could turn bracklow flatlands. (Some districts east of the Sumida lay below sea level. Subsidence, from drawing underground water, made them sink yet lower.) Thus, the purveying of fresh water was a thriving business. Most of the water for the city now comes from the Tama and, increasingly, the Tone rivers. Tokyo would like to go yet farther afield, bringing water that now flows into the Sea of Japan across the mountains by tunnel to the Tone. It cannot do this by itself, and there is opposition in the rural prefecture chiefly affected. Yokohama and Kawasaki draw their water from the Sagami River, which rises near the base of Mount Fuji and empties into the ocean a short distance southwest of Yokohama. Sewers did not exist in Edo. The common means of waste disposal was the sewage cart, sometimes called the "honey-bucket" wagon. A seller's market, with the carter paying for sewage, gradually became a buyer's market as the city grew and the fields to which the carts traveled got farther away. During the years after World War I, Shinjuku was known as the "anus of Tokyo." The principal route to the fields ran through it, and every afternoon and evening carts would be backed up along the main street. clusters of houses

ish, especially in the

Refuse disposal

Even in the years after World War II, Tokyo was a most malodorous city. The goal of sewers accommodating all the built-up regions is in sight. They probably will never get to remote mountain and island regions. Tens of thousands of tons of garbage must be disposed of each day. The mass grows more rapidly than the population, for affluence brings less careful and efficient habits of consumption than in the past. In the years after the Olympic Games of 1964, the city was on the verge of civil war over the problem of what to do about the huge accumulation. The poorer eastern wards were called upon to dispose of it, and the affluent western wards produced most of it. The prefectural government agreed that disposal arrangements were unfair. Today there are garbage plants throughout the city that incinerate what they can. The remainder goes into fills in the bay that are at the heart of the grandest development schemes of the city. pretty parks are situated on them, for the most part they remain eyesores. From one of these fills, named

Though

with great though probably unintended irony "Dream Island" (Yume no shima), originated in 1965 a huge plague of flies that spread over the eastern part of the city. The site has been under better control since but continues to be a not very dreamlike place. Electricity and gas are provided by private companies. The electric company has plants, including nuclear ones, as far afield as the coast of the Sea of Japan. Most of the gas is produced at a plant along the bay in Yokohama that is widely held to be a marvel of advanced technology. Housing. Inflated land prices have been among the most serious and intractable problems facing Tokyo. Al-

most no one who does not inherit land can hope to own in the old city, and estate taxes can take away even family land. Those who can afford to live closer in typ-

it

ically inhabit relatively small

condominium apartments

buildings with the Japanese-English name manshon ("mansions"); those of lesser means may be fortunate enough to rent a cramped apartment in the rather dreary public-housing structures called danchi. The typical ofin

worker, however, must commute cruel distances, for as four and five hours a day round-trip. Land prices have fallen since the early 1990s, but not enough to fice

as

many

CULTURAL LIFE Tokyo dominates Japanese

no American

culture as

city

dominates American culture. Perhaps France and its Paris are a similar instance, but there cannot be many such in the world. Greater

Tokyo contains

a third of the uni-

of important learned societies, research institutes, and libraries and most of the publishing houses are found there. Most writers, journalists, and "opinion makers" live in Greater Tokyo. Museums may not be as grand as those of New York City, but they are far grander than those of any other Japanese city. So, too, are the theatres and concert versities in the counti^. In addition, the majority

halls. The most important cultural institutions (e.g., the Tokyo National Museum, National Diet Library, National Theatre, and Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum) are found

near national government offices or in Ueno. It is arguable that Tokyo is culturally the most varied city in the world. Certainly it is a city in which one has little excuse for being bored. One with time to kill has a choice of doing it in several cities, each different from the others, and a choice between the present and the past and between East and West as well. It may be that at any one time Tokyo has a more limited choice in the Western arts than a great American or European city, but everything comes if one but waits, and no Occidental city is a competitor in offering the arts of the Orient, modem or traditional.

History THE PREMODERN PERIOD Tokyo celebrated its 500th anniversary

in 1957.

The

cal-

culation was from the most likely date for the initial fortification of Edo. The structure cannot have been elaborate. probably little more than a house upon a low eminence with log ramparts. There must have been a village on the

from much earlier. The ancient Senso Temple (popuAsakusa Kannon), east of Ueno station and near the Sumida, dates from perhaps the late 7th century

site

larly called the

(although nearly

structures are postwar).

all its

The name

or "inlet." The clan in possession of the area bore the name Edo, taken from

Edo means something the

name of the

like "estuary"

village.

Edo did not amount to much until the 17th century. The first Tokugawa shogun, leyasu, took possession of Edo in 1590 and in 1603 made it the seat of his government, effectively controlled the country and left only ceremonial functions with the imperial court and Kyoto. The marshy estuary was largely filled in during the course of the century, and Nihombashi became the heart of the mercantile city. The military aristocracy did not disdain

which

the flatlands, but they quite dominated the hilly regions to the west. The court aristocracy remained in Kyoto. Growth was rapid through the 17th and 18th centuries. Early in the Tokugawa period (1603-1867) Kyoto maintained its old cultural preeminence. Cultural hegemony

then

moved

to Osaka, Japan's other great mercantile city.

end of the 18th century it had moved to Edo, where it reposed in 1868, when the emperor moved from Kyoto and the name was changed to Tokyo. The Edo century, as for it may be called, was not among Japan's finer periods the graphic and literary arts, but it was very good for the

By

the

The kabuki, the great love of the Edo townspeople, reached remarkable heights of subtlety and sophistication. Edo may weU have become the largest city in the worid in the 18th century. It passed a miUion people before London and Paris did and probably was larger than the capitals of the Ottoman and Chinese empires. At the end of the Tokugawa period the regions east of the castle were much more important than those to the west, where only a thin residential band lay. The districts immediately east of the castle and on beyond the Sumida River had become the most important cultural centre in the land. This

theatre.

utterly during the 20th century. Today the east has scarcely anything to offer in cultural terms, while the west has everything.

changed

Establish-

ment of Edo

526

Tokyo- Yokohama Metropolitan Area Throughout its history the city has been prone to disasThere were severe earthquakes between the arrival of the first shogun and the end of the Tokugawa regime, but the commonest disaster was fire, known as "the flower of Edo." Though there were fires of great magnitude in 1923 and 1945, the flower gradually has been extirpated. The most considerable Edo fire occurred in 1657, which happened to have been the city's bicentennial (though no one seems to have noticed). About two-thirds of the city was destroyed, including much of the castle, and upwards ter.

of 100,000 people died. Kawasaki was, during the

Tokugawa

centuries, the sec-

from Nihombashi on the Tokaido, the main coastal road to Kyoto. Yokohama was an isolated fishing village that did not really emerge into history until after the visit of Commodore Matthew Perry and his "black ships" in 1853. Though it is not known exactly what stood on the Sumida estuary before 1457, Chiba may be called an older city than Edo-Tokyo: it had a castle from the

ond

stage

12th century.

Edo becomes

Tokyo

THE MEIJI PERIOD (1868-1912) The population of the city plummeted during the disturbances that made it the capital. By the middle of the Meiji period it had returned to the highest Edo figure, and by the end of the reign it had passed two million. The city limits reached to the Shinagawa post stage on the south but fell on the west. On the north they passed a short distance beyond Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo), and on the east they stretched a short distance beyond the Sumida. At no point did they reach as far as the boundaries of the urban prefecture. Ginza, which had not amounted to much during the Tokugawa centuries, was thrust to the fore of "civilization and enlightenment" by which was meant, essentially. Westernization by an accident: the great fire of 1872. The rebuilding was in brick, a material not before used by the Japanese. Sometime later the Mitsubishi enterprises set about turning their "meadow," vacant land within the outer castle moat, into a business centre. This became the Marunouchi district, also largely built of brick. Only fragments of the Ginza "bricktown" and of what came to be called the Mitsubishi "Londontown" survive. Monumental architecture in those years tended toward decorated European styles, though sometimes, as in the Bank of Japan building, Grecian austerity prevailed. Most of the city continued to be wooden, low, and of small units. No specimens of an earlier hybrid style. Western in many of its details but Japanese in its general aspect, survive in the city, but examples may still be found in the provinces. These were the years of the great national effort presided over, of course, from Tokyo to catch up with the world. It was a huge success. By the end of the Meiji period, Japan was an ally of England and had won wars with China and Russia. The history of Yokohama begins just before Meiji. The Harris Treaty of 1858 provided that Kanagawa was to be among the ports opened to foreign trade. The Japanese quickly began having second thoughts. Kanagawa was a well-trodden place, the third stage from Nihombashi on the Tokaido. This seemed to invite trouble, the situation being one in which Japanese and foreigners could not easily be kept in their places. So Yokohama, a more isolated short of Shinjuku

—

—

—

and

easily policed spot,

lage,

it

lay

some

was opened

instead.

A

fishing vil-

distance from the Tokaido road,

beyond

the inlet that was to become Yokohama Harbour. By the end of the Meiji it was numbered, along with Tokyo, Osaka,

Kobe, Nagoya, and Kyoto, among the

the nation. Japanese

demography

in those

large cities of days was somejust mentioned,

what peculiar. There were the six cities no mid-size cities, and a multitude of small cities. Kawasaki was by the end of the Meiji period already a growing industrial centre. Chiba remained a sleepy country

town. Kanagawa

is

now

a part of

Yokohama, near

the

central railway station.

THE REGION SINCE

1912

Neither the earthquake of Sept. 1, 1923, nor the firebombing of March 9-10, 1945, much the most damaging.

destroyed as large a part of the city or killed as many people as the fire of 1657. Both were huge disasters all the same, and in both cases the worst damage was in the crowded, flimsily built eastern flatlands. In 1930 a festival was held celebrating complete recovery from the earthquake. It was in a way prophetic, for the dark years of military adventuring lay ahead, and further development of the capital was not a matter of central concern. There was no similar festival after 1945, nor has rebuilding and new building ever come to a halt. The metropolitan region has relentlessly grown and developed. The Olympic Games of 1964 have been given exaggerated importance as one of the great events in the history of the city and as the equivalent of the 1930 festival. In fact, profits

from the Korean

War

(1950-53) had been

put to good use in rebuilding city and country, and, as with the earthquake, recovery from the disaster of 1945 might be put at about a decade after its occurrence. Yet the Olympics without doubt did great things for the morale of city and country. They were the first Asian Olympics, and they marked the return of Japan to international respectability. If much has been built since the war, much has also been destroyed. The last of the Mitsubishi Londontown disappeared. So, too, did Frank Lloyd Wright's Imperial Hotel, finished just in time to survive the earthquake but not the wrecking ball some four decades later. Among other notable events since Meiji times have been the expansion of the city in 1932 and the amalgamation of city and prefecture in 1943. The eastern Low City still had some life as recently as the 1930s. Asakusa, by the Sumida, was the busiest of centres for popular entertainment. Now it languishes, and there is no such centre in unless one wishes to count the enormously the flatlands successful Tokyo Disneyland, built on landfill just inside Chiba prefecture at the Edo River mouth. Yokohama, being nearer the epicentre of the earthquake, was more grievously damaged than was Tokyo; it was badly damaged again by the bombings. Its past, however, is more of a presence than that of Tokyo. Relics of Meiji, when its history began, are still prominent in the central parts of the city. Coastal Kawasaki continues to be industrial. Both Yokohama and Kawasaki stretch

—

far inland

from their coastal origins. The inland parts and largely suburban in character. Efforts

are residential

by Yokohama since the 1970s to renovate the waterfront area and take on an identity of its own have been more successful than many would have thought possible. The industrialization of Chiba has occurred only since the war. A person dropped off by abductors along the industrial coast of Kanagawa or Chiba prefecture might have trouble knowing which area was which. These coasts may become even more indistinguishable when Kawasaki and Kisarazu (in Chiba prefecture) are linked by the Trans-Tokyo Bay

Highway (under construction

since 1989).

R.p. DORE, Ciiv Life in Japan (1958, reissued a sociological study of a district near the borderline between the plebeian Low City and the moneyed High City.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1973),

GARY

is

D.

ALLiNSON, Suburban Tokyo:

A Comparative

Study

in

and Social Change

(1979), is a similar study concerning the fringes of the metropolis, peter popham, Tokyo: The City at the End of the World (1985); and paul waley, Tokyo Now & Then (1984), are lively accounts that convey in ample mea-

Politics

modern feel of the city. Katharine sansom. Living Tokyo (1936), performs the same service for an earlier day. CHARLES A. BEARD, The Administration and Politics of Tokyo: A Suiyey and Opinions (1923), is a still-relevant survey of the sure the

in

governance of the

The

is

in Japanese: TCikyd

from its hyakunen-

7 vol. (1972-73), published

by the prcfcctural

office; the

origins shi,

city.

closest thing to

down

work of

an exhaustive history of the

to the recent past

is uneven but indispensable, kato Yokohama. Past and Present (1990; Japanese, 1990), is interesting and help-

several hands,

YU/.c) (Yiizo

KATo)

city

it

(ed.),

originally published in

ful, if somewhat ditfusc. edward seioensticker, Low City. High Ciiy (1983, reprinted 1991), is a cultural history of Tokyo from the Meiji Restoration of 1867-68 to the great earthquake of 1923, and his Tokyo Rising (1990), takes the story from the

earthquake to the date of publication.

(EDWARD GEORGE SEIDENSTICKER)

The Olympic

Games

Bibliography: Recent

The in

following

list

Books

encompasses more than 150 recent books

English that have been judged significant contributions

to learning in their respective fields.

a few lines of

The

commentary

Each

citation includes

to indicate the tenor of the work.

citations are organized by

broad subject area, using the

10 parts of the Propcedia as an outline.

Matter and Energy

Gordon Kane, The

Particle

Garden: Our Universe as Understood by

Particle Physicists (1995), a historical survey that reveals

how

the

subatomic "universe" and the origins of the cosmos are related. P.W. Atkins, The Periodic Kingdom: A Journey into the Land of the Chemical Elements (1995), a treatment of the chemical el-

ements that likens them to letters of the alphabet to explain their properties and functions. Jim Baggott, Perfect Symmetry: The Accidental Discovery of Buckminsterfullerene (1994), an account of the fortuitous discovery of a new carbon molecule whose name reflects its structural

resemblance to Fuller's geodesic dome. Roald Hoffmann, The Same and Not the Same (1995), a study of chemistry as both philosophy and science, panacea and poison, looking at what chemists do. Albert-Laszlo Barabasi and H. Eugene Stanley, Fractal Concepts Surface Growth (1995), a technical discussion of the disorderly surface growth of molecular structures in such natural fields as biochemistry, geology, and astronomy.

in

J.

Alan Holman, Ancient Life of the Great Lakes Basin, Precamlife in the Great Lakes area 12,000 years ago and an analysis of the principles that

brian to Pleistocene (1995), an account of

govern the study of fossil remains. David Brcz Carlisle, Dinosaurs, Diamonds, and Things from Outer Space: The Great Extinction (1995), a hypothesis to account for recurring mass extinctions on Earth, using the CretaceousTertiary boundary event 65 million years ago as an example. Stephen J. Pyne, World Fire: The Culture of Fire on Earth (1995), a survey of the "energizing geography of global fire," noting the pros and cons of human-fire interaction. Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (1995), a claim that antipollution methods currently in use mean an end to predation by humans and other animals as Earth's bounty is finally made available to all.

Ernst Frankel, Ocean Environmental Management: A Primer on the Role of Oceans and How to Maintain Their Contribution to Life on Earth (1995), an account of the present state of the

ocean environment, with a warning about future degradation and suggestions for preventing further damage.

Life

on Earth

Christian de Duve, Vital Dust: Life as a Cosmic Imperative (1995), the most recent theories on the origin of life and on its increasing complexity and biodiversity, based on seven key defining events.

Paul Teller, An Interfjretive Introduction to Quantum Field Theory (1995), an attempt to make quantum field theory accessible to philosophers and students by raising questions about its philo-

Michael Rosenzweig, Species Diversity in Space and Time (1995), a study of the where, how, and why of biodiversity: where maximum diversity occurs (near the Equator) and how and why

sophical implications. Ignazio Ciufolini and John Archibald Wheeler, Gravitation and Inertia (1995), an account of current thinking on the connection between gravitation and inertia in Einstein's theory of general

Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan, What Is Life? (1995), a history of thought on the question and an attempt at an answer that displays the dazzling diversity of life in both words and illustrations.

relativity.

Great Attractor: Exploring Intergalactic Space (1995), a history of cosmology since Galileo's time, with a characterization of the dimensions and composition of the

Alan Dressier, Voyage

to the

universe. Silk, A Short History of the Universe (1994), an accessible description of the big bang theory, extrapolating from visible relics of Earth's past an explanation of the universe's origins. Ken Croswell, The Alchemy of the Heavens: Searching for Meaning

Joseph

Milky Way (1995), recent thinking on the structure, origin, and evolution of the Milky Way Galaxy and its attraction as a source of study and speculation throughout the ages.

in the

The Earth Shawna Vogel, Naked Earth: The New Geophysics (1995), an account of the way contemporary geophysicists work, their description of both Earth's geologic past

and

its

composition from

core to mantle.

Kenneth

J.

species have spread.

HsU, The Geology of Switzerland:

An

Introduction to

Tectonic Fades (1995), a history of the geologic formation of the Swiss Alps as an illustration of the theory of plate tectonics. AntarcBill Green, Water, Ice & Stone: Science and Memory on the through the tic Lakes (1995), a biography of Earth revealed

geochemistry of Antarctic water and rocks. Michael L. Weber and Judith A. Gradwohl, The Wealth of Oceans: Environment and Development on Our Ocean Planet (1995), and a description of the symbiotic relationship between land ocean, warning that their respective inhabitants are showing the effects of the disruption

brought about by

human

activity.

James H. Brown, Macroecology

(1995), a broadscale statistical ap-

proach to the impact of human technology and population on environmental quality and biodiversity. Niles Eldridge, Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory (1995), an account of the differences between Darwinians and naturalists highlighted by current

developments in molecular biology. Regis, Nano: The Emerging Science of Nanotechnology: Remaking the World— Molecule by Molecule (1995), a futuristic vision of a molecular industry that can transform grass into prime sirloin or can manufacture monsters and machines of unimag-

Ed

inable destructiveness. Stuart Kauffman, At Home in the Universe: The Search for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity (1995), reflections on the thrust toward spontaneous order within complexity, which

may be life

as significant as natural selection in the formation of

on Earth and possibly elsewhere.

Roger Payne, Among Whales (1995), a biologist's account of his numerous excursions into the whales' world, including informed speculations and observations. Delta Willis, The Sand Dollar and the Slide Rule: Drawing Blueprints from Nature (1995), a tribute to design engineering using such examples as the "gearshifts" in a fly's wing

in

nature,

as

models

of adaptive technology.

Glenn Searfoss, Skulls and Bones: A Guide to the Skeletal Structures and Behavior of North American Mammals (1995), an approach identification to the classification of mammals based on the of bones and the reciprocal relationship of skeletal structure, behaviour, and environmental lifestyle.

527

Bibliography: Recent Books

528

L. Hoogland, The Black-Tailed Prairie Dog: Social Life of a Burrowing Mammal (1995), a detailed study of the behavioral ecology of this most colonial of animals. Ron Larson, Swamp Song: A Natural History of Florida's Swamps (1995), a naturalist's catalog and history of Florida's varied swamps and wetlands, emphasizing the value to the entire planet of these endangered biosystems. John A. Long, The Rise of Fishes: 500 Million Years of Evolution (1995), an evolutionary history of fishes based on the discovery and interpretation of fossil remains in the Western Hemisphere,

recollections of the oldest living Native

John

Europe and

Africa,

its

genetic advantages.

Human

How We Know What We Think We Know About Human Evolution (1995), a view oi Homo sapiens as one species among many, suggesting that future research should investigate diversity among species rather than comparanatomy within

a single species.

Paul Churchland, The Engine of Reason, the Seat of the Soul: A Philosophical Journey into the Brain (1995), a description and

an appreciation its

—of the animal

—

brain's cognitive capabilities

L.

and

tity

Oilman, Picturing Health and

Illness:

Images of Iden-

Difference (1995), a history of illustrated histories of

medicine and their message that

illness

is

ugly and health

beautiful.

Tony Gould, A Summer

Plague: Polio

and

Its

Survivors (1995), a

history of epidemic polio in

England and the United States in the 20th century, emphasizing the significant political and social impact of the disease.

Wayne

Riddle,

diseases bacteria,

/I

and

Peopling of Africa:

A

Geographic Interpre-

Segal, The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black

Experience Outside Africa (1995), a history of the dispersion of Africans as slaves both within Africa and in Europe and the New World and their rich contributions to their own and their masters' cultures.

Richard Critchfield, The Villagers: Changed Values, Altered Lives, the Closing of the Urban-Rural Gap (1994), a plea for the conservation of village culture worldwide, with descriptions of villages portraying both their common characteristics and their

John H. Kagel and Alvin E. Roth (eds.). The Handbook of Experimental Economics (1995), a survey of current experimental thinking in such topics as

economic,

political,

game

theory, industrial organization,

investment and public policy, and auctions. Kenichi Ohmae, The End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economics (1995), an argument that the end of the Cold War has rendered the traditional nation-state obsolete as an economic unit and that globalization of markets should and will

—

—follow.

Robert H. Frank and Philip J. Cook, The Wmner-Take-All Society: How More and More Americans Compete for Ever Fewer and Bigger Prizes, Encouraging Economic Waste, Income Inequality, and an Impoverished Cultural Life (1995), an argument in favour of realigning the system of economic rewards that gives disproportionate wealth to a handful of "stars" at the top while depriving others of motivation, the incentive to compete, and a reasonable income. Desmond King, Actively Seeking Work? The Politics of Unemploy-

ment and Welfare Policy

United States and Great Britain

in the

(1995), a history of the three principal British

and emotional

fallout as

it

catapulted

the planet into "the age of biointervention."

Benson Bobrick, Knotted Tongues:

Stuttering in History

the

and psychological effects on some prominent sufferers, and information on current treatments. Jeff Lyon and Peter Corner, Altered Fates: Gene Therapy and the Retooling of Human Life (1995), an account of the first 60 gene therapy experiments, with speculation on the effect of gene therapy on the practice of medicine. Robert Ornstein, The Roots of the Self Unraveling the Mystery of Who We Are (1995), a survey of what constitutes the human temperament, mind, and brain, discussing evolutionary biology, brain physiology, and personality development in nontechnisocial

cal terms.

Jean-Pierre Changeux and Alain Connes, Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics, ed. and trans, by M.B. De Bevoise (1995), dialogues between a neurobiologist and a mathemati-

on human cognition, the nature of mathematical

and the relation of science to

I.

political and social policy framework. Bernard Cohen, Science and the Founding Fathers (1995), a

objects,

ethics.

—

Constitution. L. Shapiro, Federalism: A Dialogue (1995), a presentation of early writings on the Nationalist-Federalist debate that seeks

David

a 20th-century position favouring multistate

and

regional political jurisdictions.

Neil Duxbury, Patterns of American Jurisprudence (1995), a history and analysis of U.S. law and the intellectual and political traditions that have influenced the in

way courts and judges function

the U.S.

George Anastapio, The Amendments

to the Constitution:

A Com-

mentary (1995), an analysis of the historical, philosophical, and ethical and legal significance of each of the Constitution's 27

amendments.

Law and Lore of CopyJukebox (1994), an account of the history of copyright and of its. social, cultural, and eco-

Paul Goldstein, Copyright's Highway: The right

from Gutenberg

to the Celestial

nomic implications, with observations on challenges presented by the "celestial jukebox" that is, digital and satellite-enhanced

—

technology. Jcrc R. Behrman, Robert A. Pollak. and Paul

Parent to Child: Inlrahousehold Allocations

and

Taubman, From Intergenerational

Relations in the United States (1995), a series of discussions

the economic approach to family decision

making about

on

chil-

dren's higher education.

Society

The Dull Knifes of Pine Ridge: A Lakota Odyssey (1995), the history of a Sioux family and of the Sioux nation, drawn from the narratives of the ancients, archival materials, and the

Joe

sur-

vey of the influence of scientific principles on the politics of the newly created United States for example, viewing Newtonian equilibrium as a metaphor for the checks and balances of the

to establish

and

Quest for a Cure (1995), an account of a mystifying dysfunction,

Human

and U.S. work-

welfare programs, analyzing them in relation to each country's

parasites.

"new" diseases can be understood through a study of changes in the environment and behaviour of both diseases and their victims. Bernard Asbell, The Pill: A Biography of the Drug That Changed the World (1995), a history of the oral contraceptive, and of the

cian

Ronald

Guide to Germs (1995), a concise guide to ancient that are visited on humans by viruses,

eration of

its

Newman, The

Africa from earliest times to the beginnings of the colonial era, analyzed by region.

Field

new and

Arno Karlen, Man and Microbes: Disease and Plagues in History and Modern Times (1995), a suggestion that the current prolif-

social,

L.

tation (1995), a history of the cultural origins of the peoples of

and

neural, chemical, and biological activity.

Sander

advantages.

James

exquisite individuality.

Life

Ian Tattersall, The Fossil Trail:

ative

I

Diane Singerman, Avenues of Participation: Family, Politics, and Networks in Urban Quarters of Cairo (1995), an account of the way Cairo's "popular classes" (excluded groups) manipulate the bureaucracy to obtain political, economic, and social

and Asia.

Richard E. Michod, Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex (1995). a hypothesis that justifies sexual reproduction as an effective way to repair and overcome genetic errors; an answer to the question. Why does sex exist? Jacob Hoglund and Rauno V. Alatalo, Leks (1995), an account of the mating behaviour of certain species of male animals in arenas, or leks, and description of the evolution of the lek and

American World War

veteran.

Starita,

Morris Shamos, The Myth of

ment

an argulaymen can acquire is not as understanding what can be expected of Scientific Literacy (1995),

that the "scientific literacy"

useful to society as

is

science and of scientific experts.

Bibliography: Recent Books

Deborah Meier, The Power of Their Ideas: Lessons for America from a Small School in Harlem (1995), a defense of public education by a teacher

who emphasizes

ploiting children's innate inventiveness

the importance of exand curiosity in order to

establish a lifelong love of learning. J. Reese, The Origins of the American High School (1995), a portrait of the high school in the 19th century as a promoter of republican values, provider of educational opportunity for an

William

emerging middle

class,

529

formed public to oversee the future management of technology, from space exploration to environmental protection. Alan M. MacEachren, How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and Design (19^5), an account of mapmaking, with suggestions for improving map representation and design by using the unique visualizing properties of the computer. David Woodward and J.B. Harley (eds.), The History of Cartography, vol. 2, bk. 2: Cartography in the Traditional East

and cornerstone of the American free

and South-

Asian Societies (1994), a survey of the mapping traditions of Asia, in which not only the geographic but also the spiritual space of the entire cosmos is brought under cartographic

east

public-school system.

scrutiny.

Art J.

Nicholas MirzoefT, Silent Poetry. Deafness, Sign, and Visual Culture in Modem France (1995), a study of the visual culture of the deaf, relating it to the group of 19th-century deaf painters in France who helped to banish the notion of deafness as pathology. Peter Brook, Thoughts on Acting and Theatre (1995), musings, observations, and reminiscences of an eminent British director

and teacher on the intimate yet public experience of acting. Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen, Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema (1994), an exhaustive reference source for Indian film that reflects the political and social development of the subcontinent and offers an in-depth view of the world's largest national film industry.

Roger Bray

The Blackwell History of Music in Britain: The and musicians in Tudor England, including theory of composition, sacred and secular music, and observations on the changing role of music from 1485 to about 1625. Charles Rosen, The Romantic Generation (1995), a view of 19thcentury music and its interaction with literary fragments and landscape painting, with a 75-minute compact disc of selections from Chopin, Liszt, and Schumann keyed to the text and performed by the author. Francis Sparshott, A Measured Pace: Toward a Philosophical Understanding of the Arts of Dance (1995), a survey of dance from theory to performance, illustrating its relation to music, narrative, and theatre and its pervasive influence in human life. Francis D.K. Ching, A Visual Dictionary of Architecture (1995), a (ed.).

Sixteenth Century (1995), a history of music

way of defining architectural terms, arranging them under simple subject headings ("door," "load") and using drawings to group the related components. Steve Yates (ed.). Poetics of Space: A Critical Photographic Anthology (1995), a selection of essays by theorists and artists who reflect on the uses of space and perspective in the context of practicing architect's novel

the art and technology of the photograph. Aileen Ribeiro, The Art of Dress: Fashion in England and France, 1750-1820 (1995), a study that relates social and political conditions to fashion and dress, using portraits and caricatures of the period as sources and showing how France became the centre for women's fashions, while England captured the market for

Barry DuVall, Contemporary Manufacturing Processes (1996), a survey of methods of transforming industrial stock into con-

sumable products, analyzed by "material families": mctailics, ceramics, composites, and polymeries. Paul Raeburn, The Last Han'est: The Genetic Gamble That Threatens to Destroy American Agriculture (1995), a warning that increased susceptibility to catastrophic crop failure from diseases and pests might result from genetic manipulation that sacrifices biodiversity to achieve higher yields. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban H'AbxVdi, Architecture of Tall Buildings (1995), a definition of the tall building, its political and urban influence, its design and engineering, and its past and future in the United States, Europe, and Asia. Arne Petter Eggen and Bj0rn Nermann Sandaker, Steel, Structure, and Architecture: A Survey of the Material and Its Application (1995), a discussion by an engineer and an architect of the uses of steel in architecture in combination with glass, masonry,

wood, and fabric. Alan Black. Urban Mass Transportation Planning (1995), the historical and political background of urban mass transit and the issues it raises: land use, crime, urban development, and energy consumption. Ian Friel, The Good Ship: Ships, Shipbuilding, and Technology in England, I200-I520 (1995), a history of shipbuilding and maritime technology, embracing war, commerce, and discovery from the Middle Ages to the dawn of the age of global exploration. Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transfonning Patient

Care

in the

Early Twentieth Century (1995), a study of the rela-

between technology and medical care in the United States between 1908 and 1925, using three clinical technologies to illustrate the changes that took place in doctor-paticnt-hospital tion

transactions during those years.

Edward

Barrett and Marie

Redmond

(eds.).

Contextual Media:

Multimedia and Interpretation (1995), a look at future applications of multimedia technology, mentioning the Shakespeare Interactive Archive as an example of the new electronic approach to scholarship on text and performance. Nicholas Negroponte, Being Digital (1995), an explanation of dig-

resentations in Fourteenth-Century France (1995), an examina-

italized information comprehensible to the nonscientist. Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (1995), the history of thermonuclear weapons technology, describing the international research and development race and emphasizing the necessity of becoming a world without war. Charles Beveridge and Paul Rocheleau, Frederick Law Olmstead:

between text and image in Nicole Oresme's vernacular translation of Aristotle's works on ethics and politics, emphasizing the associative and mnemonic value of calligraphy and decoration to a medieval lay readership.

Designing the American Landscape (1995), a recounting, documented with numerous photographs, of Olmstead's accomplishments as a designer of American park systems and his contributions to urban culture through a reverence for nature

male

attire.

Claire Richter Sherman, Imaging Aristotle: Verbal

and

Visual Rep-

tion of the interrelationship

Technology Martin Bauer

(ed.). Resistance to

New

Technology: Nuclear Power,

Technology, and Biotechnology (1995), a history of post-World War II resistance to three major technological fields, discussing responses to the "acute pain of technological

Information

progress."

Jeremy Rifkin, The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era (1995), an evaluation of the "third industrial revolution," a workerless future in

which computers supplant both the human brain and human labour.

Edward Wenk, Jr., Making Waves: Social Management of Technology

Engineering, Politics, (1995), a call for a

and more

the in-

and for the dignity of all humankind. Alan C. Tribble, The Space Environment: Implications for Spacecraft Design (1995), an analysis of the interaction between the environment in space and the design and function of man-made orbiting spacecraft, listing factors that threaten the performance capability of the vehicles.

Religion

Simon Coleman and John

Eisner, Pilgrimage: Past

and

Present in

World Religions (1995), a study of the phenomenon of pilgrimage, sacred travel based on the canonical texts of Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam, and of 20th-century pilgrimages to such secular destinations as Lenin's tomb and Elvis Presley's Graceland.

530

Bibliography: Recent Books

J. Kripal, Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the and Teachings of Ramakrishna (1995), a study of the 19thcentury Bengah mystic and Hindu saint that illustrates how erotic, mystical, and ecstatic revelation became for him and his

Alison Weir. The Wars of the Roses (1995). an account of the personalities whose strong and often bloody imprints mark the period that led up to and included the first of the wars between the houses of Lancaster and York.

followers a single, profound religious experience. Lawrence A. Babb and Susan S. Wadley (eds.). Media and the

Cemal Kafadar. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (1995), a study of the Ottoman Empire, outlining the contributions of modern scholarship to its history and

Jeffrey Life

Transformation of Religion

South Asia (1995), essays

in

dis-

cussing the changes wrought by 2()th-century media images

(comic books, videotapes) on traditional sacred symbols and practices in India. S. Lopez, Jr., Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonialism (1995), a cultural analysis of Buddhist

Donald

studies in the

West over the

past century.

David S. Ariel, What Do Jews Believe? The Spiritual Foundations of Judaism (1995), a study of the fundamental tenets of Judaism as they are grounded in both the historical past and the writings

A

Biography (1995). an examination of human spiritual and ethical values in light of the ways God has interacted with his children from action to speech to silence as portrayed in the Hebrew Bible. Elaine Pagels, The Origin of Satan (1995), a "social history of

—

—

Satan,"

who

first

appeared

in

the

New Testament

as the heretic

son of darkness who contended with the angelic son of light. Caroline Walker Bynum. The Resurrection of the Body in Western Christianity, 200-1336 (1995), observations on the analogy to rebirth of burying a seed, reflecting historical concerns about the disposition of human remains and about conceptions of the body. Elizabeth Isichei, A History of Christianity in Africa from Antiquity to the Present (1995), a study of African Christianity from 700 BC to the 20th century, which has been called the fourth great age of Christian expansion.

Hans KUng,

Christianity: Essence,

History,

and Future

(1995), a

major Christian religious

historical survey of the three

tradi-

Roman, Orthodox, and Protestant, that, by exploring how Christianity became what it is today, asks how and what it will tions,

be

in

the future.

Patrick Collinson, Nigel

Ramsay, and Margaret Sparks

(eds.),

A

History of Canterbury Cathedral (1995), a collection of essays on the community that created, surrounded, and has helped sustain

Canterbury cathedral since

M A

Salahi,

its

Muhammad: Man

Anglo-Saxon origins in 597. and Prophet, a Complete Study

of the Life of the Prophet of Islam (1995), a description by a practicing Muslim of the Prophet, his personality, his mission, the state he established, and the Qur'an, Allah's word as it was revealed to Muhammad over a 23-year period.

The History

of

Mankind

Robert Ruhy, Jencho: Dreams, Ruins, Phantoms (1995), the 11,000year history of the settlement, describing profiles of

some

of

its

its

geologic past, with

scientific investigators

and a correlation

of biblical with archaeological accounts.

Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick, A Histon,- of Pagan Europe (1995), a study of pagan history from its first written records in Crete in 2800 bc to its contemporary resurgence in the part of the ecological

movement

that views nature as a manifestation

of the female divinity principle.

John Ash, A Byzantine Journey (1995), a historv' of the Byzantine Empire and Anatolia that brings to life the turbulent society of a thousand years ago while also drawing unmistakable parallels to contemporary bloodshed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Felipe Fernandez-Armesto. Millennium: A History of the Last Thousand Years (1995), a survey of the explorations, .societies, religious and geographic influences, and revolutions that have shaped the world and that may provide insights into the future. B. Netanyahu, The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifieenth-Ccntuiy Spain (1995), a study of the origins and causes of the Inquisition, asserting that it was primarily anti-Jewish rather than an institution designed to eradicate heresy generally.

Orme and Margaret Webster. The English Hospital. 1070-1570 (1995). a history of the origin and mission, patient population, and resources of English hospitals in the later Middle Ages and the Reformation.

Nicholas

early

China seen through the contracts

that covered the pur-

chase, sale, and rental of goods and properties.

Linda Cooke Johnson, Shanghai: From Market Town to Treat}' Port. 1074-1858 (1995), a portrait of the growth and development of what had been a commercial centre long before the arrival of the British in the 19th century.

Georg Feuerstein, Subash Kak, and David Frawley,

of Jewish thinkers.

Jack Miles, God:

historiography.

Valerie Hansen, Negotiating Daily Life in China: How Ordinary People Used Contracts. 600-1400 (1995), an account of life in

In Search of

New

Light on Ancient India (1995), a history of ancient India, suggesting the Indus-Sarasvati civiliza-

the Cradle of Civilization:

one of the earliest, with archaeological evidence from c. 6000 BC of Vedic cities and a seafaring society. Robert B. Edgerton, The Fall of the Asante Empire: The 100-Year War for Africa's Gold Coast (1995), an account of the fierce resistance Asante warriors mounted against British efforts in the 19th century to dominate what is present-day Ghana. Robin Law (ed.). From Slave Trade to "Legitimate" Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (1995), a group of 10 case studies considering the impact on African economy, society, and culture of the decline of the slave trade in the 19th century, when agriculture and other "legitimate" commercial undertakings supplanted it. Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (1995). an account of the interaction between cycles of drought and efforts by AfroPortuguese ruling monarchies to achieve political control in Mozambique from the 15th century to the present. Thor Heyerdahl. Daniel H. Sandweiss. and Alfredo Narvaez. Pyramids of Tikume: The Quest for Peru 's Forgotten City ( 1 995 ), the story of excavations of a 900-year-old Peruvian pyramid city suggesting that long-distance sea trade might account for the tion as

presence of nonnative materials

in

the structures.

Robert M. Kingdon, Adulteiy and Divorce

in

Calvin's

Geneva

(1995), a study of divorce after the Protestant Reformation, illustrating the operation of the consistory, an institution urged by Calvin to monitor the public's behaviour. Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann. Court, Cloister, & City: The Art and Culture of Central Europe, 1450-1800 (1995). a study of 300 years of painting, sculpture, and architecture in what is now Central and Eastern Europe, exploring the relationship of monumental and domestic objects to the indigenous cultures of which they remain a lasting expression. Helmut Walser Smith. German Nationalism and Religious Conjlict: Culture. Ideology. Politics. I870-P)14 (1995), an analvsis of the forces, especially the Catholic-Protestant schism, that profoundly influenced German national identity during the period of the German Empire. James Tertius de Kay, Chronicles of the Frigate Macedonian, 1809-

1922 ( 1995), a biography of the most important prize ever taken by the U.S. Navy, from its initial fitting out to its transformation into, and loss by fire as, a Bronx hotel, with accounts of the ship's seafaring exploits and flamboyant skippers. Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti: 19I5-I934 (1995: originally published in 1971), a historv of an earlier hapless occupation of Haiti, which remains a timely cautionar%' tale. Robert F. Rogers. Destiny's Landfall: A Histon, of Guam (1945). an account of the island of Guam from the time of Magellan's landing through successive occupations to the present, when political control has been restored to the resident population. W.G. Beasley. Japan Encounters the Barbarian: Japanese Travellers in America and Europe (1995). adventures of the first Japanese tourists to the West in the 19th cenluiy. their motives for studying Western ways, and the effect on Japanese culture of

what the\ learned. Peter Duus. The Abacus

and the Sword: Ihe Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895-1910 (1995), a histon, of the Meiji economic and mililar> incursion into Korea.

Bibliography: Recent Books

Richard Crockatt, The Fifty Years War: The United States and the Soviet Union in World Politics, 1941-1991 (1995), a political history of the Cold War, pointing out the need to replace that "long peace" with the kind of global coordination that is responsive to regional and national interests.

Zelikow and Condoleeza Rice, Germany United and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (1995), a diplomatic history of the events that culminated in German reunification during 1989-90.

Philip

William Clarke, The Lost Fortunes of the Tsars (1995), an attempt to learn the whereabouts of the Romanov gems and gold still in private hands by examining Moscow's recently opened Central State Archives. L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution After Cold War (1995), an effort to explain what happened to Yugoslavia and to urge greater attention to the connection between the internal affairs of countries and the international

Susan the

environment. Michael Lind, The Next American Nation: The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution (1995), a descriptive history of the first three American republics, the Anglo-American, the Euro-American, and the multicultural American, with a call to embark on a fourth, called the trans-American melting pot. Page Smith, Democracy on Trial: The Japanese-American Evacuation and Relocation in World War II (1995), an account, based

on interviews and archival research, of the forced relocation of more than 100,000 Japanese, three-quarters of whom were U.S. citizens, and their lives in the internment camps during a threeyear period of World War II. Joseph A. Page, The Brazilians (1995), a detailed history and character study of Brazil and its multiracial, multiethnic population, an effort to ferret out "Brazilianness." Richard Wilson, Maya Resurgence in Guatemala: Q'eqchi' Experience (1995), a study of the Maya of central Guatemala, describing their traditional ways and the Maya's efforts to recover them. David Bonavia, China's Warlords (1995), a chronology of the bloody period of the warlords from 1912 to the beginning of World War II, organized by geographic region and including biographies of

some of

the principals.

Chalmers Johnson, Japan Who Governs: The Rise of the Developmental State (1995). an account of how the best and brightest

who entered

the bureaucracy have influenced the history, poliand foreign relations of Japan. Diego Cordovez and Selig S. Harrison, Out of Afghanistan: The tics,

Inside Story of the Soviet Withdrawal (1995), a narrative chronol-

ogy of the developments leading up to and facilitating the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan that credits six years of negotiation rather than the U.S. -backed military presence. Paidar, Women and the Political Process in TwentiethCentuiy Iran (1995), an inquiry into the effect on Iranian women of the impetus toward establishing modern nation-states in the

Parvin

Middle East.

John Allen Paulos, ^4 Mathematician Reads the Newspaper (1995), examples of skeptical mathematical thinking applied to everyday newspaper stories that illustrate the author's injunction "Always be smart; seldom be certain." S. Chandrasekhar, Newton's Principia for the Common Reader (1995), a Nobel laureate's scholarly re-creation, in the language of equations, of Isaac Newton's mathematical writings that led to his universal law of gravitation and an appreciation of Newton's creative intelligence.

Theodore M. in

Science

Porter, Trust in

and Public

method and reevaluating the relationship of parts whole in scientific thinking. M.R. Wright, Cosmology in Antiquity (1995), a history of cosmology, its main themes and its texts, based on the most significant surviving evidence from Mesopotamia, Egyptian and Semitic cultures, and the early Greeks. Paul Davies, About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution (1995), the riddle of time explored and seen as cosmic force, willphilosophical to the

o'-the-wisp, the foundation of

quantum

Numbers: The Pursuit of

Objectivity

Life (1995), an attempt to explain the

20th-century propensity to imbue quantitative methods with the prestige of scientific objectivity. Ian Stewart, Nature's Numbers: The Unreal Reality of Mathematics

and how it is used, and its presence in the patterns of nature and the cosmos. John Cornwell (ed.). Nature's Imagination: The Frontiers of Sci(1995), an overview of mathematics, what

entific Vision (1995), a series

and uses of science, defining

it

is

of essays reexamining the nature it as an art form rather than a

physics, a product of

and more. Refiguring Life: Metaphors of Twentieth-Century

Einstein's legerdemain,

Evelyn Fox Keller,

Biology (1995), three essays dealing with the "border crossings" between genetics and embryology, physics and biology, and

cyberscience and molecular biology. Jonathan Sawday, The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Hu-

man Body

in Renaissance Culture (1995), a history of the beginnings of the Western science of the body in Renaissance

dissection practices,

in

which the knowledge gained about the body became part of literature,

structure and function of the art, and religion. Donald N. Levine,

Visions of the Sociological Tradition (1995), a

study of sociology and ing

its

Hellenic, French,

its

present status and direction, examin-

German,

Italian, British,

Marxian, and

American traditions. Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public

Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification (1995), analysis by an economist of

the cost to society of the willful distortion of public opinion,

which can confer a

false

image of

stability

on weak or vulnera-

ble institutions.

Catherine Wilson, Early Modem Philosophy and the Invention of the Microscope (1995), a discussion of the effect of the invention of the microscope on the scientific revolution and the philosophy of science in the 17th century and after. Louis L. Bucciarelli, Designing Engineers (1994), a study of engineers at work, describing how the need for a specific product for example, a baggage-inspection system for airports becomes transformed into a design project and finally into the

—

object

Thomas

itself.

Hankins and Robert J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination (1995), a study of seemingly marginal instruments and machines, invented between the 16th and the 19th century, viewing them as philosophical experiments rather than discredL.

ited novelties.

Howard Bloom, The

Lucifer Principle:

A

Scientific Expedition into

the Forces of History (1995), reflections on the human propensity for dominance and suggestions for neutralizing it in human life through "competition without carnage." Josep Fontana, The Distorted Past: A Reinterpretation of Europe, trans, by Colin Smith (1995), a critique of traditional historiography, whose linear approach trumpeting European "superiority" provides neither an accurate nor a balanced picture of

the past.

Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory

The Branches of Knowledge

531

(1995), a chronicle of

humankind's symbiotic relationship to landscape as history, art, and politics and as a continuing source of both nurturance and peril. Joseph Cropsey, Plato's World: Man's Place in the Cosmos (1995), a study of Plato's worldview examined through seven of his dialogues that constitute a dramatic chronology of the life and death of Socrates. The Nature of Value: Axiological Investigations (1995), a study of value theory based on the tradition of rational objectivity, asserting that value is not a matter of liking or disliking and noting that a philosophy of value is among the goals of higher education. Carol Duncan, Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums (1995),

Ramon M. Lemos,

museum, viewing it as a ritual space akin to the theatre, the medieval church, or the floor of a stock exchange. a sociopolitical history of the art

Armando

and Readers in Medieval Italy: Studies of Written Culture, ed. and trans, by Charles M. Radding (1995), an account of the uses of literacy, with observations on the reciprocal influence of books, ideas, and the preservation of culture from 400 to 1400 ce. (jean S. GOTTLIEB) Petrucci, Writers

in the History

CONTRIBUTORS Abramson, Gary. Reporter on Spain for Business Week, the Chicago Tnbune. and the Associated Press.

•

WORLD

affairs: Spain

Adams, Andy. Editor and Publisher, Sumo World. Author of Sumo and Sumo World Record Book. • sports and games: Judo; Wrestling:

Sumo

Alder, Phillip. Syndicated Bridge Columnist. Author of Get Smarter at Bridge; Contributor to the Daily Bridge Calendar. • sports and games: Contract Bridge Allaby, Michael. Writer and Lecturer. Author

of Ecology Facts; Future.

•

A

ties;

Guide

to

Gaia; Facing the

the environment: Environmental

Issues; International

Environmental Activi-

Sidebar

Allan, J.A. Professor of Geography, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Coauthor of The Nile: Sharing a

Scarce Resource. 'WORLD affairs: Libya Amirouche, Hamou. Former Consultant, the

Algerian Institute for Strategic Studies. • WORLD affairs:' Spotlight: The Berbers of North Africa Andrades, Jorge Adrian. • sports and games: Equestrian Sports: Polo Archibald, John J. Retired Feature Writer, St. Louis (Mo.) Pest Dispatch; Adjunct Professor,

Washington University, St. Louis. Member of the American Bowling Congress Hall of Fame. • sports and games: Bowling; U.S. Tenpins Arnold, Guy. Freelance Writer. Author of Modem Nigeria; Aid in Africa; and others. • WORLD affairs; Botswana; Burundi; Cape Verde; Chad; Comoros: Djibouti; Equatorial Guinea; Gambia, The; Ghana; Guinea-Bissau; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Maldives; Mauritius; Nigeria; Rwanda; Sao Tome and Principe; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Swaziland Arnold, Mavis. Freelance Journalist, Dublin. • WORLD affairs: Ireland Arrington, Leonard J. Formerly Church Historian, Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints. • religion: Church of Jesus Christ

of Latter-day Saints Atkinson, Peter J. Conservation Information Officer. • THE environment: Botanical Gardens Austin, Cherry. Associate Editor, The Brazil Handbook; South American Handbook. • WORLD affairs: Uruguay Bacani, Cesar. Senior Editor, Asiaweek magazine. • world affairs: Malaysia Bahry, Louay. Adjunct Professor of Political Science. • world affairs: lra0 uneniphned. i-Marcli. "Annual mean household income. l-'May'. '"^Domestic purcli.ises In icsnlcnt households only; d;it;i lor expendiluies in restaurants and hottls are not ;iv;iilahlc. '"Iniporls c.i.f.; exports l-olv i'l'»4l-y2. isC'ollei;c ol

Ilu- l!;ili.ini,is

onb,

i"lncliides police.

Nations of the World

sumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 4,330,000,000 (4,330,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 14,852,000 (90,254,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 10,428,000 (500,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993)

Bahrain name: Dawlat al-Bahrayn

Official

6,5 1 7,000,000 (6,5 1 7,000,000).

(State of Bahrain).

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$4,283,000,000 (U.S.$7,870 per capita).

hum

of government: monarchy (emirate) with an advisory ( (insultative Council (30). ( liicf of stale: Emir. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992 value

Manama.

Ctipitai:

Agriculture

Official religion: Islam. unit:

(BD)=

1.000

\mS)

BD =

1

1

Mining

Bahrain dinar

Manufactunng

valuation (Oct. U.S.$2.63 = £1.67.

fils;

Construction

6,

Public

utilities

Transp, and

commun.

Trade Finance Pub- admin., defense

Area and population area

sq mi

Regions'

population

sqkm

603

1561

2.3 8.3 10.0 6.2 112.8 14.2

21.6 25,8 16,0 291 6 36,8

Sit rah

11.1

288

al-Wusta (Central)

136

35,2

Gharblyah (Western) al-Hadd Jidd (Judd) Haf? al

al-Manamah (Manama) al-Wuharraq ar-Rifa'

ash-Shamadyah (Northern)

Services

6,0

5,1

13

MadTnat Isa

48

124

19.5

2680

TOTAL

925 265

5.6

211.0 173,4

129 17,1

20

1

1

84,0

5,1

1

-8.3 100

-135,7 1

,640.9

83,944 16.498 226,448

°/

of labour

force

23 16 11 8

11.6 1,3

61 13,2 7,6 37,1

73 10003

Household income and expenditure. Average household

size (1991) 5.8; insources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1984): food and tobacco 33.3%, housing 21.2%, household durable goods 9.8%^, transportation and communications 8.5%, recreation 6.4%, clothing and footwear 5.9%, education 2.7%, health 2.3%, energy and water 2.2%-. Land use (1993): meadows and pastures 5.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.9%; built-on and wasteland (mostly sand plains and salt marshes) 91.2%. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.S 177,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$141,000,000.

come per household:

29,055 34,509

n.a.;

Foreign trade*^

2

50.6

16

330,0

labour force

5.108 3,638 26,618 26,738 2,898 13.789 29,961 17,256

10,6

2800

TOTAL

1

69424

293,2 270,9

179 165

Other

Islands

Hawar3 and other

0,9

1991

with special status

Hammad

of total

value

15.1

census 22,034 8,610 44,769 136,999 74,245 49.752 33.763 3,2422 36,755 34,304

ash-SharqIyah (Eastern)

Towns

1991

%

in

BD 000.0007

Official language: Arabic.

Monelaiy

559

508,037

Balance of trade (current prices) 1989

BD

Demography

%

I'lipulation (1995): 579,000.

Density (1995): persons per sq mi 2,160.4, persons per sq Urixm-rural (1995): urban 90.3%; rural 9.7%.

km

834.0.

distribution (1995):

-1-33,0 1

,3%

BD 1,559,000,000 (crude petroleum products 36.5%, transport equipment and machines 26.0%, chemicals 7.0%, food and live animals 6.5%). Major import sources: United States 8.3%; United Kingdom 6.9%; Japan 6.6%; Germany 6.5%; Australia 3.9%; Saudi Arabia 3.6%; not specified 42.9%.

Religious affiliation (1995): Muslim 81.8%, of which Shu 57,2%, Christian 8.5%; other 9.7%. Major cities (1991): Manama (1992) 140,401; ar-Rifa' 45,956; 4.\337; Madlnat "Isa 34,509.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1993):

/'.((//;

!

-138 2 5.1%

Exports (1992^: BD 1,285,000,000 (petroleum products 76.2%, basic manufactured goods 16.0%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 4.2%; South Korea 2.9%; Japan 2.2%; United States 2.0%; not specified 79.9%..

Hirih rale

j

1991

-73,1 2 7%

5,9%

Pnpulution projection: (2000) 650,000; (2010) 778,000. Ihnihhng lime: 29 years. lulmic composition (1991): Bahrain! Arab 63.6%; Persian, Indian, Pakistani, ; al-Muharraq

Vital statistics

I

1990 -156,7

Imports (1992):

male SI. 21%; female 42.73%. Age breakdown (1995): under 15, 32.3%; 15-29, 22.7%; 30^4, 30.6%; 45-59, 10.1%; 60-74, 3.6%; 75 and over, 0.7%. .SV.v

'000,000

of total

per 1,000 population (1994): 27.0 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate 100%. per 1,000 population (1994): 4.0 (world avg. 9.3).

rate

\ antral increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 23.0 (world avg. 15.7). I iiial fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 3.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 1.3. /.//( expectancy at birth (1994): male 71.0 years; female 76.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 100.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 34.1; diseases of the respiratory system 29.7; accidents and violence 28.5; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 17.4; congenital anomalies 13.8; diseases of the genitourinary system 13.4; diseases of the digestive system 10.7.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue:

BD

580,000,000 (1991; petroleum company dividends and oil field receipts 59.8%, non-oil revenue including grants and loans 40.2%). Expenditures: 643,000,000 (1991; government services 30.7%, defense 17.8%, education 15.5%, transport and communication 11.8%, health 9.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U.S.$1,810,000,0005. Population economically active (1991): total 226,448; activity rate of total population 44.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 66.1%; female 17.5%; unemployed 6.3%).

BD

Price

and earnings Indexes (1990 = 1 00) 1

Consumer

price index

Sflfl

1

989

1,719 mi, 2,767

km

Education and health Education (1992-93)

student/

schools Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc, teacher tr Higher

teachers

3.312 2.309

823 582

teacher

45,020 6,393

ratio

20,8 19-5

7,763

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education 38.4%; primary education 26.2%; secondary 25,1%; higher 10.3%. Literacy (1991): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 69.7%; males literate 76.5%; females literate 58.6%. Health (1991): physicians 542 (1 per 953 persons); hospital beds 1,187 (1 per 435 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 19.0. Food: n.a.

Military

1 1990

100

total length

(paved 79%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 114,045; trucks and buses 26,771. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 87; total deadweight tonnage 192,487. Air transport (1994)'': passenger-mi 1,515,000,000, passenger-km 2,438,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 73,360,000, metric tonkm cargo 107,104,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total circulation 43,000; circulation per 1,000 population 60. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 320,000 (1 per 1.7 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 270,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 124,400 (1 per 4.4 persons).

1991

1992

1993

1994

100,8

100.6

103,1

104.0

Earnings index

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): fruit (excluding melons) 24,000. cow's milk 20,000, dates 19,000, tomatoes 8,000, hen's eggs 3,400, onions 1,000, cucumbers 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 29.000 sheep, 17,000 goats, 16.000 cattle, 1,000 camels, 1,000,000 chickens; fish catch (1993) 8,958. Manufacturing (barrels; 1993): gas oil 29,360,000; fuel oil 22,188,000; kerosene 12,282,000; gasoline 9,228,000; jet fuel 4,410,000; heavy lubricant distillate 2,613,000^:

naphtha 1,800,000; petroleum bitumen 523,000; aluminum 447,514 metric tons; other manufactures include methanol, ammonia, plastics, and paper products. Construction (permits issued; 1991): residential 5,931; nonresidential 718. Energy production (con-

Total active duty personnel (1995): 10,700 (army 79.4%, navy 6.5%-, air force 14.1%). Mililaiy expenditure as percentage ofCNP (1994): 5.5% (world 2.6%); per capita expenditure U.S.$439.

'Regions have no administrative function; the six major cities of Bahrain are administered hy a single municipal council. -Ash-SharqTyah includes population of Hawar and other islands. -'Also claimed by Qatar. 'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. -''Includes long-term private debt not guaranteed by the government. ''1991. ''In purchasers' value at current prices. '^Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. ''One-fourth apportionment of international flights of Gulf Air (jointly administered by the governments of Bahrain, Oman. Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates). i"1987-88.

Britannica World Data

560

Bangladesh

Price anid earnings indexes (1990=100)

OJJiaal name: Giina PrujatantrT Bangladesh (People's Republic of Bangladesh). Form of f-owmnwni: unilar>' mulllparlN republic with one legislative house (Parliamenl [33()i|)Chief of Mule: President. Head of f^oyeniment: Prime Minister.

Consumer

Capiuil: Ojjicuil

dross national product (U.S.$220 per capita).

1993-94 in

Monetan;

Mining Manulacturing Construction

Bangladesh taka

{Tk)= KM) paisa; valuation 1W5) U.S.$ = Tk4().2();

(Oct.

6,

Public

I

£=Tk

115.8

109,3

current market prices; 1993): U.S.$25,882,000,000

1990

%

value

Tk '000,000 Agriculture

1

(at

1118

107,2 104.9

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official relifiion: Islam. 1

1994

100,0 100,0

Dhaka. km^uu^e: Bengali. unit:

1990

1989

1988 price index

Earnings index 8

Transp, and

63.55.

commun

Trade Finance Public admin,, defense

Area and population area

population

304

103,012

9,9

60,134 20,607 129,221 82,213 21,395 55,148 248,789 1,035,464

5 8

J

utilities

Sereices and other TOTAL

%

force

314,945 1

labour

of total

value

20 12 5 7.9 2.1

53 24

of labour

force

33,303,000 15,000 5,925,000 525.000 40,000 1,611,000 4.285,000 296,000

65,0

5,200,000

102

1

11,6 1.0

01 31

84 06

i

100.09

100

51 ,200,000

1991 Divisions-

Administrative centres

Bansal Chittagong

Bansal Chittagong

Dhaka

Dhaka

Khulna

Khulna

Raishahi

Rajshahi

sq mi 5,134 17,902 12,015 8,600 13.326 56,977

TOtAt

sq

km

censuss

13.297 46,367 31,119 22,274 34.513 147,570

7,757,334 29,015,222 33 939,848 13,243,054 27,499,727 111,455,185

(IW5):

fiinh rale per 1,000 population (1995): 34.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1.000 population (1995): 11.0 (world avg. 9.3).

\aliiral increase rule per 1,000 population (1995): 23.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total lenility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 4.1. Marriane rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.7.

Divorce rale per 1,000 population (1981):

3.6.

male 57.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death (1990; percentage of recorded deaths): typhoid fever 19.8%; old age 14.8%; tetanus 10.1%; tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases 8.7%; diarrhea 6.4%; suicide, accidents, and poisoning 5.1%; high blood pressure and heart diseases 5.0%. Life exiK'cluncy at birth (1995):

(1992-93). Revenue: Ik 110.040,000,00(1 (sales tax 30.2%, customs duties 29.7%, business tax 10.8%, dividends and profits from public enterprises 8.2%, income taxes 3.9%, interest receipts 2.7%). Expenditures: 86,554.000.000 (employee compensation 39.4%, transfer payments 34.9';7.

W

services 21.9',. capital formation 3.8% ). debt (external, outsliinding: I9>»3): U.S.$13,04S.()O(),l)()(). iinil

I'riiduclion (metric Ions except as noted). Agriculture, lorestrv. fishing ( 1994): paddy rice 27,537,IMK), sugarcane 7,111,0(10, wheal 1,131,IH')(). jute 790,000. 6.10.000. pulses 517.(KH), oilseeds 462,000".

322,(HK)'', jackfruit

livestock

1,070,(HIO

I

Balance of trade (current prices) 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-63.910 43 1%

-55,550 32 4%

-48,564

-55,276 25.3%

-52,113 22 5%

- 59,665

28

2%

21

9%

Imports (1993-94): Tk 160,450,000,000 (textile yarn, fabrics, and made-up articles 25.1%; machinery and transport equipment 10.6%: petroleum and petroleum products 7.3''V: chemicals 5.7%; iron and steel 3.2%; cereals and cereal preparations 1.0'r Major import sources (1991-92): South Korea 8.9%; Hong Kong 7.4'V Sinaapore 7.4%; China 7.3%; Japan 7.2%; United States 6.3%s Taiwan 4.8%: Germany 3.5%o; India 3.3%; Pakistan 3.3%. Exports (1993-94): Tk 93,870,000,000 (ready-made garments 60.2%; fish and prawns 10.8%; jute manufactures 10.2%; hides, skins, and leather 6.7%; raw jute 2.7%; tea 1.9%). Major export destinations (1991-92): United States 34.0%.; Germany 8.2%; Italy 6.0%; United Kingdom 5.9%^; France 5.6%); Belgium 4.1%; Singapore 4.1%; The Netherlands 3.1%; Japan 2.8%. ).

:

Transport and communications

255,(KHI'',

(number of

metric ton-km cargo 718,000,000. Roads (1990): total lenglh 120,100 mi, 193,283 km (paved''4%). Vehicles (1942): passenger cars 75,409; trucks and buses 96,853. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 301; total deadweight tonnage 566,775. Air transport (1993)iO: passenger-mi 1,588,000,000, passenger-km 2,556,000,000: short ton-mi cargo 190,238,000, metric ton-km cargo 277,743,000; airports with scheduled flights (1995) 8. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 51; total circulation 710.000; circulation per 1.000 population 6. Radio (1994): 4,650,000 receivers (1 per 25 persons). Television (1994): 350,000 receivers (1 per 336 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 268,400 (1 per 435 persons).

Education and health

National economy liiidf-et

(KM);

I

.

Transport. Railroads (1991-92): route length 1,706 mi, 2,746 km; passenger-mi 3.323.000.000, passenger-km 5,348,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 492,000,000,

Vital statistics

bananas

.

I20.(W3.()()().

Douhlinn lime: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Bengali 98.8%; tribal (Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Santa!, etc.) 1.1%: other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (1991): Muslim 88.3%; Hindu 10.5%; Buddhist 0.6%; Christian 0.3%: other 0.3%. Major cities (1991)4: Dhaka 6,105,160; Chittagong 2.040,663: Khulna 877,388: Rajshahi 517,1.36; Mymensingh 185,517\

I'lihlic

f

Foreign trade

% of total

Densiiy (l'W5): persons per sq mi 2,107.7, persons per sq km 813.8. Urban-niral (\^)

1

1

66 164

80

77"

316.000' 4.088,600

1000

6,725,700

force

109,200 J

14.1

-149.100">

Of labour

1

54

Price

100.0

and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1988

1989

1990

1991

93,8 90 7

96 7 95 8

100,0

103.2

100

105.1

19932

Regions3

Antwerp

force

18 0.2

%

labour

Public debt (19952): U.S.$250,900,000,()00. Population economically active (1992): total 4,088,600; activity rate of total population 40.6% (participation rates: ages 14-64, 61.1%; female 40.7%; unemployed 7.7%).

Area and populal ion

Brussels Flanders

of total

value

120,000 15,500 1 ,563,000 362,800 179,800 544,100 946,200 1,322,500 1,139,700 681,200

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Capital: Brussels.

Provinces

1992

%

value

BF 000,000

(French) (Kingdom of Belgium). Form of government: federal constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [71 ']; House of Representatives [150]). Chief of state: Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official languages:

563

1,491

1,714 1,415 11,787

km

estimate

161

950,339 5,824,628 1,619,613 982,943 1,344,263 761 ,565 1.116,244 3.293,352 329,614 1 ,285.934 1,011,368 236,850 429,586 10.068,319

13,522 2,867 2,106 2,982 2,422 3,145 16.844 1,091

3,786 3,862 4,440 3,666 30,528''

Consumer

price index Hourly earnings index

Land

use (1992)'': forested 21.3%;

pastures 20.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.9%; other 33.9%. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,07 1,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$6,363.000,000.

Foreign trade^ Balance of trade (current prices) BF 000,000

% of total

Demography Population (1995): 10,064,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 853.8, persons per sq km 329.7. Urban-rural (1992): urban 96.5%; rural 3.5%. Sex distribution (19932): male 48.90%; female 51.10%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 18.1%; 15-29, 21.8%; 30-44, 22.5%; 45-59, 16.9%; 60-74, 14.1%; 75 and over, 6.6%. Population projection: (2000) 10,058,000; (2010) 10,048,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Nationality (1992): Belgian 91.0%; Italian 2.4%; Moroccan 1.4%; French 0.9%; Turkish 0.8%; Dutch 0.6%; other 2.9%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 90.0%; Muslim 1.1%; Protestant 0.4%; nonreligious and atheist 7.5%; other 1.0%. Major cities (19942): Brussels 136,4247 (949,070»); Antwerp 462,880; Ghent 228,490; Charleroi 206,898; Liege 195,389.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.9 (world avg. 25.0); (1988) legitimate 89.3%; illegitimate 10.7%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.6 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 1.3 (world avg. 15.7).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 2.2. Life expectancy at birth (1988-90): male 72.4 years; female 79.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989): diseases of the circulatory system 412.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 274.6.

meadows and

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

+124,300 2,0%

+96,400 1.4%

+177,300 2,3%

+ 61.200 0.8%

+ 21.700 0.3%

+ 65.200

8%

Imports (1993): BF 3,791,874,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 25.0%; chemicals and chemical products 12.7%; food and live animals 8.9%; mineral fuels and lubricants 7.5%-, of which petroleum and petroleum products 5.1%; nonindustrial [gem] diamonds 5.1%). Major import sources: Germany 21.5%; The Netherlands 17.9%; France 16.1%; U.K. 9.4%; U.S. 5.4%; Italy 4.4%. Exports (1993): BF 4,158,382,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 27.4%, chemicals 15.4%, of which plastics 5.0%; food and live animals 9.5%; nonindustrial [gem] diamonds 7.0%; iron and steel 5.6%; textiles 5.1%; petroleum and petroleum products 3.1%). Major export destinations: Germany 21.0%; France 19.0%; The Netherlands 13.1%; U.K. 8.4%; Italy 5.4%; U.S. 4.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 2,119 mi, 3,410 km; passenger-mi 4,159,000,000, passenger-km 6,694,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,184,(H)0,()00, metric ton-km cargo 7,568,000,000. Roads (19902): total length 85,672 mi, 137,876 km (paved 97%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 4,109,601; trucks

and buses 389,812. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross Ions and over) 232; total deadweight tonnage 218,506. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 4,026,000,000. passcnger-km 6,480,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 287,44(),(H)0, metric ton-km cargo 419,650,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): total number 46; total circulation 3,186,70012; circulation per 1,000 population 31512. Radio (1994); 7,640,000 receivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1994); 4,200,000 receivers (1 per Telephones (main lines; 1993): 4,395,700 (1 per 2.3 persons).

2.4 persons).

Education and health National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: BF 2,090,371,000,000 (direct taxes 35.5%; valueadded, stamp, and similar duties 10.5%; customs and excise duties 8.2%). Expenditures; BF 2,531,970,000,000 (public debt 27.4%; government departments 23.6%; pension 10.3%; defense 3.8%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugar beets 6,264,200, potatoes 2,155,100, wheat 1,392,100, apples 536,0009, barley 354,600, tomatoes 345,0009, carrots 105,0009, corn (maize) 76,600, oats 54,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,876,100 pigs, 3,084,200 cattle, 127,300 sheep, 21.800 horses; roundwood (1992) 4,730,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 37,356, of which European plaice (flounder) 14,828, common sole 4,505, Atlantic cod 4,246. Mining and quarrying (1993): quartz 500,000: barite 30,000; granite (Belgium bluestone) 1,200,000 cu m; marble 358 cu m. Manufacturing (value added in BF "000,000; 1990): metal products and machinery 422,238; chemical and plastic products 344,743; food, beverages, and tobacco 198,942; pig iron, steel, and nonferrous metals 136,244; paper, printing, and publishing 96,623; textiles 94,861; furniture and fixtures 61,626. Construction (1992): residential 31,316,000 cu m; nonresidential 45,639,000 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 72,259,000.000 (72,387,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 1,197,000 (14,387,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (211,646,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 26,311,000 (17,165,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 6,945,-

000 (13,230,000,000).

Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (1991) 2.7; sources of income (1992): wages 49.6%, transfer payments 20.7%, property income 18.8%, self-employment 10.9%; expenditure (1992): food 18.0%, housing 17.0%, transp. 13.3%. heahh 11.8%, durable goods 10.7%, clothing 7.7%. Gross national product (1992,): U.S.$213,435,000,000 (U.S.$21,210 per capita).

Education (1992-93) Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc. teacher tr. Higher

student/

schools

teachers

students

4,450

304

72.589'3 110.599 14.54811

21

10.517"

735.670 790.377 155.192 123.320

1,962

teacher

ratio

69

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than secondary education 44.4%; lower secondary 26.5%; upper secondary 17.0%; vocational 2.9%; teacher's college 0.6%; university 3.5%. Literacy (1991); virtually

100%

literate.

Health (1993): physicians 36,178 (1 per 278 persons); hospital beds (1991) 80,549 (1 per 124 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,(K)() live births 8.0. Foot/ (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,925 (vegetable products 60%, animal products 40%); 149% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994); 63,000 (army 76.2%, navy 4.6%, air force 19.2%). Military expenditure as percentage o/GA/P (1993): 1.8% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S. $373. Includes 40 directly and 31 indirectly elected members. ^January 1. 'On May K, 1993, the legislature approved constitutional establishment of federal regions. iDelail does not add to total given because of rounding. ^Composed of Brabant districts Hal-Vilvorde and Lxiuvaine. 'Composed of Brabant district Nivelles. '1991. "Region Bruxelloise. ''Includes Luxembourg. '"Includes imputed bank service charges and stai-Mncludes preschool tistical adjustments. "Unemployed. '2For 31 newspapers only. teachers. 141987-88.

Britannica World Data

564

Belize

Price

Ojjuial name: Belize.

ionn of government:

and earnings Indexes (1990=^100)

Consumer pnce

monarchy with two legislative houses (9): House of Representatives

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

97

100.0

102,3

1047

106 2

108,7

111,57

1

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$499,000,000 (U.S.$2,440 per capita).

(Senate

(29 I). Chiej of slate: British

index

Earnings index

constitutional

i

Monarch Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

represented by Governor-General.

Head of government: Prime

Minister.

1994

-

Belmopan.

Capital:

in

Official religion: none. Manetan, unit: Belize dollar

Agriculture, fishing, forestry

Mining

1

(B/.S)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct.

IWS) £=

1

Manufactunng 6,

Construction

U.S.$ = BZS2.0()-; BZ$3.16.

Public

1

utilities

communications population

area

1993 Districts

sqmi

Capitals Belize City

Cayo

San Ignacio Corozal

Orange Walk

Orange Walk Dangnga Punia Gorda

Stann Creek Toledo

1.663 2.006

718

Cofozal

1.790

986 1.704

8.8673

TOTAL

1991

%

%

labour forced

of total

value

of labour

forces

181,513 4,565 132,794 69,267 37,189

19.3

18,256

05

326

17.6 0.3

14.1

5,951

57

7.4

4,059 721

3.9 0.7

107,505 161,565 104,976 123,689 55,544

114

2,925 10,013

2.8

17.2 11.2

1,771

4.0

Transportation and

Area and population

Belize

value

BZSOOOS

Official language: English.

sq

km

4,307 5,196 1,860 4,636 2,554 4,413 22.9653

estimate

4

61,732 40,800 30,809 33,207 19,575 18,877 205,000

Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate, insurance Pub. admin., defense Sen/ices

132

59 -4.110

-38,375'° 940.232

Other TOTAL

lOO.O"

9.7 1.7

5,352 5,967 48,2261 103,567

52 5.8

46.6" 100.0

use (1993): forested 92.1%; meadows and pastures 2.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.5%; other 3.3%. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$73,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$20,500,000.

Land

Foreign trade '-

Demography I'opiitation (1995): 216,0()().

Density 1995): persons per sq mi 24.4, persons per sq km 9.4. L'rhanntral (19'*.^): urban 47.5":^: rural 52.5';. Sex distribution (1993): male 50.73'r; female 49.27%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 43.9%; 15-29, 27.9%; 30-44, 14.9%-; 45-59, 7.2%; 60-74, 4.5%; 75 and over, 1.6%. Population projection: (2000) 245,000; (2010) 304,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1991): mestizo (Spanish-Indian) 43.6%; Creole (predominantly black) 29.8%; Mayan Indian 11.0%; Garifuna (black-Carib Indian) 6.7%: white 3.9%; East Indian 3.5%); other or not stated 1.5%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 57.7%; Protestant 34.3%, of which Anglican 7.0%, Pentecostal 6.3%, Methodist 4.2%, Seventh-day Advcntist 4.1%. Mennonite 4.0%; other Christian 1.7%; other 0.3%; none or not stated 6.0%. \fajor cities (1993): Belize City 47,723; Orange Walk 11,922; San Ignacio/

Balance of trade (current prices) 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-143.1

-118 2

-217.2 27.9%

-1706

18.2%

-203.9 28.8%

-237 8

22.3%

30.3%

22.0%

(

Santa Elena 9,702; Corozal 7,644; Belmopan 3.852. Vital statistics rale per l.(X)0 population (1993): 35.7 (world avg. 25.0); (1992) legitimate 43.5%; illegitimate 56.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.1 (world avg. 9.3). \atural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 29.6 (world avg. 15.7). liirtli

I Dial fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.1. \himuge rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.2. Divorce rale per 1.000 population (191)2): 0.6. / (/( expeciaiuv at birth 19'M): male 66,0 years; female 70.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,1)00 population (1990): accidents 92.6; heart di.sea.ses 84.7; diseases of the respiratory system 57.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 52.4; cerebrovascular disea.se 47.6; diabetes mellitus 37.0. (

BZ$'000,000

%

of total

(1993): BZ$56 1,600,000 (i-^machinery and transport 27.0%; manufactured goods 19.8%; food and live animals 14.4%; chemicals and chemical products 11.8%). Major import sources: United States 56.0%; Mexico 10.0%; United Kingdom 7.0%^.; Japan 5.0%.; Guatemala 3.0%. Exports (1993)i'': BZ$263, 100,000 (domestic exports 86.9%r, of which sugar 31.5%, garments 15.4%, bananas 9.2%, orange concentrate 6.7%, shrimp 4.7%; reexports 13.1%). Major export destinations: United States 45.0%; United Kingdom 36.0%r; Canada 7.0%; Caricom countries 5.0%.

Impons

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):

1,684 mi, 2,710

km

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

Pnmary (age 5-12)" Secondary (age 13-16) Voc teacher tr. 1

National economy

total length

(paved 18%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 9,989; trucks and buses 6,294. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 32; total deadweight tonnage 45.706. Air transport (1993)''': passenger arrivals 115,346, passenger departures 121,878; cargo loaded 489 metric tons, cargo unloaded 2,887 metric tons. Airports (1995) with scheduled flights 9. Communications. Daily newspapers: none'*'. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 106,000 (1 per 2.0 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 27,048 (1 per 7.8 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 28,600 (1 per 7.2 persons).

student/ teacher ratio

teachers

48,612'8 9,457

262 11.4

.

(1994-95). Revenue: BZ$308,K0(),00() (current revenue 88.4%, of which taxes on international trade 43.4%, t;ixes on income and profits 22.7%, nontax revenue 9.9%, excise taxes 9.9%; grants 10.8%). Expenditures: BZ$429,1(H),(M)0 (current expenditures 56.4%; development expenditures 43.6%, of which from foreign sources 31.9%). I'liblu debt (external, outstanding; 1994): U.S.$I80,.300,000. I'rodiiction (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 1, 210.0(H), oranges K2,.50ll. grapefruits 311,200, corii (maize) 23,.30O. bananas 2I,8(K). rice 6,500, red kidney beans 3,200, coctmuts 3,000. cocoa (1993) 72, honey 72; livestock (number of live animals) 59,000 cattle, 26,CH)0 pigs, 1,(K)0,(H)0 chickens; roundwood (1993) 188,(HK) cu m; fish catch (1993) 2.129, of which shrimp 1,060, lobsters 442, freshwater and marine fish 390, conchs 232. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 3(X).000; sand and gravel 30().(M)0. Manufacturing (1994): sugar 107, l(K); molasses 57,400; fertilizer 24,9(MJ; Dour 12.100; orange concentrate 59,.^(H) hectolitres; beer (1992) 36,000 hectolitres; grapefruit concentrate 25,900 hectolitres; cigarettes (1992) 114,tKH),(M)0 units; garments 4,276,(HM) units. Construction (publicly financed buildings under construction: 1991): residential 180 units; nonresidential, n.a. Energy prculiiclion (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992-93) 145.400,000 (I2(I.900.(|(K)); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (86,(KM)); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 4.9; average annual income of employed head of household (1993) BZ$6,450'^ (U.S.$3.225'^); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1990): food, beverages, and tobacco 34.0%, transportation 13.7%. energv and water 9.1%, housing 9.0%, clothing and footwear 8.8%. household fiirnishings 8.0%. recreation liiulgel

4.1%. Population economically active (1993): total 66,060''; activity rate of total population, 33.1% (participation rates: over age 13, 55.7%; female 30.8%;

unemployed (1994)

1.3.1%).

Higher

J

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 12.8%; primary education 63.3%; secondary 14.7%; higher 9,2%. Literacy (1991): total population age 15 and over literate

99,()()()

(93'r

).

Heahh

(1992): physicians 110 (1 per 1,809 persons): hospital beds 585 (1 per 340 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 36,0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,662 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 118% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 950 (army 94.7%, maritime wing 3.7%, air wing 1.6%); British troops 60020. Military expenditure as percentage of (1990): 2.6% (world 4.5%); per capita expenditure U.S.$51.

GNP

'Excludes speaker of the House of Representatives, who may be elected by the House from outside its elected membership. -The Belize dollar is officially pegged to the U.S. dollar. Mncludcs oltshorc cays lol^ilinu 2(i(i sq mi (6X9 sq km). ^Detail does not add to total yivcn bcc.iiisc ot rcnindiiii;. M 'slinialcd ligurc for about 33,000 employed heads of houschoUI. "Population ccoiiomicalK active over age 13. 'Average of 2nd quarter. ^At factor cost. ''Data based on total population over age 15. '"Less imputed hank service charges, h Includes not available and not stated for 45.452 persons, i-lmport figures are f.o.b, in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. "Hased on imports ihroui;h .September onlv. totaling B/.$426.(>(t().()00. '"/u/wm (1W4): BZ$:85.9()II.(|(HI (Jonicvtic exports S3..V.7. of which sugar :n.2'r.. garments 12.S';. orange and gi.ipchuil concentrate 11.7'r. bananas \U.4'r. marine products 9.2%: reexports 16.5' O- '^Belize international airport only, '"hour weekly newspapers in 1994. iTncludes preprimary. isi993_94. i')i991-92. 2»Most British troops were scheduled to withdraw in 1995.

Nations of the World

Benin

Gross national product (U.S.$420 per capita).

(Republic of Benin).

1994

republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [821]).

Head of state and government:

Monetary

unit:

1

CFA

6,

Natilingou

20

force

1.333.000

607

194,000

88

1

70.3

Pub- admin., defense Services Other

30 4

8.3

724

8.6

93.6 42.3

11.1

844.58

100.0

i'

50

.

2,195,000

100.08

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.S 1,409,000,000. area

sq mi

Capitals

Mono

Cotonou Parakou Lokossa

Oueme

Porto-Novo

Zou

Abomey

Borgou

37.6 169,0

TOTAL

Area and population

Atlantlque

84' 07 45

6.2

communications

franc

792.78,

Atacora

utilities

Construction

100 centimes; valuation 1995) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 501.49;

Provinces

334

281 8 71.4

% of labour

labour force

Transportation and

(CFAF)=

= CFAF

value

Trade and finance

none.

official religion:

% of total

Mining and manufacturing Public

1991

n value

CFAF 000.000.000 Agriculture

President. Capital^: Porto-Novo. Official language: French.

£

1993): U.S.$2,182,(KX),000

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Fonn of government: multiparty

1

prices;

name: Republique du Benin

Official

(Oct.

market

(at current

565

12.050 1.250 19,700 1.500 1.800 7.200 43,500

TOTAL

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1979) 5.4; income per household (1983) U.S.$240; sources of income: self-employment l'i.1%, wages and salaries 26.3%; expenditure: n.a.

population

sq

km

31,200 3,200 51 ,000

3,880 4,700 18,700 112,680

1992 census 648,330 1,060,310

Foreign trade

816.278 646.954 869.492 813,985 4.855.349

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1995): 5,409,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 124.3, persons per sq Urban-rural (1992): urban 39.6%; rural 60.4%. .St'A- distribution (1992): male 48.72%; female 51.28%.

km

48.0.

breakdown (1995): under 15, 47.4%; 15-29, 25.5%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, s.1%; 60-74, 3.7%; 75 and over, 0.8%. Population projection: (2000) 6,266,000; (2010) 8,300,000. Ddubling lime: 24 years. hilmic composition (1982): Fon 25.0%; Yoruba (Nago) 13.5%; Goun 11.8%; Bariba 11.8%; Adjara 10.7%; Somba (Otomary) 7.0%; Aizo 4.4%; Mina 2.9%; Dendi 2.0%.; other 10.9%.

Aiie

1990

1991

CFAF 000.000,000

-38,3

-41,1

-50.1

% of total

19

7%

17.8%

20

1992

1993

3%

-56

1994

-361

1

97%

22.5%

Imports (1994): CFAF 203,2OO,0OO,0(K) (1989; manufactured goods 30.7%, of which cotton yarn and fabric 16.9%; food products 19.4%, of which cereals 10.3%; machinery and transport equipment 14.5%, of which transport equipment 5.8%, nonelectrical equipment 5.3%, electrical equipment 3.4%; chemical products 7.1%; beverages and tobacco 7.1%). Major import sources (1989): India 23.4%; France 15.9%; The Netherlands 5.0%; Cote d'lvoire 4.6%; Thailand 4.6%; United States 3.7%; West Germany 3.4%; Italy 3.2%; Taiwan 2.9%; Korea 2.7%. Exports (1994): CFAF 167,100,000,000 (1993; reexports 67.2%; domestic exports 32.8%, of which cotton lint 21.6%, crude petroleum 4.7%, seed cotton 2.6%). Major export destinations (1989): Portugal 15.2%; Italy 9.9%; Tailand 9.6%; Taiwan 9.0%; United States 7.4%; Niger 6.2%; France 6.1%.

Religious affiliation

which

Roman

(1991): traditional beliefs 62.0%; Christian 23.3%, of Catholic 21.0%, Protestant 2.3%; Muslim 12.0%; other 2.7%.

Major cities (1992): Cotonou 533,212; Porto-Novo Abomey-Calavi 125,565; Parakou 106,708.

177,660;

Djougou

132,192;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.000 population (1992): 44.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 15.0 (world avg. 9.3).

Saiural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 29.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rale (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 6.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 12.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1980-85): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 49.0 years; female 52.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1986): n.a.; however, of the 184,310 reported cases of infectious diseases (notifiable to the World Health Organization), 82.0% were malaria, 4.2% dysentery, 4.0% measles, 2.6% pneumonia, 2.2% chicken pox, 1.4% mumps, 1.3% schistosomiasis.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1994): length 359 mi, 578 km; pas.senger-mi 66,500,000, passenger-km 107,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1 72,000,(X)0, metric ton-km

cargo 253,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 3,770 mi, 6,070 km (paved 20.0%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 25,000; trucks and buses 13,(«M). Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 12; total deadweight tonnage 210. Air transport (1994)'-': passenger-mi I33,440,0(H), passenger-km 214.745.000; short ton-mi cargo 9,892,(XKJ, metric ton-km cargo 14,442,0(XJ; airports (1995) with scheduled flights I. Communications. Daily newspapers (1990): total number 1; total circulation 12,000; circulation per 1,(X)0 population 2.6. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 400,000 (I per 13 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 20,000 (1 per 262 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 20,410 ( 1 per 260 persons).

Education and health Education (1991)

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: CFAF 127.100,000,000 (current receipts 83.1%, of which nonpetroleum fiscal receipts and customs duties 1\.1%, other current receipts 11.4%; foreign aid 16.9%). Expenditures: CFAF 161,800,000.000 (current expenditures 67.0%, of which debt service 16.2%; public-investment program 33.0%). Piiiduction (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): yams 1,287.000, cassava 1,169,000, corn (maize) 490,000, seed cotton 260,000, sorghum 113,000, tomatoes 85,(X)0, peanuts (groundnuts) 83,000, dry beans fi3.(J00, sweet potatoes 50,000, millet 25.000, coconuts 20,000, paddy rice 14,0(X). bananas 13.000, mangoes 12,000, oranges 12,000, karite (a butter from the nut of the shea tree) 11,410-', pineapples 3,000, palm kernels 2,155, tobacco 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,223,000 cattle, 1,198,000 goats, 940,000 sheep, 555,000 pigs, 20,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 5.538,000 cu m: fish catch (1993) 39,0(X). Mining and quarrying (1993): limestone 500,000, marine salt 100. Manufacturing (1994): cement 380,000^;

cotton fibre 103,000; meat 68,000; wheat flour 11,515; palm oil 9,432. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 5,000.000 (245,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 2.214,000 (negligible); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) none (136,000); natural gas. none (none). Land use (1993): forested 30.7%; meadows and pastures 4.0%: agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.0%; other 48.3%. Tounsm (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$38,000,000; expenditures by na-

Primary

Secondary Voc teacher Higher" ,

student/

teachers

students

2,904 '0

13.422 2,178

398 352

13 13'0

687 956

534,810 76,672 6,879 10.873

11.4

151 tr '0

teacher

>chools

ratio

100

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 89.2%; primary education 8.3%; some secondary 1.4%: secondary 0.8%; postsecondary 0.3%. Literacy (1995): total percentage of population age 15 and over literate 37.0%; males literate 48.7%; females literate 25.8%. Health: physicians (1989) 323 (1 per 13,879 persons); hospital beds (1982) 4,902 (1 per 749 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1991) 1

19.0.

(1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,532 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Food

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 4,800 (army 93.8%, navy 3.1%, air force 3.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of ( 1 992): 1 .3% (world 3.7% ); per capita expenditure U.S.$5.

GNP

tionals abroad U.S.Sl 1,000,000. Population economically active (1991): total 2,195,000; activity rate of total population 46.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.2%5; female 46.0%;

unemployed, Price

n.a.).

and earnings Indexes (1990 = 100) 1988

Consumer

price index^ Hourly earnings index'

..

100

1989 ..

100.0

1990 100 100

150.6 144.1

183rd seat, provided for by Constitution, vacated by constitutional court. 2Porto-Novo, the official capital established under the constitution, is the seat of the legislature, but the president and most government ministers reside in Cotonou. ^1992. '•1993. '1986. ^October 1990=100. 'Minimum hourly industrial wage; January 1. "Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ''Represents '/ii of the traffic of Air Afrique, which is operated by 11 West African states. 101987-88. "1990.

566

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (U.S.$I70 per capita).

Bhutan name: Druk-Yul (Kingdom of Bhutan). Fonn of goveriinuiu: constitutional' monarcliy with one legislative house (National Assembly [152-]). Official

Head of

stale

(a

Mahayana Buddhism.

Finance Pub. admin,, defense

1

Sen/ices Other TOTAL

I

Area and population population

area

1994 Districts

Capitals

Bumthang

Jakar

Damphu

Chhukha Dagana

Ha

Chhukha Dagana Gaylegphug Ha

Lhuntshi

Lhuntshi

Mongar

Mongar

Paro

Paro

Gaylegphug

Pema

Pema

Gatsel

Gatsel

Punakha Samchi

Punakha Samchi Samdrup Jongkhar

Shemgang

Samdrup Jongkhar Shemgang

Tashigang

Tashigang

Thimphu Tongsa Wangdl Phodrang

Thimphu Tongsa Wangdl Phodrang

TOTAL

sq mi

km

sq

1,150

2,990

310

800

540

1,400 2.640 2,140 2,910 1,830 1,500

1,020

830 1.120

710 580 150

830 900 980 1,640

630 570 :

6,040 2,140 2,340 2.540 4,260 1,620 1,470 3.000 47,000"

1

1

6,5

87.2

>

3 0008

09

12,000e

34

7.8

521,1

7,5

472,2

68

gjgg

g,

J

-0

-68,0"'

9'°

100

348,000

100,0

6,936.1

8.59

30,0008

J

price index

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

71

74.8

83.6

90 9

100

.4

Earnings index

use (1993): forested 66.0%; meadows and pastures 5.8%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.9%; other 25.3%. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,000,000; expenditures by nation-

Land

als

abroad,

n.a.

Foreign trade" Balance of trade (current prices) 1988-89

1989-90

800,0006

I'opidaiion (1995): 816,00()'>. 17.4.

Sex distribution (1988): male 50.97%; female 49.03%. Age breakdown (1988): under 15, 40.3%; 15-29, 26.4%; 30-44, 16.5%; 45-59, 10.5%; 60-74. 5.2%; 75 and over, 1.1%. Poptdation projection: (2000) 900,000; (2010) 1,100,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1993): Bhutia (Ngalops) 50.0%; Nepalese (Gurung) .35.0%; Sharchops 15.0%. Religious affiliation (1980): Buddhist 69.6%; Hindu 24.6%; Muslim 5.0%; other 0.8%. Major cities (1993): Thimphu .30.340; Phuntsholing 10,000''. Vital statistics Birth rate per l,tKH) population (1994): 39.3 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.;

1990-91

1991-92 - 687.9 17-4%

-481,6 17,5%

1993-94

1992-93 -

1

,633.6

30.8%

Nu

3,064,100,000 (1992-9312; petroleum products 5.9%, motor vehicles and parts 5.0%, rice 3.5%, iron and steel products 1.8%, fabrics 1.4%, machinery parts 0.5%). Major import source: India 60.1%. Exports (1993-94): Nu 2,097,900,000 (1992-9312; electricity 29.4%, timber and wood manufactures 17.0%, fruit and vegetables 11.1%, cement 10.4%). Major export destination: India 87.0%.

Imports (1993-94):

km

10

force

'

and earnings Indexes (1990=100)

Consumer

Demography Density (1995): persons per sq mi 45.0, persons per sq Urban-rural (\')^5): urban 13.1%; rural 86.9%.

1

of labour

303,0008

Population economically active (1984)6; total 348,000; activity rate of total population 53.4% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 94.8%; female 55.0%; unemployed 6.5%). Price

380

2,330

1.160 18,150"

estimate

1,3 11

543

communications

ngultrum^ (Nu)= 100 Moiietan unit: chetrum; valuation (Oct. f), 1495) £=Nu 57^.^^). 1 U.S.$ = Nu 33.90:

Chirang

40 7

Public utilities Transportation and

dialect).

Ojficiul religion:

2,820.2 88,3 773,2 703.8 448,4

%

labour force

of total

Nu 000.000

Trade

Tibetan

1984

%

value

value

Aghculture Mining Manufacturing Construction

Thimphu.

Dzongkha

U.S. $253,000,00(1

1993 in

and govemmeni: Monarch

Official language:

1993):

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

{dnik gyalpo). Capital:

current market prices;

(at

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):

total length

1,502 mi. 2.418

km

Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 2,590; trucks and buses Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1986): passenger-mi 2,722,passenger-km 4,381,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a.; airports (1995) with

(paved 79%). 1,367.

000,

scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers: nonei-^. Radio (1994):

total

number of

receivers 23,000 (1 per 35 persons). Television (1983): total number of receivers 200 (1 per 6,180 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 3,800 (1 per 400 persons).

illegitimate, n.a.

Death

rate per 1.000 population (1994): 15.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1994): 23.4 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 5.4. Marital status of population 15 years and over (1985): married 71.2%; single 19.7%; widowed 7.5'r; divorced 1.6''/r. Divorce rate per 1.000 population: n.a. /,;/(' expectancy at birth (1994): male 51.2 years; female 5(1.0 years. Major causes of death (percentage distribution; 1989): respiratory tract infections 19.5%; diarrhea/dysentery 15.2%; skin infections 12.2%; parasitic worin infestations 10.0%; malaria 9.4%.

National economy

UN

Budget (1994-95). Revenue: Nu 4,396,000,000 (grants from and other international agencies 41.6%, internal revenue 37.2%, grants from government of India 21.2%). Expenditures: Nu 4,708,000,000 (capital expenditures 63.5''v, current expenditures 36.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$83.300.000. Productum (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994):

oranges 5K.000. rice 43.000, corn (mai/e) 40,(100. potatoes 34.000. sugarcane 13.0(MI. green peppers and chilies 9.000, millet 7.00(1, apples 6,000. wheat barley 4.(100. pulses 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 435.000 roundwood (1993) 1,491.000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 350. Mining and quarrying (1993): limestone 198,000; dolomite 90.(M)(); gypsum 20.000. Manufacturing (value in Nu: 198081): distilkrv products 47.000,00(1; cement 36.000.000; chemical products 19.(K)0,0(M); processed food 14.000.00(1; forest products 3.000.00(1. Construction (number ol buildings completed; 1977-78): residential 10; nonresidential (guest house) 1. I.nergy production (consumption): elcclricitv (kW-hr; 1992) .627,000.(MH) (ISS.OOO.OOO); coal (metric Ions; 1992) 2.000 '( IS.OOO); crude petroleum, none (n.a.): petroleum products (metric tons: 1992) none (27.-

Education and health Education (1990) schools Primary (age 7-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Voc. teacher tr. Higher

156

students 1.757

662

52,029 15,984

149

1,822

29,6

24

1

12.2

519

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1977): total population age 15 and over literate 124,000 (18.0%); males literate 98,000 (31.0%); females literate 26,000 (9.0%). Health (1991): physicians 141 (1 per 5,.335 persons); hospital beds 922 (1 per 816 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 121.0. Food (1975-77): daily per capita caloric intake 2,058 (vegetable products 98%, animal products 2%); 89% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): about 7,000 (army 100%).

5.(KK).

cattle. 75.(M)0 pigs. 59.(K)0 sheep, 42,000 goats;

1

000); natural gas none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.4''; income per household n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1979): food 72.3%, clothing Jl.2%. energy 3.7%, household durable goods 0.7%, personal effects and other 2.1%.

'There is no formal constitution, but ;i fonn of con.stitutional monarchy is in place. -Includes 47 noiiciectivc seats occupied by representatives of the King and religious groups. 'Indian currency is also accepted legal tender; the iigultrum is at par with the Indian rupee. '2. 700 m) mi (7.()()() sq km) are not included in the district aiea totals. ^Includes Chhukha area. ''Hie ligure stated is an estimate based on recent reported figures resulting from the repudialion of the 1980 census by the King and from the existence of a large mimbcr of Nepalese refugees: as such the actual population could range from SDO.OOO to l.dOO.OOO. 7mx2. sDerivcd value. ^Includes 6.5% with no occupation. "'Imputed bank service charges, nimport figures are c.i.f in balance of trade, commodities, and trading partners. '-Trade data with India only. "A weekly newspaper is published from Thimphu in Dzongkha. Nepalese. and linglish, circulation (1995) lO.OtK).

Nations of the World

Bolivia Official

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$3,687,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$5 (U.S.$770 per capita).

name: Repiiblica de Bolivia

(Republic of Bolivia). Form of govemmem: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Chamber of Senators [27]; Chamber of Deputies [130]). Head of state and government: Capitals:

1993

Agriculture

Public utilities Transportation and

Aymara,

Quechua.

communications

1

1

U.S.$ = Bs4.87;

1

'

Other

area

Capitals

Bern

Trinidad

sq mi

Sucre

Cochabamba

Cochabamba

La Paz Oruro

La Paz Oruro

Pando Potosi

Cobija Potosi

Santa Cruz

Santa Cruz

Tarlja

Tarlja

TOTAL

82,458 19.893 21,479 51,732 20,690 24.644 45.644 143,098 14,526 424,164

54,711

sq

km

estimate

213,564 51,524

312,772 481,600

55,631

,237,458 2,030,176

133.985 53.588 63.827 118,218 370.621 37,623 1,098,581

1

14.147.404

324,531 2.530.409

100.0

12,8 100.0

1

348,074 39,041 642,794 1

5.86

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1992): 3.8; average annual income per household: n.a.; .sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1988): food 35.5%, transportation and communications 17.7%, housing 14.8%, household durable goods 7.3%, clothing and footwear 5.1%, beverages and tobacco 4.5%, recreation 2.7%, health 2.1%, education 0.3%. Tourism (1993); receipts from visitors U.S.S 15,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.S 15 1,000,000. Land use (1993): forested 53.5%; meadows and pastures 24.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.2%; other 19.9%.

population

1996

Departments

116,800 232,429

10.1

821,6996

TOTAL

Chuquisaca

11.2

Pub. admin., defers Services

£ = Bs7.69.

Area and population

forces

984,407 52.623 222,485 129,409 6.086

1,588.580 1,425.021 1,322.761

Trade Finance

Roman

Catholicism. boliviano (Bs)= 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) unit:

2.400.446 1,092.737 2.262.772 726,208 183,251

Mining Manufacturing Construction

% of labour

labour forces

value

La Paz (administrative); Sucre

Official religion:

1992 of total

>i

(judicial).

Monetary

000 000

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

President.

Official languages: Spanish,

47'>

567

,605,987

325,694

Foreign traded

7,023,596

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Popidation (1995): 7,414,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 17.5, persons per sq Urban-rural (1992): urban 57.7%; rural 42.3%. Sex distribution (1995): male 49.64%; female 50.36%.

U.S.J'OOO.OOC

km

% of total

1989

1990

1991

+3018

+326.6 21.4%

+59.0 3.6%

22.5%

1992

-294

1993 4

17.2%

-384

1994 1

20.9%

-89.3 4.1%

6.7.

Age breakdown

(1995): under 15, 40.6%; 15-29, 27.5%; 30-44, 16.3%; 45-59, 9.6%; 60-74, 5.0%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2000) 8,329,000; (2010) 10,229,000. Doubling time: 29 years.

Ethnic composition (1982): mestizo 31.2%; Quechua 25.4%; Aymara 16.9%; white 14.5%; other 12.0%. Roman Catholic 85.0%; Protestant 11.0%; other 4.0%. Major cities (1992): La Paz 711,036; Santa Cruz 694,616; El Alto 404,367; Cochabamba 404,102; Oruro 183,194; Sucre 130,952. Religious affiliation (1992):

Imports (1993): U.S.S 1,205,900,000 (capital goods 43.0%, of which capital goods for industry 25.7%, transport equipment 15.6%; raw materials 35.1%, of which raw materials for industry 28.8%; consumer goods 20.1%, of which durable consumer goods 11.0%, nondurable consumer goods 9.1%). Major import sources: United States 23.5%; Argentina 12.0%; Brazil 10.5%; Japan 10.4%; Chile 7.4%; United Kingdom 5.4%; Germany 4.9%. Exports (1993); U.S.S754,500,000 (zinc 15.8%; natural gas 12.0%; tin 11.1%; gold 10.1%; soybeans 9.1%; silver 7.4%; timber 6.9%; sugar 2.5%; hides and skins 1.6%). Major export destinations: United States 22.6%; United Kingdom 21.1%; Argentina 16.6%; Peru 9.9%; Belgium 6.5%; Colombia 4.7%; Germany 4.3%; Brazil 2.8%.

Transport and communications Vital statistics

Railroads (1993): route length 2,295 mi, 3.694 km; passenger-mi 216,800,000, passenger-km 348,900,000; short ton-mi cargo 521,900,000, metric ton-km cargo 761,900,000. Roads (1993): total length 26,370 mi, 42,438 km (paved 4%). Vehicles (1993); passenger cars 340,365: trucks and buses 185,922. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 15,765. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 729,000,000. passenger-km 1,173,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 108,491,000, metric ton-km cargo 158,394,000; airports (l^^S) with scheduled flights 21. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992); total number 16; total circulation 390,000; circulation per 1,000 population 52. Radio (1994); total number of receivers 4,250,000 (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1992): total number of receivers 775.000 (1 per 8.9 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993); 234,400 (1 per 33 persons). Transport.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 32.2 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 8.4 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 23.8 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 4.2.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1980): 4.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994); male 60.9 years; female 65.9 years. Major causes of death (percentage of total registered deaths; 1980-81): infectious and parasitic diseases 23.9%; diseases of the circulatory system 19.5%; diseases of the respiratory system 14.0%; accidents, homicides, and violence 9.8%; diseases of the digestive system 8.6%.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: Bs 3,479,700,000 (taxes on goods and services 38.2%, income of government enterprises 11.9%, property taxes 9.6%, social-security contributions 8.2%, taxes on international trade 7.0%, income taxes 5.9%). Expenditures: Bs 5,876,500,000 (transportation and communications 22.4%, public services 14.2%, social security 12.0%, education 11.0%, defense 8.2%, health 6.6%, public order and safety 3.2%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 3,164,000, potatoes 810,000, soybeans 709,000, corn (maize) 521,-

bananas and plantains 521,000, cassava 447,000, rice 259,000, wheat 88,000, coffee 31,000; livestock (number of live animals) 7,789,000 sheep, 6,012,000 cattle, 2,331,000 pigs, 1,517,000 goats, 636,000 asses, 324,000 horses; roundwood (1993) 1,555,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 6,167. Mining and quarrying (metric tons of pure metal; 1993): zinc 122,640; lead 21,240; tin 000,

18,624; silver 46,344 kg; gold 6,563 kg. Manufacturing (value added in Bs '000; 1992): food products 1,459,318; petroleum products 856,675; wood products 517,201; textiles 299,955; beverages 288,796; nonferrous metals 210,903. Construction (1985)2; residential dwellings 226. Energy production (consumption); electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,412,000,000 (2,424,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 8,110,000 (8,149,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,135,000 (1,167,000); natural gas

(cu

m; 1992) 2,895,000,000 (674,000,000).

Population economically active (1992); total 2,530,409; activity rate of total population 33.6% (participation rates; ages 15-64, 63.6%; female 39.0%; unemployed 2.5%). Price

Education and health Education (1990-91) s
1. "Includes 183.972 unemployed and 225.484 women on maternity leave. I

S.

Nations of the World

Denmark

flowers and plants 2,476, barley 2,390, furs 1,485, poultry 1,172; roundwood 2,192,000 cu m; tish catch 1,534,0.58 metric tons. Mining and quarrying

name: Kongeriget Danmark (Kingdom of Denmark).

(1993): sand and gravel 25,000,000 cu m; chalk 400,000 metric tons. Manufacturing (value added; 1992): food products 28,174; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 19,609; chemicals and chemical products 17,300; metal products 12,210; printing and publishing 9,919; transport equipment 7,831;

Official

Form of government: parliamentary state and constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Folketine

machinery and apparatus 7,638. Construction (completed; 1993): residential 1,202,000 sq m; nonresidential 3,190.000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 37,640,000.000 ([1992] 34.595,()()(),000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (11,044,000); crude petroleum (barrels1W3) (14.632,0(1(1 ([1992] 64,272,000); petroleum products (metric Ions; 1992) 8,3I(),()()(I (7.365,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 4,()25,0O(),()O0 (2,284,000,000). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.S 137,6 10,000 000 (U.S.$26,510 per capita). electrical

[179]).

Chief of state: Danish Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital:

Copenhagen.

Official language:

Danish.

Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary unit: 1 Danish krone (Dkr;

plural kroner) (Oct. 6, 1995) 1

£ = Dkr

= 100 1

0re; valuation

U.S.$

= Dkr

595

*

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

5.55;

8.77.

993

Area and population

in value Dkr 000,0008 ^

area

population

19942

Counties Arhus Bornholm

sq mi

Capitals

Arhus

1,761

Ronne

km

sq

4,561

Frederiksborg

Hillerod

227 520

Fyn

Odense

1,346

203

526

Alborg Ribe Ringkabing Roskilde

2,383 1.209 1,874

6,173 3,131

Abenra Nykebing

1,520 1,312 1,157 1,152 1,592

—

Kobenhavn Nordiylland

Ribe Ringkebing Roskilde Sonderjyiland Storstram

Soro

Viborg

Viborg

4,853 891 3,938 3,398 2,997 2,984 4,122

344

Falster

Vejle

Vestsjeelland

588 1,347 3,486

estimate

614,223 45,067 348,491 466,567 604,762 487.757 221,368 269,448 222,704 251.663

257,148 335,266 287,266 230,193

Agriculture, fishing

Mining Manufacturing Construction

%

28,576

37

6,331

0.8 18.9

144,232 39.680 15.145 71.567 110,386 143,597 172,487 41,870

Pt-'blic utilities

Transp and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Sen/ices

-

2.0

94

-1.5 '0 100.03

labour forces

48

9

145 188 226

55

% of

labour forces

140.087

52

-11.443"' 762,4253

Other TOTAL

of lota

value

}

9

481.179 147.966 21,0549 186,876 432,696 233,297

165

944,729

325

322.4411' 2.910.325

11.1" 100

5

1

079 6.4 14.9

80

Land

use (1993): forested 10.5%; meadows and pastures 4.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 59.9%; other 25.0%.

Foreign trade '2

Communes

— —

Copenhagen (Kobenhavn) Frederiksberg TOTAL

34 3 16,6393

88 9 43,0943

467,253 87,466 5,196,642

Balance of trade (current prices) Dkr 000,000

%

of total

1989

1990

+18,764 4.8%

+26,404 6,5%

1991

+32,060 7.5%

1992

1993

+ 53,178 12,0%

+ 49,973 12.0%

1994

+ 120.497 29,8%

Demography Population (1995): 5,223,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 313.9, persons per sq km 121.2. Urban-rural (1992): urban 84.9%; rural 15.1%. Sex distribution (1994): male 49.33%; female 50.67%. Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 17.1%; 15-29, 21.7%; 30-44, 21.8%; 45-59, 19.4%; 60-74, 13.0%; 75 and over, 7.0%. Population projection: (2000) 5,278,000; (2010) 5,320,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population is stable. Ethnic composition (1994): Danish 96.4%; Asian 1.5%, of which Turkish 0.7%; other Scandinavian 0.5%; residents of former Yugoslavia 0.2%; British 0.2%; other 1.2%. Religious affiliation (1993): Evangelical Lutheran 87.7%; other Christian 1.6%; Muslim 1.4%; other/nonreligious 9.3%.

Major

(1992): Greater Copenhagen 1,342,6794; Arhus 204,139; Odense Alborg 114,970; Frederiksberg 87,4665.

cities

140,886;

(>.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 13.4 (world avg. 25.0); (1993) legitimate 53.2%; illegitimate 46.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 11.8 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 1.6 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.1.

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.5. Life expectancy at birth (1992-93): male 72.5 years; female 77.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 298.5; ischemic heart disease 277.3; cerebrovascular disease 114.1.

Imports (1993): Dkr 191,325,000,000 (food products 9.1%, nonelectrical machinery 8.1%, fuels and lubricants 6.2%, transport equipment 6.0%). Major import sources: Germany 22.7%; Sweden 10.9%; United Kingdom 7.5%; The Netherlands 6.4%; France 5.3%; Norway 5.2%. Exports (1993): Dkr 232,884,000,000 (nonelectrical and electrical machinery 23.1%, fresh or frozen swine meat 6.0%, textiles and clothing 4.6%, furniture 4.4%, pharmaceuticals 4.1%). Major export destinations: Germany 23.8%; Sweden 10.0%; United Kingdom 8.7%; Norway 6.9%; France 5.4%; United States 5.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 1,763 mi, 2,838 km; passcngcr-mi 2,793,000,000, passenger-km 4,495,000,000 '> short ton-mi cargo 1,231.000,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,797.000.000 1\ Roads (1993): total length 44,186 mi,

km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 1,674,9.39; trucks and buses 260,833. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 456; total deadweight tonnage 7,569,069. Air transport (1993)''': passengermi 2,714,000,000, passenger-km 4,368,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 91,243,000, metric ton-km cargo 133,212,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 13. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 42; total circulation 1,668,000; circulation per 1,000 population 321. Radio (1994): 5,200,000 re71,111

ceivers (1 per 1.0 persons). Television (1994): 2,700,200 receivers (1 per 1.9 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 3.059,800 (1 per 1.7 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools Primary/lov»er secondary (age 7-151

National economy

Upper secondary (age 16-18)

Budget (1993). Revenue: Dkr 366,819,000,000 (tax revenue 82.1%, of which individual income taxes 28.2%, value-added taxes ITi.S^c; nontax revenue 15.6%). Expenditures: Dkr 387,411,000,000 (current expenditure 95.9%; development expenditure 4.1%). National debt (end of year; 1993): Dkr 628,370,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$3,052,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$3,2 14,000,000. Population economically active (1993): total 2,910,325; activity rate of total population 56.2% (participation rates: ages 16-66, 79.6%; female 46.5%; unemployed [June 1994-May 1995] 11.2%).

Vocational

Higher

2.668 153

204 '5 235 '5

teachers

56.323 7,50015

students

589,123 72,704 153,987 165,559

student/ teacher ratio

105 99'5

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25-69 having: primary education 3.0%; completed lower secondary 23.4%; completed upper secondary or vocational 48.0%; advanced vocational 5.0%: undergraduate 7.4%; graduate 3.9%; unknown 9.3%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Health: physicians (1994) 14,497 (1 per 358 persons); hospital beds (1^92) 26,764 (1 per 193 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 5.6. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,664 (vegetable products 56%, animal products 44%); 136% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer

price index

Hourly earnings index

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995'

Military

97,4 96.2

100.0 100.0

102.4 103.9

104.5 106.9

105 9

108-0 113.4

110.4

Total active duty personnel (1994): 27,000 (army 60.4%, navy 17.0%, air force 22.6%). Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1993): 2.0% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$517.

109.9

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1994) 2.2; mcome per household (1988) Dkr 199,354 (U.S.$29,613); principal sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 63.3%, transfers 25.9%, self-employment 14.6%, other -3.8%; expenditure (1992): housing 22.7%, food and beverages 18.4%, transportation and communications 15.3%, recreation 8.0%, household furnishings 6.2%, cafe and hotel expenditures 6.1%. Production (in (value added;

Dkr

'000,000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishmg pork 14,577, milk 11,625, beef 4,060, wheat 3,864,

1993):

'Excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland. 2January 1. ^Detail does not add to because of rounding. ^HW.^. 'Wilhin Greater Copenhagen. '>iyy4. 'June. «At factor cost. ''Public utilities includes Mining. ^Imputed bank service charges less other producers. H Includes 21.7^5 not adequately defined and 300.646 unemployed. i2Import figures arc f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. I'Danish State Railways only. '^Danish share of Scandinavian Airlines System; scheduled air service only. i''m91-92. total given

Britannica World Data

596

Mediterra neanlSea

Djibouti Official

name: JumhurTyah

""^\

i r

(National Assembly [65]).

Head of state and government: President. Capital: Djibouti. Official languages: Arabic; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 Djibouti franc

(DF)= 6,

1995) £

1

100 centimes; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = DF 177.72;

= DF

K

f^

Jibuti

(Arabic); Republique de Djibouti (French) (Republic of Djibouti). Form of govemmenl: multiparty republic with one legislative house

g^

v_

4

Arabian

Structure of gross national product and labour force 1991

A.n

\

V

280.96.

population

area

1982 sq mi

Capitals

Sabih (Ali-Sabieh)

An

925

Sabiti

Dikhil

DikWI

Djibouti

Djibouti

Obock

Obock

Tadjoura (Tadjourah)

Tadjoura

TOTAL

sq

km

2,775

2,400 7,200

225

600

2.200 2,825 8,950

5,700 7,300 23,200

of total

value

1,281

2,4

Manufactunng

1.911

Construction Public utilities Transportation and

2,588 5,117

3 6 4 8

Agriculture

—

Mining

communications Trade Finance Pub- admin., defense

Area and population

A(T

DF 000,000

Indian

Ocean

%

value

in

I

Districts

51.6%, self-employment 36.0%, transfer payments 10.5%, other 1.9%; expenditure (expatriate households; 1984); food 50.3'7. energy 13.1%, recreation 10.4%, housing 6.4%, clothing 1.7%', personal effects 1.4%, health care 1.0%, household goods 0.3%, other 15.4%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.S 192,600,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S. $448,000,000 (U.S.$780 per capita).

force

%

of labour

force

75,2

-1 31,000

11

39,000

13.8

282.000

100.0

95J 20,3

10,896 8,718 3,574 17,620 1,903 53,608

Sen/ices TOTAL

labour

212,000

^

'«?^ 6 7 f

32 9

35 J 100.0

estimate

15,000

30,000 200.000 15,000 30,000 335,0002

Land

meadows and

pastures 8.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation''; built-on, wasteland, and other 91.1%. use (1993): forested 0.3%;

Foreign trade** Balance of trade (current prices) DF 000,000

Demography Population (1995); 586,000\ persons per sq mi 65.4, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991); urban 81.1%; rural 18.9%. Sex distribution (1995); male 49.39%; female 50.61%. Densit\' (1995);

%

km

25.3.

(1995); under 15, 41.8%; 15-29, 27.2%; 30^4, 15.9%; 45-59, 9.9%.; 60-74, 4.3%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 680,000; (2010) 916,000. Douhlini; nine: 32 years. Ethnic composition (1983); Somali 61.7%, of which Issa 33.4%, Gadaboursi 15.(1'^. Issaq 13.3%; Afar 20.0%; Arab (mostly Yemeni) 6.0%; European 4.0^; other (refugees) 8.3%.. Religious affiliation (1988); SunnI Muslim 96%; Christian 4%, of which Roman Catholic 2%, Protestant 1%, Orthodox 1%. Major city and towns (1989); Djibouti 450,0004; 'All Sabih 4,000; Tadjoura 3,500; Dikhil 3,000.

Age breakdown

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95); 38.1 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95); 16.1 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95); 22.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95); 5.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1982); 6.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1982); 1.9. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95); male 46.7 years; female 50.0 years. Major causes of death (percentage of total deaths [infants and children to age 10, district of Djibouti only]; 1984): diarrhea and acute dehydration 16.0%; malnutrition 16.0%; poisoning 11.0%; tuberculosis 6.0%; acute respiratory disease 6.0%; malaria 6.0%; anemia 6.0%; heart disease 2.0%; kidney disease 1.0%; other ailments 19.0%; no diagnosis 11.0%.

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-27,624 35.0%

-29,735 32.0%

-31,509

-31,188 35.7%

-30.669 34 1%

32,9%

hnports (1991); DF 38,103,000,000 (food, beverages, and tobacco 32.7%; textiles and footwear 11.7%; fossil fuels 9.2%; machinery and electrical machinery 8.5%.; transport equipment 7.1%; chemical products 6.2%; base metals and base metal products 6.2%). Major import sources: France 26.1%; Ethiopia 8.3%; Japan 7.2%; Italy 6.5%; Saudi Arabia 5.0%; United States 3.7%..

Exports (1991): DF 3,083,000,000 (unspecified special transactions 71.7%; live animals [including camels] 15.5%; food and food products 12.8%). Major export destinations: France 57.1%; Yemen 16.0%; Saudi Arabia 5.5%; Somalia 4.1%; Italy 3.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1989): length 66 mi, 106 km; passenger-mi 182,000,000. passenger-km 293.000,000; short ton-mile cargo 81,700,000''. metric ton-km cargo 119,300,000''. Roads (1991): total length 1,789 mi, 2,879 km (paved 13%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 13,000: trucks and buses 3,000. Mer-

chant marine (1992); vessels (100 gross tons and over) 10; total deadweight tonnage 4,090. Air transport (1990)i": passenger arrivals 61.700, passenger departures 62,500; cargo loaded 1,145 metric tons, cargo unloaded 6.381 metric tons; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 1. Commimications. Weekly newspapers (1990); total number 1; total circulation 4,000; circulation per 1,000 population 7.6. Radio (1994); total number of receivers 35,000 (I per 16 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 17,000 (1 per 34 persons). Telephones (main lines: 1993): total number of receivers 7,350 (1 per 78 persons).

Education and health Education (1993)

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue; DF 29.011,000,000 (1990; current receipts 80.2%. of which indirect and direct taxes 72.9%, nontiix revenue 7.3%; external development receipts 19.8%). Expenditures; DF 28,99(),0()0,()00 (defense 17.5'f; education 9.4%; health 7.2%; debt service 5.2%; agriculture 1.6%: commerce 0.4%; industry 0.2%). Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S.S 13,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$15,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): vegetables and melons 22,000, of which tomatoes 1,000, eggplant (1985-86) 66; livestock (number of live animals) 507,000 goats, 470,000 sheep, 190,000 camels. 8.00(1 asses; fish catch (1993) .300. Mining and quarrymineral production limited to locally used construction materials and cvaporatctl salt. Manufacturing (1991): structural detail, n.a.; main items produced include furniture, nonalcoholic beverages, meat and hides, light electromechanical goods, and mineral water. Construction (1989): 53,900 sq m. (energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 182,000,000 (182,000,000); firewood and charcoal, n.a. (n.a.)"^; coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) none (428.000): natural gas, none (n.a.); geothermal, wind, and solar resources are substantial but largely undeveloped. Population economically active (1991); total 282,000; activity rate of total population 54.2% (participation rates [1988]: over age 10, 67.0%; female 40.0%: unemployed [1987] c. 40-50%). cattle, 62,000

student/

Pnmary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18)" Voc teacher tr. Higher" ,

1

teacher

schools

teachers

students

56

787

33,005

41.9

362

9363

286

13

108

83

„

ratio

I 1

Educatumal attainment: n.a. Literacy (1995): percentage of population age and over literate Mt.l'f: males literate 60.3%; females literate 32.7%.

15

Health (1989): physicians 97 (1 per 5,258 persons); hospital beds'- 1..383 (1 per 369 persons): infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 112. Pood: daily per capita caloric intake 2,338 (\egctablc products 89'';, animal recommended niinimuni requirenicnl. products ll"";): IOI'y of

FAO

ing:

Price

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

price index

1988

1989

1990

1991

90

92,8

100

1068

1

come per household:

expenditure. n.a.;

Average household

active duly personnel (1995);

/()/(;/

8.400" (army 95.2%, navy 2.4%, air force of GNP (1993): 6.0'^^ (world 3.3%);

Military expenditure as percentage per capita expenditure U.S. $69. 2.4'

;

).

'Original figures arc those given in sq km; sq mi equivalent is rounded to appropriate level of generality. -Includes 45,000 persons not distributed by district. 'Excludes ;ibout 4l).iHK) Siuii.ili arul :il.lll)0 l-.thioplan refugees, 'lixcludcs 20.()(M) transients. ^Represents .ibmit 1^' ol inl.il ciKig\ consumption. City of Djibouti only. 'In 198889 only l.lKI.'i ;iens (4ii^ hectares) I'll' UiikI were cultivated, ."iliiiport figures are c.i.f. ''Uascd on total vscielil of Kthiopian exports and imports transported to and from the port of Djibouti' '"Djitiouli International Airport only. "1991. '^Public health .

Earnings index

Household income and

Military

size (1985)'' 7.2: in-

sources of income (1976); wages and salaries

facilities only.

"Excludes

.3.901)

French troops.

Nations of the World

Dominica Official

Population economically active (1991): total 26,364; activity rate of total population 38.0% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 62.4%; female 34 5%-

Atlantic

name: Commonwealth of

unemployed |I994) 23%).

Ocean

Dominica. Fonn of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house

(House of Assembly

[31

Price

area

population

1991

St-

David

St

George John Joseph Luke Mark

St. StSt.

sq

69.3 49.0 20.7 22.5 46.4

179.6 126.8 53.5 58.5

St- Patrick

census 11,106 6,977 20.365 4.990 6.183

120,1 11.1

1,552 1,943 8,929 7,495 1,643 71,1833

9.9

84.4 67.4 27.7 739-02

260

St- Paul St. Peter TOTAL

km

sq mi

4.3 3.8 32.6

10.7

285.32

1989

1990

1991

1992

1994

912

96 9

100

1056

111 3

1148

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): bananas 69,000», root crops 28,057 (of which dashccns 11,390, yams 7,985, tanias 6,176), coconuts 23,213, grapefruit 12,212, plantains 8,097, oranges 3,157, cacao 842, bay oil 46, cinnamon 39; livestock (number of live animals; 1994) 10,000 goats, 9,000 cattle, 8,000 sheep; roundwood, n.a,; tish catch 795 metric tons. Mining and quarrying: pumice, limestone, and sand and gravel are quarried primarily for local consumption. Manufacturing (value of production in ECS'OOO; 1994): laundry soap 15,661; toilet soap 13,.382; crude coconut oil 3,281; copra 2,525; bottled spring water 323.000 cases''; other products include fruit juices, rum, garments, furniture, paint, and cardboard boxes. Construction (value of starts; 1993): U.S.S 12, 100,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 52,400,000 (43,500,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (19,000); natural gas, none (none). Land use (1993): forested 67.0%; meadows and pastures 3.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.0%; other 7.0%.

Area and population

Andrew

1988

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.6; income per household: n.a.; expenditure (1984)': food and nonalcoholic beverages 43.1%., housing and utilities 16.1%. transportation 11.6%, clothing and footwear 6.5%, household furnishings 6.0%'.

none. Monetary unit: 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = EC$2.70; 1 £ = EC$4.27. Official religion:

Parishes

price index

Earnings index

Official language: English.

St,

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

1]),

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Roseau.

St-

597

Foreign trade'" Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1995): 72,100. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 248.6, persons per sq Urban-rural: n.a.

ECS'OOO.OOO

km

%

96.1.

Sex distribution (1991): male 49.78%; female 50.22%. (1991): under 15, 33.3%; 15-29, 28.3%; 30-44, 16.3%; 45-59, 9.7%; 60 and over, 11.8%; unknown, 0.6%. Population projection: (2000) 73,000; (2010) 74,000. Doubling time: 45 years. Ethnic composition (1991): black 89.1%; mixed race 7.2%; Amerindian/Carib 2.4%; white 0.4%; other 0.7%; not stated 0.2%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 70.1%; six largest Protestant groups 17.2%, of which Seventh-day Advcntist 4.6%, Pentecostal 4.3%, Methodist 4.2%; other 8.9%; nonreligious 2.9%; unknown 0.9%. Major towns (1991): Roseau 15,853; Portsmouth 3,621; Marigot 2,919; Atkinson 2,518; Mahaut 2,372.

Age breakdown

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 20.5 (world avg. 25.0); (1991) legitimate 24.1%; illegitimate 75.9%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 5.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 15.5 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 2.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 3.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 74.1 years; female 79.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 273.5, of which ischemic heart diseases 120.8, hypertensive disease 88.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 116.6; endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional disorders 51.4; diseases of the respiratory system 43.0; infectious

and

parasitic diseases 37.5.

Budget (1994-95). Revenue: EC$286,500,000 (current revenue 58.7%, external loans and sales of securities 22.9%, grants 15.1%, other 3.3%). Expenditures: EC$286,500,000 (current expenditures 54.7%, development expenditures 38.7%, debt repayment 3.5%, other 3.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$85,500,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1994) U.S.$34,800,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1993) U.S.$5,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$193,000,000 (U.S.$2,680 per capita).

1991

1994 in

labour

% of labour

value

force''

force"

17.5 0.7 6.3 6.7 3.7

7,344

Mining Manufacturing Construction

30-8

65

03

Public utilities Transportation and

communications

827

14,8

Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate. insurance Pub- admin-, defense Services

67.6

12.1

3.658

68.5 87.7 4.6 52.45

12.3

810

Other

15.7 0.8

1,520 3,446

TOTAL

557.7

%

of total

945 100.0

1991

-110,5 26 9%

-131 2 32

6%

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1993):

total length 466 mi, 750 km (paved 66%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 4,700; trucks and buses 5,500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 3,153. Air transport (1991): passenger arrivals 43,312, passenger departures, n.a.; cargo unloaded 259 metric tons, cargo loaded 415 metric tons; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers: none'-. Radio (1994): 45,0(K) receivers (1

per

1.6 persons).

Telephones (main

Television (1994): 5,200 receivers (I per 14 persons). per 4.6 persons).

lines; 1994): 15,791 (1

Education and health Education (1992-93)

student/

schools

Pnmary Secondary

'3

651 13/ 2

teachers

608 40

ii

students

12,795 1 6,179 / 658'"

teacher

ratio

31 2 16,5'"

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 4.2%; primary education 7H.W; secondary 11.0%; higher vocational 2.3%; university 2.8%; other/unknown 1.3'"'^. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 42,000 (90.0%). Health (1994): physicians 23 (1 per 3,130 persons); hospital beds 312 (1 per 231 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 10.3. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,778 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); 115% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

none '5.

1

97-5 3.7 35.3 37.2 20.5

value

1990

-129,3 29,9%

Total active duly personnel (1990):

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

EC$000,000

1989

-159,9 34,2%

Imports (1992): EC$299,200,000 (machinery and transport equipment 28.5%; basic manufactures 25.1%; food 18.4%; chemicals and chemical products 12.8%). Major import sources: United States 27.0%; Caricom countries 24.2%; United Kingdom 15.3%: Japan 4.4%; Canada 3.8%. Exports (1992): ECS 15 1,400,000 (domestic exports 97.1%, of which bananas 55.7%, coconut-based laundry and toilet soaps 20.7%, fresh vegetables and roots and tubers 2.5%, plantains 2.1%, bay oil 1.5%; reexports 2.9%). Major export destinations^^: United Kingdom Al.(i''/r\ Caricom countries 27.9%; Italy 9.3%.

Higher

National economy

Agriculture

of total

1.947 2.819

304

1-3

15-4

'Includes 10 nonelective seats. Nine of the 10 nonclective seals arc potentially elective according to the constitution. 2Area breakdown by parish is based on 1961 survey. Total area of Dominica per more recent survey is 290 sq mi (750 sq km). 'Includes institutionalized population of 1.717. "Employed persons only. ^Nct of indirect taxes less imputed banking service charge. ''Detail docs not add to total given because of rounding. 'Weights of consumer price index components. «1994. ''1990. i"lmports 'Excludes f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f, in commodities and trading partners, i

699

2.9

23.814

100-0

reexports. iJWcekly newspapers (1991): total number 2; total circulation 5,050: circulation per 1.000 population 14. I-M993-94. i''I991-92. iS3()().member police force includes a coast guard unit.

Britannica World Data

598

Gross national product (1993); U.S.$8,039,000,000 (U.S.$1,()8() per capita).

Dominican Republic

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

name: Repiiblica Dominicana (Dominican Republic).

Official

Form of government:

199410

RDS'OOO.OOO

republic with two legislative Agriculture

houses (Senate (30]; Chamber of Deputies |12()|). Head of stale and government: President. Capital: Santo

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public

unit:

Finance, real estate Pub. admin defense Sen/ices ,

Dominican peso

1

(RD$) = 100 (Oct, 1

i;

6.

ccntavos; valuation 1995) 1 U.S.$ = RD$13.74;

= RD$21.72.

Area and population

population

area

1990 sq

sq mi

Provinces

Capitals

Azua Bahoruco (Baoruco) Barahona Dajabon

Azua

938

Neiba Barahona Dajabon

531

Duarle

San Francisco de Macoris

El

Seibo

El

Moca

Hato Mayor Independencia La Allagracia

Jimani

Monte Monte

Plata

Cristi

690 209 916 506 388 768

Plata

841

Nagua Bonao

Salcedo

Pedernales Bani Puerto Plata Salcedo

Samana

Samana

San Cristobal San Juan San Pedro de Macoris Sanchez Ramirez

San Cristobal San Juan San Pedro de Macoris

Pedernales Peravia Puerto Plata

1,881

533 989 1,564 3.561 1.166 1,174 3.122 1,020 1,477

450 453 1,205

394 570 220

Sabaneta

Mao

Valverde TOTAL

967 1.622

1.375

—

Santo Domingo 2

3,084 1,788 541 2,373 1,310 1,004 1,989 2,179

373 626 726 206 382 604

Cotui Santiago de los Caballeros

Santiago Santiago Rodriguez

1,861

1,191

Ehas Pina La Romana La Vega

Monte Monte

Crisli

1,292 1,659 1,000 1,330

386 514 719

Higijey

La Romana La Vega Maria Trinidad Sanchez Monsenor Nouel

890

641

Hato Mayor

km

2.430 1,376 2.528

976 344 499

Seibo

Espaillat

U Estrelleta

utilities

Transp and commun. Trade

Domingo.

Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none'.

Monetary

1981

% of total

value

in

multiparty

570 48,4433

18,7043

%

labour force

value

of labour

force

549 107 800 414

12.6

420,463

22.0

24

4,743 224,437 80,850

117

91

21

13.891

420 764 457 386

96

40,470

2.1

175 105

192,181

10.0

18.4 9.5

Other

—

—

4,358

100.0

43 07

22.369

11

TOTAL

0.2

1

2

189

363 125

\

552,859"

28.9 '1

100

1,915,388

Tourism (1994): receipts U.S.$l,148,000,tM0; expenditures U.S.$171,000,000. Population economically active (1991)12; total 2,758,000; activity rate of total population 37.6% (participation rates: age 10 and over, 50.3%; female 29.0%; unemployed [1994] 28.0%).

estimate

195,420 87,376 152.405 64,123 261,725 97,590 182,248 77,823 43,077 111,241 72,651 169,223 303,047 125,148 124,794 92,678 174.799 18.896 186.810 229,738 110,216 73,002 320,921 266,628 197,862 140,635 704,835 61 ,570

2,411,895 111,470 7,169,846'>

Demography

Price

and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

1989

1990

1991

62.7

100.0 100.0

153.9 125 3

64.1

160 9

1994

1995

183.4

205.3 '3

150.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household

size (1981) 5.1; aver-

age income; n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1980-85); food and beverages 46.0%, housing 10.0%, household goods 8.0%. Land use (1993); forested 12.4%; meadows and pastures 43.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.0%; other 14.4%.

Foreign trade''' Balance of trade (current prices) US$000,000

%

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-1.039 36.0%

-1,058 41.9%

-1.071

-1,613 58.9%

- 1 ,607 61.1%

- 1 ,631 55-9%

44.8%

Imports (1993); U.S.$2, 118,000,000 (crude petroleum and petroleum products 21.4%; agricultural products 19.2%, of which cereals 6.2%; forest products 3.9%). Major import sources (1994)12; U.S. 41%; Venezuela 7%; Mexico 7%; Japan 6%; Netherlands Antilles 4%. Exports (1994); U.S.$644.IKI0.(I00I5 (ferronickel 28.4%; raw sugar 18.2%; raw coffee 9.7%; cacao 8.1%; tobacco and cigarettes i.^'^'c). Major export destinations: U.S. 52.3%; The Netherlands 12.9%; Puerto Rico 6.3%; South Korea 5.8%; Belgium 5.1%.

Transport and communications

Population (1995); 7,823,000. Density (1995); persons per sq mi 418,3, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995); urban 64.6%; rural 35.4%.

Transport. Railroads (1991)1'': length 1.028 mi, 1,655

km

161.5.

Sex distribution (1995); male 50.82%; female 49.18%. (1995); under 15, 35.1%; 15-29, 29.0%; 30-44, 19.8%; 45-59, 9.9%; 60-74, 4.9%; 75 and over, 1.3%. Population projection: (2000) 8,495,000; (2010) 9,708,000. Doubling lime: 32 years. Ethiuc composition 1990); mixed 70%; white 15%; black 15%. Religious ajfiluiliim (1992); Roman Catholic 91.2%; other 8.8%. Major urban centres (1993); Santo Domingo 2,100,000; Santiago de los Caballeros 690,000; La Vega 189,000^; San Pedro de Macoris 137,0005.

Age breakdown

(

km. Roads (1991);

total

length 11.400 km (paved 51%). Vehicles (1993); passenger cars 117,800; trucks and buses 78,900. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 28; total deadweight tonnage 10,369. Air transport (1992); passenger-km 1,431,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 75.000.000; airports (1995) 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 11; total circulation 265,000; circulation per 1,000 population 35. Radio (1994); 1,180,000 receivers (1 per 6.6 persons). Television (1994); 728,000 receivers (1 per 11 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993); 552,400 (1 per 14 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94)

Vital statistics Birth late per 1.000 population (1993); 30.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993); 8.0 (world avg. 9.3).

Primary (age 7 14) Secondary (age 15-18)

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993); 22.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbcaring woman; 1994); 2.8. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1987); 2.3. Life expectancy at birth (1993); male 60.0 years; female 64.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985)''; diseases of the circulatory system 165; infectious and parasitic diseases 85; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 45; diseases of the respiratory system 41.

Higher"

's

student/ teacher ratio

schools

teachers

students

6,207

39,464 11,605

1,336,211

232,999

33 9 20 1

7

5,041

68,301

13.5

Educational attainment (1981), Percentage of population age 25 and over having; no formal schooling 48.0%; incomplete primary education 31.7%; complete primary 4.0%; secondary 14.0'"r; higher 2.3%. Literacy (1995); total population age 15 and over literate, c. 4.164.000 (82.1%); males literate, c. 2,118.000 (82.0%); females literate, c. 2.046,000 (82.2%). Health (1993): physicians''' 3,0.56 (1 per 2,51 persons); hospital beds'' 12,618 per 608 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 66.0. Pood (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2.286 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 101% of FAO recommended minimum. 1

(

National economy liudgcl (1994).

Revenue: RD$22.49K.000,000

(t;L\

revenue 85.4%, of which

taxes on goods and sen. ices 43.1S import duties 26.9'; income taxes 14.3%; grants and loans 8.5'^; nontax revenue 6. 1' ). I-.xpenditures; RD$22,933,-

1

,

,

r

000,000 (development expenditure 59.5%; current expenditure 40.5%). I'lihtic debt (external, outstanding; 1993); U.S.$3,763,000.000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in RD$"OOO,0OO; 1994); sugarcane 2,034. chicken meat 1,879. rice 1.742, coffee 1.470, milk 1,391, plantains 1,.30I. beef 1,090, beans 859, cacao beans 659. bananas 545. eggs 517. cassava 474, fish 120; roundwood (1993) 982.000 cu m. Mining (1994); nickel .30,757; gold 51.400 troy oz^. Manulacluring (1994)''000,000; 1987): residential .352; nonresidential 253. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 5,734.000,000 (3,427,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) none (120,000): crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) none (14,286,000); petroleum products (metric Ions; 1993) 1,907,000 (3,2.36.000): natural gas, none (none).

Military Total active duly personnel (1995): 24,500 (army 61.2%, navy 16.3%, air force (1993): 1.4% (world 3.3%); 22.5%). Militan,' expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S. $14.

GNP

iRoniiin Catholicism is the slate religion per concordat with Vatican City. -National 'Total includes 63 sq mi (163 sq km) of area not accounted for by province, jprcliminao' 1993 census total released in late 1994 was 7.(I89.(M)0. M989. "Projected rales based on about 609^ of total deaths. Tiold production resumed in May 1994. •'*lixcludes free-zone sector for reexport (moslK rc.uK-madc i;armcnts) cmpl, of which sales taxes 15.7%, customs duties 11.7%; oil revenue 8.9%; Suez Canal fees 5.0%). Expenditures: LE 71.492,000.000 (199.3-94; debt servicing 29.7%; wages and salaries 19.9%; defense 10.6';; pensions 7.0%). Public debt (external outstanding; 1993): U.S.$36.6()3,O00,O00. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry,

fishing (1994): sugarcane 11,900,000, corn (maize) 4,883.000, tomatoes 4.600.000, rice 4,582.000, wheat 4,437,000, oranges 1,300,000, sorghum 717,000, cotton (lint) 314.000: livestock (number of live animals) 3,.382,000 sheep, 3.210.000 goats, 3.200,000 buffalo, 3.070.000 cattle. 38,000,000 chickens, 10.380.000 pigeons''; roundwood (1993) 2.404.000 cu m; fish catch (1993) .^02.829. Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore 2.190,000; sail 972,000; clay ,S93,000. Manufacturing (l99.Vi)4): cement 17,4.30.000; nilrale tcrtili/eis .. ''Not >taled and unemployed. 'Excludes reexports, valued at F$ 1 43.454.IXX). 'ership. ^Preliminary; excludes 434 institutionalized residents and 3.3 Grcnadians in foreign 'St. George local council includes St. George's town. -lUrt^an defined as St. George's town and St George local council. 51987. '>Currcnt revenue only. ''Current service.

in 1990 prices. ''Less imputed bank l,7.'i2 persons in activities not adequately defined and 10,because of rounding. '^August. total given not add to does ^Detail 898 unemployed. I'Private sector only. '•'Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. l^Based on imports for 1992 equaling U.S.Sl 06,600,000. ''Estimated figure(s). fPoint Salines airport. '"Weeklv newspapers (1993): 5. '^he 65()-member police force includes an 8()-mcmber paramilitary unit and a 30-member coast guard unit.

and development expenditures. »At factor cost service charges. ^'Includes

Britannica World Data

618

wages and salaries 78.9%, self employment 12.7%, transfer payments 8.4%; expenditure (1984-85): food and beverages 29.8%, housing, household furnishings, and energy 26.3%, transportation and communications 13.3%, clothing and footwear 8.2%, other 22.4%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S.Sl, 160,000,000 (U.S.$2,970 per capita).

Guadeloupe

(1988):

"">

name: Departement de Guadeloupe (Department of

\

Official la

lAtlantic

Ocean

"^s. I

Guadeloupe). Political status: overseas

department

(France') with two legislative houses (General Council [43]; Regional Council [41]). Chief of state: President of France. Heads of i^orcniinenl: Commissioner of the Republic (for France); President of the General Council (for Guadeloupe); President of the Regional Council (for Guadeloupe). Capital: Basse-Terre. Official language: French. official religion: none. Monetary^ unit: 1 French franc (F)= 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 6. 1995) 1 U.S.$ = F5.01; 1 £ = F 7.93.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 989 in

Agnculture Mining and manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

Pub admin

,

Basse-Terre Pointe-a-Pitre

Mangot

9,079

52

5.9 7.4 0.3

10,376 15,564

5.9

89

61 196

66 332

1

54,474

31

( .

1

40,207

16.1

-4.415

22.9

45,80016 175,500

100.0

26.116

100

use (1993): forested 39.1%; meadows and pastures 13.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.7%; other 29.6%.

population

sq

332 297

1990 census

km

861

769

29 6875

TOTAL

75 1

,7805

Foreign trade

151.979 192,643

Balance of trade (current prices)

33.556 378,1786

F 000,000

% of total

Demography Population (1995): 434,000. Densit\' (1995): persons per sq mi 631.7, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995'): urban 99.4%; rural 0.6%.

km

243.8.

Sex distribution (1991): male 48.88%; female 51.12%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 29.5%>; 30-44, 21.4%; 45-59, 12.5%; 60-74, 8.3%; 75 and over, 3.5%. Population projection: (2000) 473,000; (2010) 541,000. Doubling time: 58 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Creole (mulatto) 77.0%; black 10.0%; Guadeloupe mestizo (French-East Asian) \{)\)'"/r. white 2.0%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1992^): Roman Catholic 85.9%; other 14.1%. Major communes (1990): Les Abymes 62,605; Saint-Martin 28,518; Pointe-aPitre 26,029 (141,0009.10); Le Gosier 20,708; Basse-Terre 14,000 (53,000*^). Vital statistics per 1,000 population (1994): 17.4 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate

38.7%; illegitimate 61.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 5.6 (world avg.

9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 11.8 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 2.2. Marriage rale per 1.000 population (1994): 4.6. Divorce rate per 1,()()() population (1994): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (199(1-95): male 71.1 years; female 78.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 186.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 121.2; accidents and violence 72.9; diseases of the respiratory system 30.5; diseases of the digestive system 29.7.

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-6,995 83,8%

-8,439 86.3%

-8,209 79.8%

-7,505 83-8%

- 7,309 83 2%

- 7,693

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: F 2,971,000,000 (tax revenues 64.8%, of which direct taxes 33.7%; advances, loans, and transfers 29.8%; nontax revenues 4.6%). Expenditures: F 6,199,000,000 (current expenditures 65.6%; capital [development] expenditures 17.2%; advances and loans 17.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 199()ii): U.S. $58,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$37(),000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane (1995) 376,000, bananas 150,000, plantains 7,000, pineapples 5.000. tomatoes 4,000, melons 4.000, cucumbers 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 56,000 cattle, 54.000 goats, .30,000 pigs; roundwood (1993) 22,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 7,990. Mining and qjjarrying (1993): pumice 210,000. Manufacturing (1994): cement 282,943; raw sugar (1995) 32,560; rum .36,673 hectolitres; other products include clothing, wooden furniture anil posts, and metalware. Construction (buildings authorized; 1992): residenlial 3.^8,474 sq m; nonresidential 160,084 sq m. Energv production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 1,004,0()0,()0() (914,200,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (341,(X)0); natural gas. none (none). Population economically active (1992): total 181,000; activity rate of total population 44.0% (participation rates [1990]; ages 15-64, 68.0%; female 45.5%; unemployed [1993] 2(-,A%).

Price and earnings Indexes (1990=100)

39 258

81.000

175

464.000

1000

3.3 5.4

854986

1000

use (1993): forested 38.1%;

meadows and

km

324

840 2,624 5,175 9,150 5,403 3.138 3.736

115,656 51,796 25,449 127,514 103,683 131,271 35.567 55,088

30

78 36.125

753,305

13,948

5,981

come per household:

1979 census'

1.013 1.998 3.533 2.086 1,212 1,443

—

TOTAL

Household income and expenditure. Average household

population

sq

2,309

Bolama Cacheu

Autonomous Sector

force

)

pastures 38.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 12.1'f; other 11.4%.

Area and population Regions

% Of labour

force

362.000

}

Construction Transportation and

Land

44 7

72,556

'

labour

of total

value

utilities

Finance. Sen/ices Pub. admin., defense TOTAL

(PG)=

%

value

000,000

382,400

Mining Manufacturing

Official language: Portuguese. official religion: none.

n.a.;

sources of income:

n.a.;

size (1981) expenditure: n.a.

% Of total

107,281

Religious affiliation (1992): traditional beliefs 54%; Muslim 38%; Christian 8%. cities (1979): Bissau 125,000': Bafata 13,429; Gabu 7,803; Mansoa 5,390; Catio 5,179.

Major

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 42.7 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 21.3 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1990-95): 21.4 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 5.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1981): 0.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 41.9 years; female 45.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include tuberculosis of the respiratory system, whooping cough, typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary dysentery and amebiasis, malaria, pneumonia, and meningococcal infections; malnutrition is widespread.

National economy Budget (1989). Revenue: PG 148,167,000,000 (grants from abroad 71.2%, nontax revenue 18.4%, tax revenue 10.4%). Expenditures (1989): PG 201,725,000,000 (capital expenditures 58.0%, current expenditures 36.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$633,6()0,000. Tourism: n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): rice 130,000, fruits 67,000, roots and tubers (.sweet potatoes and cassava) 65,000, millet 40,000, cashews 35,000, plantains 34,000, coconuts 25,000, vegetables 20,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 18,000, sorghum 15,000, corn (maize)

1989

1990

-96.304 65 2%

-120,821 58-9%

1991 -

1992

1993

1994

166,698

- 530.592

52.7%

855%

-378.141 54.0%

-293,146 26 0%

Imports (1991); U..S.$90.()00,000 (1988; transport equipment 28.7%, building materials 17.9%, foodstuffs 8.6%, fuel and lubricants 8.6%, other .36.2%). Major import sources (1989): Italy 27.3%; Portugal 23.0%; Thailand 7.6%; The Netherlands 7.2%; France 4.3%; Senegal 4.2%; U.S.S.R. 3.0%. Exports (1991): U.S.$23,O00,O0() (1988: cashews 52.8%, peanuts [groundnuts] 11.3%, frozen fish 3.1%). Major export destinations (1989): Portugal 34.4%; Spain 19.2%; France 18.1%; Japan 6.7%; The Netherlands 6.1%; Italy 6.0%; Belgium-Luxembourg 4.5%.

Transport and communications Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 2,579 mi, 4,150 (paved 9%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 3,500; trucks and buses 2.500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 19; total deadweight tonnage 1,846. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 3,7(K),(K)0, passenger-km 6,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 700,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,000,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 1; total circulation 6,000; circulation per 1,000 population 6. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 40,000 (1 per 26 persons). Television: n.a. Telephones (main lines; 1993): 8,600 (1 per 122 persons). Transport.

km

Education and health Education (1988)

student/

teacher

Pnmary (age 7-13) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc, teacfier Ir.

3,065''

8245

ratio

79,035 5,505

825

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 7 and over having: no formal schooling or knowledge of reading and writing 90.4%; primary education 7.9%; secondary 1.0%; technical 0.5%: higher 0.2%. Literacy (1995): total population age 15 and over literate 54.9%,; males literate 68.0%; females literate 42.5%. Health (1986): physicians 274 (1 per 3,263 persons); hospital beds 2.4.30 (1 per 368 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-95) 140. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,556 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 110% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 7,250 (army 93.8%, navy 4.8%. air force (\9^2): i.yVr (world 3.7%); 1.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S. $7.0.

GNP

14,000, palm kernels 8,000, sugarcane 6,000. palm oil 5,100, bananas 5,000, copra 5,000, seed cotton 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 494,000 cattle, 312,000 pigs, 276,000 goats, 263,000 sheep, 1,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 574,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 5.350. Mining and quarrying: extraction of construction materials only. Manufacturing (1993): fresh pork 9,000; palm oil 5,000; copra 5,000; fresh beef 4,000; animal hides 1,227, of which cattle 875, goat 194, sheep 158; sawlogs 40,000 cu m; brewing of beer is also important. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consump-

(kW-hr; 1993) 42,000,000 (42.000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) none tion): electricity

(74,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1992): total 461,000; activity rate of total population 45.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1979] 41.0%; female 3.6%;

Price

n.a.).

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Earnings index

in-

Balance of trade (current prices) PGOOO.OOO

Demography

unemployed,

4.1;

Foreign trade

Population (1995): 1.073,000. Density (1995): persons per .sq mi 76.9, persons per .sq km 29.7. Urban-rural (1991): urban 20.3%; rural 79.7%. Sejc distribution (1995): male 49.21%; female 50.79%. Age breakdown (1995): under 15, 41.7%; 15-29, 25.1%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, 10.5%; 60-74, 5.4%; 75 and over, 1.1%. Population projection: (2000) 1,192,000; (2010) 1,473,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (1979): Balante 27.2%; Fulani 22.9%; Malinke 12.2%; Mandyako 10.6%; Pepel 10.0%; other 17.1%.

Death

market

(at current

621

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

41.6

75,2

100,0

157,6

2673

395.8

4559 'Preliminary.

^Biombo region excludes Bissau

city.

-M988. JIQB?. 51986.

Britannica World Data

622

Guyana

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1994

name: Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [65']). Head of state and government: Official

Sugar Fishing, forestry

Mining Manufacturing Construction

communications Trade

1995) 1

£

=

Finance, real estate Pub admin., defense Services

cents; valuation (Oct. 6,

U.S.$ = G$143.80; G$227.33. 1

Area and population area

population

1986 Administrative Regions

Capitals

Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

Mabaruma Anna Regina

Region Region Region Region Region Region

4 5

6 7

8 9

(Banma/Waini)

(Pomeroon/Supenaam) (Essequibo IslandsA/Vest Demerara) (DemerarayMahaica) (Mahaica/Berbice) (East Berbice/Corentyne) (Cuyuni/Mazaruni) (Potaro/Siparuni)

(Upper Takutu/Upper Essequibo) Region 10 (Upper Demerara/Berbice)

sqmi 7,853 2,392

km

estimate

20.339 6,195

18,516 41,966

sq

Paradise Fort Wellington

New Amsterdam Bartica

Mahdia

Leihem Linden

TOTAL

1,610 13,998 18,229 7,742

3,755 2,233 4,170 36,255 47,213 20,052

102,760 310,758 55,556 148,967

22,313 6,595 83,0442

57,790

215,0832

15,338 38,598 756,072

1,450

862

17,081

17,941

(1995): under 15, 32.2%; 15-29, 30.1%; 30-44, 22.2%; 45-59, 9.5%; 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 1.2%. Population projection: (2000) 7S«,000; (2010) 823,000. Doubling time: 54 years. Ethnic composition (1992-93): East Indian 49.4%; black (African Negro and Bush Negro) 35.6%; mixed 7.1%; Amerindian 6.8%; Portuguese 0.7%; Chinese 0.4%. Religious affiliation (1990): Christian 52.0%, of which Protestant 34.0% (including Anglican 17.0%), Roman Catholic 18.0%; Hindu 34.0%; Muslim 9.0%; other 5.0%. cities

(1992):

Georgetown

248,500; Linden 27,200;

force

9

3,300 2,733 4,567 5.323

53

9.412

4.4

15,231

7.3

2,944 29.948 29.295 61.002' 246.671

—

TOTAL

62,520

100.0

—

204

50,316

9

3.6

Other

3.9

118

28 1

2

3.8 6.2 1.2

12.1

11.9 24.7'0

100.0

Population economically active (1987): total 270,074; activity rate of total population 35.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 60.4%; female 29.9%; unemployed [1992] 12.9%). Price

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) price

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

92,7

964

1000

183.1

208 4

224 4

2605

index"

Earnings index

Land

use (1993): forested 83.8%; meadows and pastures 6.3%; agricultural cultivation 2.5%; other 7.4%.

and under permanent

Foreign trade 'Balance of trade (current prices)

% 3.9.

Age breakdown

Major

J

21.7 3 78.9

906

U.S. $'000,000

km

9.4

)

of labour

5,672

Demography Population (1995): 770,000. Density (1995)^: persons per sq mi 10.1, persons per sq Urban-rural (1992-93): urban 31.0%; rural 69.0%. Sex distribution (1995): male 49.46%,; female 50.54%.

\

8.5 1.4

Consumer Vreed-en-Hoop

21.26 13.57

9.669 28,980 7.024 2.850

Public utilities Transportation and

Official religion: none. Monetaiy unit: 1 Guyana dollar

%

labour force

of total

value

13,2466 8,466' 5,860 13,570 2,2966,9 2,253

Other agnculture

President. Capital: Georgetown. Official language: English.

(G$)= 100

1980

%

value

in

G$'000.0005

New Amsterdam

17,700.

Vital statistics Birth rale per 1,000 population (1994): 20.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 13.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 2.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 62.0 years; female 68.0 years. Major causes of death per 1()0,000 population (1984): diseases of the circulatory system 202.5, of which cerebrovascular disease 79.0; diseases of the digestive system 74.0; accidents and violence 56.5; diseases of the respiratory system 39.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 37.1.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: G$32,418,00(),()()0 (current revenue 83.0%, of which consumption taxes 23.9'',^, income taxes on companies 13.9%, personal income taxes 9.8%, import duties 8.8%; development revenue 17.0%, of which external grants 3.2%). Expenditures: G$36,983,000,000 (current expenditure 73.5%, of which interest payments on debt 33.0%, personal emoluments 12.5'^; development expenditure 26.5%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): raw sugar 256.700, rice 233,400, coconuts 49,000, roots and tubers 32,000, plantains 24.{l(l(), bananas 22,(iOO, oranges 15,000; livestock (number of live animals) 19(M)()() cattle, 131,000 sheep. 79.(H)0 goats; roundwood (1994) 469,600 cu m; fish catch (1994) 38,200, of which shrimps and prawns 8,200. Mining and quarrying (1994): bauxite 1,991,100; gold 375,500 troy o/; diamonds 14,141 carats^. Manufacturing (1994): flour 35,600; rum 258.000 hectolitres; beer and stout 96,600 hectolitres; cigarettes 314,000,000 units; soft drinks 3,449,000 cases; pharmaceuticals 12,200.000 tablets; other producls include cotton cloth and dyed and printed fabrics. Construction: n.a. l-.nergy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 290,800,000 (210.20(1,1100): coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) none (344,000); natural gas, none (none). lourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S.$36,()00,00(); expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$ 1,727,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 5.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$285,000,000 (U.S.$350 per capita).

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-32,7 6.8%

-52.6 11.3%

-15.5 3.1%

+ 15.9 2.6%

-29.0 4.1%

+ 19.0 2.6%

Imports (1994): U.S.$350,000,000 (capital goods 28.8%; consumer goods 25.9%; fuels and lubricants 17.7%). Major import sources (1993): Caricom countries 27.8%, of which Trinidad and Tobago 12.7%; United States 26.4%; Japan 17.2%; United Kingdom 11.1%. Exports (1994): U.S.$369,(M)().0()0 (domestic exports 95.7%, of which sugar 31.3%, gold 15.8%, rice 15.0%, bauxite 14.1%, shrimps 3.3%, rum 2.7%; reexports 4.3%). Major export destinations (1993)'^: Canada 27.9%; United Kingdom 24.3%; United States 23.6%; Caricom countries 6.2%; Germany 5.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: length (1992) 116 mi, 187 km. Roads (1993): total length 4,474 mi, 7,200 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 24,000; trucks and buses 9,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and

over) 82: total deadweight tonnage 13,509. Air transport (1994): passengermi 200,000,000, passenger-km 32'2,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,900,000'^ metric ton-km cargo 2,800,000i-»; airports (1994) with scheduled flights 115. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 2; total circulation 80,000; circulation per 1,000 population 109. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 386,000 (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 15,000 (1 per 49 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 41,000 (1 per 18 persons).

Education and health Education (1989-90)

student/

schools

Pnmary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12 Voc teacher tr, Higher" 18 ,

423 17)

93 8 1

teachers

4.01016

176 220

students

118.015'6 72,096 '6 5,388 3,607

teacher

ratio

30 6

164

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 8.1%; primary education 72.8%: secondary 17.3%; higher 1.8%. Literacy' (1995): total population age 15 and over literate, c. 5lT,000 (98.1%); males literate, c. 254,000 (98.6%); females literate, c. 257,000 (97.5%). Health: physicians (1992) 138 (1 per 5,314 persons); hospital beds (1989) 2,488 (1 per 300 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 49.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,384 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 1()5% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 1,600 (armv 86.6%, navy 7.2%, air force 6.2%). Militan' expenditure as percentage «/GA'/' (1992): 2.0% (world 3.7%); per capita expenditure U.S. $7.

'Includes 12 indirectly elected seats. ^Includes inland water area equaling c. 7,0(X) sq mi (c 18,(K)0 sq km). ^Based on land area only. 'Declared output. 'Al factor cost. Includes sugar manufacturing. 'Includes rice manufacturing. sHxcludes sugar and rice manufacturing, "Manufacturing includes Public utilities. "'Represents "not stated." "Weights of consumer price index components for Georgclown. Linden, and New Amsterdam only. '-Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. "Excludes reexports. ''1991. '"International only; d

695

169

>

352,970 5,057

25'2 100.0

155,347

403,65413 2,679,140

Public debt (external, outstanding: 1993): U,S.$6I7.600,(K)0. Land use (1993): forested 5,1%; meadows and pastures 18.0%; agricultural

estimate

4,984 3,675 3,310 2,106 1,805 2,176 4,827 2,794 2,023 27,700

and under permanent cultivation 33.0%; other 43.9%.

961,447 467.514 616.151 724.084 239,734

Foreign trade I4-

630.007 444,323 6,763,7463

Population (1995): 6,589,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 616.1, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 30.7%; rural 69.3%.

km

'5

Balance of trade (current prices)

395,442 2,285,044

U.S. $'000,000

% of total

Demography 237.9.

male 49.03%; female 50.97%. Age breakdown (1995): under 15, 40.2%; 15-29, 27.3%; 30-44, 17.0%; 45-59, 9.5%; 60-74, 4.8%; 75 and over, 1.2%. ,S('.v

10.4

508

population

1992 sq mi

427

10412 4,126

TOTAL

area

of labour

,535.444

24,012 151,387 28,001 2,577

utilities

Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense

Area and population

Arlibonite

1

Transp and commun.

1995)

Capitals

%

force

1,593

Mining Manufacturing Construction

none'.

centimes; valuation (Oct. 1 U.S.$ = 19.00; 1 £ =

% Of total

Agriculture

French. Official religion:

Monetary

value

000.000'

in

G

distribution (1995):

Population projection: (2000) 7,102,000; (2010) 8,121,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (1993): black 95.0%; mulatto/other 5.0%. Religious affiliation (1982): Roman Catholic 80.3%''; Protestant 15.8%, of which Baptist 9.7%, Pentecostal 3.6%; nonreligious 1.2%; other 2.7%. Major cities (1992): Port-au-Prince 752,600 (metropolitan area 1,255,078); Carrefour 241,2235; Delmas 200,251 5; Cap-Haitien 92,122; GonaTves 63,291.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 40.0 (world avg. 26.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 19.0 (world avg. 9.2).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 21.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 4.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 43.0 years; female 47.0 years. Alajor causes of death per 100,000 population (1982)'': infectious and parasitic diseases 46.0; diseases of the circulatory system 11.9; diseases associated with malnutrition 8.5; diseases of the respiratory system 8.3; endocrine and metabolic disorders 8.0; ill-defined conditions 1 15.2.

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991 92

1992-93

-162 9

-172.4 33.8%

-156

-221 1 43.9%

-233 5 46.0%

34.8%

U.S.$'000,000) 105.7, of which garments 80.5, sports equipment and toys electronic components 7.2, luggage and handbags 2.8. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992-93) 422,500,000 (229,200,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (223,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1990): total 2,679,140; activity rate of total population 41.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 64.8%; female 40.0%; unemployed [1994] unofficially more than 50.0%).

-204 55

4

8%

—

Transport and communications Transport. Railroad (1994): none. Roads

(1991): total length 2,485 mi. 4,000

km

(paved 15%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 32,000; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 4; total deadweight tonnage 429. Air transport (1993)i'': passenger arrivals and departures 497,000; cargo unloaded and loaded 32,900 metric tons; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 4; total circulation 17,500; circulation per 1,000 population 2.7. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 270,000 (1 per 24 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 25,000 (1 per 260 persons). Telephones (1993): 39,(K)0i7 (1 per 164 persons). 21,000.

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools Primary (age 6-12)

7,30618

Secondary (age 13-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higheria

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S.$46,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1991-92) U.S.$21,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 2,250,000, plantains 272,000, mangoes 230,000, bananas 230,000, corn (maize) 210,000, sweet potatoes 190,000, rice 90,000, sorghum 80,000, dry beans 51,000, coffee 34,000, oranges 26,000, lemons and limes 22,000, sisal 8,000, cacao 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 910,000 goats, 800,000 cattle, 200,000 pigs; roundwood (1993) 6,171,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 5,600. Mining and quarrying (1992): limestone 220,000; marble 500 cu m. Manufacturing (1993-94): cement 84,000^; essential oils (mostly amyris, neroli, and vetiver) 227'; cigarettes 408,000,000 units; malt liquor 2,300,000 bottles; beer 1,000,000 bottles; articles assembled for reexport (export value

9%

1993 94

Imports (1993-94): U.S.$285,300,000 (food and live animals 20.7%, mineral fuels 17.1%, basic manufactures 16.3%, chemicals and chemical products 12.9%). Major import sources (1991-92): United States 45.7%; Japan 6.4%; France 6.2%; Canada 5.5%; Germany 3.6%. Exports (1993-94): U.S.$80,900,000 (local manufactures— mostly processed foods, electrical equipment, textiles, and clothing 68.5%, coffee 9.0%, handicrafts [primarily wood carvings and masks and woven sisal products] 7.4%, essential oils 4.9%, sisal and twine 2.7%). Major export destinations (1991-92): United States 53.1%; Italy 11.6%; France 8.2%: Belgium 8.0%.

National economy Budget {\993-94). Revenue: G 816,400,000 (excises 24.1%, of which petroleum t;ixes 13.6%; escrow accounts 18.3%; income taxes 17.4%; customs duties 11.7%). Expenditures: G 2,091,300,000 (current expenditures 96.0%; development expenditure 4.0%).

35

1

teachers

students

27,607

787,553

10,174

193,624

19.0

554

6,678

12.1

285

Educational attainment (1986-87). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 59.5%; primary education 30.5%; secondary 8.6%; vocational and teacher training 0.7%; higher 0.7%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 2,096,900 (53.0%); males literate 1,128,000 (59.1%); females literate 968,000 (47.4%). Health: physicians (1992) 623 (1 per 10,060 persons); hospital beds (1993) 5,312 (1 per 1,201 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 109.0.

(1992): daily per capita caloric intake 1,706 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 75% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Food

Military Total active duty personnel:->K

in

9.2,

Price

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Annual earnings Indexs

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

19958

82,5 100.0

100.0

115.4

168 8 100

280.6

1000

137.8 100.0

240.7

1000

Roman

Catholicism has special recognition. -Estimated. ''Official population proon 1982 census. -lAbout HO''/r of all Roman Catholics also practice 'Within Port-au-Prince metropolitan area. ''Public health facilities only. 71992-93, "February. ''Standard minimum wage. mBased on nationwide sample survey of 3.120 households. HAt prices of 197.5-76. i^lmport duties. i-Mnciudes hX975 not adequately defined and 339.fi79 officially unemployed. i-iThe import and export value of preasscmbled and assembled U.,S.-madc components is excluded. Virtually all components used in the export assembly plants are imported. i''Import figures c.i.l,. export figures f.o.b, for fiscal year ending March 31. i*Port-au-Prince Airport only. I'Number of operating lines. i»1990-9l, i''Port-au-Prince universities only. i"Future status of Haitian army/police force was under review in July 1995. A 7,0()0-member UN force was to provide security between April 1995 and February 1996. I

jection based

voodoo.

624

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (U.S.$580 per capita).

Honduras name: Repiiblica de Honduras (Republic of Honduras).

Official

Form of government:

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

multiparty in

republic with one legislative house Agnculture Mining Manufacturing Construction

President. Capital: Tegucigalpa'/ Official language: Spanish.

Honduran lempira

TOTAL

population

area

Departments

Administrative centres

Atlantlda

La Celba Choluteca

Choluteca Colon

Trujillo

Comayagua Copan Cortes El Paraiso Francisco Morazan Gracias a Dios Intibuca Islas

de

la

Bahia

La Paz Lempira

Comayagua Santa Rosa de Copan San Pedro Sula Yuscaran Tegucigalpa Puerto Lempira La Esperanza Roatan La Paz Gracias

Nueva Ocotepeque

Ocotepeque Olancho

Juticalpa

Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara

Valle

Nacaome

Yoro

Yoro

TOTAL

sqmi 1,641

1,626 3,427 2,006 1,237 1,527 2,787 3,068 6,421 1,186

100 900 1,656

649 9,402 1,975

604 3,065 43,2772

sq

km

1991 estimate

255,000 309,000 164,000 257,000 226,000 706,000 277,000 878,000 37,000 130,000 24,000 112,000 180,000 77,000 309,000

4,251 4,211

8,875 5,196 3,203 3,954 7,218 7,946 16,630 3,072 261 2,331

4,290 1,680 24,351 5,115 1,565 7,939 112,0882

291 ,000 121,000

355,000 4,708,000

Demography Population (1995): 5,512,000. Density (1995)^: persons per sq mi 126.9, persons per sq Urban-rural (1993): urban 42.3%; rural 57.7%.

km

49.0.

Sex distribution (1990): male 50.07%; female 49.93%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 44.6%; 15-29, 28.3%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, 7.8%; 60-74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2000) 6,323,000; (2010) 7,998,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1987): mestizo 89.9%; Amerindian 6.7%; black (including BlackCarib) 2.1%; white 1.3%. Religious affiliation (1986): Roman Catholic 85.0%; Protestant (mostly fundamentalist, Moravian, and Methodist) 10.0%; other 5.0%. Major cities (1993): Tegucigalpa 738.500^: San Pedro Sula 353,800; La Ceiba 82,900; El Progreso 77,300; Choluteca 69,400.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 35.8 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

population (1993): 6.4 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 29.4 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbcaring woman; 1993): 4.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1983): 4.9. Divorce rate per 1.000 population (1983): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth ( 1993): male 64.8 years; female 69.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1983): diseases of the circulatory system 48.4; infectious and parasitic diseases 46.6; accidents and violence 42.2; diseases of the respiratory system 26.3.

Death

rale per 1,000

National economy liudget (1993). Revenue: L 6,488,700,000 (current revenue 96.6%, of which taxes on production and consumption 18.9%, import duties 15.2%, income

taxes 14.8%; capital revenue 3.4%). Expenditures: L 8,756,400,000 (current expenditure 61.5%; capital expenditure 25.7%; public-debt service 12.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$3,479.000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 3.069,000, bananas 9.30,000, corn (maize) 518,000, plantains 142,000, codee 128,0110, sorghum 87,000, palm oil 75.600. dry beans 41,000. rice 33,0011; livestock (number of live animals) 2.2X0.1100 cattle. (i03.001) pigs, 12.000,000 chickens: roundwood (1993) r>.454,OIHlcii m; lish catch (19>)3) 24,401. Mining and quarrying (1992): zinc concentrate 32,0110; lead (nictal content) 9.0110; copper 1.6011. Manufacturing (1993): cement 933,000; raw sugar 393.1)00; wheat Hour 228,000; beer 6,684.000 hectolitres; milk 700,000 hectolitres; cigarettes 2,193.000.000 units. Construction (value of private construction in 1. '0011,001); 1993)'^: residential 231.7; nonresidential 250.3. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,313,000,000 (2,.508.000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (3,064,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 19i)2) 352,1)110 (825,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and cxpcndilitrc. Average household size (1988) 5.4; income per household: ii.a.; sources of income (1985): wages and salaries 58.8%, transfer paynicnls \.mi. other 39.4%; expenditure (1986): food 44.4%, utilities and housing 22.4%, clothing and footwear 9.0%, household furnishings 8.3%, health care 7.0%, transportation and communications 3.0%,, other 5.9%,

380

2.0 17.8

11,2

14 6

1.971

106 100.0

force

44.4

03 11 8

6,2

07 28

46,300 174,200 32,000

6.1

18,554

of labour

733,800 4,200 194,900 102,500 12,200

6.8 3.8

1,134 2,083 2,698 1,375

Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services

Area and populat ion

19 7

695

communications Trade

(L) = 100 centavos; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = L9.47; 1 £ = L 15.40.

3,661

%

labour force

of total

value

3,300 1,257

Public utilities Transportation and

none. I

%

value

L 000,0006

(Congress [128]). Head of state and government:

Official religion: Monclaiy unit:

current market prices; 1993): U.S. $3,220,000,000

(at

}

106 19

352,700

21 3

1,652,800

1000

Population economically active (1993): total 1,652,800; activity rate of total population 31.5% (participation rates: over age 15 [1992] 58.3%; female 31.7%; unemployed [1990] 40.0%). Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1988

Consumer

price index

73.8 100.0

Weeldy earnings index'

1989 81

1

100

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

100,0 100.0

134.0 132.9

1457

161 4

196.4

151.1

meadows and pastures 13.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 18.0%; other 14.7%. Tourism (1993): receipts U.S.$32,000,000; expenditures U.S.$39,000,()00.

Latid use (1993): forested 53.6%;

Foreign trade** Balance of trade (current prices) 1989

+5,4 0.1%

L '000,000

% of total

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-29.8 0.8%

+11,9 0.7%

-129 3

-208.6 1 1 .4%

-113,1

7.5%

6.3%

Imports (1993): U.S.$1, 130,000,000 (industrial chemicals 16.5%, electrical machinery 15.9%, mineral fuels 15.7%, transport equipment 10.4%', metal products 7.6%, plastics and resins 7.4%). Major import sources: United States 49.8%; Mexico 8.4%; Guatemala 6.3%; El Salvador 3.8%; Japan 3.6%; Costa Rica 3.1%. Exports (1993): U.S.$8 4,000,000 (bananas 28.3%, shrimp and lobsters 16.5%, coffee 15.3%, frozen meats 4.8%, lead and zinc 3.4%). Major export destinations: United States 53.2%; Germany 11.2%; Belgium 8.2%; United Kingdom 4.7%; Italy 3.8%; Japan 2.4%. 1

Transport and communications Railroads (1989): length (1993) 614 mi, 988 km; passenger-km 7,700,000; metric ton-km cargo 30,200,000. Roads ( 1993): total length 8,825 mi, 14,203 km (paved 18%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 67.777; trucks and buses 128,264. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 966; total deadweight tonnage 1,437,321. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 321,000,001), passenger-km 516.01)0.1)00: short ton-mi cargo 2,000,000, metric

Transport.

ton-km cargo

3.000,001); airports (1945) with

Commiinicaliiiiis. Daily

newspapers (1992):

scheduled

total

flights 8.

number

4; total

circulation

159,000; circulation per 1.1101) population 29. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 1,910,000 (1 per 2.,S persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 160,000 (1 per 33 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 117.100 (1 per 48 persons).

Education and health Education (1993) sctiools

Primary lage 7-13) Secondary (age 14-19)

Voc,

teacfier

Higher

tr

8,054 661 59 10

teacfiers

students

27,056 10,303

990,352 151,196 65,539 48,468

5819 3.758

student' teacher ratio

36 6

147 13.79 12 9

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal .schooling 33.4%; primarj' education 50.1%; secondary education 13.4%; higher 3.1%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 2.082,000 (73.1%); males literate 1,078,000 (75.5%); females literate 1.004,000 (70.6%), Health (1993): physicians (1990) 2,900 (1 per 1,586 persons); hospital beds 5,739 (I per 900 jx-rsons); infant mortality rate per 1,0(K) live births 47.2. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,305 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); 102% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 16,800 (army 83.3^^, navy 6.0%. air force 10.7%). Military expenditure as percentage ofClNP (1993): .4''; (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S. $9. 1

'Tegucigalpa and adjacent city of Comayagilcla jointly form the capital according to is 43,433 sq mi (112,492 sq km): breakdown by deon the revised area. ^Population cited is for Central District (Tegucigalpa and Comayagilcla), "^Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, and 10 other

the constitution, -The 1993 area is not available. 'Based

partment

urban centres. ''At factor cost. 'Olficial minimum wages in all sectors. Minimum wages were fixed from .June 19KI to Jan. 1. 1990, when new minimum wages were introduced. "Import ligures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners, "198**.

Nations of the World

Hong Kong Official

625

products 6,137,000,000; plastic products 4.824,000,000. Construction (1992): residential 7I4,(H)0 sq m; nonresidential 1,578,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) .34,914,000,000 (29,95 ooo (M(0)coal (metric tons; 1992) none (10,214,000); petroleum products (metric tons' 1992) none (4,157,000); natural gas (cu ni; 1990) none (385,800,000) Population economically active (1993): total 2,873,000; activity rate of total population 48.5% (participation rates: over age 15, 62.5%; female 46 5%' unemployed 2.0%).

name: Hsiang Kang (Chinese);

1

Hong Kong

(English).

Crown Colony (United

Political status:

Kingdom)! with one

legislative

house

(Legislative Council [602]), Chief of state: British Monarch.

Head of government: Governor. Capital: none-'.

Price

and earnings Indexes (1990 = 100)

Official languages: Chinese; English.

none.

official religion:

Monetary

unit:

(HK$) = 100 (Oct.

£

1

6,

Consumer

Hong Kong

1

price index Daily earnings index")

dollar

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

82,8 79 7

91.2 89.0

100,0 100,0

111,6 110.4

122.0 121.4

1325

143.2 143.8

133 2

cents; valuation

1995)

U.S.$

1

= HK$7.73;

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1994) 3 5; monthly income per household (1991) HK$9,9ft4 (U.S.$I,282); sources of

= HK$12.22.

income:

n.a.;

expenditure (1989-90): food 34.2%. housing 25.6%. transporta-

and vehicles 7.6%, clothing and footwear 7.5%, durable goods 3.8%. Tourism (1994): receipts from visitors U.S.$8,3 8,000.000; expenditures by tion

Area and population

area

population

1

nationals abroad, n.a. use (1994): forested 20.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 5.9%; fishponds 1.5%; built-on, scrublands, and other 72.3%.

1991

sqmi

Area

Hong Kong

308

Island

Kowloon and New Kowloon

New

Territories

sq

km 79,9

16.5

427

368.0

953,1

415.3

1,075.7

1.214,253 1 .975,265 2,321,661 11,102 5,609.951 5

Marine TOTAL

Land

census

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

HKS'OOO.OOO

Population (1995): 6,205,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 14,941.7, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 100.0%. Sex distribution (1994): male 50.95%; female 49.05%.

Age breakdown

%

km

5,768.6.

(1994)f>:

under 15, 19.4%; 15-29, 23.7%; 30-44, 29 4%- 45-59 14.1%; 60-74, 10.1%-; 75 and over, 3.3%. Population projection: (2000) 6,796,000; (2010) 8,152,000. Doubling time: 99 years. Linguistic composition (1991)7: Chinese 96.8%, of which Cantonese 88.7%; English 2.2%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1994): predominantly Buddhist and Taoist; however, there are about 260,000 Protestants, 254,100 Roman Catholics, 50,000 Muslims, and 12,000 Hindus.

Major

cities:

no bounded

localities exist within

Hong Kong.

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

+7.728 0.7%

-2.656 0,2%

-13 096

-30,342 1.6%

-26,347 1.2%

-80.695 3.3%

0,1%

Imports (1994): HK$ 1, 250,709,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 34.6%, of which electrical machinery 10.8%. telecommunications equipment 9.4%; textile yarn and fabrics 9.2%; apparel and accessories 7.5%; chemicals and related products 6.()%; photographic apparatus, watches, and clocks 4.2%; food and live animals 4.0%). Major import sources: China 37.6%; Japan 15.6%; Taiwan 8.6%; United States 7.1%; Singapore 5.0%; South Korea 4.6%; Germany 2.3%; United Kingdom 2.0%. Exports (1994): HK$222,092,000,000 (clothing accessories and apparel 32.9%; electrical machinery 11.2%; office and automatic data-processing machines 7.9%; watches and clocks 7.3%; textile fabrics 6.8%; telecommunications equipment 5.2%; metal products 3.2%; articles of artificial resins and plastics 2.2%; paper and paper products 1.3%). Major export destinations: United States 27.7%; China 27.5%; Germany 5.8%; Singapore 5.5%; Japan 4.7%; United Kingdom 4.6%; Taiwan 2.7%. '

'

Vital statistics Birth rate per

1,000 population

(1994):

(world avg. 25.0); legitimate

11.9

(1985) 94.5%; illegitimate 5.5%.

Death

per 1,000 population (1994): 4.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990): 1.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 75.4 years; female 81.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1994): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 154.8; diseases of the circulatory system 139.7; diseases of the respiratory system 88.9; accidents and poisoning 28.0; diseases of the digestive system 22.1; infectious and parasitic diseases 18.4; diseases of the genitourinary system 17.7. rate

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 21 mi, 34 km; passenger-mi 1,971,000,000, passengcr-km 3,172,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 75.000.000, metric ton-km cargo 109,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 1,010 mi, 1,625 km

(paved 100%). Vehicles (1994): passenger cars 311.929; trucks and buses 158,107. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 387; total deadweight tonnage 11,688,605. Air transport (1994): passenger arrivals 9,889,567, passenger departures 10,027,849; airports (1995) with scheduled flights

1.

total number 77; total circulation 2,951,000l^ circulation per 1,000 population 49812. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 3,700.000 (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1994): total

Communications. Daily newspapers (1993):

number of

receivers 1,749,000 (1 per 3.5 persons). 1994): 3,111,000 (1 per 1.9 persons).

Telephones (main

lines;

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue: HK$ 173,56 1,000,000 (earnings and profit taxes 43.0%; indirect taxes 24.2%, of which entertainment and stamp duties 13.2%, duties 4.5%; capital revenue 15.4%). Expenditures: HK$170,852,000,000 (education 17.1%; transportation and public works 16.1%; housing 12.2%; health 11.1%; law and order 9.1%; social welfare 6.5%; culture and recreation 4.9%). Public debt: n.a. Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$104,731,000.000 (U.S.$17,860 per capita).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993 in

value

HK$000,000 Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun.

Trade

1,612

198 94,294 41,534

% of total value

02

—

labour force

17,600

300

% of labour force 0.6

—

17,588

10.7 4.7 2.0

81.805 219,115

24.9

615.400 230,400 19.300 321,400 816.200

212,681

24.2

272,400

95

14.4

572,000 8,000 2,873,000

100.0

93

21.4 8.0 0.7 11,2

284

Finance, insurance.

and

real estate

Pub, admin., defense. and services Other TOTAL

126,649 84,1888 879,664

9,68 100.0

199

Education and health Education (1994-95) Pnmary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18)

teactiers'

students

19.122 21.391

476,847 471,121 47,900 73,167

Vocational

2,488''

Higfier

1,422''

25 4 22 1 185' 32.4''

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 12.8%; primary education 25.2%; secondary 45.8%; matriculation 4.9%; nondegree higher 5.4%; higher degree 5.9%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 3,668,(K)0 (88.1%); males literate 2,040,000 (94.7%); females literate 1,628,000 (80.9%). Health (1994): physicians 7,670 is (1 per 790 persons); hospital beds 27,506 (1 per 220 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 4.8. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,129 (vegetable products 70%, animal products 30%); 137% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,900'* (army 73.7%, navy 13.2%, air force 13.1%). Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1984): 0.6% (world 5.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$39.

03

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): vegetables 89,000, fruits and nuts 5,340, field crops 710, milk 370, eggs 35,400,000 units; livestock (number of live animals) 186,000 pigs'*, 180 cattle, 4,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 193,000 cu m; fish catch 189,970. Mining and quarrying (1990): clay and kaolin 16,587; feldspar 3,820. Manufacturing (value added in HK$; 1992): wearing apparel 19,540,01)0,000; textiles 14,800,000,000; electrical and electronic products 12,396,000,000; publishing and printed material 7,815,000,000; basic metals and fabricated metal

'On July 1, 1997, Hong Kong will revert to China a.s a Special Administrative Region in which the existing socioeconomic system would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years. ^Includes 21 nonelective seats. 'Victoria, for some time, had been regarded as the capital because it is the scat of the British administration of the Crown Colony. -lExcludes the surface areas of reservoirs. ^Includes 35,823 transients and 51.847 Vietnamese migrants not enumerated by area. ''Excludes transients and of the Vietnamese refugees. 'Excludes about 59.900 Vietnamese refugees, about 1 population. ''Indirect taxes less subsidies. ''Excludes local pigs not slaughtered in abattoirs. ii'Scptember. "Excludes reexports valued at HK$947,921.000.00(J. inhirty-two newspapers only. l-M9y.3-94. i'iI987-88. 'SRegistered personnel; all may not be present and working in the country. KiBritish forces with a few locally enlisted personnel.

%

626

Britannica World Data

Hungary

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

-

name: Magyar Koztarsasag (Republic of Hungary). Form of government: unitary multiOfficial

party republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [394']). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Budapest.

Finance, real estate Sen/ices Other TOTAL

Public

unit:

1

forint (Ft)

19942

Counties

Capitals

Bacs-Klskun Baranya

Kecskemet Pecs Bekescsaba

Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen Csongrad

Szeged

Fejer

Szekesfehervar

Gyor-Moson-Sopron

Gyor Debrecen Eger

Miskolc

Heves Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok Komarom-Esztergom Nograd

Szolnok Tatabanya Salgotarjan

Pest

Somogy Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg Tolna

Vas Veszprem Zaia

of labour

23.3

forced

53

12.7

27.7?

59

4.3

7

7

73

372,900

8.0

159

1

86

J

153 1268 100

564,200

12.1

24.9 8.79

1,156.800

406,1009 4,647,900

100

population

area

Hajdu-Blhar

commun

%

labour forced

588,900 1,286,200' 272,800

7.4

Population economically active (1995-): total 4,433,500; activity rate of total population 43.3% (participation rates: working age 90.3%; female [1994] 47.4%; unemploved 9.7%).

Area and population

Bekes

of total

value

=100

valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) U.S.$ = Ft 131.49; 1 £ = Ft 207.86.

filler; 1

utilities

Transp and Trade

Official language: Hungarian. Official religion: none.

Monetarv

000,000

207,900 653,300 149,300 121.700 205.200 444.700 239,700 429,300 354,0008 2,805,100

Agriculture

Mining and manufacturing Construction

%

value

in

Ft

sqmi 3,229 1,732 2,175 2,798 1,646 1,688 1.568 2,398 1,404 2,165

869 982

sq

km

8,362 4,487 5,632 7,247 4.263 4.373 4,062 6,211 3,637 5,607 2,251 2,544 6,394

Budapest 3 Kaposvar Nyiregyhaza Szekszard Szombathely

2,469

Veszprem

1,791

Zalaegerszeg

1,461

6,036 5,937 3,704 3,336 4,639 3,784

203

525

2,331

2,292 1,430 1,288

Price and earnings indexes (1990 == 100)

estimate

539,000 416,000 401 .000 744,000 437,000 422,000 427,000 549,000 329,000 419,000 312,000 221 ,000 965,000 338,000 561 ,000 250,000 273,000 378,000 301 ,000

Capital City

Consumer

Monthly earnings index

35.919

TOTAL

93,030"

10,277,0001

Demography Population (1995): 10,231,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 284.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 63.2%; rural 36.8%. Sex distribution (1994): male 47.90%; female 52.10%.

km

110.0.

(1994): under 15, 18.6%); 15-29, 22.0%; 30-44, 21.9%; 45-59, 18.2%; 60-74, 14.6%;; 75 and over, 4.7%. Population projection: (2000) 10,170,000; (2010) 9,951,000. The population has declined at an average annual rate of 0.3% since 1980. Ethnic composition (1993): Magyar 92%; Gypsy 3%; German 1%; Slovak 1%; Jewish 1%.; Southern Slav 1%; other 1%. Religious affiliation (1992): Christian 92.9%, of which Roman Catholic 67.8%. Protestant 25.1%; atheist and nonreligious 4.8%; other 2.3%. Major cities (1994^): Budapest 1,995,696; Debrecen 217,706; Miskolc 189,655; Szeged 178,878; Pecs 172,177.

Age breakdown

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 11.3 (world avg. 25.0); (1993) legitimate 82.4%-; illegitimate 17.6%. Death rate per I.OOO population (1994): 14.3 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): -3.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rale (avg. births per childbcaring woman: 1993): 1.7.

Marriage rate per 1,11(10 population (1994): 5.3. Divorce rate per 1.000 population (1993): 2.2. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 64.5 years; female 73.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): diseases of the circulatory system 751.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 312.8; accidents and selfinflicted injuries 119.5.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue; Ft 1,191,356,000,000 (value-added lax 28.2%, payments by enlerpriscs 21.7%, income tax 20.4%, excise duties 13.8%). Expenditures: Ft 1,430,257,000,000 (debt service 20.4%, health I5.9%\ education 15.7% ^ social security 14.7%, defense 11.3%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): corn (maize) 4,920,000, wheat 4.9()0,()00, sugar beets 3,600,000, barley 1,580,0110, potatoes 823,000, apples 700,000, sunflower seeds 650,000. grapes 600,011(1. rye 193,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,002,000 pigs, l,28(),(HH) sheep, 1,002,000 cattle; roundwood (1994) 3,564,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 23,404. Mining and quarrying (1994): limestone 3,922,000^ bauxite 9(10,000; manganese ore 4(I,()(I0. Manufacturing (1994): cement 2,XI3,0()0; rolled steel 2,076.000; crude steel 1.937,000; pig iron 1,595,000; fertilizers 267,767; aluminum 29,617; cotton fabrics 71,698.000 sq m: leather footwear 11,474.000 pairs; refrigerators 540,911 units; buses 1.576 units. Construction (in It (100.000: 19')3): residential 2,429'': nonresidential 20,393. Energv production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 32.784,00(),()()0 (.35,258.000,000); coal (metric Ions: 1993) 14,616,000 (16.765,000): crude petroleum (barrels; 1943) 1,065,000 (51,660,000); petroleum products (metric tons: 1943) 6,787,000 (6.862,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 4.491.000,000 1

(9,(i5(l.()()0,()00).

Tourism (1W3): receipts U.S.S 1.1 8 1,000,000; expenditures U.S.$74 1.000.000. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$2 1,535,000.000. U.S.$34,254,000,000 (U.S.$3,330 per capita). Cross national product

(Wny

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

66.3

776

135.1

166.1

667

78.6

100 100

133.4

1658

203.4 201.6

241.6 170.5

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 2.8; income per household (1990) Ft 376,195 (U.S.$5,900); sources of income (1992): wages 46. Kr, social income 22.4%, self-employment 11.9%; expenditure (1992): food and beverages 38.5%, transportation and communications 15.1%, housing 10.5%, culture and recreation 9.4%, household durable goods 8.3%, clothing 7.1%. Land use (1993): forested 19.1%; meadows and pastures 12.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 53.9%; other 14.5%.

Foreign trade"' Balance of trade (current prices) Ft

Budapest 3

price index

%

000,000,000 of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

+47.8

+58.7 5.1%

-91.4 5.6%

-34.9 2.0%

4

4%

1993

-342.6 17.3%

1994

-317.7 16.2%

Imports (1994): Ft 1,537.000,000,000 (1993; intermediate industrial goods 33.4%, machinery and transport equipment 26.9%, industrial consumer goods 21.2%. fuels and electrical energy 12.6%, food and live animals 5.9%). Major import sources: former U.S.S. R. 22.2%; Germany 21.6%; Austria 11.6%; Italy 6.0%; Czech and Slovak republics 4.0%. Exports (1994): Ft 1,128,700,000,000 (1993; intermediate industrial goods 36.4%, industrial consumer goods 25.2%. food and live animals 21.4%, machinery and transport equipment 13.9%. fuels and electrical energy 3.4%). Major export destinations: Germany 26.6%; former U.S.S. R. 15.3%; Austria 10.1%o; Italy 8.0%; U.S. 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 8.300 mi, 13.300 km; passenger-mi 6,355,passenger-km 10.227,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,279.000.000, ()0(1,00(). metric ton-km cargo 7,708,200,000. Roads (1993): total length 18,618 mi, 29,963 km (paved 99^r). Vehicles (1994^): passenger cars 2,091.623: trucks

and buses 259.367. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 15; total deadweight tonnage 93,204. Air transport (1993): passengermi 1,013.000,000. passenger-km 1.631.000.000; short ton-mi cargo 7.600,000, metric ton-km cargo 11,100,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 1. Coinmunuations. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 28; total circulation 2.89(1.(100; circulation per 1.000 population 275. Radio (1993): 6.250.000 (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1993): 4.261.600 (I per 2.4 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 1.497,600 (1 per 6.9 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93)

student,

schools Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Vocational Higher

3,959

876 343 91

teachers

96,223 26.335 6.624 17,743

students 1

teacher

ratio

,092.563

11 4

335,153 212,932 119.828

12 7 32 2

68

Population age 10 and over having: no formal Educational attainment schooling 1.2%; primary education 78.1%; secondary 29.2%; higher 10.1%. L/feracv (1984): population aac 15 and over literate 8.269,8.50 (98.9%); males literate 3,934,250 (99.2%); females literate 4,335.600 (98.6%). Health (1993): physicians 41.397 (1 per 249 persons): hospital beds 100.438 (1 per 102 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1994) 11.5. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,.503 (vegetable products 64%; animal products 36%); 133% of FAO recommended minimum. (19i)()).

Military Total active diitv personnel (1995): 70.5(K) (army 76.2%. air force 23.8%). (1993): 2.0% (world 3.3%); per Military expenditure as percentage of capita expenditure U.S. $122.

GNP

ilncludes 8 nonclectivc scats. ^January 1. 'Budapest has separate county status. The area and population of the city arc excluded from the larger county (Pest), which it administers. ^Detail docs not add to total given because of rounding. M993. '>Includes hotel construction. 'Mining and manulacturing includes Public utilities. "Taxes on products. ''Unemployed. '"Import figures arc f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f for commodities and iradinc p^irtncrs.

Nations of the World

Iceland Official

Structure of gross national product and labour force

name: Lydhveldidh Island

1993

(Republic of Iceland).

Fonn of government:

in

Head of government: Prime

Agriculture Fishing Fish processing

Public utilities Transportation and

upaal: Reykjavik.

communications Trade

Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary: unit: 1 krona (ISK)=100 .

I

1995)

6, .£

= ISK

102.38.

of total

Finance, real estate Public administration

29,600 48,700 75,900 70,700

Health, education, other services

22,000

Other

forces

5,800 6,400 9,700 14,600 11,100 1,500

177

8,600 22,800 12.400 6.000

-36'0 1000

39.800 6.900' 145,600

12.2 19.0

-14,400'° 399.60012

TOTAL

% of labour

labour forced

values

10,000 43.200 23,600 43,500 30,000 16,800

Manufacturing Construction

Minister.

Ojjicial language: Icelandic.

aurar; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = ISK 64.78; 1

%

value

ISK 000,0006

unitary multiparty

republic with one legislative house (Althing [63]), Chief of state: President. (

627

Area and population Administrative Austurland

sq mi

Egilsstadhir Akureyri

Nordhurland eysira Nordhurland vestra Reykjanes

Saudharkrokur

sq

Reykjavik

Sudhurtand

Reykjavik gelfoss Isafjbrdhur

Vesturland

Borgarnes

km

8,491

21,991

8,636 5,055

22,368 13,093 1,9822

7652

Vestfirdhir

Public debt (external, outstanding; September 1994): U.S.$2,406,()0(),()00. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990)i^ 3 (>• annual income per household (1990)13 ISK 2,605,563 (U.S.$44,7I2): sources

1994'

Administrative centres

units

2

2

9,735 3,657 3,360

25,214 9,470 8.701

TOTAL

estimate

12,909 26,783 10,294 69,162 103.036 20,876 9,448 14,278 266,786

of income (1993): wages and salaries 72.9%, pension 9.9%, self-employment 2.4%, other 14.8%: expenditure (1992): food and beverages 24.2%, transportation and communications 15.3%, housing 13.4%, recreation 10.3%, household furnishings 8.2%, clothing and footwear 8.0%, expenditures in restaurants and hotels 7.3%..

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1995): 269,000. Density- (1994)3: persons per sq mi 29.3, persons per sq Urban-rural (1993): urban 91.4%; rural 8.6%. Sex distribution (1994): male 50.16%; female 49M%.

ISK 000,000

km

% of total

11.3.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 16.7 (world avg. 25.0); (1993) legitimate 41.7%; illegitimate 58.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.5 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 10.2 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.0. Life expectancy at birth (1992-93): male 76.8 years; female 80.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): diseases of the circulatory system 294.3, of which ischemic heart diseases 177.7, cerebrovascular disease 67.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 170.8; diseases of the respiratory system 88.6.

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

+4.540 2.5%

-3.253 1,7%

-392

+ 12.082

+ 20.311

0.2%

6,8%

98%

Imports (1994): ISK 93,243,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 12.1%; transport equipment 10.3%; food products 9.4%; electrical machinery and apparatus 9.2%; crude petroleum and petroleum products 7.6% ). Major import sources^'*: Norway 14.3%; Germany 11.2%; United Kingdom 9.9%; Denmark 9.0%; United States 8.9%; Sweden 7.0%-; The Netherlands 6.3%. Exports (1994): ISK 13.554,000,000 (marine products 75.5%, of which frozen fish 35.2%, frozen shrimp, lobster, and scallops 12.5%, salted fish 9.3%, fresh fish on ice 6.5%; aluminum 9.5%; ferrosilicon 2.4%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 20.3%; United States 14.5%; Japan 14.1%; Germany 12.8%; France 7.2%; Denmark 6.4%.

Age breakdown

(1994): under 15, 24.8%; 15-29, 23.7%; 30-44, 22.7%; 45-59 13.9%; 60-74, 10.2%; 75 and over, 4.7%. Population projection: (2000) 282,000; (2010) 307,000. Doubling time: 68 years. Ethnic composition (1993)'': Icelandic 96.1%; Danish 0.8%; Swedish 0.5%; persons born in the United States 0.5%; German 0.3%; other 1.8%. Religious affiliation (1994): Protestant 95.7%, of which Evangelical Lutheran 91.8%, other Lutheran 3.2%; Roman Catholic 1.0%; nonreligious 1.4%; other 1.9%. Major cities (1994): Reykjavik 103,036 (urban area [1993] 154,268); Kopavogur 17,4315; Hafnarfjordhur 17,238?; Akureyri 14,914; Sudhurnesjabaer 10,347.

1989

+6,943 4.5%

1

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1994):

total length 7,008 mi, 11,279

km

(paved 24%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 116,195; trucks and buses 15,644. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 394; total deadweight tonnage 114,851. Air transport (1994)'"': passenger-mi 1,474.000,000, passenger-km 2,372,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 28,786,000, metric ton-km cargo 42,026,000: airports (1995) with scheduled flights 24. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 5; total circulation 135,000; circulation per 1,000 population 517. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 197,000 (1 per 1.4 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 76,250 (1 per 3.5 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993); 143,597 (1 per 1.8 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) schools

National economy Budget {\99A). Revenue: ISK 109,602,000,000 (value-added tax 37.3%, income tax 20.7%, import duties 7.2%, taxes on alcohol and tobacco 6.0%). Expenditures: ISK 116,986,000,000 (health and welfare 47.6%, education 15.2%, general services \0J%, communications 7.9%, agriculture 6.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): potatoes 3,900, dried hay 1,788,000 cu m, silage 1,069,000 cu m; livestock (number of live animals) 488,800 sheep, 76,700 horses, 73,900 cattle; fish catch (value in ISK '000,000) cod 16,489, redfish 6,877, shrimp 5,617, Greenland halibut 4,730. Mining and quarrying (1993): diatomite 19,000. Manufacturing (value added in ISK '000,000; 1991): preserved and processed fish 17,341; printing and publishing 5,652; wood furniture 2,679; nonmetallic mineral products 2,261; bakery products 1,863. Construction (completed; 1992): residential 742,000 cu m; nonresidential 992,000 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 4,728,000,000 (4,721,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (50.000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (510,000); natural gas, none (none). Land use (1993): forested 1.2%; meadows and pastures 22.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.1%; other 76.0%. Population economically active (November 1994): total 145,600; activity rate of total population 54.6%' (participation rates: ages 16-69, 84.3%; female 47.3%; unemployed [April 1994-March 1995] 4.7%).

teachers

Primary/lower secondary (age 7-14) Upper secondary/vocational (ages 1 5 and over) Higher

Educational attainment:

27,500 1

n.a. Literacy: virtually

7.888

100%.

Health: physicians (1990) 726 (1 per 353 persons); hospital beds (1991) 2,878"'' (1 per 90 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 3.2. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,058 (vegetable products 60%, recommended minimum requirement. animal products 40%); 1 15% of

FAO

Military duty personnel (1994): 130 coast guard personnel; NATOsponsored U.S.-manned Iceland Defense Force (1994): 2,200 (navy 81.8%, air force 18.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (1993): none (world average 3.3%).

Total active

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly wages index?

1989

1990

1991

87.2 92.8

100.0 100.0

107.0 108.7

December 1. ^Reykjanes includes Reykjavik. 'Population density calculated with reference to 9,191 sq mi (23,805 sq km) area free of glaciers, lava fields, and lakes. •By country of birth. '^Within Reykjavik urban area. ''February. ^Bascd on weighted average of skilled and unskilled nonclcrical workers. '*Data estimated from percentage distribution of sectors. ''November. '"Net of imputed bank service charges and income not classified elsewhere. "Unemployed. i^GDP (1993) equals ISK 41 1,700.(K)0,0(K). iJBased on sample survey. '•'Import sources based on a c.i.f. total of ISK I02,541,(KM),000. i''Icelandair only. '''Excludes 1,970 studying abroad. "^Excludes nursing wards I

116.9 115.2

Tourism (1994): receipts from visitors U.S.S 137,800,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$250,400,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$6,236,000,000 (U.S.$23,620 per capita).

in

old-age homes.

Britannica World Data

628

Religious affiliation (1991): Hindu 80.3%; Muslim 11.0%, of which SunnT 8.2%, Shn 2.8%; Christian 2.4%, of which Roman Catholic 1.4%, other (mostly Protestant) 1.0%; Sikh 2.0%; Buddhist 0.7%; Jain 0.5%; Zoroastrian

India name: Bharat (Hindi); Republic of India (English). Form of government: multiparty federal republic with two legislative houses (Council of States [245] ', House of the People [545] 2). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official

Capital:

New

0.01%; other 3.1%. Households (1991)13. Total households 151,032,898. Average household size 5.6; 1-2 persons 12.1%, 3-5 persons AAA%, 6-8 persons 30.5%, 9 or more persons 13.0%. Average number of rooms per household 2.2; 1 room 40.5%, 2 rooms 30.6%, 3 rooms 13.8%, 4 rooms 7.1%, 5 rooms 3.2%, 6 or more rooms 3.9%, unspecified number of rooms 0.9%. Average number of persons per room 2.6. Shelterless (homeless) population estimated (1987) at more than 100,000,000. Emigration (1987 estimation): persons living abroad 12,697,000 (accepting foreign citizenship 8.200,000), of which in Nepal (1980) 3,800,000 (2,388,000); Malaysia 1,170.000 (1,029,000); Middle Eastern countries 1,064,000 (102,000); Sri Lanka 1,028.000 (4.^7.000); South Africa 850,000 (850,000); United Kingdom 789.000 (.WS.ooo); Mauritius 701,000 (700.000); United States 500,000 (287,000); Trinidad and Tobago 430,000 (430,000); Fiji 339,000 (339,000); Myanmar 330,000 (50,000); Canada 229,000 (129,000).

Delhi.

Official languages: Hindi; English. Official religion: none.

Monetary

unit:

(Re, plural (Oct. 1 £=

6,

Rs

1

Indian rupee 100 paise; valuation U.S.$ = Rs 33.90;

Rs)=

1995)

1

53.59.

Area and population

area

population

1991

sqmi

states

Capitals

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh

Hyderabad

Assam

DIspur Patna

Itanagar

Bihar

Goa

Panaji

Gujarat

GandhTnagar Chandigarh

Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir

ShImla SrTnagar

Bangalore Trivandrum Bhopal

Karnataka Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

sq

106,204 32,333 30,285 67,134 1,429 75,685 17,070 21,495 38,830 74.051 15,005 171,215 118,800

Maharashtra Manipur

Bombay Imphal

8,621

Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland

Shillong ATzawl

8,660 8,140

KohTma Bhubaneshwar

Orissa

6,401

60,119 19,445 132,140 2,740 50,216 4,049 113.673 34.267

Chandigarh

Punjab Rajasthan SIkkim Tamil

(fvlumbai)

Jaipur

Gangtok Madras

Nadu

Tnpura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

Agarlala

Lucknow Calcutta

km

census

275,068 83,743 78,438 173,877 3,702 196,024 44.212 55,673 100,569

66,508,008 864.558 22,414,322 86,374,465 1,169,793 41,309,582 16,463,648 5,170,877 7,718.7003 44,977,201 29,098,518 66,181,170 78,937,187 1,837,149 1,774.778 689,756 1,209,546

191,791

38,863 443,446 307,690 22,327 22,429 21,081 16,579 155,707 50,362 342,239 7,096 130,058 10,486 294,411 88,752

20,281,969 44,005.990 406,457 55.858,946 2,757,205 139,112,287 68,077,965

Islands

8,249 114 491 112 1,483

642,015 138,477 101,586 9,420,644

3,185

Port Blair

Chandigarh

Delhi

Delhi

Lakshadweep Pondichenv

Kavaratti

44 190 43 572

Silvassa

Daman

1.222.243"

280,661

32 492

12

190

Pondlcherry

TOTAL

807,785 846.302,6885

Demography

Sex distribution (1991): male

km

Social indicators Educational attainmetit (1981)''^. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 64.8%; no formal schooling (literate) 1.0%; some primary education 7.1%; completed primary 10.9%; some secondary 6.2%: completed secondary 7.1%; higher vocational 0.4%; completed undergraduate degree 2.5%. Distribution of expenditure (1989-90) percentage

T~ 8.8%

of

household expenditure by

2

3

4

12,5%

16-2%

21,3%

female 48.10%. (1995): under 15, .\=i.2';; 15-29. 27.2%; 30-44, 19.1%; 45-59, 11.2%; 60-74, 5.9%; 75 and over, 1.4%.. Population projection: (2000) 1,022,021,000; (2010) 1,189,082,000. Doubling time: 37 years. Linguistic composition ( 1981 )*>: Hindi (lingua franca) 45.00%; Hindi (including associated languages and dialects) 38.77%; Telugu 7.96%- Bengali 7.56%; MarathI 7.28%.; Tamil 6.56%; Urdu 5.18%; GujaralT 4.87^; Kannada 3.9.S%; Malayalam 3.81%; Oriya 3.36'^; Punjabi 2.73';; l:nglish (lingua franca) 2.50%; Assamese 1.64% 7; BhTlT/BhilodI 0.6.S'/; Santhall 1)62%; Kashmiri 0.47%; Gondl 0.29%; SindhI 0.29%; KonkanI 0.23%; DogrI 0.22%.; Tulu 0.20%; Kurukh 0.19%; Nepali 0.18%; KhandcshT 0.17%; Manipurl 0.13%; other 2.69%. Place of birth (foreign born; 1981): other Asia 7.875,.399, of which Bangladesh 4,170,524, Pakistan 2.7.36,0.18, Nepal .501,292, Sri Lanka 211,514, Myanmar 134,783; Africa 42,726; Europe 13,046; United States and Canada 5,923. Major cities (urban agjilomerations: 1991): (ircater Bombay (Greater Mumbai) 9,925,891 (12,596.243); Delhi 7,206,704 (8,419.084); Calcutta 4,.199,819 (11,021.915): Madras 3.84I..W) (.';.42 1,985): Bangalore 3,.302,296 (4.1.^0,288): ;

6.

ser\'ices ( 1991 ). Percentage of total (urban, rural) households having access to: electricity for lighting purposes 42.4% (75.8%, 30.5%); attached toilet or nearby latrine 23.7% (63.9%, 9.5%). Source of drinking water: piped water 32.3%, well 32.2%, hand pump or tube well 30.0%, river or canal 2.0'V. public tank 1.3%.; other 2.2%. Social parluipation. Eligible voters participating in last (May/June 1991) na-

tional election:

53%. Trade union membership

population

population

population

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993-94 in

Amritsar

Aurangabad Bareilly

Bhopal Chandigarh Cochin (Kochi) Coimbatore Faridabad Guwahati Gwalior

Howrah (Haora) Hubli-Dharwad

891,790 806,486 708,835 573,272 590.661 1.062,771

510,565 582,588 816,321 617,717 584,342 690,765 950,435 648.298

Indore Jabalpur Jaipur Jalandhar (Jullundur)

Jodhpur Kalyanio Kola Ludhiana Madurai Meerut

Mysore Nashik (Nasik) Patna

Pimpn-Chinchwad"

1,091,674

764,586 1,458,183

509.510 666,279 1,014,557 537,371 1 ,042,740

940,989 753,778 606,755 656.925 917.243 517,083

Rajkot

Ranchi Sholapur (Solapur)

Snnagar

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Thane (Thana)

'

Trivandrum

Transp and

604,215 594,775'?

Pub admin

803,389 699,872

Vadodara (Baroda) Varanasi (Benares)

Vijayawada

Vishakhapatnam

utilities

612.458 599,306

1,505,872

Sural

1,061,598

commun

Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate ,

defense

TOTAL

1991

% of total value

2,144 170 1.223

30 3

398 200 575 920 598 406

5,6 2.8

Services Other 7.071

2.4 17.3

8,1

13.0 8.5

ID — 100

labour force's

labour force

"* of

191,340,829 1,751,275 28,671,479 5.543.205

609

8,017,746 21,296,337

25 68

29,311,622 28,198,87720 314,131,370

06 91

18

93 9.020

100

Rs 1,445,700,000,000 (tax revenue 56.2%, of which customs duties 18.3'y, corporation t;ixes 9.2%; nontax revenue 43.8%, of which economic services 22.1%, interest receipts 11.2%). Expenditures: Rs .787,00(),0()0,()00 (interest payments and debt servicing 24.6%; transportation 12.1%; grants to state governments 11.3%; defense

«(/(/,i,'c/

(1994-95). Revenue:

excise taxes 25.5'f. 932,399 701,827 752.037

value

Rs 000,000,000 '8

Public

Agra Allahabad

9,295.000.

National economy

2,9.';4,526

cities (1991)

l')8')):

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$80,985,000,000. Cross national product (1993): U.S. $262,810,000,000 (U.S.$29() per capita).

Agriculture, forestry

Other principal

(

Social deviance (1986)i7. Offense rate per 100.000 population for: murder 3.5; dacoity (gang robbery) 1.3; theft and housebreaking 57.9; riots 12.0. Rate of suicide per 100,000 population (1990): 6.9. Material well-being (1994). Households possessing: black and white television receivers 18.8%, colour television receivers 6.3%, videocassette recorders 1.3%, refrigerators 6.9%, washing machines 2.3%.

(3,312,216); Kanpiir 1,879,420 (2,029,889); Nagpur 1,624,752 (1,664,006); Lucknow 1.614,115 (1,669,204); Pune 1,566,651 (2,493,987); New Delhi** 301,297. (4.253,759);

41,2%

Access to

Age breakdown

Hyderabad 3,145,939

quintile

5 (h ighest)

Qualitv of working life^'>. Average workweek (1989); 42 hours. Rate of fatal (nonfatal) injuries per 100,000 workers: industrial workers (1989) 17 (3,625); miners (1990) 32 (172); railway workers (1989) 15 (1,059). Employees covered under Employee's State Insurance Scheme (1991) 6,070,000; number of beneficiaries 26,749,000. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000

workdays (1991):

295.6.

51. ')(!';;

Ahmadabad

Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1992): 19.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 3.5. Marital status of male (female) population age 25 and over (1981): single 6.4% (1.1%); married 87.4% (79.4%); widowed 5.7% (18.8%); divorced or separated 0.5% (0.7%). Life expectancy at birth (1992-93): male 60.4 years; female 61.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987)''': diseases of the circulatory system 227; infectious and parasitic diseases 215; diseases of the respiratory system 108; certain conditions originating in the perinatal period 108; accidents, homicide, and other violence 102; diseases of the digestive system 48; diseases of the nervous system 43; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 41; endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional disorders 30; diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs 25; ill-defined conditions 129.

51 ,707

3,165,5961

Population (1995): 935.744,{)00. Density (1995)-': persons per sq mi 765.6, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995): urban 26.X';; rural 73.2%.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 29.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 10.0 (world avg. 9.3).

31 .659,736

Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu

Vital statistics

1

Nations of the World

9.8%; communications 5.3%; agriculture 4.9%; industry and minerals 3.3%; social services 2.9%). Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of production in Rs '000,000 except as noted; 1989-90): rice 239,120, wheat 115,270, sugarcane 78,760,

peanuts (groundnuts) 53,950, kapoks 42,320, rapeseed and mustard 31,350, chick-peas 31,020, sorghum 27,140, corn (maize) 19,180, potatoes 19,140, coconuts 18,790, pigeon peas 18,210, bananas 13,230, pearl millet 12,330, tea 11,080, urd beans 10,670, mung beans 10,560, chilies 9,320, soybeans 8,470, tobacco 6,890, sesame seeds 6,740, finger millet 5,810, jute 5,790, rubber 4,650, betel nuts 4,420, red lentils 4,390, sunflower seeds 4,340, onions 4,270, tapioca 4,160, guar seeds 3,670, cashews 3,600, turmeric 3,600, cofl'ee 3,600, safflower seeds 3,170, barley 3,110; livestock (number of live animals; 1994) 192,980,000 cattle, 118,347,000 goats, 78,825,000 water bufi^alo, 44,809,000 sheep; roundwood (1992) 282,359,000 cu m; fish catch (metric tons; 1993) 4,324,231, of which freshwater fish 1,791,910. Mining and quarrying (in '000 metric tons except as noted; 1993-94): limestone 83,900; iron ore 56,400; bauxite 5,029; manganese 1,781; chromite 1,094; zinc ore 144; copper (metal content) 45^1; lead (primary metal) 39-1; gold 62,300 troy oz; gem diamonds 19,707 carats. Manufacturing (in '000 metric tons except as noted; 199293): cement 54,300; finished steel 15,200; steel ingots 13,250; refined sugar 10,589; nitrogenous fertilizers 7,407; paper and paperboard 2,152; soda ash 1,391; jute manufactures 1,310; aluminum 483; nylon and polyester yarns 278; bicycles 6,963,000 units; motorcycles and scooters 1,496,000 units; powerdriven pumps 525,000 units; passenger cars and jeeps 198,100 units; passenger buses and trucks 132,600 units; cotton cloth 13,054,000,000 metres; other important manufactured products include drugs and pharmaceuticals, computer software, gold jewelry, and silk goods. Construction (value of new construction in Rs; 1989-90): 563,670,000,000.

Manufacturing enterprises (1989-90) 22.23 annual value

avg.

wages as a

no. of no- of

persons

factories

engaged

Chemicals and chemical products, of which drugs and medicine fertilizers and pesticides industrial chemicals paints, soaps, and cosmetics Textiles (excl of

clothing).

which cotton

Food products. of

which sugar

tea Electrical

1,438,208

878

52,320

1700

1 1

567

3,116 7,753 3,637 1,569

234,533 116.713 385,811 93,912 420,981 445,800 476,925 182,489

130.8 131.0

140

23,621

4,881

227,900 224,182 136,349

812

6,683 1,967

149.1

129

1

147.9 171,4 243.7 67.0 100.2 100.0

1 1

electricity (kW-hr; 1993-94) 323,500,000,000 ([1993] 357,759,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993-94) 246,000,000 ([1993] 250,564,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993-94) 225,700,000 ([1993] 420,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 42,379,000 (53,346,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993-94) 14,728,000,000 ([1993] 12,214,000,000).

Financial aggregates^s

rate,

Rs

£

SDR International reserves (U

S

SDRs

(000,000) Resen/e pos in It^F

1991

1992

1993

1994

18.07 34.84 25.71

25.83 48.33 36.95

26.20 39.61 36.02

31.38 46.48 43.10

31,38 49,03

3.859 113

1.521

3.627

46

10.199 too

19,698

316

5,757 4

2

20,234 20

—

—

292

292

310

332 19,882 12,782 1 4

640

('000,000)

3,105 10.449

1.205 10.692

5,461 ,348

9,807 11.457

19,386

1

1.1

1,2

1.2

13

1,3

too

10.0

12,0

12,0

165

179

12.0 18.9

12-0

16.5 72.1

100.0

134,8

247.3

202,9

-6,110

-5,151 23,437

Foreign exchange ('000,000)

%

1990

17.03 27.35 22.39

45,81

added

at factor cost in

Rs

'000,000; 1989-90):

wholesale and retail trade 468,450; community, social, and personal services 226,320; construction 211,520; finance and insurance 172,770; transport and storage 169,630; real estate and business services 115,140; communication 30,780; electricity, gas, and water 29,050; restaurants and hotels 25,390. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S. $1,487,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1990) U.S.$393,000,000.

Foreign trade 30.

3

Balance of trade (current prices) Rs '000.000

% of total

1988-89

1989-90

1990-91

1991-92

1992-93

1993-94

-49,417 10,9%

-40,249 6,8%

-61,163 8,6%

+ 12,031 1 ,4%

-30,841 2,8%

+ 38,134 2,6%

Imports (1993-94): Rs 728,060,000,000 (machinery, transport equipment, and fabricated metals 26.0%; mineral fuels and lubricants 24.8%; pearls and precious and semiprecious stones (mostly diamonds] 1.4%; industrial chemicals 5.0%; fertilizers 3.6%). Major import sources (1994): U.S. 9.5%; Germany 7.8%; Japan 7.8%; U.K. 7.0%; Saudi Arabia 5.8%; Belgium 5.8%; United Arab Emirates 4.8%; Kuwait 3.7%; South Korea 3.1%; Australia 3.0%. &/7om (1993-94): Rs 695,470,000,000 (cut and polished diamonds and jewelry 18.0%; machinery, transport equipment, metal products, iron and steel, and electronic components 13.6%; ready-made garments 11.8%; cotton yarn, fabrics, and thread 7.0%; chemicals and chemical products 6.7%; leather and leather manufactures 6.0%; fish products 3.6%; oil cakes 3.3%). Major export destinations (1994): U.S. 19.8%; Japan 8.4%; Germany 7.2%; U.K. 6.7%; Hong Kong 5.6%; United Arab Emirates 4.1%; Belgium 3.7%; Italy 3.4%; France 2.5%; The Netherlands 2.1%. 1

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993-94): route length 38,189 mi, 61,459 km; (1994-95) passenger-mi 195,926,000,000, passenger-km 315,313,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 171,213,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 249,966,000,000. Roads (199192): total length 1,342,000 mi, 2,160,000 km (paved 46%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 3,330,000; trucks and buses 1,980,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 888; total deadweight tonnage 10,365,939. Air transport (1994)32: passenger-mi 10,878,000,000, passengerkm 17,506,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 379,651,000, metric ton-km cargo

554,281,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 66. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3,805; total circulation 18,800,000; circulation per 1,000 population 21. Radio (1994): 65,000,000 receivers (1 per 14 persons). Television (1994): 20,000,000 receivers (1 per 47 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 8,037,400 (1 per 112 persons).

31,40 50,32 48,97

Education and health Education (1993-94) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-17) Higher33

student/

schools

teachers

students

572.923 241.129 7,958

1,703,164 2,485,160

108,200,539 60,817,397 4,804,773

215,234

teacher

ratio

63,5 24.5

223

Literacy (1991): total population age 7 and over literate 359,016,000 (52.6%); males literate 229,192,000 (64.1%); females literate 129,824,000 (39.3%). Health: physicians (1991) 394,068 (1 per 2,211 persons); hospital beds (1992) 642,103 (1 per 1,357 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 78.4. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,395 (vegetable products 93%,

animal products 7%); 108% of

FAO

recommended minimum requirement.

$)

Total (excl gold; '000.000)

Gold (000,000

199526

1989 per;

U.S. dollar

Service enterprises (net value

,750

9,854 8,134

Energy production (consumption):

Exchange

42.2%, self-employed 39.7%, interest 8.6%, profits and dividends 6.0%, rent 3.5%; expenditure (1991-92): food and beverages 52.0%, transportation and communications 11.5%, clothing and footwear 10.0%, housing 5.8%.

,948

9,689 9,350 9,284 48,305 25,588 12,915 39,749 12,834 7.853 32,845 8,336 29,886 28,183 27,373 15,819 18,227

865,134 228,443

4.790

machinery/apparatus.

which radios and televisions and steel Nonelectrical machinery/apparatus Transport equipment, of which motor vehicles Refined petroleum Bricks, cement, plaster products Fabricated metal products Paper and paper products

(Rs '000,000)

148,6

1,111,243

of

Iron

added

wages 2
47.0O(),(H)0, "-Based on estimated exports equaling U..S.$557.(MKI.OOO. I'No scheduled air service since June \')'»2. i'M'Wl-92, l-o.h.

Nations of the World

Ireland name: Eire

Official

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 16,011,000,000 (16,011,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 1,000 (3,060,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (14,975,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,919,000 (4,172,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 2,220,000,000 (2,220,000,000). Gross national product (1992): U.S.$44,906,000,000 (U.S.$12,580 per capita).

(Irish); Ireland'

(English).

Form of government:

unitary muUiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [602]; House of

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

Representatives [166]). Chief of slate: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dublin.

Monetary

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

unit:

1

none. Irish

pound

=

(£Ir)

100 new pence; valuation (Oct. £Ir = U.S.$1.61=£l.02. 1995)

% of total

value '000,000'

in

EIr

Official languages: Irish; English. official religion:

1

2,570

88

10,828

37,2

4.986

17,2

1,714

5.9

force

[

Trade Pub. admin., defense

1

labour

value

I

Public utilities J Transp. and commun

6,

1

J

'

Sen/ices

Area and population

633

area

population

1991

Finance Other

8.999

30.9

29.097

100.0

10.5

71 ,000

5,1

12,000 70,000 245,0008 66,000 309,000

17.88 4.8 22.4

8

1

of labour

force

230,0009

J

TOTAL

%

144.000 5,000 224,000

,376,000

04 16.3 0.9 5,1

8

16.79 100.0

census

Connacht GalwayS Leitrim

Mayo

Roscommon

6.611 2,293 581 2,084 951

693

Sligo Leinsler

7,580

Carlow

346 356 654 796 664 403 318 902

Dublin3 Klldare

Kilkenny Laoighis Longlord Louth

Meath Offaly

Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Munster

771 681

908 782 9,315

Clare

1,231

Cork3

2,880 1,815 1,037 771

Kerry Limericks Tipperary North Riding Tipperary South Riding

Waterford3 Ulster (part of)

Cavan Donegal

Monaghan TOTAL imO AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

872 710 3,093

17.122 5,940 1,525 5,398 2,463 1,796 19,633

1

896 922

1

1,694 2,062 1.719 1,044

823 2,336 1,998 1,763 2,351

2,025 24,127 3,188 7,460 4,701

2,686 1.996 2,258 1,838 8,012

730

1,891

1,865

4,830

498 26,600

1,291

1

423,031 180,364 25,301 110.713 51,897 54,756 .860.949 40,942 ,025,304 122,656 73,635 52,314 30,296 90,724 105,370 58,494 61,880 102,069 97,265 ,009,533 90,918 410,369 121,894 161,956 57,854 74,918 91,624 232,206 52,796 128,117 51,293

68,895"

537

1,390

27,137

70,285

3,525,719

Population economically active (1993): total 1,376,000; activity rate of total population 39.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 59.2% i"; female 30.5%iO;

unemployed 15.5% n). Price and earnings Indexes (1990=100) Consumer

price index

Weekly earnings index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

93.0

96.8 96.3

100.0 100.0

103.2

106.4

926

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 3.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1987): wages and salaries 58.6%, self-employment 13.3%, interest and dividends 8.2%; expenditure (1993): food 26.9%, rent and household goods 11.5%, transportation 10.0%.

Land use

{\992y. forest 4.6%; pasture 68.1%; agricultural 13.4%; other 13.9%.

Foreign trade' Balance of trade (current prices) 1988 £lr

1989

1990

2.574

2.880

2.458

2.784

4.062

5,563

11.7%

11.0%

9.4%

10.2%

13.9%

16,5%

000.000

% Of total

1991

1992

1993

Imports (1993): £Ir 14,795,700,000 (machinery and transport equipment 36.9%, chemicals 12.3%, manufactured goods 11.6%, food 8.3%, petroleum and petroleum products 4.8%, crude materials [inedible] 2.2%, beverages and tobacco 1.3%). Major import sources: U.K. 33.4%; U.S. 17.1%; Germany 7.2%; Japan 6.5%; France 3.9%; The Netherlands 3.1%. Exports (1993): £Ir 19,671,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 28.9%, food 19.6%, chemical products 19.2%, manufactured goods 5.8%). Major expori destinations: U.K. 24.9%; Germany 13.2%; France 9.1%; U.S. 9.1%.

Demography Population (1995): 3,590,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 132.3, persons per sq km 51.1. Urban-rural (1991): urban 57.0%; rural 43.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.74%; female 50.26%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 26.7%; 15-29, 24.1%; 30-44, 20.2%; 45-59, 13.8%; 60-74, 10.6%; 75 and over, 4.6%. Population projection: (2000) 3,672,000; (2010) 3,841,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Place of birth (1986): native born 93.7%; Eng. and Wales 3.6%; N.Ire. 1.0%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 91.6%; Church of Ireland (Anglican) 2.3%; Presbyterian 0.4%; other 5.7%. Major cities (1991)?: Dublin 477,675; Cork 127,024; Limerick 52,040; Galway 50,842;

Waterford 40,345.

Railroads (1993): route length 1,947 km; passenger-km l,070,-« ton-km cargo 574,600,000. Roads (1992): length 92,327 km (paved 94%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 891,027; trucks and buses 146,204. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 189; total deadweight tonnage 208,573. Air transport (1990): passenger-km 3,804,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 431,618,000; airports (1995) 10. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): 8; total circulation 652,350; circulation per 1,000 population 186. Radio (1994): 2,150,000 receivers (1 per 1.6 persons). Television (1993): 1,000,000 receivers (1 per 3.5 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 1,170,000 (1 per 3.1 persons). Transport.

900,000; metric

Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population 80.5%; illegitimate 19.5%.

Transport and communications

Education (1992-93)14 (1993):

13.9

(world avg. 26.0); legitimate

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1993): 8.9 (world avg. 9.2). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.0 (world avg. 16.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 2.1. Life expectancy at birth (1985-87): male 71.0 years; female 76.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): heart and circulatory diseases 399.2, of which ischemic heart disease 218.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 211.5; respiratory disease 66.7, of which pneumonia 52.0.

National economy Budget (1995). Revenue: £Ir 11,542,000,000 (income taxes 34.1%, value-added tax 24.6%, excise taxes 18.3%). Expenditures: £Ir 11,686,000,000 (social welfare 34.2%, debt service 20.6%, health 18.5%, education 16.9%). Public debt (1993): U.S.$41,603,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts U.S.$1,639,000,000; expenditures U.S.$ 1,256,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugar beets 1,380,000, barley 952,000, potatoes 650,000, wheat 520,000, oats 134,000, milk 52,270,000 hectolitres; livestock (number of live animals) 6,265,000 cattle, 6,125,000 sheep, 1,423,000 pigs; roundwood (1992) 1,834,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 275,418. Mining and quarrying (1993): gypsum 317,600; zinc ore 194,100''; lead ore 48,300''. Manufacturing (value added in £Ir; 1990): metals and engineering goods 3,237,500,000; food products 1,828,300,000; chemical products 1,492,600,000; paper, printing, and publishing 452,900,000; nonmetallic mineral products 441,400,000. Construction (1992): residential 2,499,000 sq m; nonresidential 2,067,000 sq m. Energy production

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18 Voc. teacher tr. Higher

schools

teachers

students

3.405

20,761 12,250 7,630 4,535

521,531 221,167 138,022 80,322

467 323

student/ teacher ratio

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education 52.3%; secondary 23.3%; some postsecondary 16.5%; university or like institution 7.9%. Literacy (1987): virtually 100% literate. Health (1993): physicians (1984) 5,180 (1 per 681 persons); hospital beds 13,80615 (1 per 255 persons); infant mortality rate 6.0. foorf (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,952 (vegetable products 62%, animal products 38%); 157% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 13,000 (army 86.1%, navy 7.7%, air force (1993): 1.3% (world 3.3%); 6.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S. $146.

GNP

lAs provided by the constitution; the 1948 Republic of Ireland Act provides precedent for this longer formulation of the official name but, per official sources, "has not changed the usage Ireland as the name of the state in the English language." 1 nonelective seats. 3lncludes county borough(s). "Detail does not add -Includes to total given because of rounding. sCounty boroughs. ''Metal content of ores. 'At factor cost. "Trade includes Finance. ''Unemployed. "'1988. IU991. i2First quarter. i3Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. ^National schools only. ''Acute-care public hospitals only. 1

Britannica World Data

634

Israel

Price

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1988

name: Medina! Yisra'el (Hebrew); Israll (Arabic) (State

Official

of

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

1989

71

8

70

8

1990 119 116

00 00

138 148

133 130

149 166

Israel).

Form of government:

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S. $2,1 10,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2,3 13,000,000. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$72,667,000,000 (U.S.$13.760 per capita).

multiparty republic withi one legislative house

(Knesset [120]). Chief of stale: President.

Head of government: Prime Capital: Jerusalem

is

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Minister. the proclaimed

in

Israel

Manufacturing, mining Construction Public

utilities

Transp and Trade Finance

and the Arab parties

Public

concerned.

and community services

Services Other TOTAL

Hebrew; Arabic.

Official religion: none.

Monetarv unit: 1 New (Israeli) sheqel (N1S) = 100 agorot; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = NIS3.0I; £ = NIS4.76.

commun

1

/

labour force

value

2,398

2.3

21 ,488

20,9

7,777 2,299 7,560 9,665 24,065 4,110

7.6 2,2 7 4

23.4 4.0

23,481

22 8

Agriculture

peace talks between

Official languages:

% of total

value

NIS 000,000

but recognition of its status as capital by the international community has largely been withheld pending final settlement of territorial and other issues through

1994

1991

capital of Israel (since Jan. 23, 1950) and the actual seat of government,

94

100

102,843

»/

of labour

force

62,100 396,200 118.000 20,300 108,900 280,900 206,300 524,300 143,200 159,0009 2,019,2008

3.1

196

58 10 54 139 102 260 71 7.99

100 08

Household income and expenditure (1993). Average household size 3.5; monthly income per household"* NIS 6,125 (U.S. $2,034); sources of income (1993)'": salaries and wages 63.4%, allowances and assistance 18.9%, self-

1

Area and population

area!

employment 14.6%, other 3.1%; expenditure (1993): housing 19.5%, food, beverages, and tobacco 16.6%, transportation 12.8%, clothing 4.9%, household durable goods 4.5%, energy 2.5%.

population

19942 Districts

Central (Ha Merkaz) Haifa (Hefa) Jerusalem (Yerushaiayim) Northern (Ha Zafon)

sq mi

Capitals Haifa Tiberias

Beersheba

Tel Aviv

Tel Aviv-Yafo

km

estimate

Foreign trade

Ramla Jerusalem

Southern (Ha Darom)

sq

479 330 215

1,242

1,138,200

854 557

705,200 630,400

1,347 5.439

3,490 14,087 170 20,400

66

TOTAL

7,876

Balance of trade (current prices)

901 ,600 695,200 1,140,700 5,211,3003,4

US. $000,000

%

Demography Population (1995): 5,386,0003.5. Densitv (1995)''f': persons per sq mi 673.9, persons per sq km 260.2. Urbati-rural {\994y-: urban 90.5%; rural 9.5%. Sex distribuiion (1993): male 49.6%; female 50.4%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 30.0%; 15-29, 25.0%.; 30-44, 20.0%; 45-59, 12.3%; 60-74, 8.9%; 75 and over, 3.8%. Population projection: (2000) 5,881,000; (2010) 6,713,000. Doubling time: 44 years. Ethnic composition (1994): Jewish 81.4%; Arab and other 18.6%. Religious affiliation (1994): Jewish 81.4%; Muslim (mostly Sunn!) 13.9%; Christian 2.7%; Druze and other 2.0%. Major cities (1991): Jerusalem 567,100; Tel Aviv-Yafo 357,400; Haifa 246,500; Holon 162,800; Petah Tiqwa 151,100; Bat Yam 143,200.

Vital statistics

Binh rate per 1,01)0 population (1994): 21.2 (world avg. 25.0); (1990)7 mate 98.5%; illegitimate 1.5%. Death rale per 1,000 population (1994): 6.2 (world avg. 9.3).

legiti-

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 15.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.9. Marriage rale per 1, ()()() population (1994): 6.4. Divorce rate per 1.000 population (1994): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 75.1 years: female 78.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 263.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 127.9; diseases of the respiratory system 42.0; accidents 32.9.

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-2,358.1

-3,504.0 13-1%

-5,473.3

-6.1350 19.8%

-5,692 1 16.1%

-6,695 4

19.6%

of total

10.0%

Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 356 mi, 573 km; passenger-mi 132,800,000, passenger-km 213,700,000; short ton-mi cargo 734,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,072,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 8.620 mi, 13,872 km (paved 100'~f). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 978,652: trucks and buses 222,108. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 58; total

deadweight tonnage 723,418. Air transport (1992)"; pa.ssenger-mi 5,332,000,000, passenger-km 8,581,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 534,832,000, metric ton-km cargo 860.731,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 7. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 31: total circulation 1,240,000; circulation per 1.000 population 242. Radio (1991): 2,250,000 receivers (1 per 2.2 persons). Television (1991): 1,200,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 1,958,100 (1 per 2.7 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94) Primary (age 6-13)

Revenue: NIS 115,944,000,000 (1993; income tax and property 25.2%, value-added tax 18.1%, internal loans 18.0%, external loans

liudgct (1994). tax

12.8%). Expenditures: NIS 18,101,00(),0()() (1993; defense 17.5%', debt 16.4%, interest on loans 13.2%, labour and social welfare 10.2%, education and culture 8.8%). Public debt (1992): U.S.$54,742,000,000. Production (metric Ions except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): grapefruit 370,000, tomatoes 365,000, potatoes 235,000, wheat 145,000, watermelons 125.000, seed cotton 90,000; livestock (number of live animals) 362,000 cattle, 33().()0I) sheep. lOO.OOO goats, 23,000,000 chickens: roundwood (1993) 113,()()l) cu m: fish catch (1993) 18,661. Mining and quarrying (1993): phosphate rock 5,787,000; potash 1,.W9,000; lime 210,000; bromine 1

130,000; bromine compounds I21,f)00. Manufacturing (1993): cement 3,500,000; polyethylene 144,147; sulfuric acid 1.30,000; paper 95,872; cardboard 95,108; chlorine .35,241; ammonium sulfate 11,817; wine 12,7.33,000 litres. Construction (1993): residential 3.696.000 sq m; nonresidential 1,872.000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 28,300.000 (28,.30().0()()); coal (metric tons; 1993) none (5,180,000); crude petroleum (barrels: 1993) 55.800 (74,825,000); petroleum products (metric ions; 1992) 8,958,000 (8,178,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 23,920,000 (23,920,000). Land use (1993): forested 6.0%; meadows and pastures 6.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 20.7% other 66.4%. Population economically active (I994)«: total 2,019,200; activity rate of total population 37.1% (participation rates: over age 15, 53.6%; female 42.8%; ;

unemployed 7.8%).

5%

Transport and communications

Secondary (age 14-171

National economy

16

Imports (1994): U.S.$23,701, 100,000 (investment goods 17.9%; diamonds 16.6%; consumer goods 13.0%; fuel and lubricants 7.1%). Major import sources: U.S. 18.0%; Belgium 12.8%; Germany 10.4%; U.K. 8.7%; Italy 7.8%; Switzerland 6.5%; France 4.5%; Japan 4.1%. Exports (1994): U.S.$17,005,700 (machinery 30.8%; worked diamonds 22.1%; chemicals 14.4%; textiles 6.2%; food, beverages, and tobacco 5.0%; rubber and plastic 3.2%). Major export destinations: U.S. 31.0%; Japan 5.4%; Belgium 5.3%; U.K. 5.0%; Germany 5.0%; Hong Kong 5.0%; The Netherlands 3.7%; France 3.4%; Italy 3.0%.

Vocational Higher

1,844

838 383

52,135 34,956 19,479

677,404 341,929 122,721

Educational attainnwiil (1991), Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling b.T^i: primary education 22.5%: secondary 39,f/f; postsecondary. vocational, and higher 31.2%. Literacy (1992): total population age 15 and over literate 3,390,027 (94.8%); males literate 1,698,696 (97.K;); females literate 1,692,331 (92.7^f). Health (1993): physicians (1987) 11.895 (1 per 345 persons): hospital beds 31,992 (1 per 177 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births 7.5. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,050 (vegetable products 80%, animal products 20%); 119% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 172,000 (army 77.9%, navy 3.5%, air force 18.6%). Militar)- expenditure as percentage ofGNP(\993): 9.4%. (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.S 1,226.

lExcluding West Bank (2.270 sq mi [5.879 sq km)), Gaza Strip (146 sq mi [378 sq km]). Golan Heights (444 sq mi |1.I5() sq km|). and East Jerusalem (27 sq mi [70 sq km)), -January 1. 'Includes pupulalion of Golan Heights (29.001)) and East Jerusalem. l(i..'(HI) m the West Bank and Gaza Strip. ^Excludes Israelis in Je«i-.h loeaiilies (pop Mncludes Israelis in JevMsh loeaiilies m the West Bank and Gaza Strip. ''Includes area and population of East Jerusalem and Golan Heights, ^Jewish population only. "Excludes armed forces: includes Israelis in occupied territories. ''Mostly unemployed. "OUrhan population only. "El Al only. i::iQ91-92. 1

Nations of the World

Italy Official

Area and population

name: Repubblica

Italiana

(Italian Republic).

Form of government:

republic with two legislative houses (Senate [326'] Chamber of Deputies [630]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital:

6. 1

unit:

Messina Palermo

Siracusa Trapani

Siracusa Trapani Florence Arezzo Florence Grosseto Livorno

Livorno

none.

1

Lucca

lira (Lit,

plural

=

£ = Lit

Messina Palermo Ragusa

Grosseto

100 centesimi; valuation (Oct. 1995) 1 U.S.$ = Lit 1,617;

lire)

Enna

Firenze

Official religion:

Monetary

Catania

Enna

Arezzo

Official language: Italian.

2,557.

Massa-Carrara Pisa

Pisa

Pistoia

Pistoia

Prato

Prato

Siena

Perugia

Siena Bolzano Bolzano Trento Perugia Perugia

Terni

Term

Bolzano-Bozen

Abruzzi

Capitals

sq mi

L'Aquila Chieti

LAquila Pescara

L'Aquila

Teramo

Teramo

Pescara

5,249 1,078

10,794 2,587 5,034 1,225 1,948 9,992 3,447 6,545 15,080 2,392 6.650 1,716 3.183 1,139 13,595 2,792

800

2.071

4,168

999 1,944

473 752 3,858

Catanzaro

Potenza Matera Potenza Catanzaro Catanzaro

Cosenza

Cosenza

2,568

Crotone Reggie di Calabria Vibo Valenlia

Crotone Reggio di Calabria Vibo Valentia Naples

Matera Potenza Calabria

Campania Avellino

Avellino

Benevento

Benevento

Caserta Napoli Salerno

Caserta Naples Salerno

Emilia-Romagna Bologna

Bologna Bologna

Ferrara

Ferrara

Forli

Forli

Modena Parma

Modena Parma

Piacenza

Piacenza

Ravenna Reggio nell'Emilia

Ravenna

Rimini

Rimini Trieste

Friuli-Venezia Giulia

Gorizia

sq

km

Reggio neH'Emilia

Gorizia

Pordenone

Pordenone

Trieste

Trieste

Udine

Udine

1,331

2,527 5,823

924 662 1.229

440

1,019

452 1,900 8,542 1,429 1,016

969 1,039 1,332 1,000

718 885 154

2.639 1.171

4.922 22,123 3,702 2,632 2,510 2,690 3,449 2,589 1.859 2,292

6

467

1,195,055 138,129

212

Frosinone

1,251

Latina

869

2.251

Rieli

Rieti

1,061

Roma

Rome

Viterbo

Viterbo

2,066 1,395 2,092

Imperia La Spezia

Imperia

709 446

2.749 5.352 3.612 5,418 1,836 1.155

La Spezia

341

882

Savona

Savona

596

1,545 23,857 2.722 4.782 1,288

Genova

Lombardia

Milan

Bergamo

Bergamo

Brescia

Brescia

Como

Como

Cremona

Cremona

Lecco

Lecco

Lodi

Lodi

Mantova

Mantova

Milano Pavia Sondrio

Milan Pavia

Varese

Sondrio Varese

Ancona

Ancona Ancona

Ascoli Piceno

Ascoli Piceno

Macerata Pesaro e Urbino

Macerata Pesaro

Marche

Molise

Campobasso Isernia

Campobasso Campobasso Isernia

9,211 1,051 1,846

497 684 315 302 903 765 1,145 1,240

463 3,743

749 806 1,071

1,117 1,713 1,123

590

Turin

9,8079

Alessandria

Alessandria

1,375

Asti

Asti

Piemonte

275.650 259,172 522.104

2,273

Rome

5.162.073

482,327 481,178 147,167 3,770,157 281.244 1.668,896

940,470 216,788 226,456 285,182 8.882,408 939.870' 1.050.405

800,7707 328,867

1,771

'

816 783 2,339 1,980 2,965 3,212 1,199 9,693 1,940 2,087 2.774 2.892 4,438 2,909 1.529 25,399 3,560

8

369,410 3,926,1618 490,619 176.015 800,291 1

.433,994

438,138 363,127 296,250 336,479 331 ,494 239,473 92,021 4,303,830 437.476 208,376

Biella

583 352

1,511

Biella

913

10

Cuneo

Cuneo

2,665

548,354

530

6,903 1,373 6,830

Novara

Novara

Torino

Turin

Verbano-CusioOssola

Verbania

Vercelli

Vercelli

2,637

858 806 7,470 1,980

Puglia

Ban

Ban

Bari

Brindisi

Brindisi

710

Foggia Lecce Taranto

Foggia Lecce Taranto

2,774 1,065 941

Sardegna

Cagliari

9,301

Cagliari

Cagliari

Nuoro Onstano

Oristano

2.662 2,720 1.016 2,903 9,926 1,175

Sassari Sicilia (Sicily)

Nuoro Eassan Palermo

Agrigento

Agrigento

Caltanissetta

Caltanissetta

822

2.221

2,088 19,348 5,129 1,838 7,185 2,759 2,437 24.090 6,895 7,044 2.631

7.520 25,709 3,042 2,128

989 1.254 1,927

623 814 951 8,877 1,248 1,365 1.739

468 684 447 945 373 133 1,475 5,258 2,857 2,401

3,265 2,446

819

Belluno

Belluno

1,259 7,090 1,420

Padova

Padova

827

Veneto

Rovigo

Rovigo

691

Treviso

Treviso

Venezia Verona Vicenza

Venice

956 950

TOTAL

Verona Vicenza

1,195 1,051

116,32413

3,552 2,562 3,248 4,992 1,614 2,109 2,462 22,9929 3,232 3,536 4,504 1,213 1,773 1,157 2,448

965 344 3,821 13,618 7,400 6,218 8,456 6,334 2,122 3,262 18,364 3,678 2.142 1,789 2,477 2,460 3,096 2.722 301,27713

1

,045,545

186,597 651,465 1,231,733

291,617 404,667 429,033 3,528,735 314,907 1,180,689'2

217,769 337,176 376,875 200,079 385,061 265,191 12

250,988 896,722 444,243 452,479 814,796 591

,81

222,985 117,204 4,395.263 212.033 823.890

247,322 747.960 819,530 791 ,977 752,551 56,960,300

Demography

5

5.668,895 441,632 293,600 823.646 3.037.837 1.072.180 3.920,223 908,926 359.079 611.5486 606,828 392,232 268,209 350,282 423,119

400

Lalina

Aosta Venice

1.371

5

577,887

7,845

Frosinone

Genoa Genoa

384,364 298.786 290,585 281,814 610,821 208.934 401 ,887 2,074,763 743,7175 753,159

180 878 82

4,893 17,203 3,239

Liguria

1,255,549

3,029

1,889 6,642

Lazio

estimate"

Valle d'Aosta

Chieti

Basilicata

Umbria

19932

Regions Provinces 3

Trento

population

area

Ragusa

Lucca Massa-Carrara

Trentino-Alto Adige

Area and population

(continued)

Catania

Toscana

Rome.

635

498.673" 2,236,422 1'

374,529'° 4,049,972 1,540,319 412.619 697,321 809,261 590.452 1.651,902 764,907 273.105 157.344 456.546 4.997.705 478.352 278.696

Population (1995): 57,386,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 493.3, persons per sq km 190.5. Urban-rural (1993^): urban 66.9%; rural 33.1%. Sex distribution (1991): male 48.61%; female 51.39%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 16.4%; 15-29, 23.9%; 30-44, 20.9%; 45-59, 18.2%; 60-74, 14.1%; 75 and over, 6.5%. Population projection: (2000) 57,453,000; (2010) 56,180,000. Doubling time: not applicable; population stable. Ethnolinguistic composition (1983): Italian 94.1%; Sardinian 2.7%; Rhaetian 1.3%; other 1.9%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 83.2%; nonreligious 13.6%; atheist 2.6%; other 0.6%;. cities (19932.4): Rome 2,723,327; Milan 1,358,627; Naples 1,071,744; Turin 952,736; Palermo 696,735; Genoa 667,563; Bologna 401,308; Florence 397,434; Bari 342,129; Catania 329,898; Venice 305,617. National origin (1980): Italian 98.8%; foreign-born 1.2%, of which Austrian 0.4%, French 0.2%, Slovene 0.2%. Albanian 0.1%, other 0.3%. Mobility (1981). Population living in the same residence as in 1976: 92.4%. Households. Average household size (1991) 2.8; composition of households: 1 person 20.6%, 2 persons 24.7%, 3 persons 22.2%, 4 persons 21.2%, 5 or more persons 11.3%. Family households (1983): 15,205,000 (85.3%); nonfamily 2,617,000 (14.7%), of which 1-person 13.0%. hnmigration (1991): immigrants admitted 126,935, from Europe 42.0%, of which EC countries 18.4%; Africa 25.3%; Western Hemisphere 20.7%; Asia

Major

11.1%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 9.3 (world avg. 25.0); (1992) legitimate 93.3%; illegitimate 6.7%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 9.5 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): -0.2 (world avg. 15.7).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 1.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: (1992): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 73.6 years; female 80.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 425.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 260.6; diseases of the respiratory system 59.6; accidents and violence 53.2; diseases of the digestive system 50.1.

Social indicators Educational attainment (1989-90). Percentage of population age 14 and over having: no formal schooling 9.1%; primary education 60.7%; lower secondary 6.5%; upper secondary 18.8%; higher 4.9%. Quality of working life. Average workweek (1985): 36.6 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers (1988) for: injury or accident 3,697; industrial illness 4051'*; death 5.7. Percentage of labour force insured for damages or income loss (1992) resulting from: injury 100%.; permanent disability 100%; death 100%. Number of working days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workers (1993): 389. Average duration of journey to work: n.a. Rate per 1,000 workers of discouraged (unemployed no longer seeking work; 1990); 1.1. Material well-being. Rate per 1,000 of population possessing (1991): telephone 579; automobile 494; television 299 (colour's 188). Eligible voters participating in last national election (1994): 73.0%. Trade union membership in total workforce (1990): c. 28%. Social deviance (1993). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 2.5; rape 3.0; assault 203.3; theft, including burglary and housebreaking 2,918.

Social participation.

Access to services (1981). Proportion of dwellings having access to: electricity 99.5%; safe water supply 98.7%; toilet facilities 98.5%; bath facilities 86.4%. Leisure (1992). Favourite leisure activities (as percentage of household spending on culture): sporting events 17.8%; cinema 16.3%; theatre 14.0%.

636

Britannica World Data

National economy

Financial aggregates

Gross national product (1993): U.S.S 1,1 34,800,000,000 (U.S.$19,620 per capita).

1993

1

labour force

of total

value

29

1.984.100

20,2

457,300 4.162.100

Trade Finance

Pub admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

86,824 89,086 98,649 284,534 210,883 200,201 215,499 14,04016 1.560,114

of labour

1991

1992

1993

1994

1,198.1

1,240.6

1.573 7

1,612,4

1.609,7

£

2,1381

2,1951

1,607,8

1

,646.5

2,3637 2,3405

2,4696 2,3792

2,5670

SDR

1,232 4 2,175.8 2.022,4

48,679

27,643

27,545 241 2,164 25,140

37,783 92 2,089 35,602

6.3 18.2 13.5 12.8 13,8 0.9 '6

SDRs

1,037 (000,000) Reserve pos in IMF (000,000) 1,714 Foreign exchange (000,000) 60,176 6667 Gold (000,000 fine troy 02) 7,1 % world reserves

18.4

74

1

0.8

and prices Central bank discount Govt, bond yield (%)

21.7

19 16,4

2,471.1

7.1

73

73

930

238

2,255 45,495

2,439 24,966 66.67

66 67 7

1

6667 7.3

of

12 50 11,87

12.00 11.37

12.00

8.00

7 50

90028

1367

11,21

1057

12.0628

100.0

84.7

70.5

835

104

1

99 128

payments

(U.S.$'000,000)

100,09

22,621,800

(%)

Industnal share prices (1990 = 100)

161

Balance

100.09

6667

32,265 125 2,033 30,107 66 67

Interest

6.4

439,600 3,649,500 3,708,800

62,927

Total (excl. gold; 000,000)

88 20

.664,500 184,400 1,456,500 4,915,000

5.6 5.7

rate. Lit per;

International resen/es (U.S.S)

force

45,459 J

Public utilities Transp. and commun

°/

314939 JI4,3jm

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

%

in value 000.000,000)

(Lit

19952'

1990

U.S. dollar

Exchange

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Balance of

Budget (1993). Revenue: Lit 430,573,000,000,000 (income taxes 43.4%, of which individual 34.3%, corporate -5,3'r; value-added and excise taxes 31.3%). Expenditures: Lit 634,641 )(!().( 100,00(1 (iW2; social security and welfare 24.4%; debt service 23.7%; education and culture 9.9%; transportation 5.4%; defense 3.1%).

Imports, Exports,

f

b.

Balance of invisibles Balance of payments. current account

1,(

Public debt (1993): U.S.$ 1,038,200,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts U.S.$20,52 1,000.000; expenditures U.S.$13,053,000,-

-895 724 32.825 35,497 3,088 169,216 -169,701 -175,067 -136,328 -154,308 169,153 189,805 168,806 178,155 169,940

visible trade

fob

Land

-14,946

-20,556

-31,082

- 21 ,763

-19,875

-14,222

-21,451

- 27,994

11,062

15,622

use (1993): forested 23.0%;

meadows and

pastures 14.6%; agricultural

and under permanent cultivation 40.3%; other 22.1%.

000.

Foreign trade Manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises (1991)

Balance of trade (current prices) wages as a

no, of

Manufactunng Electrical machinery Machinery (nonelectrical) Industrial

no. of

prises"

employees '8

chemicals

932

Textiles Pottery, ceramics, and glass Wearing apparel Iron and steel^i Food products Rubber and plastic products

1.749 2,964 2.054 4.808 1,027 1.404 1.753

Paper and paper products 20 Petroleum and gas Mining and quarrying Construction

16 3432' 326,00022

avg

of

of

wages '9

annual value added (Lit '000,000,000)

98.0 119.7 117,7 103.2 84.4 75.0

122 6

922 84,4

867

2,843 931 53,46523

136.6

7.781 18,0002'

Lit

% 24,343 23.939 17.947 16.745 12.837 12,549 12,089 10,794 10,706 9,187 8.969 7,509

112.1

254,781 151,000 122,784 138,054 118,578

535

Metal products

all

340,057 357,654 193,527 316,404 148,807 229.829 161.592

2.300 4,017 1,076

Transport equipment Printing, publishingso

%

enter-

1,849,00023

000,000,000 of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-1,012 0.3%

-3,358 0.8%

+724

-1,913 0,4%

2,229

50,789

0.5%

10.6%

0.2%

Imports (1993): Lit 232,187,445,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 30.3%, of which transport equipment 11.7%, precision machinery 6.1%; chemicals 16.2%; metal and semiprocessed metal 8.1%; food and live animals 6.9%; crude petroleum 6.0%; textiles 3.9%). Major import sources: Germany 19.4%; France 13.6%; U.K. 5.8%; The Netherlands 5.7%; U.S. 5.3%; Switzerland 5.1%. Exports (1993); Lit 265,092,306,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 41.0%, of which transport equipment 10.3%, electrical machinery 4.9%, precision machinery 4.0%; chemicals 10.4%; textiles 8.5%; wearing apparel 7.5%., of which shoes 3.5%; metal and processed metal 7.0%). Major export destinations: Germany 19.5%; France 13.1%; U.S. 7.8%; U.K. 6.4%.

Transport and communications Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugar beets 12,400,000, grapes 9,372,000, wheat 7,805,000, com (maize) 7,661,000, tomatoes 5,295,000, olives 2,779,000, apples 2,103,000, potatoes 1,967,000, peaches and nectarines 1,679,000, barley 1,507,000, pears 946,000, soybeans 740,000; livestock (number of live animals) 10,370,000 sheep, 8,200,000 pigs, 7,683,000 cattle, 137,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 9,860,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 552,024. Mining and quarrying (1993): rock salt 3,021,427; feldspar 1,534,421; potash 1,4.38,850; zinc 62,558; barite 51,097; lead 23,160M. Manufacturing (1993): cement 33,770,601; crude steel 25,352,672; pig iron 11,188,311; plastics 3,212,363; sulfuric acid 2,287,762; caustic soda 934,157; textiles 423,850; wine 62,618,000 hectolitres; beer 10,488,900 hectolitres24; olive oil 6,290,000 hectolitres; 5,132,500 washing machines^"; 4,010,600 rcfrigerators24; 2,051,556 motorized road vehicles, of which 1,115,782 automobiles, 745,194 motorcycles, scooters, and mopcds, 150,580 trucks

and buses; 2,434,484

televisions-'^,

of which 2,433,067 colour-''. Construcm; commercial, industrial, and other

tion (1992): residential 95,781,826 cu

Transport. Railroads (1992): length 12,176 mi, 19.595 km; passenger-mi 30,050,000,000, passenger-km 48,361,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 15.091.000,000, metric ton-km cargo 22.033,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 188,597 mi, 303,518 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1991): passenger cars 28,200,000; trucks

and buses 2,521,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1.636; total deadweight tonnage 10.940.065. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 18.429.0(1(1.(100, passenger'-km 29,658.600.000; short ton-mi cargo 914,300,000, metric ton-km cargo 1,334,900,000; airports (1995) 32. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 111; total circulation 9,048,700; circulation per 1.000 population 157. Radio (1994): 45,350,000 receivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1994): 17,000,500 receivers (1 per 3.4 persons). Telephones (19922): 32,945,122 (1 per 1.7 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94)

88,078,352 cu m. Pnmary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11 Voc teacher tr

Service enterprises (1993) hourly

,

no

wage as

of

no of employees 26

enterprises '9

Public utilities Transportation

1

Communications

f

Finance Wholesale and

Pub

trade admin., services retail

1

a all

% of wages

annual value added 000.000,000)

1,398

230.000 1.146,000

98.649

89,092

895.000 4,537,000 5.986.000

210.883 284,534 200.201

,495.702

30

teachers

students

21,378

172,777 101,800 129.821 56,723

2,863,003 1,996,677 2,718,958 1,538,606

9,721

7,774

50

student/ teacher ratio

166 196 20 9

271

(Lit

132.164

'5

Higher29

18)

schools

89,086

production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 226,243.000,000 (261. .543.000.000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 825.000 (18.389.000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) .30,694.00(1 (598.165.000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 85,102,000 (92,982,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 17,996,-

Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 47.507.000 (97.1%); males literate 22,832.000 (97.8%); females literate 24.675.000 (96.4%). Health (1992): physicians 296.385 (1 per 193 persons): hospital beds 389,432 (1 per 147 persons); infant mortality rale per 1.000 live births (1994) 6.7. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,561 (vegetable products 75%,

animal products 25%); 141% of

FAO

recommended minimum requirement.

linergy

000,000(50,216,000,000). Popidaiion economically active (1993): total 22,621,800; activity rate of total population 40.6% (participation rates: ages 14-64, 59.3%-''; female 37.0%; unemployed 10.4%).

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 322,300 (army 63.6%, navy 13.7%, air (1991): 2.1% (world force 22.7"^; ). Militar\- expenditure as percentage of 4.2%); per capita expenditure U.S.$421.

GNP

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer

price index

Earnings index

1988

1989

88,4 87.9

93 9 93 2

1994

1990 100 100

1063

121 5

109 8

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 2.7; average annual income per household (1984) Lit 19,692.000 (U.S.$1I.208); sources of income (1991): salaries and wages 41.7%'. property income and self-employment 38.0%, transfer payments 20.3%; expenditure: food and beverages 20. 5'^f, housing 13.8%, transportation and communications 13.2%, recreation and education 9.1%.

ilncluitcs II nonclcclivc scats. -Januan I. 'SLx provinces were created in 1992. 'Resident nopuliilioii onK Halanzaro includes Crotone and Vibo Valcntia. 'rorli inclmlcs Rimini "Lccai is included partly in Bergamo and partly in Como. NMilano includes I.odi, "Detail dues not add to total given because of rounding. n'Vercelli includes Biella. I'Novara includes Verbano-Cusio-Ossoia. i-Firenze includes Prato. "The total area for Italv, per the latest suney. is .301,.^04 sq km (116.336 si) mi). 1^1978. 1M9SK. i"Imputed bank charges less duties on imports. nHnterprises with 20 or more persons engaged. iKTolal number of persons engaged. ''1981. 2iiprinting, publishing includes Paper products. 21 1989. :2AII enterprises (1982). ;-n987. 211992. 251991. 261990. 27July. 2iiMay. 29Universities only. '"1992-93.

Nations of the World

Jamaica

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force Atlantic

Official

name: Jamaica.

Form of government: monarchy with two

legislative

/,

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Caribbean

Public

Sea

\pj

,,

''%

Transp. and

Jamaica dollar

value

11,912.1

97

9,4347

7,7 19.7

commun.

of labour

force

218,100 6,800 95,100 66,300 5,000 40,100 195,500

200

284,000

26.0

179,8009 1.090,700

16.59 100.0

126 2.3 9.2

24.6

4,9600

Pub. admin., defense Finance, real estate Sen/ices Other TOTAL

"/o

force

06 8.7 6.1

0,5

37 17.9

4.0-

17,668.4 5.769.2

14.4 4.7.

- 10,946.26

-8.9

123,046.5

100.0

=

100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = J$35.75; 1 £ = J$56.52.

(J$)

utilities

labour

of tota

24.263.3 15.554.8 2,839.2 11,300.6 30,290.4

Trade

"/C^;

Official language: English. official religion: none. 1

Agriculture

{^m=^

"

%

value J$'000,000 In

constitutional

Capital: Kingston.

imit:

1994

Ocean

houses (Senate [21]; House of Representatives [60]). Chief of stale: British Monarch represented by governor-general. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Monetary

637

Area and popu lation Parishes

Capitals

Clarendon Hanover Kingston Manchester

May Pen Lucea 2

Mandevllie Port Antonio

Portland Saint Andrew Saint Ann Saint Catherine Saint Elizabeth Saint James Saint Mary Saint Thomas

2

Saint Ann's Bay

Spanish Town Black River

Montego Bay Port Maria

Trelawny

Moranl Bay Falmouth

Westmoreland

Sevan na-la-Mar

TOTAL

Population economically active (1994): total 1,090,500; activity rate of total population 43.4% (participation rates: ages 14-64 [1990] 71.6%; female 48.0%; unemployed [1993] 15.4%). area

sq mi

462 174 8 321

314 166 468 460 468 230 236 287 338 312 4,244

population

sq

km

1,196

450 22 830 814 431 1,213 1,192 1,212

595 611

743 875 807 10,991

1994' estimate

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

222,500 66,600

Consumer phce

index

1988

19B9

1990

1991

1992

717

82.0

100.0

151.1

267 8

173,100 78,500 697,000 154,500 370,600 146,600 166,000 113.700 88.900 74,100 130.500 2,482,600

Balance of trade (current prices) 1989 U.S.$'000,000

229.3.

Age breakdown

(1994): under 15, 31.6%; 15-29, 29.8%; 30-^4, 18.7%; 45-59, 9.7%; 60 and over, 10.2%. Population projection: (2000) 2,619,000; (2010) 2,925,000. Doubling time: 38 years. Ethnic composition (1982): black 74.7%; mixed black 12.8%; East Indian 1.3%; other 11.2%, of which not stated 9.5%. Religious affiliation (1982): Protestant 55.9%, of which Church of God 18.4%, Baptist 10.0%, Anglican 7.1%, Seventh-day Adventist 6.9%, Pentecostal 5.2%; Roman Catholic 5.0%; nonreligious or atheist 17.7%; not stated 11.2%; other 10.2%, of which Rastafarian c. 5.0%. Major cities (1991); Kingston 103,77H (metropolitan area 587,798); Spanish

Town

92,383;

Portmore 90,138; Montego Bay 83,446;

May Pen

4279

Foreign trade n

% of total

km

19941°

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$3,604,000,000. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1994) U.S. $915,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1993) U.S.$64,000,000. Land use (1992): forested 17.0%; meadows and pastures 23.7%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 20.2%; other 39. \%.

Demography Population (1995): 2,520,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 593.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 50.2%; rural 49.8%. Sex distribution (1994): male 49.96%; female 50.04%.

1993

327

Earnings Index

3

46,785.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 23.7 (world avg. 25.0); (1987) legitimate 14.9%, illegitimate 85.1%.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1994): 5.4 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 18.3 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.6. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 71.4 years; female 75.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 189.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 84.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders 51.3; diseases of the respiratory system 30.1.

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue J$43,636,000,000 (tax revenue 87.1%, of which income taxes 32.0%, consumption taxes 30.9%, stamp duties 4.7%; nontax revenue 12.9%). Expenditures: J$68,384,000,000 (current expenditure 56.6%, of which debt interest 22.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 2,450,000, yams 233,907, vegetables 171,821, bananas 78,577, citrus fruits 52,634, plantains 35,372, legumes 11,512, coffee 10,035, cacao beans 6,150, pimientos 1,500; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 440,000 goats, 330,000 cattle, 180,000 pigs; roundwood (1992) 169,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 10,717. Mining and quarrying (1994): crude bauxite 3,628,800; alumina 3,221,200; gypsum 203,700. Manufacturing (1994): sugar 223,041; flour 147,793; molasses 94,485; beer and stout 709,660 hectolitres; rum 210,730 hectolitres; cigarettes 1,273,260,000 units. Construction (1992): residential units completed 7,8205; factory space completed 6,989 sq m^. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 2,735,000,000 (2,735,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (8,708,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 1,206,000 (1,028,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 4.2; average annual income per household (1988) J$8,356 (U.S.$1,525); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 66.1%, self-employment 19.3%, transfers 14.6%; expenditure (1988)': food and beverages 55.6%, housing 7.9%, fuel and other household supplies 7.4%, health care 7.0%, transportation 6.4%, clothing and footwear 5.1%, household furnishings 2.8%, other 7.8%. Cross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$3,927,000,000 (U.S.$1,190 per capita).

1990

1992

1993

1994

-873

-785

-654

-636

-1,121

30.4%

25.3%

22.2%

23.2%

34.9%

-957.7 28.7%

1991

Imports (1994): U.S.$2,177,200,000 (raw materials 62.6%, of which fuels 15.1%; capital goods 16.6%, of which machinery and apparatus 8.2%; consumer goods 20.8%). Major import sources (1993): United States 54.1%; Mexico 5.9%; Japan 5.8%; United Kingdom 4.1%; Venezuela 3.4%; Trinidad and Tobago 3.4%; Netherlands Antilles 3.1%; Canada 3.0%. Exports (1994): U.S.$1,219,500,000 (alumina 44.1%; bauxite 5.9%; raw sugar 5.6%; bananas 3.7%; rum 1.7%; coffee 1.3%). Major export destinations (1993): United States 47.0%; United Kingdom 11.2%; Canada 9.4%; Norway 6.5%; France 4.3%; Ghana 3.6%.

Transport and communications Railroads (1991): route length 129 mi, 208 km; passenger-mi 12,127,0006, passenger-km 19,516,0006; short ton-mi cargo 1,700,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,482,000. Roads (1991): total length 10,212 mi, 16,435 km (paved 29%). Vehicles (1992-93): passenger cars 73,015; trucks and buses 30,548. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 12; total deadweight tonnage 16,207. Air transport (1993)12; passenger-mi 934,814,000, passenger-km 1,504,440,000; short ton-mi cargo 107,242,000, metric tonkm cargo 156,570,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3; total circulation 130,40013; circulation per 1,000 population 53 1\ Radio (1994): 995,000 receivers (1 per 2.5 persons). Television (1994): 484,000 receivers (1 per 5.2 Transport.

persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 255,200 (1 per 9.5 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94)

'i

student/

schools Primary (age 6-1 1)15 Secondary (age 12-16) Voc, teacher tr Higher

788'6 126 18

15"

teachers

students

10,417 7,848

311,146 216,285

897

15,776 23.834

1,04713

teacher

ratio

29.9 27.6 17.6 17.918

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 3.2%; some primary education 79.8%; some secondary 15.0%; complete secondary and higher 2.0%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 1,630,000 (98.4%); males literate 800,000 (98.2%); females literate 830,000 (98.6%). Health: physiciansi'' (1994) 394 (1 per 6,335 persons); hospital beds (1993) 5,023 (1 per 492 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1989) 27.0.

(1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2,558 (vegetable products 83%, animal products 17%); 1 14% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Food

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 3,320 (army 90.4%; coast guard 4.5%; air (1993): 1.1% (world force 5.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S. $16.

GNP

'January 1. 2The parishes of Kingston and Saint Andrew are jointly administered from the Half Way Tree section of Saint Andrew. JKingston included with Saint Andrew. •'City of Kingston is coextensive with Kingston parish. '51% public sector. ^1990. ^Weights of consumer price index components. "Less imputed service charges. 'Includes 167,400 unemployed. ^Second quarter. "Import figures are c.i.f i2Air

Jamaica only. 'SCirculation for 2 newspapers only. ''Public schools only, isincludes lower-secondary students at all-age schools. '61991-92. "1988-89. '81987-88. "Public health only.

638

Britannica World Data

^^y

Japan Official

name: Nihon (Japan).

Form of government: monarchy with

Other principal

constitutional

Sea of Japan

consisting of two legislative houses [252];

House of

Representatives [511]). Chief of state: Emperor. Head of government: Prime Minister.

i

"'

"iC

Eas't

Amagasaki Aomori Asahikawa

i

r \

Capital: Tokyo.

ific

Oc

imit:

1

=

yen (¥)

valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) ¥100.75; 1 £ = ¥159.27.

1

Chiba Fujisawa Fukui

Fukushima

'

Chinay-

Fukuyama Funabashi

Official language: Japanese. Official religion: none.

Monetarv

282,912 310,219 493,158 289,920 362,908 853,853 365,250 255,084 284,250 373,685 540,306 409,063 495,053 302.135 562,156 513,876 465,941 397,183 253.485 255,586 275,129 444,468 267,136 360,111 542,932

Akashi Akita

a National Diet

(House of Councillors

cities (1994')

Gifu Hachioji

Hakodate

100 sen; U.S.$ =

Hamamatsu Higashi-Osaka Himeji

Hirakata Hiratsuka

Area and population

Ibaraki

population

area

19941

Regions Prefectures

Capitals

sqkm

sq mi

estimate

Aichi

Nagoya

Fukui

Fukui

Gifu

Gifu

Ishikawa

Nagano

Kanazawa Nagano

Niigata

Niigata

Shizuoka

Shizuoka

Toyama

Toyama

Yamanashl

Kofu

6.819,000 827,000 2,090,000 1.173,000 2,177,000 2,482,000 3,723.000 1,122,000

5,139 4,192 10,596 4,198 13.585 12,579 7.773 4,252 4,463

1,984 1,619 4,091 1.621

5,245 4,857 3,001 1,642 1,723

869,000

Chugoku Hiroshima

Hiroshima

Okayama

Okayama

Shimane

Matsue

Tottori

Tottori

Yamaguchi

Yamaguchi

Hokkaido Hokkaido Kanto Chiba

(Territory)

Sapporo

32,247

Chiba Maebashi

Ibaraki

Mito

Kanagawa

Yokohama

Kagoshima

251,735 447,733

Kashiwa Kasugai

319,321 275,728

Kawagoe

320,639 452,381 320,498 324,321

Kawaguchi Kochi

Koriyama Koshigaya

297,131

Kumamoto

642,847 419,528 360,200 287,145 463.973 457,497

Kurashiki

Machida Maebashi Matsudo

Matsuyama

296,201 284,906

Miyazaki

Morioka

Nagano

354,532 439,471 299,898 357,728 257,521 492,009 424,328 424,453

Nagasaki

Naha Nara

Neyagawa Niigata

Nishinomiya Oita

population

Okayama Okazaki

Omiya Otsu Sagamihara Sakai

Sendai Shimonoseki Shizuoka Suita

Takamatsu Takatsuki

Tokorozawa Tokushima

Toyama Toyohashi

Toyonaka Toyota

Urawa Utsunomiya

608,115 322,162 427,519 272,668 567,058 803,640 958,705 259,581

473,859 338,079 330,707 361,494 318,714 265,670 324,638 351,702 399.988 342,968 447,281 434,860

Wakayama

395,491

Yamagata Yao

252.716 275.865 284,052 435.158

Yokkaichi

Yokosuka

Religious affiliation (1992): Shinto and related religions 51.3%; Buddhism 38.3%-; Christian 1.2%; other 8.9%. Households (1990). Total households 40,670,000; average household size 3.0; composition of households 1 person 23.1%, 2 persons 20.6%, 3 persons 1,S. r;. 4 persons 21.7%, 5 persons 9.3%, 6 or more persons 7.2%. Family households 31,204,000 (76.7%); nonfamily 9,466,000 (23.3^;), of which 1 person 9,390,000 (23.1%).

Type Total

of

household (1993)

number

ot

occupied dwelling

jnils

40,835,000

number

5,677,000

83,520

Saitama

Urawa Utsunomiya

1,467 2,476

Hyogo

Kobe

3.236

Mie Nara Shiga

Tsu Nara Otsu

2,231 1,425 1,551 1.824

5,754,000 1 ,993,000 2,935,000 8.184,000 6,692,000 1 ,973,000

5,151

1,989 2,454 2,353

6.356 6,094 2,403 3,799 6,414

928

Kinki

Wakayama

Wakayama

Kyushu Fukuoka Kagoshima

Fukuoka Kagoshima

Kumamoto

Kumamoto

Miyazaki

Miyazaki

4,016 4.725

Saga

942

Naha

871

2,255

Matsuyama Takamatsu

2,190

5,672 1,883 7,107 4,146

Nagasaki

Nagasaki Oita

5,514,000 1 ,827,000 1 ,422,000 1,269,000 1 ,082,000

8.381 5,778 3,692

4,963 9,167 7,408 7,735 4,113 6,338 2,440

Oita

Saga Ryukyu Okinawa

Ichikawa Ichinomiya

Kakogawa Kanazawa

of dwellings

percentage of

total

by kind of dwelling

Gumma

Tochigi

2,876,000 1,939,000 770,000 615,000 1 ,560.000

8,467 7,092 6,6292 3,4942 6,107

3,269 2,738 2,5592 1,3492 2,358

Ichihara

Iwaki

Chubu

population

population

1

^

1,916 3,539 2,860 2,986 1,588 2.447

4,896,000 1 ,787,000 1

,851 ,000

1,173.000 1 .549.000 1 ,232,000

880,000 1

,259.000

38,518,000 169,000 2.148,000 24,183,000 14,253,000 2,205,000

exclusively for living

mixed use

combined

with nondwelling

detached house apartment building tenement (substandard or overcrowded building)

943 0.4

5.3 59.2

349 54

194,000

0.5

24.410.000 15.721,000 704,000

598 385 17

30,524,000 38,196,000

935

other

by legal tenure of housefiolder

owned rented other

by kind of amenities flush toilet

bathroom

by year of construction prior to 1945 1945-70 1971-80 1981-88 1988-93

2,146,000 9,700,000 12,548,000 9,258,000 6,224,000

74 7

5,4 24.3 31.5

232 15.6

Shikoku

Ehime

Kagawa

727

Kochi

2,744

Tokushima

1,601

Akita

Akita

Aomori Fukushima Iwate Miyagi

Aomori Fukushima Morioka Sendai

4,4843 3.7143 5,322 5,898 2,815

Yamagata

Yamagata

3,601

Kochi

Tokushima Tohoku

1 1

,508,000 ,026,000

814,000 829,000

11,6133 9.6193 13,784 15,277 7,292 9,327

1,215,000 1,471,000 2,126,000 1,416,000 2.301,000 1 ,253,000

Metropolis Tokyo-'

Tokyo

836

11,771.000

2,166

Urban prefectures Kyoto 5

Kyoto

Osaka

Osaka

TOTAL

4,613 1.869

1,781

722 145,8836

^

377,8356

?

2.604,000 8,708,000 125,034.000'

Demography Population (1995): 125.362.000. Density (1995); persons per sq mi 859.3, persons per sq km 331.8. Urban'-rural:(\W3y. urban 77.4%; rural 22.6%. Sex distribution (1994'): male 49.05%; female 50.95%. Age breakdown (19941): under 15, 16.4%; 15-29. 22.0%; 30-44. 20.2%; 45-59, 21.5%: 60-74, 14.4%: 75 and over, 5.5%. Popidation projection: (2000) 127,287,000; (2010) 130,344,000. Doubling time: not applicable; doubling time exceeds 100 years. Composition by nationality (1993): Japanese 98.9%; Korean 0.5%; Chinese 0.2%; Brazilian 0.1%: other 0.3%. Place of birth (1994): 99.2% native-born; 0.8%) foreign-born (mainly Korean).

Immigration (1993): permanent immigrants/registered aliens admitted 1,320,748, from North and South Korea 51.7%, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China 15.9%. Brazil 11.7%. Philippines 5.5%, United Slates 3.2%. Peru 2.5%. United Kingdom 0.99;, Thailand 0.9';;. Vietnam 0.6%, Canada 0.5%, Australia 0.5%. other 6.1%. cities (1994'): Tokyo 8.021,943; Yokohama 3,300.513; Osaka 2,575,Nagoya 2.153,293; Sapporo 1.744.806; Kobe 1.518.982; Kyoto 1.448.377; Fukuoka i.275.I65; Kawasaki 1.202.069; Hiroshima 1.106..367: Kita-KyfishO

Major 042:

1.019,372.

Mobility (October 1990). Population living in same residence as in October 1985, 74.7%; different residence, same town 9.5%; same prefecture 7.9%; different prefecture 7.6%; different country 0.3%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1.(100 population (1994): mate 99.0';: illegitimate 1.0%.

10.0 (world avg. 25.0); (1985) legiti-

rate per 1.(100 population (1994): 7.1 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1994): 2.9 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1993): 6.4; median age at first marriage (1992) men 29.7 years, women 27.0 years. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 1.5. /,//(' expectancy at birth (1994): male 76.6 years; female 83.0 years. Major causes of death per 111(1.(100 ptipulation (1993): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 189.1; heart diseases 144.6; ccrcbro\ascular diseases 95.3: pneumonia and bronchitis 70.1; accidents and adverse effects 27.8: senility without mention of psychosis 18.5; suicide 16.4; nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis 14.8; cirrhosis of the liver 13.6; diabetes mcllitus 8.2.

Death

Social indicators Educatioiuil attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 years and over having: primary 34.3'r; secondary education 44.5%: postsccondary 21.2%).

Distribution of

income (1993)

percentag e of average household income by

12

113

15.6

3

4

19.0

23.0

quintile

5 (highest) 31

1

of working life. Average workweek (1993): 38.2 hours. Annual rate of industrial deaths per 100.000 workers (1992): 2.8. Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from injur>'. permanent disabilitv. and death (1991); .50.1%. Average man-days lost to labour stoppages per 1.000.000 workdays (1993): 4.2. Average duration of journey to work (1988)": 26.8 minutes (1983; 26.7% private automobile. 67.4% public

Quality'

Nations of the World

transportation, 5.5% taxi, 0.4% other). Rate per 1,000 workers of discouraged (unemployed no longer seeking work: 1993): 87.8. Access lo seivices (1989). Proportion of households having access to: gas supply 64.6%; safe pubHc water supply 94.0%; public sewage collection 89.4%.

Social participaiion.

voters participating in last national election (1993): 67.3%. Population 15 years and over participating in social-service activities on a voluntary basis (1987): 25.2%. Trade union membership in total workforce (1993): 24.2%. Social deviance (1992). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: homicide 1.0; rape 1.2; robbery 1.8; larceny and theft 1,227.3. Incidence in general population of: alcoholism, n.a.; drug and substance abuse, n.a. Rate of suicide per lOO.OOO population: 16.8.

Manufacturing and mining enterprises (1992) monthly

wages no

Eligible

establish-

avg no of persons

ments

engaged

machinery

Electrical

tobacco Chemical products Fabricated metal products Printing and publishing

and

steel

Ceramic, stone, and clay Plastic products Paper and paper products

Discretionary daily activities (1991) (Population age 1 5 years and over)

Textiles

weekly average

Apparel products Precision instruments Nonferrous metal products

hrs,/min.

5:56'

Total discretionary daily time

which Hobbies and amusements

and fixtures Rubber products Lumber and wood products Petroleum and coal products Furniture

of

0:36

Sports Learning (except schoolwork)

0:11

0:12 0:05 0:29 2:23

Social activities

Associations Radio, television, nevxspapers, and magazines Rest and relaxation Other activities IVIajor leisure activities

Leather products Mining and quarrying

(1991)

percentage of participation female total

|

male 93,0 84,2

90,8

Light exercises

308

34,1

Swimming

271

20.8

Bowling

33,0

23.1

32.0 23.8 27.9

363

37.0

367

72,7 10.4

68,3

70,4

7.6

9.0

Sports

Learning (except schoolworl

1

1

30.967

43

721,819

100 03

/

expenditure: n.a. use (1993): forested 54.2%;

Foreign trade^ Balance of trade (current prices)

% Of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-125.0 49,8%

-162.0 58.7%

-127.8 46.4%

-131.7 45.8%

-133.0 33.3%

-179.0 27.8%

Imports (1993): U.S.$41 1,000,000 (1989; major imports include cereals, other food products, petroleum products, agricultural and general machinery, and transport equipment). Major import sources (1992): Thailand 56.7%; Japan 13.1%; China 13.0%; Hong Kong 1.7%; France 1.4%. Exports (1993): U.S.$232,000,000 (1989; wood 33.3%, electricity 23.8%, coffee 14.3%, tin 3.2%). Major export destinations (1992): Thailand 38.9%; France 12.6%; Japan 11.4%; United States 6.0%; The Netherlands 5.9%.

Demography Population (1995): 4,882,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 53.4, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995): urban 22.0%; rural 78.0%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.25%; female 49.75%.

31

of labour

,359,000

1

meadows and pastures 3.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 3.5%; other 38.8%.

442.000 4,170,000

3.920 236,800

22,129 9,499

"/

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 6.0; average annual income per household KN 3,710 (U.S. $371); sources of income:

U.S.$'000.000

TOTAL

f

TOTAL

Municipalities

Viangchan

56,3 12,8 0.2

1,272

Public utilities Transportation and

labour force

value

406,233 92,358

Mining Construction

KN

Bolikhamxai

1989

% of total

value

KN 000,0002

20.6.

Age breakdown

(1990): under 15, 43.7%; 15-29, 26.0%; 30-44, 16.2%; 45-59, 9.2%; 60-74, 4.2%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 5,602,000; (2010) 7,188,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Lao-Lum (Lao) 67.0%; Lao-Theung (Mon-Khmer) 16.5%; Lao-Tai (Tai) 7.8%; Lao-Soung (Miao [Hmong] and Man [Yao]) 5.2%; other 3.5%. Religious affiliation (1980): Buddhist 57.8%; tribal religionist 33.6%; Christian 1.8%, of which Roman Catholic 0.8%, Protestant 0.2%; Muslim 1.0%; atheist 1.0%; Chinese folk-religionist 0.9%; none 3.8%; other 0.1%. Major cities (1985): Vientiane (Viangchan) 178,203; Savannakhet 96,652; Louangphrabang 68,399; Pakxe 47,323.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992):

total length 8,780 mi,

14,1.30

km

(paved 16%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 20,233; trucks and buses 12,987. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) I; total deadweight tonnage 1,469. Air transport (1989): passcnger-mi 27,000,000, passenger-km 44,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 3,0(10,000, metric ton-km cargo 5,000,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 11. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total circulation 14,000; circulation per 1,000 population 3.0. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 500,000 (1 per 9.5 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 80,000 (1 per 59 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 8,600 (1 per 526 persons).

Vital statistics

Education and health

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1995): 43.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1995): 14.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1995): 29.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rale (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 6.4.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1995): male 51.0 years; female 54.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (incomplete, 1990): malaria pneumonia 3.0; meningitis 1.5; diarrhea 1.2; tuberculosis 0.8.

Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-16) Voc, teacher tr. Highers

student/

schools

teachers

students

7.140

21.036 8.936

580,792 117,504 8,198 4.730

7505 1396 9

1,262

698

teacher

ratio

27,6 13.1

65 6.8

7.6;

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: KN 144,526,000,000 (taxes 59.5%, foreign grants 21.6%, nontax revenue 18.9%). Expenditures: KN 170,514,000,000 (current expenditure 61.5%, capital expenditure 38.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$ 1,948,000,000. Tourism (1991): total number of tourist arrivals 20,614. Population economically active (1989): total 1,888,000; activity rate of total population 49.0% (participation rates [1985]: ages 15-64, 84.2%; female 45.3%; unemployed 3.0%).

Educational attainment (1985). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no schooling 49.3%; primary 41.2%; secondary 9.1%; higher 0.4%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 83.9%; males literate 92.0%; females literate 75.8%. Health (1990): physicians 1,173 (1 per 3,555 persons); hospital beds 10,364 (1 per 402 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1995) 92.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,259 (vegetable products 89%, animal products 11%); 102% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 37,000 (army 89.2%, navy 1.4%, air force (1993): 7.9% (world 3.3%); 9.4%). Military expenditure as percent of per capita expenditure U.S. $23.

GNP

Price and earnings indexes (1990=100) Consumer pnce index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

46.2

73.7

100.0

113,4

124.5

133.2

142.1

Earnings index

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): rice 1,653,000, sugarcane 141,000, sweet potatoes 119,000, corn (maize) 77,000, cassava 68,000, pulses 43,000, potatoes 34,000, pineapples 34,000, melons 34,000, oranges 22,000, bananas 21,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,605,000 pigs, 1,308,000 water buffalo, 1,137,000 cattle, 153,000 goats, 29.000 horses, 9,000,000 chickens: roundwood (1993) 4,906,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 30,500. Mining and quarrying (1993): gypsum 80,000; rock salt 8,000; tin (metal content) 300; gemstones (mainly sapphires) 35,000 carats. Man-

'Formerly known as the Supreme People's Assembly. 2At constant 1990 prices. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. '•Import figures are c.i.f. in balance of trade and commodities. ? 1989-90. (11988-89.

650

Britannica World Data

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$5.254,Ono.nOO (U.S.$2.030 per capita).

Latvia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

name: Latvijas Republika (Republic of Latvia). Form of government: unitary multiparty Official

1993 in

republic with a single legislative body (Saeima, or Parliament [100]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Riga. official language: Latvian. Official religion: none. unit: 1 lats' (plural lati)

Monetary

Agnculture Manufacturing and minin g Construction Public utilities Transportation and

area

jurisdiction

population

area

19922

Cities of republic

sq

Daugavpils Jelgava JQrmala

km 3 72 60 100 60 17 295 46

Liepaja

Rezekne Riga Ventspils

127,279 73,917 60,901 113,815 43,073 897,078 50,435

Rural districts

Aluksne

Rural districts

Jelgava Kraslava Kuldlga Liepaja

UmbazJ Ludza

Madona

Balvi

Bauska Cesis Daugavpils

Dobele Gulbene Jekabpils

45,093

Rezekne

28,631

Riga

33.576 55,612 63,820 46,329 44,749 30,243 61.435

Saldus

sq

km 3

1,613 2,288 2,503 3,589 2.602 2,566 3,348 1,816 2.042 2,654 3,094 2.134 2,748 2,457 2,444 2,377 2,471 64.610

Prei|i

2,558 2,246 2,384 1.884 3,062 2,526 1,680 1,876 2.998

population

19922

estimate

Ogre Aizkraukle

labour force

of total

value

244 350 70 77

22,0 4,4

853

53 5 1

15.3

Taisi

Tukums Valka Valmiera Ventspils TOTAL

estimate

39.137 41,019 41.361 54,475 41,436 41,747 49,953 66,040 45,342 42,899 152,070 40,235 50,603 59,069 37,119 63,067 15,400 2,656.958

Demography Popidation (1995): 2,515,000. Densitv (1995): persons per sq mi 100.8, persons per sq km 38.9. Urban-rural (\^n): urban 69.2%; rural 30.8%. Sex distribution (1993): male 46.42%; female 53.58%. Age breakdown (1993): under 15, 21.0%: 15-29, 20.3%; 30-44, 21.6%; 45-59, 18.4%; 60-74, 13.9%; 75 and over, 4.8%. Population projection: (2000) 2,356,000; (2010) 2,068,000. Ethnic composition (1994): Latvian 57.8%; Russian 31.0%; Belarusian 4.4%; Ukrainian 2.8%; Polish 2.6%; Lithuanian 1.4%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, or Roman Catholic. Major cities (1993): Riga 803,952; Daugavpils 120,917; Liepaja 95,046; Jelgava

".'

of labour

force

83.000 351.400 82,200

24,0

103,700 119,600

7 1 8-2

5.7

56

48

>

,

Services Other TOTAL

10 santimi: valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = 0.54 lats; 1 £ = 0.85 lats.

Area and population

lats'

\

communications Trade Finance Pub. admin defense

=

1991

%

value

000,000

194,000

133

528,000'

36,1' 100,0

J ,

1,594

100.0

1

,461 ,900

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 3.1; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1991): wages and salaries 63.2%, pensions and transfers 16.6%, self-employment 5.3%, other 14.9%; expenditure (1991): food and alcohol 45.2%, consumer goods 34.8%, rent and social services 7.1%. Land use (1993): forested 44.0%; meadows and pastures 12.5%; agricultural and permanent cultivation 26.5%; other 17.0%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1992 U.S. $'000,000

%

Of total

1993

1994

-215

-59

-71

11.5%

2.9%

15.1%

Imports (1993): U.S.S 1,058,000,000 (mineral products 45.6%, machinery and equipment 9.9%, transport equipment 9.3%, chemical products 7.K>, food and agricultural products 6.4% ). Major import sources: Russia 25.6%; Africa and Middle East 9.8%; Lithuania 8.6%; Germany 6.6%; Sweden 3.7%; Belarus 3.7%. Exports (1993): U.S.$998,000,000 (food and agricultural products 15.0%, mineral products 14.3%, textiles 12.7%, transport equipment 12.6%, forestry products 9.6%). Major export destinations: Russia 29.8%; The Netherlands 8.3%; Germany 6.6%; Sweden 6.3%; Ukraine 5.9%.

Transport and communications

Vital statistics

Railroads (1993): length 2.413 km; passenger-km 2,388,0(J0.000; metric-km cargo 9,828,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 60,224 km (paved 55%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 351.000; trucks and buses 85.000. Merchant marine (1992): cargo vessels 261; total deadweight tonnage 1.436.899. Air transport (1991): passenger-km 2,999.000.000; metric ton-km cargo 22.000.000; airports with scheduled flights (1995) I. Communications. Total newspapers (1991): total number 188; total circulation 3,676,000; circulation per 1,000 population 1.377. Radio (1991): 1..396.000 receivers (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1991); 1.126.000 receivers (1 per 2.4 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 694.300 (1 per 3.7 persons).

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.3 (world avg. 25.0); (1991) legitimate 81.6%; illegitimate 18.4%.

Education and health

69,411;

Death

JQrmala 55,256.

population (1993): 15.2 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): -4.9 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg, births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.2. Marriage rate per 1,00(1 population (1993): 7.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.6. Life expectancy at birth ( 1993): male 64.2 years: female 74.6 years. Major causes of death pci 1011,0011 population (l')91l): diseases of the circulatory system 756.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 204.9; accidents, poisoning, and violence 138.9; diseases of the respiratory system 49.6.

Transport.

rate per 1,000

National economy Budget (l'W5). Revenue: 475,000,000 Lats (1994; social-security taxes 35.2%, value-added taxes 32.1%', profit tax 13.2%, income tax 5.3%, customs duties 4.0%). Expenditures: 515,000,000 Lats (1994; social affairs 56.6%, economic affairs 34.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): potatoes 994,000, barley 458,000, sugar beets 274,000, vegetables 232,000, wheat 124,000. fruits and berries 85,000; livestock (number of live animals) 995,000 cattle, 737,000 pigs. 133,000 sheep, 4.000,000 poultry; roundwood (1993) 4,558,000 cu ni; lish catch (1993) 140.000. Mining and quarrying (1992): peat 3,500,000; j;ypsum 350,000. Manufacturing (1993): steel 584,1)00; processed meals IS'J.ooii; cement 114,000; synthetic fibre 28,000; telephones 310,000 units; diesel engines 17,000 units; buses 10,600 units; rail passenger cars 123 units; beer 900.000 hectolitres^; vodka 220.000 hectolitres''; textiles 16,000,000 sq m. Construction (1993): new residential 266,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption); electricity (kW-hr: 1993) 3.924,000,000 (6,426.000.001)); coal (1993) none (599,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a); pelmleum products (1993) none (2,426,000); natural gas (1993) none

Education (1992-93) Primary

Secondary Voc. teacher Higher

tr.

teachers

students

12,758 18,344

133,846 187,332 55,312 41.138

6,691

4.478

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of persons age 25 and over having: primary or less 21.2%: complete secondary 46.3%; some higher 13.4%. Literacy (1''8')); percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 99.5%; males literate 99.8'r: females literate W.2' r Health (1993): physicians 9,300 (I per 275.9 persons); hospital beds 31,300 (1 per 81.9 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1992) 17.4.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995); 2,650 (army 56.6%, navy 37.7%, air force 5.7%). Militaiy expenditure as percentage of GNP: 0.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

(1,219.000,000).

I'opulauon niiiiomically active (1993): total 1,358,400; activity rate of total population 52.9% (participation rates [1992]: ages 16-59/555, 90.7%; female 53.9%"; unemployed |1994| 7.3%). Price

and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

1988

1989

1990

71.4 71.8

74.7 78.4

100.0 100.0

272.0 186,0

2.861 1.335

8.136 4,748

'The lats (prc-World War II L.atvian currency), reintroduced in parallel with the Latvian ruble (LR; at 200 LR per lats) on March 5, 1993. became the sole official currency Oct. 18. 19')3. From May 7. 1992. LR circulated in parallel al par with the Soviet ruble, serving temporarily as the sole legal lender until introduction of the lats on March 5. 1993. ^Januarj- 1. 'One sq km is equal to appioximately 0.3861 sq mi. ^1991. ''Males retire at age 59. females at 55. "Percentage of females employed in state sector. 'Includes 313,600 employed outside the state sector. 65.(MK) unemployed, and 149,300 not allocated by sector.

Nations of the World

Lebanon

^

Lebanon).

Form of government:

unitary multiparty

(LL)

Consumer

w"

Seiy

^^^

Consumer

1

^^

rt

ash-Shamal

Tripoli (Tarabulus)

TOTAL

1993

1994

333.3

430,3

475.6

575.800

Mining Manufacturing Construction

V/" V

utilities

Transp. and

commun

Trade Finance

area

sq mi

population

7 1.653

753 772 765 3,950

km

estimate

18 4.280 1.950 2,001 1,981

474,870 203.520 833.055 249,945 364,935

10,230

2,126.325

sq

Age breakdown

(1995): under 15, 34.2%; 15-29, 29.9%; 30-44, 18.3%; 45-59, 9.3%; 60-74, 6.7%; 75 and over, 1.6%. Population projection: (2000) 3,289,000; (2010) 3,742,000. Doubling time: during the 1970-75 prewar period the average growth rate was 2.6%; however, the dislocation of the population by the civil war between 1976 and 1991 rendered both the absolute size and principal components of population change (births, deaths, migration) highly problematic. Ethnic composition (1993): Lebanese, c. 80%; Palestinian 12%; Armenian 5%; Syrian, Kurd, and other 3%. Religious affiliation: no official data exist subsequent to the 1932 census, when Christians (predominantly Maronite Roman Catholic) were a slight majority; it is thought that Muslims today constitute the majority, but by what margin is highly uncertain. Unofficial and CIA estimates (1984/1986) indicated the main religious groups as follows: ShTT Muslim 32/41%; Maronite Christian 24.5/16%; SunnT Muslim 21/27%; Druze 7/7%; Greek Orthodox 6.5/5%; Greek Catholic 4/3%; Armenian Christian 4%/n.a.; other 1/1%. Major cities (1991): Beirut 1,100,000; Tripoli 240,000; Juniyah 100,000; Zahlah 45,0002; Sidon (Sayda) 38,000^; Tyre 14,0002.

694

0.1

823,700 216,300 343,600 246,000

126

123,647 43,357 6,668 48,242 114,706 24,224

17,8

3.3 5.3

3.8 28,4

503,600

77

583,500 703,900 667,400 6,517,000

90

1

108 102

J

\

100.00

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): grapes 391,000, potatoes 294,000, oranges 276,000, tomatoes 246,000, cucumbers 167,000, apples 165,000, lemons and limes 101,000, onions 72,000, olives 53,000; opium poppies and marijuana were important cash crops in the late 1980s and early '90s but were reportedly eradicated in 1993; livestock (number of live animals) 456,000 goats, 258,000 sheep, 80,000 cattle, 24,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 496,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 2,200. Mining and quarrying (1993): lime 15,000; salt 3,000; gypsum 2,000. Manufacturing (1993): cement 1,000,000; distillate fuel 85.000; gasoline 70,000; kerosene and jet fuel 5,000; dairying, curing of leather, meat cutting, and milling of flour are also significant. Construction (1995): 2,418,132 sq m^. Energy production (consumption); electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 3,950,000,000 (4,000,000,000); coal, n.a. (none); crude petroleum (barrels: 1993) none (2,602,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 323,000 (2,787,000). Public debt (external, outstanding; 19954): U.S.S 1,1 69,200,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1987) 5.0; average annual income per household (1985) LL 120,000 (U.S. $6,630; in constant prices, about 75% of 1966 income levels); sources of income (1974): wages and salaries 27.9%, transfers 3.0%, other 69.1%; expenditure (1966)5: food 42.8%, housing 16.8%, clothing 8.6%, health care 7.2%. Land use (1993): forested 7.8%; meadows and pastures 1.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 29.9%; wasteland and other areas 61.3%. Population economically active (1994): total 938,000; activity rate of total population 32.2% (participation rates: over age 15 [1988] 44%; female [1993] 27.8%; unemployed [1993] reported by the national trade union at 35% but perhaps as low as 7-8% according to a 1987 study of 60,000 hou.seholds).

62 10

70 165

35

200.063

288

693,812

100.0

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-2,073 69.5%

-3,200 74,5%

-3,633 76.0%

-4,554 77.0%

-5,364 78,4%

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1995) H: length 222 km; passenger-km (1982) 8,570,000; metric ton-km cargo 42,010,000. Roads (1987): total length 7,370 km (paved 85%). Vehicles (1985): passenger cars 300,000; trucks and buses 49,560. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 163; total dead-

weight tonnage 438,165. Air transport (1994)12; passenger-km 1,587,942,000; metric ton-km cargo 38,398,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 16; total circulation 500,000; circulation per 1,000 population 176. Radio (1994): 2,247,000 receivers (1 per 1.3 persons). Television (1994): 1,100,000 receivers (1 per 2.6 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 350,000 (1 per 10.8 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94)

National economy

191

—

Imports (1994): U.S.$6,101,000,000'(1982; consumer goods 40.0%-, machinery and transport equipment 35.0%, petroleum products 20.0%). Major import sources: Italy 13.9%; France 9.2%; Germany 8.3%; U.S. 8.0%. Exports (1994): U.S.$737,000,000 (1993; food and beverages 21%, machinery and appliances 18%, textiles 17%, metal products 10%). Major export destinations: Saudi Arabia 12.7%; Switzerland 12.2%; U.A.E. 11.1%.

student/

schools

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1995): 27.9 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1995): 6.4 (world avg. 9.3).

Budget (1994). Revenue: LL 2,195,795,000,000 (almost entirely taxation, direct and indirect). Expenditures: LL 4,206,705,000,000 (debt service 35%, government salaries 32%, defense 22%, education 10%).

force

—

-1,806 65.5%

Vital statistics

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1995): 21.5 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 3.3. Life expectancy at birth (1992): male 72.5 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death: normally, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, including typhoid fever and dysentery; but violence and acts of war were also among the principal causes of mortality between 1975 and 1991.

of labour

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.S'OOO.OOO

294.1.

"/

force

132.211

Foreign trade lo

% of total

km

labour

ot total

value

Tourism (1980): number of tourist arrivals 135,548^

Demography Population (1995): 3,009,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 761.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995): urban 87.2%; rural 12.8%. Sex distribution (1995): male 48.75%; female 51.25%.

1986

%

8.8

1,853,200

Real estate and business services Services Pub. admin., defense TOTAL

1970

Beirut (Bayrut)

1992

151.5

Agriculture

Public

Area and population

Jabal Lubnan al-Janub

1991

100,0

1992

100 piastres; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = LL 1,609; 1 £ = LL 2,544.

Capitals

1990

57 9

in values LL 000,000'

=

Zahlah B'abda Sidon (Sayda)

1989

22.7

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

t"^b

Lebanese pound

al-Biqa'

price index

(1990= 100)

1988

Gross national product (1994): U.S.$15,800,000,000 (U.S.$4,360 per capita).

x^

"^

none.

Bayrut

price index

Mediterranean Sea

republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [128])i. Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Beirut. official language: Arabic. Official religion: Monetary unit: 1

Black

^S^

name: al-Jumhurlyah al-Lubnamyah (Republic of

Official

651

Primary (age 5-9) Secondary (age 10-16) Voc, teacher tr, Higher

teachers

students

2.10013

22,81011

360,858

»

21,344"

1811"

3.866 5,400'3

261,341 39,933

1

.405

IS"

85,495"

teacher

ratio

10.3 15.8

Educational attainment (1970). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 45.6%, of which, ability to read and write 35.6%; incomplete primary education 28.5%; complete primary 10.8%; incomplete secondary 7.1%; complete secondary 4.9%; higher 3.1%. Literacy (1995): total population age 15 and over literate 1,829,000 (92.4%); males literate 94.7%; females literate 90.3%. Health: physicians (1989-91) 6,638 (1 per 407 persons); hospital beds (1993) 14,500 (1 per 200 persons); infant mortality rate (1995) .38.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,317 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); 134% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): Lebanese national armed forces 44,300 (army 97.1%, navy 1.1%, air force 1.8%). External regular military forces peacekeeping force in Lebanon 4,963; Syrian army 30,000. include: Most civilian militias were progressively disbanded after the civil war ended in 1991. However, only two factions were still active in 1995, though on a much-reduced scale '5: Shn Muslim (pro-Iran Hezbollah [Party of God]) 3,000; predominantly Maronite Christian and some Shff and Druze (South (1994): Lebanese Army) 2,500. Militaiy expenditure as percentage of 4.4% (world 2.6%); per capita expenditure: U.S.$75.

UN

GDP

iJhe current legislature was elected between August and October 1992; one-half its membership is Christian and one-half Muslim/Druze. -1988 estimate. ^Permits in July 1995. ijuly. ''Weights based on consumer price index components. For capital city only. ''In purchasers' value at current prices. 'Although the Lebanese pound continues to be the official currency, most financial transactions are done in U.S. dollars. Since the mid-1980s, foreign currency in circulation and foreign deposits in the domestic banking system were increasingly "dollarized." In the mid-1990s, about two-thirds of bank deposits in Lebanon were transacted in U.S. dollars. By 1993, however, the pound had once again stabilized against the dollar. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ^Approximately one-fourth the annual prewar rates of the early 1970s, n'lmports are f.o.b. "Apart from a 14-mi (23-km) section delivering oil from the Zahrani rchnery to a thermal power station serving Beirut, no passenger or general cargo track is currently in use. I2MEA-Airliban international of

authorized

flights only. 131991-92.

'"1981-82. iSActive personnel.

652

Britannica World Data

wages and

Lesotho Official

dom

salaries 22.4%,

other 5.1%; expenditure (1989): food 48.0%,

clothing 16.4%, household durable goods 11.9%, housing and energy 10.1%, transportation 4.7%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$ 1,254,000,000

name: Lesotho (Sotho); Kingof Lesotho (English).

(U.S.$660 per capita).

Form of government: muhiparty republic' with 2 legislative

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

houses (National Assembly [65]; Senate [33^]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Maseru. Official languages: Sotho; English.

1994 in

M

y

Indian

Agriculture

Ocean

\

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Official religion: Christianity.

Monetary

unit:

[M])= 100 1995)

1

1

loti (plural

Public

maloti

=M

3.66;

1

£

=M

5.79.

Area and population

area

population

1995 Districts

Capitals

Berea Butha-Buthe

Teyateyaneng

sq mi

sq

km

Butha-ButheHlotse

Mafeleng Maseru

Maseru

Mohales Hoek

Mohale's Hoek

Mokhotlong

Qachas Nek

Mokhotlong Dacha's Nek

Quthing

Quthing

Thaba-Tseka

Thaba-Tseka

1,092

Mafeteng

818 1,652 1,363 1,573

907

TOTAL

1

1,126 1,649 1 ,720

2,222 1,767 2,828 2,119 4,279 3,530 4,075 2,349 2,916 4,270 30,355

11,3

2,7

01

431.5 689 5

13,7

28 86

3,581

11,4

17,907 126,780 7,879 716,2705

2,6 14,0"

439.2" 3,145.4

662

115

2.1

100,0

of labour

force

474,171 6,446 19,339 31,516 1,433 5,014 22,204

219

823

%

labour force

09 2.7 4.4 0,2 0,7 3.1

0,5 2,5 17.7 1,1

100.05

estimate

Land 858 682

Leribe

335,1

269.9 361.9 359,5

Services Other TOTAL

of total

value

65,3 88.5

utilities

Transp and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin,, defense

lisente; valuation (Oct. 6.

U.S.$

1986

%

value

000,000

206,200 135,400 349,500 259.000 400.200 231,300 100,300 86,800 151,900 136,200 2,056,800

use (1993): meadows and pastures 65.9%; agricultural and under percultivation 10.5%; other 23.6%.

manent

Foreign trade'' Balance of trade (current prices) 1988

M

%

000,000 of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-1,135,2

-1,323,6

-1,5230

-2,435.9

79.3%

83.3%

-1.976 84,2%

-2,374.7

79.7%

79,3%

73,8%

M

Demography Population (1995): 2,057,000. Density' (1995): persons per sq mi 174.9, persons per sq km 67.5. Urban-rural (1992): urban 20.9%; rural 79.1%. Sex distribution (1995): male 49.23%; female 50.77%.. Age breakdown (1995): under 15, 41.3%; 15-29, 27.0%; 30-44, 16.0%; 45-59, 9.1%; 60-74, 5.0%; 75 and over, 1.6%. Population projection: (2000) 2,338,000; (2010) 3,012,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Sotho 85.0%; Zulu 15.0%. Religious affiliation (1992): Christian 93.0%, of which Roman Catholic 42.8%, Protestant (mostly Lesotho Evangelical) 29.1%, other Christian 21.1%; other (mostly traditional beliefs) 7.0%. Major urban centres (1986): Maseru 109,382; Maputsoe 20,000; Teyateyaneng 14,251; Mafeteng 12,667; Hlotse 9,595.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 36.9 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 10.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 26.9 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 5.2. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 58.0 years; female 63.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, major diseases include malaria, typhoid fever, and infectious and parasitic diseases.

Imports (1994): 2,992,700,000 (1990; manufactured goods [excluding chemicals, machinery, and transport equipment] 42.5%; food and live animals 19.1%; machinery and transport equipment 15.3%; petroleum products 8.6%). Major import sources: Customs Union of Southern Africa 82.4%; Asia 12.6%-; Europe 2.7%, of which European Economic Community 2.6%; the Americas 1.5%. Exports (1994): 509,300,000 (manufactured goods 87.5%, of which clothing 54.8%s furniture 8.0%, footwear 6.9%, machinery and transport equipment 2.0%; food and live animals 5.5%, of which cereals 1.5%, cattle 1.2%. vegetables 0.7%; crude materials 6.3%, of which wool 4.5%. mohair 1.7%; chemicals 0.5%; diamonds 0.2%). Major export destinations: Customs Union of Southern Africa 50.8%; Europe 10.5%, of which European Economic Community 10.1%; the Americas 37.8%; Asia 0.3%.

M

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 1.6 mi, 2.6 km. Roads (1994): total length 3,308 mi, 5,324 km (paved 15%). Vehicles (1994): passenger cars 5,944; trucks and bu.ses 17,785. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over)

none. Air transport (1995): passenger-mi 14,900,000, passenger-km 24,000,000; ton-mi cargo 144,000, metric ton-km cargo 210,000; airports (1995) with

scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993):

total number 6; total circulation 36,000; circulation per 1.000 population 19. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 118,000 (1 per 16.9 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 50,000 (1 per 40 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 10,500 (1 per 190 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94)

National economy

Primary (age 6-12)

Secondary (age 13-17) Voc, teacher tr.

M

M

M

Price and earnings indexes 1988

Consumer

price index

Earnings Index'

student/

schools

M

Budget (1995-96). Revenue: 1,790,300,000 (1993-94; tax revenue 78.8%, of which customs receipts 53.5%, sales tax 10.1%, income tax 7.3%, company tax 4.6%; grants and nontax revenue 21.2%). Expenditures: 1,608.800,000 (recurrent expenditure 67.5%, of which education 20.9%, public works [1994-95] 12.8%, health 6.7%, defense 6.4%; capital expenditure 32.5%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): corn (maize) 175,000, sorghum 60,000, fruit 18,000, roots and tubers 8,000, peas 2,000, beans 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,691,000 sheep, 1,0|{I,()(I() goats, 663,000 cattle, 16«,(I0() asses. 123,000 horses, 78,000 pigs, 1,0(){),(I()0 chickens; roundwood (1993) 651,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 35. Mining and quarrying (1988): sand and gravel 50,000 cu m. Manufacturing (total value added; 1992): 246,200,000, of which textiles, apparel, and leather 49.9%, food and beverages .39.5%, nonmetal products 2.9%, chemical products 1.9%, printing and publishing 1.7%, furniture and fixtures 1.6%, iron and steel products 1.1%. Construction (total value added; 1991): 310,500. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1988) 1,000.000 (n.a.); coal, none (n.a.); petroleum, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (n.a.). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$471, 900,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S. $17,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S. $7,0(10.000. Population economicallv active (1993): total 617,871; activity rate of total population 45.1% (participation rates: ages 1.5-64 [1986], 79.8'';;; female 23.7%; unemployed [1992] 35%). (1

Higher

teachers

students

7,292 2,526

354,275 55,312

48,6

225 492

2,326

10.3

teacher

21

ratio

9

4,001

Educational attainment (1986-87). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal education 22.9%; primary 52.8%; secondary 23.2%; higher 0.6%. Literacy (1995): total population age 15 and over literate 849",700 (71.3%); males literate 468,000 (81.1%); females literate .381,700 (62.3%). Heahh (1993): physicians 136 (1 per 14,306 persons); hospital beds (1992) 2,400 (1 per 765 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 71.5. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2.201 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 2,000'. Military expenditure as percentage of (1992): .3.3% (world 3.7%); per capita expenditure U.S.$20.

GNP

990=^100)

1989

1990

78.1

100.0

1379

75.5

100

123 5

156.0 132.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1986) 4.8; average annual income per household (1986-87) 2,832 (U.S.$1,297); sources of income (1986-87): transfer payments 44.7%, self-employment 27.8%,

M

'Now constitution, effective April 199.1. ended seven years of military rule. -Composed nominaled members 'Uased on average annual wages, includ22 chiefs and 1 ing overtime, of mine woikers. "Indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges. ^Approximately 117,600 persons (c. ot Lesotho's adult male labour force) vverc employed as mine workers in South Africa in 1993. '•Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. ''Royal Lesotho Defence ol

1

W,

Force.

Nations of the World

Liberia

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$ 1,070,000,000.

Household income and expenditure. Average household

name: Republic of

Official

(Transitional Legislative

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Assembly

1989

[35]!).

Head

of state and government: President assisted by Council of State 1. Capital: Monrovia.

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

none. Monetary unit: 1 Liberian dollar {L$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = L$1.002; 1 £ = L$1.58. Official religion:

Ottier

area

TOTAL

population

1986

Bassa

Gape Mount Gedeh

Zwedru

Kru

Barclayville

Lofa Margibi

Maryland Montserrado

Nimba Rivercess

Sinoe

km

estimate

3,127 3,382 2,250 6,575

1,955 8,099 8,759 5,827 17,029

67,300 268,100 166,900 83,900 109,000

3

3

3

sq mi

Capitals

Tubmanburg Gbarnga Buchanan

sq

Robertsport

Voinjama Kakata Harper Bensonville Sanniquellie Rivercess City Greenville

TOTAL

Land

7,475 1,260 2,0663 1,058 4,650 1,693 3,959 38,250

19,360 3,263 5,3513 2,740 12,043 4,385 10,254 99,067"

22

km

L$'000,000

% of total

582,400 325,700 39,900 65,400 2,221,3005

60,000;

24.0^.

Gbarnga

16

66 5.3 11

9

117 3 6.3

1.5

0.6 0.4 2.0

66 0.3

)

J

'6

63,8741 704,321

100.0

meadows and

9.1''

'

100

pastures 58.9%; agricultural

cultivation 3.9%; other 19.6%.

1983

1984

1985

+73.8 9.4%

+137.6 17.1%

+1894

+ 1606 25.4%

27.8%

Imports (1991): L$4,08 1,200,000 (1990; machinery and transport equipment 26.9%, petroleum and petroleum products 23.5%, food and live animals 21.1%, basic manufactures 13.9%, chemicals 5.8%). Major import sources: South Korea 45.5%; Germany 4.2%; Japan 17.4%; Singapore 5.1%; Spain 3.8%. Exports (1991): L$556,500,000 (1988; iron ore 55.1%, rubber 28.0%, logs and timber 8.4%, diamonds 2.1%, gold 1.8%, coflTee 1.5%). Major export destinations: Norway 34.2%; Belgium-Luxembourg 28.8%; Spain 9.3%; France 8.5%; Malaysia 5.2%.

(1995): under 15, 46.0%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30-44, 14.5%; 45-59, 8.5%; 60-74, 4.0%; 75 and over, 1.4%. Population projection: (2000) 2,760,000; (2010) 3,660,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1984): Kpelle 19.4%; Bassa 13.8%; Grebo 9.0%; Gio 7.8%; Kru 7.3%; Mano 7.1%; other 35.6%. Religious affiliation (1984): Christian 67.7%; Muslim 13.8%7; traditional beliefs and other 18.5%.

Major cities (1985): Monrovia 400,0008; Harbel Buchanan 25,000; Yekepa 16,000.

6.8

Balance of trade (current prices)

261 ,000 104.000 137,7003

Age breakdown

SO.OOO'':

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991)i-'- "*: route length 306 mi, 493 km; short ton-mi cargo 1,746,000,000 IS, metric ton-km cargo 2,549,000,00015. Roads (1991): total length 3,787 mi, 6,095 km (paved 39%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 8,000; trucks and buses 3,100. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100

gross tons and over) 1,672; total deadweight tonnage 97,373,965. Air transport (1980): passenger-mi 10,600,000, passenger-km 17,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 68,000, metric ton-km cargo 100,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights

1.

total number 8; total circulation 35,000; circulation per 1,000 population 14.8. Radio (1993): 600,000 receivers (1 per 3.9 persons). Television (1993): 45,000 receivers (I per 53 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 4,500 (1 per 528 persons).

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992):

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 43.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 12.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 31.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 6.3.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 54.0 years; female 57.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985)"': complications during pregnancy 632.6"; malaria 79.8; pneumonia 64.2; anemia 50.2; malnutrition 23.4; measles 12.7. Violence and acts of war were major causes of both morbidity and mortality from 1990 onward.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: L$249,825,000 (1989;' income and profits taxes 33.9%; import duties and consular fees 29.6%; excise tax 12.7%; property taxes 1.9%). Expenditures: L$273,930,000 (1988; current expenditure 91.1%, of which wages and salaries 34.1%, interest on public debt 13.1%, goods and services 7.8%, subsidies and grants 5.1%; development expenditure 8.9%). Tourism: receipts from visitors (1986) U.S. $6,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Population economically active (1984): total 704,321; activity rate 33.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 56.3%; female 41,0%; unemployed 12.5%).

Price and earnings Indexes (1985 = 100) price index

25

263 190

17,500 10,699 4,072 2,878 13,986 46,850 2,117

Foreign trade

Demography Population (1995): 2.380,0006. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 62.2'', persons per sq Urban-rural (1995): urban 44.9%; rural 55.1%. Sex distribution (1995): male 50.54%; female 49.46%.

Consumer

68.3

10 2

use (1993): forested 17.6%;

and under permanent

755

force

481,177

63.3 141.8 139.4 35.5 74.8 '6 1,193.61

Pub admin., defense Sen/ices

of labour

344

79.1

Trade Finance

%

labour force

of total

value

410.7 122 3 81.6

Public utilities Transp- and commun.

Area and population

1984

%

value

in

L$000,000

Official language: English.

Bong Grand Grand Grand Grand

size (1983) 4.3; in-

come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Gross national product (1990): U.S.$ 1,1 78,000,000 (U.S.$498 per capita).

Liberia.

Foim of government: transitional regime with one legislative body

Counties Bomi

653

1984

1985

1986

1987

1989

1990'g

100.6

100.0

103.6

108.8

130.6

139 4

Education and health Education (1980) Primary (age 6-12)

Secondary (age 13-18 Voc, teacfier tr

1,651

419

9,099 1,129

227,431 51,666 2,322

250 458 369

Higher

Educational attainment (1974). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no grade completed 87.1%; some primary education 4.8%; complete primary 1.5%; some secondary 5.1%; higher 1.5%. Literacy (1995): total population age 15 and over literate 705,000 (38.3%); males literate 523,000 (56.9%); females literate 182,000 (22.4%). Health: physicians (1985) 227 (1 per 9,687 persons); hospital beds (1981) 3,000 (1 per 653 persons); infant mortality rate (1993) 115.9. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 1,640 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 71% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): as a result of the civil war, the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL), with a force of about 3,000, is confined to the capital city of Monrovia. Military expenditure as percentage of (1988): 3.8% (world 4.9%); per capita expenditure U.S.$27.

GNP

Earnings index

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): cassava 390,000, sugarcane 241,000, bananas 80,000, rice 50,000, plantains 33,000, sweet potatoes 18,000, pulses 18,000 (of which soybeans 2,000), yams 15,000, natural rubber 10,000, oranges 7,000, pineapples 7,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 3,000, cacao beans 2,000; livestock (number of live animals) 220,000 goats, 210,000 sheep, 120,000 pigs, 36,000 cattle, 4,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 6,183,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 7,782. Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore '5; diamonds 150,000 carats; gold 22,500 troy oz. Manufacturing (1990): cement 8,300'"; palm oil 30,000; cigarettes 22,000,000 units; 171,000 hectolitres '''; beer 158,000 hectolitres '5. Construction: Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 480,000,000

soft drinks n.a.

(480,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) none (101,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

'Five years of multifactional warfare officially ended with the swearing in of the transitional government on Sept. 2, 1995. -Officially al par with the U.S.S; the unexchange rate (a truer value of the L$) was roughly L$50 = U,S.$I. .'Figures for Grand Kru included in Maryland. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding, sincludes 10.000 persons not allocated by county, ''includes about 750,000 Liberian refugees in surrounding countries, 'Some external sources

official parallel

estimate the Muslim population to exceed 30%. «The 1995 population is estimated to be more than 1,000,000 (including many persons displaced because of war). '*1986. 'OHospital inpatient morbidity rales. "1984. '-July 1. '^Mining ceased in late 1992. '"1993. '""igsS. '^Import duties less imputed bank service charges. "Includes 34,991 unemployed. "*For iron-ore transport only. "1987.

Britannica World Data

654

Libya

Price

name: al-Jamahlnyah

Official

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

al-'Arablyah al-LTbTyah ash-Sha'bTyah al-IshtirakTyah (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya). Fonn of government: socialist state with

price index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

67.5

88.5

100.0

111.7

128.5

154.1

2004

Earnings index

Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1994): U.S.$32,900,000,000 (U.S.$6,510 per capita).

one policy-making body (General People's Congress [750]). Chief of state: Muammar al-Qaddafi (de facto)'; Secretary of General People's Congress (de jure). Head of government: Secretary of the General People's Committee (prime

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1

1991

Mining and quarrying

(Oct. dinar

unit:

Public

1995)

I

7,9

utilities

1,209 231

11.8 2,3

644 896

6.3 8.8

1,162 1,079

114

communications Trade Finance, insurance Pub. admin., defense Services TOTAL

1,000 dirhams; valuation-''

6,

7 5 26.3

809

labour

% of labour

force

force

191,600 23,700 92,200 156,300 28,500

19.2 2.4 9.3

78,500 52,800 15,000 308.000 48,300 994,900

79 53

Libyan

= U.S.$2.78 = £1.79.

10,6

724

7,1

10,203

100-0

Household income and expenditure. Average household Area and population

sqmi

Capitals

BanghazT

BanghazI

al-Jabal al-Akhclar

al-Bay0a"

al-Jabal al-Gharbi

Gharyan

KhaHj Surt al-Kufrah

Surt al-Kufrah

Margib

al-Khums Marzuq Zuwarah

Sabha

Tarabulus

Tripoli (Tarabulus)

Tubruq

Tubruq

Wadi

Awbari az-Zawiyah

al-Hait

az-Zawiyah

15 31 4.8

100,0

size (1980) 5.1; in-

n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1977): food 37.2%>, housing and energy 32.2%, transportation 9.4%, education and recreation 8.5%, clothing 6.9%, health care 3.3%. Land use (1993): forested 0.5%; meadows and pastures 7.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 1.2%; desert and built-up areas 90.7%. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S. $5,000,000; expenditures bv nationals abroad (1992) U.S.$154,000,000.

1988

Marzuq Nikat al-Khums Sabha

29

come per household:

population

area

Balacnyat

157

Transponation and

Libyan dinar

1

2,681

Manufactunng Construction

Of total

value

768

Agriculture

Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam.

(LD)=

%

value

LD 000.000

minister). Capital: Tripoli-.

Monetary

1992 1

in

5,800 14.300 33,600 145.200 186.900 11,200 135,100 39,000 31,700 1,200 32,400 40,500 1,500

678,400

TOTAL

sq

km

15,000 37,000 87,000 376,000 484.000 29,000 350,000 101,000 82,000 3,000 84,000 105,000 4,000 1,757,000

estimate

512,200 308,300 204,300 382,100 23,800 408,900 45,200 196.000 121,700

Foreign trade'''' Balance of trade (current prices)

1.083,100 110,900

U.S.$'000,000

49,600 326,500 3.772,600

%

km

1989

1990

1991

1992

-1-4,224

-1-8,215

-1-5,873

-1-4.768

32.5%

42.0%

35.5%

31.6%

1993 -f

2,293

1994 -f

17,5%

3,440

28.2%

Imports (1994): U.S.$4,386,000,000 (1991; manufactured goods 78.3%, agricultural goods 20.3%). Major import sources: Italy 18.9%; Germany 16.0%; United Kingdom 7.5%; France 6.3%; Turkey 5.1%. Exports (1994): U.S.$7,826,000.000 (1991; crude petroleum 99.8%o). Major export destinations: Italy 39.0%; Germany 17.7%; Spain 11.7%; France 4.8%; Turkey 33%; Switzerland 2.8%c; United Kingdom 2.6%.

Demography Population (1995): 5,407,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 8.0, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995): urban 86.0%; rural 14.0%.

of total

3.1.

Sex distribution (1995): male 52.10%; female 47.90%.

Age breakdown

(1995):

under

15,

45.4%o; 15-29, 26.4%r; 30-44, 14.7%; 45-59,

9.1%; 60-74. 3.7%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2000) 6,387,000; (2010) 8,724,000.

Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (1984): Libyan Arab and Berber 89.0%; other 11.0%. Religious affiliation (1992): Sunn! Muslim 97.0%; other 3.0%;. Major cities (1988): Tripoli 591,100; BanghazT 446,250; Misratah 121,700; Zawiyah 89,338.

az-

Vital statistics

Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1988): 0.6-*. Life expectancy at birth (1995): male 62.1 years; female 66.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, the major causes of death in the early 1990s were pneumonia, dysentery and diarrhea, cardiovascular disease, accidents, and malignant neoplasms (cancers).

National economy Revenue: LD 2,655,00(),()()0 (1990-91; current revenue revenues \1.1%', income taxes 13.7%, customs duties 9.T't stamp duties 2.4%; capital revenue 44,3%), Expenditures: LD 2.846.000,000 (199(M)|; current expenditures 55.7%, of which allocations to municipal people's committees 39.4%, education and scientific research 4.3%, health 2.7%; capital expenditures 44.3%, of which agriculture and land oil

,

reclamation 13.6%, industry 5.3%). (long-term debt; 1992): U.S.$2,592,000,(H)0. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): watermelons 175,000, tomatoes 135,000, barlev 1.30.000, potatoes 130,000. wheal l.^O.OOO, oranges 80,000, onions 70,000,' dates 65.000, olives 50,000, almonds 31.1100, lemons and limes 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3.500,0110 sheep. 6(10.1)1111 gcials. 120,001) camels, 50,0011 cattle, 15,(100.000 chickens; roundwood (I>i93) 1)4.S.(I(I0 cu m; fish catch (1993) 8,800. Mining and quarrying (PW3): lime 26(1,(100; gypsum 180,000; salt 12,000. ManufacPidhlic debt

turing (1993): distillate fuel 4,470,000; cement 2,.100,000; gasoline 1.995.000; jet fuel 1,664,000; crude steel 920,000; meat 95,000. Construction (gross value in LD; 1982): residential 127,051,000; nonresidential 200,877,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 16.9.s(l.()0(),00() (16,950.'OOO.OOO); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (5.0(1(1); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 519.400.000 (1 13,.500.000); petroleum products (metric Ions; 1992) 13.002.0110 ((1.555.000); natural gas (cu m: 1992) 6.770,000.001) (5,470.000.000). Population economically active (1992): total 1,210,000; activity rate of total population 24.8% (participation rates: ages 10 and over, n.a.; female 9.6%;

unemployed,

n.a.).

total length 12,000 mi, 19,300

km

(paved 56%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 448,000; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 150; total deadweight tonnage 1,223,589. Air transport (1994) 7; pa.ssenger-mi 264,180,000, passenger-km 425,157,000; short ton-mi cargo 229,500, metric ton-km cargo 335,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 4; circulation 71,000; circulation per 1,000 population 14.6. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 1,000,000 (1 per 5.2 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 500,000 (1 per 10.5 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 240,000 (1 per 21.0 persons). 322,000.

Birth rale per 1,000 population (1995): 44.9 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1995): 7.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1995): 37.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertilitv rate (avg. births per childbcaring woman; 1995); 6.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1988): 4.5-*.

Budget (1991-92). 55.7'/, of which

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992):

Education and health Education (1991-92) students

Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-16 Voc, teacher tr Higher

2,7448 1,5558 1958

99,623 11,429 7,072

1

,238,986 138,860 76,648 72,899

124 12

1

108

Educational attainment (1984). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 59.7%; incomplete primary' education 15.4%; complete primary 8.5%; some secondary 5.2%; .secondary 8.5%; higher 2.7%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 63.8%; males literate 75.4%; females literate 50.4%. Health: physicians (1989-91) 4,749 (1 per 948 persons); hospital beds (1990) 18,503'" (1 per 246 persons); infant mortalitv rate per 1,000 live births (1995)61.4. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3. .308 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); 140% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duly personnel (1995): 80.000 (armv 62.5%, navy 10.0%, air force 27.5%). Mililaiy expenditure as percentage ofGNP(Wn): 5.1% (world 3.3%;);

per capita expenditure U.S.$328.

'No formal tilled nfticc exists. -Policy-making body ((ieneral Peoples Congress) meets in Sun. 'Olliclal exchange rate. ^Registered events: incomplete to some degree. "^Dollar values leased on IMF Direction of Trade .Statistics (HOIS), which are compiled from available reports of trading parlncrs (not the subject tountry's reports) and may, thus, be substantially incompfete. Mmport figures arc f.o.b. 'Jamahiriya Libyan Arab Airlines. '7,S. 'Less imputed hank sen ice charges. s\Veights of consumer price index components, cities ol^ Blantyre and Lilongwe onl\. ''Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. Reexports included in balance of trade, excluded from commodities and trading partners. "'1989. iiAir

Malawi

only. '-^992.

2

Nations of the World

Malaysia

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$60. 14 1.000,000 (U.S.$3,160 per capita).

name: Malaysia. Fomi of govemmenl: federal constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [69'];

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

House of Representatives [192]). Chief of slate: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

Agriculture

Official

994

Official language: unit:

1

ringgit, or

labour force

14 9

1,580,000

20.7

74 314

35,000 1,766.000 550.000

23.1

342.000

4.5

Public utilities Transp. and commun.

Trade Finance Pub. admin,, defense

Malay.

Malaysian

Services

dollar (M$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = M$2.54;

%

value

16,337 8,142 34,293 4,514 2,467 7,820

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Official religion: Islam.

% of total

value

|

1993

MSOOO.OOO"

in

(Paramount Ruler). Head of govemmenl: Prime Minister. Capital: Kuala Lumpur.

Monetary

661

4

1

of labour

force

0.4

7.2

2.3

7

13,551 1 1 ,898

1

12,4

109

10,395 2,274

9 5 2.1

Other

-2,3106

-2.16

TOTAL

109,381

100.0

315,000 862,000

41 113

1.920.0005 276.000 7,646,000

25.15 3.6

100.0

1£ = M$4.01. Area and population

area

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$13,863,000,000. Population economically active (1993): total 7,646,000; activity rate 40.1% (participation rates; ages 15-64 [1990] 66.5%; female [1990] 35.5%; unemployed 3.6%).

population

1991

Regions Capitals

sq mi

sq

km

census

Price index (1990 = 100)

East Malaysia

Sabah Sarawak West Malaysia

Kota Kinabalu Kuching

28,425 48.050

Johor

Johor Baharu

7,331

Kedah

Alor Setar

Kelantan

Kota Baharu

3,639 5,769

Melaka

Melaka

Negeri Sembllan

Seremban

Pahang

Kuantan

Perak Perhs Pulau Pinang Selangor

Ipoh

637 2,565 13,886 8.110

Kangar

George Town Shah Alam Kuala Terengganu

Terengganu Federal Territories Kuala Lumpur

Labuan TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

73,620 124,449 18.986 9.426 14,943 1.650 6,643 35,965 21.005

307 398

1,031

3,072 5,002

7,956 12,955

— —

1,736.902 1,648,217

2,074,297 1.304.800 1,181,680 504.502 691,150 1 ,036,724 1.880,016 184.070 1 ,065,075 2,289,236 770,931

795

94 35

243 91

1,145,075 54,307

127,320

329,758 684 330,442

17,566,982

264 127,584

Consumer

M$'000,000

km

60.4.

(1995): under 15, 35.8%; 15-29, 27.4%; 30^4, 19.9%; 45-59, 10.6%; 60-74, 5.1%; 75 and over, 1.2%. Population projection: (2000) 22,087,000; (2010) 25,989,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (1995): Malay and other indigenous (Orang Asli, or Bumiputera) 59.9%; Chinese 29.9%; Indian 9.5%; other nonindigenous 0.7%. Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 52.9%; Buddhist 17.3%; Chinese folkreligionist 11.6%; Hindu 7.0%; Christian 6.4%; other 4.8%.

(1991): Kuala Lumpur 1,145,075; Ipoh 382,633; Johor 328,646; Melaka 295,999; Petaling Jaya 254,849. cities

Baharu

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994); 28.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 5.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 23.0 (world avg. 15.7).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 3.4. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 69.0 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 54.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 32.8; accidents, homicide, and other violence 28.5; infectious and parasitic diseases 13.2; diseases of the respiratory system 7.5; endocrine and metabolic disorders 6.2; diseases of the digestive system 2.4.

Budget (1994). Revenue: M$44,730,000,000 (income tax 43.0%, nontax revenue 21.6%, import duties 12.1%, sales taxes 8.5%). Expenditures: M$33,285,000,000 (social services 33.9%, security 15.2%, administration 10.5%, economic services 8.4%). Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$1,876,000,000; expenditures by

palm

(1994):

oil 7,220,410, rice 2,040,000,

1991

1992

1993

1994

100.0

104.4

109.3

113.2

117.4

Agriculture,

forestry,

fishing

rubber 1,074,000, bananas 526,000,

pineapples 270,000, cacao beans 230,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,098,000 pigs, 686,000 cattle, 356,000 goats, 336,000 sheep, 186,000 buffalo,

roundwood (1993) 54,332,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) Mining and quarrying (1994): iron ore 202,682; bauxite 161,919; copper concentrates 106,468; tin concentrates 6,458. Manufacturing (1993): cement 8,797,000; refined sugar 957,000; wheat flour 621,000; fertilizer (1992) 325,000; plywood 2,491,000 cu m; radio receivers 34,537,000 units; automotive tires 9,486,000 units. Construction (completed; 1986)^: residential 8,809,100 sq m; nonresidential 959,900 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 35,579,000,000 (35,554,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) 260,000 (2,081,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 233,685,000 (82,477,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 11,089,000 (15,732,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 21,399,000,000 (6,150,000,000).

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

+12.725 10.3%

+7,947 5.3%

+3,165 1.7%

+ 11.446 5.9%

+ 15,095 6,6%

+ 12,628 4,3%

Imports (1993): M$ 117,423,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 55.6%; basic manufactured goods 15.1%; chemicals 7.6%; food 5.0%; mineral fuels 3.6%; inedible crude materials 2.7%). Major import sources: Japan 27.4%; U.S. 16.9%; Singapore 15.2%; Taiwan 5.4%; Germany 3.8%; U.K. 3.1%; South Korea 3.0%; Australia 2.8%. Exports (1993); M$121,214,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 48.5%; mineral fuels 10.3%; basic manufactures 9.6%; inedible crude materials 9.1%; animal and vegetable oils 6.0%; food, beverages, and tobacco 3.4%). Major export destinations: Singapore 21.7%; U.S. 20.3%; Japan 13.0%; U.K. 4.2%; Hong Kong 4.1%; Germany 3.7%; Thailand 3.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): track length 2,222 km; passenger-km 1,848,000,OOOS; metric ton-km cargo 1,380,000,000«. Roads (1994): total length 92,443 km (paved 75%). Vehicles (1994); passenger cars 2,291,199; trucks and

buses 501,096. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 552; total deadweight tonnage 2,916,315. Air transport (1994): passengerkm 17,466,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 765,920,000; airports (1995) 38. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992); total number 39; circulation 2,200,000; circulation per 1,000 population 117. Radio (1994); 7,460,000 receivers (1 per 2.6 persons). Television (1994): 2,000,000 receivers (1 per 9.7 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993); 2,410,700 (1 per 7.9 persons).

Education and health Education (1993) student/

schools Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-19) Voc. teacher tr. Higher

National economy

nationals abroad U.S.$1,960,000,000. (metric tons except as noted).

1990

974

Balance of trade (current prices)

Age breakdown

Production

1989

94.8

Foreign traded

Demography

Major

1988

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 4.9; annual income per household (1987) M$12,890 (U.S.$5,120); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1983): food 28.7%, transportation 20.9%, recreation and education 11.0%, housing 10.2%, household durable goods 7.7%, clothing and footwear 4.3%, health 2.5%. Land use (1993): forested 67.9%; meadows and pastures 0.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 14.9%; other 17.1%.

% of total Population (1995): 19,948,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 156.4, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995): urban 54.0%; rural 46.0%. Sex distribution (1995): male 50.36%; female 49.64%.

price index

6.968 1 .3369

759 549

teacher

teachers

students

134,579 77,1499 3,4899 11,47110

2,718,906 1,531,893 40,944 136,000 '0

ratio

202 18.19 9.59 11.9'0

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having; no formal schooling 36.6%; primary education 42.1%; secondary 19.4%; higher 1.9%. Literacy (1995 est.): total population age 15 and over literate 83.5%; males literate 89.1%; females literate 78.1%. Health: physicians (1992) 7,719 (1 per 2,412 persons); hospital beds (1993) 38,982 (1 per 489 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 14. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,888 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum.

98,000,000 chickens;

Military

680.000.

Total active duty personnel (1995): 114,500 (army 78.6%, navy 10.5%, air (1994): 3.9% (world force 10.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of 2.6%); per capita expenditure U.S.$135.

GDP

Includes 43 appointees of the paramount ruler; the remaining 26 are indirectly elected at different times. ^Preliminary results. ^Results of the Central Bank Survey of four major towns: Kuala Lumpur, Shah Alam, Kelang, and Scberang Prai. -lAt constant prices of 1978. 5includes data for Public utilities and Trade. ''Net bank service charges. 'Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade. "Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. "'IQQZ. iui991. 1

Britannica World Data

662

Gross national product (U.S.$820 per capita).

Maldives name: Divehi Jumhuriyya (Republic of Maldives).

Official

current market prices;

(at

U.S. $194,000,000

1993):

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

Form of government:

republic with one legislative house (People's

Council [481]). Head of stale and government:

Agriculture^

Mining Manufacturing

President.

1

in

value

Rf

0005

1990

%

%

labour

of total

of labour

value

force

244,800 21,300

20.6

14.117

18

496

0.9

72,800

6.1

8,441

445

15,0 0.8

56

force

250

Capital: Male'.

Public

Official language: Divehi.

Construction Transportation and

110,200

93

3.151

communications Trade

77,500 226,800

65

5,321

94

19.0

8.884 1,058

157

109,300

92

Official religion: Islam.

Monetary unit: 1 Maldivian rufiyaa (Rf )= 100 laari; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1

£

1

= Rf

U.S.$

= Rf

utilities

J

Finance Public administration,

11.77;

defense

18.60.

1 1

327,500

275

1,190,200

100,0

Services

Other TOTAL

Area and population^

area

Capitals North Thiladhunmathi (Haa-Alifu) South Thiladhunmathi (Haa-Dhaalu) North Miladhunmadulu (Shaviyani)

^'^ '^'

population

sq

km

12,031

Nolhivaranlaru Farukolhu-

12,890

funadhoo South Miladhunmadulu (Noonu)

Manadhoo

North f^^aalhosmadulu (Raa)

Ugoofaaru

South Maalhosmadulu (Baa) Faadhippolhu (Lhaviyani)

Eydhafushi

Male' (Kaafu)

Thulusdhoo

An Atoll Uthuru Goti (Alifu) An Atoll Ohekunu Gofi (Allfu) Fehdhu Atoll (Vaavu) Mulakatholhu (Meemu)

Rasdhoo Mahibadhoo

North Nilandhe Atoll (Faafu) South Nilandhe Atoll (Dhaalu) Kolhumadulu (Thaa) Hadhdhunmathi (Laamu) North

Huvadhu

South Huvadhu

Atoll (Gaafu-Alifu) Atoll

(Gaafu-Dhaalu;

Foammulah (GnyaviyanI) Addu Atoll (Seenu)

1990 census

Dhidhdhoo

9.022 8,437 11,303 7.716 7,224 6,726 3.998 5,029 1,579 4,186 2,614 4,199 8,189 9,101 7,295 10,417 6,160 15,177

Naifaru

Felidhoo Mull

Magoodhoo Kudahuvadhoo

Veymandoo Hithadhoo Vihgili

Thinadhoo Foahmulah Hithadhoo

Male TOTAL

115

298

55,130 213.2153

1.9

,848

21

47

2.674 56.435

1000

|

Population economically active (1990): total 56,435; activity rate of total population 26.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 50.2%; female 19.9%; unemployed 0.9%). Land use (1993): forested 3.3%; meadows and pastures 3.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.0%; built-on, wasteland, and other 83.4%.

Foreign traded Balance of trade (current prices) US$000,000

% of total

1987

1988

1989

-42.9 41.1%

-41.7 34.2%

-51.0 36.3%

1990

-65 38.4%

1991

1992

1993

-83.3 43.7%

-126.6 61.3%

-133.7 65-9%

Imports (1993): Rf 2,096,704,000 (consumer products 50.4%. intermediate and capital goods 36.8%, petroleum products 12.8%). Major import sources: Singapore 51.8%; India 8.6%; Sri Lanka 6.7%; United Arab Emirates 6.5%; Japan 3.9%; Thailand 3.3%. Exporis (1993): Rf 377,397,000 (canned tuna 26.9%, frozen skipjack tuna 21.4%, apparel and clothing 15.9%, fish meal 3.4%). Major export destinations: Sri Lanka 30.3%; United Kingdom 24.5%; Thailand 13.9%; United States 11.3%; Germany 5.9%; Japan 4.1%.

Transport and communications

Demography Population (1995): 253,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 2,200, persons per sq Urban-rural (1993): urban 30.0%; rural 70.0%. Sex distribution (1995): male 51.16%; female 48.84%.

km

849.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads: total length, n.a. Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 823; trucks and buses 869. Merchant marine (1992): vessels

(1995): under 15, 46.5%; 15-29, 26.8%; 30-44, 14.2%; 45-59, 7.6%; 60-74, 4.2%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2000) 286,000; (2010) 345,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition: the majority is principally of Sinhalese and Dravidian extraction; Arab, African, and Negrito influences are also present.

(100 gross tons and over) 44; total deadweight tonnage 78,994. Air transport (1993): passenger arrivals 348,853, passenger departures 344,061; cargo loaded 2,756 metric tons, cargo unloaded 7,216 metric tons; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 2; total circulation 4,300; circulation per 1,000 population 18. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 25,000 (1 per 9.8 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 4,750 (1 per 52 persons). Telephones (1992): 8,523 (1 per 27 persons).

Religious affiliation: virtually 100% SunnI Muslim. Major cities (1990): Male' 55,130.

Education and health

Age breakdown

Education (1986)

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 32.6 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.5 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 27.1 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 6.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 11.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.8. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 65.0 years; female 62.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1988): rheumatic fever 106.0; ischemic heart diseases 65.0; bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma 61.0; tetanus 23.5; tuberculosis 13.0; accidents and suicide 10.0.

National economy Budget [\'i^A). Revenue: Rf 99 00,000 (nontax revenue 33.3%, import duties 32.0%, foreign grants 15.7%, tourism tax 14.4%). Expenditures: Rf 1,524,000,000 (fisheries and agriculture 22.3%, general administration 22.2%, education 15.8%, public order and safety 11.6%, health 7.2%, transportation 5.9%, interest on public debt 4.9%).

Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 11-18) Voc. teacher tr. Higher

studenty

schools

teachers

students

243 9

1,138 291

41,812

36.7

3,581

123

10

52

462

89

teacher

ratio

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no standard pas.sed 25.6%; primary standard 37.2%; middle standard 25.9%; secondary standard 6.3%; preuniversity 3.4%; higher 0.4%; not stated 1.2%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 90,189 (90.4%); males literate 47,412 (90.6%); females literate 42,777 (90.1%). Health (1993): physicians 45 (1 per 5.297 persons); ho.spital beds 200 (1 per 1,192 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 34. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,580 (vegetable products 80%, animal products 20%); 117% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

1 , 1

Military Total active duty personnel: Maldives maintains a single security force bering about 700-1,000; it performs both army and police functions.

num-

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.Sl 1,600,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): vegetables and melons 19,000, coconuts 13,000, fruits (excluding melons) 10,000, roots and tubers (including cassava, sweet potatoes, and yams) 8,000, copra 2,000; fish catch (1993) 89,938. Mining and quarrying: coral for construction materials. Manufacturing: details, n.a.; however, major industries include boat building and repairing, coir yarn and mat weaving, coconut and fish processing, lacquerwork, garment manufacturing, and handicrafts. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 30,000,000 (30,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (32,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$146,0()(),()00; expenditures bv na1

tionals abroad U.S.$29,()()0.(H)0. Household income and expenditure (1990). Average household size 7.1; annual income per household Rf 2,616 (U.S. $274), sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1981)'': food and beverages 61.8%, housing equipment 17.0%, clothing 8.0%, recreation and education 5.9%, transportation 2.6%, health

2.5%, rent 1.6%.

divided into 20 administrative districts is from north to south. Total waters. 'Includes 4.792 people in resort and Industrial Islands. price index components. ^At 1985 prices. ''Primarily fishing. 'Import figures are fob. in balance of trade and e.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 'Includes 8 ndnclcclivc seats. corrcspdTidiiig to atoll groups:

area excludes .M.(v14

sl|

-Maldives

is

arrangement shown here

km) of tidal ^Weights of consumer

rni (,H').7(I2

sq

Nations of the World

Mali

crude petroleum, none (141,000); natural gas,

Official

name: Republique du Mali

Gross national product (U.S.$300 per capita).

(Republic of Mali).

Form of government:

Head of government: Prime

unit:

1

£

6,

= CFAF

Mining Manufacturing Construction

none.

CFA

% of labour

force

force

319,500

424

2,802.722

16,300 66,900

2.2

1,524

89

32,600

4-,

186,243 13,065 3,157 6,174 158,892

59,000 52,900 37.5006 753,800'

TOTAL

Capitals

Gao

sqmi

sq

Sikasso

Sikasso

124,326 46,233 37.007 30,508 25,028 27,135

Tombouctou

Timbuktu (Tombouctou)

191,743

Kayes

Kayes

Koulikoro Mopti

Koulikoro Mopti

Segou

0.1

02 47

7.8

158,704

4.6

5.0«

78,470

2.3

1000'

3.409,271

100.0

7.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1987) 5.6; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1986-87)3.8: food 54.6%, clothing 14.2%, transportation and communications 11.9%, housing and energy 8.7%, household durable goods 4.2%. Land use (1993): forested 5.7%; meadows and pastures 24.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.0%; other 67.7%.

km

estimate

322,002 119,743 95,848 79,017 64,821 70,280

1,219,000 1,432,000 1 ,394,000 1,546,000 1,489,000

496,611

452,000

252

894,000 8,825,000

399,000

Foreign traded Balance of trade (current prices)

District

Bamako

55 0.4

population

1994

Regions^

17 5

822

320

Services

Gao

^^ 50

37,500 131,700

Olfier

area

value

)

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

Area and population

1987

% of total

labour

Public utilities 1 Transp. and commun.

792.78.

Segou

000 000

value

Agriculture

(CFAF) = (Oct.

prices; 1993): U.S.$2,744

1993

franc 100 centimes; valuation 1995) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 501.49; 1

market

CFAF 000,000

in

Minister.

Official language: French.

Monetary

(at current

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Bamako.

Official religion:

petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none

(n.a.).

multipartyi

republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [116]). Chief of state: President. Capital:

(n.a.);

none

663

Bamako

TOTAL

97 482,077

1

,248,574

CFAF

%

Demography Population (1995): 9,008,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 18.7, persons per sq km 7.2. Urban-rural (1994): urban 26.1%; rural 73.9%. Sex distribution (1994): male 48.87%; female 51.13%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 48.3%; 15-29,22.5%; 30-44, 14.3%; 45-59, 8.8%; 60-74, 4.9%; 75 and over, 1.2%. Population projection: (2000) 9,980,000; (2010) 12,252,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Linguistic composition (1987): Bambara-Malinke-Dyula (-Dioula) 50.3%; Fulani (Peulh-Foulfoulbe) 10.7%; Dogon-Kado 6.9%; Songhai-Djerma 6.3%; Soninke-Marka 6.3%; Tamashek-Bella (Berber) 4.2%; Minianka 3.9%; Senufo 2.4%; Bwa- (Bobo-) Dafing 2.3%; Bozo-Somono 2.0%; other 4.7%. Religious affiliation (1983): Muslim 90%; traditional beliefs 9%; Christian 1%. cities (1987): Bamako 646,163; Segou 88,877; Mopti 73,979; Sikasso 73,050; Gao 54,874.

Major

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1995): 51.9 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1995): 19.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1995): 32.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 7.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990)-'': 0.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1995): male 44.7 years; female 48.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; morbidity ([notified cases of illness] by cause as a percentage of all reported infectious disease; 1985): malaria 62.1%; measles 10.3%; amebiasis 10.3%; syphilis and gonococcal infections 6.0%; influenza 4.9%; other principal causes in 1989 included polio and conditions originating in the perinatal period.

'000,000,000

of total

1989

1990

-24.9 12.6%

-25.6 12,2%

CFAF 291,300,000,000 (fiscal receipts 45.2%, non3.8%). Expenditures: CFAF 361,700,000,000 (current expenditure 44.1%; capital expenditure 36.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$2,506,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.Sl 1,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$61,000,000. Population economically active (1987): total 3,437,489; activity rate of total population 44.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 67A%; female 37.4%; unemployed 0.8%).

1993

-32

18.4%

14.3%

1

Transport and communications Railroads (1994): route length 399 mi, 642 km; passenger-mi 304,155,000, passenger-km 489,491,000; short ton-mi cargo 187,176,000, metric ton-km cargo 273,273,000. Roads (1994): total length 9,321 mi, 15,00Q km (paved 17%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 21,000; trucks and buses 8,400. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 134,932,000, passenger-km 217,154,000; short tonmi cargo 23,428,000, metric ton-km cargo 34,204,000; airports (1995) with

Transport.

scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): total number 1; total circulation 40,000; circulation per 1,000 population 4.5. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 350,000 (1 per 25 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 10,000 (1 per 883 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 13,800 (1 per 639 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-14)

Budget (1994). Revenue:

1992

-39 3

Imports (1993): CFAF 179,900,000,000 (machinery, appliances, and transport equipment 28.7%; food products 12.8%; petroleum products 11.6%; construction products 10.3%; chemicals 9.7%). Major import sources: Norway 28.1%; Cote d'lvoire 18.3%; France 8.4%; Senegal 4.4%; Hong Kong 2.1%; Belgium-Luxembourg 2.1%; United States 1.7%; United Kingdom 1.4%; Germany 1.3%; Japan 1.2%; Italy 0.8%; The Netherlands 0.7%; Morocco 0.6%. Exports (1993): CFAF 96,700,000,000 (raw cotton and cotton products 42.9% live animals 30.5%; gold 18.0%). Major export destinations: Norway 28.8% Thailand 18.3%; Brazil 13.7%; Ireland 9.6%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5.8% China 2.2%; France 1.9%; Tunisia 1.4%; Cote d'lvoire 1.1%; Spain 1.1% Germany 1.1%; Japan 1.1%; United States 1.1%.

schools

National economy

1991

-26.1 1 1 .5%

Secondary (age 15-17) Higher

1,514

307"

teachers

7,963 5,883'2

375,131 88,529 6.703

fiscal receipts

Price

105.

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

price index Hourly earnings index"

Educational attainment (1987). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 86.0%; primary education 12.5%; secondary 1.2%; postsecondary and higher 0.3%. Literacy (1987): percentage of total population age 6 and over literate 1,116,019 (18.8%); males literate 767,981 (26.7%); females literate 348,038 (11.4%). Health: physicians (1988) 435 (1 per 18,046 persons); hospital beds (1987) 3,430 (1 per 2,253 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1995)

1988

1989

1990

1991

99,5 100.0

99.4 100.0

100-0 100.0

101.8

100

1992

1993

1994

95.4

952

117.2

Food

(1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,278 (vegetable products 91%, animal products 9%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

1279

Military Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): millet 905,000, sorghum 903,000, rice 548,000, seed cotton 354,000, corn (maize) 315,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 146,000, cassava 73,000, sweet potatoes 55,000; livestock (number of live animals) 12,553,000 goats and sheep, 5,542,000 cattle, 611,000 asses, 260,000 camels, 101,000 horses, 63,000 pigs; roundwood (1993) 6,145,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 64,354. Mining and quarrying (1994): limestone lO.OOO'; gypsum 700; gold 5,700 kg; silver 200 kg. Manufacturing (1991): cotton fibre 46,396; sugar 29,040; cement 10,953; soft drinks 64,750 hectolitres; beer 37,754 hectolitres; shoes 127,000 pairs; cigarettes 141,757 cartons. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 313,000,000 (313,000,000); coal, none (n.a.);

Total active duty personnel (1995): 7,350 (army 93.9%, navy 0.7%, air force (1993): 2.2% (world 3.3%); 5.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S. $6.

GNP

'Multiparty legislative elections of February-March 1992 were boycotted by most opposition parties. 2KJdal region established on May 15, 1991. Separate data not available. 'Bamako only. ^Minimum hourly wages of industrial workers. 51990. ^Less imputed bank service charges. 'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. "Weights of consumer price index components. ''Import figures arc f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f in commodities and trading partners, "'Air Afrique only, >>Excludes vocational. 121990-91.

664

Britannica World Data

^ i

Malta Official

name: Malta (Maltese); Malta

(English).

Form of government:

unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (House of Representatives [65]). Chief of stale: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

^7

Capital: Valletta. official religion: unit: 1

Monetary

Roman

(Lm) = 100 cents = valuation! (Oct. 1

U.S.$

= Lm

6,

0.35;

^

\y

Catholicism.

Maltese

5^

^

^"'

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992

'^^ in

Agriculture

Manufacturing Mining Construction

1995)

£ = Lm

value '000

0.56.

1

area

19943

sqmi

Census regions^ Gozo and Comino

27 6 30

Inner Harbour Northern Outer Harbour South Eastern

12

Western TOTAL

,

20 27 122

sq

km

70

J 6

15

78 32 53 69 316"

Pub admin., defense Services

27,258 102,394 35.787 106.312 46.884 47,796 366.431

6,8 14,3 14.9'

23.26 9.6

Other TOTAL

769,638

100.0

of labour

force

2,755

2.0

34,411

24 6

5,348

38

^

6

6

52.214 109,963 114,651' 178,7426 73,504

Finance

estimate

force

2^M 3 3

%

labour

3.0

25,278

communications Trade

population

of total

value

23,528 191,758

Public utilities Transportation and

Area and population

1994

%

Lm

lira

1,000 mils; 1

3.3%, tobacco 2.6%. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$653,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$21 1,000,000. Cross national product (1992): U.S.$2,606,000,000 (U.S.$7,210 per capita).

_f=s;

Mediterranean

-1

Official languages: Maltese; English.

rated enterprises 20.0%, rents, dividends, and interest 18.2%; expenditure (1992): food and beverages 27.9%, transportation and communications 17.0%, household furnishings and operations 9.5%, clothing and footwear 6.6%, recreation, entertainment, and education 6.9%, housing 5.7%, health

6

11,114 14,344 3,520 41,6526 16.469 9,9768 139,589

8.0 10.3 2.5

2986 11.8 7.28

100

Land

use (1993): agricultural and under permanent cultivation 40.6%; other (infertile clay soil with underlying limestone) 59.4%.

Foreign trade''

Demography Population (1995): 370,000. Densit\- (1945): persons per sq mi 3,033, persons per sq Urban-rural (1993): urban 88.6%; rural 11.4%. Sex distribution (19943): male A^MVc; female 50.54%.

Balance of trade (current prices)

km

1,171.

Lm 000.000

%

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-169.0 22.3%

-172.8 18.3%

-214.5 21.1%

-182.9 15.7%

-229.5 18.2%

-226.9 16.2%

Age breakdown

(19943): under 15, 22.4%; 15-29, 21.2%; 30-44, 23.4%; 45-59, 17.8%; 60-74, 11.4%; 75 and over, 3.8%. Population projection: (2000) 378,000; (2010) 394,000. Doubling time: 93 years. Ethnic composition (by nationality; 1990): Maltese 95.7%; British 2.1%; other 2.2%. Religious affiliation (1992); Roman Catholic 98.6%; other 1.4%. Major cities (19943): Birkirkara 21,770; Qormi 19,904; Hamrun 13,654; Sliema 13,514; Valletta 9,144.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 97.7%; illegitimate 2.3%.

Death

14.8

Lm 830,920,000 (machinery and transport equipment 50.1%, semimanufactured goods 15.7%, food and live animals 8.5%, chemicals and

Imports (1993):

chemical products 6.8%i, mineral fuels 4.7%, nonfuel materials 1.7%, beverages and tobacco 1.1%). Major import sources: Italy 27.6%; Germany 14.2%; U.K. 13.4%; U.S. 8.7%; France 8.4%. Exports (1993): Lm 518,326,000 (machinery and transport equipment 54.1%, clothing and footwear 11.5%, reexports 8.0%, semimanufactured goods 6.4%, chemicals 2.0%, food and live animals 1.8%, beverages and tobacco 0.3%). Major export destinations: Italy 32.2%; Germany 15.6%; France 10.4%; U.K. 8.1%; U.S. 7.5%; Libya 4.8%; The Netherlands 2.4%.

(world avg. 25.0); legitimate

rate per 1,000

population (1993): 7.3 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.5 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth 1992): male 73.0 years; female 77.8 years. Major causes of death per 11111,(100 population (1993): diseases of the circulatory system .354.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 173.8; diseases of the respiratory system 58.4; accidents, poisoning, and violence 37.6; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs 32.3; diseases of the digestive system 26.9. (

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads

(1992): total length 988 mi, 1,588 km (paved 92%). Vehicles (1992): passenger cars 120,320; trucks and buses Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 889; total deadweight tonnage 17,073,207. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 776,940,000, passenger-km 1,250,370,000; short ton-mi carao 5.006,000, metric tonkm cargo 7,308,000; airports (1995) with scheduled^flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total circulation 68,000; circulation per 1,000 population 192. Radio (1994): 90,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Television (1993): 146,107 receivers (1 per 2.5 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 157,500 (1 per 2.3 persons). 27,978.

Education and health National economy Budget (1995). Revenue: Lm 423,312,000 (1992; customs and excise taxes 19.5%, national insurance and Central Bank contributions 20.6%, incoinc tax 19.2%., Central Bank profits 5.1%). Expenditures: Lm 397,009,000 (1992; national insurance benefits 41.1%, education 12.3%', health 9.8%, debt service 4.7%). Public debt (1994): U.S.$92 1,700,000. Production (wholesale value in Lm except where noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): vegetables 5,578,155 (of which tomatoes 896,588, melons 828,205, cauliflower 338,829, onions 330,018, carrots 307,118), fruits 906,245 (of which peaches 249,611, strawberries 166,294, grapes 116,122), potatoes 657,760; livestock (number of live animals; 1992) 107,000 pigs, 23,000 cattle, 6,000 sheep, 5,000 goats, 1,000,000 chickens; fish catch 1,065,821. Quarrying (1991): 4,.305,000. Manufacturing (value of sales in Lm; 1994): machinery and transport equipment 341,065,000, of which transport equipment 4,286,000; food and beverages 103,349,000; textiles and wearing apparel 76,990,000; paper and priming 39,784,000; chemicals 27,899,000; metal manufacture 12,437,000. Construction (buildings completed; 1994): residential 3,426'; nonresidential 3,079. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,418,656,000 (1,032,339,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) nime (300,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (320,000); natural gas, none (n.a.).

Population economically active (1993): total 139,868; activity rate of total population 38.2% (participation rates: ages 1.5-64 |1985) 45.9%; female 32.7%;

unemployed

4.2''/

Education (1992-93) schools

Pnmary (age 5-10) Secondary (age 11-17) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

teachers

students

168'o 4610

1,478 1,746

">

690 284

35.488 23.528 6,200 3,679

31

24 13.5

Educational attainment (1967). Percentage of economically active population having: no formal schooling 10.8%: primary education 60.4%; lower secondary 3.4%: upper secondary 17.6%; technical secondary 3.9%; postsecondary and higher 3.9%. Literacy (1985): total population age 15 and over literate 250,419 (96.0%); males literate 121.899 (96.2%); females literate 128,520 (95.9%). Health (1995): physicians 900 (I per 409 persons): hospital beds 2,131 (1 per 173 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 7.8. Pood (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,468 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 140% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 1,850 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1992): 0.9% (world 3.7%); per capita expenditure U.S.$63.

GNP

).

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

price index

963

97.1

113.0

98.4

104.2 111.8

108,5

95.5

100.0 100.0

102.5

Annual earnings index

Consumer

1085

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1985) 3.3; average annual income per household (1982) Lm 4,736 (U.S.Sl 1,399); sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 61.8%, professional and unincorpo-

'The Maltese lira is tied to the currencies of several principal trading partners. ^Data are reported according to census regions as of Januar) 1993; in late 1993 new administrative ilislrids (Uicai Councils) were created. 'January 1. "Detail docs not add to liit;il gi\en hccausc of rounding. ^Dwellings completed. ''Pub. admin., defense includes I'ublic uliiitics, ^I'lnance includes income from property, sincludcs 5,574 unemployed. ''Import (igiires are f.oh, in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. i"1991-92.

Nations of the World

^V

Marshall Islands

1 i

Republic of the Marshall Islands

m

(English).

Form of government:

unitary republic

with two legislative houses (Council of Iroij [12] 1; Nitijela [33]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Majuro (Dalap-Uliga-Darrit). Official languages: Marshallese (Kajin-Majol); English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 U.S. dollar (U.S.$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 £ = U.S.$1.59.

Jabat

5.67 2.07 5.00 2.17 2.32 2.22 2.26 0.22

Jaluit

438

Kili

Kwajalein

0.36 6,33

Lae

056

Lib

0.36 3.96 3.75 3.75 0.72 6.15 1.07 2.42 3.07 0.72 0.67 0.94 1.67

Ailuk

Bikini

Ebon Enewetak

Likiep

Majuro Maloelap Mejit Mili

Namorik

Namu. Rongelap Ujae Ujelang Utrik

Wotho Wotje Other

316 4.10

atolls

70 07

TOTAL

Pac tic Oce an

)^K^v,

1994 M

in

J

V-

'i

N

population

sq

km

1,715

6.01

10 741

5,75 5,85 0,57 11,34 0.93 16,39 1.45

438

715 112 602

19,664

796 445 854 814

Price

Majuro (Dalap-Uliga-Darrit)

537

17,189.8

192

1.394

12,1

14,969.0

16.7

833

73

23.907.0

26.6

3,035

26,4

1,434' 11.488

100.0

1.076

2.06

1000

125'

448

price index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

97,1

99,4

100,0

103,4

1168

119,5

1256

visitors U.S.$3,000,000;

expenditures by nation-

Foreign trade

409 90 646

Balance of trade (current prices) US,$000,000

43.380

14,649;

and earnings Indexes (1990= 100)

Tourism (1993): receipts from als abroad, n.a.

801

% of total

1.4%. (1988):

47

Earnings index

Doubling time: 18 years. Ethnic composition (nationality; 1988): Marshallese 96.9%; other Pacific islanders 1.7%; Filipino 0.5%; all other 0.9%. Religious affiliation (1973); Protestant 90.1%; Roman Catholic 8.5%; other cities

—

0,7 9.4 4.7

1,790.96 89.373.2

Consumer

Demography

other urban

82

9,311

971

818

187

945 82

1,2

Population economically active (1988): total 11,488; activity rate of total population 26.5% (participation rates: over age 14, 54.1%; female 30.1%; unemployed 12.5%).

1.709

9.71

10,62 181,482

2,3 10,4

force

use (1989)K: forested 22.5%; meadows and pastures 13.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 33.1%; other 30.9%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988) 8.7; income per household (1979) U.S.$3,366; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1982): food 57.7%, housing 15.6%, clothing 12.0%, personal effects and other 14.7%.

488

319 115 482

1,86 15.93 2.77 6.27 7.95 1.86 1.74 2.43 4.32

2,0823

03

of labour

2.150 2

Land

1.656

10-26

093

16.4

9,295,0 4,209,7

TOTAL

1988 census

14.68 5,36 12.95 5.62

14,614,3 248,0 1,067 2

%

labour force

of total

value

Mining Manutacturing Public utilities Construction Transp, and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, insurance. real estate Public administration 1 Services J

1988

%

value

USS'OOO Agriculture

Population (1995): 56,200. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 802.0, persons per sq km 309.7. Urban-rural (1988): urban 64.5%; rural 35.5%. Sex distribution (1995): male 50.98%; female 49.02%. Age breakdown (1995): under 15, 50.4%; 15-29, 25.6%; 30^4, 14.0%; 45-59, 6.3%; 60-74, 2.9%; 75 and over, 0.8%. Population projection: (2000) 68,400; (2010) 100,000.

Major

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

•

^

area

sq mi

Arno Aur

—

Other

Area and population

Ailinglaplap

\^

(consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 57,891.000 (57,891,000); coal, none (n.a.); gasoline, oil, and lubricants (barrels; 19H8)S n.a. (84,588). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1994): U.S.S 169,000,000. Gross domestic product (1994): U.S.$H8,800,0U() (U.S.S 1,640 per capita).

"^

h

name: Majol (Marshallese);

Official

665

Ebeye

8,324;

no

localities.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 46.6 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 7.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 38.7 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 7.0.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1995): male 61.9 years; female 65.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990-93)> infectious and pardiseases 169.9; circulatory diseases 155.1; respiratory diseases 105.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 68.4; digestive diseases 63.3; accidents, injuries, and violence 36.7. asitic

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue: U.S.$67,200,000 (U.S. government grants 50.4%, income tax 11.6%, import tax 10.0%, value-added and excise taxes 7.4%, fishing rights 4.5%, fuel taxes 1.8%). Expenditures: U.S.$79,600,000 (199394; education 13.2%, debt service 10.2%, health services 10.2%, public works and social programs 9.2%, internal security 3.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1991): copra 5,545, fruits 1,809 (of which pandanus 836, breadfruit 645, bananas 264, papaya 64), tubers 1,500 (of which taro 1,300, sweet potatoes 182), vegetables 136 (of which cabbage 36, pumpkins 36); livestock (number of catch live animals; 1994) 12,352 pigs, 59,086 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fish on (1993) 106,809''. Mining and quarrying: high-grade phosphate mining Ailinglaplap Atoll, quarrying of sand and aggregate for local construction only. Manufacturing (1994): copra 4,387; coconut oil and processed (chilled or frozen) fish are important products; the manufacture of handicrafts and personal items (clothing, mats, boats, etc.) by individuals is also significant. Construction (1994): value added U.S.$9,300,000. Energy production

1989

1990

1991

1992

-41,9 89.4%

-53,9 94.0%

-53.5 90.3%

6

-53 4

-49

74,1%

77.7%

52.6%

-52

1993

1994 3

Imports (1994): U.S.$7 1,433,000 (food and live animals 27.8%, mineral fuels and lubricants 22.9%, machinery and transport equipment 12.2%, manufactured goods 11.0%, beverages and tobacco 5.7%). Major import sources: United States 60.1%; Guam 25.2%; Japan 5.8%; Australia 1.9%. Exports (1994): U.S.$22, 170,000 (chilled fish 46.9%-, frozen fish 21.1%, crude coconut oil 8.8%, pet fish 1.3%). Major export destinations (1983): United States 79.4%; other 20.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads: n.a. Vehicles (1994): passenger cars 1,418; trucks and buses 193. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 35; total deadweight tonnage 4,182,356. Air transport (1994): passenger-km 52,000,000''; metric ton-km cargo 30,433; airports (1995) with

scheduled flights 23. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): there are no dailies, only weeklies, of which there are two with a total circulation of over 10,000. Radio (1990): receivers, n.a.; but there are two radio stations. Television (1990): n.a.; but there are two television stations. Telephones (main lines; 1993): 2,300 ( per 23 persons). 1

Education and health Education (1993-94) schools Primary (age 6-14)

Secondary (age 15-18) Voc. teacher tr.

104 11

teachers

833 138

students

student/ teacher ratio

13.565 2,483

163 180

Higher

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no grade completed 5.1%; elementan,' education 43.2%; secondary 39.7%; higher 1 1.4%; not stated 0.6%. Literacy (latest): total population age 15 and over literate 19,377 (91.2%); males literate 9,993 (92.4%); females literate 9,384 (90.0%). Health (1991): physicians 20 (1 per 2,309 persons); hospital beds (1985) 54 (1 per 698 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 53.0. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military the 1984 Compact of Free Association, the United States provides for the defense of the Republic of the Marshall Islands.

Under

'Council of Iroij is an advisory body only. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ^Registered deaths only. ''Total for foreign vessels only, simports only. Minport duties less imputed bank service charges. ' Includes 1,432 unemployed. "Data ''1990. are for the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.

666

Britannica World Data

Martinique

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1991

Official name: Departement de la Martinique (Department of

in value F 000.000

Martinique).

Agriculture, fishing

Political status: overseas

Capitals Fort-de-France Le Marin La Tnnite

Le Mann La Tnnite TOTAL

4.1

6.2

6,673

4,556,1

21,9

13.965

86

1,017.6

4.9

26.489

162

3,4245

16.4

Other

5.883,23

2833

TOTAL

20.786

3058

15

35,541

21.8

52,900 • 163,017

1000

[

100,0

32.4"

Population economically active (1990): total 164,870^; activity rate of total population 45.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 68.1%; female 47.5%; unemployed [1994] 26.2%). Price and earnings indexes (1985 = 100) Consumer

147 158

57

}

Finance, real estate, insurance Pub, admin, and defense Sereices

1988

Fort-de-France

52 6.0

9.298

,282.3

1

tiotels

area

Arrondissements

2.4

labour

force

8,445 9,706

Trade, restaurants.

Area and population sqmi

55 77 52

493.7

communications

% of

labour force

value

1.152,2 1 ,592.0 1 ,078-6

Mining, manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

department

(France) with two legislative houses (General Council [45]; Regional Council [41]). Chief of state: President of France. Heads of government: Prefect (for France); President of the General Council (for Martinique); President of the Regional Council (for Martinique). Capital: Fort-de-France. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = F5.01; 1 £ = F7.93.

1990

% of tota

population

sq

km

381

131

409 338

436

1,128

1989

price indexs

Monthly earnings index'

1990 census

Land

187.275 93.411 78,893 359,579

Foreign traded

1990 116 8

118.3

126 6

115.9

1188

122,9

129.3 125.7

132 3 127.5

use (1993): forested 44.3%; meadows and pastures 17.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 16.0%; other 22.7%.

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1995): 388,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 889.9, persons per sq Urban-rural (1990): urban 80.5%; rural 19.5%. Sex distribution (1990): male 48.36%; female 51.64%.

F '000,000

km

%

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-6,732 73.5%

-7,970 72.7%

-7,934 78 4%

-7,982 75.6%

-7,744 78.0%

-7,877 76.4%

344.0.

Age breakdown

(1990): under 15, 23.1%; 15-29, 28.9%; 30-44, 20.5%; 45-59, 13.5%; 60-74, 9.7%; 75 and over, 4.3%. Population projection: (2000) 415,000; (2010) 458,000. Doubling time: 77 years.

Ethnic composition (1983): mulatto 93.7%; French (metropolitan and Martinique white) 2.6%; East Indian 1.7%; other 2.0%. Religious affiliation (1993): Roman Catholic 84.6%; other (mostly Seventh-day Adventist, Jehovah's Witness, Hindu, syncretist, and nonreligious) 15.4%. Major urban areas (1990): Fort-de-France 100,072; Le Lamentin 30,026; Schoelcher 19,825; Sainte-Marie 19,683; Le Robert 17,675.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 14.9 (world avg. 25.0); (1992) legitimate 34.1%; illegitimate 65.9%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 5.8 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1994): 9.1 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.9. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1994): 3.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 74.7 years; female 81.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990): diseases of the circulatory system 208.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 135.5; accidents, poisoning, and violence 54.8; diseases of the digestive system 31.3; endocrine and metabolic disorders 30.7.

National economy

F 1,816,000,000 (general receipts from French central government and local administrative bodies 45.11%; tax receipts 34.0%, of which indirect taxes 19.5%, direct taxes 14.5' r). Expenditures: F 1,816,000,000 (health and social assistance 42.0%; wages and salaries 16.7%; other administrative services 7.2'r; debt amortization 5.0%). Public debt (1994): U.S.$ 186,700,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): bananas 228,000, sugarcane 210,000, pineapples 27,000, plantains 12,000, yams 8,000, cucumbers 3,000, tomatoes 3.000, sweet potatoes 2,000, melons 1,5881, hmcs 342-. pimientos 1981, flowers and foliage 105', avocados 68'; livestock (number of live animals) 110,000 sheep. 49,000 pigs, 36,000 cattle; roundwood (1993) 13,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 4,607. Mining and quarrying (1992): pumice 140,000; sand and gravel for local construction. Manufacturing (1994): cement 230,672; processed pineapples 18,772; sugar 12,748; rum 69,229 hectolitres; other products include clothing, fabricated metals, and yawls and sails. Construction (buildings authorized; 1994): residential permits 6.893; nonresidential 113,279 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 865.000.000 (783.0()().01)0); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) none (5,571,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 710,000 (565,000); natural gas. none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household si/e (1990) 3.3; income per household (1989) F 147,150 (U.S.$24,525); sources of income (1989): wages and salaries 80%, other 20%; expenditure (1993): food and beverages 32.1%, transportation and communications 20.7%, housing and energy 10.6%, household durable goods 9.4%, clothing and footwear 8.0%, education and recreation 5.4%, health care 5.2%, other 8.6%. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S. $332,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1991): U.S.$3,375.00n,()00 (U.S.$9,2I0 per capita). Budget (1994). Revenue:

of total

Imports (1994): F 9,013,493,000 (food products 21.6%, machinery 18.0%, transport equipment 11.0%, chemical products 10.5%, metal manufactures 6.5%). Major import sources: France 61.6%; United States 2.7%; Guadeloupe 1.1%; Venezuela 0.7%; other Caribbean 1.9%. Exports (1994): F 1,013,588,000 (food products 55.6%, refined petroleum 26.7%, machinery 6.9%, chemical products 3.4%). Major export destinations: France 47.5%; Guadeloupe 37.4%; French Guiana 3.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1994):

total length

1,299 mi. 2.091

km

(paved [1988] 75%). Vehicles (1985): passenger cars 135,269; trucks and buses 7,328. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 6; total deadweight tonnage 1,121. Air transport (1994): passenger arrivals and departures 1,566,253; cargo unloaded 8,272 metric tons, cargo loaded 5,572 metric tons; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 1: total circulation 32,000; circulation per 1,000 population 86. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 71,000 (1 per 5.4 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 65,000 ( 1 per 5.8 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 149,600 (1 per 2.5 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) students

Pnmary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18)

1

Vocational

J

Higher

2,711

33.170

122

3,830

47,295

123

3,670

51.7

Educational attainment (1982). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 9.8'"^; primary education 62.7%; secondary 21.2%; higher 6.3%. Literacy (1982): total population age 15 and over literate 206,807 (92.5% ); males literate 97,5.^8 (91.8%); females literate 109,269 (93.2%). Health (1991): physicians 625 (1 per 584 persons); hospital beds 3,747 (1 per 97 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 4.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,829 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 117% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,542 French troops.

iProduction for export only. -199.1, 'Includes an estimated I- 5.474,(KKI.IH)0 produced in nonmoney economy HJnenipioyed, '^Includes military reserve personnel, ''Figures end-of year unless othcrvvise footnoted, ''Based on monthly salaries of employees in commerce, banking, and government services. "Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. the

iire

Nations of the World

Mauritania

and beverages 74.5%, housing 9.2%, clothing and footwear 7.6%, health 0.8%, education 0.3%, other 7.6%. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$947,000,000 (U.S.$4.38 per capita).

name: al-Jumhurlyah al-Islamlyah al-Muntanlyah (Arabic)

Official

(Islamic Republic of Mauritania). unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses

Form of government:

(Senate [56]; National Assembly Head of state and government:

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993 in

[79]).

UM Agriculture

President. Capital: Nouakchott. Official languages: Arabic'. official religion: Islam.

Mining Manufacturing Public utilities 1 Construction 1 Transportation and

Monetary unit: 1 ouguiya (UM) = 5 khoums; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 1

U.S.$ £=

communications Trade and finance

= UM

UM

667

132.56; 209.56.

Area and population

area

population

Sen/Ices Pub admin., defense Other (indirect taxes net of subsidies) TOTAL

1988

%

value

000.000

of total

value

27,106 10,447 12.669

237

7,649

6.7

7,422 15,956 7,539 13,191

6.5 13.9 6.6

9.1

11.1

% of

labour

labour

force

force

225,238 6,322 5,630

385

1,326 12,291

02

6.378 73.451

1.4

1.1

10 2

1

12 5

1

11.5/

109 1000

12,472 114,4505

2841

166.366" 585.809

100,0

1992

km

sq mi

sq

Aleg

13,900 83.100 14,000

Nouadhibou

1 1

36,000 215,300 37,100 30,000 14,000 10.000 166,000 57,000 49,000 93,000 255.300 67.000

185.574 62,906 207,590 83,246 201,301 129,797 234,011 175,089 13,630 67.939 37,534 217,867

1,000 ,030.700

324,037

Regions

Capitals

el-'Agaba

Kiffa

Adrar

AUr

Brakna Dakhlet Nouadhibou Gorgol

Guidlmaka

Kaedi Selibaby

Hodh ech-Chargui Hodh el-Gharbi

'Ayoun el-Atrous

Inchiri

Akjoujt

Tagant

Tidjikdja

Tins Zemmour Trarza

Zouerate

,600

5,400 4,000 64.000 22.000 19.000 36,000 98,600 26,000

Nema

Rosso

estimate

Price

Nouakchott

TOTAL

Consumer pnce index

400 398,000

1

1,940,5212

1988

1989

820

83.1

,,.

,,,

93,8 100,0

105 6 100

116 3 114 6

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1994): U.S.$2,500,000,000.

Balance of trade (current prices) '000,000

% of total

Demography Population (1995): 2,274,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 5.7, persons per sq km 2.2. Urban-rural (1995): urban 53.8%; rural 46.2%. Sex distribution (1995): male 49.52%; female 50.48%. Age breakdown (1995): under 15, 43.1%; 15-29, 27.3%; 30-44, 16.1%; 45-59, 8.3%; 60-74, 4.3%; 75 and over, 0.9%. Population projection: (2000) 2,580,000; (2010) 3,283,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1993): Moor 70% (of which about 40% "black" Moor [HaratTn, or African Sudanic] and about 30% "white" Moor [Bidan, or Arab-Berber]); other black African 30% (including [1983] Wolof 6.8%, Tukulor 5.3%, Soninke 2.8%, Fulani 1.1%, other 2.5%). Religious affiliation (1980): Muslim 99.4%; Christian 0.4%; other 0.2%. (1992); Nouakchott 480,408; Kiffa 29,2923; Rosso 27,7833. cities

Nouadhibou

72,305;

Kaedi 35,241;

Vital statistics

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 45.0 years; female 51.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, mortality and morbidity arise mainly in diseases of the respiratory system, malaria, measles, and diarrhea.

National economy

UM

29,460,000,000 (tax revenue 77.1%; nontax revBudget (1994). Revenue: 35,200,000,000 (current enue 21.2%; special costs 1.6%). Expenditures: salaries and wages 19.0%, interest on debt of which expenditures 64.8%, 10.4%, defense 10.3%; capital [development] expenditures 32.9%). Tourism: receipts from visitors (1991) U.S.$13,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1988) U.S.$27,000,000. Land use (1993): forested 4.3%; meadows and pastures 38.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.2%; desert 57.2%.

UM

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sorghum 114,000, rice 59,000, dates 22,000, pulses 17,000, vegetables (including melons) 15,000, millet 7,000, corn (maize) 6,000, watermelons 6,000, roots and tubers 5,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,800,000 sheep, 3,100,000 goats, 1,011,000 cattle, 1,000,000 camels, 155,000 asses, 18,000 horses, 4,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 13,000 cu m; fish catch (metric tons; 1994) 296,627. Mining and quarrying (gross weight; 1994): iron ore 10,342,000; gypsum 4,230; plaster 3,510, gold 1,738 kg. Manufacturing (1994): cow's milk 91,000; goat's milk 77,000; sheep's milk 63,000; meat 61,000, of which fresh beef and veal 18,000, fresh mutton and lamb 12,000, goat meat 8,000; hides and skins 4,318; cheese 1,664; butter 614. Construction (1984): 42,478 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 164,593,000 (164,593,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) none (6,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) none (7,315,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 827,000 (909,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household n.£.;

sources of income:

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

+4,576 6,4%

+8,277 12,4%

+3.838 5,8%

+ 1.272

+ 1.657 2.3%

+ 2,163 3.2%

1

,8%

UM

Imports {\99V-»): 32,436,000,000 (food products 24.8%, petroleum products 9.2%, fishing boats 6.6%, machinery and transport equipment A.ZVc). Major import sources (1993): France 26.8%; Spain 8.7%; The Netherlands 8.3%; Algeria 7.6%; Belgium and Luxembourg 5.9%; Italy 4.9%; Germany 4.3%; United States 3.8%. Exports (19937): 34,599,000,000 (fish 55.2%, iron ore 39.8%, gold 3.9%). Major export destinations (1993)'': Japan 25%; Italy 18%; France 15%; Spain

UM

11%; Belgium and Luxembourg 8%; Cote d'lvoire 6%; United Kingdom 5%; Cameroon 4%.

Transport and communications Transport.

Railroads (1992): route length 416 mi, 670 km; passengcr-mi,

negligible; passenger-km, negligible; short ton-mi cargo 3,860,000,000, met-

ton-km cargo 5,635,000,000. Roads (1995): total length 4,745 mi, 7,636 km (paved 23%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 8,000; trucks and buses 5,500. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 126; total deadweight tonnage 23,875. Air transport (1993)'": passenger-mi 129,000,000, passenger-km 207,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 9,000,000, metric ton-km ric

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 48.0 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 16.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 32.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 7.0.

come per household:

1987 Monthly earnings indexs

UM

Major

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Foreign trade

District

Nouakchott

Population economically active (1992): total 654,000; activity rate of total population 30.5% (participation rates: over age 10 [1990] 49.7%; female 13.5%; unemployed [1988] 50.0%).

n.a.;

size (1980) 5.0; in-

expenditure (1990): food

cargo 14,000,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 10. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993); total number 1; total circulation, n.a. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 300,000 (1 per 7.2 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 1,100 (1 per 1,974 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 7,600 (1 per 286 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94) Primary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-17) Voc. teacher tr. Higher

student/

teacher

teachers

students

4.686 1,776

248,048

52 9

43,861 1,949 7,647

24,7

162

248"

ratio

12

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 60.8%; primary and incomplete secondary 34.1%; secondary 3.8%; higher 1.3%. Literacy (1995): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 'il.1%; males literate 49.6%; females literate 26.3%. Health: physicians (1991) 135 (1 per 14,259 persons); hospital beds (1988) 1,556 (1 per 1,217 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1994) 85. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,685 (vegetable products 82%, animal products 18%); 116% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 15,650 (army 95.8%, navy 3.2%, air force {\993): 2.8% (world 3.3%.); 1.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S.$17.

GNP

'The 1991 constitution names Arabic as the official language and the following as national languages: Arabic, Fulani, Soninke, and Wolof. 20fficial population projection based on 1988 census. -'1988. "iMostly unemployed. SDetall does not add to total given because of rounding. ''Statutory minimum wage rate of civil servants, 'p.o.b. simport figures are not based on customs data but on foreign-exchange records of the central bank and other official sources. ''Estimated figures. '"Air Afrique scheduled traffic only. iil99I-92.

668

Britannica World Data

Official

/"

\

Mauritius

1

name: Republic of Mauritius.

Form of government:

republic with

one legislative house Assembly [70i]).

Indian

(Legislative

Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

p^{}

Capital: Port Louis. Official language: English. Official religion:

Mau Rs

17.99;

6, 1

1995)

1

i

JD

t V

none.

Monetary unit: 1 Mauritian rupee (Mau Re; plural Mau Rs) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct.

Ocean

'tti

U.S.$ =

r"

£ = Mau Rs 28.43.

'

1

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): sugarcane 5,402,000, green tea 30.900, potatoes 13,855. tomatoes 13,020, bananas 9,880, black tea 6,000, cabbages 5.515, pineapples 4,050, onions 3,640, corn (maize) 1,750, tobacco 1,015, peanuts (groundnuts) 865; livestock (number of live animals) 95,000 goats, 34,000 cattle, 14,000 pigs, 7,000 sheep; roundwood (1992) 17,000 cu m; fish catch 19,047. Mining and quarrying (1990): sand 800,000, salt 3,000. Manufacturing (1992): raw sugar 643,168; molasses 173,175; manufactured tea 5,845; beer and stout 295,100 hectolitres. Construction (1993): residential 1,179,000 sq m; nonresidential 207,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr: 1992) 925,000,000 (925,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (62,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (388,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (1992)6; total 478,129; activity rate of total population 43.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 66.2%; female 33.9%; unemployed 7.9%).

19932

Islands Districts/Dependencies

sq mi

720 100 115 too 89 69 78

Mauritius

Black River Flacq

Grand Port

Moka Pamplemousses Plaines Wilhems Port Louis

17 57 95

du Rempart Savanne Riviere

Consumer

km

estimate

1,865

1.056,741

259 298 260

46,716 116,111 99,676 67,721 106,436

sq

231 179

203 43 148 245

price index

Monthly earnings index

1990

78.2 79.9

io

123,7 135.6

1328 1642

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.5*; income per household (1979) Mau Rs 15,540 (U.S. $2,430); sources of income (1990): salaries and wages 48.4%, entrepreneurial income 41.2%, transfer payments 10.4%; expenditure (1986-87)1': food, beverages, and tobacco 49.1%, housing 13.5%, transportation 9.3%, clothing and footwear 8.4%, recreation, entertainment, education and cultural services 6.0%, energy

332,923 134,516 90,071 62.571

5.7%, health care 3.0%, other 5.0%. use (1992): forested 28.1%; meadows and pastures 3.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 52.2%; other 16.3%.

Land

Mauritian dependencies

27

1989

1988

population

area

Agalega3 Cargados Carajos Shoals (Saint Brandon) 3 Rodrigues"

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Price

Area and population

170

71

Foreign trade '^

J

40 7885

TOTAL

104 2,0405

34,493 1.091,404

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S,$'000.000

Demography

%

Population (1995): 1,128,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 1,431.0, persons per sq km 552.8. Urban-rural (1991). Radio (1994): 380.000 receivers (1 per 2.9 persons). Television (1994) 156,850 receivers (1 per 7.1 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 106,900 (I per 10 persons).

Primary (age 5-12) Secondary (age 12-20) Voc teacher Ir. Higher ,

teachers

6,543 4,050

'5

students

125.543 87.661 2.052 2,556

198 206

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education 18.3%; incomplete primary 42.6%; primary 6.1%; incomplete secondary 18.0%; secondary 13.1%; higher 1.9%. Literacy (1990): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 79.9%; males literate 85.2%; females literate 74.7%. fleahh (1993): physicians 950 (1 per 1,098 persons); hospital beds 3.330 (1 per .\51 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 19.6. Eood (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 2.897 (vegetable products 87%. animal products 13%); 128% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

1994

% of total

labour

value

forces' '»

4,605

87

41.600

14.2

80

0,1

200

0.1

12,485 4,010 1,250

237

104,700 13,400 3,500

35.8 4.6

6.350 9.345 5.745 5.875 3.000

120 178 109

14,200 23,300

49 80

52.745

100.0

in

value

Mau Rs 000,0008 Agriculture

Mining

Manufactunng Construction Public utilities Transportation and

communications Trade Finance Pub admin defense ,

Services

76 24

of labour forces '"

Military Total active duty personnel: none; however, a special 1.300-person paramilitary force ensures internal security. Militarv expenditure as percentage of

GNP

(1993):

11

1

5 7

1

76,800

263

J

14.900

292.400

0.4% (world

.3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.S 10.

12 Includes 8 nonclectivc scats. -January 1. 'Administered directly from Port Louis. ^Ailminislcrcd by resident commissioner assisted by local council. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. Msland of Mauritius only. 'Excludes Agalega and Cargados Carajos Shoals. '*At factor cost, ''hmploycd persons in establishments employing H) or more persons. H'March. "Current weights of CPI components; Island of Mauritius only. '-Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. I'Air Mauritius only. ''Circulation for 6 newspapers only. IM991. i"1992. 1^1982. 181989. I

Other TOTAL

%

5.1

100.05

Nations of the World

Mexico name: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican

Official

States).

Form of government:

federal republic with two legislative houses (Senate [128]; Chamber of Deputies [500]). Chief of state and head of government:

^m

\ ^r

T

-

Pacific

President. Capital: Mexico City. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. unit: 1 new peso

Monetary

completed

primary 20.7%; incomplete secondary 10.4%; complete secondary 24.2%: ' higher 8.3%.

residential 1,193; nonresidential 1,483. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 3,03O.OO(),()OO (3,030.000,000); coal (metric Ions; 1993) 71.000

(74,000); crude

petroleum (barrels; 1993) 5,100,000 (5.285,000); petroleum

Education (1992-93) Primary (age 5 9)

Secondary (age 10-15) Voc, teacher tr Higher

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1983) 5.2; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure

teachers

students

36,499 2,920 112 40

198,909 67,503 2.194 6,696

6,518,800 1,633,700 28,200 260,300

teacher

ratio

328 242 129 389

Educational attainment (1983). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 55.8%; primary education 39.4%; secondary 4.6%; religious 0. Kf; postsecondary 0.1%. Literacy (1983): total population age 15 and over literate 16.472.494 (78.5%); males literate 8,816,031 (85.8%); females literate 7,6.56,463 (71.6'; ). Health (1992-93): physicians 13.353 (1 per 3,306 persons); hospital beds 27,830 (1 per 1,586 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1995) 78. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2.598 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active dut\ personnel (1995): 286.000 (armv 92.7%, navy 4.2%, air force 3.1%). Mililan,' expenditure as percentage o/GNP (1992): 3.8% (world 3.7%); per capita expenditure U.S.$37.

The military government has refused to hand over power to the National Ixague Democracy, which won in the 1990 multiparty elections. -Includes 7,710 persons not distributed by area, 'Construction Corporation activity only. 'Based on 24 rural townships. '^Lmploycd only. ''Wages in manufacturing. "Import figures arc l,o,h. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. I

products (metric tons; 1993) 618,000 (619,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 973,000,000 (973,000,000).

student;

schools

for

Nations of the World

Namibia

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1981) 4.8; average annual income per household (1980) R 3,223 (U.S.$4,I43); sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 69.0%, income from property 25,6%, transfer payments 5,4%; expenditure: n,a.

name: Republic of Namibia. republic with two houses (National Assembly

Official

Form of government:

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$2,598,000,000 (U.S.$1,660 per capita).

legislative

[721);

National Council

[26]).

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Head of state and government: President. Capital: Windhoek. Official language: English.

Monetary

unit:

(Nam$) = 100 1995)

1

U.S.$

1994

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Namibian dollar cents; valuation (Oct. 6,

1

= Nam$3.66;

Public utilities Transportation

l£ = Nam$5.79.

area

sq mi

Omarufu Mariental

Khomas

Keelmanshoop Windhoek

Kunene

Opuwo

Karas

Liambezi

Kalima Mulilo

Ohangwena

Oshikango

Okavango

Rundu

Omaheke

Gobabis Ongandjera

Omusati

Oshana

Oshakati

Oshikoto Oljozondjupa Other

Tsumeb Grootfontein

TOTAL

24,602 42,428 62,288 14,210 55,697 7,541

4,086 16,763 32.715 5,265 2,042 10,273 40,667 2

318,580"

sq

km

estimate

63,719 109,888 161,324 36,804 144.254 19,532 10,582 43.417 84,731 13.637 5,290 26.607 105,327 6 825,118

98,500 80,000 73,000 161,000 58,500 92,000 178,000 136,000 55,600 158.000 159,000 176,000 85,000

14.3 15.9

832.5

93 27

189.929 14,686 22.884 18.638 2,974

1.4

%

of labour

force

385 3.0

46 38 06

412.1

4.6

9021

10.1

1,046.9 111,7

11.7 1.2

9,322 37,820 8,547

1.9

7.7

17

1

89.5418

18.16

2.336.1

26,1

Other

2394

27

TOTAL

8.9575

1000

\

20

99,239 493.580

1

100.0

Land

use (1993): forested 21.9%; meadows and pastures 46,2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0,8%; other 31,1%,

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

..

-28

+102

+ 79

+ 122

...

0.8%

4,3%

3.0%

5.0%

+ 165 6.6%

U.S.S'OOO.OOO

% of total

1.000 1.511,600

Imports (1994): U.S.$1, 157,100,000 (1988; chemical and petroleum products 21.5%; food and agricultural products 17.1%; machinery and transport equipment 6.6%; other 46.2%). Major import source (1991): South Africa

Demography

(1990): 15,000;

1,284.9 1,426.4

I'

and defense

75-100%.

Population (1995): 1,651,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 5,2, persons per sq km 2.0. Urban-rural (1993): urban 35.2%; rural 64.8%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.78%; female 50.22%. Age breakdown (1990): under 15, 45.7%; 15-29, 25.5%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 8.6%); 60-74, 4.3%; 75 and over, 0.9%. Population projection: (2000) 1,957,000; (2010) 2,705,000. Doubling lime: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Ovambo 47.4%; Kavango 8.8%; Herero 7.1%; Damara 7.1%; white 6.1%; Nama 4.6%; other 18.9%. Religious affiliation (1981): Lutheran 51.2%; Roman Catholic 19.8%; Dutch Reformed 6.1%; Anglican 5.0%; other 17.9%.

Major cities Rehoboth

force 6

and

Services Public administration

population

1992

Regions Erongo3 Hardap

labour

value

value

2438 1216

communications Trade' Finance

Area and populations

1991

% of total

R 000,000

in

none.

official religion:

677

Windhoek 125,000; Swakopmund Keetmanshoop 14,000.

15,500;

Rundu

15,000;

(1994): U.S.S 1,322,200,000 (minerals 50.2%, of which diamonds 31A%; agricultural products 36.1%, of which cattle 11,0%, karakul pelts 0,2%), Major export destinations (1986): United States 25%; South Africa

Exports

19%; Japan 15%,

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: length (1993) 1,480 mi, 2,382 km; passenger-km 2,008,000,000''; metric ton-km !, 097.300. Roads (1994): total length 26,467 mi, 42,594 km (paved 12%). Vehicles (1994): passenger cars 61,269; trucks and buses 60,041. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 30; total deadweight tonnage 5,874. Air transport (1994)'": passenger-km 750,946,000; metric ton-km cargo 25,430,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 12.

total number 6; total circulation 43,300; circulation per 1,000 population 54. Radio (1993): 240,000 receivers (1 per 6.4 persons). Television (1993): 39,500 receivers (1 per 39 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 69,800 (1 per 22 persons).

Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 41.6 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 10.6 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 31.0 (world avg. 15.7).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 5.7. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 57.5 years; female 60.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, tuberculosis has, in the early 1990s, become a serious problem (especially in the southern regions); AIDS cases, while few, are increasing exponentially.

Education and health Education (1993)

student/

schools Primary (age 6-12)

Secondary (age 13-19) Voc. teacher tr. Higher

National economy Budget (1994-95). Revenue: R 3,366,600,000 (customs and excise taxes 26.8%, individual income taxes 16.6%, general sales tax 14.0%, nontax revenues 11.6%, mining taxes 5.2%). Expenditures: R 3,923,000,000 (1993-94; education 23.5%, transportation 18.4%, health and welfare 13.1%, national defense 5.3%, agriculture 5.0%). Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.$9 1,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$81,000,000. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$3,180,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): roots and tubers 253,000, cereals 120,000 (of which millet 59,000, corn [maize] 45,000, sorghum 10,000), fruits 10,000, vegetables and melons 8,000, pulses 7,000, wool 3,026, karakul pelts 770,627 unitsS; livestock (number of live animals) 2,620,000 sheep, 2,036,000 cattle, 1,639,000 goats; fish catch (1993) 329,790. Mining and quarrying (1994): diamonds 1,312,000 carats (mostly gem quality); zinc 64,600; copper 29,800; lead 23,800; uranium 2,242; silver 1,993,300 troy oz; gold 78,607 troy oz. Manufacturing (1991): n.a.; products include cut gems (primarily diamonds), fur products (karakul), processed foods (fish, meats, and dairy products), textiles, carved wood products, refined metals (copper and lead). Construction (value of buildings completed in R '000,000; 1990): residential 44.6; nonresidential 92.4. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,714,000,000

933 97 17 7

teachers

students

10.9129

2,534"

352,100 92.136

140'2 213'3

1.503 6.523

teacher

ratio

3209 29.3" 11.9'2 11.8'3

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 61.8%; primary education 18.8%; secondary 16.6%; higher 1.6%; unknown 1.2%. Literacy (1991): total population age 15 and over literate 622,200 (75.8%); males literate 305,800 (77.8%); females literate 316,400 (74.0%). Health: physicians (1992) 324 (1 per 4,594 persons); hospital beds (1989) 6,997 (1 per 216 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 63,8, Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,134 (vegetable products 87%, animal products 13%); 94% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 8,100 (army 98,8%, navy 1,2%), Military expenditure as percentage of (1993): 2,3% (world 3,3%); per capita expenditure U.S. $37.

GNP

(1,714,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.). Population economically active: total (1991) 493,580; activity rate of total population, 34.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 61.3%; female 43.5%; unemployed 20.1%).

Price

and earnings indexes (1990=100)

Consumer

price index

Earnings index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

77.5

89.3

100.0

1119

131.7

1430

158 4

172 elected and up to 6 appointed members. 2Mostly an advisory body. ^Includes the 434 sq mi (1,124 sq km) district of Walvis Bay (1992 pop. estimate, 23,(K)0) that was jointly administered with South Africa from November 1992 to March 1994. "Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ''1987. '•Includes more than 140,000 nonwage (informal) workers. 'Includes hotels, sunemploycd. ''1992. '"Namib Air only. 111990. 121989. 131991.

678

Britannica World Data

^

Nepal

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

'/r

1993-94

name: Nepal Adhirajya

Official

/BayoflX f

Representatives [205]). Chief of stale: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital:

/\^\rVV7 Bengal

1

'"'YV V3\

M2)

'

Indian

\.V

Ocean

Kathmandu.

Monetary

(NRs)= (Oct. 1 £ =

6,

unit:

1

force

force

Agriculture

80,500 1,092 17,227 20,543 1,786

5,961,788 2,367 150,051 35,658 11,734

81 2

Mining Manufacturing Construction

40.9 6 8 7 10 4

50,808 256,012 20,847 752,019 98,302 7,339,586

0-7 3.5

Public utilities Transportation

and communications Trade

Other

Nepalese rupee

value

0.9

12,742 21,866 18,122 17,128 5,9633 196,969

Services TOTAL

100 paisa (pice); valuation 1995) 1 U.S.$ = NRs 50.39;

NRs

labour

value

Finance

Official language: Nepali. Official religion: Hinduism.

1991

% of total

NRs 000,0002

in

(Kingdom of Nepal). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (National Council [60']; House of

6.5

111 9.2 8.7

303 100.0

%

of labour

20 05 0.2

0.3 10.3 1.3

100.0

use (1992): forested 39.1%; meadows and pastures 14.6%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 17.2%; other 29.1%.

Land

79.67.

Area and population

population

area

Population economically active (1991): total 7,339,586; activity rate of total population 39.7% (participation rates: ages 10 years and over, 56.6%; female 40.4%-; unemployed [1980] 5.5%).

1991

Development regions Zones

Capitals

Eastern

Dhankuta

KoshI

MechI Sagarmatha

Kathmandu

Central

Bagmati Janakpur Narayani

Western

LumbinT Mid-western

sq

10.987 3.733 3,165 4,089 10,583 3,640 3,733 3,210

28,456 9,669 8,196

Pokhara

11,351

Surkhet

3,146 4,740 3,465 16,362

Dhawalagiri

GandakT

KarnalT

RaptT Far-western

Dipayal

MahakalT Setl

TOTAL

census 4,446,749 1,728,247 1,118,210 1,600,292 6,183,955 2,250,805 2,061,816 1,871,334 3,770,678 490,877 1,266,128 2,013,673 2,410,414 1,103,043 260,529 1,046,842

10,591

27,410 9,428 9,669 8,313 29,398 8,148 12,275 8,975 42,378 10,545 21,351 10,482 19,539 6,989 12,550 147,181

4,071 8,244

BherT

km

sq mi

4,047 7,544 2,698 4,846 56,827

1,679,301

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Demography

km

136.5.

(1991): under 15, 42.3%; 15-29, 25.7%; 30-^4, 16.7%; 45-59, 9.7%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 0.9%.

Age breakdown

Population projection: (2000) 22,292,000; (2010) 27,439,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Nepalese 53.2%; BiharT (including MaithilT and BhojpurT) 18.4%; Tharu 4.8%.; Tamang 4.7%; Newar 3.4%; Magar 2.2%; Abadhi 1.7%; other 11.6%. Religious affiliation (1991): Hindu 86.2%; Buddhist 7.8%.; Muslim 3.8%; Christian 0.2%; Jain 0.1%; other 1.9%. Major cities (municipalities; 1991): Kathmandu 419,073; Biratnagar 130,129; Lalitpur 117,203; Pokhara 95,311; Birganj 68,764.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 37.6 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 13.3 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1.000 population (1994): 24.3 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 5.2.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 52.4 years; female 52.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, the leading causes of mortality are infectious and parasitic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system, diseases of the nervous system, diseases of the circulatory system, and injuries and poisoning.

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: NRs 22,412,900,000 (internal revenue 80.7%, foreign grants 19.3%). Expenditures: NRs 35,514,000,000 (development 63.7%, regular 36.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.S 1,938,000,000. Tourism (1992): receipts from visitors U.S.S 10,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$52.000.()()0. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): rice 3,100,000, sugarcane 1,366,000, corn (maize) 1,200,000, wheat 765,000, potatoes 733,000, millet 232.000, pulses 206,000, barley 28,000, jute 12.000, tobacco 6,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,237,000 cattle, 5,452,000 1

1991

1992

1993

1156

135.4

145.5

tions 1.2%, other 2.0%.

Foreign trade^ Balance of trade (current prices) NRs 000,000 of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-10,780 54,6%

-10,796 56.2%

-13,037

-17,059 46.5%

-16,255 33.7%

-21,781

514%

36-5%

Imports (1992-93): NRs 36,978,500,000 (basic manufactured goods 29.2%; machinery and transport equipment 19.5%; chemicals 12.3%; mineral fuels and lubricants 10.5%; food and live animals, chiefly for food 9.3%; crude materials except fuels 8.5%-''). Major import sources (1991-92): India 40.5%; Singapore 31.8%; Japan 15.6%; West Germany 4.3%; China 3.8%;

South Korea

3.7%..

Exports (1992-93): NRs 17,307,400,000 (basic manufactures 59.3%; food and live animals, chiefly for food 11.4%; crude materials except fuels 2.8%; animal and vegetable oils 0.9%). Major export destinations (1991-92): West Germany 49.0%; United States 25.9%; India 22.1%; Belgium 2.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992-93): route length 33 mi, 53 km; passengers carried 754,000; freight handled 10,000 metric tons. Roads (1993): total length 5,884 mi, 9,470 km (paved 36%). Vehicles (1990-91): passenger cars 4,949; trucks

and buses 3,363. Merchant marine: none. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 439,000,000, passenger-km 706,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 7,500,000, metric ton-km cargo 11,000,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 24. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 25; total circulation 140.000; circulation per 1,000 population 7,4. Radio (1994): 625.000 receivers (1 per 31 persons). Television (1994): 25(1.1100 receivers (1 per 78 persons). Telephones (main

lines; 1993):

72.000

(1

per 286 persons).

Education and health Education (1992) schools

Pnmary (age 6-10) Secondary (age 11-15) Vocational Higher

National economy

1990 100.0

Household income and expenditure (1984-85). Average household size (1991) 5.6; income per household NRs 14,796 (U.S. $853); sources of income: selfemployment 63.4%, wages and salaries 25.1%, rent 7.5%, other 4.0%; expenditure: food and beverages 61.2%, housing 17.3%, clothing 11.7%, health care 3.7%, education and recreation 2.9%, transportation and communica-

%

Population (1995): 20,093,000. Density (1994): persons per sq mi 353.6, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991): urban 9.6%; rural 90.4%. Sex distribution (1991): male 51.63%; female 48.37%o.

77.9

price index

Earnings index

664,952 1,014,349 18,491,097

1989

1988

1987

Consumer

1

/

19,498 „

„„

"'^-^'^

3

teachers

students

student teacher ratio

77,948

3,034,710

38 9

25,357

855,137

33,7

103,840

22.45

4,9255

Educational attainment (1981), Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 41.2%; primary education 29.4"";; secondary higher 6.8%. Literacy (1991): total population age 15 and over 22.7''''r; literate 4,255,000 (37.7%); males literate 2,975,000 (51.7%); females literate 1,280,000 (23.3%). Health (1991-92): physicians 1,497 (1 per 12,623 persons); hospital beds 4,848 (1 per 3,898 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1994) 84. Food ( 1988-90): daily per capita caloric'intake 2.205 (vegetable products 94%, animal products 6%); 100% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

goats,

Military

19.591,1)0(1

Total active dul\ personnel (1994); 35,000 (army 99.4%. air force 0.6%). Mili(1993): 1.4% (world 3.3%); per capita lan- expenditure as percentage of expenditure U.S.$2.

3.073,000 buffalo, 911.()()() sheep, 630.000 pigs; roundwood (1992) cu m; fish catch (1992) 16,516. Mining and quarrying (1993): limestone 350.000; magnesiie 45.000; talc 7.000; garnet 25,000 kg. Manu(value added in NRs OOO; 199(^91): cigarettes 1.129.465; carpets facturing and rugs 880.026; wearing appaicl 694,640; woven textiles 587.484; structural clay products 498,940, ConstructKui: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 931,000,0(10 (926,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (92,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (298,000); natural gas,

none (none).

Gross national product (U.S.S 160 per capita).

GNP

members nominated hv the king. 2Tcntative estimate. 'Includes indirect -'Import figures are f.o,b, in'balance of trade and c i.l for comiiKidilies and

'Includes 10 (at

current market prices; 1993): U.S.$3, 174,000,000

taxes,

trading partners. M9yi.

Nations of the World

Netherlands, The

679

and communications 13.4%, medical care 13.0%, education and recreation 10.1%, household furnishings and appliances 7.0%., clothing and footwear 6.7%, other 16.4%. Gross national product (at current market price; 1993): U.S.$316,390,000,000 (U.S.$20,710 per capita).

name: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (Kingdom of The

Official

Netherlands).

Form of government:

constitutional a parliament (States

monarchy with

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

General) comprising two legislative houses (First Chamber [75]; Second

Chamber

1993

[150]).

Chief of state: Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Seat of government: The Hague. Capital:

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Amsterdam.

Public

utilities

Official language:

Transp. and

Official religion:

Trade Finance

Monetary

unit:

Dutch. none. Netherlands guilder

1

(f.)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = f. 1.60; 1 £ = f. 2.53.

area

Assen Leiystad

Friesland

Leeuwarden

Gelderland

Arnhem

Groningen Limburg Noord-Brabant Noord-Holland

Groningen

Ouerijssel

Zwolle

Utrecht

Utrecht

Capitals

Maastricht

's-Hertogenbosch

Haarlem

Zealand

Middelburg

Zuid-Holland TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

The Hague

sq mi 1,025

545 1,297 1,936

906 838 1,910 1,030 1,290

525 693 1,108 13,1042 2,929 16,033

sq

km

2,655 1,412 3,360 5,015 2,347 2,170 4,947 2,667 3,340 1,359 1,796

estimate

451,409 253,699 607,016

2,871

15,341,5533

7.3

160 7

-22,6428 522,971

I

3.6 0,2

166 6.1

0.6 5.9 15.0

104

327

47 77 / -4.38

566,0009 6,406,0002

100.0

1989

1990

976

1000

103.1

Hourly earnings index

97,2

100.0

103.7

Land

use (1993): forested 10.3%;

and under permanent

8.89 100.02

meadows and

112.2 113.8

pastures 31.0%; agricultural

cultivation 27.5%; other 31.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

%

Demography Population (1995): 15,487,000. Density (1995)'' persons per sq mi 1,181.9, persons per sq km 456.3. Urban-rural (19941): urban 90.4%; rural 9.6%. Sex distribution (1994'): male 49.45%; female 50.55%. Age breakdown (1994'): under 15, 18.4%; 15-29, 22.4%; 30-44, 23.8%; 45-59, 17.8%; 60-74, 12.1%; 75 and over, 5.5%. Population projection: (2000) 16,121,000; (2010) 16,987,000. Doubling time: not applicable; vital rates and net migration in near balance. Ethnic composition (by nationality; 1994'): Netherlander 94.9%; Turkish 1.3%; Moroccan 1.1%; German 0.3%; other 2.4%. Religious affiliation (1993): Roman Catholic 32.0%; Dutch Reformed Church 15.0%; Calvinist 7.0%; Muslim 3.7%; other 2.3%; no religion 40.0%. :

cities (1994'): Amsterdam 724,096; Rotterdam 598,521; 445,279; Utrecht 234,106; Eindhoven 196,130.

57 19

of labour

force

232,000 12,000 1,064,000 389,000 41,000 379,000 958,000 669,000

19 2

249,2457

1988

f.

Major

3,5 3.0

price index

Consumer

556,607

33,939 7,587 41,526

force

Price and earnings Indexes (1990 = 100)

1,851,402

1,125,187 2,259,779 2,457,329 1,044,648 1,056,033 363,867 3,313,193

18,509 15,666 100,580 29,832 9,722 38,114 83,945

%

labour

value

Popidation economically active (1993): total 6,406,000; activity rate of total population 41.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 61.5%; female 37.6%; unemployed 7.5%).

population

19941

Flevoland

000,000

of total

7

Services Other TOTAL

Area and population Provinces Drenthe

commun

%

value

in 1.

The Hague

'000,000

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

19,277

22,345

26,131

22.225

38.995

41,982

4.4%

4.9%

5.6%

4.7%

8,2%

8.0%

of total

Imports (1993): f. 234,972,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 28.5%, of which road vehicles 6.5%; foodstuffs, beverages, and tobacco 11.7%; chemicals and chemical products 10.7%; mineral fuels 8.8%, of which petroleum 5.1%; clothing 3.8%). Major import sources: Germany 23.5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 11.7%; U.K. 9.6%; U.S. 8.0%; France 7.5%. Exports (1993): f. 258,226,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 23.6%, of which road vehicles 2.9%; foodstuffs, beverages, and tobacco 19.4%; chemicals and chemical products 15.0%; mineral fuels 8.5%, of which petroleum products 5.5%; iron and steel 2.0%; clothing 1.7%). Major export destinations: Germany 29.1%; Belgium-Luxembourg 12.7%; France 10.6%; U.K. 9.4%; Italy 5.7%.

Transport and communications Railroads (1993): length 2,757 km; passengcr-km 15,245,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,681,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 118,943 km (paved 89%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 5,755,000; trucks and buses 679,000. Merchant marine (1993): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 399; total deadweight tonnage 2,874,000. Air transport (1993): passenger-km 38,163,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,765,900,000; airports (1995) 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): total number 64; total circulation 4,600,000; circulation per 1,000 population 296. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 13,400,000 (1 per 1.1 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 5,675,000 (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 7,630,000 (1 per 1.9 persons). Transport.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 12.7 (world avg. 25.0); (1993) legiti-

mate 87.5%; illegitimate 12.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994):

8.7 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 4.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.8. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.0. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 74.0 years; female 80.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 238.4, of which lung cancer 56.3; ischemic heart diseases 118.2; cerebrovascular diseases 87.2; accidents, poisoning, and violence 34.1.

Education and

healtli

Education (1992-93)

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: f. 180,373,000,000 (income and corporate taxes 39.0%, social-security contributions 36.8%, value-added taxes 21.0%, property taxes 2.3%). Expenditures: f. 197,158,000,000 (social security and public health 38.0%, education and culture 10.5%, debt service 9.2%, defense 4.2%, transportation 2.9%). Public debt (19935): U.S.S 195,935,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$4,690,0G0,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$8,974,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): potatoes 7,698,600*>, sugar beets 7,478,6006, wheat 987,700, onions 448,000, barley 235,100; livestock (number of live animals) 14,565,000 pigs, 4,716,000 cattle, 1,766,000 sheep; roundwood (1993) 1,403,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 486,894. Manufacturing (value added in f. '000,000; 1992): foodstuffs 14,042; chemicals and chemical products 11,403; electrical machinery 9,779; machinery and transport equipment 7,239; publishing and printing 6,629. Construction (buildings completed by value in f. '000,000; 1993): residential 11,300; nonresidential 11,900. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr- 1992) 77,202,000,000 (85,880,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (12,140,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 19,497,000 (393,262,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 57,813,000 (27,823,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 91,013,000,000 (48,934,000,000). Household income and expenditure (1993). Average household size 2.4; income per household f. 58,478 (U.S.$31,484); sources of income (1992): wages 58.5%, transfer payments 28.9%, self-employment 12.6%; expenditure (1992): rent 18.5%, food, beverages, and tobacco 14.9%, transportation

schools

Pnmary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

9,333 1,117

747 206

teachers'"

students

99,031

1,526,000

89,370 18,613 30,952'

668,000 498,000 389,000

Educational attainment (1993). Percentage of population ages 15-64 having: primary education 16.4%; secondary 65.8%; higher 17.8%. Literacy (1992): virtually

100%

literate.

Health (19931): physicians 39,069 (1 per 391 persons); hospital beds 87,025 (1 per 176 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 6.3. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,222 (vegetable products 68%, animal products 32%); 120% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 70,900 (army 60.9%, navy 20.2%, air force (1993): 12.7%, other'2 6.2%). Military' expenditure as percentage of 2.4% (world 3.3%); per capita' expenditure U.S.$462.

GNP

'January 1. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 'Includes 1,384 persons having no fixed municipality of residence. 'Based on land area only. 5june. ''1993. 'Services includes Finance and Pub. admin., defense, sjmputed bank service charge. 'Includes 481,000 unemployed. 101990-91. iii985-86. ^Includes 3,600 military police.

Britannica World Data

680

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$44,660,000,000 (U.S.$12,900 per capita).

New Zealand

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

name: New Zealand (English); Aotearoa (Maori).

Official

Form of government:

1990-91

$NZ 000,000

monarchy with one legislative house (House of Representatives [99]). Chief of state: British Monarch,

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public

Minister.

Capital: Wellington. Official languages: English; Official religion: none.

Monetary

unit:

New

1

1995) 1

£

1

TOTAL

2.39.

population

area

42 2.8

5.926

80

,943

16.4 23.2 11.7

1

32

J

4.28

100.0

force 9.8 0.2 14.7

426,300

25.4

128,2009 1,726,400

10.59 100.0

4.8 0.7 5.4

19,0 9.5

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

1995 Islands

sq mi

Regional Councils

sq

km

115.777

Auckland Bay of Plenty Gisborne2 Hawkes Bay

Manawatu-Wanganui Northland Taranaki

Waikato Wellington

South Island Canterbury Marlborough Nelson Otago Southland

58.384

151,215

Tasman West Coast Remainders • Offshore Islands^ Stewart Island ^ Chatham Islands' TOTAL

2,678,900 1,027,700 221 ,600 44.500 141.600

1.746

104,454

270.534

% 3,592,400

13.2.

Sex distribution (1994): male 49.33%; female 50.67%. Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 23.2%; 15-29, 22.8%; 30-44, 22.9%; 45-59, 15.6%; 60-74, 10.8%-; 75 and over, 4.7%. Population projection: (2000) 3,786,000; (2010) 4,097,000. Doubling time: 81 years. Ethnic composition (1991): New Zealand European 73.8%; New Zealand Maori 9.6%; Pacific Island Polynesian 3.6%; multiethnic 4.5%; other 8.5%. Religious affiliation (1991): Anglican 21.4%; Presbyterian 16.0%; Roman Catholic 14.8%; Methodist 4.1%; nonrcligious 19.7%; other 24.0%. Major cities (1995): Auckland 336,500; Christchurch 308,800; Manukau 243,400; North Shore 163,600; Wellington 153,800.

16.3

108.7

(world avg. 25.0); legitimate

7.7 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 8.6 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbcaring woman; 1994): 2.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.1. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.7. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 73.4 years; female 79.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 353.6, of which ischemic heart disease 207.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 201.3; diseases of the respiratory system 82.1; accidents

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

+1,3806

+1,349 1 4.4%

+ 3,359.6

+ 2.451.0 7.2%

+ 1,673.4

+ 1 ,358 2 3.6%

4.8%

of total

1 1

.2%

4.6%

Imports (1994): $NZ 18,468,900 (machinery 24.6%; minerals, chemicals, and plastics 22.2%; transport equipment 13.5%; basic manufactures 7.6%; metals and metal products 5.9%; textiles, clothing, and footwear 5.7%). Major import sources: Australia 21.5%; U.S. 18.1%; Japan 15.8%; U.K. 6.1%; Germany 4.4%. Exports (1994): $NZ 19,827,000,100 (food and live animals 46.5%; basic manufactures 25.4%; minerals, chemicals, and plastics 11.5%; metals and metal products 6.5%). Major export destinations: Australia 21.0%; Japan 14.6%; U.S. 11.2%; U.K. 6.0%; South Korea 4.7%; Germany 2.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 2,469 mi, 3,973 km; passenger-km (1984) 458,160,000; short ton-mi cargo (1992-93) 1,712,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,500,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 58,605 mi. 94,315 km (paved 73%). Vehicles (1994): passenger cars 1,600,499; trucks and buses 352,997. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 139; total deadweight tonnage 279,805. Air transport (1992): passenger-mi 7,798,800,000, passenger-km 12,55l,00(),()00; short ton-mi cargo 1,100,000,000, metric ton-

km Vital statistics per 1,000 population (1994):

106 8

Balance of trade (current prices) $NZ 000,000

Demography

49.5%; illegitimate 50.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994):

105.0 105 5

Foreign trade

963

km

103.6 104.8

102.6 102.6

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1995') 3.0; annual income per household (1995) $NZ 42,551 (U.S.$27,497); sources of income (1994-95): wages and salaries 65.8%, transfer payments 15.2%, selfemployment 9.8%, other 9.1%; expenditure (1994-95): food 20.0%, housing 19.4%, transportation 17.1%, household durable goods 10.9%, clothing 4.4%. Land use (1993): forested 27.2%; meadows and pastures 49.8%; agricultural and under permanent cuUivation 14.0%; other 9.0%.

233,800 136.800 108,200 351,600 413,100 912.700 466,600 38,600 41,000 191.600 102.400 38.700 33,800 800

Population (1995): 3,568,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 34.2, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 68.6%; rural 31.4%.

1990

89.2 92,2

price index

Weekly earnings index

854

322 674 372

1989

1988

estimate'

Consumer 44.702

North Island

rate

17.5

of labour

164,800 5,200 292,300 97,700 10,300 92,300 343,800 165,500

Population economically active (1995'): total 1,730,000; activity rate 48.8% (participation rates: over age 15, 64.5%; female 44.2%; unemployed 6.3%).

Area and population

Birth

14

17,020 8,613 2,379 3,0688 73.339

Other 6,

7,4

2,081 1 1

Pub. admin., defense Sen/ices

Zealand dollar

100 cents; valuation (Oct. U.S.$ = $NZ 1.51;

= $NZ

commun.

Trade Finance

Maori.

($NZ)=

utilities

Transp. and

7

labour force

value

5,380 1,042 12,790 3.097

Agriculture

represented by Governor-General.

Head of government: Prime

1994

% of total

value

in

constitutional

cargo 1,606,000,000; airports (1995) 36.

Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 31; total circulation 1,050,000; circulation per 1,000 population 304. Radio (1992): 3.215,000 receivers (1 per 1.1 persons). Television (1992): 1,530,000 receivers (1 per 3.1 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 1,593,000 (1 per 2.2 persons).

Education and health Education (1994) Primary (age 5-12)"' Secondary (age 13-17) Voc. teacher tr.

students

schools

teachers

students

2,417

24,099 17,202 7.379 4,308

444.881 229,694 98,602 103.087

335 30 7

Higher"

teacher

ratio

185 134 13.4 23.9

36.5; diabetes mellitus 13.4.

National economy Budget (1993-94): $NZ 29,598,000,000 (direct taxes 60.8%, indirect taxes 34.5%, interest and profits 4.7%). Expenditures: $NZ 29,174,000.000 (social services 36. '/ education 15.9%. health 14.1%, administration 10.2%). Public debt (year ending June 30, 1994): $NZ 29,565,000.000. Tourism (1993): receipts U.S.S 1,1 65.000,000; expenditures U.S.S 1,003,000,000, 1

,

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): barley 349,000, wheat 181,000, corn (maize) 173,000, peas 80,000, oats 70,000; livestock (number of live animals) 50,135,000 sheep, 8,550,000 cattle, 484,000 goats, 4.30,000 pigs; roundwood (1993) 15,560,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 580,874. Mining and quarrying ( 1993): limestone 4,271.338; iron ore and sand concentrate 2,388,783; serpentine 23,386; silver 25,000 kg; gold 11,000 kg. Manufacturing (1994): wood pulp 1..360, KM); chemical fertilizers 1.266,000; yarn 21,072; beer .?56,847.(I00 lltics; carbonated soft drinks :.Ml,54(l.l)00 litres; footwear 3.406,000 pairs; carpels 9,706,0(10 sq m. Conslruclion ($NZ '000; 1994-95): residential 3,497,800; nonresidential 2,12.3,200. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr: 1992) 31,271,000.000 (31.271,000,000): coal (metric tons; 1992) 2,8.30,000 (2.4.10,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 13.959.()()() (32,743,000); petroleum products (metric tons: 1992) 4,635,000 (4,158,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 6,877,100.000 (4,605,900,000).

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary and some secondary education 54.9%; secondary 31.1%; higher 6.9%; not specified 6.1%. Literacy: virtuallv 100.0%. Health (1994): physicians 11,413 (1 pcr'313 persons); hospital beds (1989) 29,352 (1 per 14 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.1. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,669 (vegetable products 61%, animal products 39%); 139% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. 1

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 10,050 (army 44.8%, air force 33.3%, (1993): 1.5% (world navy 21.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$194.

GNP

March 31. ^Reorganized as a unitary authority that is administered by a council with regional powers. 'Includes the population of Kermadcc Islands oil rigs. 'Includes the population of Chatham Islands county and ''lixcludcs islands in Rcjiional Councils. ''Part of .Southland Regional Council. 'Chatham Islands county rcmams outside any Regional Council. ''Includes import duties less imputed bank service charges. ''Includes 12b,(HK) unemployed. ii'Includcs 83 composite schools that provide both primary and seamdary education. 'Provisional;

district

and persons on Campbell Island.

1

'Universities only.

'

Nations of the World

Nicaragua Official

Consumer

(Republic of Nicaragua). Form of government: unitary multiparty

U~.:-~v

1

Caribbean

price index

Pacific

Ocean

President.

Managua.

^^^

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1.32

1000

2,842

3,418

4,102

4.922

\

Gross national product (U.S. $360 per capita).

Head of stale and government:

1989 Earnings index

republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [92i]).

Capital:

and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

Price

name: Repiiblica de Nicaragua

xl

current market prices; 1993): U.S.S 1,42 1,000,000

(at

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

official language: Spanish. official religion:

681

Monetary unit: 1 cordoba oro (C$)2=100centavos;

value

3,339

303

71

07

1,885

17.1

268 132

24

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public

ot total

C$'000,0009 Agriculture

valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = C$7.75; 1 £ = C$12.25.

991

%

value

in

none.

utilities

labour

% of labour

force

force

300

415,400 9,000 188,200 30,200 10,300

1.2

0.6

136

22 07

Transportation and

Area and population

area 3

communications Trade

population

Departments Boaco

Capitals

Boaco

Carazo Chinandega Chontales

Jinotepe

Chinandega Juigalpa

Esteli

Esteli

Granada

Granada

Jinotega

Jinotega

Leon

Leon

Madriz

Somoto Managua Masaya

Managua Masaya Matagalpa Nueva Segovia Rio San Juan

Matagalpa Ocotal San Carlos Rivas

Rivas

sqmi

sq

1,639

km

estimate

4,244 1,050 4,926 6,378 2,335

405 1,902 2,463

902 359

129,000 165,200 357.700 276,600 181,200 165,200 190,100 373.400 104,400 1,188,100 225,100 403,700 132,000 37,600 147,800

929

3.766 1,972

9,755 5,107 1,602 3,672

619 1,418

228

590

3.291 1,206

8,523 3,123 7.473 2,155

2,885

832

South

Atlantic

Bluefields

INLAND WATEn TOTAL

12,417 10,582 46,884 3,954 50,838

"i

32,159 27,407 121,428 10,242 131.670

/

4.264,800

Demography

Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (1991): mestizo (Spanish/Indian) 69.0%; white 17.0%; black 9.0%; Amerindian 5.0%. Religious affiliation (1992): Roman Catholic 89.3%; other (mostly Baptist, Moravian, and Pentecostal) 10.7%. Major cities (1992)6: Managua 973,759; Leon 172,042; Masaya 101,878; Chi101,605;

—

5.8

TOTAL

11,015

100.0

—

3

1

14.1

18 7.1

13.3 13.6'0

5

1000"

Foreign trade

'

Balance of trade (current prices) US.SOOO.OOO

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-236.6 27.6%

-236.8 26.4%

-4191

-576 2

43.3%

57.0%

-411.5 43.5%

-350,0 33.3%

1

Population (1995): 4,340,000. Density (1995)5; persons per sq mi 92.6, persons per sq km 35.7. Urban-rural (1992): urban 61.6%; rural 38.4%. Sex distribution (1992): male 50.16%; female 49.84%. Age breakdown (1992): under 15, 45.4%; 15-29, 27.6%; 30-44, 15.3%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60-74, 3.6%; 75 and over, 0.8%). Population projection: (2000) 4,759,000; (2010) 5,864,000.

nandega

42.600 195,500 24.700 98.100 183.900 188,400' 1,386,300

56 84

Other

% of total

North Atlantic

4.0

245

613 929 637

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$8,773,000,000. Land use (1993): forested 27.0%; meadows and pastures 46.3%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.7%; other 16.0%.

Autonomous regions

TOTAL LAND AHEA

441 2,700

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

1993

Matagalpa 95,268; Granada 91,929.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 35.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 7.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 28.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 4.3. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 3.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 0.4. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 60.7 years; female 66.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991)^: diseases of the circulatory system 142.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 100.0; accidents and

violence 93.0; diseases of the respiratory system 73.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 56.0.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: C$2,538,000,000 (indirect taxes 82.9%, direct taxes 11.0%, unspecified 6.1%). Expenditures: C$2,791,000,000 (current expenditure 79.3%, development expenditure 20.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 2,300,000, corn (maize) 323,000, rice 185,000, sorghum 115,000, dry beans 75,000, oranges 71,000, plantains 54,000, coffee 52,000, cassava 51,000, pineapples 45,000, bananas 43,000, sesame seed 17,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,650,000 cattle, 535,000 pigs; roundwood (1993) 3,679,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 8,773, of which crustaceans 5,036. Mining and quarrying (1993): gold 39,900 troy oz. Manufacturing (value of production in C$'000,000; 1991**): food 1,579; beverages 945; tobacco products 447; cement, bricks, and tile 236; rubber products 215; textiles 188. Construction (completed; 1991): 569 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 1,625,000,000 (1,125,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (5,212,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 635,000 (720,000); natural gas, none (none). expenditure. Average household size (1980) 6.9; in-

Household income and

come per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$30,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$34,000,000. Population economically active (1991): total 1,386,300; activity rate of total population 34.7% (participation rates: over age 15, 62.0%; female 33.2%; unemployed [1994] more than 60.0%).

Imports (1993): U.S.$727,700,000 (nondurable consumer goods 29.9%, raw materials for industry 22.1%, capital goods for industry 14.6%., petroleum products 14.6%). Major import sources'^-. United States 20.0%; Venezuela 17.0%; Costa Rica 13.0%; Guatemala 10.0%; El Salvador 7.0%. Exports (1993): U.S.$266,900,000 (fresh and frozen meat 22.8%, nontraditional industrial exports 21.2%, coffee 12.0%, crustaceans 10.0%, gold 9.8%, sugar 6.5%). Major export destinations'^: United States 42.0%; Germany 9.0%; Belgium-Luxembourg 6.0%; El Salvador 5.0%; Mexico 5.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads:il Roads (1993):

total length 9,499 mi, 15,287 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 31,300; trucks and buses 43,600. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 25; total deadweight tonnage 1,295. Air transport (1993)1'': passenger-mi 35,800,000, passengerkm 57,615,000; short ton-mi cargo 1,810,000, metric ton-km cargo 2,643,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3; total circulation 98,602; circulation per 1,000 population 23. Radio (1994): 925,000 receivers (1 per 4.6 persons). Television (1994): 210,000 receivers (1 per 20 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 66,800 (1 per 64 persons).

Education and health Education (1992) Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Voc. teacher tr. ,

Higher's.

17

schools

teachers

4,571

18,901 4,465

763 1,645

students

766,000'5 178,342 17.765 34,984

37.2

399 23.3 21.3

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 74.0%. Health (1994): physicians 3,418 (1 per 1,258 persons); hospital beds 4,968 (1 per 866 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 53.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,293 (vegetable products 90%, animal products 10%); 102% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 15,200 (army 88.8%, navy 3.3%, air force 7.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1993): 2.6% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$9.

GNP

Includes two unsuccessful 1990 presidential candidates meeting special conditions. 2The cordoba oro (gold cordoba), introduced in August 1990, circulated simultanew cordoba until April 30, 1991, when the new cordoba ceased to be legal tender; on April 30, 1 cordoba oro equaled 5,000,000 new cordobas. The new cordoba had been introduced in February 1988 at the rate of new cordoba to 1,000 (old) cordobas. 3Lakes and lagoons are excluded from the areas of departments and autonomous regions. '•Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 'Based on land area. ^Municipio population. 'Projected rates based on about 45% of I

neously with the

1

SAt prices of 1980. ''Estimated figures. I'HJnemployed persons previously employed. "Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. i2Estimated percentages. '^Railroad service halted in January 1994 because total deaths.

of insufficient revenue. i''Nica only. 151994. i''1993. I'Universities only.

682

Britannica World Data

tobacco leaf 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,900,000 goats, 3,700,000 sheep, 1,986,000 cattle, 450,000 asses, 370,000 camels, 82,000 horses; roundwood (1993) 5,467,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 2,172. Mining and quarrying (1993); salt 3,000, uranium 2,914. Manufacturing (percentage of total manufacturing value added; 1992): food processing and beverages 44.1%; chemicals 31.9%; construction materials 8.9%; textiles 7.1%; paper products 6.3%; metal and wood products 1.1%. Construction (value added in CFAF; 1993): 11,900,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 173,000,000 (366,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) 172,000 (172,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) none (205,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Population economically active (1988): total 2,315,694; activity rate of total population 31.9% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 55.2%; female 20.4%; unemployed 1.3%). 3,000, corn (maize) 1,000,

Niger name: Republique du Niger (Republic of Niger). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative body (National Assembly [83]). Chief of stale: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Official

Capital:

Niamey.

Official language: French Official religion: none.

'.

Monetary- unit: 1 CFA franc (CFAF)= 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 501.49;

1£ = CFAF

Price

and earnings indexes (1985 = 100)

792.78.

Consumer

price Index Hourly earnings Indexs

Area and population area 2

Departments

Capitals

Agadez''

Agadez

Ditfa

Diffa

Dosso

Dosso

Maradi

Maradi

Tahoua

Tahoua

Tillaberi

Tillaberi

Zlnder TOTAL

Zinder

sq mi

1988 census

km

,970

634,209 140,216 31,002

14,896 41,188 34.863 56,151 458,075

38,581 106,677 90,293 145,430 ,186,408

244.869 54,138 1 1

205.232 187,230 1,018,058 1,386,549 1 .306.948 1,715,118 1.409,417 7,228,552

1993

922

87,0

1000

100.0

Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF 000,000,000

%

Population (1995); 9,151,000. Density (1995)2; persons per sq mi 20.0, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991); urban 20.2%; rural 79.8%. Sex distribution (1995); male 49.40%; female 50.60%.

km

7.1.

Age breakdown

(1995); under 15, 48.4%; 15-29, 25.7%; 30-44, 14.4%; 45-59, 7.5%; 60-74, 3.4%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2000) 10,805,000; (2010) 14,751,000. Doubling time: 22 years. Ethnic composition (1988): Hausa 52.8%; Zerma- (Djerma-) Songhai 21.0%; Tuareg 10.6%; Fulani (Peul) 9.8%; Kanuri-Nanga 4.5%); Teda 0.5%; Arab 0.3%; Gurma 0.3%; other 0.2%. Religious affiliation (1988): Muslim, primarily Sunnl, 98.7%; Christian 0.4%; other, mostly traditional animist beliefs, 0.9%. Major cities (1988): Niamey 392,165; Zinder 119,838; Maradi 104,386; Tahoua

Agadez

1990 100

Foreign trade

Demography

49,948;

1989 100.8 100.0

100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1988) 6.4; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1977): self-employment 59.5%, family 30.1%, salary or wages 4.8%, employer 0.7%; expenditure (1987): food and beverages 43.1%, housing 22.8%, clothing 10.0%. Land use (1993): forested 2.0%; meadows and pastures 7.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 2.8%; other (largely desert) 88.2%.

population

sq

1988 103 7

49,361.

Vital statistics Birlh rale per 1,000 population (1990-95): 52.5 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,0(10 population (1990-95): 18.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rale per 1,000 population (1990-95): 33.6 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rale (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 7.4.

Marriage rale per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rale per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 44.9 years; female 48.1 years. Major causes of death (1989): n.a.; however, among selected major causes of infectious disease registered at medical facilities were malaria, measles, diarrhea, meningitis, pneumonia, diphtheria, tetanus, viral hepatitis, and poliomyelitis; malnutrition and shortages of trained medical personnel are

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-24,900 11,3%

-36,900 18-0%

- 19,500 10.8%

+ 700 0.5%

-3,100 2,7%

-10.800 4.6%

Imports (1993): CFAF 67,500,000,000 (consumer goods 71.2%, of which grain 8.9%, petroleum products 8.3%; intermediate and capital goods 28.9%). Major import sources (1993): France 21.8%; Cote d'lvoire 8.7%; Germany 3.7%; Italy 2.6%; Japan 1.9%. Exports (1993): CFAF 69,100,000,000 (uranium 45.7%), live animals 10.5%)). Major export destinations (1993): France 55.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992): nonefi. Roads (1991): total length 12,244 mi, 19,705 km (paved 22%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 31,427; trucks and buses 8,768. Air transport (1994)': passenger-mi 133,440,000, passenger-km 214,745,000; short ton-mi cargo 9,892,000, metric ton-km cargo 14,442,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 1; total circulation 5,000; circulation per 1,000 population (1.6. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 440,000 (1 per 20 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 25,000 (1 per 352 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 10.500 (1

per 830 persons).

Education and health Education (1993)

student/

schools Primary (age 7-12)

2,656 1058 78

Secondary (age 13-19) Voc-, teacher

tr,

teachers

students

12.216 2,2199

414,296 88.810 2.110 4,5068

1759 34110."

38

Higher

teacher

ratio

339 35.19 12,19 11 110,11

widespread.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue; CFAF 81,200,000,000 (current revenue 56.7%, of which import duties \13%, income t;ixes 15.9%, external aid and gifts 40.0%). Expenditures: CFAF 105.40(1,0110,000 (current expenditures 76.6%, of which amortization of public debt 10. C^^; capital expenditures 23.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$ 1,354,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$16,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$43,000,()00. dross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$2,279,()00,000 (U.S.$270 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force in

Agriculture

Mining Manulacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and

communications Trade and finance Pub admin defense .

Services Other TOTAL

value

%

of total

CFAF 000.000

value

233,300 35.100 43,400

37

1

5.6 6.9

labour force

1,764,049 5,295

65,793 13,742

\

of labour

762

02 28 06

1,9

14,700

2.3

1,778

01

27.000 116,100 69,300 65.500 12.400 628,700

4.3

14,764 210.354 59.271 63,991 116,657 2,315,694

06

18.5

110 104 2,0

1000

Total active duty personnel {\995): 5,300 (army 98.1%, air force 1.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1993): 1.5% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$4.

force

.900

1 1

Military

GNP

1988

1993

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 85.0%; Koranic education 11.2%; primary education 2.5%; secondary 1.1%; higher 0.2%. Literacy (1995): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 13.6%; males literate 20.9%; females literate 6.6%. Health: physicians (1990) 142 (1 per 54.444 persons); hospital beds (1979) 3,261 (1 per 1,633 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births (1990-95) 124.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,257 (vegetable products 95%, animal products 5%); 95% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

9,1

26 28 50 100

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): millet 1,725,000, pulses 433,000, sorghum 420,000, vegetables and melons 264,000 (of which onions 178.000). roots and tubers 260,000, sugarcane 142,000, rice 70,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 65,000, wheat 5.000, seed cotton

'Hausa, Zerma. and Fulani arc national languages. -The deparlmcntal areas and total are obsolete. The total area, according to recent ofiicial estimates, is 497.(K)0 sq mi (1.287.(XX) sq km); but subtotals distributing this total among the departments remain unpublished. ^De jure. -"The peace accord signed in October 1994 provided for an eventual limited autonomy for the Tuaregs (a Bcrhcr-spcaking people), who inhabit Agadez department. '"Ciuarantccd minimum wage tf)= 100 kobo; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = f>f 22.00; 1 £ = N34:78.

Area and population

in

N Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Atlantic

Ocean

Public utilities Transp. and commun.

area

Capitals

Abia

Umuahia

Adamawa Akwa Ibom

Yola

Anambra

Borno Cross River

Awl. Population projection: (2000) 78,414,000; (2010) 94,503,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (by mother tongue of households; 1990): Tagalog 27.9%; Cebuano 24.3%: Ilocano 9.8%; Hiligaynon Ilongo 9.3%; Bicol 5.8%; Waray 4.0%; Pampango 3.1%; Pangasinan 1.9%; other 13.9%. Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 82.9%; Protestant 8.3%; Muslim 4.6%; Aglipayan (Philippine Independent Church) 2.6%; other 1.6%. Major cities (1991): Manila 1,894,667; Quezon City 1,627,890; Davao iibl,119;

Cebu

641,042; Caloocan 629,473;

Zamboanga

Production.

Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value in

P

'000.000;

1992):

rice

43,271, coconuts 22,012, corn (maize) 21,152, sugarcane 13,552, bananas 10,677. pineapples 5,063, mango 4,539. cassava 3.404, tobacco 3.203. colfee 2,655; livestock (number of live animals) 8,022.0(10 pigs. 2,.^77.(l()(l bultalo, 2,240.000 goats, 1,658,000 cattle, 63.127,000 chickens; rouiulwood 38.652.(100 cu m; fish catch 25,987. Mining and quarrying (value in P (KHKOOO; 1992): gold 6,602; silver 6,505; copper concentrate 5,909; sand and gravel 2,400; salt 2,194; coal 1,738; nickel ore 566. Manufacturing (gross value added in P '000,000; 1992)': food products 133,274; petroleum and coal products .35,510; industrial chemicals 27,176; footwear and wearing apparel 22,071; beverages 15,849; electrical machinery 13.211; nonmetallic mineral products 10,182.

Construction (authorized; 1992): residential 3.S62.(I(I() sq m; nonresidential 4,288,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 25,682,000,000 (25,682,000,000); coal (metric Ions; 1992) 1,664,000 (2,-321,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 3,045,000 (92.126.000); petroleum products (metric tons: 1992) 10,294,000(11,684,000). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$27,471,0()0,000. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$54,593,000,000 (U.S.$830 per capita).

1993

1994

-176,298 22.5%

-212,086 23.2%

1992

Railroads (1993): route length 658 mi, 1,059 km; passenger-mi 60,000,000, passenger-km 96,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 8,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 12,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 99,813 mi, 160,633 km (paved 14%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 1,078,895; trucks and buses 1,024,051. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1,499; total deadweight tonnage 13,807,113. Air transport (1994)^: passenger-mi 8,679,000,000, passenger-km 13,967,000,000: short ton-mi cargo 260,315,000,

metric ton-km cargo 380,053,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 21. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 43; circulation 3,200,000; circulation per 1,000 population 49. Radio (1994): 8,300,000 receivers (1 per 8.2 persons). Television (1994): 7,000,000 receivers (1 per 9.8 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 859,800 (1 per 76 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94)

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: P 334,4X,S,(II)(),(|(I0 (1992; taxes on goods and services 29.1%, international duties 28 5';, incoinc taxes 26.0%, nontax revenues 12.5%). Expenditures: P 309,942,000,000 (1992; debt service 30.7%, education 15.4%, transportation and communications 11.0%, defense 10.2%, general public services 10.0%, agriculture 8.4%, health 4.2%). Tourism (1993): receipts U.S.$2, 122,000,000; expenditures U.S.$130.000,000.

1991

-89,465 -121,250 19.6% 15.6%

Transport.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1995): 29.0 (world avg. 25.0); (1982) legiti-

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1995): 23.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 3.8. Marriage rate per l.OOO population (1991): 6.7. Life expectancy at birth (1995): male 66.0 years; female 69.0 years. Major causes of death per 100.00(1 population (1990): heart diseases 74.4; pneumonia 66.3; vascular diseases 54.2; tuberculosis 39.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 35.7; diarrhea 12.0; septicemia 9.4; accidents 6.4.

1990

-86,604 17.0%

Transport and communications

453,214.

6.0 (world avg. 9.3).

1989

-57,713 14.6%

Imports (1994): U.S.$22,638,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 33.5%, basic manufactures 13.9%, chemicals 9.7%, mineral fuels and lubricants 9.5%, food and live animals 6.7%, inedible crude materials 4.3%). Major import sources: Japan 24.1%; U.S. 18.5%; Singapore 6.6%; Taiwan 5.7%; South Korea 5.2%; Hong Kong 5.1%; Saudi Arabia 4.4%; Germany 3.5%; Australia 2.8%; Malaysia 1.9%. Exports (1994): U.S.S 13,482,900,000 (machinery and transport equipment 21.6%, food and live animals 9.9%, clothing and accessories 6.7%, basic manufactures 6.5%, animal and vegetable oils and fats 3.6%, inedible crude materials 3.0%). Major export destinations: U.S. 36.8%; Japan 15.0%; Singapore 5.3%; Germany 4.9%; Hong Kong 4.8%; U.K. 4.7%; The Netherlands 3.8%; Taiwan 3.4%; Thailand 2.7%.

Vital statistics

mate 93.9%; illegitimate 6.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1995);

of total

35,087 5,550

Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-16) Voc. teacher tr. Higher

teacher

teachers

students

320,634

10,731,453

335

134,898

4,590,037

340

ratio

1,261

809

56.8809

1

,582,820

23.79

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no grade completed 6.7^; elementary education 46.9%; secondary 24.3'^; postsecondary 1.0'r college 10.6^7; not stated 0.5%. Literacy (1990): total population age' 15 and over literate 34,215,672 (93.6%); males literate 17,080,157 (94.0':;): females literate 17,135,515 (93.2%). Health: physicians (1993) 78,445 (1 per 849 persons); hospital beds (1992) 83,330 (1 per 780 persons); infant mortality rate (1995) 40. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,257 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); 100% of FAO recommended minimum requirement. :

;

1

;

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 106,500 (army 63.8%), navy 2\.b%, air force 14.6%). Military expenditure as percentage o/GAi'P (1993): 2.2% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

I

Projection. ^Detail docs not add to tot;il given hccaiisc of rounding. 'Manufacturing with 10 or more workers. 'Mostly unemployed. ^Waces in nonagricultural balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and

(irnis

activities, ''tmpoit ligures are f.o.b. in

trading partners, 'Philippines Airlines only, "IWI-'):.

"mW-m.

Nations of the World

and quarrying (1993): electrolytic copper 404,000; zinc 150,400; lead 54,000: aluminum 46,900. Manufacturing (value of production in Zl '000,000,000: 1993): food 293,206; machinery and transport equipment 279,797; chemicals 121,030. Construction (1993): 69,741 units, of which residential 36,835. Energy production (consumption): electricity ("000,000 kW-hr; 1993) 133,863 (131,452); coal ('000 metric tons; 1993) 201,682 (178,714); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) l,743,0p0 (103,177,000); petroleum products ('000 metric tons; 1993) 12,086 (13,581); natural gas ('000,000 cu m; 1993) 4,696 (10,993).

Poland name: Rzeczpospolita Polska (Republic of Poland).

Official

Form of government:

unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses

(Senate [100]; Diet [460]). Chief of stale: President.

Head of government: Prime

Population economically active (1993): total 17,356,000; activity rate of total population 45.1% (participation rates: ages 18-64 [male], 18-59 [female] 61.2%; female [18-59] 53.6%; unemployed 15.0%).

Minister.

Warsaw.

Capital:

Official language: Polish. Official religion: none. Monetary' unit: 1 ztoty (Zl) = 100 groszy; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = Zl 2.44; 1 £ = Zl 3.86.

Price and earnings Indexes (1985 = 100)

'

1988

Consumer

price Index

f^onthly earnings Index

Area and populat on (1994 2 estimate) area sq km

Provinces Blata Podlaska

Bielsko-Biata

Bydgoszcz Chelm Ciechanow Czgstochowa Elbljg

Gdansk Gorzow Gora

Jelenia Kalisz

Katowice Klelce

Konin Koszalin

Krakow Krosno Legnica Leszno

todz

tomza Lublin

Nowy

population

309,000 699,200 911,500

5.348 10,055 3.704 10.349 3,866 6,362 6,182 6,103 7,394 8,484 4,379 6,512 6,650 9,211 5,139 8,470 3,254 5,702 4,037 4,154 1,523 6,684 6,792 5,576 12,327

Blatystok

Sficz

Olsztyn

693

1,126,500

249,600 434,800

area sq km

Provinces

Opole

Piotrkow Plock

Poznan

8,151

Pila

781 ,800

Przemysl

488,300

Radom

1.444,800

Rzeszow

507,900 522,800 719,600 3,954,300

Siedlce Sleradz Skierniewlce

1,135,500

477,200 517,100

population

8,535 6,498 8,205 6,266 5,117

Ostrolgka

Stupsk Suwalki Szczecin Tarnobrzeg

Tarnow

4,151

Torun Watbrzych

1.023,800

Wloctawek Wroclaw

5,348 4,168 3,788 4,402 6,287 6,980 8,868

352,900 1,126,100

721,300 765,900

Warszawa

Zamosc Zlelona Gora TOTAL

,026,700

405,500 489,700 644,800 521,000 1

41

1

1989

1990

14.6 21.5

100.0 100.0

243.0 228.5

170.3 167.1

290.7 320.0

468,4 421,4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1993) 3.6; average annual income (1993) Zl 104,889,000 (U.S.$4,910); sources of income: wages 76.3%, transfer payments 14.6%, self-employment 2.4%, other 6.7%; expenditure: food 39.1%, housing 19.1%, clothing 7.5%. Tourism (1993): receipts U.S.$4,500,()00,000; expenditures U.S.S 18 1, 000,000. Land use (1993): forest 28.1%; meadow 12.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 46.9%; other 12.1%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

,900

423,200 423,200 482,000 984,900 607,800 687,100 667,500 741,600 2,412,700 433,900 1,134,300

493,400 669,500 38,504,700

312,685

5

,346,600

412,600 761,100 739,600 659,400

4,437 7,294 4,397 8,499 4,869 3,960 7,453 10,490 9.982 6,283

503,700 521,500 394,200

1,235,400

1

4

zrooo,ooo,ooo

% of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

+4.612 13,4%

+51,935 25,1%

-6,543 2,0%

+ 69,791

-82,615 13,8%

-98,630 1 1 ,3%

18,6%

Imports (1993): ZJ 340,183,000,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 34.4%, chemicals 17.5%, fuel and power 12.6%, light-industrial products 10.0%, food 7.6%). Major import sources: Germany 28.0%; Italy 7.8%; Russia 6.8%; U.K. 5.8%; U.S. 5.1%; The Netherlands 4.7%. Exports (1993): Zl 257,568,000,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 25.8%, light-industrial products 15.3%, steel products 14.6%, chemicals 9.8%, fuel and power 9.5%, food 9.1%). Major export destinations: Germany 36.3%; The Netherlands 5.9%; Italy 5.2%; Russia 4.6%; U.K. 4.3%.

Transport and communications

Demography Population (1995): 38,641,000. Density (1993): persons per sq mi 320.1, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 61.8%; rural 38.2%. Sex distribution (1994): male 48.70%; female 51.30%.

km

123.6.

Age breakdown

(1994): under 15, 23.7%; 15-29, 21.5%; 30^4, 24.0%; 45-59, 15.3%; 60-74, 11.8%; 75 and over, 3.7%. Population projection: (2000) 39,077,000; (2010) 39,963,000. Ethnic composition (1990): Polish 98.7%; Ukrainian 0.6%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (1993): Roman Catholic 90.5%; Orthodox 1.5%.

Major

cities

(1994):

Warsaw

1,642,700;

Lodz

833,700;

Krakow

Transport. Railroads (1993): length 24,926 km; passenger-km 30,865,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 64,359,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 363,116 km (paved 62%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 6,771,000; trucks and buses 1,321,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 644; total deadweight tonnage 4,314,308. Air transport (1993): passenger-km 3,653,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 55,000,000; airports (1995) 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): 72; circulation 6,085,000; circulation per 1,000 population 158. Radio (1993): 10,895,500 (1 per 3.5 persons). Television (1993): 10,087,000 (1 per 3.8 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 4,419,000 (1 per 8.7 persons).

745,100.

Education and health Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 12.8 (world avg. 25.0); (1985) legitimate 95.0%; illegitimate 5.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.2 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 2.6 (world avg. 15.7).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing

woman;

1993): 2.1.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.4. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.7. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 67.4 years; female 76.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): diseases of the circulatory system 529.8; malignant neoplasms 199.4; accidents, poisoning, and violence 73.0; diabetes mellitus 14.9; infectious and parasitic diseases 7.2.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue: Zl 459,000,000,000,000 (income tax 39.6%; turnover tax 20.5%). Expenditures: Zl 502,400,000,000,000 (social benefits 20.7%, interest on debts 18.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1994): U.S.$47,200,000,000. Gross national product (1993): U.S.$87,272,400,000 (U.S.$2,270 per capita).

Education (1993-94) Primary (age 7-14) Secondary (age 15-18)

Voc,

teacfier

tr.

schools

teachers

students

20,326

323,400 30,300 85.600 65,300

5.371.841

1,832 9,655

140

Higher

659,500 1

,691 ,000

16.6 21 8 19.8

584,000

Educational attainment (1988). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling or less than full primary education 6.4%; primary 38.8%; secondary 48.3%; higher 6.5%. Literacy (1988): 98.7%. Health (1994): physicians 85,367 (1 per 451 persons); hospital beds 214,786 (1 per 179 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 13.3. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,485 (vegetable products 63%, animal products 37%); 133% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1993): 283,600 (army 65.5%, navy 6.7%, air force 27.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GNP: 2.5% (world, 3.3); per capita expenditure U.S. $57.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993 in

value

Zt '000,000,000

105,306

Agriculture

%

of total

value

68

labour

% of labour

force

force

3,754,100

21,6

3,629,400

20,9

'

Mining and manufacturing Public

509,361 30,314 98,617 81,247 220,101

utilities

Construction Transp. and commun.

Trade Finance Public administration Services Other TOTAL

\

20.

860,800 737,900

6,3 5,2 14.1

1

,947,900

223,700

1 I

327

481,053

J

31.8013 1,557,800

309 2.558,900 2.03 100.0

5.0

4.3 11.2 1.3

330,600 3,312,700" 17,356,000

1.9

14.7 19.1"

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture (value of production in Zl '000,000,000; 1993): potatoes 26,237, wheat 19,220, rye 8,243, sugar beets 6,845; livestock (number of live animals; 1993) 22,100,000 pigs, 8,200,000 cattle; roundwood (1993) 18,822,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 423,029. Mining

lOn

Jan.

zloty.

1,

1995, the zloty was redenominated at a rate of 10,000 old ztoty to 1. 30ther material activities. 4Mostly unemployed.

2January

1

new

Britannica World Data

694

Portugal

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990

Official

name: Republica Portuguesa

in

(Portuguese Republic). Form of government: parliamentary state with one legislative house (Assembly of the Republic [230]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Mining Manufacturing Construction Public

585,382 250,629

7,5

,352,031

720,037

17 4 9 2

384,370 32,860 922,990 311,970

,653.845

212

1,137.210

231

215,660 257,500' 4,930,760

100.0

1

commun.

3,2

462,412

5.9

Otfier

population

area

19931 Capitals

sqmi

sq l

8,045,100

490

19.200.000

25.7

Italy

Public utilities J Construction Transp- and commun.

Sen/ices Pub. admin

.

77 83

,253,600 1.360,000 1.746,500 1 .266.800 1.110.600

10.7

414.400

2.5

1

Trade Finance defense

77 68

Other

-419.900

-2.6

TOTAL

16,404,500

100.0

95

7.050,000 5,300,000 6,450,000 630,000 16.500.000 1,450,000 7,660,000 74,590,000

5,5%; Japan 4,3%,

Trade by commodity group (1992) imports

7.1

8.7

0,8

221

19 10.3

100

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1995) i": U.S.$130,800,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): potatoes 33,800,000, wlieat 32,100,000, barley 27,100,000, sugar beets 13,900,000, oats 10,800,000, vegetables (other than potatoes) 9,600,000, fodder crops 8,700,000, rye 6,000,000, peas 2,700,000, sunflower seeds 2,600,000, corn (maize) 900,000, buckwheat 781,000, rice 523,000, millet 500,000; livestock (number of live animals; 1994) 48,900,000 cattle, 43,700,000 sheep, 28,600,000 pigs, 2,400,000 horses; roundwood 1 19,000,000 cu m; fish catch 3,500,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): nickel 243,000,000; chrome ore 120,800,000; iron ore 75,000,000; antimony 6,000,000; tin 5,000,000; molybdenum 4,800,000. Manufacturing (1994): crude steel 48,800,000; cement 37,200,000; pig iron 36,100,000; rolled steel 35,800,000; mineral fertiliz8,200,000; sulfuric acid 6,300,000; cellulose 3,234,000; paper 2,215,000; synthetic resins and plastics 1,681,000; cardboard 1,192,000; caustic soda 1,138,000; detergents 328,000; synthetic fibres 197,000; cotton fabrics 1,530,000,000 sq m; silk fabrics 250,000,000 sq m; linen fabrics 160,000,000 sq m; wool fabrics 93,000,000 sq m; tableware 341,000,000 pieces; cigarettes 125,000,000,000 units; watches 30,400,000 units; refrigerators 2,631,000 units; television receivers 2,189,000 units; washing machines 2,133,000 units; vacuum cleaners 1,519,000 units; bicycles 875,000 units; passenger cars 798,000 ers

cameras 442,000 units; sewing machines 398,000 units; motorcycles 199,000 units; video recorders 82,000 units; forge press machines 3,100 units; leather footwear 75,000,000 pairs; beer 21,500,000 hectolitres; vodka and liquors 12,200,000 hectolitres; champagne 8,600,000 hectolitres; grape wine 6,400,000 hectolitres; brandy 146,000 hectolitres. Construction (value of new construction in Rub '000,000; 1994): residential 29,428; nonresidential 76,809. units; tape recorders 720,000 units;

US. $'000,000

SITC group 00 02 03 05 65 07 08 09

Food and

Raw

live

animals

materials, excl. fuels

Mineral fuels, lubricants

Chemicals Textile yarn, fabrics

Machinery and transport eqpt. Misc manufactured articles Goods, n e s.

TOTAL

no of employees

Manufacturing Machinery and metal products Fuel and energy

%

of

all

avg of

wages"

428

Metallurgy

982

9,970,000 1 ,378,000 1,274.000

Africa

Asia

Japan South America North and Central America United States

Europe

EU EFTA other Europe

Oceania TOTAL

133.3 124.3

4,796 4,725 6,056 2,729 2,217

Light industry

Food Other industnes" Building materials

Energy production (consumption):

94.1

2.840.000 2.145.000 1 .533.000 3.018.000 7.018,000

electricity

added (Rub 000,000)

3.105 1.652 6.321

4.977

800 1001

1.041

108.2

962

(kW-hr; 1993) 956,587,000 (937,-

1993) l')3,036,(l()0 (159.221,000); natural gas (cu ni; 1993) 514.331.000.000 (369.996.000.000); peat (metric tons; 1993) 2.530,000 (6,765,000); oil shale (metric tons; l. Major towns (1995): Basseterre 18,000; Charlestown 1,2006.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1992)'7: length 22 mi, 36 km. Roads (1993): total length 186 mi, 300 km (paved 42%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 4,000; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 1; total deadweight tonnage 550. Air transport: passenger arrivals (1992) 123,195'**; passenger departures, n.a.; cargo handled, n.a.; airports (1994) with

scheduled

flights 2.

(1992). Daily newspapers''^: none. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 26,000 (1 per 1.5 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 9,500 (1 per 4.2 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 12,200 (1 per 3.3 persons).

Communications Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 24.0 (world avg. 25.0); (1983) legitimate 19.2%; illegitimate 80.8%.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1994): 10.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 14.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 2.6. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 63.0 years; female 69.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the circulatory system 443.2, of which cerebrovascular disease 220.5, diseases of pulmonary circulation and other heart disease 122.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 95.5; diseases of the respiratory system 81.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 50.0; ill-defined conditions 102.3.

National economy Budget (1993). Revenue:

ECS

on international transactions

1

3 ,400,000 (tax revenue 81.2%, of which taxes 51.5%., income taxes 16.9%, consumption taxes 1

11.0%; nontax revenue 16.1%). Expenditures: ECS 39,800,000 (current expenditure 83.7%; development expenditure 16.3%). Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S. $69,400,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$5,300,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 200,000, coconuts 2,000, potatoes 272'', tomatoes 123'', sea island cotton is grown on Nevis; livestock (number of live animals) 14,000 sheep, 10,000 goats, 5,000 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1993) 1,700. Mining and quarrying: excavation of sand for local use. Manufacturing (1991): raw sugar 19,980**; molasses 5,700''; aerated beverages 47,000 hectolitres; beer 17,200 hectolitres; other manufactures include garments, electronic components, plastics, and ethanol. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 40,000,000 (40,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (24.000); natural gas, none (none). dross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$185,O0O,00O (U.S.$4,560 per capita). 1

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 5-12)

Secondary (age 13-17) Voc, teacfier tr Higfier

student/ teacher ratio

scfiools

teacfiers

students

31 7

342 298 35

6,978 4.645

20-4

189

3

36

5,4 12,0

2 1

156

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 1.1%; primary education 29.6%; secondary 67.2%; higher 2.1%. Lileracv (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 25,500 (90.0%); males literate 13,100 (90.0%); females literate 12,400 (90.0%). Health: physicians (1992) 39 (1 per 1,057 persons); hospital beds (1995) 276 (1 per 142 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 20.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2.419 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25%); 101 "^f of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): the .340-member police force includes a 50member paramilitary unit.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1984

1993 in

value

EC$ 000.000

%

of total

value

Agriculture

32 7

72

Mining Manufacturing Construction

16 525

Public utilities Transporlation and

communications Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub admin,, defense Services Otfier

TOTAL

labour force

'

% of

labour

force

'

4.380

0,4

—

29 6

116

—

2.170

147

54.4 7.5

12.0

400

27

1,7

1.030

7,0

675

14.9 23.5 11.8

450 940 280

3.0

4,700

31 7

105.9

533 783 199 22

'2

451 3'3

173

1

44

/

-49'2 100

'3

460 14,810

63 19

3,1

100

Both Saint Christopher and Novis and the Federation of .Saint Christopher and Nevis are oliicially acceptable, variant, short- and long-form names of the country. -Includes 4 nonclcclivc scats. 'Parish subdivisions of both islands are for statistical purpo.scs only. -"Preliminary. ^Ncvis has full internal self-government. The Nevis legislature is subordinate to the National Assembly onlv with regard to external affairs and defense. "1990. 7H)93. .siq94. •»1992. '"At factor' cost. HEmployed persons only. i-Ix-ss imputed bank service charges. I'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. i-'Weights of cimsumer price index components. '^Official data not available. Unemployment rates were thought to be low in 199.^ because of labour shortages in the sugar industry and increased job creation in the construction, manufacturing, and tourism industries. "'Imports fo.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. i^I.ight railway sening the sugar industry on Saint Kilts. i^Saint Kitts airport only. ''Total circulation of one weekly newspaper and one twice-weekly newspaper

is

9,000.

Nations of the World

Saint Lucia

Price

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1988

Official

name: Saint Lucia.

Form of government:

Consumer

constitutional

Assembly

[17]).

1

Agnculture Mining Manufacturing Construction

Area and population area

population

1992 sq mi

sq

km

Districts

Capitals

Anse-la-Raye Canaries

Anse-la-Raye 1 Canaries /

18

47

Castries

31

79

Choiseul

Castries Ctioiseul

12

31

Dennery Gros Islet

Dennery Gros Islet

Laborie

Laborie

27 39 15 30

MIcoud

Micoud

Soufriere Vieux Fort TOTAL

Soufriere

Vieux Fort

19 17

238'

estimate

1993

1994

112.0

114.65

103

1,864

70 101

38 78 51

44 6171

231.8.

Age breakdown

(1992): under 15, 36.7%; 15-29, 29.4%; 30-44, 16.3%; 45-59, 8.8%; 60-74, 6.3%; 75 and over, 2.5%>. Population projection: (2000) 151,000; (2010) 169,000.

Doubling time: 41 years. Ethnic composition (1990): black 90.5%; mixed 5.5%; East Indian 3.2%; white 0.8%. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic 79.0%; Protestant 15.5%, of which Seventh-day Adventist 6.5%, Pentecostal 3.0%; other 5.5%. Major city (1992): Castries city proper 2,063 (urban area 13,615).

Vital statistics 23.0 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate 85.8%. population (1994): 6.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 17.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per chiidbearing woman; 1994): 2.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.3. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 67.0 years; female 72.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 205.6, of which ischemic heart diseases 133.2, cerebrovascular disease 34.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 64.4; diseases of the respiratory system 48.5; infectious and parasitic diseases 31.1; ill-defined conditions 1,000 population (1994):

14.2%); illegitimate

rate per 1,000

89 13.8

832

2.6

2,551 8,714

8.0

275

185.0

18.1

14.0 13.2 3.2 -6 1'0

3,488 6,758

11.0 21,3

1,020,7"

100.01'

31,724

1000

use (1993): forested 13.0%; meadows and pastures 5.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 30.0%; other 52.0%.

Foreign trade '2 Balance of trade (current prices) 1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-102.2 30.0%

-164.9 42.8%

-161.7 42.4%

- 185.3

-190.3 43,7%

-180.6 43.0%

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1992):

total length 500 mi, 805 km (paved 56%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 10,000; trucks and buses 9,200. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 7; total deadweight tonnage 2,070. Air transport (1993): passenger arrivals and departures 549,569; (1992) cargo unloaded 1,393 metric tons, cargo loaded 3,465 metric tons; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers: nonei-*. Radio (1994): total number of

receivers 98,000 (1 per 1.4 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 25,000 (1 per 5.7 persons). Telephones (main lines, 1993): 24,200 (1 per 5.8 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93) sctiools

unemployed [1994] 25.0%). Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (export value in ECS'OGO except as noted; 1992): bananas 116,9002, copra 2,6033, breadfruit 713, mangoes 670, cacao beans 404-\ pepper 241, plantains 216, pineapple 189; livestock (number of live animals; 1994) 16,000 sheep, 13,000 pigs, 12,000 cattle, 12,000 goats; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (1993) 1,114 metric tons. Mining and quarrying: excavation of sand for local construction and pumice. Manufacturing (value of production in ECS'OOO; 1992): food, beverages, and tobacco 72,-

45.7%

Imports (1993): U.S. $300,300,000 (machinery and transportation equipment 22.8%; food and live animals 20.3%; basic manufactures 19.2%; chemicals and chemical products 9.1%; crude petroleum and petroleum products 7.6%). Major import sources: United States 37.3%; United Kingdom 12.5%; Trinidad and Tobago 10.1%; Japan 5.6%; Canada 3.4%. Exports (1993): U.S.$1 19,700,000 (food and live animals 50.2%, of which bananas 47.7%; miscellaneous manufactures [primarily clothing] 24.8%; basic manufactures [primarily paper and paperboard] 9.0%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 49.6%; United States 27.0%; Dominica 7.7%; Germany 2.4%; Barbados 1.9%.

teachers

Primary (age 5-11)

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$96,800,000. Population economically active (1992): total 57,797; activity rate of total population 41.8% (participation rates; ages 15-64, 72.7%; female 46.5%;

69

134.6 32.7

143.1

Secondary (age 12-16) Voc, teacfier tr. 1

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: EC$378, 100,000 (consumption duties on imported goods 25.0%, import duties 22.9%, company taxes 10.4%, taxes on domestic goods and services 10.0%). Expenditures: EC$402,900,000 (current expenditures 62.3%, development expenditures and net lending 37.7%).

forces

Land

130.3.

National economy

of labour

4,360 2,197

communications

TOTAL

%

2.824

35.1

Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

labour forces

126.0 6.9 75.7 92.2

Public utilities Transportation and

U.S.SOOO.OOO

km

of total

values 12.3 0.7 7.4 9.0 3.4

% of total

Population (1995): 143,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 600.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1995): urban 48.1%; rural 51.9%. Sex distribution (1992): male 48.49%; female 51.51%.

1992

%

value

EC$'000,0008

5,218 53,883 6,638 11,574 13.996 7,763 15,636 7,962 13,617 138,151

Demography

Death

1992 111.0

1993 in

Eastern Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents: valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = EC$2.70; 1 £ = EC$4.27.

Birth rate per

105.7

Structure of gross do mestic product and labour force

Capital: Castries. Official language: English. Official religion: none. unit:

1990 100.0 100.0

Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S.$221,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1992) U.S.$21,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S. $480,000,000 (U.S.$3,040 per capita).

Chief of slate: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister.

Monetary

1989

price index

Earnings indexe

monarciiy with two legislative houses (Senate [11]; House of

703

Higfier

1,18111

466"'

J

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 17.5%; primary education 74.4%; secondary 6.8%; higher 1.3%. Literacy (1990): about 80%. Health (1992): physicians 64 (1 per 2,235 persons); hospital beds 435 (1 per 318 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 19.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,588 (vegetable products 73%, animal products 27%); 107% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992):

15.

379; paper products and cardboard boxes 41,029; garments 10,385; electrical and electronic components 9,501; refined coconut oil 6,981; textiles 4,359. Construction (buildings approved; 1992): residential 91,900 sq m; nonresi-

dential 43,300 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 152,100,000 (125,500,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (325,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and

come per household:

expenditure.

Average household

size (1991) 4.0; inn.a.; expenditure (1982)'':

n.a.; sources of income: food 46.8%, housing 13.5%, clothing and footwear 6.5%, transportation and communications 6.3%, household furnishings 5.8%, fuel and light 4.5%, recreation and education 3.2%, beverages and tobacco 2.8%, health care 2.3%, other 8.3%.

'Total includes the uninhabited 30 sq mi (78 sq km) Central Forest Reserve. 21994. 3Value of production. 'Castries administrative area only. 'Average of 2nd and 3rd quarters. iiPublic sector only. 'No wage increases in public sector. >*At constant prices of IQi^O. ''Data exclude workers (all self-employed and many agricultural workers) not making contributions to the national insurance plan and all unemployed. '"Less imputed bank service charges. 'iDetail does not add to total given because of rounding. i2Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. "In 1993 one newspaper was published twice a week and two others were published weekly. i-'1991-y2. I'The 497-member police force includes a specially trained paramilitary unit and a coast guard unit.

704

Britannica World Data

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force '^

Atlantic "*%

19939

Ocean

in

1991

%

value

EC$'000,000

Official

name: Saint Vincent and the

(House of Assembly

[21

1,8

0.3

98

50,9 60,7 27,2

9,1

10,8

2,822 3,535

4,9

586

14

1124

20,0

90,2 56,4

16,1

2,279 6,544

5,5 15,7

922

165

Public utilities Transportation and

communications Trade

Official language: English.

Other

-30,8'0

TOTAL

5605"

Finance, real estate Pub, admin,, defense Services

none. Eastern Caribbean dollar (ECS) = 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = EC$2.70; 1 £ = EC$4.27.

official religion: unit:

10,1

10,0

1

1,8 /

-5.5't>

100.0"

201 0.2 6.8 8.5

1,418

3.4

7,696

18.5

8,3271 41,682

1000"

20,0"

1

Area and population

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$62,400,000. Population economically active (1991): total 41,682; activity rate of total population 39.1% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 67.5%; female 35.9%; unemployed [1994] 30-40%). population

area

Price

and earnings Indexes (1990 = 100)

19933

sqmi

Constituencies^

sq

km

estimate

Consumer

Barrouallle

,14.2

368

7.2

18,6

Bndgetown Calliaqua Chateaubelair Colonarie

Georgetown Kingstown (city) Kingstown (suburbs) Layou Marriaqua

11.8

30,6

30.9

800

13.4 22.2

34,7

5,319 7,706 20,760 6,185 8,073 7,472 15,824 11.006 6,132 9.069 2,858

575

1.9

4.9

6.4 11.1

166 287

94 53

24.3 13,7

9.0

233

Sandy Bay Northern Grenadines Southern Grenadines

7.5

150.3

TOTAL

19,4

389,3"

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

100 100

105,6 100.0

109 100

113,8 100,0

115,0

116.4'2

1

Foreign trade'** Balance of trade (current prices) EC$000,000

%

Demography

km

287.7.

(1991): under 15, 37.2%; 15-29, 29.5%; 30-44, 16.1%; 45-59, 8.3%; 60-74, 6.4%-; 75 and over, 2.5%. Population projection: (2000) 119,000; (2010) 133,000. Doubling time: 39 years. Ethnic composition (1986): black 65.5%; mulatto 19.0%; East Indian 5.5%; white (mostly Portuguese) 3.5%; Amerindian/black 2.0%; other 4.5%. Religious affiliation (1985): Protestant 76.0%, of which Anglican 36.0%; Roman Catholic 10.0%; other/nonreligious 14.0%'.

Age breakdown

Kingstown

1990

92.9 100,0

furnishings 6.6%, housing 6.3%, energy 6.2%, other 13.4%.

5,642 2,919 108,965

Population (1995): 112,000. Densitv (1995): persons per sq mi 745.2, persons per sq Urban-rural (1991)5: urban 24.6%; rural 75.4%. Sex distribution (1993): male 49.92%; female 50.08%.

'3

1989

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1991) 3.9; income per household (1988) EC$4,579 (U.S.$1,696); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1975-76): food and beverages 59.8%, clothing 7.7%, household

Saint Vincent Grenadines

city (19933):

price index

Annual earnings index

Island of Saint Vincent

Major

force

8,377

Chief of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kingstown.

Monetary

% of labour

force

160

Mining Manufacturing Construction

']).

labour

896

Agriculture

Grenadines. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house

of total

value

15,824.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1992): 24.8 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 6.6 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 18.2 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbcaring woman; 1994): 2.1. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1992): 3.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1992): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 71.0 years; female 74.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 222.5, of which hypertensive disease 10.8, diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease 44.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 99.7; endocrine and metabolic disorders 55.4; homicide, suicide, and other violence 39.7. 1

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: EC$265.000,000 (current revenue 70.2%; development revenue 29.8%, of which domestic sources 15.8%, foreign loans and grants 14.0%). Expenditures: EC$263,600,000 (current expenditure 70.0%; development expenditure 30.0%). Land use (1994): forested 36.0%: meadows and pastures 5.0%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 28.0%; other 31.0%. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1993) U.S. $55,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1992) U.S.$4,()()0,(I00. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): bananas 30,000, coconuts 23,000, eddoes and dasheens'' 5.240'', sweet potatoes 4,000, plantains 3,000, yams 2,000, mangoes 2,000, lemons and limes 1,000, oranges 1,0(H), ginger 834', arrowroot starch 635**, soursops, guavas, and papaws are other important fruits; livestock (number of live animals) 12,000 sheep, 9,000 pigs, 6,000 cattle; roundwood. n.a.; fish catch (1993) 1,781. Mining and quarrying: sand and gravel for local use. Manufacturing (value added in HCS'OOO: 1988): beverages and tobacco products 9,686; food

products 9,499; textiles, clothing, and footwear 3,872; metal products and electrical machinery 2,510. Construction (gross floor area planned; 1992): 80,800 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 61.600,000 (56,400,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (27,000); natural gas, none (none).

Gross national product (1993): U.S.$233.()()0.000 (U.S.$2,1.3() per capita).

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-111,5 21,7%

-110.6 19.8%

-161,2 30.7%

-113.3 21.4%

-173.6 35.7%

-214.0 47.9%

Imports (1992): EC$360,600,000 (food products 23.2%; basic manufactures 21.6%; machinery and transport equipment 17.8%). Major import sources: United States 35.5%; Trinidad and Tobago 17.6%; United Kingdom 16.9%; Barbados 3.4%; Canada 3.0%. Exports (1992)15; EC$2 13,000,000 (domestic exports 96.3%, of which bananas 52.7%, flour 11.2%, varieties of taro roots 3.5%, sweet potatoes 2.3%; reexports 3.7%). Major export destinations: United Kingdom 41.2%; Trinidad and Tobago 12.0%; Saint Lucia 10.0%; United States 4.4%; Antigua and Barbuda 4.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):

total length 586 mi, 943 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 4,591; trucks and buses 2,878. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 881; total deadweight tonnage 7,044,189. Air transport (1992): passenger arrivals 112,574, passenger departures 113,699; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers: none'*". Radio (1994): total number of receivers 73,000 (1 per 1.5 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 17,700 (1 per 6.3 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 16,500 (1 per 6.6 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Pnmary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc, teacher tr,

student/

schools

teachers

students

60

1,215

21

408

24,134 7.124

2

teacher

ratio

19,9 17.5

337

Educational attainment (1980). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 2.4%; primary education 88.0%: secondary 8.2%; higher 1.4%. Literacy (1991): total population age 15 and over literate 64,000 (96.0%). Health (1992): physicians 40 (1 per 2,708 persons); hospital beds (1989) 500 (1 per 209 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 17.1. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,347 (vegetable products 84%, animal products 16%); 97% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1992): 634-member police force includes a coast guard and paramilitary unit. Military expenditure as percentage of central government expenditure (1989-90): 5.6% I'.

'Includes 6 nonelective seats; excludes speaker who may be elected from within or from outside of the House of Assembly membership. -For statistical purposes and the election of legislative representatives; St. Vincent and the Grenadines has no local administrative authority. -'January 1. 'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. ^Urban defined as Kingstown and suburbs. ''Varieties of taro roots. '1992. 1*1992-93. ''At factor cost. n'Lcss imputed bank sersicc charges. 'Unemployed. i-April. "Agriculture and manufacturing sectors only. "Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and tr;iding partners. ^'•Exports (1994): E£C$1 16.3(K).OtK), of which bananas 37.8%. iWeekly newspapers (1992): 2. "'May not agree with military expenditure as percentage of CiNP because of different bases used. '

Nations of the World

postage stamps, gold and silver jewelry, paints, synthetic rubber, and furniture. Construction (new units completed; 1994): residential 173; nonresidential 90. Energy production (consumption): all electrical power is imported via electrical grid from Italy (consumption, n.a.); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products, none (n.a.); natural

San Marino

tery, tiles,

name: Serenissima Repubblica San Marino (Most Serene Republic of San Marino). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Great and General Council [60]). Official di

gas,

none

(n.a.).

Cross national product (at current market prices; 1987): U.S.$188,000,000 (U.S.$8,590 per capita).

Head of state and government:

Structure of labour force (19951)

Captains-Regent (2). San Marino.

Official language: Italian. Official religion: none. unit:

Manufacturing Construction and

Italian lira (Lit; plural

1

=

public utilities Transportation and

Area and populat ion area

sq mi

Castles

Capitals

Acquaviva Borgo Magglore Chiesanuova Citta

Acquaviva Borgo Chiesanuova San Marino

Domagnano

Domagnano

Faetano

Faetano

Fiorentino

Fiorentino

Monteglardino Serravalle/Dogano

Monlegiardino

population

sq

1.88

4.86

3.48

9.01

2.11

5.46 7.09 6.62 7.75 6.56

274 2.56 2.99 2.53 1.28 4.07 23.632

Serravalle

TOTAL

794 678

10.53 61.19

7,758 24,747

Murata

1,505;

Domagnano

1.8

16.3

insurance Sen/ices Public administration

1

400

2.6

,322

85 24.4 3,75 100.0

3,779

5805 15,519

use (1985): agricultural and under permanent cultivation 74%; meadforested, built-on, wasteland, and other 4%.

ows and pastures 22%;

Foreign trade

1,700

3.31

282

Land

830 4,327 2,215

Balance of trade:

n.a.

San Marino and

Italy

form a

single

customs area;

separate figures for San Marino are not available. Imports (1994): manufactured goods of all kinds, oil, and gold. Major import source: Italy. Exports (1994): wine, wheat, woolen goods, furniture, wood, ceramics, building stone, dairy products, meat, and postage stamps. Major export

Demography

2,315;

1,291

8.3

2,531

TOTAL

Population (1995): 24,900. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 1,053.7, persons per sq km 406.9. Urban-rural (19951): urban 89.8%; rural 10.2%. Sex distribution (1995'): male 49.52%; female 50.48%. Age breakdown (1995'): under 15, 14.9%; 15-29, 22.7%; 30-44, 24.2%; 45-59, 18.2%; 60-74, 14.2%; 75 and over, 5.8%. Population projection: (2000) 26,800; (2010) 31,100. Doubling time: not applicable; natural population growth is negligible. Ethnic composition (1995'): Sammarinesi 76.8%; Italian 22.0%; other 1.2%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 95.2%; no religion 3.0%; other 1.8%. Major cities (1995'): Serravalle/Dogano 4,709; Borgo Maggiore 2,367; San

Marino

1.7

32.7

Other

1,257 5,188

force

256

communications Trade Finance and

and defense

1995' estimate

km

of labour

5,078

Agriculture

100 centesimi; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = Lit 1,617; 1 £ = Lit 2,557. lire)

%

labour force

Capital:

Monetary

705

1,046.

destination: Italy.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none (nearest rail terminal is at Rimini, Italy, 17 mi [27 km] northeast). Roads (1987): total length 147 mi, 237 km. Vehicles (19951): passenger cars 22,945; trucks and buses 3,843. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) none. Air transport: airports with scheduled flights, none; there is, however, a heliport that provides passenger and cargo service between San Marino and Rimini, Italy, during the summer months. Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): 5; circulation per 1,000 population, n.a. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 12,600 (1 per 1.9 persons). Television (1990): total number of receivers 8,000 (1 per 2.9 persons). Tele-

phones (1988): 15,700

Vital statistics

(1

per

1.5

persons).

Education and health

rate per 1,000 population (1990-94): 10.8 (world avg. 25.0); (1985) legitimate 95.2%; illegitimate 4.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1990-94): 7.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1990-94): 3.8 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990-94): 7.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990-94): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 77.2 years; female 85.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990-94): diseases of the circulatory system 325.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 221.1; accidents,

Birth

violence,

and suicide

45.7; diseases of the respiratory

system

13.6.

sales,

tourism,

Lit 379,337,000,000 (mainly receipts from postage and customs duties [collected by Italy and paid

as a subsidy]). Expenditures: Lit 379,337,000,000 (^finance and economic planning 31.0%, internal affairs 11.3%, health and social security 9.0%, education and culture 7.1%, public works 6.3%).

Public debt: n.a. Tourism: number of tourist arrivals (1994) 3,104,231; receipts from visitors (1983) U.S.$56,454,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Population economically active (1995'): total 15,519; activity rate of total population 62.7% (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1992] 72.9%; female 40.6%; unemployed 3.7%).

Price

Primary (age 6-10)

Secondary (age 11-18) Voc, teacher tr.

student/

schools

teachers

students

14

218 133

1,143

5.2

775 408

58

3

teacher

ratio

Higher

Educational attainment (1995'). Percentage of the adult labour force having: basic literacy or primary education 20.2%; secondary 39.7%; some postsecondary 33.6%; higher degree 6.5%. Literacy (1986): total population age 15 and over literate 18,135 (98.0%); males literate 8,957 (98.2%); females literate 9,178 (97.7%). Health (1987): physicians 60

National economy Budget (1991). Revenue:

stamp

Education (1994-95)

(1 per 375 persons); hospital beds 149 (1 per 151 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1990-94) 7.1. Food (1992)6; daily per capita caloric intake 3,561 (vegetable products 75%,

animal products 25%); 141% of

FAO

recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): none^. Military expenditure as percentage of national budget (1987): 0.9% (world 5.4%); per capita expenditure (1987) U.S.$82.

and earnings indexes (1990=^100) 1988

Consumer

price index

88.4

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

108.0

115.7

121.9

128.0

Earnings index

Household income and expenditure. Total number of households (1995 1) 9,266; average household size 2.7; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1991)": food, beverages, and tobacco 22.1%, housing, fuel, and electrical energy 20.9%, transportation and communications 17.6%, clothing and footwear 8.0%, furniture, appliances, and goods and services for the home 7.2%, education 7.1%, health and sanitary services 2.6%, other goods and services 14.5%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing3: wheat c. 4,400, grapes c. 700, barley c. 500; livestock (number of live animals; 1994) 970 cattle, 694 pigs, 13 sheep. Manufacturing (1994): processed meats 364,210 kg, of which beef 269,848 kg, pork 86,345 kg, veal 7,741 kg; cheese 81,860 kg; butter 14,104 kg; milk 1,071,636 litres; yogurt 6,283 litres; other major products include textiles, cement, paper, leather, bricks, pot-

'January 1. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Early 1980s. "Weighting coefficients for component expenditures are those of the 1991 official Italian consumer price index for the North-Central region of Italy. '^Unemployed. ^Figures are for Italy. 'Defense is provided by a public security force of about 50; all fit males ages 16-55 constitute a militia.

706

Britannica World Data

Sao Tome and Principe

Population economically active (1991): total 49,216; activity rate of total population 41.0% (participation rates [1981]: ages 15-64, 61.1%; female 32.4%; unemployed [1994?] 22.0%).

name: Republica democratica de Sao Tome e Principe (Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe). Fonn of govemmenl: Multiparty republic with one legislative house Official

Earnings Indexes (1990=100) Consumer

(National Assembly [55]). Chief of state: President. Head of govemmeiu: Prime Minister. Capital:

Gross national product (U.S.$370 per capita).

Sao Tome.

Official language: Portuguese. Official religion:

Monetary

unit:

1992

1993

1994

195.8

245.8

311.3

in

Public utilities Construction Transportation

population

3

km

sq

census!

Trade Finance Pub. admin

Districts

859

Sao Tome

Cantagalo

Santana

Caue Lemba

Sao Joao Angolares

,

Neves Guadalupe Tnndade

Lobata Me-Z6chi

114,507 43.420

17

Island

Santo Antonio

119 267 229

labour force

277

13,592

27.6

1,510

31

of total

1,326

7.9

970

5.7

4,642

276

3,870 1.366

230

of labour

force

269

0,6 5.8

2,186 4.451 176 5,592 2,369 16.2056 49,216

4.4

1 >

J

,

"/

2,866

J

defense

Services afier TOTAL

11,421 5,541

value

1

and communications

1991

Sao Tome Aqua Grande

4,663

Mining Manufacturing

Capitals

U.S.$41,000,000

1991

%

value

Db 000,000

Area and population

Islands

1993):

1993

dobra (Db)= 100

Agriculture

Principe TOTAL

1991 146.5

current market prices;

(at

centimos; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = Db 1,446; 1 £ = Db 2,286.

Autonomous

1990 100.0

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

none.

1

price index

Earnings index

8,1

100

16,837

9.0 0.4 11.4 4.8

3296 1000

9,448

105 122

13,101

Land

31,576

142 142 1,001

meadows and pastures 1.0%; agricultural and under percultivation 38.6%; forest, built-on, wasteland, and other 60.4%.

use (1993):

manent

5,639 5,639 120,146

Foreign trade7 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

1989

Population (1995): 131,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 339.0, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 44.1%; rural 55.9%.

U.S.$'000,000

km

%

130.7.

Sex distribution (1994): male 49.40%; female 50.60%. (1990): under 15, 47.6%; 15-29, 25.8%; 30-44, 12.1%; 45-59, 7.3%; 60 and over, 6.4%; not stated, 0.8%.

Age breakdown

Popidation projection: (2000) 146,000; (2010) 182,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnolinguistic composition: mestizos, angolares (descendants of Angolan slaves), forros (descendants of freed slaves), servigais (alien contract labourers), and tongas (children of serviQais) speak Portuguese; non-Portuguesespeaking Europeans speak French and Spanish. Religious affiliation (1991): Roman Catholic, about 80.8%; remainder mostly Protestant, predominantly Seventh-day Adventist and an indigenous Evangelical

Church.

Major cities (1991): Sao Tome 43,420; Trindade Neves 5,9192; Santo Amaro 5,8782.

11,3882;

Santana 6,1902;

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 35.2 (world avg. 25.0); (1977) legitimate 9.8%; illegitimate 90.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 8.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rale per 1,000 population (1994): 26.3 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 4.5.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 61.5 years; female 65.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987): malaria 160.6; direct obstetric causes 76.7; pneumonia 74.0; influenza 61.5; anemias 47.3; hypertensive disease 32.1.

of total

National economy

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$225,800,000. Tourism (1990): receipts from visitors U.S.S 1,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S. $2,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestrv, fishing 1994): coconuts 2:,(K)0, vegetables and melons 14.000, bananas 12'.()l)0, taro 7,000. cacao 4,000, cereals 4,1100, fruits (other than melons) 3,000, palm kernels 3,000, palmetto 3,000\ cassava 1,000, copra 1,000; livestock (number of live animals) 5,000 goats, 4,000 cattle, 2,000 pigs, 2,000 sheep; roundwood (1993) 9,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 2,200, principally marine fish and shellfish. Mining and quarr\ing: some quarrying to support local construction industry. Manufacturing (value in Db; 1994): beer 628,000; clothing 604,000; lumber 328,000; bakcn, protlucts 325,000; palm oil 182,000; soap 154,000; ceramics 77,000. Construction (1972): buildings authorized 44 (5.561 sq m, of which residential 3.(i'),s, mixed residential-commercial 1.361, commercial 502). Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 20,181.000 (12,452,000); coal, none (n.a.): crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (24,0()0); natural gas, none (n.a.).

1990

-22

2

71.6%

1991

-23.9 64.8%

-24.6 67.2%

Imports (1994): U.S.$30,400,000 (capital goods 40.2%, food and other agricultural products 21.5%, petroleum products 7.2%). Major import sources (1994): Portugal 28.3%; France 10.1%; Belgium 7.6%; Japan 5.5%; Angola 4.8%; Germany 2.6%; The Netherlands 2.4%; Gabon 1.8%; Italy 1.7%; United Kingdom 1.1%. Exports (1994): U.S.$6,500,000 (cocoa 76.9%). Major export destinations (1994): The Netherlands 88.2%; Portugal 0.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):

total length 149 mi, 240 km (paved 41.7%). Vehicles (1987): passenger cars 2,600; trucks and buses 300. Merchant marine (1992); vessels (100 gross tons and over) 4; total deadweight tonnage 2,277. Air transport (1990): passenger-mi 5,000,000, passenger-km 8,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 700,000, short ton-km cargo 1,000,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Commimications. Daily newspapers: none; 2 government weeklies (circulation, n.a.). Radio (1994): total number of receivers 31,000 (1 per 4.1 persons). Television; total number of receivers 21,000 (1 per 6.1 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 2,400 (1 per 52 persons).

Education and health Education (1989) Pnmary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-18) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

Budget (1994). Revenue: Db 12.3:9.00(),()llll (grants 60,9%; indirect taxes 25.2%, of which import tjixcs 10.3'r, sales ta.xcs l(l,3'r; nonta.\ revenue 9.7%; direct taxes 4.2%). Expenditures: Db 26,421,000,000 (capital 57.3%; recurrent expenditure 42.7%, of which personnel costs 7.1%, goods and services 5.()%i; debt service 15.1%).

-27,6 70,1%

student/

schools

teachers

students

64

559 318

19,822 7,446

lis 28

189

teacher

ratio

355 234

289 700 '0

Educational attainment (1981). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 56.6%; incomplete primary education 18.0%; primary 19.2%; incomplete secondary 4.6%; complete secondary 1.3%; postsecondary 0.3%. Literacy (1981): total population age 15 and over literate 28,114 (54.2%); males literate 17,689 (70.2%); females literate 10,425 (39.1%). Health: physicians (1989) 61 (1 per 1,881 persons); hospital beds (1983) 640 (I per 158 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 63.5. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,129 (vegetable products 96%, animal products 4%); 91% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

(

Military Total active duty personnel: a gendarmerie of about 900 men was to be estab(1980); lished in the early 1990s. Mililaiy expenditure as percentage of 1.6% (world 5.4%); per capita expenditure U.S. $6.

GNP

Household income and

expenditure. Average household size (1981): 4.0; inper household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1990)-': food 65.7%, housing, transportation, and communications 14.6%. clothing and other items 11.4%, education and health 4.6%, housing and utilities 3.7%.

come

iPrcliminary. -1981. M988. 'Weights based on CPI components. "^Firsl 10 months. "•Includes 15,148 unemployed. ''Import figures are c.i,r "1984-85. 'Vocational teacher.? only, '"Students abroad. 1982-83,

Nations of the World

Saudi Arabia Official

Price

name: al-Mamlakah

al-'Arablyah as-Sa'udlyah of Saudi Arabia).

and earnings indexes (1990-100)

Consumer pnce index

(Kingdom

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

19956

98

100.0

104.9

104.8

105.9

106.5

111.4

Earnings index

Form of government: monarchy'. Head of stale and government: King.

Gross national product (1994)7; U.S.$173,100,000,000 (U.S.$9, 510 per capita).

Capital: Riyadh.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official language: Arabic.

1992

Official religion: Islam.

in values SRIs 000,000

Monetary imit: Saudi riyal (SRis)= 100 haialah; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = SRIs 3.75; 1 £ = SRls5.93. 1

Agriculture

Mining

area

population

Geographic Regions

al-GharbTyah (Western) al-Bahah al-Madinah

1985 Capitals

sqmi

sq

km

estimate

3,043,189

al-Bahah

Medina (al-Madlnah)

1

1990

%

28,785

63

167,206

367

38,220 39,039

8.4

Public utilities Transp. and commun.

701 28,432

01

sector

J

Trade Finance

31,239 25.9569 78,905 12,595 4,05410 455,132

Pub. admin,, defense Services Other TOTAL

86 6.2

6,9 5.79 17.3 2.8 ) 0.9'0 J

1

100.0"

625,017

Abha

JTzan

JTzan

Najran

Najran

(t^orthern Borders)

679,476

Tabuk asti-SharqTyati (Eastern)

ash-SharqTyah (Eastern) al-Wusta (Central)

,822,000

31 6

0,1

1.7

10.8

100

sources of income;

n.a.;

0"

size (1986) 6.6; in-

expenditure (1988)12;

food 37%, housing 21%, transportation and communications 15%, clothing 8%, household furnishings 7%, education and entertainment 2%. Tourism: receipts from visitors (1989) U.S.$2,050,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad (1988) U.S.$2,000,000,000. Pilgrims to Mecca from abroad (1994); 2,000,000.

'Arar

Sakakah Tabuk

al-Jawf

n.a.;

3,030,765

ad-Dammam 3,632,092

Hail

Ha'il

al-Qasim

Buraydah

ar-Riya\ cxpcndiiure as percentage of (1993): 2.4% (world 3.3%);

GNP

per capita expenditure U.S.S

'Detail

16.

to total given because of rounding. -Capital region only. index refers to the S.M.I.G. {salairc minimum micqmttc'. Exports (1993): U.S.$443,300,000 (alumina 49.5%, shrimp and fish 11.4%, aluminum 7.9%, rice 6.0%, bananas 1.9%, petroleum 1.2%). Major export destinations: Norway 32.3%; The Netheriands 26.4%; United States 12.3%; France 6.5%; Japan 5.9%; Germany 4.4%.

3,633.

Transport and communications Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 31.0 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n.a.; illegitimate, n.a.

Death

rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.5 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 24.5 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 2.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 4.9. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 2.5. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 66.6 years; female 71.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1987)'': diseases of the circulatory system 178.6, of which ischemic heart disease 60.7, diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease 47.2; homicide, suicide, and other violence 68.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 57.2; diseases of the respiratory system 33.7; ill-defined conditions 67.6.

Transport. Railroads (1991): length 187 mi, 301 km; passengers, not applicable; cargo, n.a. Roads (1990): total length 5,688 mi, 9,153 km (paved 29%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 42,561; trucks and buses 15,774. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 24; total deadweight ton-

nage 15,721. Air transport (1994)'': passenger-mi 336,096,000, passenger-km 540,896,000; short ton-mi cargo 5,402,000, metric ton-km cargo 7,887,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 3; total circulation 25,000; circulation per 1,000 population 61. Radio (1993): total number of receivers 290,256 (1 per 1.4 persons). Television (1993): total number of receivers 59,598 (1 per 7.0 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 46,900 (1

per 8,9 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93)

National economy

sctiools

Budget (1993). Revenue: Sf 3,476,800,000 (grants 61.6%; individual income taxes 17.2%; custom duties 5.1%; company profit taxes 4.9%, of which bauxite levy 2.7%; bank profits 4.3%). Expenditures: Sf 4,320,700,000 (current expenditures 91.6%, of which welfare and social services 13.1%, debt service 6.6%, defense 3.8%, health 2.3%, education 1.2%; capital expenditures 8.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1990): U.S.$ 138,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): rice 225,000, sugarcane 85,000, bananas 5(),0(M), oranges 16,000, plantains 13,000, coconuts 11,000, watermelons 9,000, cucumbers 5,000, cassava 4,000, tomatoes 4,000, palm oil 1,650; livestock (number of live animals) 98,000 cattle, 37,(K)0 pigs; roundwood (1993) 154,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 9,503. Mining and quarrying (1993): bauxite 3,300,000; gold 9,645 troy oz. Manufacturing (value of production at factor cost in Sf; 1992): food products 417,000.000; beverages 278,0()(),()()0; tobacco 153,0()(),()()0; wood products 109,000,000; chemical products 103,0()0.()()0. Construction (value of buildings authorized; 1985): residential Sf 46,5(M),000; nonresidential Sf 8,100,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) ,420,(K)0,()0() (1,420,000,000); hard coal (metric tons) none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) 1,7.30,000 (I,240,(K)0); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (446,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1980) 3.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1975): wages and salaries 74.6%, transfer payments 3.2%, other 22.2%; expenditure (1968-69): food and beverages 40.0%, household furnishings 12.3%, clothing and footwear 11.0%, transportation and communications 9.5%, recreation and education

Pnmary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Voc teactier tr

301

'0

89

'0

teacfiers

students

3,695

79,162 17,709 12,307 2,373

1

2.487

,

254

Higher'o

21 4

126 .

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 262,700 (94.9%); males literate 128,700 (95.1%); females literate 134,000 (94.7%). Health: physicians (1990) 299 (1 per 1,348 persons); hospital beds (1989) 1,901 (1 per 212 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1993) 36.5. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,547 (vegetable products 86%, animal products 14%); 1 13% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 1,8001" (army 77.8%, navy 13.3%. air force 8.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1993): 1.1% (worid 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$181.

GNP

1

8.4%, energy 6.9%, housing 4.4%, other 7.5%,

'Area excludes 6,809 sq mi (17.63.') sq km) of leiritory disputed with Guyana. -Detail does not add to total given because of computational discrepancies. '1993. -"Based on 71,6% of total deaths. ^Indirect ta.\es less subsidies and imputed bank service charges, ''Includes 18.4()() unemployed. 'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. "Districts of Wanica and Paramaribo only. '*SLM (Suriname Airways) only. i»1991-92. 111988-89,

i-^All

services are part of the army.

5

Nations of the World

Swaziland Official

Price and earnings indexes (1990= 100)

name: Umbuso weSwatini

Consumer

(Swazi); Kingdom of Swaziland (English). Form of government^: monarchy with

two

legislative

houses (Senate

Prime Minister.

Mbabane (administrative); Lobamba (royal and legislative).

Official languages: Swazi; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: 1 lilangeni'' (plural ' emalangeni [E])= 100 cents; valuation

1

£

6,

1995)

1

U.S.$

=E

3.66;

= E5.79.

Area and population area

sq

3,569 5,947 4,068 3,780 17,364

Capitals

Hhohho Lubombo

Siteki

1,378 2,296

Manzini

1,571

Nhlangano

1,459 6,704

Mbabane

Manzini Shiselweni TOTAL

population

sq mi

Districts

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

83.2

90-1

100.0

110.8

1199

140,3

160 4

natural gas, n.a. (n.a.).

1986 census

i.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 7,012 mi. 11,285 km; passenger-mi 3,712,000,000, passenger-km 5,975,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 12.725.000,000, metric ton-km cargo 18,578,000.000. Roads (1992): total length 84,419 mi, 135,859 km (paved 72%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 3,.566.040; trucks

and buses 315.994. Merchant marine (1993):

vessels (100 gross tons and over) 417; total deadweight tonnage 2,339,474. Air transport (1993): passenger-mi 5,096,789,000, passenger-km 8,2()2,502,0()0: short ton-mi cargo 123,098,000, metric ton-km cargo 179.720,000; airports (1995) 48. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 176; total circulation 4,678,000; circulation per 1.000 population 536. Radio (1993): 7,450,000 receivers (1 per 1.2 persons). Television (1993): 3,750,000 receivers (I per 2.3 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 5,907,000 (I per 1.5 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94) Primary (age 7-12)

National economy

Public debt (1994): U.S.$1 19,370,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$2,650,000,0()0; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$4.464,000,0()0. Production (metric Ions except as noted). Agriculture, foreslrv. tishing ( 1994): sugar beets 2,349.800, barley 1,660,900, wheat 1.518,.^00. oais 'I'dl.dOO. potatoes 762,800; livestock (number of live animals) 2,328,405 pigs. 1.826,489 cattle, 483,428 sheep; roundwood 62,954,000 cu m: lish catch 375,700, of which Baltic herring 53,100. Mining and quarrying (1994): iron ore 12,940,000-'; copper 293,000; zinc 287,000; lead 153.000. Manufacturing (value added, in SKr '000,000; 1992): machinery and transport equipment 94,898; paper and paper products 32.474; food and beverages 24.216; wood and wood products 11,789; textiles and wearing apparel 3.685. Construction ( 1993): 35,088 dwellings completed. Energv production (coiisiimption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 146,245,000,000 (144,095,000.000); coal (metric tons;

student/

schools

Secondary (age 13-18)

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: SKr 343,990,00(1,000 (value-added and excise taxes 55.4%, social-security contributions 15.8'y, income and capital gains taxes 11.2%', nontax revenue 10.5''/, property taxes 7.1%). Expenditures: SKr 549,662,000,000 (health and social affairs 23.0%, interest on national debt 17.5%, education and culture 9.9%, defense 7.1%).

1991

Higher'

4,826

600

teachers

90,234 29,539 27,5238

students

teacher

893,932 313,728 272,718

10,6 9.9

ratio

99

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 16-64 having: primary education 37.1'v; lower secondary education 29.4"";; higher secondary 12.2%; some postsecondary 21.3%.'L//('ran- (1993): virtuallv 1(M)%. Health: physicians (1993) 22,200 (I per 393 persons); hospital beds (1992) 57,778 (1 per 150 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 3.4. Pood (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,972 (vegetable products 62%, animal products 38%); 110% of FAO requirement.

Military Total active duly personnel (1994): 64,000 (army 68.0%, navy 14.1%, air force 17.9%). Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1993): 2.8% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S. $574.

January 1. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 'Density based on land area only. 'Metal content of ore. 'Includes statistical discrepancies less imputed bank service charges. ''Unemployed. ^1989-90. "Includes graduate assistants. I

Nations of the World

Switzerland

723

none (263,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) none (30,126,petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 4,115,000 (11,784,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 9,607,500 (2,557,000,000). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$254,066,000,000 (U.S.$36,410 per capita). tons; 1992) 000);

name: Confederation Suisse (French); Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (German);

Official

Confederazione Svizzera

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

(Italian)

(Swiss Confederation). federal state with two legislative houses (Council of States [46]; National Council [200]).

Agriculture 1

Public

Bern (administrative); Lausanne (judicial).

Construction Transp. and commun

Official religion: none. unit: 1 Swiss

Monetary

Finance, insurance^ Pub. admin., defense Services }

Franc

(Sw F)= 100 centimes; valuation (Oct. 1995)

6, 1

£

1

U.S.$

= SwF

= SwF

1.15;

Area and population

area

Aargau

Aarau

Appenzell Ausser-Rhoden^ Appenzell Inner-Rhoden^ Basel-Landschaf|2 Basel-Stadt2 Bern

Herlsau Appenzell

Fribourg

Fribourg

Lieslal

Basel

Bern

Geneve

Geneva

Glarus

Glarus

GraubiJnden

Chur Delemont

Jura Luzern Neuchatel

Nidwalden2

Obwalden2

Luzern Neuchatel Stans

sq mi

542 94 67 200 14 2,302

645 109 264 2,743

323 576 310 107 189 782 115

Sankt Gallen Schalfhausen

Sarnen Sankt Gallen Schaffhausen

Schwyz

Schwyz

351

Solothurn

305 383

Ticino

Solothurn Frauenfeld Bellinzona

Uri

Altdorf

Valais

Sion (.ausanne

Thurgau

Vaud 2ug

Zug

Zurich TOTAL

Zurich

1,086

416 2.017 1,240

sq

km

-15,226'

TOTAL

338.765

22.5

24,700

0.7

}

74

5.4

299,700 212,800 689,300 371,700 133,000 665.800 163,1008 3,552,1009

6 4 17 5 24 5

„„„ 2°^ -4 5'

70,346

Other

518,945 54,087 14,680 234.910 197,403 956,617 218,704 387,606 39,138 181,957 68,626 335,385 163,884 35,393 30,837 436,967 73,588 118,528 236.389 217.129 297,955 35,727 266,713 596,736 88.583

243 173 517 37 5,961 1,671

282 685 7,105

836 1,493

803 276 490 2,026

299 908 791 991 2,812 1,077 5,225 3,212

239

92 668

1,729

41,285

1,162,083 6,968,5703

Demography

km

Price

100.0

8.4

6.0 19.4

10.5 3.8 18.7 4.66

100.0

and earnings indexes (1990= 100) 1989

estimate

1,404

15,940

Population (1995): 7.039,000. Density (1995); persons per sq mi 441.6, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 67.9%; rural 32.1%.

Consumer

1990

1995

1991

1058 1069

price index

Annual earnings index

110.1

111.9

113.8 114.8

116.7'o

Household income and expenditure. Average household size ( 1993) 2.2; average income per household (1993) Sw F 70,700 (U.S.$47,850); sources of income (1992): wages 63.6%, transfer payments 16.5%, other 19.9%); expenditure (1992): food 19.2%, housing 15.8%, transportation and communications 11.7%, health care 11.1%, beverages and tobacco 7.3%. Land use (1992): forested 31.7%; meadows and pastures 28.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 11.8%; other 28.4%.

Foreign trade" Balance of trade (current prices)

SwF

'000,000

% of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-9,998 5.6%

-7,397 4.0%

-6,144 3.4%

+ 268 0.2%

+ 3,721

+ 3,798 2.2%

3.2%

Imports (1994): Sw F 87,279,000,000 (machinery and electronics 20.5%, chemical products 13.5%, vehicles 9.0%, textiles and clothing 9.0%). Major import sources: Germany 34.4%; France 11.4%; Italy 10.5%; U.S. 5.7%; The Netherlands 4.9%. Exports (1994): Sw F 90,213,000,000 (machinery and electronics 27.3%, chemical products 24.5%, watches 8.3%, base metals and finished products 8.1%). Major export destinations: Germany 24.3%; France 9.4%; U.S. 8.7%; Italy 7.7%; U.K. 5.4%.

170.5.

Sex distribution (1994): male 48.85%; female 51.15%. Age breakdown (1994): under 15, 17.6%; 15-29, 20.8%; 30-44, 23.5%; 45-59, 18.7%; 60-74, 12.8%; 75 and over, 6.6%. Population projection: (2000) 7,279,000; (2010) 7,542,000. Linguistic composition (1990): German 63.6%; French 19.2%; Italian 7.6%; Spanish 1.7%; Portuguese 1.4%; Romansch 0.6%; other 5.9%. Religious affiliation (1990): Roman Catholic 46.2%; Protestant 40.0%; Muslim 2.2%; Orthodox Christian 1.0%; Jewish 0.3%; other 10.3%. Major cities (1994'): Zurich 343,045 (940,1804); Basel 176,220 (406,39H);

Geneva

,9

6,615 25,079 21,523 59,140 83,144

force

191,400 800,600

population

1994'

CapRals

23

^

of labour

Population economically active (1993): total 3,552,100; activity rate of total population 50.8% (participation rates: age 15 and over 60.8%; female 38.3%; unemployed [February 1994-January 1995] 4.7%).

1.82.

Cantons

utilities

Trade

French; German^

2 9

78,299

/

President.

%

labour force

value

9,845

Manufacturing Mining

Capitals:

1993

% of total

value F 000,000

in

Sw

Head of state and government:

Official languages: Italian.

1992

-

Form of government:

171,744 (424,0284); Bern 129,423 (332,494'i); Lausanne 117,153.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: length (1992) 3,125 mi, 5,029 km; passenger-km (1993) 12,012,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo (1993) 7,332,000,00012. Roads (1993): total length 44,201 mi, 71,134 km. Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 3,137,619; trucks and buses 286,501. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 24; total deadweight tonnage 602,084. Air transport (1994)13; passenger-km 18,580,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,408,000,000; airports

(1995) with scheduled flights 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): total number 110; total circulation 3,427,801; circulation per 1,000 population 490. Radio (1994): 5,600,000 receivers (1 per 1.2 persons). Television (1994): 2,545,000 receivers (1 per 2.7 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 4,265,800 (1 per 1.6 persons).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 11.9 (world avg. 25.0); (1993) legitimate 93.7%; illegitimate 6.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 8.8 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994); 3.1 (world avg. 15.7).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.2. Life expectancy at birth (1992-93): male 74.7 years; female 81.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): heart disease 264.4, of which ischemic 150.6, other 113.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 240.8.

National economy Budget (1995)5. Revenue: Sw F 36,319,000,000 (turnover taxes 29.5%, direct federal taxes 23.8%, motor fuel fees 12.3%). Expenditures: Sw F 42,399,000,000 (social services 25.8%, transportation 15.0%, defense 14.0%). Natiotml debt (end of year; 1994): Sw F 77,774,000,000. Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S. $7,001,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$5,803,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1993): milk 3,927,000, sugar beets 976,000, potatoes 908,000, wheat 580,000, barley 392,000, apples 243,000, grapes 154,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,745,000 cattle, 1,692,000 pigs; roundwood 4,338,000 cu m; fish catch (1992) 3,900. Mining (1993): salt 300,000. Manufacturing (value added in Sw F '000,000; 1992): nonelectrical machinery and transport vehicles 13,626; electrical goods, electronics, and optics 11,544; chemical products 11,071; base metals and metal products 8,320. Construction (in Sw F '000,000; 1992): residential 17,010; nonresidential 29,652. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 58,127,000,000 ([1992] 54,828,000,000); coal (metric

Education and health Education (1993-94) schools Primary (age 7-12) Secondary (age 13-19) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

teachers

students

423,399 412,385 191,344 144,544

Educational attainment (1993). Percentage of resident Swiss and resident alien population age 25-64 having: lower secondary education or less 18%; vocational 50%; upper secondary 11%; higher technical 13%; university 8%. Health (1992): physicians c. 23,000 (1 per 299 persons); hospital beds 53,349 (1 per 129 persons); infant mortality rate (1994) 5.4. Food (1988-90): daily per capita caloric intake 3,508 (vegetable products 61%, animal products 39%); 130% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 1,800'''. Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1993): 1.7% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$585.

'January 1. ^Demicanton; functions as a full canton. 'Includes 1,291,762 resident aliens. -"IQQO population of urban agglomeration. -""Confederation-level only. ('Includes consulting services. 'Import duties less imputed bank charges. ^Unemployed. ''Labour force includes 935,300 foreign workers. '"March. "Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. i2Swiss Federal Railways. '^Swissair only. '''Excludes 565,000 army reservists and 60,f)00 air corps reservists.

Britannica World Data

724

cept as noted; 1993): phosphate rock 930,000; gypsum 303,000; salt 113,000; marble blocks 52.873,000 cu m. Manufacturing (1993): cement 3,667,000; wheat flour 1,218,000; refined sugar 183,000; fertilizers 89,639; olive oil 60,139; textiles 29,000; soap 17,000; rugs 656,000 sq m. Construction (1993): residential 628,000 sq m; nonresidential 209,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 12,742,000,000 (12,742,000,000); coal (metric tons) none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 222.997,000 (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) 11,148,000 (9,420,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 1,941,000,000 (1,941,000,000). Population economically active (1991): total 3,845,368; activity rate of total population 27.8'''f (participation rates: ages 15-64 [1986] A(i.l%; female 10.2%; unemployed 6.1%).

Syria name: al-Jumhurlyah

Official

al-'ArabTyah as-Surlyah (Syrian

Arab Republic). Form of government:

unitary multiparty! republic with one legislative house (People's

Council [250]).

Head of state and government: President. Capital:

Damascus.

Official language: Arabic.

Price

none-. Syrian pound 100 piastres; valuation

Official religion:

Monetary

=

(LS)

unit:

1988

Consumer

area

Dara

Dara

Dayr az-Zawr

Dayr az-Zawr

Dimashq

Damascus

Halab

Aleppo

Hamah

Hamah

al-Hasakah

al-Hasal

Balance of trade (current prices)

1,416,160

Demography Population (1995)5; 21,268,000. Density (1995)5; persons per sq mi 1,522.5, persons per sq km 587.9. Urban-rural (1991)6; urban 74.7%; rural 25.3%. Sex distribution (1994)''; male 51.54%; female 48.46%. Age breakdown (1994)6; under 15, 24.4%; 15-29, 26.7%; 30-44, 25.5%; 45-59, 12.6%; 60-69, 6.5%; 70 and over, 4.3%. Population projection: (2000) 22,364,000; (2010) 24,693,000. Doubling time: 67 years. Ethnic composition (1986): Taiwanese 84.0%; mainland Chinese 14.0%; aborigine 2.0%. Religious affiliation (1980); Chinese folk-religionist 48.5%; Buddhist 43.0%; Christian 7.4%; Muslim 0.5%; other 0.6%. Major cities (1994)6; Taipei 2,652,685; Kao-hsiung 1,416,160; T'ai-chung 836,560; T'ai-nan 702,704; Chi-lung 365,312.

Imports (1994); NTS2,26 1,65 1,000,000 (electronic machinery 19.7%, nonelectrical machinery 12.3%, chemicals 10.5%, road motor vehicles 7.1%, iron and steel 6.7%, crude petroleum 3.2%). Major import sources: Japan 29.0%; U.S. 21.1%; Germany 5.6%; Korea 3.5%; Singapore 2.8%; Malaysia 2.7%. Exports (1994): NTS2,456,0 11,000,000 (electrical machinery 20.3%, nonelectrical machinery 19.7%, plastic articles 6.1%, synthetic fibres 5.5%, transportation equipment 5.2%). Major export destinations: U.S. 26.2%; Hong Kong 22.9%; Japan 11.0%s Singapore 3.6%; Germany 3.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1994); track length 3,879 km; passenger-km 9,505,488,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,947,146,000. Roads (1994): total length 19,038 km (paved 89%). Vehicles (1994): passenger cars 3,798,800; trucks and buses 815,500. Merchant marine (1992); vessels (100 gross tons and over) 649; total deadweight tonnage 9,241,283. Air transport (1994): passengerkm 36,770,240,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,763,330,000; airports (1995) 12. Communications. Daily newspapers (1988); total number 93; total circulation 4,000,000; circulation per 1,000 population 202. Radio (1994); 8,620,000 receivers (1 per 2.5 persons). Television (1994); 7,000,000 receivers (1 per 3.0 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 7,950,500 (1 per 2.6 persons).

Education and health Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 15.3 (world avg. 25.0); (1993)6 legitimate 97.7%; illegitimate 2.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 5.4 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rale per 1,000 population (1994): 9.9 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993)6; 1.8. Life expectancy at birth (1993); male 71.6 years; female 77.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993)6; malignant neoplasms 107.1; cerebrovascular diseases 65.6; accidents and suicide 63.7; heart disease 60.0; diabetes 25.7; liver diseases 18.0; pneumonia 13.5.

National economy Budget (1993)7. Revenue: NTS 1,894,369,000,000 (income taxes 12.6%, land tax 11.7%, business tax 8.9%, surplus of public enterprises 8.9%, commodity tax 7.2%, customs duties 5.3%). Expenditures; NTS 1,859,294,000,000 (economic development 29.3%, administration and defense 24.8%, education 18.8%). Public debt (1993): NT$553,547,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 5,275,000, rice 1,679,000, citrus fruits 467,980. corn (maize) 321,322», pineapples 252,234, bananas 184,287, sweet potatoes 181,000; livestock (number of live animals) 10,065,552 pigs, 401,197 goats, 164,270 cattle; timber 37,821 cu m; fish catch 1,286,750. Mining and quarrying (1990):

Manufacturing (1994); cement 22,721,650; steel ingots 12,102,257; paperboard 3,045,500; fertilizers 1,975,535; synthetic fibre 1,286,328; polyvinyl chloride plastics 1,113,679; electronic calculators 10,630,627 units; telephones 8,901,497 units. Construction (1994); total residential and non-

Education (1993-94) schools Primary (age 6-12) Secondary (age 13-18) Vocational Higher

2.525

906 209 125

teachers

students

83.480 72.875 18.836 33,392

2,111,037 1 ,426,030 515,211 689,185

student/ teacher ratio

25 3 19.6 27.4

206

Educational attainment (1993). Percentage of population age 25 and over having; no formal schooling 10.3%; less than complete primary education 5.9%; primary 25.1%; incomplete secondary 20.2%; secondary 24.2%; some college 8.1%; higher 6.2%. Literacy (1993): population age 15 and over literate 14,680,501 (93.4%); males 7,852,192 (97.0%); females 6,828,309 (89.6%). Health (1993): physicians 25,946 (1 per 804 persons); hospital beds 100,326 (1 per 208 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 4.8. Food: daily per capita caloric intake (1990) 3,020 (1988; vegetable products 77%, animal products 23%); 118% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 425,000 (army 68.0%, navy 16.0%, air force 16.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1993): 4.7% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.S494.

GNP

silver 3,926 kg.

Energy production (consumption); electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 110,276,000,000 (98,561,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) 328,000 ([1992] 16,500,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 400,000 ([1992] 215,400); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 767,000,000 (n.a.). residential 49,757,000 sq m.

'National Assembly functions as an electoral college or constituent body; the legislative branch is the formal lawmaking body. 2End of March. 'The Nov. 7, 1992, constitutional reforms replaced the military administrations (established in 1949) on Quemoy and Matsu with civilian administrations. '•Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 'Includes Quemoy and Matsu groups. ''For Taiwan area only, excluding Quemoy and Matsu groups. 'General government. "1991. '^Civilian employed persons only. "'Import duties less imputed bank service charge. HUnemployed. I21n manufacturing. '-'Based on the average exchange rate.

726

Britannica World Data

Tourism: receipts from visitors, n.a.; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$2,671,500,000 (U.S.$470 per capita).

Tajikistan name: Jumhurii Tojikistan (Republic of Tajikistan).

Official

Structure of net material product and labour force

Form of government: parliamentary

1

1993

republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [181]). Chief of state: President of the National

in

'000,000 Russian rubles'

Aghculture Mining Manufacturing

Assembly.

Head of government: Chairman

of

the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister). Capital: Dushanbe. Official language: Tajik (Tojik). Official religion:

Monetary

unit:

1

Public

utilities

value

%

1

of labour

forced

4,749

5,2

891 ,500

46.7

60,534

666

249,800

131

14,885

164

132,400

69

3,126 6,020

3,4

83,100 95.700 6,400

44 50

29,600 396,600 22,800 1,907.900

16 208

communications Trade

66

— — —

Finance Public administration.

defense

valuation (Oct. 4, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = 44.90 Tajik rubles; 1 £ = 71.35 Tajik rubles.

labour forced

of total

J

Construction Transportation and

none. Tajik ruble;

1992

%

value

1

Services

— — —

Other

1.586

1.8

TOTAL

90.900

100.0

0,3

1.2

100

Gorno-Badakhshan

Khorugh

24,600

63,700

167,100

Provinces Khujand Kulob Qurghonteppa

Khujand Kulob

Qurghonteppa

10.100 4,600 4,900

26,100 12,000 12,600

1,113.500

Budget (1994). Revenue: 773,200,000,000 Russian rubles' (value-added tax 30.0%, enterprise profits tax 26.0%, excise tax 13.0%). Expenditures: 948,300,000,000 Russian rubles' (national economy 43.0%, social welfare and culture 30.0%, defense 4.0%). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 6.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1993): wages and salaries 64.2%, pensions and grants 31.3%, income from agriculture sales 4.4%; expenditure (1993): food and clothing 65.3%, services 9.3%, taxes and other payments 6.6%.

,000

28,400

1,181,800

Foreign trade

100 55,300

300 143,100

591 ,900 5,358,300

Area and population Autonomous

area

sq mi

Capitals

republic

population

1991 estimate

sq l); 10.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of per capita expenditure U.S. $3.

CNP

ipederal governmental structures exist in the Zanzibar constitution and House of Representatives and in 1993 legislation authorizing a similar house in Tanganyika. ^Government in process of being transferred from Dar es Salaam to Dodoma; legislative branch meets in Dodoma, 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding, -fData exclude some 750,000 refugees from Rwanda and Burundi. ^Based area, '>1992. '1991, ^Mainland Tanzania only. ''Less imputed bank service charges. "'Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f, in commodities and trading partners. "Air Tanzania only. '^Excludes Zanzibar and Pemba, 13198687. i''1989. 151990.

on land

728

Britannica World Data

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$5,014,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$2,092,000,000. Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.S 120,235,000,000 (U.S.$2,040 per capita).

Thailand Official

name: Muang Thai, or Prathet

Thai (Kingdom of Thailand). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [270] i; House of

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1992 in

Representatives [391]). Chief of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister-. Capital:

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Bangkok.

Official language: Thai.

Official religion:

Monetary

unit:

1

Buddhism. Thai baht (B) = 100

Public utilities Transportation and

communications Trade Finance Pub admin defense

stangs; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = B 25.12; 1 £ = B 39.70.

,

Services

Area and population Regions^ Bangkok Metropolis

sq

2,995 6,407 14,094 65.195 65,500 27,303 16,621 198,115

Central

Eastern Norltieastern

Northern Southern Western TOTAL

km

7,758 16,594 36,503 168,854 169,644 70,715 43,047 513,115

value

332,917 41,755 793.449 186,447 63,925

11,9 1.5

6.6

23

201,901

7.2

465,940 250,930

16,6

labour forces

»/

of labour

forces

555

18,244.600 57,300 3.961,100 1,475,000 144,800

28,3

0.2

120 4,5 0,4

27

879,400 3,704,200

11,3

3,667,900

11.2

8,9-1

3 8

106,291 361 ,380

129

2,804,935

TOTAL

1993

sqmi

1993

% of total

\

J

Other

population

area

value

B 000,000

100,0

710,7009 32.845.000

2.29

100

estimate'

Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 3.9; average annual income per household B 84,744 (U.S. $3,336); sources of income: wages and salaries 70.1%, self-employment 22.6%, transfer payments 5.8%, other 1.5%; expenditure: food, tobacco, and beverages 39.2%. housing 21.9%, transportation and communications 12.3%, clothing 6.0%, medical and personal care 5.9%, education and recreation 3.9%, other 10.8%.

8,769,341 2,835,662 3,812,701

20,170,986 11.814,337 7.483.789 3,449,256 58,336,072

Foreign trade i"

Demography

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (1995): 58,791,0005. Densitv (1995): persons per sq mi 296.8, persons per sq km 114.6. Urban-rural (1993): urban 17.6%; rural 82.4%. Sex distribution (1993): male 50.06%; female 49.94%. Age breakdown (1990): under 20, 44.3%; 20-39, 34.2%; 40-59, 15.4%; 60-69, 3.9%; 70 and over, 2.2%. Population projection: (2000) 61,909,000; (2010) 67,130,000. Doubling time: 58 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Thai 79.5%, of which Siamese 52.6%, Lao 26.9%; Chinese 12.1%; Malay 3.7%; Khmer 2.7%; other 2.0%. Religious affiliation (1992): Buddhist 94.8%; Muslim 4.0%; Christian 0.6%; other 0.6%.

Major cities (1991)4: Bangkok Ratchasima 202,503; Chiang Mai

5,620,591; Nonthaburi 264,201; 161,541; Khon Kaen 131.478.

Nakhon

B 000,000

%

of total

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

-59,529 6.9%

-71,417 6.5%

-172,323 12.7%

-139.742 8.8%

-107,887 6,1%

-111,602 5.6%

Imports (1993): B 1,170,848,000,000 (nuclear reactors 18.2%, electrical machinery 16.8%, road vehicles 7.9%, iron and steel 7.6%, mineral fuels and lubricants 7.4%, plastics 3.3%, organic chemicals 3.0%). Major import sources: Japan 30.2%; U.S. 11.6%; Singapore 6.4%; Germany 5.4%; Taiwan 5.1%; South Korea 4.2%; Malaysia 3.6%; China 2.4%; U.K. 2.3%. Exports (1993): B 951,360,000,000 (garments 9.4%. precious jewelry 4.4%, plastic articles 4.1%. fresh prawns 4.0%, rice 3.5%, natural rubber 3.1%, canned seafoods 3.0%, footwear 2.9%. integrated circuits 2.8%, furniture 2.1%, tapioca products 2.1%). Major export destinations: U.S. 21.3%; Japan 16.8%; Singapore 11.9%; Hong Kong 5.2%; Germany 3.9%; U.K. 3.2%; The Netherlands 3.1%: Malaysia 2.8%; United Arab Emirates 2.2%.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1995): 19.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1995): 7.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1995): 12.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 2.1.

Marriage rate per 1,1)00 population (1993); 8.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (1995): male 66.0 years; female 71.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992)'': accidents, homicide, and poisonings 13.3; diseases of the heart 11.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 9.1; hypertension and cerebrovascular disease 3.5; diseases of the liver and the pancreas 2.8; pneumonia and other lung diseases 2.4%; nephritis and nephrosis 2.0.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 37,569,()()(), rice 18,447,000, corn (maize) 3,800.000, rubber 1,667.000, bananas 1,658,000, coconuts 1,400,000, soybeans 500,000, dry beans 310,000, sorghum 300,000; cabbages 195,000; livestock (number of live animals) 7,593,000 cattle, 4,931,000 pigs, 4,257,000 buffalo, 127,000,000 chickens; roundwood (1993) 38,039,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 3,348,149. Mining and quarrying (1993): limestone 32,036,000; gypsum 7,455,000; zinc ore 446,000; kaolin clay 397,000; fluorite 48,387; lead ore 14,233; tin concentrates 6,363. Manufacturing (1993): cement 26,300,1100: refined sugar 3,650,500; chemical fertilizer 458,1037; synthetic fibre 397,7()(); galvanized iron sheet 249,800; tin plate 222,400; jute products I18,ion service, but a "pirate" station began transmitting in

mid- 1984. 111990.

Nations of the World

Trinidad and Tobago }

name: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.

Official

Form of government:

1

"\

'

«^v

Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$4, 776,000,000 (U.S.$3,730 per capita).

Atlantic

1

Ocean

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

7-^

multiparty

republic with two legislative

1994

Caribbean

Sea

KJ

I

none. Monetary unit: 1 Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TT$)= 100 cents; valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = TT$5.70; 1 £ = TT$9.02.

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Sereices Other TOTAL

area

George

St. Patrick

Victoria

sqmi

population

sq

494.7 903.9 932.4

Tunapuna Siparia

2520

652 7

Sangre Grande

Princes

Town

1990 census

km

191.0 349.0 360.0 354.0

Rio Claro

315.0

8159

120,508 36,781 62,944 445,620 120,129 210,833

116.0

300.4

50,282

4.0

10.4

30

7.8

50.878 30,092

9169

Unitary State

Tobago

Scarborough

Cities Port of Spain

— —

San Fernando

Boroughs Arima Ctiaguanas Point Fortin TOTAL

— — —

commun.

Trade

Area and population

Chaguanas

labour

value

force

4.0

230 9.0 1,980.12

10.4

29,695

596

56,601

23.3 5,128.4

20,025 1,234,388

Price

266

2,122

7.5

18,900 50,100 79,400 7.800 33,800 87,000 32,200

Demography 246.7.

"*

Age breakdown

(1995): under 15, 31.7%; 15-29, 26.6%; 30-44, 22.1%; 45-59, 11.5%; 60-74, 6.0%; 75 and over, 2.1%. Population projection: (2000) 1,303,000; (2010) 1,384,000. Doubling time: 64 years. Ethnic composition (1990): East Indian 40.3%; black 39.6%; mixed 18.4%; white 0.6%; Chinese 0.4%; other/not stated 0.7%. Religious affiliation (1990): six largest Protestant bodies 29.7%, of which Anglican 10.9%, Pentecostal 7.5%; Roman Catholic 29.4%; Hindu 23.7%; Muslim 5.9%; other 11.3%. Major cities (1990): Chaguanas 56,601; Port of Spain 50,878; San Fernando 30,092; Arima 29,695; Point Fortin 20,025; Scarborough 4,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 17.4 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.5 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rale per 1,000 population (1993): 10.9 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rale (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1994): 2.3.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 5.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 68.0 years; female 73.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1991): diseases of the circulatory system 260.0, of which ischemic heart diseases 113.5, cerebrovascular disease 75.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 83.4; diabetes mellitus 83.3.

National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: TT$7,50 1,000,000 (corporate taxes 21.3%, of which petroleum sector 13.4%; individual income taxes 19.3%; value-added taxes 16.8%; nontax revenues 10.8%; import duties 7.7%). Expenditures: TT$7,473,000,000 (current expenditures 93.7%; development expenditures 6.3%). Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S. $80,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.Sl 15,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugarcane 1,422,000, coconuts 52,000, rice 16,200^, oranges 8,000, bananas 6,000, corn (maize) 5,000, grapefruit 4,000, cucumbers 2,5093, cocoa 1,5563, coffee 8593; livestock (number of live animals) 55,000 cattle, 52,000 goats, 48,000 pigs; roundwood (1993) 48,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 10,565. Mining and quarrying (1994): natural asphalt 16,700. Manufacturing (1994): anhydrous ammonia and urea (nitrogenous fertilizers) 2,452,700; methanol 1,019,500; steel billets 630,200; cement 582,900; steel wire rods 521,100; raw sugar 131,100; beer and stout 452,000 hectolitres; rum 107,300 hectolitres. Construction (authorized; 1991): residential 207,400 sq m; nonresidential 32,700 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 3,816,000.000 ([1992] 3,945,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 1994) 47,945,000 ([1992] 40,903,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 5,261,000 ([1992] 1,924,000); natural gas (cu m; 1994) 7,690,000,000 ([1993] 4,878,000,000). Land use (1993): forested 45.8%; meadows and pastures 2.2%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 23.7%; other 28.3%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$1,704,000,000.

522

1,8

8.9

143 12.6

1,693

3166

10.1

1

6

/

3,7

99 15.7 1.5

6.7 17.3 6.4

285

143.900

1.16

28.390

10.1

500

0.1

100.02

504,5002

100.0

and earnings indexes (1990 == 100)

Consumer pnce index Weekly earnings indexs

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

90

100.0 100.0

1039

110.6 103.0

122.4 104.6

133,2 101.19

137.77

1

94.5

100-1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1990) 4.1; income per household (1988) TT$17,083 (U.S.$4,444); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1993): food, beverages, and tobacco 25.5%, housing 21.6%, transportation 15.2%, household furnishings 14.3%, clothing and footwear 10.4%, other 13.0%.

Foreign trade'" Balance of trade (current prices)

% of total

km

7.548 2.461

2,536 4.058 3.583 2,866

of labour

Population economically active (1993): total 504,500; activity rate of total population 40.5% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 63.2%; female 37.0%; unemployed 19.8%).

TT$'000,000

Population (1995): 1,265,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 638.9, persons per sq Urban-rural (1994): urban 71.3%; rural 28.7%. Sex distribution (1995): male 49.46%; female 50.54%.

50,700

87

%

force

24

utilities

Transp- and

official religion:

SI.

Petroleum^, natural gas, quarrying Manufacturings Construction Public

Capitals

% of total

685

Agriculture

Official language: English.

Caroni Nariva/Mayaro St. Andrew/St. David

1993

value

in

TT$000,000

houses (Senate [31]; House of Representatives [36 1]). Chief of stale: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Port of Spain.

731

1989

1990

1991

1992

+1,517 12.7%

+3,480 24.5%

+1.352 8.7%

+ 1,842

1993

+

13.1%

1

,306

8.0%

1994

+ 4,354 24.4%

Imporis (1993): TT$7,495,000,000 (capital goods 25.4%; nondurable consumer goods 18.6%, of which food 11.9%; mineral fuels and lubricants 15.9%; chemical products [mostly medicines and plastics] 11.0%). Major import sources (1993): United States 38.9%; EC 19.3%, of which United Kingdom 8.1%; Venezuela 16.8%; Canada 4.9%; Japan 3.8%. Exports (1993): TT$8,801,000,000 (refined petroleum 33.3%; crude petroleum 21.8%; anhydrous ammonia and urea 8.9%; steel wire rods 6.7%; food 5.7%, of which raw sugar 1.6%). Major export destinations (1993): United States 45.6%; Caricom 20.2%, of which Barbados 4.4%, Jamaica 4.4%; Guyana 3.6%; EC 4.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991):

total length 4,970 mi, 8,000

km

(paved 50%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 122,201; trucks and buses 23,828. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 53; total deadweight tonnage 17,533. Air transport: (1992) passenger-mi 2,030,000,000, passenger-km 3,267,000,000; (1991) short ton-mi cargo 10,100,000, metric ton-km cargo 14,800,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1993): total number 3; total circulation 96,000; circulation per 1,000 population 76. Radio (1993): 700,000 receivers (1 per 1.8 persons). Television (1993): 250,000 receivers (1 per 5.0 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 192,500 (1 per 6.5 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92)

student/

schools

Phmary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-16) Higheri2.

'3

teachers

471

7,511

101

4,844

1

438

students

196,848" 103,922" 5,191

teacher

26

ratio 1

19.4

11.9

Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 4.5%; primary education 56.4%; secondary 32.1%; higher 3.4%; other/not stated 3.6%. Literacy (1990): total population age 15 and over literate 810,000 (96.9%). Health (1993): physicians 1,051 (1 per 1,191 persons); hospital bedsit 4,216 (1 per 297 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 17.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,585 (vegetable products 85%, animal products 15%); 107% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 2,600 (army 76.9%, coast guard 23.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of (1993): 1.8% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$63.

GNP

'Excludes speaker, who may be elected froin outside the House of Representatives. ^Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 31993. ''Includes refined petroleum. SExcludes refined petroleum. ''Net of value-added taxes less imputed bank service charges. 'March. sManufacturing sector only. ''Average of first three quarters only. iDExports f.o.b.; imports c.i.f. '11992-93. i2University of the West Indies, St. Augustine campus. '31993-94. ''Includes nursing homes.

Britannica World Data

732

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Tunisia

1989

1994

Official

name: al-Jumhurlyah

in

D

at-TunisTyah (Republic of Tunisia). multiparty republic with one legislative house (Chamber of Deputies [163]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tunis. Official language: Arabic.

Fonn of government:

Official religion: Islam. unit: 1 dinar

Monetary

(D)=

millimes; valuation (Oct.

D

1.00

Capitals

al-Arlanah

al-Ananah Bajah Bizerte (Banzart)

Bin 'Arus

Bin Arus

Jundubah

Jundubah

al-Kaf

al-Kaf

MadanTn

Madanin

al-Mahdiyah

al-Mahdiyah

al-Munasfir

al-MunastTr

Nabul Qabis Qafsah

Nabul Qabis Qaf$ah

al-Qasrayn

al-Qa$rayn

al-Qayrawan

al-Qayrawan

Oibifi

Qibill

Safaqis

Safaqis STdl

Bu Zayd

Silianah

Silianah

SCsah Tatauin

SCisah Tatauin

Tawzar

Tawzar

Tunis

Tunis (Tunis)

Zaghwan

Zaghwan

TOTAL

sq mi

population

sq

602 1,374 1,423

294 1,198 1,917 3,316 1.145

393 1,076 2,770 3,471 3,114 2,591

8,527 2,913 2,700 1,788 1,012 15,015 1,822 134 1,069 63,3782

1994 census'

km

1,558 3.558 3,685 761 3,102 4,965 8,588 2,966 1,019 2,788 7,175 8,990 8,066 6.712

566,247 301 ,898 475,053

22,084 7,545 6,994

131,661 732,471 374,835 243.536 432,312 133,676 89.088 881 ,560 143,010 8,735,885

369,552 402,487 270,996 382,699 334,208 363,126 577,813 310,643 304,665 385,450 528,899

4,631 2,621

38,889 4,719

346 2,768 164,1502

Demography Population (1995): 8,896,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 140.4, persons per sq Urban-rural (1985): urban 53.0%; rural 47.0%. Sex distribution (1994): male 50.62%; female 49.38%. 10.1%-;

km

54.1.

under 15, 36.6%; 15-29, 28.9%; 30-44, 60-74, 5.9%; 75 and over, 1.6%.

Age breakdown

utilities

of labour

force

543,100

13.0

4 4 \

23-0

36,600

18/

1

4.1

1,267.2 4,355.0

8 27.3

)

Pub admih-, defense

2,165.0

13.6

1

1.603-6 15,928.2

100.0

\

6

179

422,300 295,200

17.7

commun

12.5

349,000

14.8

465,400

19 7

249,0005 2,360,600

10,55 100.0

J

Services Other TOTAL

area

Governorates

Bu Zayd

698.3 293.4 2,827.5 647.8

%

labour force

of total

value

10.1

1995)

Area and population

STdl

filming

Transp and Trade Finance

= U.S.$1.05=£0.67.

Baiah Banzart

2,070.4

Manufacturing Construction

1.000

6,

Agriculture

Public

%

value

000,000

(1992):

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1993): U.S.$7,627,000,000. Population economically active (1989): total 2,360,000, activity rate of total population 28.8% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 42.2%; female 20.9%; unemployed 13.4%).

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) price index Hourly earnings index^

1990

1989

1988

Consumer

107.8 101.6

87.2

899

113 8

118.7 113-3

105.5

124.7

expenditure. Average household size (1994) 5.1; inn.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1985): food and beverages 39.0%, household durable goods 11.2%. housing 10.7%, transportation 9.0%, recreation 7.1%, clothing and footwear 6.0%, energy 5.1%, health care 3.0%, education 1.8%, other 7.1%. Tourism (1993): receipts U.S.$1, 114,000,000; expenditures U.S.$203,000,000.

Household income and

come per household:

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) D

'000,000

%

of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

-1.089 8 16.3%

-1,439 7 18.9%

-1,037.5 13.1%

-1,726-1

24-2%

1994

1993

-

1

-

,999 2

1

.504.2

13.8%

20-7%

D 6,647,300,000 (textiles 23.0%, machinery and electrical equipment 20.0%-, petroleum and petroleum products 6.9%, transportation equipment 6.5%, iron and steel products 4.6%, plastics and plastic products 3.2%, pharmaceutical products 2.0%). Major import sources: France 27.4%; Italy 15.4%; Germany 12.2%; U.S. 6.6%; Belgium 4.3%; Spain 3.6%; United

Imports (1994):

Kingdom 2.2%. Exports (1994):

D

4,696,600,000 (clothing and accessories 43.3%, petroleum

olive oil 6.5%, machinery and electrical products 6.5%, chemical products 4.9%). Major export destinations: France 27.2%; Italy 19.6%; Germany 15.5%; Belgium 6.5%; Spain 4.7%.

and petroleum products 9.4%, 16.9%;; 45-59,

Population projection: (2000) 9,694,000; (2010) 11,209,000.

Doubling time: 39 years.

Transport and communications

Ethnic composition (1983): Arab 98.2%; Berber 1.2%>; French 0.2%; Italian 0.1%; other 0.3%. Religious affiliation (1980): Sunn! Muslim 99.4%; Christian 0.3%; Jewish 0.1%; other 0.2%. Major cities (commune; 1994): Tunis 674,100; Safaqis 230,900; Aryanah 152,-

Transport. Railroads (1993): route length 1,404 mi, 2,260 km; passenger-mi 657,000,000, passenger-km 1,057,000.000; short ton-mi cargo 1,378,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 2.012,000,000. Roads (1989): total length 18,133 mi, 29,183 km (paved 60%), Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 320,000; trucks and buses 180.500, Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 77; total deadweight tonnage 443,290. Air transport (1993)7; passenger-mi 1,226,774,000, passenger-km 1,974,306,000: short ton-mi cargo 11,865,000,

700;

Ettadhamen

149,200;

Susah 125,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 24.1 (world avg. 25.0); (1974) legitimate 99.8%; illegitimate 0.2%;. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.3 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 17.8 (world avg. 15.7).

Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1990-95): 3.2. Marriage rate per 1.000 population (1993): 6. ,3. Divorce rate per 1,1)00 population (1992): 1.5. Life expectancy at birth ( 1990-95): male 66.9 years: female 68.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, of approximately 12,000 deaths^ for which a cause was reported in 1992, complications of pregnancy and childbirth represented 31.f/r, circulatory diseases 22.4%, accidents and poisoning 14. 9''^, respiratory diseases 7.2%-, endocrine and metabolic disorders 5.2%, infectious and parasitic diseases 4.8%.

National economy Budget (1992). Revenue: D 11,4%, investment 9.4%). Expenditures: D 5,(i62,S00.00() (finance 17.9%, education 12.4%, interior affairs 5.8%, national economy 4.9%, health 4.9%). Land use (1993): forested 4.3%; meadows and pastures 19.9%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 31.7%; other 44.1%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): olives 665,000, wheat 51)3,000, tomatoes 470,01)0, sugar beets 350.000, watermelons 280,000, potatoes 220,000, oranges 156,000, grapes 121,001), dates 86,000; livestock (number of live animals) 7.100.1)00 sheep, 1.420.1)00 goats, 660,000 cattle: roundwood (1993) 3,373,01)0 cu m; fish catch (1993) 83,762. Mining and quarrying (1994): phosphate rock 5.564,000; iron ore 235.01)0; zinc 23,400. Manufacturing (1994): cement 4,241),1)00; phosphoric acid 986,100; flour 654,400; crude steel 192,000''. Construction (1982): residential building authorized 2,679,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 6.416,001) (6,406,00()); coal (metric tons; 1993) none (14,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 35,754,000 (12.687.000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 1,584.000 (3,884.000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 4,925,400,000 (indirect taxes 42,2%, direct taxes

277,51)0.1)1)0 (1,1)81),700.001)).

OVavv national product (1993): U.S.$I5,332,0()(),()00 (U.S.S 1,780 per capita).

metric ton-km cargo 17,323,000; airports (1995) 5. Communications. Daily newspapers (1994): total number 7; total circulation 190,000«; circulation per 1,000 population 22S. Radio (1994): l,700,0t)0 receivers (1 per 5.1 persons). Television (1994): 650,000 receivers (1 per 13 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 421,400 (1 per 20 persons).

Education and health student

Education (1994-95) Pnmary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12 Teacher tr 5") Higher"

18)

teacher

ratio

schools

teachers

students

4.286

58,279 27.785 237 5,655

1,472,844

253

662.222 3.839

23 8

712

96,101

162 170

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 54.9%; primary 26.9%; secondary 14.3%; higher 3.4%; unspecified 0.5'7. Literacy (1995): total population age 15 and over literate 66.7'y; males literate 78.6%; females literate 54.6''r. Health (1992); physicians 4,670 (1 per 1,799 persons); hospital beds 16,116 (1 per 521 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 43.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,330 (vegetable products 92%, animal products 8%); 139% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 35,500 (army 76.0%, navy 14.1%, air force 9.9%). Military expenditure as percentage ofGNP (1993): 3.4% (world 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S. $60.

'Preliminary, n'otal includes 3,714 sq mi (9,620 sq km) of territory in southwestern lunisiii that is not distributed by govcrnorate, 'Recorded deaths from urban areas only, including complete figures for Tunis, ''1989. includes 218..^()0 unemployed. ''Year-end: index reisers to the S.M.I.G. (salaire minimum inlerprofessionel garaiui). a form of minimum professional wage, Tunis Air only. "Circulation for four dailies only. ''I987-88. i"Tcacher training only. "1993-94.

Nations of the World

Turkey

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1994

Official

name: Turkiye Cumhuriyeti

in

(Republic of Turkey). Form of government: multiparty

Mining Manufacturing Construction

[450]).

Public utilities Transportation and

communications Trade

Official religion:

lira

(LT) = 100

1995)

"

labour force'

of total

value

11,8

2,698,603

12,9

1,658,7888 20,996,702

7,98 100,0

6.8 3.1

Other

—

TOTAL

3,546,863

100,0

1

4

J

—

force'

954,137 2,476,805 470,802

20,1

56 97

of labour

40.2 0.7 13.8 5-4 0.5

1.3

14,6 18,5

°/

8,436,936 150,586 2,902,730 1,136,636 110,679

16,3

516,238 657,575 199,229 344,530 141,750

Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

Official language: Turkish.

6,

577,548 46,936 713,852 241,117 108,088

Agriculture

Chief of Slate: President. Head of government: Prime Minister Capital: Ankara. none. Monetary unit: 1 Turkish kurush; valuation (Oct. 1 U.S.$ = LT 50,093; 1 £ = LT 79,189.

1993

%

value

LT •000,0000006

republic with one legislative house (Turkish Grand National

Assembly

733

4.6

22

Population economically active (1993)7; total 20,996,702; activity rate of total population 35.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 57.2%; female 30.8%; unemployed [1994] 8.4%).

Area and population area

Geographic regions' Akdeniz kiyisi (Mediterranean Coast) Ball Anadolu (West Anatolia) Dogu Anadolu (East Anatolia) Guneydogu Anadolu (Southeast Anatolia) \q Anadolu (Central Anatolia) Karadeniz kiyisi (Black Sea Coast) Marmara ve Ege kiyilan (Marmara and

Aegean coasts) Trakya (Thrace) TOTAL

sqmi 22,933 29.742 68,074 15,347

population

sq

59,395

31,388

33,035 9,175 300,948

85,560 23,764 779,452

91 ,254

Consumer

price index Daily earnings index 'O

5,443,867 3,864,661 6,867,415 2,699,776 13,096,179 6,827,304

77,031

180,180 35,880 236,347 81,295

Price and earnings indexes (1990=100)

1990 census

km

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

62.4

100.0

166.0 202.1

282.3 395.2

468.8 666.0

967.0 1,007

1,7409

1000

Public debt (external, outstanding;

December

1994): U.S.$52,625,000,000.

Foreign trade"

,698,384 5,975,449

1 1

Balance of trade (current prices) 1989

1990

1991

1992

-4,167 15,2%

-9,343 26.5%

-7,454 21.5%

-8,156

56,473,035

U.SS'OOO.OOO

%

of total

21 .7%

1993

-14,080 31.4%

1994

-5,164 12,5%

Demography Population (1995): 62,526,000. Density (1995); persons per sq mi 207.8, persons per sq Urban-rural (1993): urban 65.6%; rural 34.4%. Sex distribution (1990): male 50.66%; female 49.34%.

km

80.2.

Age breakdown

(1993): under 15, 32.9%; 15-29, 28.0%; 30-44, 18.2%; 45-59, 11.7%; 60-74, 7.5%; 75 and over, 1.7%. Population projection: (2000) 69,694,000; (2010) 80,120,000. Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1992)2: Turkish 92.0%; Kurdish 6.2%; Arabic 1.4%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (1992): Sunn! Muslim c. 80.0%; Alevi (nonorthodox Shf sect) c. 19.8%; Christian c, 0.2%. Major cities (1993): Istanbul 7,331,927; Ankara 2,719,981; Izmir 1,920,807; i

Adana

1,010,363;

Bursa 949,810; Gaziantep 683,557; Konya 558,308.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1994): 26.0 (world avg. 25.0). Death rate per 1,000 population (1994): 6.0 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1994): 20.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1992): 2.7. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1991): 8.0. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1991): 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (1994): male 69.0 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1990)3: diseases of the circulatory system 344; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 75; infectious and parasitic diseases 27; ill-defined conditions 87.

Imports (1994): U.S.$23,270,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery 16.0%; mineral fuels 12.2%; iron and steel 10.3%; road vehicles 9.2%; electrical and electronic equipment 7.7%). Major import sources: Germany 15.7%; United States 10.4%; Italy 8.6%; former U.S.S.R. 7.9%; France 6.3%; Saudi Arabia 5.3%. Exports (1994): U.S.$18,106,000,000 (textiles 34.7%; iron and steel products \3A%; edible fruits 6.1%; electrical and electronic machinery 3.8%). Major export destinations: Germany 21.7%; United States 8.4%; former U.S.S.R. 7.9%; Italy 5.7%; United Kingdom 4.9%; France 4.7%.

Transport and communications Railroads: (1993) route length 6,470 mi, 10,413 km; (1994) passenger-mi 3,967,000,000, passenger-km 6,385,000,000; (1994) short ton-mi cargo 5,654,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 8,254,000,000. Roads (1992): total length 240,286 mi, 386,704 km (paved 15%). Vehicles (1994): passenger cars 2,862,000; trucks and buses 942,000. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 880; total deadweight tonnage 7,114,289. Air transport (1994)12: passenger-mi 5,675,000,000, passenger-km 9,133,000,000; short tonmi cargo 143,736,000, metric ton-km cargo 209,851,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 24. Communications. Daily newspapers (1991)13: total number 31; total circulation 4,054,000; circulation per 1,000 population 71. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 8,800,000 (1 per 7.0 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 10,530,000 (1 per 5.8 persons). Telephones (1994)1'': 12,318,969 (1 per 5.0 persons). Transport.

Education and health National economy Budget (1994). Revenue: LT 753,440,000,000,000 (indirect taxes 40.4%, direct taxes 37.7%, nontax revenue 20.6%). Expenditures: LT 899,375,000,000,000 (interest payments 33.2%, personnel 30.3%, investments 8.5%). Tourism (1994): receipts from visitors U.S. $4,321,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$866,000,000. Production (in '000 metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): wheat 17,500, sugar beets 12,736, barley 7,000, potatoes 4,350, grapes 3,450, apples 2,095, corn (maize) 1,850, olives 1,400, cottonseed 1,006, oranges 920, sunflower seeds 740, cotton (lint) 632, lentils 610, hazelnuts 490, lemons 470, tobacco 242, oats 230, sultana raisins 176, attar of roses 800 kg-*;

(number of live animals; 1993) 37,541,000 sheep, 11,910,000 roundwood (1993) 13,940,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 556,000. Mining

livestock

cattle;

boron (concentrate) 1,124; pumice 1,045; chromite 533; celestite (concentrate) 44. Manufacturing (1991)5; refined petroleum 19,048; textiles 14,125; food products 13,722; electrical machinery 7,648; motor vehicles 7,632; iron and steel 7,478. Construction (completed; 1994): residential 45,714,000 sq m; nonresidential 11,610,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1994) 78,261,000,000 ([1993] 73,432,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1994) 52,523,000 ([1993] 55,987,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1994) 26,355,000 ([1993] 186,332,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 22,360,000 (23,379,000); natural gas (cu m; 1994) 199,500,000 (1993):

([1993] 4,771,000,000). Land use (1993): forested 26.2%; meadows and pastures 16.1%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 35.8%; other 21.9%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1993) 4.5; income per household (1987) LT 3,680,500 (U.S.$4,294); sources of income (1987): self-employment 51.4%, wages and salaries 24.1%, rent and interest

13.7%, transfers 10.8%; expenditure (1987): food and beverages 33.1%, housing 14.7%, clothing 12.3%, household furnishings 11.5%. dross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$126,330,000,000 (U.S.$2,120 per capita).

Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-10)

Secondary (age 11-16) Voc. teacher tr.

student/

schools

teachers

students

50,701 8,064 2,971

234,961 117,702 57,425 35,132

6,878,923 3,010,672 977,010 759,047

424

Higher

teacher

ratio

29.3

256 17,0

21.6

Educational attainment (1993). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 30.5%; incomplete primary education 6.6%; complete primary 40.4%; incomplete secondary 3.1%; complete secondary or higher 19.1%; unknown 0.3%. Literacy (1995): total population age 15 and over literate 33,605,000 (82.3%); males literate 19,191,000 (91.7%); females literate 14,414,000 (72.4%). Health: physicians (1990) 50,639 (1 per 1,108 persons); hospital beds (1992) 139,606 (1 per 420 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1994) 49.0.

(1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3,429 (vegetable products 88%, animal products 12%); 136% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Food

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): 507,800 (army 78.8%, navy 10.0%, air (1993): 5.8% (world force 11.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$118.

GNP

lAdministratively divided into 76 provinces. 20fficial data based on mother tongue. Kurds as an ethnic group are estimated to constitute about 20% of the population. ^Projected rates based on about 35% of total deaths. •^1993. 'Value added in LT '000,000,000. '>At factor cost. 'Civilian population only. ^Unemployed. 'May. KiBased on June average. "Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. i2Turkish Airlines only. I'Principa! daily newspapers in Istanbul, Ankara, and five other large cities. Unofficially,

'•Number of

lines.

Britannica World Data

734

nonwage income of workers 2.6%; expenditure (1992): food and clothing 65.4%, services 9.7%, taxes and other pavments 8.6%. Cross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$4,898,390,000 (U.S.$l,270per capita)2.

Turkmenistan name: Turkmenistan

Official

Jumhuriyati (Republic of Turkmenistan). Form of government: republic with one

Structure of net material product and labour force 1993

body (Majlis [50]). Head of stale and government:

1992

legislative

in

President. Capital: Ashgabat. Official language: Turkmen.

Agriculture

official religion: none. Monetary unit: manat; valuation (Oct. 4, 1

value

000,000 manat Mining Manufacturing

^

Public

J

utilities

>

Construction Transportation and

1995) 1 U.S.$ = 200.00 manat; = 316.18 manat.

Provinces Balkan

Capitals

Dashhovuse Leban

Dashhovuse Leban

Marly

Marly

City

—

sq mi

Nebitdag

Ashkhabad TOTAL

sq

km

90,300 28,400 36,200 33,500

233,900 73.600 93.800 86,800

925,500 738,000 774.700 859.500

188,500'

488,100

416,400 3,714,100

force

6.898

69.3

154.300

98

1.098

11.0

163,500

104

299

30

56.400 88,500

3,6

— — — —

— — — —

44,2

56 32

534

5.4

49.800 338.700 26,500

21 5

Other TOTAL

9,950

100.0

1.572,900

100,0

defense

1991 estimate

of labour

°/

695.200

Services

population

area

force

113

Public administration.

Area and population

labour

value

1.121

and communications Trade Finance

£

% of total

17

Tourism: n.a. use (1993): forested 8.2%;

meadows and pastures 63.1%; and under permanent cultivation 3.1%; other 25.6%.

Land

agricultural

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (1995): 4,081,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 21.7, persons per sq Urban-rural (1992): urban 45.1%; rural 54.9%. Sex distribution (1992): male 49.32%; female 50.68%.

km

8.4.

(1989): under 15, 40.5%; 15-29, 28.8%; 30-44, 15.5%; 45-59, 9.1%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.4%. Population projection: (2000) 4,474,000; (2010) 5,277,000. Doubling lime: 27 years. Ethnic composition (1992): Turkmen 73.3%; Russian 9.8%; Uzbek 9.0%; Kazakh 2.0%; Tatar 0.9%; other 5.0%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Sunn! Muslim (Sufi).

Age breakdown

Major

cities

000; Mariy

(1991): 94,900;

Ashkhabad

416,400; Nebit-Dag 89,100.

Chardzhou

166,400;

Dashovuse

117,-

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 33.1 (world avg. 25.0); (1992) legitimate 96.5%; illegitimate 3.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1992): 7.9 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1992): 25.2 (world avg. 15.7).

Total

fertility rate

(avg. births per childbearing

woman;

1993): 3.8.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.7. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 1.4. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 61.4 years; female 68.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1992): diseases of the circulatory system 333.8; diseases of the respiratory system 140.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 75.2; accidents, poisoning, and violence 62.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 62.3; diseases of the digestive system 28.2; diseases of the nervous system (1989) 9.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders (1989) 8.0.

National economy

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

000.000 rubles

-477

-284

-676

-971

+ 898

+ 2.409

% of total

8,9%

5

1%

11,3%

15,5%

6.1%

17,9%

Imports (1992): 5,497,000,000 rubles (machinery and transport equipment 30.3%, manufactured items 21.8%, food 17.1%, chemicals 6.5%). Major impori sources: Russia 35.1%; Kazakhstan 11.8%; Azerbaijan 8.5%; Uzbekistan 8.1%; Ukraine 4.6%. Exporis (1992): 7,906,000,000 (fuels and lubricants 42.3%, manufactured items 38.1%, chemicals 5.5%, food 4.0%). Major export destinations: Russia 20.1%; Ukraine 17.5%; Uzbekistan 17.0%; Kazakhstan 8.1%; Georgia 6.7%;

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 1,317 mi, 2,120 km; passengers transported 5,900,000; short ton cargo 20,700,000, metric ton cargo 22,800,000. Roads (1990): total length 8,300 mi, 13,400 km (paved 86%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 170,600; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1989): passenger-mi 2,021,000,000, passenger-km 3,253,000,000; short tonmi cargo 222,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 324,200,000; airports (1995) with

scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1989): total number 66; total circulation 1,141,000; circulation per 1,000 population 319. Radio (1991): 823,000 receivers (I per 5.2 persons). Televisions (1991): 705,000 receivers (I per 6.1 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 265,100 (1 per 14.9 persons).

Education and health Education (1991-92) Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc teacher tr. Higher ,

Budget (1992). Revenue: 62,719,000,000 rubles (tax revenue 52.5%, of which turnover tax 26.3%, company profit tax 19.6%, individual income tax 4.8%, excise tax 1.9%; nontax revenue 47.5%). Expenditures: 94,882,000,000 rubles (1991; social and cultural affairs 56.9%, of which social security 26.7%, education and science 19.7%, health 9.4%.; national economy 39.0%; government administration 2.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$650,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): seed cotton 1,300,000. vegetables 672.000, grain 360,000, fruit 249.000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,314,000 sheep and goats, 1,104, ()()() cattle, 159,000 pigs, 7,000,000 poultry; roundwood (1990) 4,000,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 37,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): sulfur 200,000; sodium sulphate 200,000. Manufacturing (value of production in 'OOO.DOO manat; 1993): textiles 1,999; petroleum products 950; food products 764; construction

wood products

studenf schools

1

,

,„.

teachers

students

60,000

842.000

teacher

ratio

14.0

J

41

33.700

9

41 .700

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 13.6%: some secondary 21.3%; completed secondary and some postsccondary 56.8%; higher 8.3%. Literacy (1989): total population age 15 and over literate 3.453,000 (97.7%); males literate 1,714.000 (98.8%); females literate 1.739,000 (96.6%). Health (1994): physicians 14,000 (1 per 285 persons); hospital beds 47,000 (1 per 85 persons); infant mortality rate per 1.000 live births 45.9.

Military Total active duty personnel (1995): CIS joint-control forces 25,000 (100% (1993): 1.5% (world army). Militaiy expciuiiturc as a percentage of 3.3%); per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

GNP

mamaterials 327; clothing 311; chemical products 129; chine-building equipment 56. Construction (1992): 20,754,000 sq m. Energy 58;

production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 13,100,000,000 ( 13, 100,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) none (269.000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1992) .35,184,000 (43,.Wi,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1991) 500.000 (500,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 60,107,000,000 (1 1,197,000,000). Population economically active (1992): total: 1,572,900; activity rate of total population 40.8% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male), U>-54 [female) 81.0%.; female 50.5%;

Price

unemployed [1991] 20-25%).

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings Index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

85 6

899 908

100 100

185.7

1.922 1.642

6.153

85.5

1900

1994 c.

25.570

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1989) 5.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 73.5%, pensions and grants 17.3%, income from agriculture .sales 6.6%,

'Detail does not add to total given because of rounding exchange-rate data arc very speculative.

-Ruble-area

GNP

and

Nations of the World

Tuvalu Official

and pawpaws; livestock (number of live animals) 13,000 pigs"; forestry, n.a.; fish catch (1993) 1,460, of which tuna 15.0%. Mining and quarrying: n.a. '2. Manufacturing (1988): copra 90 metric tons; handicrafts and baked goods are also important. Construction: n.a.; however, the main areas of construction activity are roadworks, coastal protection, government facilities, and waterrelated infrastructure projects. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 1,300,000 (1,300,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (none).

name: Tuvalu.

Form of government: monarchy with one

constitutional legislative

house

(Parliament [12]). Chief of state: British Monarch, represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Fongafale, on Funafuti atoll. Official language: none. official religion: none.

Monetary

units^:

I

735

Public debt: n.a.

Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S. $300,000; expenditures by nationals abroad, n.a. Population economically active (1991): total 5,910; activity rate of total population 65.3% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 85.5%; female [1979] 51.3%; unemployed [1979] 4.0%).

Tuvalu dollar =

Australian dollar ($T = $A) = 100 Tuvalu and Australian cents;' valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = $A 1.31; 1 £ = $A2.08. 1

Price

and earnings indexes (1990 = 100)

Consumer

price index

Earnings index's

1987

1988

86,5

938

91,1

93,3

1989

1991

1992

1993

1062

100,0

102,1

Area and population area

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1979) 6.4; average annual income per household $A 2,575; sources of income (1987): agriculture and other 45.0%, cash economy only 38.0%, overseas remittances 17.3%; expenditure (1992) i-t; food 45.5%, housing and household operations 11.5%, transportation 10.5%, alcohol and tobacco 10.5%, cloth-

population

1987 sq mi

Islands^ Funafuti

0.91

Nanumaga Nanumea

1.00 1.38

Nluiakita

0.16 0.82

Niutao Nui

Nukufelau Nukulaelae Valtupu TOTAL

sq

km

estimate

2,36 2.59 3,57

2.718

717 965 75 867 622 722 335

0,41

2,12

329

1.27 1.18

3.06

0.64 1.89 9.253

23963

1

66

490

ing 7.5%, other 14.5%. use (1987): agricultural

Land

and under permanent

cultivation

73.6% '5; scrub

16.1%; other 10.3%.

Foreign trade

1,437 8,4581,5

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

$A'000

Population (1995): 9,400. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 1,000.0, persons per sq km 385.2. Urban-rural (1995): urban 46.0%; rural 54.0%. Sex distribution (1991); male 48.39%; female 51.61%. Age breakdown (1991): under 15, 34.7%; 15-64, 59.4%; 65 and over, 5.9%. Population projection: (2000) 9,900; (2010) 10,900. Doubling time: 43 years. Ethnic composition (1979): Tuvaluan (Polynesian) 91.2%; mixed (Polynesian/ Micronesian/other) 7.2%; European 1.0%; other 0.6%. Religious affiliation (1979): Church of Tuvalu (Congregational) 96.9%; Seventh-day Adventist 1.4%; Bahal 1.0%; Roman Catholic 0.2%; other 0.5%. Major locality (1990): Fongafale, on Funafuti atoll, 3,432.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 25.5 (world avg. 25.0); (1989) legitimate 82.2%; illegitimate 17.8%.

Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 9.1 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 16.4 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.0. Marriage rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Divorce rate per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (1991): male 67.2 years; female 64.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1985): diseases of the digestive system 170.0; diseases of the circulatory system 150.0; diseases of the respiratory system 120.0; diseases of the nervous system 120.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 70.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 40.0; endocrine and metabolic disorders 20.0; ill-defined conditions 430.0; in 1992 the leading causes of death included liver diseases, meningitis, tuberculosis, and still and perinatal deaths; other health problems included acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, filariasis, conjunctivitis, fish poisoning, diabetes,

rheumatism, and hypertension.

National economy Budget (1990). Recurrent revenue: $A 5,301,000 (local sources [including fisheries licenses, import duties, sales tax, and income and company taxes] 77.4%; Tuvalu Trust Fund6 22.6%). Expenditures: $A 10,826,0007 (1937; capital [development] expenditures 68.9%, of which marine transport 20.7%, education 13.0%, fisheries 5.6%, health 3.1%; current expenditures 31.1%). Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 1990): U.S. $8,750,000 (U.S.$967 per capita).

% of total

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

-3,637 85,4%

-3,969 92.7%

-4,076 99,9%

-4,946 99,9%

-6,780 99,7%

-5,158 99,5%

Imports (1992): U.S.$6,700,000 (1989; food 29.3%, manufactured goods 28.2%, petroleum and petroleum products 12.8%, machinery and transport equipment 12.2%, chemicals 7.1%, beverages and tobacco 3.9%). Major import sources: United States 35.8%; Australia 26.9%; New Zealand 11.9%; Japan 11.9%; United Kingdom 4.5%. Exports (1992): U.S.$5,200,000 (1989; clothing and footwear 29.5%, copra 21.5%, fruits and vegetables 8.0%). Major export destinations: United States 55.8%; Yugoslavia 32.7%; Germany 3.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1985):

total length 5 mi, 8 km (paved, none). Vehicles i^: passenger cars, n.a.; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 6; total deadweight tonnage 16,005. Air transport (1977): passenger arrivals (Funafuti) 1,443; cargo, n.a.; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 1. Communications. Daily newspapers: none. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 3,000 (1 per 3.1 persons). Television: none. Telephones (main lines; 1993): 120 (1 per 77 persons).

Education and health Education (1990) schools

teachers

Primary (age 5-11) Secondary (age 12-18) Vocational

1.485

314

20.6 15.0

Higfier

Educational attainment (1979). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; primary education 93.0%; secondary 6.1%; higher 0.5%. Literacy (1990): total population literate in Tuvaluan 8,593 (95.0%); literacy in English estimated at 45.0%. Health (1993): physicians 8 (1 per 1,152 persons); hospital beds (1990) 30 (1 per 302 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 73.6. Food: daily per capita caloric intake, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (1987): there

is

a police force numbering 32.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993

in

values

$A Agriculture, fishing, forestry

2.805,000 282,000 402,000

1991

%

22.2

4,020

680

60 240

1.0

,731 ,000

2,2 3.2 13.7

Public utilities Transportation and

296,000

24

communications Trade, fiotels, and restaurants

504,000

4,0

H/lining

Manufacturings Construction

Finance Pub. admin., defense Sen/ices TOTAL

1

1

% of labour

value

labour force

of total

— —

|

force

—

40

—

60 240

4,0

1,0

1,784,000 1,260,000

14,1

10,0

—

3,559,000

282

1,290

220

12,623,000

100,0

5,910

100,0

—

J

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture '", forestry, fishing (1994): coconuts 2,000, fruits 1,000, hens' eggs 13, other agricultural products include breadfruit, pulaka (tare), bananas, pandanus fruit, sweet potatoes,

is pegged to the value of the Australian Dollar, which also legal currency in Tuvalu. ^Local government councils have been established all islands except Niulakita. -'A recent survey puts the area at 9.4 sq mi (24.4 sq km). ''De facto population. ''1991 census total is 9,043. ("The Tuvalu Trust Fund was capitalized in 1987 with $A 27,700,000 to replace recurrent grant aid from the United Kingdom; the fund was valued at $A 36,000,000 in late 1991. 'Figure includes $A 5,200,000 of capital expenditures, paid for primarily by foreign-aid contributions that are not part of recurrent revenue. i^At 1988 factor cost. ^Including cottage industry. I'iBecause of poor soil quality, only limited subsistence agriculture is possible on the islands, 'Other livestock include goats. '2Research into the mineral potential of Tuvalu's maritime exclusive economic zone (289,500 sq mi [750,000 sq km] of the Pacific Ocean) is currently being conducted by the South Pacific Geo-Science Commission. '-'Average minimum wage. ''•Weights of consumer price index components. 'SCapable of supporting coconut palms, pandanus, and breadfruit. ""There are several cars, tractors, trailers, and light trucks on Funafuti; a few motorcycles are in

iThe value of the Tuvalu dollar

is

on

i

use on most islands.

Britannica World Data

736

Uganda Official

^

name: Republic of Uganda.

[214i]2).

Kampala.

Official languages: English; Swahili. Official religion: none. shilling

Indian

Oce$n

iLx^'Yi

President assisted by Prime Minister.

Monetary

Consumer

Vx.h}

Head of state and government:

(J

vR; U-^

unit: 1 Uganda (U Sh) = 100 cents;

valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) Sh995; 1 U.S.$ =

U

1

£

= U Sh

Price Index (1990 = 100)

1

mjr

Form of government: transitional military regime with a constituent assembly (Constituent Assembly

Capital:

^ W'y

/

price index

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

47.0

75.0

100.0

128

195.0

207.0

2270

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): bananas 8,836,000, cassava 3,100,000, sweet potatoes 2,129,000, sugarcane 1,080,000, corn (maize) 900,000, millet 610,000, pulses 495,000, sorghum 390,000, coffee 166,600, peanuts (groundnuts) 161,000, tea 12,300; livestock (number of live animals) 5,400,000 goats, 4,900,000 cattle, 1,300,000 sheep; roundwood (1993) 15,580,000 cu m; fish catch 206,000. Mining and quarrying (1993): tungsten (wolfram) 60.0; tin ore 30.0; gold 57,900 troy oz. Manufacturing (1993): cement 52,000; sugar 49,300; soap 47,600; metal products 14,300; footwear 326,000 pairs; fabrics 7,500,000 sq m; beer 239,000 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 786,000,000 (674,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1992) none (303,000). Gross national product (1993): U.S.$3,425,000,000 (U.S.$190 per capita).

1,573.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1993-94

Area and population

population

area

in

1991

Regions

sq mi

Capitals

Districts

sq

km

census^

16,400 773,500 140,800

Kalangala

Kampala

Kampala

Kiboga Luwero

Luwero

Masaka

Kasawa Bukoto

Mpigi

Mplgi

Mubende Mukono

Bageza

180 9,200 16,330 6,220 10,310 14,240 4,970

449,200

Public utilities Transp. and commun

831 ,300 915,400 497,500

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

Byakabanda

Iganga

Bulamogi

5,060

13,110

Jinja

JInja

280

730

Kamuli

Namwendwa

1,680

Kapchorwa Kumi Mbale

Kaptanya

670

Kumi Bunkoko

1,100

980

4,350 1,740 2,860 2,550

Soroti

3,880 1,780

10,060 4,550

944,000 284,900 480,700 116,300 237,000 706,600 355,000 430,900 554,000

2,510 3,020 4,530 8,230 5,100 2,800 5,450 1,930 1,120

6,490 7,830 11,740 16,140 13,210 7,250 14,110 5,010 2,890

460,700 624,600 338,700 350,300 190,700 498,300 171,500 178,500 315,900

900

116,000 734,800 197,800 412,800

3,230 1,240

2,340 5,400 9,900 2,490 8,360 3,200

3,720 4,190 1,060 76,080 16,990 93,0705

9,640 10,840 2,750 197,040 44,000 241,0405

Kawuga Mukono

816,200 382,000

Soroti

Sukulu

Tororo Northern

Apac

Apac

Arua Gulu Kitgum

Olaki

Kotido

Kotido

Ura Moroto

Lira

Moyo

Moyo

Bungatira

Labongo

Katikekile

Nebbi

Nebbi Western Bundibugyo Bushenyi

Busaru Bumbaire

Hoima

Hoima

Kabale Kabarole

Rubale

Kasese

Rukoki

2,080 3,820

960

Karambe

741 ,400

343,000 219,300 184,900 253,500 929,600 388,000

KIbaale Kisoro

Maslndi

Nyangeya

Mbarara

Kakika

Hukungiri

Kagunga

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER'' TOTAL

16,582,7005

Demography Population (1995): 18,659,000. Density (1995)'': persons per sq mi 245.2, persons per sq Urban-rural (1993): urban 12.0%; rural 88.0%. Sex distribution (1991): male 49.00%); female 51.00%.

Age breakdown

(1990): under 7.1%; 60 and over, 4.0%-.

15,

km

94.7.

49.6%; 15-29, 25.4%; 30-44, 13.9%; 45-59,

cities

(1991):

Kampala

773,000; Jinja 61,000;

Mbale

1 1

478,000

f

15

J

37 121

)

6.0

54,000.

Vital statistics Birlh rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 51.5 (world avg. 25.0). Deutli rate per 1,000 population (1990-95): 14.1 (world avg. 9.3). 1,()(K) population (1990-95): 37.4 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 7.2. years. Life expectancy at birth (1990-95): male 51.4 years; female 54.7 y(

Natural increase rate per

National economy

139

1,163,000

>

38 100

100

8,365,000

size. Average household size (1983) 4.8; income per household: expenditure (1989-90)S: food 57.1%, rent, education, and health 15.7%, lighting 7.3%, transportation 5.9%, clothing 5.5%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$2,495,000,000.

Household n.a.;

fuel

and

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) US.$'000,000

% of total

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-23,471 17.4%

-374.7 47.2%

-369.6 51.3%

-278 6

-416.1 57.0%

-463 8

44.7%

47.7%

Imports (1994): U.S.$717,700,000 (1992; machinery and transport equipment 32.2%; minerals, fuel, and electricity 13.4%; chemicals 8.4%; food and live animals 4.0%). Major import sources (1991): Kenya 23.3%; U.K. 15.0%; Japan 9.3%; Germany 6.9%. Exports (1994): U.S.$253,900,000 (unroasted coffee 67.9%; tea 3.5%; cotton 1.7%). Major export destinations (1991): The Netherlands 21.5%; France 16.2%; U.S. 11.9%; Spain 11.1%; Germany 10.9%; Italy 7.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): route length 1,241 km; passenger-km 330.000,000; metric ton-km cargo 87,000,000. Roads (1991): total length 28,660 km (paved 16%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 17,804; trucks and buses 25,246. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 2; total deadweight tonnage 8,600'^. Air transport (1993)i«: passenger-km 24,089,-

000; metric ton-km cargo 62,000: airports (1995) 1. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 4; total circulation 55,000; circulation per 1,000 population 3.2. Radio (1993): 3,500,000 receivers (1 per 5.1 persons). Television (1994): 115,000 receivers (1 per 158 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 20,800 (1 per 853 persons).

Education and health student/

schools"

Doubling time: 19 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Ganda 17.8%; Teso 8.9%,; Nkole 8.2%; Soga 8.2%;; Gisu 7.2%; Chiga 6.8%.; Lango 6.0%; Rwanda 5.8%; other 31.1%. Religious affiliation (1980): Roman Catholic 49.6%; Protestant 28.7%; Muslim 6.6%; other 15.1%.

804

6,724,000

Education (1994)

Popidation projection: (2000) 21,168,000; (2010) 27,244,000.

of labour

force

force

11.0

158,021 4,119,599

Other

%

labour

of total

value

03 68 57

453,929

}

1991

%

49.1

496,597 245,713

TOTAL

Pallisa

Major

Mining Manufacturing Construction

70 3.550 6,310 2.400 3.980 5,500 1,920

value '000,000

2.020.304 12,844 279,713 235,177 63,417 153,884

Agriculture

Central

Rakal Eastern

U Sh

Pnmary (age 5-11) Secondary {age 12-15) Voc teacher tr .

Higher

7,905

774 136 9

teachers

students

teacher ratio

102,126 16,245 2,766 941

2,496,139 244,248 46,238 8,966

24.4 15.0 16.7

95

Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or less than one full year 46.9%; primary education 42.1%; secondary 10.5%; higher 0.5%. Literacy (1990): population age 15 and over literate 4,586,000 (48.3%); males literate 2,900,000 (62.2%); females literate 1,686,000 (34.9%). Health (1989): physicians 774 (1 per 20,720 persons); hospital beds 20,136 (1 per 817 persons); infant mortality rate (1990-95) 94.0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 2,159 (vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 93% of FAO recommended minimum requirement.

Military

Budget (1993-94). Revenue: U Sh 651,423.000,000 (taxes 52.0%, of which customs duties 23.4%, sales taxes 1.6%, income taxes 8.1%; grants 44.2%). Expenditures: U Sh 816,773,000.000 (current expenditures 47.8%, of which security 11.1%, education 5.8%, health 2.3%; capital expenditures 52.2%). Tourism (1993): receipts from visitors U.S.$50,000,000; expenditures by nationals abroad U.S.$40,00(),I)00. Land use (1993): forested 27.6%; pastures 9.0%; agricultural 33.9%; other 29.5%. Population economically active (1991): total 8,365,000; activity rate of total population 49.6% (participation rates: ages 15-64, 78.9%7; female 35.2%). 1

Total active duty personnel (1995): 50.000 (army 97.6%, navy 0.8%, air force (1993): 1.4% (world 3.3%); 1.6%). Military' expenditure as percentage of per capita U.S. $3.

GNP

lElcctive seats only. -Body was elected and appointed in 1994 and promulgated a constitution in October 1995. 'Preliminary. •'Includes swamps; excludes 30,960 sq of Uganda's Uikc Victoria territorial waters, SDetail does not add to total given because of rounding. ''Based on land area. ^1985. "Kampala and Entebbe only. ''1988. '"Uganda Airlines only. "1989.

new

km

Nations of the World

Ukraine

737

(barrels; 1992) 32,800,000 (298,500,000); petroleum products 32,500,000 (28,800,000); natural gas (cu m; 1992) 18,200,000,000 (96,900,000 000). (1993)-': U,S.$99,589,000,000 (U.S.$1,910 per capita).

Gross national product

name: Ukrayina (Ukraine). unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body

Official

Form of government: (Supreme Council

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Head of slate: President. Head of government: Prime

in value '000,000 karbovantsy

Minister.

Capital: Kiev (Kyyiv).

Agriculture

Official language: Ukrainian. official religion: none.

Monetary decimal (Oct.

6,

unit:

karbovanets

'

Manufacturing Public

(no

U.S.$= 172,000 karbovantsy;

1

£ = 271,915 karbova ntsy.

Services

Area and population

area

sq mi

Capitals

sq

km

estimate

Crimea (Krym)

Simferopol

10,400

27,000

2,651,700

Provinces Cherkasy

Cherkasy

Chernihiv

Chernihiv

1,530,000 1,384,800

Chernivtsi

Chernivtsi

20,900 31,900 8,100

Dnipropetrovsk

Dnipropetrovsk

Donetsk

Donetsk

Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv

Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv

Kherson Khmelnytsky

Kherson Khmelnytsky

Kirovohrad Kyyiv (Kiev)

Kirovohrad

8,100 12,300 3,100 12,300 10,200 5,400 12,100 11,000 8,000 9,500

Kiev

1 1

Luhansk

Luhansk

Lviv

Lviv

Mykolayiv

Mykolayiv

Odessa

Odessa

10,300 8,400 9,500 12,900 11,100 7,800 9,200 5,300 10,200 7,800 4,900 10,500

Poltava Rivne

Poltava Rivne

Sumy

Sumy

Ternopil

Ternopil

Vinnytsya Volyn Zakarpatska Zaporizhzhya Ztiytomyr

Vinnytsya

Volodymyr-Volynsky

Uzhhorod Zaporizhzhya Zhytomyr

1 1

,200

,600

233,100

TOTAL

31 ,900

946,800 3,923,700

26,500 13,900 31,400 28,500 20,600 24,600 28,900 26,700 21,800 24,600 33,300 28,800 20,100 23,800 13,800 26,500 20,200 12,800 27,200 29,900 603,700

1,465,600 3,158,200 1 ,282,200 1 ,525,500 1 ,246,300 4,581,100 2,867,100 2,778,300 1 ,360,800 2,627,600 1 ,765,600 1,194,300 1 ,424,700 1,180,300 1 ,904,800 1,080,700 1 ,286,700 2,110,200 1 ,505,900 52,114,400

5,331 ,500

Demography Population (1995): 52,003,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 223.1, persons per sq km 86.1. Urban-rural (1994): urban 67.9%; rural 32.1%. Sex distribution (1994): male 46.45%; female 53.55%. Age breakdown (19932): under 15, 21.0%; 15-29, 20.6%; 30-44, 22.2%; 45-59, 17.5%; 60-69, 11.0%; 70 and over, 7.7%. Population projection: (2000) 51,634,000; (2010) 50,903,000. Ethnic composition (1991): Ukrainian 72.6%; Russian 22.2%; Belarusian 0.9%; Jewish 0.7%; Moldovan 0.6%; Tatar 0.4%; other 2.6%. Religious affiliation: believers are predominantly Ukrainian Orthodox; there is a Ukrainian Catholic minority. Major cities (19942): Kiev 2,645,000; Kharkiv 1,599,000; Dnipropetrovsk 1,176,000;

Donetsk

1,114,000;

Odessa

of labour

|

force

51,373

22.3

4,900,000

20.5

98,266

42.5

7,000,000

293

800,000

3.4 7.5

1.9

10

1,800,000 1,600,000 1 ,700,000

8.2

6 6

28

6.7 7.1

200,000 600,000 4,200,000

4.4

14.0

Other

-29,416-

-12.71

TOTAL

230,871

100.0

0.8

25 176 4.6

1,100,000 23,900,000

100.0

population

19942 republic

%

labour force

value

4,386 23,176 18,908 15,187 6,536 10,090 32,365

Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense

1995) free rate,

1

% of total

J

utilities

Construction Transp. and commun

unit); valuation

Autonomous

1993

1991

[450]).

1,073,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.7 (world avg. 25.0); (1992) legitimate 87.9%; illegitimate 12.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 14.2 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): -3.5 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 1.8.

Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 8.2. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1993): 4.2. Life expectancy at birth (1993): male 65.3 years; female 74.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): circulatory diseases 783.0; cancers 201.0; accidents 131.0; respiratory diseases 81.0; diseases of the digestive system (1992) 36.4; infectious diseases (1992) 13.1.

National economy Budget (1995). Revenue: 2,100,000,000,000,000 karbovantsy (1993; tax revenue 87.6%, of which value-added tax 24.5%, corporate tax 16.6%, foreign trade tax 12.4%; nontax revenue 12.4%). Expenditures: 2,400,000,000,000,000 karbovantsy (1993; current expenditure 92.4%, of which social safety net 20.3%, national economy 14.6%, education 13.6%, health care 11.4%; capital expenditure 7.6%). Public debt (external; 1994): U.S.$7, 100,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1994): sugar beets 28,138,000, potatoes 16,102,000, wheat 13,857,000, sunflower seeds 1,569,000, corn (maize) 1,539,000, grapes 395,000; livestock (number of live animals) 21,607,000 cattle, 15,298,000 pigs, 6,863,000 sheep and goats; roundwood (1993) 4,888,200 cu m; fish catch (1993) 371,343. Mining and quarrying (1993): iron ore 65,000,000; manganese 5,000,000. Manufacturing (value in karbovantsy '000,000; 1993): machine and metalworking equipment 54,960; food products 21,307; light industrial products 16,191; metallurgy 12,406; chemical products 6,079; construction materials 5,017; wood products 4,847. Construction (1993): residential 12,300,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1992) 252,400,000,000 (246,800,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1992) 133,600,000 (138,900,000,000); crude petroleum

Population economically active (1993): total 23,900,000; activity rate of total population 45.9% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 82.4%; female [1991] 54.5%; unemployed [1994] 14.2%). Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) Consumer

price index

Monthly earnings index

Land

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

70.3 71.3

76.3

85.5 86.3

100.0 100.0

203.2 190.8

687.5 2,677

965.4

780

meadows and pastures 12.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 57.0%; other 13.5%. Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size 3.0; income per household 12,825 karbovantsy'; sources of income (1993): wages use (1993): forested 17.1%;

58.5%, pensions 22.5%, sales of agricultural products 4.0%, other 15.0%; expenditure (1991): food and nonalcoholic beverages 39.2%, consumer goods 32.2% (of which furniture and household appliances 6.8%), entertainment and culture 6.3%, alcoholic beverages 2.1%, housing 1.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1990 '000,000,000 karbovantsy

-8

%

8.5%

of total

5

1991 -i-7

3

6.4%

Imports (1994): U.S.$9,767,862,000 (crude petroleum and natural gas 62.9%, machinery and metalworking equipment 12.3%, chemical products 6.4%, other manufactured products 3.7%, nonferrous metals 3.1%). Major import sources: Russia 59.2%; Turkmenistan 7.0%; Germany 5.8%; Belarus 3.4%. Exporis (1994): U.S.$9,882,560,000 (ferrous metals 35.7%, machinery and metalworking equipment 20.7%, chemical products 15.7%, food products 14.1%, other manufactured products 6.3%). Major export destinations: Russia 38.8%; Belarus 5.4%; China 5.1%; U.S. 3.4%; Switzerland 3.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1993): length 23,350 km; passenger-km 75,900,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (1992) 338,000,000,000. Roads (1993): total length 273,700 km (paved 86%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 2,920,000. Air transport (1993): passenger-km 3,200,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (1992) 100,000,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 20. Communications (1992). Daily newspapers: total number 90; total circulation 6,083,000; circulation per 1,000 population 52. Radio (1991): 14,520,000 receivers (1 per 4.1 persons). Television (1991): 17,024,000 receivers (1 per 3.0 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 2,225,000 (1 per 6.7 persons).

Education and health Education (1993-94) schools Primary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 1 4-1 7) Voc, teacher tr. Higher

1

ji 694 "'-""^

teachers

574,000

students

6,937,000

student/ teacher ratio 12.1

J

754 159

680,700 829,200

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: some primary education 6.8%; completed primary 13.8%; some secondary 18.4%; completed secondary 31.1%; some postsecondary 19.5%; higher 10.4%. Literacy (1989): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 98.4%; males literate 99.5%; females literate 97.4%. Health (1993): physicians 230,000 (1 per 226 persons); hospital beds 678,700 (1 per 75 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 14.9.

Military Total active duty personnel (1994): 517,000 (army 59.6%, air force and air (1993) 3.9% defense 40.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of (world 3.3%). The Black Sea Fleet of the former U.S.S.R. remained to be divided with Russia and Georgia at year-end. Commonwealth of independent States- (CIS-) controlled Strategic Nuclear Forces constituted a third military establishment during a two-year transition period.

GNP

'On Nov. 12, 1992, Ukraine replaced the Russian ruble with the karbovanets, or Ukrainian coupon, a temporary national currency; a prospective permanent national currency, the hryvnya, had not been issued as of October 1995. ^January 1. 3Rubleand exchange-rate data are very speculative, 'Less imputed bank service area charges, net indirect taxes, and taxes on production.

GNP

Britannica World Data

738

and limes

United Arab Emirates Official

ers 9,000,

animals) 861,000 goats, 333,000 sheep, 148,000 camels, 65,000 cattle, 8,000,000 chickens; fish catch (1991) 92,300. Mining and quarrying (1993): sulfur 122,000; gypsum 95,000; lime 45,000; also marble, shale for ceramic applications, and aggregate for cement. Manufacturing (1993): cement 3,500,000; aluminum 242,300; mutton and lamb meat 24,000; goat's milk 19,000; cow's milk 6,000; beef and veal 6,000; goat meat 5,000; butter and ghee 261. Construction: n.a. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 1993) 17,578,000,000 (17,578,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) 741,300,000 (67,350,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 13,469,000 (6,495.000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 22,929,000,000 (19,521,000,000). Population economically active (1992): total 733,500; activity rate of total population 36.9% (participation rates [1986]: ages 15-64, 76.7%; female 6.6%;

name: al-Imarat al-'Arablyah

al-Muttahidah (United Arab Emirates). federation of seven emirates with one appointive advisory body (Federal National Council [401]). Chief of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Abu Dhabi. Official language: Arabic.

Form of government:

Official religion: Islam. unit: 1 U.A.E.

Monetary

unemployed,

dirham

(Dh)=

100 fils; valuation (Oct. 1995) 1 U.S.$ = Dh3.67;

6, 1

£=

Dh

pumpkins and squash 17,000, cucumbers 13,000, cauliflowmangoes 9,000, green peppers 6,000; livestock (number of live

20,000,

n.a.).

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) 1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

91

93 9

95

988

100

105,5

102.1

5.81.

Consumer

price index?

.2

Earnings index

Area and population Emirates Abu Dhabi (Abu Zaby)

Abu Dhabi

A|man (A|man) Dubayy (Dubai)

Ajman Dubayy

al-Fujayrah (Fujairah) Ra's al-Khaymah (Ras

al-Fujayrah Ra's al-Khaymah

al-Khaimah) ash-Sharlqah (Sharjah)

Umm

al-Qaywayn

(Umm

population

area

Capitals

ash-Shariqah Umm al-Qaywayn

al-Qaiwain) TOTAL

km

Household income and expenditure. Average household

1991 estimate

sq

28,2102 100

73,0602

1,510

501 ,000

500 660

3.900 1,300 1.700

1,000

2,600

300

780

314,000 27,000

32,280

83.600

798,000 76.000

260

63,000 130,000

1

size (1986) 6.8; insources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1991): rent, fuel, and light 23.9%, food 22.7%, transportation and communications 14.1%, durable household goods 11.6%, education, recreation, and entertainment 8.6%. Land use (1993): forested, virtually none; meadows and pastures 2.4%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 0.5%; built-on, wasteland, and other 97.1%.

come per household:

sq mi

,909,000

n.a.;

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

-1^6,917

-1-10,200

+9,341

-1-4,460

+ 903

26.6%

30.8%

25.3%

-2,977 6.6%

Demography U.S.$'000,000

Population (1995): 2,195,000. Densitv (1995): persons per sq mi 68.0, persons per sq km 26.3. Urban-rural (1995): urban 84.0%; rural 16.0%. Sex distribution (1995): male 63.87%; female 36,13%. Age breakdown (1995): under 15, 31,3%; 15-29, 18.5%; 30-44, 31.4%; 45-59, 15.6%; 60-74, 2.8%; 75 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2000) 2,429,000; (2010) 2,882,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (1993): expatriates of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka 45%; Arabs 25%, of which non-UAE Arabs (primarily Egyptians) Arabs 12%; Iranians 17%; other Asians and Africans 8%; Eu13%,

UAE

ropeans and North Americans 5%. Religious affiliation (1980):

Muslim 94.9% (Sunn! 80%, Shfl 20%); Christian

3.8%; other 1.3%.

Dubayy 585,189; Abu Dhabi Shariqah 125,000-''; Ra's al-Khaymah 42,0003.

Major

(1989):

cities

Birth rate per 1,000 population (1995): 27.0 (world avg. 25.0); legitimate, n,a.; illegitimate, n.a.

rate per 1,000 population (1995): 3.0 (world avg. 9.3). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1995): 24.0 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1995): 4.5. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1990): 2.6. Divorce rate per 1,000 population (1990): 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (1995): male 70.4 years; female 74.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1989)i: accidents and poisoning 43.7; diseases of the circulatory system 34.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 13.7; respiratory diseases 8.1.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 1990

1994 in

value

Dh OOO.OOOi

Finance, real estate

Pub admin Sen/ices Other TOTAL

,

defense

2.3%

Imports (1994): U.S.$23,883,000,000 (1991: machinery and transport equipment 42.4%, basic manufactures 21.4%, food and live animals 13.5%, chemicals 8.8%, crude minerals 1.3%, mineral fuels 1.1%). Major import sources: Japan 10.4%; United Kingdom 7.8%; Germany 7.5%; United States 7.3%; Italy 6.7%; South Korea 5.4%; India 4.9%; Hong Kong 4.5%; China 4.0%>; France 3.9%; Singapore 3.7%; Taiwan 2.8%; Malaysia 2.3%; Saudi Arabia 2.0%; The Netherlands 1.8%. Exports (1994): U.S.$20,906,000,000 (1989; crude petroleum 65.6%, nonpetroleum exports and reexports 34.4%). Major export destinations: Japan 39.7%; India 5.3%; Oman 4.9%; South Korea 4.7%; Iran 4.6%: Singapore 3.8%; Thailand 2.7%; Hong Kong 2.4%; United States 2.1%; United Kingdom 1.5%; Pakistan 1.3%; Kenya 1.2%; Taiwan 1.1%; Turkey 1.0%.

total length 2,830 mi, 4,555

km

(paved 38.5%). Vehicles (1993): passenger cars 297,128; trucks and buses 72,824. Merchant marine (1992): vessels (100 gross tons and over) 276; total deadweight tonnage 1,491,728. Air transport (1994)'U: passenger-mi 3,975,022,000, passenger-km 6,397,190,000; short ton-mi cargo 233,981,000, metric ton-km cargo 341,607,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 4. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 11: total circulation 335,00011; circulation per 1,000 population 189ii. Radio (1994): total number of receivers 490,000 (1 per 4.4 persons). Television (1994): total number of receivers 170,000 (1 per 12.6 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 623,800 (1 per 2.8 persons).

Education (1993-94)

Budget (1994). Revenue: Dh 16,200,0(M),000 (1993; current [domestic] grants 83.5%; other sources 16.5%, of which nontax revenue 12,5%, tax revenue 4.0%). Expenditures: Dh 17,600,000,000 (1993; current expenditures 96.2%, of which defense 37.8%, education 16.7%, public safety 13.1%, health 7.4%, economic services 4.5%; cultural and religious affairs 3.3%). Gross national product (at current market prices; 1993): U.S.$38.720,000,0()0 (U.S.$22,470 per capita).

communications Trade

.3%

Education and health

National economy

Construction Public utilities Transportation and

1 1

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1994):

Death

Petroleum Manulacluring

of total

363,432; al-'Ayn 176,411; ash-

Vital statistics

Agriculture

%

3,400 45,040 11,160 13.210 3,100

%

labour

of total

force

value

25 334

43,100 10,000 63,400 119,200 20,600

8.3 9,8 2.3

%

of labour

force

63 1

5

students

schools

Pnmary (age 6-11) Secondary (age 12-18)

1 I

35412

14,754

11.637

Vocational

510'

Higher

63 11,0 12.5 12.1

1

3,36 ;

-15' 1000

30

126 192''

Military 5,1';

14 7

per capita expenditure U.S. $1,149.

241,300

350

27

).

(army 92.8%, navy 2.1%, air force (1994): 5.7% (world 2.6%);

Mihtan exinnditure as percentage of GDP

104

—

9,793"

17,0

92 173

71,700 101,400 18.800

689.500

1,143

Educalionul attainment (1975). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling ll.l^.'c: primary education 5,2'y; secondary 16.6';: higher 6,0%, Literacy (1995): total population age 15 and over literate 79.2%; males literate 78.9%; females literate 79.8%. Health (1993): physicians 3,000 (1 per 694 persons); hospital beds 4.314 (1 per 483 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (1995) 21,0. Food (1992): daily per capita caloric intake 3.384 (vegetable products 75%, animal products 25''r ); 140% of FAQ recommended minimum requirement.

Total active duly personnel (1995): 70,0(X) 8,530 14,870 16,630 16,280 4,4606 2,080' 134.800

251,182 145,143

— 10008

Public debt (external, outstanding; 1991): U,S,$ 1,067,000,000. Tourism (1992): total number of tourist arrivals 50,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (19'M): tomatoes 243,000, dates 240,000, cabbages 107,000, eggplants 67,000, lemons

lAII appointed seats. 2Approximate. based on reported total and on reported partial areas for smaller emirates. '1980. ''Re|;istcrcd; Abu Dhabi Hmirate only. '^At factor cost. ''Services include tlomestic help. ""U-ss imputed bank service charges. "Detail does not add to total gi\cn because of rounding. Tity i>f Abu Dhabi only. "'Emirates Airlines only. nParliaUirculalion only. 1-1987-88. 1M985-86. . >?1

republic with a single legislative body (Supreme Soviet [250]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tashkent (Toshkent). Official language: Uzbek. official religion: none.

Monetary

unit:

sum

valuation (Oct. 33.80 sumy; 1 £

4,

'

(plural sumy);

1995)

= 53.72

1 U.S.$ sumy.

=

J -W

\

^^1 l\ A

/ V-'^

.--r""^

:\r^. /

Y^ \ \

r-

Area and populatior area

population

1992

Autonomous Republic

centres

Qoraqalpoghiston

Nuqus

1,017.383

255

Mining Manufacturing

1,177,544

296

416,146 247,000 346,271

10.4 6.2 8.7

754,889

19.0

Public

sq mi

sq

km

estimate

Transp and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin defense Sen/ices Other TOTAL

164,900

Andijon

Bukhoro Farghona

Bukhara (Bukhoro) Fergana (Farghona)

Jizzakh

Jizzakh

Khorazm

Urganch

Namangan

Namangan

1.600 54,900 2,700 7,900 2,400 3,100

Qashqadaryo Samarqand

Qarshi

1 1

Samarkand (Samarqand)

Sirdaryo

Guliston

Surkhondaryo Toshkent

Termiz Tashkent (Toshkent)

TOTAL

,000

9.500 2,000 8,000 6.000 172,7002

4,200 142.100 7.100 20,500 6,300 7,900 28,400 24,500 5,100 20.800 15,600 447,400

1 ,839,000 1,232,000 2,282.000 806,000 1,100.000 1 ,604.000 1 ,756,000 2,265,000 587,000 1.385,000 4,331,000 20,498,000

51.2.

Sex distribution (1993): male 49.51%-; female 50.49%. Age breakdown (1989): under 15, 40.8%; 15-29, 28.4%; 30-44, 15.0%; 45-59, 9.3%; 60-74, 4.7%; 75 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (2000) 25,383,000; (2010) 30,703,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (1991): Uzbek 73.0%; Russian 7.7%; Tajik 4.8%; Tatar 2.3%; Kyrgyz 0.9%; Ukrainian 0.7%; Turkmen 0.6%; other 10.0%. Religious affiliation (1993): believers are predominantly SunnT Muslim (Hanafiyah). 000;

22

,664,000

20.2

06

119,800 8,242,800

100.0

100.0

7.5 4.4

56 0,3

12 1.4

Price and earnings indexes (1990 = 100) price index

1992

1991

100.0

1993

1994

9,683

79,689

Earnings index

Demography

km

13.8

182,000 622,000 360.000 462,000 25,000 96,000

1,311,000

Land

use (1993): forested 2.9%; meadows and pastures 46.5%; agricultural and under permanent cultivation 10.1%; other 40.5%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 000,000,000 rubles

%

Population (1995): 22,886,000. Density (1995): persons per sq mi 132.5, persons per sq Urban-rural (1993): urban 39.29%; rural 60.71%.

43.4

Population economically active (1992): total 8,242,800; activity rate of total population 39.0% (participation rates: ages 16-59 [male], 16-54 [female] 79.7%; female 43.8%; unemployed 1.1%).

Consumer

Andi|on

force

1,135,000

1

1

25,405 3,984,638

of labour

1

1

I

°/

3,577,000

J

Construction

1990 63,700

Provinces

Major

utilities

labour force

of total

value

Agriculture

,

//Arabian Sea

1992

%

in value '000,000 rubles

cities (1992): Tashkent 2,119,900; Samarkand 372,000; Namangan Andijon 302,000; Bukhara 235,000.

333,-

Vital statistics Birth rale per 1,000 population (1993): 31.5 (world avg. 25.0); (1992) legitimate 95.8%; illegitimate 3.4%. Death rate per 1,000 population (1993): 6.6 (world avg. 9.3).

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (1993): 24.9 (world avg. 15.7). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 1993): 3.8. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (1993): 10.3. Divorce rate per 1,000 pt)pulation (1993): 1.2. Life expectancy at birth (1990): male 65.1 years; female 71.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1993): diseases of the circulatory system 300.3; diseases of the respiratory system 1 13.8; accidents, poisoning, and violence 49.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 48.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 38.0; diseases of the digestive system 31.4: diseases of the nervous system (1989) 9.1; endocrine and metabolic disorders (1989) 6.5.

of total

National economy

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (1991): length 4,225 mi, 6,800 km; passenger-mi 3,231,000,000, passenger-km 5,200,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 48,357,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 70,600,000,000. Roads (1990): total length 55,431 mi, 89,207 km (paved 83%). Vehicles (1988): passenger cars 790,800; trucks and buses, n.a. Merchant marine: vessels (100 gross tons and over) n.a.; total

deadweight tonnage, n.a. Air transport (1991): passenger-mi 6,524,000,000, passenger-km 10,500,000,000; short ton-mi cargo 60,754,000,000; metric tonkm cargo 88,700,000,000; airports (1995) with scheduled flights 2. Communications. Daily newspapers (1992): total number 12; total circulation 452,000; circulation per 1,000 population 21. Radio (1991): total number of receivers 3,677,000 (1 per 5.6 persons). Television (1991): total number of receivers 3,308,000 ( 1 per 6.3 persons). Telephones (main lines; 1993): 1,451,500 (1 per 15.1 persons).

Education and health Education (1992-93)

sheep, 5,300,000 cattle, 530,000 pigs, 33,()00,00() chickens; roundwood (1990) 15,000 cu m; fish catch (1993) 23.401. Mining and quarrying (1993): copper 100,000; lead 40,000; gold 85. Manufacturing (value of production in '000,000 sumy: 1993): textiles 1,999; petroleum products 950; food products 764; construction materials 327; clothing 311; chemical products 129; wood products 58; machine-building equipment 56. Construction (1992): residential 7,000,000,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricilv (kW-hr; 1993) 49,149.0()(),0()0 (49,018,000,000); coal (metric tons; 1993) .3'.8(17,000 (4,259,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 1993) I7.fi21,000 (46,714,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 1993) 7..337,0()0 (7,907,000); natural gas (cu m; 1993) 39,181,000,000 (37,954,000,000), Gross national product (1993): U.S.$2 1,030,000,000 (U.S.$960 per capita).

student)'

teachers

,

1

1988

-1.2 8.5%

Imports (1992): 191,885,000,000 Russian rubles (petroleum products 18.1%), food products 14.0%, ferrous and nonferrous metal products 13.7%, chemical products 11.1%, machinery 10.5%, light industrial products 7.1%). Major import sources: Russia 52.9%; Ukraine 13.6%; Kazakhstan 12.2%; Turkmenistan 7.0%; Belarus 5.8%. Exports (1992): 150,635,000,000 Russian rubles (light industrial products 47.9%, machinery 15.1%, ferrous and nonferrous metal products 11.9%, petroleum products 11.3%, chemical products 7.6%). Major export destinations: Russia 53.1%; Ukraine 14.0%; Kazakhstan 11.2%; Turkmenistan 5.3%; Kyrgyzstan 3.7%.

Pnmary (age 6-13) Secondary (age 14-17) Voc teacher tr

Budget (1994). Revenue: ,603,80().()()(),()00 rubles (value-added tax 30.6%; corporate income tax 20.6%; individual income tax 8.7%; excise tax 2.5%). Expenditures: l,8()5,()()(),()()(l,00() rubles (social and cultural affairs 38.4%, of which education 24.5';. health care 1().9''V; subsidies 20.0%; defense 11.5%; national economy 10.1%; administration 2.6%). Household income and expenditure (1992). Average household size (1989) 5.5; income per household 2,343 rubles; sources of income: wages and salaries 61.8%, subsidies, grants, and nonwagc income 22.8%, other 15.4%: expenditure: food and consumer goods 72.4%, other 27. (i%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 1992): U.S.$ 123.000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (1W4): seed cotton 3.935.00(1, vegetables 3,737.01)0, fruit (except grapes) and berries 1,005,000, potatoes 562,(100. rice 544,000, grapes 450,000, barlcv 340.(100. corn (maize) 200,000, rye 12,000; livestock (number of live animals) 9,400,000

1987

-3,9 20.8%

1

8,500

|

440

students

91.500 300,800 22,164

Higher

teacher

ratio

1,852.841

20 3

2,893,058 242,793 321 ,682

96 110

Educational attainment (1989). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education or no formal schooling 13.3%; some secondary 19.8%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 57.7%; higher 9.2%. Literacy: (1989): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 97.2%; males literate 98.5%; females literate 96.0%. Health (1994): physicians 79,000 (1 per 284 person.s); hospital beds 190,000 (1 per 118 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 32.0.

Military Ihial active duty personnel (1995): 25,0003 Military expenditure as percentage of

(army 84.0%, air force lfi.0%). (1993): 0.2%; per capita ex-

GNP

penditure U.S.$15.

iThc sum was introduced on July 1, 1994, to replace the sum-coupon (an interim currency introduced in N. Literacy (1981)5; total population age 10 and over literate 7,411,500 (89.2%); males literate 4,236,900 (95.4%; females literate .1,174,600 (83.2%). Health (1993): physicians 24,968 (1 per 420 persons); hospital beds 57,307 (1 per 183 persons); infant mortalitv rate per 1.000 live births 21.9. Food (1990)5: daily per capita caloric intake 3,545 (1988-90; vegetable products 93%, animal products 7%); 140% of FAO recommended minimum.

Military Total active duty personnel (\9')5): 126,500 (army 71.2%, air force 22.9%, navy 5.9%). Military' expenditure as percentage of government expenditure: 76.6%. 'Yugoslavia experienced extreme hyperinflation between early 1993 and January 1994.

The new dinar (second), or "super dinar." introduced on Jan. 24. 1994, was pegged to the Ocrman Mark at a rate of one-to-one and equaled 13.000.(K)().(KM).(M)0.(MM).nn().0()0 new new dinars. I'he new dinar had been introduced Jan. 1. I9Q0. at the rate of 1

dinar = lO.OOd (old) dinars. Inflation was close to zero between Januarv' 1994 and September 19'M. -The autonomous provinces are administratively part of the Republic ot Serbia. 'In new dinais before extreme hyperinflation. •'External analysts estimate defenNC expenditure at 7().7'; of government expenditure. ^Data refer to Yugoslavia as constituted prior to I'Wl. ''Includes 23(i.()00 workers in the private sector. 'Based on worker nominal net personal income. ^Number of teachers and students is reduced because of a boycott of Serbian schools by Albanians.

Nations of the World

n.a.; expenditure (1985): food 61.7%, housing and energy 11.5%, clothing and footwear 9.7%, transportation 5.9%, furniture and utensils 4.9%. Gross national product (1991): U.S.$8, 123,000,000 (U.S.$220 per capita).

Zaire Official

753

name: Republique du Zaire

(Republic of Zaire).

Form of government:

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Transitional

1991

regime with one legislative body (High Council of the RepublicParliament of Transition [738]) i. Chief of state: President'. Head of government: Prime Minister'

Agriculture

Mining Manufacturing Construction

Capital: Kinshasa.

Public

French. none.

Official language: official religion:

Monetary

unit:

new

zaire (NZ)2;

valuation (Oct. 6, 1995) 1 U.S.$ = 5,422; 1 £= 8,572.

NZ

Services Other TOTAL

NZ

area

population

1994

Regions Bandundu

Capitals

Bas-Zaire

Maladi

Equateur

Mbandaka

Haute-Zaire Kasai-Occidental

Kisangani

Kasai-Oriental

Mbuji-Mayi

Bandundu

Kananga

sq mi 114.154 20,819 155,712 194,302 59,746 65,754 3,848

Kinshasa

—

Maniema

Kindu

51 ,062

Nord-Kivu

Goma

Shaba

Lubumbashi

Sud-Kivu

BulExcludes gold sales and reexports. 'Air Zimbabwe only. 81992. 'Includes postsecondary vocational and teacher traming at the higher level. I

Comparative National

Statistics

World and regional summaries area and population, f995

region/bloc

area

gross national product 1993 population

square

square

miles

kilometres

total

persq

persq

mi

km

labour force

total

%

%

growth

GNP

projection,

(000,000

agncul- industry

ser-

rate,

capita

2010

US$)

ture

vices

1985-93

(U,S.$)

population

%

per

,

1990

total

%

%

(000)

male

female

World

52,5f3,240

136,008.690

5,670,327.000

108.0

41.7

6.939,492,000

24,299,220

5

34

61

1.7

4,380

2,353,806

638

36,2

Africa

f f

,724,320

30,365,720

699,164,000

59,6

23.0

1

,006.581 ,000

442,190

18

35

47

-0.6

650

242,784

656

34.4

323 894

125

126,942,000

36,380

23

37

40

-3.2

647

35.3

327.312.000

44,630

34

21

45

02

470 210

26,428

34.5

85,082

58.8

41.2

18.5

212.078.000

161,790

15

1,080

40,016

65.771.000

126,460

4

50 54

01

178

35 42

-12

2,720

14,532

370

76.726

846 643 638

36.2

Central Africa

2.553,070

6,612.400

82,467,000

East Africa

2,471 ,320

6,400,640

220,884,000

North Africa

3,287,810

8.515,370

157,233.000

,033,890

2,667,770

47,628.000

47 8 46 1

2,378,230

6,159,540

190.952,000

80,3

31.0

274,478.000

72,930

35

30

35

0,3

16.311,500

42,246,630

764,837,000

46-9

18.1

913,920,000

8.344.720

3

30

67

1.0

11,140

293,723

66.5

335

8.368,970

21,675,560

292,643,000

350

135

334,305,000

6.965,320

2

29

11

24,350

135,438

587

413

Canada

3,849,670

9.970.610

29,463,000

7 7

30

33,946,000

574,880

2

33

69 65

United States

3,679,190

9,529.060

263,057.000

71 5

27 6

300.226,000

6,387,690

2

29

69

7.942,530

20.571.070

472.194,000

59.5

23

579,615.000

1,379,400

9

90.650

234,750

35,331,000

3898

202.190

523,680

32,432.000

150 5 61 9 46 5

34 35 22 29

Southern Africa

West

1

Africa

Americas Anglo-America3

America

Latin

Caribbean

41,424,000

76,240

8

45.459,000

37,120

17

,958,200

91,145,000

160 4 120 6

112,891,000

324,950

8

6,893,620

17,854,440

313,286.000

45.4

17.5

379,841,000

941,090

10

Andean Group

2.110,450

5,466,100

113,516.000

53.8

8.547.400

155.822.000

184,157,000

1,483,000

3.840.940

43.948.000

472 296

204,210 471,980

10

3,300,170

Other South America

208 182 114

143,126,000

Brazil

52,558,000

264.900

12,325,400

31.922,550

3.449,731 .000

279 9

1081

4.251.231.000

4.546,940

11,776,500

1

.430.491 ,000

3146

121 5

1,616.318.000

3.696.120

9,572,900

1

,206,600,000

326.5

126.0

331.8

451 6

Central America

Mexico

756,070

South America

Asia Eastern Asia

China

Japan South Korea Other Eastern Asia South Asia India

377,800

125,362,000

38.330

99,270

44.834.000

.169.7

42

51

36

2.010

.464.452

645

355

4

44

52

4.3

3.700

775.590

57.4

426

1,371.580,000

581,110

19

669.693

56.7

2

33 54

490

3,926,670

48 44

6.5

130,344.000

3.6

31.450

62.202

62.1

37.9

49,683,000

338,060

8

44

48

81

7,670

18,664

66.2

338

1

43.3

3,165.600

935,744.000

765.6

2956

1,189.082,000

262,810

3,0

226 252

140,497,000

413,6

159 7

210,104,000

53,250

32 25

41

879,810

25

177.474.000

433.7

167.4

241,456,000

45.110

32

22

15 10

33.698

.059,890

50 46

54.494

86.2

138

,735,800

4,495,710

482.875.000

278.2

107 4

609,811,000

458.010

16

38

47

990

189.297

63.0

370

1,312,900

3.400.410

421.858,000

321.3

124

1

527,342,000

444,960

14

39

47

53 54

1,100

164.976

63.2

36.8

.095.300

61,017,000

144.3

557

82,469,000

13,050

61

10

29

1.1

220

24.321

622

378

694 350

268

384,460,000

709,480

14

37

88.429

58,830

28

1,100

20.728

694 548

30.6

67,231,000

-11 -3 4

2,550

13.5

-03 -07 -12

9,670

6.511

91.7

8.3

2,200

15.253

18.0

31 3

1

1

322.944

12,5

869,910

2,253,040

142,341,000

163.6

63.2

193.652,000

286,370

15

27

49 34 42 49 58

2,080

45,936

820 687

8,868,210

22,968,610

728,102,000

82.1

31.7

733,522,000

8,410,400

4

33

63

1.3

11,470

340,666

57.1

429

7,437,180

19,262,210

343,219,000

46.1

17.8

331,496,000

743,960

16

44

40

2,120

171,080

6,592,850

17.075.400

147.168,000

223

86

134,816,000

348,410

16

45

39

-3 9 -5

2.350

72,286

506 476

233.090

603,700

52.003,000

223.1

50,903,000

99.680

35

47

18

-3.9

1.710

25,401

48.0

-2

494 524 520 456

1.026.850

2.659.540

25,087,000

24.4

9.4

39,572.000

223,040

4

38 54

632.460

1.638,060

61.271,000

96.9

37.4

84.005.000

141,240

23

28

86

1

145,777,000

295.870

11

41

48

103.8

402,026,000

7,666,440

3

32

65

1151

388,829,000

7,280,990

3

106 9

62,649,000

1

,289,240

3

32 28

65 70

229 5

89,822,000

1

.903,000

1

37

62

56,180,000

1.134.980

3

31

38,969.000

533,990

4

32

61,127.000

1

210,030 137,830

543.970

58,172,000

356.970

81,912.000

5943

116,330

301 .300

57,386.000

493.3

190.5

Spain

194.900

504.780

39,188.000

201.1

1

91

3

2.050

73.393

54.4

20,060

169,586

63 6

19,680

163,771

636

1.8

23,360

25.404

601

27

23,560

38.981

607

9

19,620

23.339

68

31

13,650

14.456

386 366

94.250

244.110

58.586.000

6216

2

33

495.790

1.284.100

77,162,000

155 6

60

80,082.000

1,377,080

4

31

181.900

471.170

12,477,000

686

265

13,197,000

385,450

3

34

66 64 65 65 63

3.283.800

8.505.080

28.493.000

87

34

34,238,000

367,360

4

29

67

1

2.966,150

7,682,300

18.025,000

61

23

20,778,000

309,970

3

30

67

1

317.650

822,780

10,468,000

33.0

12,7

13,460,000

57,390

9

26

65

United Kingdom

EU

Islands

'Refers only to the long-term external public

and

1

publicly guaranteed debt of the 137 countries that report

y^^^;^ ^-.1

^.^

CN.^

^\

fei"

\_A^

>.'.')

y

\

rvN.

^' /

.•

America-=9^'Y*^

/East Africa

~-^y^rr [

1

1

Latin

America

-

"^^^^^

1

364 364 399 39 3 31 9 24 5

13 17

17,970

27.766

18.010

33.825

755 614 634

07

31.230

5,815

61.9

381

13.230

12,181

63.0

37

1

17.510

7,963

619

05

5,700

4,218

65

38 35

under the World Banks Debtor Reporting System (DRS).

Asia

Americas

Africa

,042,700

452

20 20

776 2400

Non-EU

,-,J

7

5.205,890

339.700 409.240

Italy

,'^~V)

6.734.550

1.222.240

France

1

274 276

24.4

41.2

Germany

Africa',-''

72.4

774 748 875

298 277

Southernj

14.724

58,8

372,406,000

.

55.026

25.031

3.235.230

"^

34.715

6.210

411.136

1,249,130

TCentraitjji ^CAfrica V

1.830

3.020

1.5

300 290 430 260

269

j

1.2

-0 6

63

6,860

235.7

f

52 52

7

11

57

144,048,000

i"AfrJcr'^^^

26.4

25

384,883,000

]

27.1

736 756 726

43

1.583.110

J

72.9

104.465

61

3.706.400

.

30.487

3.030

1

611.240

^^r^^',

3.750

0.3

26 27

31

1.431,030

North Africa

09

55

35

Other Eastern Europe

^\

63

35 38 37 30

4

Ukraine

WesN^

26.9

31

Other Southwest Asia

•"J

21 5

361,170

Iran

-'^_K

33.1

78.5

360,050

53,951 ,000

Ocean

66.9

9.520

64,711,000

282,650,000

Pacific

73.1

13,813

1,200

.640,642,000

3.994.400

Australia

158,285

2,190

1

10,545.040

Oceania

2,980

0.5

245.6

1,542,250

Other

04 -1.0

805

4,071,470

European Union (EU)

57

57 61

6360

Central Asia

Western Europe

41 4

53.695.000

Southwest Asia

Russia

39.8

58.6

1.253.715,000

422,900

Eastern Europe

60.2

122,005

1,726,530

Non-ASEAN

Europe

13,360

24.750

5,105,300

1

Gulf Cooperation Council

20,670

2

666.620

Other South Asia

ASEAN

145.870

859.4

1.7 1

1,971,180

Pakistan

Southeast Asia

1

154 35 7

EWorld

total

contains

1

f

Comparative National

economic ndicators pop. per 1 ,000 ha of arable

debt ('000,000 U.S$), 1993'

consumption

(kW-

land.

hrper

1993

capita),

imports

exports^

(c-i-f)

(fob)

expectancy (years) life

balance 2 total

1993 4.184.6002 -133,7002

%of GNP

male

female

fiealtfi

pop

pop

infant

per doctor

tality

safe water

1

(%)

mor-

per ,000 birtfis

fiaving

food (% FAO recom-

literacy (%)

mended

male

female

minimum). 1992

4,110

2,216

4,318,300

1.206.894

26.8

64.2

68.4

720

63,1

76

115

83.8

71.3

World

3,940

493

115,100

96.610

-18,490

232.264

79.5

53.4

56,5

2,820

92.8

50

97

667

46-6

Africa

3,530

158

5,450

4.670

-780

30,864

84.8

49.7

53.0

12.770

97.0

42

89

77.5

56.2

41.932

100.5

47.4

50.4

12,700

108.9

67.7

47.7

72.4

63.4

66.4

980

64.0

40 73

81

97.918

123

64.9

40.2

North Africa

1.356

23.3

61.6

67.3

1,680

50.2

109

81.6

79.9

Southern Africa

60.194

82,6

51.3

54.2

6,820

96.1

56 46

94

58.2

37-1

West

683

74.5

520

33.5

88

126

91 2

899

390 460 390

8.3

100

95-4

100

139 116

95-8

6.3

966

96-6

8.5

100

141

95,7

953

43.1

80

116

87.8

85-6

58.0

75

83.7

82-7

America Caribbean

4,790

131

17,950

14.050

4.090

661

45,390

40.200

3,260

23,740

17,810

3.460

3,830 118

22,570

19,880

-3.900 -5.190 -5.940 -2.690

2.100

5,835

,036,580

-28.980

336,360

254

1,240

12.812

845,830

820.500

630

17.347

155,310

152.550

1,390

12,308

689,310

666.010

-25.330 -2,760 -23,300

— — -

— — -

3,720

1,532

219,730

216.080

336.360

7,580

1,324

20.040

18,640

-3.650 - 1 .400

1

,065.570

1

Central Africa

East Africa

Africa

Americas Anglo-America3

72.4

79,2

74.7

81.7

72.1

78.9

25.4

65.7

71.6

10.416

48.1

63.7

68.2

660 480

+ 9.430 -3.750

23.460

64.3

69.5

1.190

45.1

64

73.6

684

Central America

74.450

632 229

106 107

66.5

73.1

580

27,1

84

135

91.8

87.4

li/lexico

228.034

24.3

65.9

71,7

47.6

81

113

88,5

38.4

68.0

72.5

388

78

103

92.6

86.650

18.4

63.8

70.4

60.0

87

118

83.3

870 887 832

South America

78.330 63.054

23.9

67.8

74.3

690 870 720 410

30.7

67

120

96.0

95.7

Canada United States Latin

5,440

582

15.200

24.630

3,800

1,486

75.430

71.670

3,400

1,664

109.070

101,140

5,990

1,459

45,320

40,480

3,610

1,783

36.740

32,390

1,753

27,010

28,260

-7.930 -4.830 -4,350 + 1,250

,227,040

1,131,700

-95,340

441,192

21,5

64.6

67-5

980

63.7

73

113

81.1

638

744.370

683,280

-61,090 + 5,760 -28,890 -12.980 -24,980

94,935

10,3

69.7

73.6

24.2

73

117

91.4

77.0

70,024

12.1

69.1

72,4

26.0

89.9

72.7

China

83.0

4,5

69 97

116

76,6

124

100.0

100.0

Japan

68

760

630 630 570 860 520

15.0

93

140

993

967

South Korea

17.8

99

121

95,7

91.3

Other Eastern Asia

1,480

7,050

983

13,760

1,534

1

12,830

719

115.630

121.390

30,980

7.281

274.120

245.230

23.470

3,704

102.350

89.370

13,080

5,817

252.270

227.290

355 397

45.590

44.600

5,430

25.530

26.730

6,390

.416

8.880

9.130

8,180

90

11.180

7,590

4,590

467 525 60

2,640

1,994

5,800

8.380

_

_

Andean Group Brazil

Other South America Asia

Eastern Asia

24,567

7,3

344

36,5

70.1

75-8

-990 + 1,200 + 250

122,408

34.4

60.0

60-9

2.350

90.6

77

104

624

35.5

80,985

30.8

60.4

61.2

2.140

88.0

79

108

65.5

37-7

India

20,306

38.1

62.0

64.0

2,110

83.0

100

500

24,4

Pakistan

8.740

-2,440

21,117

52.6

56.4

568

5,740

108.9

68 70

87

53-3

30.8

Other South Asia

284.110

259,400

34.6

61.0

65-2

2,690

66.5

256,530

-24.720 -24,430

137,223

280,960

129,901

338

61.8

66-1

2,550

63-2

57

116

92,6

85-0

3,150

2,870

-290

7,322

56-1

55.2

59.0

4,160

86.2

33

114

867

73-3

152,970

144,420

-8,540

86,625

228

64.9

69.6

50-2

120

86-1

71.8

590 290

91-9

116

54

83,6

South Asia

Southeast Asia

ASEAN Non-ASEAN

1,260

3,345

7,190

6,720

-480

2,586

4,4

64,2

329

86 100

98-8

727 962

6,400

4,882

64,820

65,180

24.1

69.6

72.7

570

22,9

95

115

72-5

53.1

3,500

12.060

10,870

8,880

6.3

65.0

67.0

1,600

60-0

89

65.8

Iran

1,372

68.900

61 .650

72,840

42.6

64.1

69.3

690

56-5

78

119 122

78.4

3,380

+ 370 -1,190 -7,240

2,319

1,122

870

69.1

Other Southwest Asia

2,480

5,624

1.840,140

,791 ,670

-48,470

195,047

23.8

68.5

76.7

290

11-5

99

133

99.0

97.5

1,600

4,829

154.120

144,970

169.746

23.0

628

73-2

280

16-8

992

96.7

6,342

38.400

41,300

72.769

209

57.7

71-1

18-6

99.5

96,8

10.480

3.457

3.5

65.3

747

240 230

99 100

123

1,140

-9,150 + 2,900 -1,050

99.5

97.4

Ukraine

93,200

,000

93.520

32,1

67.1

74.8

370

16.4

100 97

123

989

96.3

Other Eastern Europe

-39.330 -44.600 - 7.970

25.301

31.5

73.5

79.9

6.8

100

982

32.4

73.4

79.9

6.9

100

135 136

98.9

25,173

98.8

981

Western Europe European Union (EU)

1

1,560

4,430

11,520

2,770

3,426

104,200

4,900

6.349

1

.686.020

1

,646,690

4,820

6,090

1

.584.640

1

,540,050

-

1 1

3,160

7,126

228.320

220,350

6,950

6,513

369,600

358.820

6,320

4,588

167.700

150.340

2,610

4,037

92.180

85.830

9,570

5,843

226.010

220.460

4,580

7,225

500,840

504.260

9,380

14,278

101.380

106,650

-10.780 -17.360 -6,360 -5,550 + 3,430 + 5,270

560

7.215

70.450

64.110

-6,350

380

9.284

53.610

49.020

3,530

3,611

16.850

15.080

-4,580 - 1 ,770

U.S. $63,930,000,000 undistnbutable by continent or region.

/

c

"^j

^Western r^^^ /EuropeSs

Eastem^-i^^^_^

f'k„Europe

^~1

^^^X^"^^

!'§^-"^

^

~y' / \^Jf.^

Europe Eastern Europe

Russia

25.173

324

73,1

79.3

128

4,9

74.5

80.9

2,033

28,9

70,5

76.2

520

24.7

88

122

96.1

93.9

_

_

74,5

808

58

100

120

99.5

99.5

Australia

2,033

28.9

63.8

68-0

450 740

42,6

67

126

89

82.1

Pacific

81.3

72,5

79.0

73.6

80.2

74.6

80.5

74,4

79.7

3Anglo-Amenca includes Canada, the United

7.3

100

144

98.9

5.8

100

126

100.0

100.0

France

Germany

8.3

100

141

97.8

964

Italy

74

151

97.5

94.2

Spain

132

100.0

100.0

6.6

100 100 100

133

98.1

97.4

Other

5.7

100

124

99.9

999

Non-EU

6.6

States. Greenland.

Bermuda, and

St. Pierre

«;» /

1

and Miquelon.

Oceania

0-

•J

Gulf Cooperation Council

—

73.1

98.7

/f^

^3

Central Asia

300 300 370 310 190 250 450 340 310

Eastern Europe

Europe

14-0

Southwest Asia

— — _ — —

— _ _ —

757

region/bloc

social indicators (latest)

trade {'000,000 U.S.S), 1994

electncity

Statistics

.

Australia^' Pacific Ocean Islands

United Kingdom

EU

Oceania

Ocean

Islands

758

Britannica World Data

Government and international organizations unrelated to the provisions of a constitution still theoretically in force. When a date in this column is given in italics, it refers to a document that has been suspended, abolished by extraconstitutional action, or modified extensively. The characterizations adopted under "type of government" represent a compromise between the forms provided for by the national constitution and the more pragmatic language that a political scientist might adopt to describe these same systems. For an explanation of the application of these terms in the Britannica World Data, see the Glossary at page 541. The positions denoted by the terms "chief of state" and "head of government" are usually those identified with those functions by the constitution. The duties of the chief of state may range from largely ceremonial responsibilities, with little or no authority over the day-to-day conduct of government, to complete executive authority as the effective head of government. In certain countries, an official of a political party or a revolutionary figure outside the constitutional structure may exercise the powers of both positions. Membership in the legislative house(s) of each country as given here includes all elected or appointed members, as well as ex officio members (those who by virtue of some other office or title are members of the body), whether voting or nonvoting. The legislature of a country with a unicameral system is shown as the upper house in this table. The number of administrative subdivisions for each country is listed down to the second level. A single country may, depending on its size, complexity, and historical antecedents, have as many as five levels of administrative subordination or it may have none at all. Each level of subordination may have several kinds of subdivisions.

This table summarizes principal facts about the governments of the countries of the world, their branches and organs, the topmost layers of local government constituting each country's chief administrative subdivisions, and the participation of their central governments in the principal intergovernmental organizations of the world. In this table "date of independence" may refer to a variety of circumstances. In the case of the newest countries, those that attained full independence after World War II, the date given is usually just what is implied by the heading the date when the country, within its present borders, attained full sovereignty over both its internal and external affairs. In the case of longer established countries, the choice of a single date may be somewhat more complicated, and grounds for the use of several different dates often exist. The reader should refer to Macropcedia and Micropcedia articles on national histories and relevant historical acts. In cases of territorial annexation or dissolution, the date given here refers either to the final act of union of a state composed of smaller entities or to the final act of separation from a larger whole {e.g., the separation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971). The date of the current, or last, constitution is in some ways a less complicated question, but governments sometimes do not. upon taking power, either adhere to existing constitutional forms or trouble to terminate the previous document and legitimize themselves by the installation of new constitutional forms. Often, however, the desire to legitimize extraconstitutional political activity by associating it with existing forms of long precedent leads to partial or incomplete modification, suspension, or abrogation of a constitution, so that the actual day-to-day conduct of government may be largely

—

Government and

international organizations date of

date of current

independencea

or last

type of government

legislative branctid

executive brancti^

constitution t>

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

American Samoa Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina

Armenia Aruba Australia

Aug

19,

1919

Nov. 28, 1912 Julys, 1962

Dec

6,

1288

Nov 11, 1975 Nov 1, 1981 July 9, 1816 Sept, 23, 1991

republic April 29,

19912

July

1,

May

4,

1967 1993

1901

1900 1920

July 10, 1973

June 1973

Belize

Benin

March

1918

26, 1971

1,

1960

24,

1910 1825 1992

Aug.

Bolivia

Aug

6,

Bosnia and Herzegovina

March

Botswana

Sept. 30, 1966 Sept. 7, 1822

Brazil

3,

Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

Jan Oct

5,

Aug

5,

Burundi

July

1,

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

Nov.

9,

Jan. July July

1,

Central African Republic

Chad Chile

China Colombia

Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cole d'lvoire

1,

1,

5,

1984 1908 1960 1962 1953 1960 1867 1975

Aug. 13, 1960 Aug. 11, 1960 Sept 18, 1810 1523 BC July 20. 1810 July 6, 1975

Aug. Sept

Aug

15,

1960

15,

1821

7,

1960

Croatia

June

25, 1991

Cuba

May Aug

20,

Cyprus29

Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El

Salvador

1902 16, 1960 Jan 1, 1993 c 800 June 27, 1977

Nov 3, 1978 Feb 27. 1844

May

1822 Feb 28, 1922 Jan 30, 1841 24,

9, 1,

Nov, 12, 19951

Nov 30, 1966 Aug. 25, 1991 Oct 4, 1830 Sept 21, 1981

March

July Oct,

1991

Bermuda Bhutan

terri-

fishing/

government

tiouse

house (mem-

order

order

torial

economic

(mem-

(number)

(number)

(nautical

(nautical

bers)

bers)

miles)

miles)

prime minister prime minister prime minister governor

president president president S president

pari-

British

monarch

140 2006,

c. '

200

1,541

of the govt.

200 2001

prime minister

200

president

200

)

1973

Belgium

U

second-

head

Aug, 15, 1971

Belarus

(US)

first-

president '0

Bahrain

Bangladesh Barbados

territory

lower

copnncipality

Bahamas, The

Azerbaijan

republics

seaward claims

upper

Aug. 27, 1992 republic Nov. 1, 1981 constitutional monarchy Aug, 24, 199412 federal republic July 5, 199513 republic overseas territory (Neth Jan. 1, 1986

Jan, 1, Oct. 30, Aug. 30, July 10,

Austria

republic

Feb. 23. 1989

subdivisions

tiead of

Dec, 16, 1972 Nov, 30, 1966

March

federal pari, state 16 federal republic

monarchy monarchy (emirate)

constitutional

fed. const,

Sept 21, 1981

constitutional

May

5,

Dec.

2,

June

8,

1990 1968

British

monarchy

monarch emir

republic constitutional

monarch president president

republic

1994 1993

30,

British

president British

monarch

British

monarch monarch

Feb 2, 1967 Nov 21, 199523

K.)

British

monarch

11,

77

republic

-

(sultanate)

republic

1991

19922 Sept. 24, 1993 June 2, 1972 Apnl 17, 1982 Sept. 25, 1992

republic

republic^

13,

constitutional

monarchy republic

federal pari stale'6

republic

Jan, 14, 1995

republic

19932 1981

republic republic

1982

people's republic

July 5. 1991

republic

April 6,

March

11,

Dec.

4,

June 7, 199213 March 15, 1992" Nov 9, 1949 Oct 31, 1960 Dec 22, 1990 Feb, 24, 1976

Aug. 16, 1960 Jan 1, 1993 June 5, 1953

federal Islamic republic

republic republic republic republic socialist republic

republic republic constitutional

monarchy

Sept. 15, 1992

republic

Nov 3, 1978 Nov 28, 1966 Aug 10, 1979

republic republic

Sept

Dec

1971

republic republic

20, 1983

republic

11,

prime minister prime minister

—

12 12

200 200

12 1220

200

—

200 12

— 18

200 200

-king-

federal republic

monarchy

July 12, 1991

June

_

118 589

republic republic ^'i

Sept. 30, 1966

March

64

prime minister prime minister

republic

colony (U

22

Oct 5, 1988 Sepi 29. 1959

chancellor

prime minister prime minister prime minister

president

republic

monarchy monarchy

200

prime minister

president president -

- sultan — president president

prime minister prime minister

216 240 107

200 200 200

328 109

president25 26 king president prime minister phme minister Canadian GG2' phme minister president

prime minister president president prime minister president premier SC president president prime president prime president president prime president president prime

335 1,011

12 12 1211

3

200 200

minister

7

minister

47

200

3

81

12 12

200 200

minister

50

minister

president president prime minister president

monarch

200 200

prime minister

president

pnme minister president president president prime minister president president

136 193

200 1231

200

200 200 200 20031

200

Comparative National

Finally, in the second half of the table are listed the memberships each country maintains in the principal international intergovernmental organizations of the world. This part of the table may also be utilized to provide a complete membership list for each of these organizations as of Dec. 1, 1995.

IBRD

ICAO ICJ

IDA IDB

Notes for the column headings

IFC

International organizations, conventions

ILO

IMF a.

The date may

also be either that of the

organization of the present form of government or the inception of the present administrative structure (federation, confederation, union, etc.). b. Constitutions whose dates are in italic type had been wholly or substantially suspendetl or abolished as of late 1995. c. For abbreviations used in this column see the list on the facing page. d. When a legislative body has been adjourned or otherwise suspended, figures in parentheses indicate the number of members in the legislative body as provided for in constitution or law. Vatican City also a member. e. f States contributing funds to or receiving

African, Caribbean, and

IMO

ADB

Pacific (Lom^ IV) convention Asian Development Bank

APEC

Asia-Pacific

CARICOM

Cooperation Council Caribbean Community and Common Market

EU ECOWAS

The European Union Economic Community

of

OAS

OAU OPEC

West

African States

EEC FAO GATT (WTO)

SPC

UNCTAD

European Economic Community Food and Agriculture Org.

aid from in 1995. Palestine (Liberation Organization) also a

I-ADB

member.

IAEA

International

GCC

ITU

LAS

Economic

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (World Trade Org. as of January 1995) Gulf Cooperation Council Inter-American Development

UNICEF

g.

ACP

UNICEF

UNIDO

UPU

WHO WIPO

Bank

WMO

Atomic Energy

Statistics

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Civil Aviation Org. International Court of Justice International Development Assn. Islamic Development Bank International Finance Corporation International Labour Org. International Monetary Fund International Maritime Org. International Telecommunication

Abbreviatio ns used in the executive-

Union League of Arab States Organization of American Stales

PNA PRC

Organization of African Unity Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

759

branch colu mn

AFPRC CS

FC

GG GPC NA PC

Armed

Forces Provisional Ruling Council Council of State Federal Council

Governor-General General People's Committee National Assembly

SLORC

Provisional Council Palestine National Authority Provisional Ruling Council State Council State Law and Order

SCS

Supreme Council of

SC

Restoration Council State

South Pacific Commission United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Org. United Nations Children's Fund United Nations Industrial

Development Org. Universal Postal Union World Health Org. World Intellectual Property Org. World Meteorological Org.

Agency

membership United Nations (date of

in

UN

International organizations

organs* and

affiliated

intergovernmental organizations

Com-

regional multipurpose

economic

monwealth

admission)

1955 1962

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

Samoa

1993

American Andorra

1976

Angola

1981

Antigua and Barbuda Argentina ^

1945 1992

Armenia Aruba

1945 1955 1992 1973

Australia

1971

Bahrain

1974 1966 1945 1945

Bangladesh Barbados

1981

Belize

1960

Benin

Austria

Azerbaijan

Bahamas, The

Belarus

Belgium

Bermuda 1971

Bhutan

1945 1992

Bolivia

1966 1945 1984 1955 1960

Botswana

1962 1955 1960 1945 1975 1960 1960 1945 1945 1945

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Brazil

Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso

Burundi

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic

Chad Chile

China

Colombia

1975 1960 1945 1960 1992

Comoros Congo

1945 1960 1993 1945 1977

Cuba

1978 1945 1945 1945 1945

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt

Costa Rica Cote dlvoire Croatia

Cyprus »

Czech Republic Denmark D|ibouti

El

Salvador

760

Britannica World Data

Government and

international organizations dale of

date of current

Independences

or last

(continued)

type of government

executive branctic

head of government

constitution iJ

Oct 12, 1968 May 24, 1993 Aug. 20, 1991 c. 1000 8C

1970 Dec. 6, 1917 August 843

Oct

10,

Nov. 16, 199113 May 199332 Julys, 1992 Aug 22.199534 Apnl 1. 1948

Oct. 4.

Feb

28.

1958 1983

Sept. 6. 1984

Aug

17.

Feb. 18,

1960 1965

March

9,

1991

Mays, 1955 March

6.

1957

Feb. 3. 1830 Feb.

7,

1974

May

26,

Jan.

1,

Nov

5,

1966 1804 1838

May

republic

June

11.

May

1.

Feb.

7.

28. 1,

1975 1979 1974 1983 1950

1,

1949'"

Dec

23,

19902

May

11,

1991

Oct

6,

1980

March

29. 1987 Jan. 20. 1982

3.

1932

Sept. 22, 196815

Dec

6,

1921

Dec. 29, 1937 1961'" June 1950'"

15,

Aug. 17.

Oct

Aug.

May

1962 660 BC

6,

c.

1946

1.

Aug. 6 1962

May

3,

Jan. 1 Jan. 8

1947 1949*1

1952 Aug. 30 199513

Dec. 12, 1963

Dec 12 1963

July 12, 1979 Sept. 9, 1948

July 12 1979 Dec, 27 1972

Aug. 15, 1948 19, 1961

Feb 25 1988 Nov 16 1962

Aug. 31, 1991 Oct 23, 1953

May 5 1993 Aug. 15, 1991 Nov. 7 1922

June

Aug Nov

21, 1991

26, 1941 Oct. 4, 1966

Sept. 21 April 2,

Oct

17,

May

10,

1990

March

2,

July 12, 1806

Oct.

5,

Sept

May

6.

1991

10,

1867

April

June

26,

1992 1960

July 6, 1964 Aug. 31. 1957 July 26, 1965

Sept. 22, 1960 Sept 21, 1964 Dec 22, 1990

Nov. 28, 1960

March

12.

1968

1990 1993 199523 1977 1921 1992 1868

Aug

July 26. 1847 24, 1951

Dec

20,

Nov

6,

Nov 17 1991 Sept 21

May

18 Aug. 31

1992 1994 1957

May

1979 Feb 28 1983

Aug

1956 1975

1994 Dec 17, 1962 Feb 12 1992 Oct 9 1992 Nov. 30 1990

1948 March 21. 1990 Jan 31. 1968 Nov 13. 1769 March 30. 1814

Jan 4, 1974 March 21 1990 Jan 31 1968 Nov 9 1990 Feb 17 1983

Feb 2, March 13, March 2, June 25. Jan

4,

1861 1921

British

republic cooperative republic republic republic crown colony (U K.)

monarch

British

republic

mon.

(emirate)

republic republic republic republic constitutional

monarchy

British

British

prime monarch emperor prime monarch42 -king25

fed.

-

overseas dept

(Fr

republic republic terr. collectivity (Fr

-

paramount

republic

monarchy republic

constitutional

republic constitutional

monarchy monarchy

sec.

GPC

head

of govt.

pnme pnme

minister

13

c,

1.500

minister

president

ruler

120 138 177 69

- president president

105

president president president prince president

2,378

pnme

minister

mm

of state

—

chairman

299

prime minister

333 250

112

SLORC

(492)

317

—

26

-king2 president

republic

constitutional

OS -

French president

monarchy

republic republic

100 128 336

president pnme minister president prime minister - president French president

federal republic

constitutional

minister

prime minister prime minister

governor prime minister president prime minister president

federal republic

27,

pnme

chairman

grand duke

687 299

prime minister prime minister

president president president president king

monarchy

republic republic republic republic

bailiff

president -president-

president

const monarchy

120

326

-

republic

republic republic

270

minister minister

premier president president prime minister emir25

rev leader prince

special terr (Port.) republic

1,000

prime minister

president

republics

constitutional

184 196

477 303 229

245

chief minister

prime minister prime minister

president president

monarchy

socialist states

constitutional

miles)

governor

monarch 42

British

republic republic

const,

miles)

-

republic republic

socialist republic

bers)

president -

president prime minister president

republic

(nautical

bers)

president prime minister president president prime minister - president

republic republic

constitutional monarchy constitutional monarchy crown dependency (UK) constitutional monarchy

economic

(nautical

monarch 42

president prime minister president prime minister president prime minister - president - president ''3-

(U.K.)

torial

(number)

U.S. president president British

republic republic federal republic republic Islamic republic

crown dependency

fishing/

order

(number)

French president

republic

July 21 1991 tWarch 12, 1992

Dec. 22, 1990 27, 1991

crown dependency (U.K)

1

Aug

(Fr

republic

Nov, 11 1968 Jan. 5 1992 Dec 13 1974

Dec 24 1976 Feb 5. 1917 May 10, 1979

Sept. 16. 1810

prime minister

1948

Dec. 16. 1991

25,

35

monarch

territory (U.S.)

terri-

house (mem-

order

(mem-

governor prime minister

president

overseas dept

18,

Jan.

monarch

British

Danish monarch

monarchy

second-

president

republic constitutional

first-

chancellor

president

Danish realm

Jan. 14, 1986

Oct

17.

Aug

colony (U.K part of

lower

prime minister chairman AFPRC chairman PNA president prime minister

republic

Jan. 7, 1993 May 23. 1969

Oct. 7.

June

president

republic interim authority

federal republic

19892 June 17, 1944 Jan 26, 1950 Aug. 17, 1945 Dec. 2-3, 1979

16,

(Fr.)

republic

(Fr.)

1949

23,

1918 1944 1947 1945 1906

Nov

prime minister prime minister prime minister

republic

7970 199438 Aug. 24. 199539

Jan.

Sept. 10, 1974

35

president president president French president French president

overseas dept. overseas territory

4,

Aug.

Oct. 2, 1958

Danish monarch

republic republic

April 24,

Feb Sept. 15, 1821

Danish realm

26, 1991

May

AphI

part of

July 25. 1990 July 17. 1919

admin, subdivisions

upper house

president prime minister - president president prime minister president prime minister

republics republics republic republic

president president prime minister king pnme minister monarch

seaward claims

legislative brancfi^

Comparative National

membership United Nations (date of

in

UN

Statistics

intemational organizations

organs* and

affiliated

intergovernmental organizations

Com-

regional multipurpose

monwealtfi

admission)

1968 1993

Equatorial Guinea

1991

Estonia

1945

Etfiiopia

Eritrea

Faroe Islands

1970 1955 1945

Fi|i

1960 1965

Gabon

Finland

France French Guiana French Polynesia

Gambia, The

Gaza

Strip

1992 1973

Georgia

1957

Ghana

Germany

Gibraltar

1945 1974

Greece Greenland Grenada

Guadeloupe

Guam

1958 1974 1966 1945 1945

Guatemala Guernsey Guinea Guinea-Bissau

Guyana Haiti

Honduras

Hong Kong 1955 1946 1945 1950 1945

Hungary

1945 1955

Iraq

Iceland India

Indonesia Iran

Ireland Isle of

1949 1955 1962 1956

Man

Israel Italy

Jamaica Japan Jersey

1955 1992

Jordan Kazakhstan

Kenya Kiribati

1991 1991

Korea, North Korea, South

1963

Kuwait

1992 1955

Kyrgyzstan

1991

1945 1966 1945 1955 1990 1991

1945

l_aos

Latvia

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia

Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania

Luxembourg

Macau 1993 1960 1964 1957

1965 1960 1964 1991

1961

1968 1945 1991

1992 1993 1961

1956 1975

1948 1990

Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali

Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius

Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

Moldova

Monaco Mongolia

Morocco Mozambique

Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands,

The

761

Britannica World Data

762

Government and

international organizations date of

date of current

independences

or last

(continued)

type of government

executive brancfic

constitution b

fiead of

government

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

Dec

Oman Patau

Panama Papua New Guinea

June

7,

1905

May

Oct.

1,

Nov.

3.

1994 1903

14,

1811

July 28, 1821 July 4, 1946

Nov. 10; 1918

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico

c.

Sept

Qatar

3,

1140

Dec.

8,

1991

Rwanda

July

1,

1962 1983

St. St.

and Nevis

San li/lanno Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia

July

June

3,

Jan.

1,

1993

1,

1,

Sept.

6,

Jan,

1.

1978 1985 1987 1968 1975

29,

1874

4,

1,

Oct

10.

25,

Nov

25,

Sept.

Sept. 22. 1499

May

Apnl 17, 1946

March Dec

9,

Tanzania

Dec.

9,

1991 1961

1350 April 27, 1960 June 4, 1970 Aug. 31, 1962 March 20, 1956 Oct. 29, 1923 Oct. 27, 1991

Oct Oct

Aug

1,

9,

24, 1991

Dec

United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

Oct

Uruguay

Aug

1978 1962

2,

1971

Nov April

7.

9,

1991

1875 July 27, 1976 June 1. 1959 Nov.

Nov.

4,

7,

May

18.

Sept

15,

Oct. 8,

1982 1992 1986

2,

76

Sept

2,

1945

)

Dec

8.

Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire

Zambia

Zimbabwe

-

republic

-

constitutional

July 30, 1980 Jan 23, 1961 1992 July 22, 1954

April 15,

federal state

republic republic republic republic constitutional

monarchy

constitutional

monarchy

1,

1962

June

30,

1960

Oct 24, 1964 1980

April 18,

Oct 28, Sept 29, Apnl 27, Apnl 9,

Aug

1960 199482 1992 199484

SCSprime minister prime minister

400 350

monarch

monarch

republic

republic republic federal republic socialist republic )

of

prime minister prime minister

prime minister

prime minister prime minister president president president prime minister president

monarchy

federal republic

S

prime minister prime minister

president 25 president pnme minister

US

406 1.198

100

president prime minister - president pnme minister president governor president area commander

435 99

202 467

—

Morocco head

of state

republic

president

federal republic

federal president

republic

president

30, 1991

republic

-

1980

republic

-

April 18,

143 178

prime minister president president British

federation of emirates

Israeli military'

Jan.

president president

republic

territory (U

305

monarch '2

republics

constitutional

2.465

president president president

king president

republic republic

monarchy

204 460

—

republic republic

constitutional

too

230

-president FC- president president premier president NA prime minister president

republic

annexture

December 1918 Dec 1, 1918

165 806

—king25_

monarchy monarchy

1992

West Bank Western Sahara Western Samoa

republic

1995"

197115

miles)

-presidentss-

Islamic military regime

Apnl 20, 1978 Dec.

miles)

monarchy

Sept. 27, 199213

March 4, 1789 Feb 15, 1967

July 30, 1980 July 5, 1811

constitutional

1994 25, 1977

1066

25, 1828 Aug. 31. 1991

republic^' republic

6,

Dec.

-chairman president president

monarchy

14, 1973 25, 194741

July 4, 1776

14,

constitutional

1,

Jan

Sept.

(US

1978 1960 April 27, 19942 Dec. 29, 1978 7,

Feb.

Tajikistan

Virgin Islands

Dec, 23, 1991 July July

bers)

captains-regent (2) prime minister president king

prime minister prime minister

1965 1993

1991 1959"'

9,

British

republic republic

republic

1.

(nautical

bers)

minister

president prime minister - president

Oct.

Oct. 25, 1945

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam

prime minister prime minister prime minister

republic republic republic republic republic

1961

Taiwan

Uzbekistan

president president president

March 7, 1963 June 18, 1993

1976

1948 1956 1975 Sept. 6, 1968 before 836

Ukraine

French president

republic federal republic republics

monarchy

29,

Nov

Uganda

overseas dept (Fr)

66

April 27,

Sn Lanka Sudan, The Suriname

Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu

prime minister prime minister governor

constitutional

Spam

and Tobago

US

president president president

Oct 27, 1979 Oct. 8, 1600 Sept. 10, 1990

855 July 12, 1975 Sept. 23, 1932

Sept. 19,

economic

(nautical

prime minister

Oct 27, 1979

1960 May 31, 1910 1492

Trinidad Tunisia

199565 1983

tonal

(number)

president president

prime minister prime minister

July

Togo Tonga

5,

monarch

pnme

25, 1991 July 7, 1978

Thailand

May

minister

monarch monarch

June

Switzerland Syria

1983

fishing/

order

(number)

governor

pnme

monarch

Jan.

Sweden

28,

British

republic republic

commonwealth (US) monarchy

Dec. 13, 1991 Dec. 24, 1993

tern-

house (mem-

order

(mem-

seaward claims

PC

British

Aug

Swaziland

monarchy

republic republic parliamentary state

1970«

second-

republic republic constitutional

April 25,

1976 July 25, 1952

first-

federal Islamic republic

June 22, 1992 Dec 29, 1993 Feb. 11, 1987 Dec. 8. 199262

- president U.S. president king sultan

British

Slovakia

Islands

federal republic

commonwealth (US.) monarchy monarchy (sultanate)

admin, subdivisions

lovi'er

president president prime minister

republic republic

constitutional

branch c

upper house

i*

monarchy monarchy

Singapore

Somalia South Africa

1973

prime minister

monarchy

Aug. 20, 1960

Solomon

14,

56

monarch

British

constitutional

June

Slovenia

1814

Dutch monarch French president

constitutional

Seychelles

Leone

monarchy

Feb. 22, 1979

Senegal Sierra

constitutional

Feb. 22, 1979

Sept. 19,

Lucia Vincent

17,

Jan. 1, 1981 May 20, 198358 Sept 16, 1975

Feb twlay21. 1877

Russia St. Kitts

Aug

1971

Reunion

Romania

9,

Oct. 1, 1979 Jan. 9, 1978

May

Philippines

Jan.

overseas territory (Neth overseas territory (Fr.)

1987

Dec. 26, 199213

Sept. 16, 1975

Paraguay Peru

1954 1988

1838 1960

Dec. 20. 1951 Aug. 14, 1947

Pakistan

9,

30, 1852i'

3,

Is.

Norway

June

Aug.

April 30,

Nigeria

Northern Mariana

29,

Nov. Sept. 26, 1907

legislative

prime prime prime prime

president president

minister minister minister minister

159 150

-

lObserver status STerntonal sea claim assumed to claim fishing/economic nghts within the same zone iNo effective constitution because of multifactional warfare 2Transitional constitution 'OAssisted sPresident of France and Bishop of Urgell. Spain sincludes nonvoting delegate. 'Includes unoccupied seats sTransitional government 6Body with limited or no legislative authority i2Promulgation date of significant amendments to July 9. 1853, "Measured from claimed archipelagic baselines by two vice presidents pending implementation of November 1994 Lusaka Protocol isAssociate member iiExeculive responsibilities divided between (for The Netherlands) the governor and (locally) the prime minister i3Date of referendum approving new constitution constitution 203 nautical miles from mouth of i^Five region/community councils, 10 provincial councils leDefined by equidistant line I'Full membership pending i6Formally a constitutional monarchy 22Resembles 'lExecutive responsibilities divided between (for the U K the governor and (locally) the premier of the cabinet Sarstoon River (southern boundary with Guatemala) to Ranguana Caye 2''Peace accord to establish two political entities (a Bosnian-Muslim Bosnian-Croat federation and a Bosnian Serb 23Date of peace accord a constitutional monarchy without a formal constitution 2'Governor-general can exercise all the powers of the reigning monarch of the Commonwealth republic) 26Firsl prime minister assisted by second pnme minister 25Assisted by the prime minister 33Being 320tficial proclamations organizing government s'Zone defined by geographic coordinates 21985 '1981 census 81930 estimate 91992 estimate •'1986 census 61990 estimate 31991 estimate 5Data are for de |ure population 'Settled population only 2Clvll register: not a census 'SExcludes visitors, transients, and family '"1983 census 'spormer West Germany only '31982 census '2Republic of Cyprus only "Except census, data are for the island of Cyprus estimate 2')Area figures exclude the West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza "1994 estimate 'ai988 estimate 'sDala exclude Alderney (population 2,297) and Sark (population 604) members of British servicemen 22lncludes East Jerusalem and Israelis in the West 2ipopulatlon figures include the Golan (Heights and East Jerusalem, and exclude Israelis in the West Bank and Gaza Stnp Strip, and Golan Heights.

1

Comparative National

populat on (by decade, 000s)

age 0-14

15-29

1940

distribution (%)

30-44

45-59

60-74

1950

Statistics

769

country

1970

1960

1980

1990

2000

2010

projection

projection

75 and over

23.2

23.9 28.6 24.6

25.5 19 8 22.4

48.1

256

14.1

48.7

24.8

14,6

47.46 23.8

26.06 33.5

14.46 30.7

188

229

22.1

46.76 44.5

23.66 23.9

17.26 15.4

30.3 34.8 41.9

27.8 29.2

22 8

285

40.1

26.0

326

37.0 39.6 25.4 25.57 27.2 27.8 29.5 22.4

5.4

16

77 53

112 59

136 79

163 110

174 140

188 168

214 204

243 238

14.4 7.4 6.8

10.9 3.8 3,6

4.5

1,637

1,909 1,109 2,400

2,377 1,472 3,028

2,820 1,972 4,165

3,144

3,363

2,771

3,871 7,731

3,786 4,459 10,805

4,097 5,864 14,751

33,320 6 3,265

42,366 9

56,346

69,875 17 4,086

86,015 45

105,885

130,344

65

83

456

558

1,101

4,241 1,751

85,299

121,933

4,426 2,626 161.827

4.550 3,783 210,104

12 1,950 3,086 3,136 17,295

15 2,398 3,839 4,220

22 3,266

21,550

19 2.856 4,809 5.464 25,573

48,287 35,578 9,766 3,204

62,049 38,111 9,896 3,528

78,414 39,077 9.967 3,934

229

484

632

601 23,201 148,292 6,925

724

873

22,625 143,178 8,855

22,490 134,816

42

39

39

151

169 133

7.3

2.'3

0.5

48

139

72

2,973

3.56

0.76

9.3

5.3

1.6

28,300

39,513

49,955

6

2.0

25 620

9 1,148 1,920 1,774

8.6

83

42

17.7

9.8

28.7 21.2 23.5?

9.2 15.5 17.27

29.3

17 3 23.3 18.0' 20.4 32.3

298

203

11.7

22.9 22.0

17.1

25.66

1896

36.8 37.4 '0 24.4 47.66

29.4 32.7'°

16.3 14.910

230 2586

199

4296

24.66

12.16 19.96

47.5 33.6 43.9'0

26

13.6

14.1

8.6

17.6 8.4 10.16 8.7 7.510 17.4 7.36 8.46

3.2

1,308 1.1

7.0

4.2 10.4 11.97 9.2

1.1

4.2 3.97

40

6.5

2.1

16.8 11.2 3.9 8.96

4.2

0.9 4,06

6.3 5.610

2.5 1.910 3.9

11.4

6.46

5.0

23.7 13.9 15.5 20.7 20.69

17.4

11.9

24.9 29.4 25.19

10.5

5.7

1.6

35.3 45.26 39.3 47.3 18.7

29.6 26.16

17.9 15.56

10.6 8.76

5.2

1.4

138

20.0

203

10.0 7.4 18.7

3.96 4.5 3.4

0.76

295 266

16.8 48.5

228

23.2 12.5

18.0

231 13.8

32.1

18.49

27.1

224 257

25.8 27.8

13.4

338

447

507

18,403 119,906 2,742

20,253 130,392 3,728

43

49

51

46

22,201 138,914 5,113 43

70

79 67

86 80

101

86

122 99

10

13

15

19

21

60

60

64

74

94

3,201

4,075

5,745

9,604

134 105 23 117 16,048

2,500

3,187

4,158 54 2,656 2,075 4,528

5.538 63 3,236 2,282 4,984

7,327 70 3,999 2,705 5.298

61

,084

119 27 146 21,257

182 28,880

9,495

12,241

81

5,069 3,303 5,412

94 6,366 4,034 5,529

1,963

2,003

31

Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines

Poland Portugal

Puerto Rico Qatar

Reunion

Romania Russia

Rwanda St. Kitts

St. St.

and Nevis

Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines

San Marino Sao Tome and

Senegal

3,463

3.994

4.6

1,450

320

444

596

2,956 17,396 30,303

1,727 163 3,667 22.458 33,779

230

10,353 25,757

1,467 104 2,438 13,683 27.868

5,799 29,170 37,636

6.753 37.066 38,798

7,079 46,215

7,823 56,398

39 268

38,969

Somalia South Africa3i Spain

5,972 8,500

7,678 9,190

9,889 11,165

12,514 13,859

14,747 18,681

16,993 24,585

19,258 32,079

21,521

Sri

215 253

247 320

292 409

355 550

403 769

465

534

94

1,580

125

1,901

1.998

41,534

Principe

Saudi Arabia

Seychelles Sierra

Leone

Singapore Slovakia

Slovenia

Solomon

Islands

Lanka Sudan. The Suriname Swaziland

1.3

14.1

8.2

6,371

7,041

7,498

8,081

8,310

8.559

1,047 9,059

1,338 9,278

6.7

7 9

1.8

9.0

4.6

16

336

0.76

6,270 6,305 14,583 2,942 13,273

6,362 8,704 17,705 3,968

7.86

4,715 3,495 7,619 1.532 7,892

6,712 12,116 20,279 5,303 24,403

7,279 16,909 22,306 6,407 32,120

7,452

12.3

4,234 2,597 5,987 1,525

5,429

83

12.5 3.7

5.7

1.6

15,296

26,392

834 37 503

50 668

65 828

46,718 2,615 92

97

61,909 4,818 103

2,887

3,530

4,221

35,745 2.020 80 941 5,137

55,583

2.0

20,010 1,329

1,082 6,392

1,227 8,074

1,303 9,694

17,723 1,302 4 4,233 41,340

20,809

27,509

1,211

1,594 5 7,551

35,321 2,189 6 9,806

56,098 3,668

27,244 50,903

Uganda

47,317

69,694 4,474 10 21,168 51,634

80,120 5,277

42,783

44,438 2,860 8 12,779 50,034

90

223

52,372 180,671 2,531 8,559

55,632 204,879 2,824

1,015 56,330

United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

11,973

20,515

2,429 59,595 276,052 3,274 25,383

2,882 61,127

227,726 2,914 15,977

1,844 57,561 249,91 3,094

148 19,502 66,689 102

189 24,170 82,648 99

231 28,716 98,448

1,011

1,533

2,244

244

306 192

1.2

14.26 21 2

248

13.1

12.3 6.8

406

29.0

138

10.1

3.3 5.0

31.36

2696

21.56

39.7M

28834

14.234

12.26 10.734

5.434

35.0 40.535 34.6 48.36 21.5

286

18.4

28.835 24.0

2666

15.535 20.7 13.96

21.0

206

31.910

24.910

32.110

19.1

21.9 23.4 22.8 28.4

21 2

45.5 38.3 39.0 28.9 48.3

26.6

42.9 40.5 50.69 22.8 45.2 '0

27.2 30.0 22.99 21.6 25.910

13.69 21,7 15.510

48.46 51.013

27.26 26.313

13.76 13.413

10.9 9.135 11.3 7.26 18.5

8.710

1.4

8.16 1,234

7

1

4.735 9.2

1,435

3.46

0.76

10.7

7.7

0.510

1.910

5 5,969 36,906

70 50,290

4,561 10,668 2,083 10,073

1,514

18,441

7,0 5.3 4.3

48,226 132,594 1,974

1.8

6,551

152,271 2,194 6,314

0.6

43

52

65

86

115

1.2

3,740

73

22

7,579 34,743 32

42,729 75

15,091 53,711

16.0

5,094 29,954 27

10,721

9.1

3.7 4.5 5.6

16.7 14.4 16.5 9.3

14.1

8.4 9.3

287

15.2 18.6 16.0

23.7

22.0

11.5 11.4 4.7

16 25

113 16.3 14.6

1 1

Panama

193 154

30.4

28.1

244 16,311

105,018 2,120

Palau

4.2

28

26.76

15.0

2,721 151

94,503 39,963 10,089 4,386 755

Pakistan

42

4.9 5.4

28.8 49.8

183

59

36,850 32,526 9,040

Oman

2,241 1,639

10.7

28.1

239

47

8,826 2,360

5,918 6,785 29,313

Norway

34

2.2

42.9 47.26

21.5 26.6 40.8

27,561 29,561

1.531

2,422 2,351 13.193

Northern Mariana Islands

1,944 1,022

69

7.4

20,988 24,824 8,405 2,218

10

Nigeria

32

2.9 0.710

8.1

9,931

723 65,706

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

1,700 751 3,553

4.510

7.1

893 1,613 1,351 7,632

10 3,877

5,586

221 15,907 110,098 1,910

1,857

12.7 14.6

20.0 47.3 45.6

1,878

0.76

3.46

277 228

23.2 25.0

16,459 31,500 7,696

0.4

1.6

7.8 10.7 9.610

153

1,111

6,784

15.710

1

30.3 25.6 '0 27.3 22.7

3,581

8.36

187

286

1.700

9.1

27.6 28.6

45.6 32.56

825

1,5

15.1

5.5

25.1

1.1

0.66

16 6

18.2

3.0

3,56

8.06

10.5 10.2 8.7

20.8 21 9 12.4

23.1

12.1

14.3

7.4

4.4

8.7 7.79

4.09

1.29

12.2 3.910

3.5 0.710

3.16

0.76

1.213

1.613

17.1

8.710

7.06 6.513

6.0

16,447 51,892

67,130 6,427 105 1,384 11,209

11

300,226 3,453 30,703

107

Syria

Taiwan Tajikistan

Tanzania Thailand

Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tunisia

Ukraine

Uruguay Uzbekistan

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.)

155 155 8,219 9,842 27,009

193 159 11.230 10.529 37,436

174 15,164 10,406 51,136

5,738 7,126

8,150 9,903

10.754 12,514

13,657 15,260

Zambia

82

111

10,370

4,316 7,131 13,055

5,247 8,050 16,151

1,484 1,940

2,440 2,730

3,141 3,812

4,189 5,260

Tobago

Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu

97 733

61

32

9

7,732 41,205

Switzerland

608 76 143 6,332 8,910 21,368

14

1.8

3,531

23,019 24,536

Sweden

West Bank37 Western Sahara Western Samoa

19,975

Yemen

10,781

Yugoslavia

68,876

Zaire

Zimbabwe

2eOm ani nationals only, 29Excludes 27|ncludes Western Sahara. 251935 census. 26198O census. 24No census ever taken. 23Excludes the West Ba Ik. Bank, Gaza Strip, and Golan Heights. 31 Includes the 30Excludes an estimated 155,000 persons in North Solomons province and five remote ce isus districts, Afghan refugees and residents of Pakis ani-occupied Jammu an d Kashmir. 33|ncludes 32Excludes the former black in dependent states of Bophuthatsvuana, Ciskei, Transk ei. and Venda. former black independent states of Bop huthatswana, Ciskei, Tra nskei, and Venda. 37Excludes East Jerusalem 341984 census. 51989 census. 36Excludes 515,000 armed forces overseas. resident aliens; excludes seasonal work ers.

Britannica World Data

770

Major

cities

and national

capitals

The

the country also publishes data for a more narrowly defined city proper; it is not provided when the sole published figure is the municipality, whether or not this is the proper local administrative term for the entity. Problems also exist in the identification of cities in terms of named legal entities. There is, for example, a single municipality (commune) named Brussel (Brussels) at the centre of the Brussels agglomeration in Belgium; the commune numbers only about 136,000 population, while the agglomeration, which is understood by most people to constitute the city, numbers nearly a million. Both are shown so as to apprise the reader of the existence of a problem. For certain countries, more than one form of the name of the city is given, usually to permit recognition of recent place name changes or of fonns of the place name likely to be encountered in press stories if the title of the city's entry in the Encyclopcedia Britannica is spelled according to a different romanization or spelling policy. Chinese names, for example, are given first in their Wade-Giles spelling (the scholarly system used by Britannica) and then, parenthetically, in their Pinyin spelling, the official Chinese system now encountered in press reports, official documents, and

following table lists the principal cities or municipalities (those exceeding 100,000 in population [50,000 for Anglo-America]) of the countries of the world, together with figures for each national capital (indicated by a *), regardless of size. Most of the populations given refer to a so-called city proper, that is, a legally defined, incorporated, or chartered area defined by administrative boundaries and by national or state law. Some data, however, refer to the municipality, or commune, similar to the medieval city-state in that the city is governed together with its immediately adjoining, economically dependent areas, whether urban or rural in nature. Some countries define no other demographic or legal entities within such communes or municipalities, but many identify a centre, seat, head (cabecera), or locality that corresponds to the most densely populated, compact, contiguous core of the municipality. Because the amount of work involved in carefully defining these "centres" may be considerable, the necessary resources usually exist only at the time of a national census (generally 5 or 10 years apart). Between censuses, therefore, it may be possible only to track the growth of the municipality as a whole. Thus, in order to provide the most up-todate data for cities in this table, figures referring to municipalities or communes may be given (identified by the abbreviation "MU"), even though the country itself may define a smaller, more closely knit city proper. Specific identification of municipalities is provided in this table only when

Major

cities

country population

city

Afghanistan (1988 est Herat

Kandaliar (Qandahar)

Mazar-e Sharif

225,500 130,600

Saidpur 181,318 342,796 289,142"

181.601 107.311 114,534 128,280 127,284

Constantine (Qacentina)

Mostaganem Oran (Wahran) Setif

Abbes

Skikda (Tilimsen)

440,842 114,037 609,823 170,182 152,778 128,747 107,559 107.632

American Samoa (1990) judicial)

* Utulei (executive)

9302

la

Vella

Angola (1993 est)

Huambo » Luanda

Lubango

400,000 2,000,000 105,0003

Antigua and Barbuda

Catamarca

Concordia

Cordoba Corrientes

Formosa General San Martin t.a Matanza

2,960,976''

110,269 123,672 116,491 1,148,305 257,766 153,855 407, 506 1,111,811

La Plata La Rioja

520,647 104,494

Lands

466, 755'' 572, 769

Lomas de Zamora del Plata

Mendoza Moron Neuquen Parana Posadas Quilmes Resistencia Rio Cuarto Rosario Salta

San Fernando San Isidro San Juan San Miguel de

Tucuman San Nicolas

20,046

Adelaide

Bankstown Blacktown Brisbane

Campbelltown Canberra Canterbury Fairfield

Geelong Gold Coast-Tweed Gosford Hobart Keilor

Knox

Melbourne Moorabbin

Randwick Stirling

Sydney Wanneroo

1,076,4006 162,600 228,400 786,442 149,100 278,904 134,500 186,100 152,200' 314,000' 142,150 194,2006 114,639 132,686 175,510 106,750 3,198,2006 100,389 460,200' 137,450 163,500 1,239,4006 117,600 178,7341 3,738,5006 190,965' 182,560

519,707 121,739 641,541 " 167,078 206,848 201,943 509 445" 228.199 133,741

894,645 367.099 141,496 299,022" 119,492

237,810 118,112 203,044 143,978

Innsbruck Linz

Salzburg * Vienna

1

Azerbaijan (1991 est * Baku (Baky) Ganca (Gyandzha) Sumqayit (Sumgait)

Bahamas, The

1

,539,848

,087,0008

282,200 236,200

Barisal

Brahmanbaria Chittagong Comilla * Dhaka (Dacca) Dinajpur Gazipur

Narayanganj Narsinghdi

Nawabganj Pabna Raishahi

Ranqpur

(1990)

city

Araraquara

101,302 145,112 254,211 765,476 1,529,566 152,846 185,200 118,928 1 ,492,542

Olinda

Mansa

Barra

Bauru

Belem Belo Horizonte Betim

Belarus (1992 est

Brasilia

169,000 224,000 152,000 284,000 517,000

Bobruysk Brest

Gomel Grodno

291 ,000 1,666,0008

* Minsk Mogilyov Mozyr Orsha

364,000 104,000 1 40,000 127,000 373,000

Pinsk Vitebsk

Belgium (1994 est) Antwerp Brugge (Bruges) * Brussels Agglomeration Charleroi

Ghent Liege (Luik)

Namur

462,880 116,724 136,42410 949,070 206,898 228,490 195,389 104,610

Dourados Duque de Caxias

112,099 298,331 748,076 516,403 275,508 269,234 207,264 180,654 175,294 262,983 105,464 195,705 252.784 841 ,882 305,068 141,984 116,754 325,903

Embu

155,851

Itapemirim

Campina Grande Campinas Campo Grande

Campos Canoas Carapicuiba Caruaru Cascavel Caxias do Sul

Colombo Contagem Cuiaba Curiliba

Diadema Divinopolis

Feira

de Santana

Benin (1992) Abomey-Calavi * Cotonou (official) Djougou Parakou * Porto-Novo

125,565 533,212 132,192 106,708

(de facto)

177,660

Bermuda

(1994 est) * Hamilton

Foz do Iguagu Franca Goiania Governador Valadares Gravatai

Guarapuava Guarulhos llheus

Imperatriz Ipatinga

Itabuna Itajai

Bhutan (1993 est)

Itapevi

* Paro (administrative) * Thimphu (official)

Itaquaquecetuba Jaboatao Jacarei

Bolivia (1992)

Cochabamba

Jequie

El Alto

Joao Pessoa

* La Paz

Joinville

713,378 183,422 112.078 697.278 131,769

195,139 102,546 126,067 112,470 300.000' 131,861 145,577

Pri|edor

* Saraievo Tuzia Zenica

Botswana (1992 * Gaborone

Americana Anapolis Aracaju

Aragatuba Arapiraca

Limeira

Macapa Maceio

Manaus Maraba Maracanau Marilia

Maringa

Maua Mogi das Cruzes Monies Claros Mossoro

est

Brazil (1991)

Alvorada

Lages

Luziania

MU)

Banja Luka Doboj Mostar

Juazeiro do Norte Juiz de Fora Jundiai

Londrina

Bosnia and Herzegovina (1991:

340,034 191,664 743,335 186,362 227.613 912,136 210,396 166,954 107,046 544,698 135,117 209,970 120,025 1 70,434 114,558 107,983 164,665 217,905 143,468 114,542 497,306 326,208 163,527 377,538 253,177 137,169 177,016 355,062 194,128 146,523 554,727

Florianopolis

Natal

132,582 153,592 222,400 401,676 145,751 124 790

Nilopolis Niteroi

Nova Friburgo Nova Iguagu Novo Hamburgo

1

1 1 1

,020

562,062 199.479

341,059 566,949

Parnaiba

105,131

Passo Fundo

135,158 260,510 123,857 164,849 223,170 104,800 219,648

Pelotas Petrolina

Petropolis Piracicaba

Pogos de Caldas Ponta Grossa Porto Alegre Porto Velho Presidente Prudente Recife Ribeirao Preto Rio Branco Rio Claro Rio de Janeiro Rio Grande Salvador

Santa Barbara d'Oeste Santa Maria

Santarem Santo Andre Santos

Sao Bernardo do Campo Sao Caetano do Sul Sao Carlos Sao Gongalo Sao Joao de Meriti Sao Jose do Rio Preto Sao Jose dos

Campos Sao Leopoldo Sao Luis Sao Paulo Sao Vicente Sapucaia do Sul Sete Lagoas Sorocaba Susano (Suzano) Taboao da Serra Taubate Teresina

Uberaba Uberlandia

Uruguaiana Veiha

Vila

Vitoria

1

,237,223

1

157,618 ,296,995

226,198

416,186 167,457 130,364 5,473,909 157,608 2,070,296 140.208 193.294 168,153 518,272 415,554 550,030 149,203 100,502 296,021 220,742

263,454

385,879 160,228 164,334 9,393,753 268,467 104,626 137,537 348,952 110,414 159,894 185,790 556,073 198.565 354,710 103,160 263.897 258.243

Vitona da

Conquista Volta

Redonda

179,868 219,988

Brunei (1991) * Bandar Seri

Begawan Bulgaria (1994 est

198.439 104,668 130,354 345,205 170,209 106,958 1,113,674 150,926 307.200

Burgas Dobrich Pleven

,005,634

102,364 133,206 144,906 225,516 294,631 125,992 223,046 117,020 459,827 104,671 400,586

population

Osasco

Cachoeiro de

Fortaleza

Belize (1993 est) * Belmopan

Santa Cruz * Sucre (judicial) 180.014 114,297 1 ,566,070 164,509 3,637,892 136,657 100,690 108,416 176,398 601,051 198,662 109,156 288,008 100,120 131,260 113,146 324,532 220,849

population

Blumenau Boa Vista

Potosi

Bangladesli (1991)

country

city

* Bridgetown

Oruro

Bahrain (1992 est) * al-Manamah

Mymensingh Naogaon

,783

165,099

(administrative)

(1990)

* Nassau

Jamalpur Jessore Khulna

1 1 1

Borisov

Australia (1994 est)

Graz

Comodoro Rivadavia

,226,000

Austria (1991)

346,620" 255,145

Sylhet Tangail

Baranovichi

* Oranjestad

Wollongong

(1991) * Saint John s

Argentina (1991) Avellaneda Bahia Blanca * Buenos Aires

120,0005 1

Nev»castle Parramatta Penrith Perth

Andorra (1993 est)

Sirajganj

Barbados

Gyumri (Kumayri;

Liverpool

2,3232

110,494 100,003 114.284

Tongi

Lake Macquarie

* Fagatogo (legislative

* Andorra

data were usually the national census and statistical abconcerned, supplemented by correspondence with unpublished data.

statistical offices to solicit

country

est.)

Aruba (1991) 1,507,241

222,518

Bectiar BejaTa Biskra Blida (el-Boulaida)

Armenia (1994 Leninakan)

Batna

Mar

San Salvador de

* Yerevan

Annaba

and

city

Santa Fe Vicente Lopez

est.)

Algeria (1987) * Algiers

Tebessa Tlemcen

most national

country

city

Jujuy

* Kabul

Sidi Pel

this

stracts of the countries

and national capitals

country

Albania (1991 * Tirane

maps. Sources for

Plovdiv

Ruse Sliven

* Sofia Slara Zagora

Varna Burkina Faso (1991 est *

Bobo Dioulasso Ouagadougou

Burundi (1994 * Bujumbura Gitega

est

268 926 634.479

Comparative National

country

country

city

city

Cambodia (1994

est

Punta Arenas Ouilpue

* Ptinom Penh

Cameroon

(1987)

Bafoussam

Bamenda Douala Garoua Maroua

* Yaounde

population

112,920 110,690 810,490 142,170 123,450 650,540

132,396 115,782 210,473 217,154

Rancagua San Bernardo * Santiago

(1991)

Barrie

(administrative)

4,628,320 190,255 257,767 262,624 125,067

Taica

Talcahuano

Temuco

Longueuil

Markham

153,811

Brantford

Brossard Burlington

Burnaby Calgary

Cambndge Charlesbourg Chicoutimi

Dartmouth Delta East York

Edmonton Etobicoke

Guelph Halifax

Hamilton Hull

Jonquiere

Kamioops Kelowna Kingston Kitchener Laval

Lethbridge

London

Mississauga

Moncton Montreal Montreal-Nord

Nanaimo Niagara Falls North Bay North York Oakville

Oshawa * Ottawa Peterborough Prince

George

Quebec Red Deer Regina

Richmond Saint Catharines

Saint-Hubert Saint John Saint John's Saint-Laurent

Sainte-Foy Sarnia-Clearwater

Saskatoon Sault Sainte Marie

Scarborough Sherbrooke Sudbury Surrey

Thunder Bay Toronto

Vancouver Verdun Victoria

463,388 57,010 1,017,666

85,516 60,129 75,399 55,405 562,564 114,670 129,344 313,987 68.371 69,653 167,517 58,134 179,178 126,624 129,300 74.027 74,969 95,770 72,402 71,133 74,167 186,058 81,476 524,598 76,429 92,884 245,173 113,746 635,395 471 ,844 61,307 71,228

Waterloo

71,181

Windsor Winnipeg York

191,435 616,790 140,525

Cape Verde *

* Valparaiso

62,728 69,158 234,445 81.997 64,793 129,575 158,858 710,677 92,772 70,788 62,670 67,798 88,978 102,696 616,741 309,993 87,976 114,455 318.499 60,707 57,933 67,057 75,950 56,597 168,282 314,398 60,974 303,165 129,874

Beauport

Brampton

(1990)

Praia

Central African Republic (1990 est.)

* Bangui

Chad

(1993)

Abeche Bongor

Doba Moundou * N'Djamena Sarh Chile (1993 est,; MU) Antofagasta Arica

Calama Chilian

Concepcion Copiapo

Coqulmbo Curico Iquique La Serena Los Angeles

Osorno Puente Alto Puerto Montt

187,757 194,992 185,477 281,477 529,555 198,113

227,985 206,600 120,602 166.669 318,140 100,946" 122.872" 103.919" 161,914 123,552 142.136" 140,370 220,039 128,537

.

city

Chung-Shan

Kung-chu-ling (Gongzhuling) Lai-chou (Laizhou) Lai-wu (Laiwu) Lai-yang (Laiyang) Lan-chou (Lanzhou) Lang-fang (Langlang) Lao-ho-k'ou (Laohekou) Le-shan (Leshan) Lei-yang (Leiyang) Leng-shui-chiang (Lengshuijiang)

(Zhongshan) Chungking

278,829

(Chongqing)

2,266,772

301,677 319,440

Mar

China (1990 est)

(Fengcheng)

(Fukien)

A-ch'eng (Acheng)

197,595 164,092 250.718 142.170 1,203,986 174,142 136.446 420,332

An-kang (Ankang) An-shan (Anshan) An-shun (Anshun) An-ta (Anda)

An-yang (Anyang) Canton (Guangzhou) Chan-chiang

2,914,281

(Zhanjiang)

400,997 132,260

Ch'ang-chi (Changji)

Chang-chia-kou (Zhangjiakou)

529,136

Ch'ang-chih (Changzhi)

317.144

Ch'ang-chou (Changzhou)

(Kiangsi)

Fu-shun (Fushun) Fu-yang (Fuyang) Fu-yu (Fuyu) Ha-mi(Hami)

Hai-la-erh (Hailar)

Han-Chung

Hang-chou (Hangzhou) Harbin

Heng-shui (Hengshui)

(Changchun) Ch'ang-sha (Changsha) Ch'ang-shu (Changshu) Ch'ang-te (Changde)

Ho-pi (Hebi) Ho-tse (Heze)

Ho-yuan (Heyuan)

Hsiao-kan (Xiaogan) Hsiao-shan

123,676 179,976

Hsien-t'ao (Xiantao)

368,316

Ch'i-t'ai-ho (Qitaihe)

Ch'i-tung (Qidong)

Chia-hsing (Jiaxing)

246,799 1,713,255 148,583

683,885 ,036,858 1,480,915 1

265,248 214,957 126,872 211,526

493.409

Chiang-men (Jiangmen) Chiang-yin

230,587

(Jiangyin)

213,659

Chiang-yu (Jiangyou) Chiao-hsien (Jiaoxian)

Chiao-nan (Jiaonan) Chiao-tso (jiaozuo) Ch'ien-chiang

175,753 153,364 121,397 409,100

(Qianjiang) Ch'ih-feng (Chifeng) Chin-ch'ang (Jinchang) Chin-ch'eng (Jincheng) Chin-chou (Jinzhou) Ch'in-chou (Qinzhou) Chin-hsi (Jinxi) Chin-hua (Jinhua) Ch'in-huang-tao

205,504 350.077 105,287 136,396 569,518 114,586 357,052 144,280

(Oinhuangdao) Ch'ing-chou (Qingzhou)

364,972 128,258 1,459,195

Ch'ing-tao (Qingdao)

Ching-te-chen (Jingdezhen) Ch'ing-yijan (Qingyuan) Chiu-chiang (Jiujiang) Chiu-t'ai (Jiutai)

Chou-k'ou (Zhoukou) Chou-shan (Zhoushan) Chu-ch'eng (Zhucheng) Ch'ij-ching (Qujing)

Ch'u-chou (Ouzhou) Chu-chou (Zhuzhou) Chu-hai (Zhuhai) Ch'u-hsien (Chuxian) Chu-ma-tien (Zhumadian) Ch'uan-chou (Quanzhou)

Hsin-yang (Xinyang) Hsin-yu (Xinyu)

104,269

487,148 733,278 522,747 212,976 189,293 120,101 134,419

(Xingcheng) Hsing-hua (Xinghua) Hsing-t'ai (Xingtai)

Hsu-Chang (Xuchang)

281,183 164,641

291,187 180.130 146.288 156,317 102,134 178,669 112,373 409,924 164,747 125.341

123,232 185,154

Hu-ho-hao-t'e (Hohhot) Hua-tien (Huadian) Huai-an (Huai'an) Huai-hua (Huaihua) Huai-nan (Huainan) Huai-pei (Huaibei)

473,762 281,248 192,509 173,524 102,384 161,910 302.789 208,815 805,695 112,673 218,071

Huai-yin (Huaiyin)

102,628

Huang-shih

Hung-hu (Honghu)

482,043 190,772 371 .601

l-cheng (Yizheng)

109,268 795,789

l-ch'un (Yichun) [Kiangsi)

l-hsing (Yixing) l-ning (Yining) 1-pin (Yibin)

l-yang (Yiyang) Jen-ch'iu (Renqiu) Jih-chao (Rizhao) Jui-an (Rui'an) K'ai-feng (Kaifeng) K'ai-li (Kaili)

K'ai-yuan (Kaiyuan)

Kan-chou (Ganzhou) Kashgar (Kashi) Ko-chiu (Gejiu) K'o-la-ma-i (Karamay) K'u-erh-le (Koria)

Kuang-shui (Guangshui)

Kuang-yuan (Guangyuan) Kuei-hsien (Guixian) Kuei-lin (Guilin)

K'uei-t'un (Kuitun)

Kuei-yang (Guiyang) Kun-ming (Kunming) K'un-shan (Kunshan)

151,585 200,824 177,193 241,019 185,818 114,256 185,048 156,468 507,763 113,958 124,219 220,129 174,570 214,294 197,602 159,344 102.770 182,241 114,025

364,130 118,553 1,018,619 1,127,411 102,052

994 885 504 520

156,307

207 844 492,559 354 141

Ta-lien (Dalian)

Tang-Shan

Lu-an (Lu'an) Lu-chou (Luzhou) Lung-ching (Longjing) Lung-k'ou (Longkou)

(Ma'anshan) Man-chou-li (Manzhouli)

T'ien-men (Tianmen)

305,421

T'ien-shui (Tianshui) Tientsin (Tianjin)

120,023 178 683 209,038 132,156 132,744 262,947

571,705

Pang-pu (Bengbu) Pao-chi (Bao|i) Pao-ting (Baoding) Pao-t'ou (Baotou) Pei-an (Bei'an) Pei-p'iao (Beipiao)

* Peking (Bei|ing) Pen-hsi (Benxi) Pin-chou (Binzhou) P'ing-hsiang (Pingxiang) P'Ing-ting-shan (Pingdingshan) P'ing-tu (Pingdu)

Po-chou (Bozhou) P'u-ch'i (Puqi)

P'u-yang (Puyang)

San-men-hsia (Sanmenxia) San-ming (Sanming) San-ya (Sanya) Sha-shih (Shashi) Shan-fou (Shantou) Shan-wei (Shanwei) Shao-hsing (Shaoxing)

Shao-kuan (Shaoguan) Shao-yang (Shaoyang) Shang-chih (Shangzhi) Shang-chiu (Shangqiu) Shang-|ao (Shangrao)

Shanghai Shen-chen (Shenzhen) Shen-yang (Shenyang)

T'eng-hsien (Tengxian)

315,083 131,807 265,683 254,842 186,332 244,974 4,574,689

T'ieh-fa (Tiefa) T'leh-li (Tieli)

T'ieh-ling (Tieling)

(Zaiantun)

130,031

Ts'ang-chou (Cangzhou)

242,708

Tsao-chuang (Zaozhuang) Tsao-yang (Zaoyang)

380,846 162,198

Tsitsihar (Qiqihar)

1,086.124

Tu-chiang-yen

180,273 721,877 195,064 343,341 243,303 2,090,204 256,012 552,540 19o!l23

Tu-yun (Duyun) Tun-hua (Dunhua) T'ung-ch'uan (Tongchuan) T'ung-hua (Tonghua) Tung-kuan (Dongguan) Tung-liao (Tongliao)

1,070,051 261 ,862

(Dujiangyan)

123,357 132,971

235,100

280,657 324.600

308,669 255,129

T'ung-ling

217,987 204,970

(Tongling) Tung-1'ai (Dongtai)

Tung-ying (Dongying) Tz'u-hsi (Cixi)

415,466 362,773 449,245 337 J65 483,155 983,508 204,899 112,673 194,301 5,769,607 768,778 133,555

425,579 410,775 150,123 106,346 117,264 175,988 120,523 160,691 102,820 281,352 578,630 107,847 179,818 350,043 247,227 215.373

Tzu-hsing (Zixing) Tzu-kung (Zigong) Tzu-po (Zibo) Wa-fang-tien (Wafangdian) Wan-hsien (Wanxian) Wei-fang (Weifang) Wei-hai (Weihai) Wei-nan (Weinan)

Wen-chou (Wenzhou) Wen-teng (Wendeng)

Wu-chou (Wuzhou) Wu-hai (Wuhai) Wu-han (Wuhan) Wu-hsi (Wuxi) Wu-hu (Wuhu)

228,017 192,247 281 ,728 107,329 110,048 393,184 1,138.074 251 ,733

156,823 428,522 128.888 140.169 401,871 133.910 210,452 264,081 3,284,229 826,833 425,740

Wu-lan-hao-t'e (Ulanhot) Wu;;U-mu-ch'i (Urijmqi)

159,538

Wu-wei (Wuwei)

,046,898 133,101

Ya-k'o-she (Yakeshi)

377,869

1

Yang-Chiang (Yangjiang)

215,196

Yang-chou (Yangzhou) Yang-ch'uan (Yangquan) Yen-an (Yan'an) Yen-Cheng (Yancheng) Yen-chi (Yanji) Yen-t'ai (Yantai)

164.880 132,455 7,496,509 350,727

Yin-ch'uan (Yinchuan) Ying-k'ou (Yingkou)

3,603,712

YiJ-shu (Yushu) Yu-tz'u (Yuci)

1,068.439

299.676

Yu-yao (Yuyao) Yuan-Chiang

104,571

(Yuanjiang)

YiJ-lin (Yulin)

Yii-men (Yumen)

Shih-chia-chuang (Shijiazhuang) Shih-ho-tzu (Shihezi) Shih-shou (Shishou)

1,044,194 150,168 195,485 182,488

Te-chou (Dezhou) Te-yang (Deyang)

Tsun-i (Zunyi)

Nan-chung

P'an-chih-hua (Panzhihua) (Tu-k'ou [Dukou]) Pan-shan (Panshan)

523,699 169,603

(Tangshan) T'ao-nan (Taonan)

363,954 126,438 759 752 134 481 128 418 144 248 262,892 139,417 148,362

,533,884 103,211

1

Tan-tung (Dandong) Tan-yang (Danyang)

Tsa-lan-t'un

Mei-ho-k'ou (Meihekou) Mei-hsien (Meixian) Mi-shan (Mishan) Mien-yang (Mianyang) Mu-tan-chiang (Mudanjiang)

Pai-ch'eng (Baicheng)

798,319 350,696 152,442

T'ai-an (Tai'an)

Liu-p'an-shui

Lou-ti (Loudi)

188,101 136,554 1,723,302

Ta-li (Dali)

609 320

(Uupanshui) Lo-ho (Luohe) Lo-yang (Luoyang) Long-yen (Longyan)

706,459 227,881 146,086 138.963 657.297

Ta-an (Da'an) Ta-ch'ing (Daqing) Ta-hsien (Daxian)

Liu-chou (Liuzhou)

Lin-ho (Linhe)

151,862

(Kiangsu) Sui-hua (Suihua) Sui-ning (Suining)

Lin-i (Linyi)

Lin-fen (Linfen)

Nei-chiang (Neijiang)

1

Su-chou (Suzhou)

Ta-t'ung (Datong)

Ning-po (Ningbo) 0-ch'eng (Echeng)

142.659 386,081 ,959,044 317,223 105,021

Su-chou (Suzhou)

T'ai-chou (Taizhou) T'ai-yiJan (Talyuan) Tan-Chiang (Danjiang)

(Nanchong) Nan-ning (Nanning) Nan-ping (Nanping) Nan-fung (Nantong) Nan-yang (Nanyang) Nanking (Nanjing)

257,862 273,786

Sian (Xian) Ssu-p'ing (Siping) Su-ch'ien (Suqian)

118,858

Nan-ch'ang (Nanchang)

population

Shuang-ch'eng (Shuangcheng) Shuang-ya-shan (Shuangyashan)

354,139 123,958 187,309 133,183 324 720

Pei-hai (Beihai)

457,601 161,023

l-ch'ang (Yichang) l-ch'un (Yichun)

(Liangcheng) Liao-ch'eng (Liaocheng) Liao-yang (Liaoyang) Liao-yiJan (Liaoyuan) Lien-yiian (Lianyuan) Lien-yiJn-kang (Lianyungang)

Pai-yin (Baiyin)

Huang-Shan (Huangshan)

(Hunjiang)

Li-yang (Liyang)

Mao-ming (Maoming)

162,930 136,811 222,884 352,125

city

Shih-tsui-shan (Shizutshan) Shih-yen (Shiyan)

[Anhwei)

137 106 108 109

Li-ling (Liling)

441,968 166,280

652,534 175,873 131,149 126,785 703,93^ 366,549 239,675

(Huangshi) Hui-chou (Huizhou) Hun-Chiang

123 366 341 128 130 115

Liang-cheng

Ma-an-shan

Hsuan-cheng (Xuancheng) Hu-chou (Huzhou)

226,569 198 664 246,833 137,080 1,194 640 148 105

Lhasa

551,776 368,786 410,407

Hsing-cheng

Hsij-chou (Xuzhou)

163,552

Chia-mu-ssu (Jiamusi)

(Xinxiang) Hsin-t'ai (Xintai)

1,159,679

(Jixi)

Chi-nan (Jinan)

(Xiaoshan) Hsien-ning (Xianning)

Hsien-yang (Xianyang) Hsin-hsiang

(Zhenjiang)

Chi-ning (Jining) {Inner Mongolia) Chi-ning (Jining) [Shantung]

Hsiang-fan (Xiangfan) (Xiangtan)

Cheng-chou

(Ji'an)

Hsi-ch'ang (Xichang) Hsi-ning (Xining)

Hsia-men (Xiamen)

,099,660 2,443,398 1

Hsiang-fan

Chen-Chiang

Chi-lin (Jilin)

169,930 837,552

771

country

population

Lin-ch'ing (Linqing)

(Hanzhong) Han-tan (Handan)

Ho-kang (Hegang)

Chao-ch'ing (Zhaoqing) Ch'ao-chou (Chaozhou) Ch'ao-hsien (Chaoxian) Chao-tung (Zhaodong) Ch'ao-yang (Chaoyang)

205,560 280,153 180,650 133,565 100,478

Hai-lun (Kailun) Hai-ning (Haining)

Ho-fei (Hefei)

181,805 301,276

1.202,388 179,572 192,981 161,315

Hai-ch'eng (Haicheng) Hai-k'ou (Haikou)

Heng-yang (Hengyang)

Chang-chou

(Zhengzhou) Cheng-te (Chengde) Ch'eng-tu (Chengdu)

121,949 635,473 173,878

Fu-hsin (Fuxin)

(Zhangzhou) Ch'ang-ch'un

Chi-an

874,809

Fu-ling (Fuling)

'5

A-k'o-su (Aksu) An-ch'ing (Anqing)

Chi-hsi

193,784 303,160 103,104

Fo-shan (Foshan) Fu-chin (Fujin) Fu-chou (Fuzhou)

Fu-chou (Fuzhou)

(legislative)

Viiia del

country

city

Feng-Cheng

Valdivia

Canada

country

Statistics

312,892

362,268 113,277 296,831 230,892 452.127 356,652 421,589 144,467 109,234 131,861

191.356 114,065 107,004

Britannica World Data

772

Major

cities

and national capitals

(continued)

1

population

crty

302,800

Yun-ch'eng (Yuncheng) Yung-an (Yong'an)

108.359 1 1 1

,762

220.303 180,653 ,064,255

Guayaquil

304,819 351.737 266.988

Machala Manta

Armenia Barrancabermeja Barranquiiia

1

Bello

Bucaramanga Buenaventura

1.718.871

Call

745.689 117.166 144,340 479.309 163.599 109.240 118.027 246.834 346.632 169.374 104.496

Cartagena

Canago Cienaga Cucuta Dosquebradas Envigado Florencia Floridablanca

Ibague Itagui

Magangue Medellfn

1

.621 .356

276.074 248.178 256.823 325.540 352.530 223.128

Monteria Neiva Palmira Pasto Pereira

Popayan Quibdo

Soacha Soledad Tulua

Tumaco Tunja

Turbo Valledupar Villavicencio

(1990 est)

23.432

* Moroni (1992 est

937.579 576.206

* Brazzaville Pointe-Noire

Costa Rica (1994 est) * San Jose

315.909 "5

2.797.000"

* Abidjan

Bouake

329.850 121.842 109.445 106,786

Daloa

Korhogo Yamoussoukro Croatia (1991)

129.792 167.964 200.459 867.865

Osiiek Rijeka Split

* Zagreb

Cuba (1994 est Bayamo Camaguey

137,663 293.961 132.038 207.796

Cienfuegos

Guantanamo

.^"... 2.241.000" 242.085

* Havana Holguin Las Tunas Manzanillo

126.930 107 ,650 '8 123,843 128.570 205.400 440.084

Matanzas Pinar del Rio Santa Clara

Santiago de Cuba

Cyprus (1993 est) 137.000 177.000'9

Limassol * Nicosia (Leikosia)

(1994 est)

390,100 100,900 101,000 105.900 326.200 172.300 1.225.000"

Brno Hradec Kralove Liberec

Olomouc Ostrava PIzen « Prague ,

Banha BanT SuvKayf Bur Said (Port Said)

* Cairo DamanhCir al-FayyQm Hulwan (Helwan) al-lsmaTITyah al-JTzah (Giza)

Kafr

ad-Dawwar

Kafr

ash-Shaykh

al-Matiallah al-Kubra

al-Man?urah al-Minya

Qina Sawhaj

Shubra al-Khaymah as-Suvi/ays (Suez)

Tanta al-Uq$ur (Luxor) az-ZaqazTq

Saint-Etienne

Strasbourg Toulon

124,166 194.981 1,508.444 144.197 125.505 132.937 1.100.847 114.422

Toulouse Tours Villeurbanne

French Guiana (1990) * Cayenne

French Polynesia (1988) * Papeete

Salvador (1992. MU) Mejicanos Nueva San Salvador San Miguel * San Salvador Santa Ana

3.382.0008 220.000 321.000 136.000 179.000 460.0008 6.849.0008 222.000 250,000 352.30022 255.000 2.144.000 226.000 102,91023 408.000 371 ,000 208.000 141.000 156.000 158.000 834.000 388.000 380.000 155.0008 287.000

El

Soyapango

145.000 116,575 182,817 422.570 202,337 104.4702'

419.596

Libreville

Estonia (1994 * Tallinn

Gaza Gaza (Ghazzah) Georgia (1991 Batumi

57.000

Tartu

Ethiopia (1993 est * Addis Ababa Bahir Dar

Dese Dire Dav»a

Gonder Harer

Jima Mekele

137.500 238,200 161,900 120.000

Kutaisi

Rustavi

Sukhumi

1.279,000

Tbilisi

Germany

(1994 est)

Aachen Augsburg Bergisch Gladbach Berlin

Bielefeld

Bochum * Bonn Bottrop

Braunschweig

Bremen Bremerhaven Chemnitz Cologne (Koln) Cottbus Darmstadt

Dortmund Dresden

am

Main

246,671 264.764 104.991 3.475.392 324.674 401,058 296.859 119.676 256.267 551 .604 131.492 279.520 962.517 128.121 139.754 601 .966 479,273 536.797 574.936 200.799 102.383

622.380 659.803

Nazret

Art! us

Copenhagen Odense

D)lboutl (1991 est * Djibouti

Dominica (1991) * Roseau

274!535 1,339,395'3 20 181.824

317.000

Dominican Republic 136.0002' 189,0002' 162,00021

Gottingen

Hagen Halle

Hamburg

Hamm Hannover Heidelberg Heilbronn

Heme Ingolstadt

(1994 est)

Jena

16.200 Fiji

Kaiserslautern Karlsruhe

(1990 est

* Suva

200.000

'3

Kassel Kiel

Finland (1995 est)

Espoo * Helsinki Oulu

Tampere Turku Vantaa

186.507 515.765 106.419 179.251 162,370 164,376

Amiens Angers Besanqon Bordeaux Boulogne-Billancourt Brest

Caen Clermont-Ferrand

Grenoble Le Havre Le Mans Lille

Limoges Lyon Marseille

Montpellier

Mulhouse Nancy Nice

NImes Orleans * Paris

Koblenz Kreteld Leipzig

Leverkusen LiJbeck

Ludwigshafen

Magdeburg Mainz

France (1990)

Nantes

(1993)

Gera

Hildesheim

Metz 15.853

197.384 108,097 295.037 122.974 128.419 214.877 295.372 1.702,887 182.390 524.823 139.429 122,396 180.539 106.303 1 09.666 100.093 102.370 277.998 202.158 248.931 109.807 249.565 490.851 161.761 217.269 168.130 270.546 185.487 318.025

Gelsenkirchen

Faroe Islands

126.854 136.234 146.163 119.194 213.274 101.971 153.099 115,624 140,167 151,636 153.973 197.219 148.465 178.301 136.407 422.444 807.726 123.920 210.866 109,905 102,410 252,029 345,674 133.607 107.965 2.175.200

Ghana

(1988

1.781.100'3

385.192 103.653 151.069 109.975

Sekondi-Takoradi

Tema

Mannheim Moers Mbnchengladbach Mulheim an der Ruhr Munich (Mijnchen) Mijnster

Neuss Nurnberg

Oberhausen Offenbach am Oldenburg Osnabrijck Paderborn Pforzheim

Mam

Potsdam Recklingshausen

Regensburg Remscheid Reutlingen

Rostock SaarbriJcken Salzgitter

Schwerin Siegen Solingen

28.00025

* Gibraltar

748,110 117,167 110,738 113.426 155.180 145.854 169.622 377.951

* Athens Iraklion

Kallithea Patrai (Patras)

106.631

265.312 177.175 1.255.623 267.367 148.560 498.945 226.254 116.670 147.701 168.078 130.130 117.450 139.262 127.150 125.337 123.610 107.607 237.307 190.902 117.684 122,189 1 1 1

,845

166.064

Thessaloniki

Greenland (1995 est) * Nuuk (Godthab)

12.723

Grenada (1991) * Saint Georges

Guadeloupe

4.439

Balurghat

119,829 2,650.659 114.927 223.770 107.365

Barddhaman 244.789 583.473 133.429 101.652 159.144 105.357 325.639 245.758 254,993 148.506 132.312 304.298 400.636

(Burdwan) Bareilly

'8

BasTrhat

Bathinda (Bhatinda)

Beawar Belgaum Bellary

Bhagalpur Bharatpur Bharuch (Broach) Bhatpara

Bhavnagar Bhilainagar Bhilwara

Bhimavaram Bhind Bhiwandi Bhiwani Bhopal

1

389.601 183,791 125.495 109,731 378.546 121.449 .063.662

Bhubaneshwar Bhusawal

411.542 144,804 112.351

Bid (Bhlr) Bidar Bihar SharTf Bijapur

107.542 200.976 186.846 415.355

BTkaner

(1990)

* Basse-Terre

14,107

190.911

Bilaspur

350.540

Bokaro (1990)

* Agana

1.139

Guatemala (1994 est; MU)

* Guatemala Mixco Villa

population

Barrackpore

* Accra Kumasi

Guam

1

city

Bangalore Bankura Barahanagar Barasat

est.)

Piraievs (Piraeus)

FUrth

2.200.186 102,700 106,710 173.588 146,777 162.645 106.842 107.671 131.585

Wolfsburg Wuppertal Wijrzburg Zwickau

Peristenon est

Breisgau

442.679 105.844

Witten

Larissa

Strip (1988 est)

Frankfurt

est.)

Ulm Wiesbaden

Greece (1991) 44.1882" 102.600

* Banjul Serekunda

Essen 367.300

23.555

Gambia, The (1986 est)

*

594.406 114,839 270.873 105.807 128.032 386.625 128.875 107.988

Stuttgart

Tamale

(1993)

Eriangen

Eritrea (1991 est)

* Asmera

*

41.659

population

city

Gibraltar (1995 est)

Erfurt

58,040

* Malabo

Gabon

Duisburg Dusseldorf

Equatorial Guinea (1991 est)

Dijon

MU)

ijiborg

La Romana La Vega San Francisco de Macoris

Asyut

Aix-en-Provence

Czech Republic

*

Rouen

690.000 2.100.000

Freiburg im

d'lvoire (1983)

(1994 est

Alexandria

108.049 185.164 203.533 105.470 201.569 255,937 170,167 365,933 133.403 119,848

Reims Rennes

137.0002'

Egypt (1992 est)

Shibin al-Kawm

5.025.989 180.076 265,817 264,583 138.124 114.802 120.210 127.045 265.505 252.711

Sinceleio

Depmark

* Quito Santo Domingo

309.372

DC,

Cote

Portovieio

130.921 142.455

Riohacha Santa Marta * Santafe de Bogota,

Congo

Perpignan

de Macoris Santiago de los Caballeros * Santo Domingo

Ecuador (1990) Ambato Cuenca

Colombia (1995 est)

population

city

San Pedro

YiJeh-yang (Yueyang)

Comoros

population

city

country

country

country

country

country

City

1,150.452

413,002 154.508

Nueva

Guernsey

(1991) * St Peter Port

Guinea (1995 est) * Conakry

16.648

1.508.000

Brahmapur Budaun Bulandshahr Burhanpur Burnpur Calcutta Calicut (Kozhikode)

Chandannagar Chandigarh Chandrapur Chhapra Chittoor

Guinea-Bissau (1991 est

200.000

Bissau

Guyana (1992

Bombay (Mumbai)

Cochin Coimbatore Cuddalore

* Georgetown

248.500

Haiti (1992 est)

Carrefour

241.223

Delmas

200.251

752.600

* Port-au-Prince

Honduras

Cuttack

Oarbhanga Davangere Dehra Dun Delhi

Dewas Dhanbad Dhule (Dhuha)

(1993 est MU) San Pedro Sula * Tegucigalpa ;

353.800 738.50026

Dibrugarh Dindigul

Durg Durgapur

Hong Kong (1995 est)

Hong Kong

6.205.30025

Hungary (1994 est) 1

.996.000

Szekesfehervar

218.000 131.000 106.000 190,000 115,000 173.000 180.000 110.000

Iceland (1994 est * Reykiavik

103,036

Debrecen Gybr Kecskemet Miskolc

Nyiregyhaza

Pecs Szeged

Adoni Agarlala

Agra

Ahmadabad Ahmadnagar Aizawl

Ajmer Akola Alandur Afigarh

Allahabad Alleppey Alwar

Ambala Ambatlur Amravati Amritsar

Amroha Anand Anantapur Ara (Arrah) Asansol

107.016 135.718 157.636 899,195 2,872,865 181,015 154,343 401.930 327.946 125.009 479.978 806.447 174.606 206.107 119.535 223.332 433.746 709.456 136.893 110.144 174.792

Baharampur Bahraich Bally

Farldabad Farrukhabad-cumFatehgarh Fatehpur

193.624 117.203 215.089 133.918 104.392 121.746 161.377 291.220 460.949 106,078

Rrozabad Gadag-Betigeri

Gandhidham GandhTnagar

Ganganagar Gaya Ghaziabad

109.271

Gondia Gorakhpur Gudivada

Gurgaon

489.850 101.635 303.139 100.389 107,560 471 .020 120.790

Guwahati (Gauhati)

577.591

Gwalior

692.982 100.142 100.109

Gulbarga

Guna Guntakal GuntCir

Habra Haldia

Haldwani-cum102.744 113.670 146.591 148.882 113.653 104.635 172.873 122,528 946,732 647,640 142,388

Kathgodam Halisahar

Hapur Haridwar (Hardwar) Hathras Hindupur Hisar (Hissar)

Hoshiarpur

156.871

Howrah (Haora)

261.836

Hubli-Dhan«ad

Chunchura Hyderabad Hugli

Aurangabad (Shambajinagar) Avadi

Erode Etawah Faizabad

265.971 270.028 7.174.755 163,699 151,334 277,957 118.374 182.293 150.513 415.986 212.918 158.774 124.032 125.012 613.828

Gonda

India (1991)

Abohar

853.402 143.774 121.422 402.390 218.274

Cuddapah

est)

* Budapest

9.909.54713 210,585 116.706 126.737 172.809 174.704 4,388.262 419.531 122.351 502.992 225.841 136.824 1 33.233 564.038

572.634 180,291 115.036 135,352 181,978

2.991 .884

214.835 196.268

Ichalkaranji

Imphal Indore Ingrai

1

Bazar

,086.673 139.018

Comparative National

country

country

country

city

population

city

Jabalpur

739,961 1 ,454,678 519,530 241 ,603 174,958 206,13511 325,475 451,212 136,287 301 ,304 648,621 130,132 279,875 1,014.062 266,625 145,028 100,059 1 ,958,282 148,349 173,742 135,348 127,812 145,111 189,010 405,118 536,444 120,918 185,378 108,930 139,449 236,313 197,164 1,592,010 1,012,062

Raurkela Steel

Jaipur

Jalandhar (Jullundur) Jaigaon Jalna

Jammu Jamnagar Jamshedpur Jaunpur Jhansi

Jodhpur Junagadh Kakinada Kaiyan Kamarhati

Kanchipuram Kanchrapara Kanpur KarTmnagar Kama! Katihar

Khammam Khandwa Kharagpur Kolhapur Kola Krishnanagar Kukatpalle Kulti-Barakar

Kumbakonam Kurnool Latur

Lucknow Ludhiana MachilTpatnam (Masulipatam)

Madras Madurai

Mahbubnagar Malegaon Malkajgiri

Mandya Mangalore

Mango Mathura

Maunath Bhanjan MedinTpur (Midnapore) Meerut Miraj

Mirzapur-cumVindhyachal

Modinagar

Moga Moradabad Morena Munger (Monghyr) Murwara (Katni) Muzaffarnagar Muzaffarpur

Mysore Nadiad Nagercoil

Nagpur Naihati

Nanded (Nander) Nandyal Nashik (Nasik)

NavadwTp Navsari Nellore

* New

Delhi

125,098 752,078 121,564

240,924 167,440 100,513 151,298 100,544 122,964 136,797 111,194 275,359 191,010 190,235 142,862 253,341 916.980 106!329 515.962 202,648 116,546 133,860

Palghat Pali

Paliavaram Panihati

PanTpat Parbhani Pathankot Patiala

Patna Pillbhil

Pimpri-Chinchwad Pondicherry Porbandar Proddatur

Pune Puri

Quilon Outubullapur

Rae

Bareli

Raichur Raigan) Raipur Raj

Nandgaon

Rajahmundry Rajapalaiyam Rajkot

Ramagundam Rampur Ranchi Ratlam

Rohtak Sagar Saharanpur

Salem Sambalpur Sambhal Sangli

193,181 156,321

Sgtna Shahjahanpur

237,663

Shantipur

109,911

Shiliguri (Siflguri)

226,677

Shillong

130.691 178,882 108,271

Shimoga Shivpuri

Sholapur (Solapur) Shrlrampur

603,870 137,087 148,235 115.045 112.542 120.595 142.992 230,507 586.03811

Sikar Silchar Sirsa Sitapur

SonTpat

South

Dum Dum

SrTnagar Sural

Surendranagar

Tambaram Tellicherry

Tenali

1.496.943 105.973 106,590 103,577 143,836

Thane (Thana)

796,620 200,216 386,628 135,762 174,393 235,076

Thanjavur Tirunelveli Tirupali

Tirupper (Tiruppijr) Tiruvannamalai

1,559,558 124,835 122,086 139,717 105!380 130,101 157,477 151,454

437.887 125,394 326,071 114,042

556.137 213.962 242.752 598,498 183,370

108.291 167.851 113.831

Tiruvottiyur

Titagarh

Tonk Trivandrum

Tumkur Tuliconn Udaipur

Ulhasnagar Uluberia

Unnao Uttarpara-Kotrung

169,368 102,307 108,213 416,836 147,095 150,042 163,699 240,057 240,450 480,006 166,852 189,482 1,622,225 132,032 274!626 120,171 646,896 125,247 125,980 316,445 294,149

Nizamabad

Ongole

215,489 128,918 102,649 215,844 195,106 373,904 363,934 130,766 150,012

Rishra

Ujjain

117,471

North Barrackpore North Dum Dum

Township

Rewa

Tiruchchirappalli

159,007 3,795,028 951,696 116,775 342,431 126,066 119,970 272,819 110,024 226,850 136,447

Neyveli

Noida

population

Vadodara (Baroda) Varanasi (Benares) Vellore

Vijayawada

Vishakhapatnam

100.020 523.733 138.598 205.105 307.682 366.787 368.822 155.188 107.246 100.867 1.021.084 925.962 172,467 701,351 750,024

country population

city

Ujung Pandang Yogyakarta

Ahvaz Amol Arak Ardabil

Babol Bakhtaran

Bandar Abbas Bandar-e BOshehr Birjand

Boinurd BoriJierd

Dezful

Esfahan (Isfahan)

Gorgan

Hamadan Ilam Islamshahr (Eslamshahr)

Malayer

Maragheh Mashhad (Meshed) Masjed-e Soleyman Najafabad

Neyshabur

QazvTn

Qom Rajaishahr

Rashi

Sabzevar Sanandaj SarT

ShTraz STrjan

TabrTz

1,088,985 11,000,0008 275^298 361 ,623

* Tehran Yazd

Zahedan

254100

Zanjan Iraq (1985 est.)

Ba'qubah

2,026,893

Baniarmasin Bengkulu

Mataram

443,738 146,439 127,222 113,064 271,711 113,8932' 105,94027 245,307 261,26327 8,259,266 301 .359 149.6182' 140.1052' 235.602 165,999 123,213 650,295 275,374 141,3872'

Medan

1

Binjai Blitar

Bogor Cilacap

Cimahi Cirebon

Denpasar * Jakarta Jambi Jayapura

Jember Kediri

Madiun Magelang Malang

Manado

Padang Palembang Pangkal Pinang Pasuruan Pekalongan

Pekanbaru Ponlianak Probolinggo Purwokerlo

,685,972

477,344 1,084,483 108,411 134,019

227,535 341.328 387.112 131,291 105,3952'

Samarinda

335,016

Semarang Sukabumi

1,005,316 119,981 355,07327 2,421,016

Sumba Surabaya Surakarta

Tanjung Balai Tanjung KarangTelukbelung Tasikmalaya Tebing Tinggi Tegal

504,176 102,095 284,27527 165,29727 116,767 225,770

616,700 215,249 333,903 184,574 570,00028 570,926 242.603 138.842 137.388 279,424

Basra al-Hillah

an-Najaf an-NasirTyah

Bandung

131,758 4,044,00018 114,516

al-'Amarah * Baghdad

108,591

Bandar Lampung

357.399 123.684 278.826 681.253 160.362 340.637 148,065 244,039 167,602 965,117 107,887

Qa'emshahr

Yavalmal (Yeotmal)

Banda Aceh

1.559.155 107.539 160.004 135.681

OriJmTyeh

Wardha Yamunanagar

Balikpapan

230,183 442,387 155.188 311.643 118,348 249,258 137.885 130.458 117.388

Kashan Kerman KhomeynTshahr Khorramabad Khvoy

Karbala' Kirkuk

206,260 309.492 143.409 458.215

724.653 139.923 331,354 311,022 137,348 624,084 249,504 132,824 101,177 112,426 201.016 181.309 1.127.030 162,468 349,653 116,428

Kara)

IrbTl

Ambon

Palermo

Iran (1991)

159,461

Indonesia (1990)

Padua (Padova)

913,196 412.392

Parma

446,760 102,974 144,250

Vizianagaram Warangal

city

Mosul

ar-RamadT as-SulaymanTyah Ireland (1991)

127,25329 478,38929

Cork

* Dublin Isle of

Man

(1991)

22,214

* Douglas Israel (1994 est)

Ashdod Bat

110,300 143,200

Yam

Beersheba (Beer Sheva) Bene Beraq

141.400 125,000 246,500 162,800

Haifa (Hefa)

Holon * Jerusalem

567,100 142,700 151,100 122,800 154,300 357,400

Nelanya Petal! Tiqwa

Ramal Gan Rishon le-Ziyyon Tel Aviv-Yafo (1994

est.;

Pescara Piacenza Prato

Ravenna Reggio di Calabria Reggio neH'Emilia Rimini

*

Rome (Roma) Salerno Sassari Siracusa (Syracuse) Taranio Terni Trenio Trieste

Turin (Torino)

Venice (Venezia) Verona Vicenza

* Kingston

Ageo Aizuwakamatsu Akashi Akishima Akita

Amagasaki Anjb

Aomori Asahikawa Asaka Ashikaga Alsugi

Beppu Chiba Chigasaki

Chofu Dailo

Ebelsu Ebina

Fuchu Fuji

Fujieda Fujinomiya Fujisawa

Fukaya Fukui

Fukuoka Fukushima

Fukuyama Funabashi Gifu

Habikino

Hachinohe Hachioji

Hadano Hakodate

Hamamalsu Handa Higashi-Hiroshima

Higashi-Kurume Higashi-Murayama Higashi-Osaka Hikone Himeji

Hino Hirakata Hiratsuka Hirosaki

Hiroshima

100,597 338,949 115,889 394,969 191,875 178.063 327,163 137.384 392.800 155,892 108,693 659,754 108,819 100.474 165.536 233.845

Bari

Bergamo Bologna Brescia Cagliari

Catania Ferrara

Florence (Firenze) Foggia Forli

Genoa (Geneva) Latina

Lecce Livorno

Messina Milan (Milano)

1.334.171

Modena Monza Naples (Napoli) Novara

176.588 120.882 1

,061 ,583

102.758

2.687.881 146.546

122,010 127.496 213.933 108.294 103.063 226.707 945.551 305.439 256,756 108,013

city

Kawachi-Nagano

Kawagoe Kawaguchi Kawanishi Kawasaki Kiryu

Kisarazu

Kishiwada Kita-Kyushij Kitami

Kobe Kochi Kodaira Kofu

Koganei Kokubunji

Komaki Komatsu Koriyama Koshigaya

Kumagaya Kumamolo Kurashiki

Kure 103,771

Kurume Kushiro

Kuwana 124,065 206,368 120,251 282,912 108,121

310,219 493,158 148,988 289,920 362,908 108,268 155,903 207,146 129,387 853,853 211,878 198.180 127,232 111,099 112,514 215,597 229,267 124,578 120,455 365,250 100,097 255,084 1,275,155

284,250 373,685 540,306 409,063 117,554 241,588 495,053 163,244 302.135 562,156 106,096 107,963 112,829 136,645 513,876 102,656 465,941 167,307 397,183 253,485 175,781 1,106,367

Kyoto

Machida Maebashi Malsubara Matsudo Matsue Matsumoto Matsusaka Matsuyama Mino Misalo

Mishima Milaka Mito

Miyakonojo Miyazaki Moriguchi

Morioka Muroran

Musashino

Nagano Nagaoka Nagareyama Nagasaki

Nagoya Naha Nara Narashino

Niiza

Nishinomiya

Nobeoka Noda

Numazu Obihiro

Odawara Ogaki Oita

Okayama Okazaki

Okinawa

Ome Omiya Omuta Osaka Ola Otaru

Olsu

Sapporo Sasebo

Ikoma

104,939

Sayama

Imabari

120,371 143,017 103,047

Sendai Selo Shimtzu Shimonoseki Shizuoka

lida

Ise

Isesaki

Ishinomaki Itami

Iwaki

Iwakuni Iwatsuki

Izumi

Joelsu

Kadoma Kagoshima Kakamigahara Kakogawa Kamakura Kanazawa Kariya

Kashihara

Kashiwa Kasugai Kasukabe Kalsuta

120,208 121,164 189,375 360,111 108,529 109,650 152,284 131,974 141,473 542.932 132,378 251 ,735 171,815 447,733 125,568 120,621 319,321

275,728 199,498 114,685

320,498 170.720 199.347 107.766 105.066 135.763 106.817 324.321 297,131 156,734 642,847 419,528 210,884 233,829 201,150 101,975 1,448,377 360,200 287,145 133,803 463,973 145,885 204,879 120,746 457,497 124.801 133.979 107.621 165.328 247.281

131.319 296.201 155.081 284.906 113.008 135.508 354,532 189,876 146,554 439,471 2,153,293 299.898

357.728 154.329 257.521

Ikeda

Ichikawa Ichinomiya

452,381 143,321 1,202.069 121,858 125,510 191,872 1,019,372 109,405 1,518,982

492.009 128,439 143,280 424,328 127,610 118,896 213,304 171.099 199.165

Niihama

107,021 103,377

Ichihara

115,777 320,639

Niigala

Oyama

Hofu

population

Neyagawa

201,116 119,178 255,586 275,129 444,468 267,136

Hitachi

Iruma

MV)

Ancona

212,589 694,749 169,299 147.489 120,613 101,692 166,305 133,604 178,736 134.169 130.006

Japan (1994 est) Abiko

773

country population

Jamaica (1991)

Ibaraki

(Yerushalayim, Al-Quds)

Italy

Perugia

Statistics

Saga Sagamihara Sakai

Sakata Sakura

Soka Suita

Suzuka Tachikawa Taiimi

Takamalsu Takaoka Takarazuka Takasaki Takatsuki

Tama Tokorozawa Tokushima

Tokuyama * Tokyo

Tomakomai Tondabayashi Tottori

149.761

424,453 608,115 322,162 111,665 136,480 427,519 146,184 2,575,042 143,552 159,993 272,668 148,438 170,294 567,058 803,640 100,663 159,839 1,744,805

245,015 163.053 958.705 128.951 241.575 259.581 473.859 216,022 338,079 179,540 156,254 100,237 330,707 175.202 206.140 238.425 361.494 148.438 318.714 265.670 109.671 8.021.943 158.349 119,363 145,672

Britannica World Data

774

Major

cities

and national capitals

country population

city

Toyama

Yachlyo

324,638 351,702 114,405 399,988 342,968 163,167 131,813 153,767 100,083 175,234 121,776 183,880 447,281 123,376 434,860 395,491 155,309

Yaizu

115,521

Toyohastii

Toyokawa Toyonaka Toyota Tsu Tsuchiura

Tsukuba Tsuruoka

Ube Ueda U]i

Urawa Urayasu Utsunomlya

Wakayama Yamagata

252,716 134,077 203,718 275,865 107,438 284,052 3,300,513 435,158 133,496 118,147

Yamaguctii

Yamato Yao Yatsushiro YokkaichI

Yokohama Yokosuka Yonago

Zama

Ch'ungju

Jordan (1994) * Amman Irbid

al-Mafraq

ar-Ru?ayfah as-Salt

az-Zarqa'

Inch'on Iri

KangnOng Kimhae Kumi Kunp'o

Kunsan Kun Kwangju

Kwangmyong Kyongju

Masan Mokp'o P'ohang Puch'on Pusan * Seoul (Soul) Shitiung

Songnam Sunch'on

Suwon Taegu Taejon Uijongbu Ulsan

Wonju Yosu

Tselinograd)

Aqtobe (Aktyubinsk) AtyraO (Guryev) Auliye-Ata (Dzhambul)

Ekibastuz

963.490 208,201 109,841 13 131,130 187,014'3 344,524

Oral (Uralsk)

286,000 266,600 156,700 312,300 138,900

Pavlodar

332,900 342.500

Petropavl (Petropavlovsk)

248.300

(Karaganda) Qyzylord (Kzyl-Orda)

Rudny

Semey

(Semipalatlnsk) Shymkent (Shimkent;

Chlmkent) Taldyqorghan

Kyrgyzstan (1994 est) * Bishkek (Frunze)

Osh Laos (1990

Latvia (1993

125,000 108,000 874,000

608,600 233,900 158,200 128.800 344.700

'

Zatilah

Misratah Tripoli (Tarabulus)

438,800

Lithuania (1993 est)

429,000 206.400 132.000 147.800 590,100

Klaipeda

Panevezys Siauliai

*

est.)

201,100 600.000 2.000.000 124,200

Vilnius

* Bainki

Hae|u

Hamhung-Hungnam Hulch'on

Kaesong Kanggye Kimch'aek (Songjin)

Kusong Namp'o * Pyongyang Sinp'o Sinui|U

Sunchon Tanchon Tokchon Wonsan

Ansan Anyang Ch'angwon Cheju Chinhae Chinju

Chonan Ch'ongju

Chonju Ch'unch'on

MU)

21

1

.000

179.000 177.000 370,000 2.355,000 158.000 289.000 356.000 284.000 217.000 274,000

116,958 252.418 481,291 323,223 232,643 120.212 255,695 211,363 477,783 517,059 174.224

Kumanovo * Skopie (Skoplje) Tetovo

Madagascar

55,130

Mali (1992

124,003 116,065 135.482 563.102 180.605

Tiraspol

Monaco (1995 * Monaco

(Dar el-Beida) el-Jadida (Mazagan) Kenitra

Khouribga Marrakech

480,408

Meknes

Mohammedia

Mauritius (1993 est) * Port Louis

134,516

Mayotte (1991; MU) * Mamoudzou * Dzaoudzi

20,274 8,268

Oujda * Rabat Safi

Sale

Tanger Tetouan

Mexico (1990) Acapuico

515,374 440,425

Aguascalientes Atizapan de Zaragoza (Ciudad Lopez Mateos)

315,059 150,518 167.730 214.856 516.153 103.364

Campeche Celaya

Chihuahua Ciudad Apodaca Ciudad Madero Ciudad Obregon Ciudad Santa Catarina Ciudad Victoria

219,980 162,707 194,996 198,817 106,967 130.695 110.242 279.187 415.046 348,036 169,426 164.092

Cordoba Cuernavaca Culiacan

Durango Ensenada Palacio 1

.650.042

535,332 406,417 105,873 265,042 789,522

Monclova Monterrey

1.068,996

NezahualcoyotI

Nuevo Laredo Oaxaca

Reynosa Salamanca Saltillo

San Luis Potosi San Nicolas de los Garza

* Antananarivo Antsirabe

Mahaianga Toamasina

Garcia 1.052.835 120.239 100.807 127.441

* Lilongwe

399.263 267.659

George Town (Pinang) ipoh

Johor Baharu Kelang Kota Batiaru Kota Kinabalu * Kuala Lumpur Kuala Terengganu Kuantan Kuching Melaka Petaling Jaya Port Kelang

Sandakan Seloyang Baru

Tepic Tijuana

TIaquepaque

Malaysia (1991) Alor Setar

Tapachula

Tehuacan

Malawi (1993 est) Blantyre

Sanchez Tampico

125.026 219,376 382,633 328.646 243.698 219.713 208.484 1.145,075

228.659 198.356 147,729 295,999 254,849 192,080 223,432 124,606

Toluca Tonala Torreon Tuxtia

Uruapan Veracruz Villahermosa Xalapa (Jalapa) Enriquez Zacatecas Zamora de Hidalgo

Zapopan Micronesia * Palikir

Moldova

144,096 532,949 106,843

Monywa Moulmein (Mawlamyine)

219,961 150.528 107,621 108,231

Pegu (Bago) Sittwe (Akyab)

Taunggye * Yangon (Rangoon)

Nauru (1983)

279,451 100,051 109.751 668.323

-

Ikirun

Ikorodu llawe-Ekiti

llesha

Lalitpur (Patan)

110.117 724.096 149,449 133,670 129.125 113.394 196,130 147,624 170,535 150,213 103,684 114.892 118,102 147.018 598,521

(capital)

Apeldoorn

Arnhem Breda Dordrecht

Eindhoven Groningen Haarlem

Haarlemmermeer Leiden

Nijmegen Rotterdam * The Hague (seat government)

ol

445,279 163,383 234.106 132.508 103.420

Tilburg

Zaanstad Zoetermeer

(1993 est) * Willemstad

Caledonia (1989) (1995 est

Auckland

336.500 308.800 121.100 106.700 243.400 163.600 147.500 153.800

Chrislchurch

Dunedin Hamilton

Manukau North Shore Waitakere * Wellington

Nicaragua (1992 Chinandega Leon

Niamey Zinder

* Lagos

1

est

.

MU) 101.605 172.042 1.195.0001 101.878

Minna Mushin

Port Harcourt

Sapele

Shagamu Shaki

Ugep Warn Zaria

Northern Mariana

Is.

(1990)

* Saipan

Norway (1995

est

.

MU) 221.645 482.555 103.496 142.792

Bergen * Oslo Stavanger Trondheim

Oman

(1991 est.)

* Muscat Pakistan (1981)

Bahawalpur

180.263 105.559 102.007

Chiniot

Dera Ghazi Khan Faisalabad (Lyallpur) Gujranwala Gujral

Kasur Lahore Lahore

Cantonment Larkana

Mardan Mlrpur Khas Multan

Nawabshah Okara Peshawar Ouetta

RahTm Yar Khan Rawalpindi Sahiwal Sargodha SheikhCipura

112.965 398.265 120.892

,484.000

312.100 120.100 133.600 324.900 192.300 711.900 139.600 165.400 362.700 465,000 178,900 250.100 399.700 135.800 114.300 169.700 144.100 199.900 100.000 122.900 369.800

Maiduguri Makurdi

Karachi

Noumea

Masaya

Lafia

Hyderabad * Islamabad Jhang Jhelum

Netherlands Antilles

Managua

Katsina

Kumo

Sokoto

(1994 est Amersfoort

Niger (1988) Maradi

Kaduna Kano

Shomolu

Netherlands, The

New Zealand

Iseyin

Iwo Jos

Oyo

* Kathmandu

New

Ise-Ekiti

Owo 130.000 132,000 535,000 190,000

Biratnagar

*

164,900

Ikire

Oshogbo

Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon)

*

Ikerre

Onitsha

* Yaren

Nepal (1993 est; MU)

*

Ikare

Ogbomosho Oka Ondo

Utrecht

123,943 272,690 138,858 139.450 206,967 698,752 328,031 327,865 151.190 439.436 289.626 187.623 438.821 261.231

Ijebu-Ode

Offa

Namibia (1992 est) * Windhoek

Maastricht

(1991 est)

Balti (Beltsy)

(1983)

Mandalay

,365.000

289,500 104.100 152.500 137,300 238.500 120,200 177.000 180.300 257.400 179.900 369.000 194.400 464.000 116.800 127.100 211.800 353.000 201.200 333.600 657.300 201,500 144.400 119.500

Igboho

112,221

* Amsterdam

1

Ife

Tete

1,007,170

113,017

Ibadan

Quelimane

Enschede

Soledad de Graciano

Enugu

Gusau

Inisa

Bassein (Pathein)

436,603

Ejigbo

Gombe

llorin

Nampula

San Pedro Garza (1993)

Deba Habe Ede Effon-Alaiye

llobu

Nacala

218,413 212,818 114.216 174,013 151.739 385,503 265,663 123,190 420.947 488.238

Benin City Bida Calabar

337,239 125,208 250,473 146,206

Matala

1,255,456

Awka

931 ,591

Myanmar (Burma)

339.10033 350,500 100,300 158.200 108.400 223.900 122.500 1 70.000 135.400 299,500 149.300 103.300 308,200 105,200 154,000

designate) Ado-Ekiti

lla

298,847 108.818

Chimoio * Maputo (Louren50 Marques)

428,486

Morelia

(1991 est

Beira

137,641

758,279 162,659 266,055 262,705 523,422 438,377 9,815,795 142.060 177.792

Minatitlan

Mozambique

160,331

Coatzacoalcos Colima

Mazatlan Merida Mexican * Mexico City

2,943,000 564,000 125,000 234,000 190,000 602,000 401,000 156,000 331,000 1 ,220,000 278,000 521 ,000 307,000 272,000

Fes (Fez)

101,540

Mauritania (1992) * Nouakchott

La Paz Leon Los Mochis Matamoros

137,000 139,000

Casablanca

* Fort-de-France

Guadalajara

est)

Beni-Mellal

Martinique (1990)

Aba Abeokuta * Abuja (capital

Akure

Agadir

(1990 est)

Nigeria (1995 est.)32

Agege 619,000

Morocco (1993

20.000

Gomez

30,400

* Ulaanbaatar (Ulan

9.144 Is.

est.)

Mongolia (1993 est) Bator)

745,787

Valletta

Marshall * Majuro

city

662,0006 141,500 186.000

Tighina (Bendery)

Malta (1994 est)

*

country

* Chi^inau (Kishinyov)

est.)

* Bamako

PuebIa Oueretaro

de Deus)

Giostivar

186,000 520.000 195,000 701.000 163.000 120.000

* Male'

Pachuca Poza Rica

Macau (1991) * Macau (Santo Nome (1991.

Tawai

Maldives (1990)

Orizaba

Bitola

Korea, South (1990)

Andong

(1991)

* Luxembourg

Macedonia

Kiribati (1990)

Ch'ongiin

446,250 121,669 591,062

Liechtenstein (1994 est)

Kaunas

182,584 101,733 126,384 183,165 244,765

Sibu Taiping

Hermosillo Heroica Nogales Irapuato Juarez

* Monrovia Libya (1988 est) Banghazi

Seremban Shah Alam

Guadalupe

Lesotho (1990 est) * Maseru

Luxembourg

Korea, North (1987 est Anju

240,000 200,00031

* Vaduz

(Zhezkazgan; Dzhezkazgan)

Nakuru

1,100,00013 100,000 100,00031 100,00031

Tripoli (tarabulus)

*

city

Cuautia

(1991 est.)

* Beirut (BayrCit) Juniyah an-NabatTyah Sidon (Sayda)

Zhezqazghan

Mombasa

597,000 238,20030

est.)

* RTga

Lebanon

country

city

Cancun

MU)

Liepaja

TemirtaCi

* Nairobi

:

Daugavpils

(Taldy-Kurgan)

Kenya (1991 Kisumu

est

139,476 31,241 116,104

Liberia (1990 est)

Qaraghandy Qostanay (Kustanay)

as-Sallmlyah

143,300 214.000

Oskemen (Ust-Kamenogorsk)

* Kuwait (al-Kuwayt)

* Vientiane (Viangchan) 169.000 1,164,0008

Kokshetau (Kokchetav)

est.)

al-Jahra

Kazakhstan (1991 est) Aktau (Aqtau; (Shevchenko) * Almaty (Alma-Ata) Aqmola (Akmola;

128.425 101,325 1,817,919 203,382 152,678 106,206 206,121 100,059 218,205 109,374 1,139,003 328,593 141,896 493,731 243,064 317,768 667,993 3,798,113 10,612,577 107,176 540.754 167.214 644,805 2,229,040 1 .049,578 212.352 682.411 162.415 173.169

Hanam

Kuwait (1993

St, Heller

country population

city

Jersey (1991) *

(continued)

country

Sialkot

Sukkur

Wah Cantonment

.875.000 1.663.0001 1

155.058 1.107.0001

204.364 195,558 106.462 9.863.000' 155,523 5.085.000'

237,000 123,890 147,977 124.371 1.257.0001

102.139 153.483 1,676.0001

285.719 119.036 1,290,0001 150,954

291.362 141.168 302.009 190.551 122.335

)

Comparative National

country

country

country

country

city

city

city

city

Panama

Krakow

(1993 est)

Colon * Panama City

San

137,82520 450.668 293,564

Miguelito

Legnica

todz Lublin

Olsztyn

Papua New Guinea

Opole

(1990) * Port Moresby (National Capital District)

Ptock

Poznah Radorr)

RUda Sl?ska

Paraguay (1992) * Asuncion Ciudad del Este San Lorenzo

502,426 133,893 133,311

Peru (1993) 619,156 105,918 615.046 411,536 268.979 110,016 255,568 258.209 118.814 161,406 274,759 142,576

Ayacucho Callao Chiclayo

Chimbote Ctiinctia Alta

Cuzco Huancayo Huanuco lea

Iquitos

Juliaca

* Lima Metro Lima-Callao Piura

Pucallpa Sullana

Tacna Trujillo

421.5701'

5,706,127 277.964 172,286 147,361 174,336 509,312

Angeles Bacolod

237.000 364.000 124.000 183.000 185,000 228,000 173,000 120,000 340,000 115,000 761 ,000 610,000 127,000 122,000 850,000 250,000 227,000 310,000 146,000 286,000 121,000 160,000 151,000 453,000 277,000 247,000 180.000

Bago Baguio Batangas Butuan Cabanatuan Cadiz Cagayan de Oro Calbayog Caloocan

Cebu Cotabato

Dagupan Davao General Santos lligan lioilo

Lapu-Lapu Las Pifias Legaspi Li pa

Lucena Makati

Maiabon Mandaluyong

Mandaue

Maril

63 55 543 74 36'

-1,641

2,002

-333

47'

16'

-824 -3135 -

03

173

-263

447

-47?

.283

-6806 1

-359 12 9 15

45

e

3

9

3.933

197 64

.480

423 '0

8.655

-119

78-

-239 -480

765,8

205

-73 -9936

1,304

1776 15

502

195 1416

Bahamas. The

153 416

Bangladesh Barbados

Bahrain

Belarus

30 26

42 55

17 10 6

-56 25

1

751

-31 -4326

88-

'0

12,588'0

4,017 73

70

-49

187

-52

486 43

6

38 505

12

3

-1016

-5336

-50

130

-13,709

-637

115

6,363

Belgium

21

Belize

13

Benin

139

Bermuda Bhutan

151

Bolivia

Bosnia and Herzegovina

46' 60

33' 16

24' 20

78 83

10 16

21 21

_I

83

16

69

14

61

89 893 88 64 513 70 92' 73 60 663

955,9

J

11

8 4

22

9

-29

11'

22

16 18

15 26

12

42

11

-14 -27 -54

23

93 10

153 12

10 93

24 413

31

11

17

18

103

23' 14 16

183

95,9 14

233 26 30'

68

20

81

5 7 10

68 73 89

12'

1 -31

66 553 52 80'

'

-7

10

11

10' 15

29 93

243

9'

40 38 343

9

-233 -33 -29 -253 -16 -34' -42 -43 -273

215.9

185.9

28 183

51

15 16'

36 41'

31 21 21

20

49 24 32 29

16

11

573

12

GO'

-68 -31

-28 -32 -28

325 307

249

-118

8

22'

62'

-98

72

-26

3

20

217

-959

-742

48 47

225

7,612

-31,481 138

-23,869

5,897

10,629

17

58

-426 -66 -982 -10,654 39

518

1,2336

145 13'

195 33

325 47'

355 37'

11'

13'

62'

14'

-156 -18 -1,114

-955 -3216

-30

-9

617

-1,125

-666

196 -2.301

1.072

4

-10 -576 -84 -2,096 -11,609 9126

-39 -508 -470 1.229

9'

23 824 4,683

7056 86 2

577 64

41' 12

568 8126 6416 66 81

267 199

11

14

9

16 5' 12 8'

6

-^^—81-

—

133

4,711

-191

-3,101 103

-88

3,052 13

3.214 7

-51

28

-23

29

5

7.812

-

89' 75

13

— 92' 4

1,396

84

6'

90

Bulgaria

Burkina Faso

Burundi

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic

Chad Chile

China Colombia

Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cote d'lvoire

Cuba

-2426

-2,0876 23

55

Brazil

Croatia

720 8

Botswana Brunei

-367

5'

8

1.842

27

e

-148

10

1,449

40'

257 35

51

12

79'

27 698

13

—

-56 -533 -29 -67'

180 13,072

1

,607

578 -6,680 -1,035

1,8456

,446

-161

1,234

-938

360

230

118 190

8,979

2,299

917

-118

1,332 121

1.048 61

1

Cyprus

'5

Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El

Salvador

1

Britannica World Data

794

National product and accounts country

gross national product (GNP), 1993

origin o1

average annual ates, 1993

nominal.

(000,000

per capita

grovuth

gross domestic product (GDP) by economic sector. 1992 (%)

secondary

primary

tertiary

U.S.$)

purchasing

real

popu-

real

(U,S.$)

power

GNP

lation

per capita

(%)

(%)

(%)

parity

(PPP; U S Equatorial Guinea

363

Estonia

Faroe Islands

1,626

Fiji

Finland

France French Guiana French Polynesia

Gabon

96.220 1

.289,235 8915,17

3,007'

Georgia

Germany

Ghana Greece Greenland Grenada

Guadeloupe

465

Guam

219

"

2.000'

Guatemala Guernsey?' Guinea Guinea-Bissau

Guyana Haiti

Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India

Indonesia Iran

Iraq

Ireland

Man

Israel

Jersey

Jordan Kazakhstan

Kenya Kiribati

Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait

Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia

Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania

Luxembourg

Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali

Moldova

Monaco Mongolia

Morocco Mozambique

Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The

18

1-0

1.280

47

4,891 14,233

5,834"

1.410

-16,0 2.5

0.4 0.6

430

2.160

45

32

8.360

r8

0.5

4,0

-0.1

"

1

-16

4

1-9

95

2.0

3.390

4

-

31'

— 4

320

790 1,710

12

22

20 7'',5

13

6 6 5 135

71

7' 6 124 18" 28

1

1

3 2 15 21

61

3'

9' 6

1

21

trade

77 3016 14 10 113

14 9 6 18

19 12 15 125 231

6' 16

10' 19

75

other svcs-

finan-

2'

govern-

ment

13' 5'6 10 8 243

4' 4 3 73

14' 1116 2

7 163 17

13 18 4

22

3 24 125

125

16

255

—29', '8_

29'

-2' 6

19

16' 10

3

flO'*'

6 6

20

4 5

3 8

13

5 19

2

6

3 10

9

3

2

4

18

4

2

7

15

7

3

7

13

4

9

19

26

—

1.3

23'

22'

3.7 0.3

2.1

16

0-3

0.0

-1.5

1-9

-34

44' 50 37 22

-

_ 12 — 2 -

7

4

0-0

1,3

1.2

0.1

17'

51

2,1

3,0

32

66

1.8

48

19

36

23

32 ,850

2

6

10

3

15

21

10

3

22

2

18

3

8

24

5'

29'

1'

27'

48

2.9 0,2

23

28' 9 2' 3

1-9

08

3,1

0,4

36

2

0.0

4^8

1.0

14,890 18,070

5.2

3,000 21,090

39 40

21

75

62,5

15

2

2

-0.5

1 1

-

08

1

1,0

1,190 1,540

4,010 3,770

00 -3 6

59

-5-9

1-0

-4

270 710 970

1,310

3.3 0.7

3-0

0-3

20

-1-3

7.670 23.350

9,810

91

1,0

8,1

-21

-2,9

0,8

1,6

-2,1

6

830 290

2,420

-0 5 50

2,9

2,1

5.170

-4.6

-0-1

-4.5

..,

2,3

660

1.800

3,4

2,6

08

09 36

6'

5'

7' 3 5

1022 11

17 12

7

23" 12'

5

21

_ 23 —

4' 3923 12'

"

20'
opez). the database and underlying methodology are expected to provide a continuing basis for international comparisons and policy analysis. Expenditures were tabulated lor direct preventative and curative activities and for public health and public education programs having direct impact on health status lamily planning, nutrition, and health education—but not moie indirect programs like environmental, waste removal, or relief activities Public, parastatal (semipuhlic. e.K. social security institutions), international aid. and household expenditure reports and surveys

under age 5 1

36 4

4

m

costs), to

life,

maternal

mortality

admission; or discharges

0.0

23

62

100

108

68 62

121

1990

health expenditures

(U,S,$)

country

by source (percent! public

pnvale

inter-

national

aid

26 149

4.00 6.95

64.0 76.9

16.0

—

230

01

44.56 49.96 51 93

166 76 83

292 24 27 33

900

41

100

520

71

78 105 123

77 3

11

...

12,8

8223

8373

83

1.274'?

80 0'?

7'?

853'

810 1.963

65

935

40

960

—

-

-

-

883 84,4

32 12

8 8

34

52 29 22

286

122 10 22 10

600

4,2

69.3 7.9

267 21 1 6,6

1,319

972

2^8

-

76 4

459?

252? 529C

82 46

5? 116

75

56 63

9

93,1

1.277

-

••

10 19 175

._

178

109'«

181

14

_ 418 614

—387

613 414

71

419

167

958? 1,172 1

80

1

199

—

—

1

h 16

57.2

6

nz^

6?

78.9

15

.376?

7473 1.93B 1,253

966

34

92 9

7

1

—

—

75 73

738 BD1

73 14 e

108

84 100

87 133

4 17

7.67 8.38

1.294 1,711

4 27

99

4.62

3 19

4,21

591

69.6

304

_

664 612

33.6 38,8

—

324

63.0

36,9

01

6 323 157

24.8 64.3

567 338

18,5

31.3 17,5 41.0

10 7

Belize

Benin

1

3,6 0.2

_

810 800 500 430

29

40.5

43 19

95 69.2

500 900 34.5

680

11

3.6

10 10 10

41.8 10 11.6

7

74

1SB

740

Bahamas The

504

18

Bahrain

Bangladesh Barbados

18

26.3

364

373

5,05

10

41

265

Bhutan

86

401

25

399

304 396

20.5

Bolivia

98 118 123 113

6 19

139 146

61.8

21,6

657

339

16.5 0,4

814

101

846

121 7

18,6 17,9

83

—

Belarus

Belgium

Bermuda 1

Bosnia and Herzegovina

89 87 100 100 56 57 36 50 100 71

17

Azerbalian

4.32

34 54

21.3

Austria

23

1,310

647

Australia

1,449

110 106

250

-

Armenia Aruba

687 825 484

51

600 56

Anlrgua and Barbuda Argentina

59.8

37.3 39 7 40.2

60

3 19 7.50 5.88

160

206

128 109 16 120

100 100

139 118

600 960

177

...

64'9?

1,041?

113 8 73

120 132

100 75

42 144 9" 197 114 15

100 100

Algeria

Angola 241 137 152

4.55

92 2

2,619

Alghanistan Albania

American Samoa Andorra

100

23B 636 5203

877

decreased productivity in nearly every area ol national and to the loss of social and economic potential through early mortality. By "safe" water is meant only water that nas no substantial quantities of chemical or biological pollutants i.e.. quantities sufficient to

The

'"r because Bed-occupancy rates may exceed lOO'r becau stays of partial days are counted as full days. Two measures that give health planners and policy makers an excellent

rate

needs and economic

Statistics

24 57 86

4,20 5,36

9.8

— 723

Botswana Brazil

Brunei Bulgaria

Burkina Faso

3.28

30

424

483

83

85 116 119

2.62 9.05 6.32

27

26.4

61 7

11,9

74

258 256

537

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

76

4 19

91

1.945

1

—

Burundi

64

207 26,5 27,6

37,5

36,0

Comral African Republic

247

477

Chad

473

18 12 100

701

29

Chile

351

11

585

409

398

51

44

54 4

07 06 16

29,2 40 7

24.5

252 479

1.2

69 86

84 106 116 115

63 38 93 76

81

540

28

46.3

103 129 108

3.99 6.51

50 132 26

47 1 73 6 48 7

6.22

3.35

1

121

34

China Colombia

Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cole dlwoire Cn>atia

98 100 100 100 45

123 152

Cuba

396

136 101

630

62 9 84 .9 '8

268

168'»

588

842

158

64

5.9411' 1

15

1

'

10,3 '»

—

Cyprus

Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti

878

Britannica World Data

Health services

(continued) health personnel

physicians

number

pharma-

dentists

kinds (%)

cists

gen-

spe-

eral

cial-

medical centres

rural

govern-

private

private

ment

non-

lor

profit

profit

ized

1991

38

1992 1992 1992 1993

11,130 12,853 101,500 4,525

1990 1993 1994

99 68 4,680

1992

81

1994 1993 1992 1992

13.344 155.896

.

61

250

198913 1993 1993 1993 1993 1991

1986 1992 1993 1990

1986 1992 1992 1993

1993 1993 1990 1989 1990 1993 1988 1995

119

79 773

221

22,452 981

259 709

24.344 296.385

1.949

1,476 14,401

1.615

4,754

54,4729

622

295 79212

219

1,793

11,300 3,82112 4.7709

340.2082 118.5558 48,6392,8

1.577 1.20512

2,7049

202 181,3231

1.687

219,704

795.810 6.466 229,6008

2,140 7,402 1,600

745 214 193

4,127 53,9485

1.589

248 353

58823

6.956 10.8145

6513 162,021

34013 22,690




136

14,306

13,849 2 1.952

29,179

1,830

336

203 467

883

4,528 1,392

5.638 3.124

186 7.012

284

1994 19926 1992

2,5758

6 13

206

4.730"

141.4042

13

909 500 465

1991

1993 1992 1990 19916

48.6008

2935

7,695

9.163 13,358

388

2847

9

645 1,113 2,214

33212

50.0 53.5

35.5

16.7 14.3

397

100.0

100 0-

100

-65 1-

-16076.120

14.620

88 5

11.5

——

9.320-

15,067 971

1992 1995

60912 72,9 6

100.0

100

244 1.926

1992 1992 1990 1992 1994

100

33.3 19.7 71.2

33.3 80.3

800

200 109

80

83.3

100.0

127 593

288

717 52.8''

— —

— —

500

37.3

40,7

20

283

—

—

47.2"

——

100.02

1993 1990 1989 199321

1994 1994 1990 1994 1993 1987

396 1,074

170

0.7 51.2

109

—

-99 3

100 100

—

976 45.5

90 9 37.0-

1991

14,259 1,187 7,427

1990 1994

578

1993 1993

36.428

83.3 100.01 50.2

—

1

50.01

60.3 100.0

100.0

1991 1991

590

3.361

—

100,0 100.0

1993

2,402

2417 270 376

73

26.9 50.01

1993 1989 1992 1993 1993

1993 1987 1995 1985

2.069

230

1.220-

317 3.834

1988 1994 1993 1994 1992

1990 19923 1986 1994 1992

37,2

1.3

820

1991 1991

1993 1993 1990 1987

409

1

112

61.5

1988 1986-87 1994 1986-87 1992

831

5,297 18,046

819 148

143

—

98,1

1993

1990 1989 1993 1993

458

153 1.509 4.100 130 1,567

1991

5,911

6.418

690 957 255 473

8,628 49,118 2,475

36.0765

45 435 900

18,0007

1991

24,600

89

50

-778

1985 1993 1988

1,922

13.206 23.12712

-55.31

1991

790 4,8069 132

1031

429

680 823

3.245 5.314 11.113 1.358

—

1994 1992 1992

1,282

7,445

67411 708 2.489 6.288 32.876

1992

1994 1993 1993 1993 1989

183? 312

804

274 138 564

9.366 6.03623

380 367 644 624 2,504 14,536 2,000

5948 1.0651

1991

1994 1985 1992 1993

.205

34.31421

10,731

1994

1985 1989-91 1993 1993 1993

956 1 1

64.1004,8 708.0008.9

1991

1994 1990 1994 1989-91 1993

5791 51,613

759 4305

147

36,643 726 405,253 25,135 37.000

1993 1993 1989 1993 199413

1,829

1.631

123.456 313.374 489 599

4,602 38,451

7.601

1993 1990 199222 1992 1994

1992 1992 1992

30,195 581

102

3562 347

590

1,219

319

9302 364

7.302 3.496 301

3022

199422

1992 1988 1993 1992

820

11.808

40,116

836 552

3,532 49,200

30,0007 259.981

3.803 7.670

1991

1.9402

448

1984 1994 1993

667 34,700

200 323

1991

1,889 671

12910

6.035 4.215

426

1991

1989

2189

4 1,898 1,826 15,150 1,182

395 264

—

95.3

41,0

16.4

122

08

870

14.i

—

59.2

386 20.0

—

800

100.0

—

—

739

174

8.7

100.0

100

1991

1994 1992 1993 19902 1990

4 7 27,9

—

—

609 1000

539 1000 10002 100.0

475 203 238

31 4 2

— 8

690

—

95 0-

-40 8-61 4-

—

T

Comparative National

monality

food supply

total

with

(%

mortality

access

FAO

as per percent capita

per

to safe

require-

of

100.000

water (latest)

ment) 1992

GDP

live births

115

806 372

population

admissions or discliarges

bed

rate

by kinds of hospital (%)

per 10.000 pop.

general

special-

medical

ized

centres

rural

1.026

4703 518

aver-

under

maternal

age

age 5

pancy

length

per

rate

of

live

(%)

stay (days)

newborn 1993

(latest)

(%)

946

8

55,3' 57,5

41

54^93,9

76,7

1.773 1.81210

76.610

886") 2.276

21,5

—

— —

1^8

24.3'0

83,9 61

2.318'>

72.610 91.5 83.012

1.903

75,1

100.0

Z

Z

Z

7 63.9

14

,000

1

22 48 57 59 60 180 204 23 204

152,2

652 37,4

77 59 55 90 47

979 839

1.843

78 7

292

910

100,0

21,3

— —

— — _

— 70.8 _

41.42

698 69.4 45,6

560

25

69

41,1

80 100 100

135

28

13 1612 10

5

3,1

9

12,9

13

82 9 8 8

82 3

11

577

9

_

_

_

5039 1.613

2.234 95.4

2.781

4^6

—

—

73,9 87,8

154

190

216

1,000

28

54,9

•

1000

1.448

Z

Z

Z

private

inter-

national

65,1

20 4

52,7 55,9 30,3 29,7

433

5.86

192 38 44 28 58

556

7,7 14.7

60

28

36,6

20,7

42,7

362 380

228

47.0

—

4

53,0 41,3

399

18.8

38.3 16.7

6.9

4 14

261

7

5,5

170

1.000

10

2.9

219 35

65'4

155 73

68 77

111

144 128 124

107 99

3.76 7,82 9,40

4 10

70

54 9

2.046 1.869

83.3 74,2

37,3 62,0

14.5 4,0

68

164 22

52,7 28 3

258

12 13

42.4 77,7

4

912

11

69,8

11

7

_

15

35,0

51.8

132

5,39

359

76,0

24.0

_

5,96

133

68,8

27.8

3^5

103

3,70

27

44,2

43.2

12.6

55

103

390

17

39,7

40.3

200

41 61

111

8,15 10,37

16

31,3 40,7 26,3 56,7 19,5

18.9

49,8 44,2

Guinea-Bissau

548

19,0 7.7

Haiti

85

99

92.3

100 62

226

800

235 63 130 56

700 200 600 220

7

59

39 68 100 100 100 79

90,5

5503 1.718

9.5

8173

18,33

84^0

16'b

— — -

— — —

4083

1,775

95,5

—

4,5

2,106

78,4

4,6

13,8

3,2

97.8 72.23

2.2

27,83

— —

63,6

751

33

64.93

13 73

75.6

15

78.7

16

2216

105 75 102 137

89

88 153

7,6

77 100

9 9

8,5 4,8

100 100

119

13 6

120

100 97

116 124

27 49

48

99

123

699 4,54 5,69 5,95 8,34 6,00

42 27 52 687 185

201

1.884 21 12

254

244

84,4 87,5 20.0

15,1

35.7 80 5 15.6 12.5

94.6

449 913

66.6

5.4

27.9

— 3.7

— 1.8

9,2

141

49.6

170 225

9 13

13,7

58

62,9

41 1,9

0.0

_ —

4032,3 2,171

238

I"

lOO.O'"

93620

Z

6,420

— _ _

Honduras

Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India

256

7.7

Indonesia

56.9

43,1

00

189

—

50,6

0,1

Iran

Iraq

722

876

81

4,20 7,54

480 1.449

49.3 77.7

223

-

504

83

574

332

9.5

6,45

1.538

74.5

25,5

—

3,77 4,44

55 154

36.9

52,3

108

623

377

-

Jordan Kazakhstan

4,33

16

40.0

37,9

22.1

Kenya

6.61

365

589

0,2

Korea. North Korea. South

4.86

541

40.9 64.2

35,6

0,1

Kuwait

4.97 2.53 3.87

118

66.7

5

17.4

33,3 60,7

21,9

220

56.1

439

_ —

1

Ireland

Man

Israel Italy

Jamaica Japan

49 44 100 93 100

89 116

Kiribati

121

140 104

200 350

92 47

134

97

832

26

383

26.5

35,2

Lesotho

217 100

600

50 97

71

8.24

4

19.9

118

68,3

Liberia

358 656

159

280

1.662

72.0 91 4

— -

2.56

7

290

496

498

11

41 7

2.96

71

35.0 44.0

5.19 5.38

249 683

467

349

70

10

11

10"

300

842

18

81"

424

74,63 74,81" 64,72.3

33

6,2

164 17

570 400 59

78 217 12

223

36

100

102

140

139

23 56 78

94 79 130

313,4 2,000

95 41

117 97

0.0

100

141

529

52,3

9

Latvia

Lebanon

8.6

99

Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania

Luxembourg li/lacau

55.8

21,4 23,3 0,2

Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives

15

28,4 0,0

Mali

31,7

Mauritania Mauritius

117

94.8

11

53 61"

Kyrgyzstan Laos

300

16

61

Z _

Guyana

1.6

92

— _

Guatemala Guernsey Guinea

29,9

50.6

71.42"

100, 0'"

Greece Greenland

Grenada

26 40 156

73.4

2562"

778"

Gibraltar

141

20,5 0,0

90.61"

1.4403

Ghana

Isle of

90 80 32

20

4361" 7173

2,139

Germany

784 667

5" 1.966 1.956

Strip

Georgia

Jersey

68J3

— — —

620 9503

63,83,6

Gaza

Guam

133 115 108 127 119

51

Gambia. The

Guadeloupe

111

7

Gabon

3,50

100

49 1.935 1.554

France French Guiana French Polynesia

1.511

96

120

Finland

37.5 27.3

143

71

Fiji

62,5 72,7

52

54

Estonia Ethiopia Faroe Islands

— -

100

460 450 120

Guinea

Eritrea

6.4

8,73

122

Salvador

Equatorial

51.0

126

9,9 0,0

El

207

152

15 6

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt

40.9

7,53

445

111

645

public

3

284 100-0

(US$)

country

by source (percent)

aid

7

33,0

710

2.136

1.100

113 133 116

health expenditures. 1990

11 10

,,,

1.4742 1.367 2.450

101

800

0^0

1.375

of

Statistics

Malta Marshall Islands Martinique

66 97

116 119

3,80 4,40

18

285

41,5

30,0

99.2

100

47.8

390

13,3

32 29

51

84

135

3,17

89

49.3

49,8

0,9

36

34

391

143

74.4

25,6

-

100 80 54 22

78 123 72

6.63 2,55 5,86

58 26

83.0 33,6 21,0

15,1

1^9

Mongolia

633

3.1

25.7

53,3

Morocco Mozambique

202 22

78 59 282

800

'3

1

200 300 300

Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

Moldova

Monaco

5

87'

Britannica World Data

880

Health services

(continued) health personnel

country

year

hospitals

physicians

pharma-

nurses

dentists

midwives

popu-

year

number

kinds

ownership (%)

("/')

hos-

lation

pital

per

gen-

spe-

medical

physi-

eral

cial-

centres

cian

Myanmar

(Burnna)

Namibia Nauru Nepal

1994 1992

Netherlands, The

1992 1993

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

1994 1993 1994 1993 1990

Nigeria

1989 1986 1994 1992 1993

Northern Mariana Islands

Nonway

Oman Pakistan

Palau

Panama

12,245

324 1,497

39,069

8,615

9,064 4,471

1,062 51

912 42710

2,781

121,0005

7.9002

11

63 8

677 485 309

142

5

29

457

54,472

17,954

1.088 4 5,088

5,318 2

52,378 2

4,692 1,324

23 14,497 2,095 63,033

1990 1993 1990 1992 1992

23,771

1993 1994 1993 1989 1992

78,445 87,706 24,499 6,269 758

10 3,168 301 2,924

332

1,753 2,036

1.668

64.503 103 61,367 5,567 20,245

142 2,401

350

570

1155

6,414 47,100

272 39

7

8

835 260

1992 1992 1987 1989

64 40 60

6 6

256 224

61

Saudi Arabia

1991

25,543

5 1.967

Senegal

1992 1994 1992 1994 1992

520 72 404

Russia

Rwanda and Nevis

St Kitis St, St.

Lucia Vincent

San Marino Sao Tome and

Principe

Seychelles Sierra

Leone

Singapore Slovakia

Slovenia

Solomon

Islands

Somalia South Africans

Spam

1990 1990 1986 1993 1993

1,160 7,945

1,61413 17,296 1,509

902

344

767

3335

23,000

Syria

1991

Taiwan

27.288 13.084

Tanzania

1994 1994 1984

Thailand

1992

13.398

2,669

87,868

Togo Tonga

1991

319 46

22

1,187

11

285

1,051

136 836

2,2608 12.143

10,514

44.904 40,6008

Tobago

Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu

Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

Uruguay Uzbekistan

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam

7 4,900

4,400 4,495 7,095

926

92,3008

1 1

4.041 18.762

,957

53,734 38,852

117,200

4,670

531 241 24.697 1,057

709

1991

388" 3.090 87,00023 670,300 187,000 1 1 ,201 3,712 ' 79,000'

7

4,609

65 25 529

15.792

'

618.0008.9

1,061

772 439

19,526

222 375 e

4,245 11,270 2,139 1,191

1,799

30,415

1,108

286'

226'

618 24,801 5 3.000 581 "

66723 385 286 286'

12,000

2,490

713

26

1,503

1.551

194

22,590

626

24 411

199"

311 2.894

92 9

— —

28,3

71 7

7.1

92 9

10,905

— —

3 57

625

12 5 81-4 100.0

100.0

86'720

427

965

3,1

0.5

6.4 18.8

38.2

83

83

—

-

66.7

— — — —

37.4

220

—

17.2

— 45.4

86.4

13.6

—

121

19 53 239

63 6

74.3

14,7

361

306

100

99.8 100.0

11

11.0 33.3

-

-

_ 29.620 — —

0,2

50 29 40 12 17

43.3

36.4

70.420

12,265

— —

— 13.320_

56.7

93.6 43.0 83.3 33.3

3

186

— —

6

60

752 335 72

73 62 77

37.5 61.8

38.2

1

1,723

6 452

85

—

50

63 42 26 20 44 95 119 95

22 2

37 44 66

229

71.2

28.8

21

19923 1986 1989 1986 1992 1992 1988 1993 1994 1988 1992 1990 1992 1992 19913 1990 1994 1985 1989 1994

7

219

25.0

—

71.4

50.0

—

100.0

—

10

—

56

74 4

10 9

40.9

—

36

—

91

750

25.0

—

58 53

834 813

42.4

—^57.6—^

39 42

422

100.0

_

— _

— _

1

7

—

—

28 8

47 58 3

41 7

24

52

213 810 449

80.3

1,097

929

19,7

—

—

78 12

230 116 982

77

73.7

26 3

88.4

48 88

18

11

7.1

—

—

17 16 31

4 311"

138

58

3 6

857 368

749

8.5

8

11.1

—

^90,6

—

100.0

—

88.9

85.4 100.0 100.0

—

166

—

"

90 610

6,580

—

36 1212

130

100.0

829 82

1

17.9

—

—

21

17,1

100.0

—

—

31,1

51.2

17.7

616

112

38 4

100.02

1,3882

56

—

21.1

73 3

100

-

-

370

63

52 9

47

12,500 17

36 75

33 20 249 115

14.6

89 3,900

1995 1992 1993 1985 1993

1987 19933

67

50^0 100.0

35 2,423"

11,414 6,909

14.3 14.3 25.6

22

1993 1988 1993 1993 1994

15,584

420

per 10,000 pop.

778

1992 1992 1993 1986

3.183" 3.900

profit

25.0

1991

4,443 1,004 1,027

profit

9

246

299

for

4

6,210

5,615 6,500

1990 1993

809

45,8

52,280 53,700

Zambia Zimbabwe

—

191

54,2 100,0

393

46.4

0.5

100.0

24 8

"

non-

1992 1992 1987

1993 1986 1988 1992

14,025

27,601

6.6

1

489

5,203 10,000 1,247 9,265

beds

ment

50

6,154 13,315 1,527

5,0305

private

4

556

622

41

7

27 9

20.720

6 231 2,209 59

46,4

72,1

33

298

— — —

111

6

6,430"

75.0

1991

1,535

7 163 4,4789

272

12,5

336

259

Zaire

3 7.945

364

1992 1994 1988 1994

e

948

1

350 180

36.4 12,5

1990

1,152

37.832" 182,000

1993 1992 1994 19853 1992

,588

—

523

7,130"

284,5785 1,956,000 2,047 247,0008.9

1992 1994 1993 1994 1992

1 1

—

14,817 1,026 10,832 681

8

9

39 2 332

1986 1993 1989 1992 1992

8

34.7

47412

1,596

21

1985 1988 1993 1989 1992

11

330 56

653

1,881

506

private

91 5

54

19.775

50,639 14,000' 8 774 230,000'

12

605

2,235 2,708

1.065

501 3,065 24,698 2.469

Yemen Yugoslavia

166

1.547"

1992 1992 1993 1990

Western Sahara Western Samoa

13 5.603

1,264

32,616 28,500 167 510

West Bank

5205

11,214

1995 1992 1993 1985 1984

Virgin Islands (US.)

671

995

1990 1994 1993 1989 1994

1992 1993 1993 1994

180 9.388 39,608

157,497 167,894

22,200

Trinidad and Tunisia

849 440 403 558

1,019

1992

1992 1993 1992

773 499

1,834

Sweden

Tajikistan

12,33913 24,255 824'" 120

447 2 4,024 12,247

Switzerland

,808

20012 5

11,688

1992 1990 1993

1 1

944

272 1

11

1,148

329 83

13

3,5202

14

1,811

93412

4,086

3,345 2,400

6,4325 7,300 25

223

1992'3

1990"

248"

48,066

Sri

Lanka Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland

73012,

,008,800

5812

2,444

25,967 159,291

800 12,874 1,522

375

4,301 15,767

52 450

1

2,107 1,518

42,808 612,400

Romania

18,641

84

2,520

1994 1992'3 1994 1989 1992

298 910

3,7729

308

Reunion

1994 1990 1994 1993 1987

31

58 3,483

1,061

Qatar

114 236

9989

114

Portugal Puerto Rico

1992 1993

44,6708

19.208 5.950 2.111 17513

Poland

12,623 391

63 98

370

14,85313 208,641 30,975 19,666 1,82913

Philippines

717 47

1.916

291

5.9402

Paraguay Peru

1.142

1994 1992

11,413 2,554

2,692 2,447 4.558 15,026

Papua New Guinea

2.379"

2,464

govern-

ized

4,594

3,721

rural

28

-

-

97.2

100^0

22 26 27 49 12

1

—

549 46 45 85

—

34 8

55

525

400 965 1,378

82 09

03

190

725

2 6

83 7

12 7

809 100

475 191

~

21

—

295

~

15

11987,21991 3Government hospitals only "1990 51989, BQeneral hospitals only 'Physicians includes dentists sNurses includes midwives 91992 101986 "Number of pharmacies 121988 '3Government-employed health personnel only i"1985 151993 leincludes physicians practicing dentistry and doctors of traditional Chinese medicine (358,000 in 1993) "Republic of Cyprus only iSExcludes psychiatric hospitals i9Dala refer to former Czechoslovakia 20Based on bed ownership 2iGeneral and specialized hospitals only 22Registered personnel: all may not be present and

23

1

Comparative National

popu-

by kinds

rate

per 10,000 pop.

of hospital (%)

general

special-

medical

ized

centres

rural

maternal

with

(%

by source (percent)

mortality

access

FAO

per as percent capita

length

per 1.000

require-

of

public

live

per 100.000

to safe

of

water

newborn 1993

live births

(latest)

ment) 1992

GDP

stay (days)

(latest)

(%)

bed

aver-

occu-

age

pancy rate

(%)

111

79 5412

974

1.057

1.1656

2^6

-

-

...

1.3743. '5

87,6

596

1,550 1,569 1,226

Z

90,7

9,3

15

84.86

86

93.33,

83.15

—

12.4

1000

78^

Z —

Z —

54.7 83.1

83.06

expenditures. 1990

food supply

total health

lation

under age 5

mortality

admissions or discharges

4 10 56

128 8

of

(U.S,$)

private

inter-

national

aid

Myanmar (Burma)

32 52

120 94

3-92

45

47^

41^3

10^9

830

42 100

89 120

4,54 8,03

7

230

51 7

25,4

1,501

72 6

27 4

107 124 139 102 96

7,37

925

81,7

18,3

8.61

34 16

569 24,5

22,5 31,3

206

4,98

Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The

—

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

9

8,4

72 320

61,2

700

100 54 59

191

800

36

90

2.72

10

36,5

574

6,1

8

58

121

957

4,3

—

220 500

7,35 4.22 3,48

1,835

29 137

too 84 68

209

59.5

0.5

Oman

12

474

40.1 47.1

55

Pakistan

20 95 34 62

62,6

84 33 35 72

97 115 116 80

713

142 37 35

726

23,1

4,3

Panama

4,44 2,97

59,1

36

Papua New Guinea

35,1

582

3-21

61

56,1

41,7

4.8 6.7 2,2

82 100 100

100 126 148

2,15 5,07 6,99

16

46,4 19,7 38,3

69

Philippines

383

46,7 80,3 61 7

4,73

630

63,0

36,9

0,0

3,87

58 159 10 212

61 4 15-0

38^6 33.2 45,2

398

Rwanda

581

278

14,1

St, Kitts

756 685

23,0 28.8

1,4

St.

2,7

St,

100

881

country

460 370

7,1

Statistics

34,1

Nigeria

Northern Mariana Islands

Nonway

Palau

58^

773

8

2536.12

538

..,

1,2889 1.146

96.09

1.101

94

863

4.09

_

105

32

4.3

1.7

_ — —

62.1

72.59 74.5 63.1

71.726

2.160

827

2.150 852' 1 ,0686

83^2 42.82' 49.36

5 149 10 5 726

67'96

1

75.227

,60527

85,8 94.9

1,174 1,679

14.2 5.1

— —

— —

721

1,579

100

15

11,8

11

6,1

165 25

20,1

29

60,3 50,8

100

210

66 100

78 100

3,44

67 75

107 97

7,18

31

96

66

22 24

62'

73,2

82,7

11

767

997

12

,464"

766 »

68^829 78^0

1,881

57.9

474

70.2

1,492

56^2 70.73.6

622 1,1143

6

1029

8

5 15

10 63,6

568 1.368

—

40.9

—

59.1

51,56

80.6 '0 64.630 69.13

1,434 l!l9130

4013

41,9 69.73

567 6013

too 143 115

12.26

1510 730 153

6 63

302 599

84

668

1

—

— —

894

—

708

—

29.2

546

4

32.9

5

71 6

1,060

1,249

81 !6

75.7

24.3

685 69,8

Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar

Reunion

Romania Russia

and Nevis

Lucia Vincent

569

76,7 41

52

91

922

38

288

17,0

54,2

95

113

4,76

260

64.3

357

00

120 20 284 6 18

600

48

95 98 74

3,66 6,03 2-43

29 289

45-1

16,9

Senegal

21 9

Seychelles

495

Sierra

1-87

215

38,0 28.0 30.9 41.6

100

450

37

4,1

100 100

10

5,1

33

10 1,100

4

50.2 19.6 58,3

50.5

63

7,3

41,1

57,5 78,4

425

51,6 0.0

21,6

-

51,1

8-6

84,5 58,0 22,2 10,7

4-5

5,5

100

151

659

19 128

46.5

18 34

40,4 11,0

31

102 94 113 117 110

3,74 3,33

34 107

60 48 68 30 100

288

379

7,22

93 64

879

2.343

893

100 74

126 128

2.520

68.5 16.6 53.0 72,6

82 37

84

550 1

400

95 65 110

2-18 1,51

5,56

43 6

6

0,0

8

4,6

39

140

8

78

7,52 2,07 4,30

83 167

532

598

340

50

87

4,73

4

144

33 135 25

50 420

77

21

492

4,98 4,10 6,46 4,54

72

36

70

75 97 99

110 97 129 107 139

150

78

136

60 89 56 185 25

93

31

31,3

21

130

8 10

6,7

82

21

159

66

30,1

58 24 48

60

55.2

550

95 100 100 75

too

64 1 120

Saudi Arabia

Leone

Singapore

Slovenia 43,2

117 8 77 831

69 9

01

San Marino Sao Tome and Principe

Slovakia

89 24

140 132 141

103

120 106 104

41

323 100

4.1

34.2

— _

31.5 79.4 47,0 27,4 31,6

54,0

787

09

38,5 25,0 36.9 33,3

21 2

4,91

603 624 638

3,94 4-99 2,66

76 125 472

633 332

05 33,7

131

66,0 53,0 30,3

0,1

340 330

362 664 340 133 697

266

472

34,0

66,0

0,1

6,11 12,71

1.039 2,765

849

15.1

44,1

4,62 5,90

123 116

55.9 44.8 27.9

568

51 5

3,60

67 88

211

3

39.3

542

25.7 45,6 47.4

Sweden Switzerland Syria

18

53.8

Lanka Sudan. The Suriname Swaziland

Sri

Taiwan

63 180 76

721

Spam

0.0

—

148 0,6

3,0

0,4

—

— — 1,4 —

22.8 0,1

13 3

Islands

Somalia South Africa28

4.0

20.4 40.4

8

Solomon

Tajikistan

Tanzania Thailand

Togo Tonga Trinidad Tunisia

and Tobago

Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu

Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

Uruguay Uzbekistan

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (US.)

West Bank

57 137

83 36

124

800

187

800

39

93

2.94 3.19 5.113' 2.38

203 83

150 330

53 84

84 83

3.16 6.23

91

13

7 7

Peru

84 38

16'2

809

Paraguay

169 102

211

1

300

59

141 41

8 14

73.'l

2803

6 17

89021

7766

900

20 20

6,1

347

54^2 54.1 19.631

397 113

—

26431

8043'

5

8.5

64.8

267

17

65,4

4

39

403

30.6 48.7

1

110

Western Sahara Western Samoa

Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire

Zambia

Zimbabwe

Jeoata exclude the former Black independent states of working in the country 230ECD estimate 24Central Hospital only 25Public sector only, 26Hamad General 31 Data refer to former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei. and Venda. 29Paramaribo hospitals (1 .213 beds) only, 305.261 community hospitals only, Hospital only, 27Victoria Hospital only

)

882

Britannica World Data

Social protection This table summarizes three principal areas of social protective activity for the countries of the world: social security, crime and law enforcement, and military affairs. Because the administrative structure, financing, manning, and scope of institutions and programmed tasks in these fields vary so from country to country, no well-accepted or well-documented body of statistical comparisons exists in international convention to permit objective assessment of any of these subjects, either from the perspective of a single country or internationally. The data provided within any single subject area do, however, represent the most consistent approach to problems of international comparison found in the published literature for that field. The provision of social security programs to answer specific social needs, for example, is summarized simply in terms of the existence or nonexistence of a specific type of benefit program because of the great complexity

greatly

of national programs in terms of eligibility, coverage, term, age limits, financing, payments, and so on. Activities connected with a particular type of benefit often take place at more than one governmental level, through more than one agency at the same level, or through a mixture of public and private institutions. The data shown here are summarized from the U.S. Social Security Administration's Social Security Programs Throughout the World (biennial). bullet symbol (•) indicates that a country has at least one program within the defined area; in some cases it may have several. blank space indicates that no program existed providing the benefit shown; ellipses [...] indicate that no information was available as to whether a program existed.

A

A

Data given for social security expenditure as a percentage of total cengovernmental expenditure are taken from the International Monetary Fund's Government Finance Statistics Yearbook, which provides the most comparable analytic series on the consolidated accounts of central governments, governmentally administered social security funds, and independent national agencies, all usually separate accounting entities, through which tral

these services may be provided in a given country. Data on the finances of social security programs are taken in large part from the International Labour Office's The Cost of Social Security (triennial), supplemented by national data sources. Figures for criminal offenses known to police, usually excluding civil offenses and minor traffic violations, are taken in part from Interpol's International Crime Statistics (biennial) and a variety of national sources. Statistics are usually based on the number of offenses reported to police, not the number of offenders apprehended or tried in courts. Attempted offenses are counted as the offense that was attempted. person identified as having committed multiple offenses is counted only under the most serious offense. Murder refers to all acts involving the voluntary taking of life, including infanticide, but excluding abortion, or involuntary acts such as those normally classified as manslaughter. Assault includes "serious," or aggravated, assault that involving injury, endangering life, or perpetrated with the use of a dangerous instrument. Burglary involves theft from the premises of another; although Interpol statistics are reported as "breaking and entering," national data may not always distinguish cases of forcible

A

—

Social protection country

social security

programs

available.

1995

expendi-

finances

tures,

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

American Samoa Andorra

old-age,

sickness

work

unem-

family

invalid-

and

injury^

ploy-

allow-

(%

Ity,

mater-

ment

•

Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cote d'lvoire

•

•

Croatia

•

•

Cuba

•

Cyprus23

• • •

• • • •

Czech Republic?^ Denmark

• • • • •

•

Central African Republic Chile

• •

1>

•

• •

8 49 12

• •

• • • •

'3

7

70,737,008-0

26 52,958 650

1

•

193

t

•

9

1

24

1986 1986 1986 1986 1979

1,887 141 120,692 178,991 1.352

1986 1986 1986 1988 1986

101.1375 2,6330 287 4

41,8 39,9

582

29 4

35

37 80

945 857

7

6

9

—

17 2

„ 135 18

28

—

1,1157

2

12.3

226

77.9

20

1

164

50.9

729

386

24.3 61 4

23 2

54

_ — 11.0

—

44

265 68 483

74 3 41,625

22 8

2,5960 210 9

1

750

24,1

25

— — —

Comparative National

Automobile theft excludes brief use of a car without the owner's permission, "joyriding," and implies intent to deprive the owner of the vehicle permanently. Criminal offense data for certain countries refer to cases disposed of in court, rather than to complaints. Police manpower figures refer, for the most part, to full-time, paid professional staff, excluding clerical support and volunteer staff. Personnel in military service who perform police functions are presumed to be employed in their principal entry.

activity, military service. The figures for military manpower refer to full-time, active-duty military service and exclude reserve, militia, paramilitary, and similar organizations. Because of the difficulties attached to the analysis of data on military manpower and budgets (including problems such as data withheld on national security grounds, or the publication of budgetary data specifically intended to hide actual expenditure, or the complexity of long-term financing of purchases of military materiel [how much was actually spent as opposed to what was committed, off'set by nonmilitary transfers, etc.]). extensive use is made of the principal international analytic tools: publications such as those of the International Institute for Strategic Studies {The Military Balance and Strategic Sunvy) and the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (World Military Expenditures and Arms Trans-

both annuals. The data on military expenditures are from the sources identified above, as well as from the IMF's Government Finance Statistics Yearbook and country statistical publications.

fers),

crime and law enforcement offenses reported to 100.000 population

tfie

The a.

Statistics

following notes further define the column headings:

Programs providing cash payments for each of the three types of longterm beneht indicated to persons (1) exceeding a specified working age

women) who are qualified by a (2) partially or fully incapacitated for their usual employment by injury or illness, and (3) qualified by their status as spouse, cohabitant, or dependent minor of a qualified person who dies. b. Programs providing cash payments (jointly, or alternatively, medical services as well) to occupationally qualified persons for both of the shortterm benefits indicated: (1) illness and (2) maternity. c. Programs providing cash or medical services to employment-qualified persons who become temporarily or permanently incapacitated (fully or partially) by work-related injury or illness. d. Programs providing term-limited cash compensation (usually 40-75% of average earnings) to persons qualified by previous employment (of six months minimum, typically) for periods of involuntary unemployment. e. Programs providing cash payments to families or mothers to mitigate the cost of raising children and to encourage the formation of larger families. f. police officer is a full-time, paid professional, performing domestic security functions. Data include administrative staff but exclude clerical employees, volunteers, and members of paramilitary groups. g. Includes all active-duty personnel, regular and conscript, performing national security functions. Excludes reserves, paramilitary forces, border (usually 50-65, often 5 years earlier for

term of covered employment,

A

patrols,

and gendarmeries.

military protection

(latest)

manpower. 19959

police per

arms

expenditure, 1993

trade,

('000,000

U

1993 S,$)

police officer'

total

('000)

murder

per 1 ,000 population

total

per

% of

% of

'000,000

capita

central

GDP GNP

government

assault

imports

exports

or

expenditure

4083

5401

584

19.7

3,448 7,000

579.6 46.0

39,7 ,060,9 1,204,0 1

21 6 150-0

244

1575

550 840 460 220

64.4" 11.35

9.11

5.96

1,360

Algeria

1.1279

1619

28.8'"

4,251

127

24.8

23.99

120

437

11,6

6,268

1,363.1

6,421

305

10.9

6,752 3,457

115.7

1.7

101 5

450 470

56.1

55.8

7,441 1.730

Antigua and Barbuda Argentina

417 219

9.5

Australia

2.5'

Austna

40" 430

2^5" 15.36

Azerbaijan

9"

245 355

2,560 43.6

4,958

86

280

3

346

Bahamas. The Bahrain

Bangladesh Barbados

8,46 1.76

Belarus

650 3,591 2,781

Angola

Armenia Aruba

14.7

1.005,5 42,4

5,319

Afghanistan Albania

American Samoa Andorra

1,270

117.9

752.1

6298

819.5

312.5

125

3,250

8.871

370

3.746

373

6

27

266

56

3.76

Belgium

3.2

Belize

19.45

Benin

Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia

33.5

8,758 116

519.2

520

85.0

2,255

Bosnia and Herzegovina

920

558

196 5,852

750

1

3023

100

96.2

1,010

,202.5

60

41

148 37 1.2973 114 6 5'3

Botswana

10.8 4.9'3

Brazil

20.95 7.56 17.5'7

Brunei Bulgaria

Burkina Faso

13.4'3

Burundi

Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde

1,980 1.170 8,640

110 2,740' 15,2

1,125 201 641

990 470 1,36020

32 4

420

232,4

960 870 480

19.5

4.640

5,0

30.4 99.0 2,930.0 146.4

266 316 1,002

56,170 1,232

1236 20 '3 1346

96 66 73 48 35

546 6'3

665

2.16 2.76

Central African Republic Chile

16 2

2.4 2.7

13.96

2.6

1l!l3

5.86 0.4'3 1.76

8.36 9.2

1.4 '3

106

402

195.6 621.5 2.381.0 40.0

1,956

1.078.1

946 278

154.0 17.6

667 1,911

10,399

3,693

10.0

86,4

95.7 619,7 16,0

33,6 24,8

33,1

426 234

39 324

2,040 2.682

196 518

96 300 580 260 580 1,000

Chad China Colombia

Comoros Congo Costa Rica Cote d'lvoire Croatia

105 105,0

883

20

Cuba

88 68

3.6

Cyprus23

26

4.8

2-0

Czech Republics" Denmark Djibouti

26

24,5 57,1

150

436,0 30,5

1,670

100

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El

Salvador

Britannica World Data

Social protection

(continued)

programs

available.

1995

expenditures.

old-age,

sickness

work

unem-

family

invalid-

and

injuryc

ploy-

allow-

1992 (% of

ity,

mater-

ment"

ancese

total

death a

nity"

expenditures total

insured

em-

govern-

otfier

central

('000.000

persons

ployers

ment

(%)

govt.)

nati, cur.)

(%)

(%)

(%)

33.5 '2 3.93

49.4 '2 34.213

1986 1986 1986

benefits

admin-

ottier

('000,000

(%)

istration

(%)

natl. cur.)

(%)

95.3

-

20.0

30.0

63.2

-

116.3

98.2

90.4133

265 397

,431 ,025.0

50.6

111,6

total

44.7 23.0

34.4

94.8

82.1648

968 95.1

80.7

1991

1,071 5

1990

19,268.0

,439.788.7 997.1 17.832,0

1986 1982

37,7880

42.326.0

1

459,340.0

1986

36.6

29.4

42.5

93.7

27.7

57.9

91.0

1991

1989 1986 1993 1986 8.812 3.710

1986 1986 1977 1986 1993-94

27 73

1986

19.6

1991

1986 1986 1986

26916 37.035 20.9 28.51'

3218

1977 1986 1985 1986 1986 1986 1986 1991

209.0 66.369 269.2

26.9

138.0 200.2

228 17,3

605

634

61.9

21.4

62.1

166,2

23.9

40.8

149.400.0 14,406,0 87,807,7

21.1

78 9

142.9390

98

669

13.7

979

173

58

246

346.460.0

83.2

01

1078

99

556

—

54.3

24.4

4.299,6 6.723.0 90,646,0

239

330 4

11.8

50,525,725,0

27,2

609 536

1

21 9 61.7

14 3 30.6

63.8 28.7

1.512.13 1

09

1986 1986 1989 1986 1986

92.7 84.6

747

68

37.8

26,8 23,4

15.4

55.3

12 8 16

171 5 40,145,652,0

940 95.2

93.4 94.6

528

27.7

1,800,900,0 169,5

24 7

690 287

58,7

34.2

34.5

138

17.2 3.5

26 128.2

54.4 96.2

24,981 7 51,643,0

968

114.8

10,288,2

222

77 8

—

10,075.3

6.304

216

40.5

2 5

1.589 3

870

54

8,1288

166

74 3

—

716

26 8

335

397

939

64 9.1

7.9246

637

940

94.4

4.873.3

15.3'2

1986 1986

5846

63

877

993 8

9 6

35

19.6

63.1

3.660.7 228.2

276

412

44,3

19,9

2.463.649

12.33

—

60

37 7

17 7

5833

81.8

654

95

1

2.115.574

1

73.6

25.6 5.43.12

1985 1986

31 2

86.2

137

01

596

185

2,0

2,5065

945

145

1000

-

51,5

15.6

359

3.5

59 3 140.734

38

122,791

1

50,0

100,251,0 36.1

3,994,000.0 385.8

59,427.9

596 802

6,1468

37.3 51,7

19.5

86.0 94.2 85.2

69,255.0 40,362.2 92.2 167,879.0 71 4,302,2 14.4

118.4

5612

1344 62,458

268 7

26 6

1983 1977 33,6 46 5

17,2 10,2

90.9

52 4 76 8 8,780 7

1,660

1993 1986

55.9

44 3 3.0

97

30

Comparative National

crime and law enforcement offenses reported to 100,000 population

tfie

(latest)

military protection

police per

manpower, 19959

total

('000)

murder

assault

burglary

per 1 ,000 population

expenditure, 1993

total

000,000

arms

trade, 1993 (000,000 U S.$)

per

%

capita

central

automobile

of

government

ttieft

Statistics

%

imports

of

GDP GNP

exports

or

expenditure 227

927

21,027

Equatorial

Guinea

Eritrea28

25,1

Estonia

24.8

Ettiiopia26

Faroe Islands 2,374 8,388 6,660 8,936 1,799

41,3 38.8

114

453.0

699

1,921.9

79-6

967

804.0

648 5

178 7

150-6

98.9

1,367.3 232 7

17.9

23

440 640 630

Fiji

31.1

1.710

409.0

42,590

339 740

Finland

France French Guiana French Polynesia

Gabon Gambia, The

4,355

Gaza

Strip

Georgia 7,838

104.8

864

95.9

12,581

1,761

3,699 9,360 2,679

66.4

4,533 10,080

510

845.0

Germany

301.9 1

,883-5

153-0 10,2 7.9 27,4

154.8 169 3

554.5 634.2

146-9 333-6

77,1

27,9

58.1

18-4

620

Ghana

170

Gibraltar

380 340 230

Greece Greenland Grenada

Guadeloupe

Guam 670

113

Guatemala Guernsey Guinea

436

1.140

129

Guinea-Bissau

1,980 701

190 400

1.446

1,040 221

4,326 1,550

889-6 704-8

594 113

15.6

62,3 112,8

710 940 820 1,340

76.6

347 180

197 2.710

Haiti

Honduras

Hong Kong Hungary Iceland 1.145.0

274.5 513.0 382.0

913-3 892-4

67.3

2294 362

1,008.1

410.5

182

252 2 187 8

15.2

Guyana

8,471 2,031

4,857 9.00713

12.9

514

172.0 328.7

6,290 20,570

9

188

India

10 78

6,7 12.4

Indonesia

50.831

Iraq

52813 146

Iran

3.1

Ireland Isle of

5666

210 680

1,279

354

21,3 4,06

Man

Israel Italy

139

Jamaica Japan

27.9

Jersey

Jordan Kazakhstan

484 285 414 709 987

6.4

76,9 73,3

9-7

12,4

5.5

1.4

11,5

83.5

10.237

43.2 92.2

66-8

17.1

10437

12.6

482-4

366

8,0 13.2

,885

33.9

,571

54.1

14,7 170,6

18.3 65.7

Kenya

1,500

330 460 420 80

Kiribati

1,128.0

633.0 16.6

4,432

9,1

131

1

3.545

2,088

1 1

51

67.3

221 5

153.6

18.1

27.3

21.3">

1,130

1.570

585

235 328

13.35 28.05

530

2.76 15.4 17.13

660

28,1

275,5

447

16-7

2,900 1.670

107-8

760

Latvia

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia

Libya Liechtenstein

Luxembourg

7.513

4.413 15.5

33 64 7

385.5

156 4

102.6

Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives

35,710 160

2,353 2,697 2,273 3,924

Laos

Macau

76.2

23.2 100.9 14.9

Korea. North Korea, South

Kuwait

Lithuania

730

686 231 1.094

875 650

Kyrgyzstan

11

23 45 77 206

1.599

614,3 325,2 731-5

40,71

105 122 274 376

4,9

114,3 1,199 7,044

.930

253 267

5.500

Mali

230 400

Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius

38 13-6

Mayotte Mexico Micronesia

30.2

Moldova 4,277

453 366 166

Monaco

407,1 17.0

21.1

195.5

13213 .193 91

6213

43 6

9.0 19.5 40-7

Mongolia

Morocco Mozambique

Myanmar (Burma)

309 100.0 0,2 3.803.0

110 1,000

510

Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The

885

Britannica World Data

Social protection

(continued)

programs

available,

expendi-

1995

tures,

old-age,

sickness

work

unem-

family

invalid-

and

injuryc

ploy-

allow-

(%

ity,

mater-

ment"

ancese

total

total

insured

em-

govern-

death a

nity"

central

('000,000 nati cur )

persons

ployers

ment

(%)

(%)

(%)

1992 of

govt.)

34.111

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

362 144 712.27

1

Nigeria

other (%)

total

(000,000 natI

benefits

admin-

(%)

istration

cur)

other (%)

(%)

1420

139.2 15.834,0 9.645,5

100,0 1,6

925

8329 12,8906

20.4 12.3

37,8

108.4

17,9

24.4

157,8537

17,5

24,6

557

153.249 6 38 012

5,134,8

10-1

836

4,6295

14,598.0

104

157 107

9,5345 427 5 10,032

97 4

655 49.0

1

175

447

Northern tvianana Islands

38.03

Norway

Oman

4.812

Pakistan

0.29

'2

990

Palau

189

Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay

500 5

44.9

21.7

6.1

45.0

32,1

194

15.7

49.2720

39.5

51.6

26,5

4,2448

131

26

607

24,6

66,0

1,830,162 459.353.8 1.041.3

869 992 954

7,041.677.0

31,1

Philippines

10,705,0 2.242,443,0

186

494.5270

Portugal

Puerto Rico Qatar

100

80.0

800

1000

72,064,9

54,0

8.4704 63.9275

100.0

2.1238

41,0

Reunion

Romania

82 3 6.136,672.0

Peru

Poland

94.3

40,5880

Russia

Rwanda St. Kitts

St.

St.

14.6

Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines

San Ivlarino Sao Tome and

65.0

14,3

and Nevis

51,673,0 Principe

487

46.1790

56,3

237

69.9 60,2

18,827.0 42.7

95.7 100.0

3.7

0.6

84.8

15.3 4.9

255

04

277

—

—

Saudi Arabia 2,63 5.318 1.93

Senegal Seychelles

Leone

Sierra

Singapore Slovakia

22,094.0

21,2

69.1

30.1

10.0

69 6 100

232

5,601 2

719

28.013

85,3

13,823

9760

100,0 54,0

27,1

322

10,5 6,691,0

—

—

Slovenia

Solomon

0.6"

Islands

1.712

Somalia South Africa

Spam

36.713

Sn Lanka Sudan, The

16213

045 6,09 0.412

Suriname Swaziland

Sweden

464

Switzerland

49.9"

'

5.893.481

20,9

242

42.1

14,3

125.8 10.7 318,641.9

35,8 31 4

28,7 26,5 31,4 38.5

10.432.8

37,602.7

45

6680 5,801,152

227 57.0

366 105

263

1

39 291,962

1

1,9

458 959

54,2

35,691 2 1,150

1.4

Syria

506

85 106 3

372 49.2

4,0226

13.83

Taiwan Tajikistan

1,286.6

Tanzania

26.9

Togo Tonga Trinidad Tunisia

2460

100.0 70.9

Thailand

5.325

and Tobago

12.2

Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu

19,8

157

505,4 325,3

369

1,753,294.0

28,2

4,671

17^9

383 2

77

358,3

90.016

23 4

1,417,9400

01

108

Uganda

53

Ukraine 3.412

United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

296 222

Uruguay

55712

42,0 78,737,0

183

644,4640

245

92,849,0

33,3

7,457 6

213

23,4 33,7 37,2

55

1

30,2 24.0

888 707

32 11

6

54

05 16,835

420 012 76.0590 525,8550 93,379,0

97

11.2

-

293

11.1

11.8 6 118

1

3.918

03

26

1

324

676 100 100

_

95.4

959 927

17

29 32

09

6.0

1.3

Uzbekistan

099

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam

6,99

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

W/est

Bank

Western Sahara Western Samoa

Yemen

322 602

633 286

Yugoslavia Zaire

Zambia

55

179,2

2,55

1670

1

Zimbabwe

2.732.6790 11,2

432

1.044 2

903 279

72

406

59 4

1

93 7

i1984 integnty 31990 2The bulk of the national armed forces disintegrated alter the fall of the central government in April 1992, with only the northern corps retaining its 'Rural areas only i2lncludes welfare ioi983 "Netherlands Antilles includes Aruba 91986 smcludes civilian administering .-., a.country, responsibility v^. of the ...^ uu - militia is the 61992 'Political dependency, jpendency 1JO.CM3C defense 10 .0 .Di.H>^..i..iy...,, ,,,r, . ~„, 2iData refer to former 23Republic of Cyprus only 221971 21 Military defense is the responsibility of France i'1988 '91976 161993 '61993 "1988 '81977 2iiLocal officers only 111985 '51979 20Local 131991 among eastern Caribbean 26Paramilitarv unit of a country participating in the U S sponsored Regional Security System, a defense pact 25198I Czechoslovakia except military manpower. 1994 declaration ot the 30Following currently about 55.000 is of these forces 2' 1980 29Demobilization of some Erilrean forces began in late 1993 Estimated strength 28Ethiopia includes Eritrea states 3i 1932. 3.3|n 1994 the military government of Haiti was replaced by 32Former West Germany. independence by Eritrea in April 1993. estimated strength of Ethiopian forces was some 120.000 I,

—

—

.

1

.

.

Comparative National

crime and law enforcement

Statistics

887

militarv protection

(latest)

manpower, 19959

offenses reported to the police per 100,000 population

expenditure, 1993

arms

trade.

('000.000

1993

U S

$)

police officer'

total

(000)

murder

assault

burglary

per 1 ,000 population

total

per

% of

%

'000,000

capita

central

GDP GNP

automobile

government

imports

of

exports

or

expenditure

ttieft

330 313.6 140.0

14.496

4.0

772 32

18.3 0.2

312 245

3.8

926

737

208

26

53,8

89.0

474.1

5,466 162 221

Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

630 908 2,350«

2.5

1,140

5.6

0.1

9.1

4.1

Nigeria

Northern Mariana Islands

660 430 720

30,0 43.5 587.0

62

752 997 25

3,232 .638 3.111 1

Norway

Oman

35.36 26.3

Pakistan

323,0

61

18.9

1,178

8.6 3.0 9.3

66.7 27.8 104.3

230

30.1

2,020

3.0 4,0

41.8 56,5

764,2

6.3

528

262

188.4

931.2

2.4

9,7

7.8

123.1

36

3.7 50.4 66.6

703 766 816

900 3,350 301 2.097

636 1.857

346

15.537 15.6

Palau

105.1

87.0

22.0 93.4 22.7

17.0 10.3

720 310 730

1.2

178.8 487.0

Papua New Guinea 20.3 115,0

116 696

24 30

8,3 13,3

Paraguay

106.5 278.6 54.2

1,200 4,334 2,192

17

11.6

Philippines

113 209

6,4

2,63827

20.1"

72 762

11.4

Romania

28.16

Russia

24.1

Rwanda

6082'

Peru

71

Poland Portugal

Puerto Rico Qatar

Reunion

4.650

15,468

4,386 3,977

Panama

125.1

63

1,193.0

986.9

217.4

1.676

1.520.0 40.0

113.800 114

14

300

St, Kitts

430 250

St.

San f^arino Sao Tome and Principe

4.1

558 114

4.0 0.6

295

18

5,267

5.7

2,739

479.8

144

31.2

14 2,700

600 230

843

2,402

1

280

82

1,565 17,819 4,955.3 13,750

4.2 7.6

40-5 1.824.4

71.6 8.4

630.6 42.5

26

53.6

10.i

2.527

1.627

Saudi Arabia

15 8

41.0

1,163

134 8"

61 1 741.9

107,8

5.457

727

127

0.480

19.2

1.560 1.982

and Nevis

Lucia St Vincent and the Grenadines

16 124" 3

1376 12.56

22

955 157

26

4,8 2,4

2.4 5.6"

7.4"

1

5.2

Seychelles Sierra

20

60 150

Leone

Singapore Slovakia

Slovenia

.096.8

620 540 870 580

54.7 0.4

860 740

Solomon

190

140 150

12.96

1185

175,4"

Sri

5

934,9 1.801.5

640

34213

19.413 60.313

494

20.0

581

4,061

4,526'3 10,420

89 672 317

1,970

1,250

1.330

90

3

530

3,511

60

1.970

48

12

720

Spam Lanka Sudan, The Suriname Swaziland

20

125 3

Islands

Somalia South Africa

90

10

Sweden

40 120 480

60

Switzerland

10

Taiwan

Syria Tajikistan

2,100 3,170 1,240

633.9 143.6

781 1,496 10.40350

440.1 169,6 15.6

420

16.6

975

50.0

362.150

5.482 6.806

1,570

452.5

105 1

20

1,771

420 318

236.9

.099.2

1.547,3

34.020 297.600

56.9

170

256

256

666 587 1,153 81

380 150

36.9 9,4

20

1,400

1

4,300 10,300

1

175.2

330.1

212.7

,943.2

3.183.7

954

Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

Uruguay

7.8

Uzbekistan

25.0

450 320

Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam

60 10

223

Tobago

Uganda

70.0

1,147.350

Trinidad and Tunisia

50

140

2,404 450

Togo Tonga 10

156

Thailand

90

15.9 11.713

330 280 340

24.5 1.7

Tanzania

12.36

Virgin Islands (U.S.)

West Bank

1,940

17051 1.13552

140* 910 153.5

4187

1056,51 19.66.51 1.0686,51 3.60813.52 15813,52 55.03,52

395 126.5 49.1

14.45 15.0

540 750

10.46.51

Western Sahara Western Samoa "Vemen

520 80

3.913.5;

Yugoslavia

10

Zaire

10

Zambia Zimbabwe

36Russian-controlled forces in Kazakhstan territory, estimated s^coverage is a civilian administration Both the armed forces and police have been disbanded 38As a result of civil war, the armed forces of Liberia, with a combat strength of about 2,000 to 3,000. are now confined to IVIonrovia, the capital. 37|ncludes attempted murders, at about 40 000 "lUnder the terms of 1992 peace accord, government and Rename forces are to "Ofi^ilitary defense is the responsibility of the United States 39Military defense is the responsibility of Switzerland. "epollowing the 1991 revolution, no national armed forces have yet ""1978. "51987. "3|ncludes paramilitary forces. "2Cura5ao only. merge to form a new National Army some 30,000 strong

through tax system

been formed

Yemen Arab

"SMilitary defense is the responsibility of "'Includes bicycles and motorcycles. Republic, 52Data refer to Yugoslavia as constituted prior to 1991

New

Zealand.

351988-89

"SForces under

joint

Turkmenistan/Russian control.

50England and Wales,

sipormer

Britannica World Data

Education This table presents international data on education analyzed to provide maximum comparability among the different educational systems in use among the nations of the world. The principal data are, naturally, numbers of schools, teachers, and students, arranged by four principal levels of education the first (primary); general second level (secondary); vocational second level; and third level (higher). Whenever possible, data referring to preprimary education programs have been excluded from this compilation. The ratio of students to teachers is calculated for each level. These data are supplemented at each level by a figure for enrollment ratio, an indicator of each country's achieved capability to educate the total number of children potentially educable in the age group usually represented by that level. At the first and second levels this is given as a net enrollment ratio and at the third level as a gross enrollment ratio. Two additional comparative measures are given at the third level: students per 100,000 population and proportion (percentage) of adults age 25 and over who have achieved some level of higher or postsecondary education. Data in this last group are confined as far as possible to those who have completed their educations and are no longer in school. No enrollment ratio is provided for vocational training at the second level because of the great variation worldwide in

—

the academic level at which vocational training takes place, in the need of countries to encourage or direct students into vocational programs (to support national development), and, most particularly, in the age range of students who normally constitute a national vocational system (some will be as young as 14, having' just completed a primary cycle; others will

be

much

older).

At each level of education, differences in national statistical practice, in national educational structure, public-private institutional mix, training and

deployment of teachers, and timing of cycles of enrollment or completion of particular grades or standards all contribute to the problems of comparability among national educational systems. Reporting the number of schools in a country is not simply a matter of counting permanent red-brick buildings with classrooms in them. Often the resources of a less developed country are such that temporary or outdoor facilities are all that can be afforded, while in a developed but sparsely settled country students might have to travel 80 km (50 mi) a day to find a classroom with 20 students of the same age, leading to the institution of measures such as traveling teachers, radio or televisual instruction at home under the supervision of parents, or similar systems. According to UNESCO definitions, therefore, a "school" is defined only as "a body of students organized to receive instruction." Such difficulties also limit the comparability of statistics on numbers of teachers, with the further complications that many at any level must work part-time, or that the institutions in which they work may perform a mixture of functions that do not break down into the tidy categories required by a table of this sort. In certain countries teacher training is confined to higher education, in others as a vocational form of secondary training, and so on. For purposes of this table, teacher training at the secondary level has been treated as vocational education. At the higher level, teacher training is classified as one more specialization in higher education itself. The number of students may conceal great variation in what each country defines as a particular educational "level." Many countries do, indeed, have a primary system composed of grades 1 through 6 (or 1 through 8) that passes students on to some kind of postprimary education. But the age of intake, the ability of parents to send their children or to permit .

.

.

Education country

year

first

general second level (secondary)

level (primary)

schools

students

teachers':

evfin (obit.) 93.60 Devlin, Patrick Arthur (obit ) »».V3 Devlin, William George Junior DeWalt, Autry: see Walker Dcwhurst. Colleen (obit.) 92:59 91:92 Dexter. John Dezhurov, Vladimir 169 (obit.)

DFP

(pol. party,

Dom):

Freedom Party Dhlakama, Afonso 446 :

„,„

« „

see

.

DJIa\,S"'"^™o UNHCR: see United

Rwanda 462 Desmond 451

Tutu,

Tuvalu 96:482; 95:487; 94:499- 93-4QQ92:49, 91:5,8; 90:533; 89:5^"'' flag //

96:365

see also world TV: sec television

Tweedie,

Jill

data

^^"96-l'oo"''^^"

^"' UBCV*^2%"

Team (athletic org special report 93:276

Unified

union, trade: see trade union Union des Associations Europeenes de Football, or UEFA (internat.

athletic

'obit.)

typhoon

association football 3

1

^"'""f"' P^l^o^acy and '-'"': *Pol-

Progress, or party, Mauritania)

441 I! Union of Democratic Forces-New Era or

47 meteorology 165 Tyson. Mike (biog.) 90-101 boxing 308 disasters

Un,v.„

7;P. P°''

'"'"y- Mauritania) 441

Employees (Am. union)

H Jh clothing industry 135 or fflsT' U.S.S.R.

u U2

(mus. group) (biog.) 94:52 U.A.E.: see United Arab Emirates

References giving only

)

^"''''' ^^''°"' '"'^rim Force

'in'V.r in Lebanon

Sheila (obit.) 94-81

Twitty, Conway (obit.) 94:81 Twomey, Seamus (obit.) 90:126 Tyler, Anne 228 •''^''"^'"= "^"o"

203

Switzeriand 475

(biog.)

Tutsi (people) Burundi 382, //. 383 ethnic relations 284

new

relations 188

New

jump

track

Tropical Freeze spirits 138

Argentina 370 economic affairs 172 European Union 355

France 176 )

91-84 Tutankhamen (Egy. pharoah) archaeology 115

(obi^l'ao'"'^"^'''^"'"'^^^-'"'

party. Cam.); see National

Union for Democracy and Progress riugress unemployment

Broadcasting System, Inc. (Am.

Turow, Scott

Develop'^

underiying asset

UNDP (pol

245

Time Warner

reaty of

424,

'" •'""'

UNSCOM

tertorist) 214 Unbekanni verzogen" (Schulte) German literature 230 (film) 276

95.-485; 94:409;

(obit.) 91:1

'"

for Social

"Underground"

''"""J.^J'

Fnendship and Cooperation

1

Eva

Worid Summit ment

Denmark 398 Unabomber (Am.

Turner, Ted (biog.) 96-69

substantive word

Trend, Burke St. John Trend (obit.) 881 Trepanatsiya cherepa" (Bondlevslo-) Russian literature 235 Treurnicht, Andries Petrus (obit.) 94-81 Treve yan, John (obit.) 87:124 Trevelyan Julian Otto (obit.) 89:1 1

Italy

UN

f-

^'^^^^^ "

UNPROFOR '^"-"•^-'K

*^°'"'"'^'^'«"'

"l'raq''42f'

world data

Dame

umer.

1

trial

'POlogy (math.)

also

^^7

''"''"-'

"• "^

Protection Force, or militaiy affairs 261

Turnbull Colin Macmillan (obit

(spe-

Trefulka, Jan 236

XT6^4fo";^"9?4"8r9«^^3-498-

UN

1

dams 121 new flag ///;«. 93:346 see also world data

1

Randy (biog.) 91-84 Treasures from Collections of the Prince .of Liechtenstein" (art exhibit) Liechtenstein 437 Treasury bond stock exchanges 182 Treaty of see under e_g.

""^va^cSn "4^8

351.420

Travis,

(Leverich)

°'"(obif)T87??o''^''^"^'^'"'"^-

to the 21st

cial report) 94:

.

""'"^'

89;^r^'

47

Turkish literature 237 Turkmenistan 96:482;

travel: see

most populous urban areas lahle 279 subway attack 213, 426 Tokyo International Film Festival (Japan) film awards lah/e 111 ' Tokyo International Forum

1

"0:437;

literature 237 military affairs 260 most populous urban areas table 279 race and ethnic relations 284 wrestling 347

metals 148

see also

Religious Society of Friends 293 ..Vatican delegation 289

93-51

Islamic world 297

special report 87:4

world data

)

,1°'^''"*'' Republics, (hist, nation, Eurasia)

''re'£M?^r economic

1

1

Worid Conference on

352 Australia 374 China 391, ,/ 34

Turkmenistan 482

TCP/IP

computers 157

light

Women

Cyprus 397 Greece 412

transplant (surg.) Chinese prisoners 216 rransporfation 96:348; 95:34794-34093:341; 92:337; 91:367- 9^-388

Benin 378 Ghana 411

at- (biog

S'^^ddling Fish Stocks 10

^" an''d"Hrph?v Migratory Fish Stocks

riM UN IFourthJ^.w^

46

archaeology

^89:371; 88.-371;' 87.-408 Dominican Republic 399

89:111

mJ'""J'"'^- '^'"•'- «''' United UN-w'1f''^Hr"°'8anization UN. «v United Nations

RtandaT62

1994 Olympic champions lab/e 95:309 Today (Br. news.) 247 Today's Japan" (exposition)

274

260

93:346

world data

(obit.)

international affairs

"Trainspotting" (play) 271 1 ransdmester (prov., Moldova)

Tor%;i;9?9l4%"3^;^9T3"7l'9tl]f^'*'''

(lag illus.

Hl'i^?,!l'7'"^'^^>'"''°S-'9':84