Britannica Book of the Year 1977 0852293259

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BRITANNICA 1977 BOOK OF THE YEAR

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Chicago, Toronto, London, Geneva, Sydney, Tokyo, Manila, Seoul

©

1977

BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. All Rights

Copyright Under International Copyright Union Reserved Under Pan American and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-325-9 International Standard Serial Number: 0068-1156

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BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR {Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat.

Off.)

Printed in U.S.A.

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Britannica Book

of the Year is published with the editorial advice of the faculties of the University of Chicago.

Managing Editor Editors

Editorial Staff

Lawrence K. Lustig

Daphne Daume, Chicago J. E. Davis, London David Calhoun, Charles Cegielski, Judy Fagelston, R. M. Goodwin, Arthur Latham, Stephanie Mullins, Francis S. Pierce

Advisers

Correspondents

Peter L. Ames, Richard H. Kessler, M.D., Michael D. Kilian, Robert J. Loescher, Martin E. Marty

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Chairman

of the

Board

President Vice President, Editorial

Robert P. Gwinn Charles E. Swanson Charles Van Doren

Contents Feature Articles 6

The Aftermath of Angola An appraisal of the sudden turn

of events in southern Africa,

by Basil

Davidson 14

The Coming of Metricated

A 17

Man

personal view of the metric system, by Herbert Greenberg

Mexican Mythology and Modern Society The influence of the mythical plumed serpent Lopez

is

enduring, by Jose

Portillo

People of the Year 24

Biography

59

Olympic Champions

62

Nobel Prizes

65

Obituaries

Chronology of Events 84

A

month-by-month summary account of

have occurred

Book 104-740

significant

happenings that

in 1976.

of the Year

An

alphabetically organized treatment of the people, places, and developments of significance during 1976, including the following general areas

:

t

Economic Developments Environment and Natural Resources

Food and Agriculture Health and Disease

Human

Affairs

Industrial

Review

Literature and the Arts

National and International Affairs Science and Technology Social Sciences

Sports and

741

Contributors

749

Index

Games

Special Reports 122

Agriculture and Food Supplies: The Soviet Grain Disaster of 1975 The reasons behind the Soviet grain shortfall that disrupted world trading patterns, by D. Gale Johnson

158

Australia: Australia's

New

Political

Balance

The 1975 constitutional crisis changed plexion, by Geoffrey Sawer

Australia's

political

com-

—

186

Canada: Montreal Host to the World Behind the glamour of the Olympics were a determined Montreal mayor and a huge debt left to the Canadian people, by Bruce Kidd

205

Communist Movement : How Many Communisms? Once perceived as monolithic, Communism now finds factions and heresies, by Neil Mclnnes

229

301

327

383

Dance: The Bolshoi Bicentennial The glorious past and equivocal present of one dance companies, by Walter Terry

497

of the world's great

Environment : Habitat and the Human Condition The latest major UN world conference examined the ecology man settlements, by Harford Thomas Health and Disease: Epidemic Control: The Eradication of Smallpox For the first time in history, it appears that a major disease

it?

of hu-

will

be

by Donald A. Henderson

Law: Law of the Sea III The UN Conference on the Law career, by Tony Lojtas

of the Sea continues

Feminism and Literature An examination of the historic place

its

checkered

Literature:

Ellen

627

beset by

Education: Functional Dliteracy in the United States What is functional illiteracy and how many are handicapped by by George Weber

eliminated,

453

itself

of

women

in literature,

by

Moers

Spain: Spain:

The Post-Franco Era

After 40 years of political repression and rising prosperity, Spain faces an uncertain future, by David Rudnick

670

Track and Field Sports: Montreal: The

XXI Olympiad

Athletic exploits and political

marked

turmoil

the

1976

Summer

Games, by Chris Brasher 688

699

United Kingdom: The Irish Question Northern Ireland confronts the prospect of violence as a continuing way of life, by Bruce Arnold United States: The 1976 Presidential Election review of America's quadrennial political drama, by Stanley W.

A

Cloud 701

734

United States: How the Debates Came to Be Hard work and good fortune brought about the dential debates in 16 years, by Charles Benton

first

televised presi-

Winter Sports: Innsbruck: The XII Winter Olympic Games In a spectacular Alpine setting, the 1976 Winter Games combined athletic prowess and spectacular beauty, by Howard Bass

—

SALGADO

GAMMa/lIAISON

The Aftermath of Angola by Basil Davidson Much

in central and southern Africa during 1976, and with dramatic speed. What happened in all present likelihood, marked the ending of a long

then,

changed

nature of these wars, their action overthrew Portugal's 48-year-old dictatorship and, under the slogan of "Decolonization and Democratization," led very quickly to

phase in modern history and the onset of another and very

the full success of the nationalist liberation

different one.

in the

movements

Portuguese African colonies.

defeat of a

In West Africa, by the middle of September 1974, the

number

of attempts to prevent the victory in Angola of a

African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and

radical

or

Late

March 1976

in

"root and

20-year-old Popular gola (mpla) under

came the

there

branch" nationalism led by the

Movement

its

final

for the Liberation

of-

An-

veteran chairman, poet and former

physician Agostinho Neto. But this was only one of a

comparable events and

of

series

had begun exploding

that

all

By

the

summer

consequences

this vast subconti-

new developments whose

nental region in 1974, impelling limits could not yet be

of

sets

around

marked.

was such that

of 1976 the situation

criti-

but previously fixed positions in subcontinental politics

cal

Cape Verde (paigc) achieved the complete independence of Guinea-Bissau and went on to establish a second sov-

Cape Verde Islands in July 1975. companion movement in Mozambique, the Mozambique Liberation Front (Frelimo), reached the same destination in June 1975. Their likewise closely linked companion in Angola, mpla (whose founding members had included the late Amilcar Cabral, initiereign republic in the closely associated

Its

ator

of

had

paigc),

the

face

to

internal

rivalry

and

bloodshed together with actual or imminent foreign

in-

viously reach out into the future. Yet the history of 1975—

But by September 1975 it had managed to assert its control over some 12 of Angola's administrative districts and was poised to secure the rest. Rounding off

76 already appeared to have ensured an early end to

the destruction of Portugal's African empire, the islands

Zimbabwe (Rhodesia), made South Africa's continued administration of Namibia (South West Africa) more than problematical, brought to Africans even

independent

within South Africa itself a fresh and vivid hope of prog-

of the Portuguese colonial system had consequences far

had become blurred, uncertain, and

The

disappear.

even

liable to shift or

further unfolding of

all

this

would ob-

white minority rule in

system of

ress against the apartheid

racist rule,

naled, in close relation with these trends, a

and

sig-

major and most

public setback for the pro-minority policies of the West,

notably those associated with U.S.

Henry

Kissinger.

State

the precise future of these

might be, things would never be the same again.

territories

How

Whatever

Secretary of

and why has

all this

midstream of events that

come about?

still

have far

We

to

attempt to answer

may

question

in

Tome and

The Challenge

of Radical Nationalism. This collapse

outside the territories concerned.

The balance

of

power

in

central Africa immediately shifted, to the especial detri-

ment of

the U.S. -favoured Pres.

Mobutu

Sese Seko of

Zaire (ex-Belgian Congo), and a comparable shift threat-

ened

in the

southern region where minority rule had until

now appeared to a coherent

pace

were

at

many Mozambique

so safe as to be able to continue for

years into the future. In losing Angola and

their

best begin with sin-

Principe in the Gulf of Guinea became

July 1975.

in

if

become known. So an

and actual destinations have yet this

and

now

of Sao

set, their

to go;

general course and direction seem broadly

are

tervention.

and radical nationalism, the minority regimes

once deprived of their two great "flank guards"

on the northwest and northeast. Beyond of the liberation

movements

also

this, the

successes

changed the regional bal-

gling out

and considering the

historical "turning points" or

ance of influence between a new type of nationalism, aim-

moments

of decisive change that have occurred in the past

ing at domestic revolutions, and the old-style reformist

three years. These are not hard to find.

Portuguese Africa Liberated. The

first

nationalism of the 1960s. Hitherto of these "turn-

ing points" began in Lisbon on April 25, 1974. This the

revolt

of

young

forces, chiefly in the

the

officers

Army and

of

the

assembled clandestinely

Armed Forces Movement. Impelled by

tugal's colonial

was

Portuguese armed in

defeat in Por-

wars as well as by a growing disgust

at the

Author and historian Basil Davidson, winner of the Haile Award, 1970, has written extensively on African affairs. His books include The Afri-

Selassie African Research

ist

nationalism,

generation

now

it

had been

increasingly attacked

(and about half of

all

this

reform-

by the younger

African populations

are under 20 years old), that had held the balance;

now

was the nationalism of the liberation movements. Successful in their own territories, the ideas for which these

it

movements stood were on

the

march elsewhere

as well.

These ideas encompassed two governing principles of policy. One of them was that independence, to be worth its name, must be able of colonial rule

to displace the attitudes

by new ones

and structures

that should be genuinely in-

Which Way Africa? (1964), AfThemes and Outlines (1968), The African Genius (1969), and In the Eye of the Storm: Angola's

external capitalist supremacy, such as had appeared during

People (1972).

colonial times, in favour of

can Awakening (1955), rica in

History:

digenous, and therefore capable of self-development. This, it

was

held, also

had

to

mean an end

to projections of

an increasingly noncapitalist

ALON RE1NINGER — CONTACT

U.S. Secretary of State

Henry Kissinger and South African Prime Minister B. J.

Vorster met in Zurich September. Observers thought that Kissinger put pressure on Vorster that led to Rhodesia's acceptance of the

in

principle of majority rule (by blacks) in

two

years' time.

or anticapitalist this view,

mode

of progress.

would confirm an

Any

other policy, in

exterior, if indirect,

economic

and cultural control. The second principle, flowing from the

was one of military nonalignment in world afWhile many of the leaders of these movements were

first,

fairs.

it was strongly argued that movements themselves were neither Communist nor

of Marxist persuasion,

herently anti-Western: on the contrary,

They had long

The same

through the agency of Presi-

efforts

were continued

since con-

in

1975 on

Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia as well. In the end it hostility of Congress, which sensed possible

involvement

in "a

second Vietnam," that prevented the

U.S. government from continuing to channel

subcontinental region must be adverse to Western

They had accordingly

power. Efforts had long been made

an altogether larger scale, eventually involving the agency

was only the

cluded that any far-reaching form of anticolonial change in this

dent Mobutu.

of Pres.

Kissinger and other West-

ern statesmen thought otherwise.

to

in that direction, principally

in-

repeatedly called for friendship with the West.

The West Seeks Stalemate.

appeared possible to prevent the

it still

mpla from coming

the

their leaders

all

of the territories,

Mobutu

for use against the

mpla

in

money

to

Angola. In the event,

neither of the anti-MPLA contenders, the National Front for the Liberation of

Angola (fnla) of Holden Roberto,

based on Zaire, and the National Union for the Total In-

dictatorship with large quantities of finance, arms, and

dependence of Angola (unita) of Jonas Savimbi, based on Zambia, was able to dominate the mpla, which was

diplomatic support

now

interests.

all

buttressed the Portuguese

through the long colonial wars that

Portugal had waged against the liberation

movements.

So sure was Kissinger that the dictatorship would win that he had given his approval to a basic policy document of 1970, National Security Memorandum 39 of the U.S. government, which forecast that white minority regimes were there to stay and that U.S. policy must be predicated on this assumption. In the embroilments of 1975 the West, therefore, continued to treat the

enemy, just as

it

mpla

in

Angola as an

had formerly treated Frelimo and the

receiving

countries.

handful of

districts.

in the defeat of China's

The West ments

in

chosen friends there.

rapidly accepted the success of the

the mpla had secured all but a With independence due on November

already on the scene. Early in August 1975 the South Afri-

can government had sent military units into southernmost

Angola

to

occupy dams on the Cunene River and destroy

ment,

nonalignment and "noncapitalism." In the case of Angola, the Soviet Union had the additional satisfaction of aiding

from the

mpla was set to win. South Africa's Gamble. What further intervention might even now prevent this? The answer was in fact

for the West, leaving the U.S.S.R. to score an easy advan-

by using its support for these liberation movements immediate means of widening the African area of

quantities of aid

and some other Communist

11, the

guerrilla base

tage

larger

By September

paigc as enemies. Portugal's defeat thus became a defeat

as an

much

Soviet Union, Yugoslavia,

camps of the Namibian liberation moveWest Africa People's Organization (swapo). This minor invasion in a remote and sparsely populated area could make no difference to the outcome the

South

on November

11.

On October

23, however, the spearhead

of an armoured force of the South African

Army, even-

numbering perhaps 6,000 men, thrust northward over the Namibian frontier and began advancing toward tually

move-

Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique, there being no

usable alternative. But in the case of Angola, the richest

the

mpla stronghold

of Luanda, Angola's capital.

With fnla and unita bands and European mercenaries

The collapse

of Portugal's

colonial system

weakened

the flanks of the two remaining white-dominated states, South Africa

and Rhodesia. On the

east,

Mozambique sheltered guerrillas from Rhodesia.

On the west, Angola became a haven for nationalists from South

West Africa (Namibia), still

administered by South To the north were

Africa.

the other black "frontline" states of Tanzania, Zambia,

and Botswana.

to

occupy the towns

Moc,amedes, Sa da Bandeira,

in

Novo Redondo. North

Benguela, Lobito, and

named

some 650

of the last-

km

from the Namibian frontier, the invaders ran out of steam short of Porto Amboim and were stopped by units of the mpla army. By this time, these

seaport,

mpla

had begun at

mpla

units were reinforced with to reach

Angola

Cuban troops who on November 5,

in strength

joint

meanwhile, continued

to

to

mpla

defend Luanda against a

from Zaire and some extent with Chinese weaponry, Peking

FNLA-Zaire-mercenary force sent

equipped

tum

of these remarkable events, including as they did this

in

now having appeared

The next point came without delay in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), South Africa's principal client and frontier state, where a small white minority continued to rule by Army, was not

its

own

Cuban reinforcements

—

in a total

Cuban

involvement variously put at between 10,000 and 15,000 troops, but probably

around 13,000 with an actual military

commitment considerably

less

—arrived

stiffen

to

mpla

force

February

had become

The "council" consisted initially of Pres. Julius (see Biography) of Tanzania and President Kaunda, sometimes with the presence of President Mobutu

Nyerere

Khama

the

membership of

regular

This "council" had generally striven

among

exiled

success,

in

Pres.

Sir

of Botswana.

Zimbabwean

the interests

politicians,

of

a

to

forge

though with

constitutional

unity little

settlement

whereby the white minority should transfer -its political power, gradually and if necessary partially, into African within the continuing structures of white minority con-

But with Portugal's collapse this kind of solution came under increasing criticism. Pres. Samora Machel of Mozambique joined the "council" while Mobutu, the declared enemy of the liberation movements and of any radical solution, found himself excluded from it. Machel be-

Denied such reinforcements, and beginning

to

be badly

way

they had

now went back

mauled, the invaders

On March

the

strength.

27 the last of South Africa's units re-

treated into Namibia. Pretoria's choice had lain between the acceptance of an to a

mpla regime

major war;

in

Angola and commit-

bitterly enough,

though no doubt

wisely, Pretoria refused the second choice.

White South

Africa had thus embarked on the military gamble which it

latterly with

was too powerful for South Africa's invasion force

it

its

ment

by an

clear that this joint

late

unless Pretoria should send large additions to

come.

with

side, policy

periodically settled

hands. Their prospect was one of a slow African advance

offensive capacity with artillery of Soviet origin.

By

on the African

states.

Seretse

of Angola during January 1976. Things then changed in

to that time,

Zimbabwe had been

informal "presidents' council" of the black "front-line"

and

the south. Large

version of apartheid in defiance of the British

Up

regard to

fnla and mercenary

were shattered and driven out

so easily brought to a halt.

of change and tension

as an active supporter of Mobutu and the fnla against the Soviet-supported mpla. These

units

enormously expensive

defeat for South Africa's

signal

Crown.

invitation.

Here, for a while, stalemate supervened. Other forces,

Pressure on Rhodesia Intensified. Yet the momen-

took, this force rapidly swept aside

it

weak mpla garrisons

had refrained from making a year

bique, and the gamble had failed.

earlier in

Mozam-

trol.

lieved that a resolute political

movement

using the instru-

ment of guerrilla war could now become as sovereign in Zimbabwe as Frelimo had become in Mozambique, and that nothing less should be

ernment declared

full

its

aim.

support for

the illegal minority regime of Ian riving

from a

To

UN

Smith

that end his gov-

sanctions against

—

its illegality

unilateral declaration of independence

de-

from

Mozambique

March 1976. Their purpose was to see that the border remained armed attack from Rhodesia. Their new country was born in the collapse of

soldiers patrol the Rhodesian border in

closed to traffic and to rebuff any

Portugal's colonial system.

Britain in

November 1965

ritory to training

—and opened Mozambique's

ter-

and base camps for Zimbabwean guer-

rilla fighters.

By

this

light as

time Nyerere was seeing things in the same

Machel. Together they outweighed the

still

very

The Kissinger Initiative. It was evident, for example, West would be wise to put intolerable pressures on the Smith regime so as to make it go away, while at that the

the

same time achieving some independence and,

ian

if

some

Kaunda, whose preference was for a gradualist compromise, and the necessarily hampered Khama, whose

apartheid severities within South Africa

country was more or

ing in Bavaria,

hesitant

With mpla success

less

surrounded by South Africa.

in Angola, President

Neto joined

this

group of policymakers, bringing with him the same ideas that were espoused by Machel and Nyerere. Meanwhile

West Germany,

was released about

its

mobilization of white and black troops to the prob-

able limits of the possible.

initial

meet-

June 1976, with

Vorster.

evidently difficult en-

counter, but further negotiations

became necessary and

position was a delicate one.

ing

J.

of

For these

this

Little

Smith regime

stretch-

late in

South African Prime Minister B.

were resumed

emergency while

relaxation

itself.

purposes, Secretary of State Kissinger held an

Zimbabwean guerrillas stepped up their war in Rhodesia, made some important advances there, and caused the to declare a state of

toward Namib-

clear progress

feasible,

this

at a

second meeting between the two men,

time in Zurich, Switz., early in September. Vorster's

liever in white

He remained

a staunch be-

supremacy, whether for South Africa or

Rhodesia. As a shrewd and practiced politician, however,

Now

running hard to overtake events, the principal statesmen of the West came quickly to the only choice

he was well aware that he might have to sacrifice the Smith

that remained open to

that a difficult operation.

was

them save renewed

frustration. This

to get rid of minority rule, at least in the

regime

in the interests

of his own. His

But

his

own

own

electorate

electorate

made

was now

extreme and form represented by the Smith regime, before the last chance for a gradualist compromise should vanish. It would be wrong to say that Western policy underwent a

badly shaken by storms of African protest

change at

this point, for it continued to hold that Western must demand the preservation at least of the basic economic system that had been built by white-settler domination in Rhodesia and, beyond that, must try to ensure that new pressures on white South Africa stay within manageable limits. But some shifts of emphasis were now seen

or a guerrilla war would it, Zimbabwean situation in the manner of Angola and Mozambique. The outcome of this second meeting became public three weeks later. Then it was seen that the intolerable pressures

as unavoidable.

in Pretoria

direct

interests

in the

Trans-

vaal and elsewhere (see below), and Kissinger applied un-

answerable arguments. Either Pretoria show to

withdraw

its

crucial

itself

ready

economic support for the Smith

regime and thus destroy

radicalize

the

had been applied and had worked. After meeting Kissinger on September

19,

Smith told

his electorate that

majority rule would have to come in two years' time. In

autonomy, or

the direction of African

at least the

sem-

agreement he had made with

blance of such moves. Plans to modify direct South Afri-

Kissinger (Vorster assenting in silence), there would be

can rule into indirect forms were already in play. In

A

September 1975 Pretoria had organized a political conference (with all political parties banned in Namibia) by which the territory would eventually be splintered into

version

Smith's

of

the

an immediate conference under British chairmanship. council of state

would then frame a majority-rule conwould be called off, and

stitution. International sanctions

so

would the

guerrilla war.

Though without

U.S. or British

.

"tribal" states on the Bantustan model; as in South Africa,

consent to this interpretation, Smith presented these and

continued white control would not be

other proposals as a "package deal" not open to negotia-

gamble

tion

on

its

components,

his evident

aim being

to secure a

"fallback" position of compromise with minority rule.

The "front-line" presidents and the various sections of Zimbabwean nationalist movement at once reacted

the

against

Smith's attempt to impose preconditions;

would, they affirmed, accept none.

they

The conference,

them, was one between the British and the Africans; task

was

to discuss

transfer of

power

a conference

its

to the majority.

Against this background,

under the chairmanship of a British diplomat,

Ivor Richard, duly assembled in Geneva at the end of October. Prolonged for

many

weeks, discussions ran

re-

The

lost

its

conference

of

On

nominees.

August 18 Pretoria announced that Namibia was to be given an interim state government composed of approved "tribal"

and

local white individuals,

and that formal

"in-

dependence" would follow at the end of 1978. This proved too

for

every aspect of a rapid but complete

reconvened

Pretoria

in question.

Angola now hastened matters. In March 1976

in

little

and too

other international recognition.

from participation ganization, swapo, groupings.

The

late to

To

the majority

win any African or

begin with,

Namibian

it

excluded

nationalist or-

as well as the smaller African political

U.S., Britain,

and West Germany had

al-

ready rejected South African requests that they accept the validity of the conference proposals,

and the

UN

and the

peatedly aground on the actual date for independence and

Organization of African Unity roundly condemned what

other issues. But the real ground of contention lay in Afri-

the

can determination to secure a genuine majority rule against

toward and after independence) described as a "maneuver"

favour of some form of

designed to prolong white minority control. While Kis-

the

Smith regime's maneuvers

in

UN

Council for Namibia (set up to assist Namibia

swapo as a now appeared that only

continued white minority control.

singer sought to persuade Vorster to accept

South West Africa. The Namibian case was in some ways less complex, but no easier to resolve. Although repeatedly condemned as illegal by the UN, South Africa's

necessary negotiating partner,

administration of the country remained as intact as ever.

tion

Yet Pretoria had accepted that moves must be made

it

in

much

stronger Western pressure on Pretoria could achieve

Namibian sovereignty. All the same, the posifrom an African standpoint was notably stronger than

a genuine

had been a year or so

White Rhodesians had few friends in 1976. Below, a white settler near the frontier is guarded by reservists against raids by black guerrillas. In some areas buildings were burned and buses blown up by mines. On the other side of the border, Mozambique troops rallied to cheer Pres. Samora Machel when he announced in March that he was closing the border with Rhodesia. "Our country has been attacked," he declared, "and our people are being massacred." (The sign says

MICHAEL EVANS — CONTACT

"Down with

it

imperialism.")

SALGADO— GAMMA/LIAISON

earlier.

CAMERAPIX — KEYSTONE

v

In order to counter the guerrilla movement, Rhodesia established "protected villages." Here a black guard checks the identity cards of returning villagers. They were also searched to prevent them from smuggling weapons into the village.

Protest Erupts in South Africa. These various devel-

opments deepened white South Africa's

from the

way through drama

world and even from

rest of the

nomic partners

in the

1976,

political isolation

West.

still

And

its

major eco-

at about this point, mid-

another twist was added to the

of eruptive change, once again to Pretoria's dis-

people of the Coloured (mixed origin) community of the

Cape and even, here and there, by a handful of whites. Almost overnight the hitherto voiceless masses were now most vocally upon the scene.

With

had

to

advantage. This was provoked by the enforcement of an

fend the stability of his regime.

apartheid order to the effect that African schools must

for him,

adopt the language of the ruling minority, Afrikaans, as a

medium

of instruction for

some

subjects.

lowed huge demonstrations of protest of a

There

fol-

crowds of angrily meet Kissinger and de-

his police force shooting into

defiant Africans, Vorster

cannot have been easy

It

and the order for compulsory Afrikaans was quietly withdrawn. This was clearly not the end of apartheid or anything like it. But what the demonstrations

scarcely seen before. Beginning in June, these protests oc-

had shown the world was that even the "white fortress" was no longer invulnerable. These demonstrations sounded

size

and vigour

Transvaal African township of

a sharp political note, especially that of the long-banned

Soweto near Johannesburg, and were answered by police

and persecuted African National Congress of South Africa;

bullets in circumstances of widening defiance

and the meaning of the music could scarcely be mistaken.

curred initially

in

The South African had

the

and disorder.

authorities admitted that their police

killed 176 Africans in

Soweto, but African sources put

antiapartheid

protests

around

onies,

be ended

and now prospectively

in

the Portuguese col-

Zimbabwe and even

in

in

Namibia, why not also in South Africa?

the total of dead at about twice that number.

While

If minority rule could

Johannesburg

South Africa's Response. There was way to go. Apart from

spread from one town to another and ranged from well-

a long and painful

organized strikes to outbursts of violence,

tures to

comparable

the

critics

of apartheid,

just as obviously

a

few minor

ges-

the leaders of South

demonstrations appeared elsewhere, eventually in several

Africa clung firmly to their established policies. These

Cape Province. In the weeks that followed many hundreds more were shot by the police, although exact figures are in dispute. It was remarked by

were chiefly two, the one military and the other adminis-

observers that these demonstrations were not only massive

they raised

of the chief towns of

and determined, with unarmed youths and advancing against police

rifles,

women

literally

but were also joined by

trative.

up

They spent more on armaments. Having pushed

their military

000,000

in

it

budget every year since the mid-1960s,

again from the equivalent of U.S. $1,322,-

1975 to $1,494,000,000

sophisticated

weapons on

license

in 1976.

from

Already making

British, French,

and

DE LA

PORTE— GAMMA/LIAISON

How

this administrative

little

devolution could in fact

reduce the pressures of discontent, even

there were to

if

be real devolution of power, was indicated by the popula-

When

tion statistics.

all

the Bantustans were launched,

they would contain about seven million Africans on the

1970 figures. But eight million other Africans would remain outside these "tribal" states and live exactly as before. They would continue to be noncitizens subject to the full rigours of apartheid. And the June-October demonstrations

had confirmed, once again, that the greatest pres-

sures of discontent

came not from

the native reserves, but

from

the rural areas,

from the towns and zones of white

employment and direct race discrimination. Such policies might have looked adequate before 1974, even if they already presumed years of internal strife and, in the end, a major war against the "white fortress." They wore a different look in the aftermath of Angola. More and more qualified persons in South Africa, white as well were now saying that an unrelaxed apartheid

as black,

could only tear the country apart. Outside South Africa,

even Kissinger had begun talking a very different language

from before. "The Americans," President Nyerere September

press conference in Bissau on

meeting with Kissinger, "say that they support

his first

who want majority

those

told a

20, shortly after

rule in

South Africa, and that

they will try to bring this about as soon as possible."

Pointers to the Future. Could or would the apartheid

system

set

about dismantling

itself to

any meaningful

ex-

tent? Given white South Africa's attitudes anchored in

an extreme racism, there was nothing A

Transkei, a new black state established by South Africa. The hospital was founded by missionaries in 1932. hospital

in

If not,

to

make one

sures on the Smith regime become, and for

much

reasons, an unavoidable prelude to eventual

other Western companies, they continued to buy abroad what they could not manufacture at home. Currently, the most important of these overseas purchases were from France, which, as before, placed no obstacle against the sale of in

arms

to

AZ

1976 were 32 Mirage F-l

South Africa.

fighter aircraft

On

order

and French

naval materiel. South African factories were meanwhile filling

orders for 30 Impala interceptor-support fighters

and 37 Kudu transports.

While thus preparing for a major war, since no other already enormous armoury, Pretoria continued

forts to take the

compared with

had never

in the past

its ef-

among

numbered about

reshape the native reserves,

of the whole territory, into a

autonomy, the

so-

ruling Afrikaner National Party

envisaged these as independent states,

but now, striving for cosmetic

effect, the

claim was duly

made. The largest of the Bantustans, the Transkei (a group of native reserves since 1913), became "independent" on Oct. 26, 1976. No member of the international

community gave any this

sign of being willing to recognize

"independence," since

all

the evidence indicated that

government of the Transkei, or that of any other Bantustan, would remain under Pretoria's close control. the

West's

substantial interests in South Africa itself?

How far was How far, in

Kissinger sincere in what he said to Nyerere? the

wake of Angola, could he

again, with Pres.

Jimmy

afford not to be sincere?

Carter at the helm,

how

far

Or

would

U.S. policy readjust to these realities?

Such questions had apparently acquired a

stiff

underpin-

and

was the

influence, there

interests

in

fact that

Western economic

black Africa had grown steadily in recent

another. At a different level, there was the relative cer-

to

15% The

to protect the

21

political discontent

cluster of "tribal" states with internal called Bantustans.

whether

position in the rest of Africa or to conserve the West's

4.2 million whites. This involved

a long-prepared project

covering less than

:

same

was now the U.S.'s largest non-Arab (though not non-Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) oil supplier, and Angola could become

steam out of

the mass of nonwhites who, in 1974, million,

sures on white South Africa

the

Western pres-

ning of realism. Aside from the shifting balance of power

kind of war could justify or explain the size and type of its

think so.

however, then to what extent would Western pres-

years. Nigeria, for example,

tainty

that

continued Western preference

a

South Africa at past,

for

white

points of crucial decision, as in the

all

must now enable the Soviet Union to reap other and diplomatic gains of the kind scored in Angola.

political

At a

lesser but

in the U.S.

still

important

level,

along with sentiment

Congress against more foreign crusading, there

was the growth of humanitarian condemnation of the apartheid system among groups and individuals who could not be written tainty.

the

off as radicals.

Large social and

move toward

might slacken

its

The year ended

political forces

in uncer-

were obviously on

far-reaching change. Perhaps that

march

pace for a while, but the balance of the

evidence agreed that

it

would certainly continue.

a

The Coming of Metricated Man by Herbert Greenberg With

the passage of the Metric Conversion

Act of

1975, the 94th Congress and the president of the

United States committed Americans far-reaching

to

inconveniences as the fact that there are 5,280 feet to a

—and expensive—adventures ever undertaken

But these arguments seem

mile.

to miss the point.

Perhaps the most basic objection to metric units

one of the most

they come in the wrong sizes for people.

ordinary measurements of everyday

in the country's history.

gaged

The debate about metric had been going on for nearly two centuries before this momentous decision was taken by America's leaders. The metric system originated in

metric precision of hundredths

France

in the 1790s,

in the

(milli)

To

(centi)

when

would be

France had supported the American colonies during

imagine what

own

were the "decidollar" (1/10 of a dollar

it

like

if

decades of the 19th century there was considerable senti-

"centidollar" (1/100 of a dollar

ment

No

in the

United States

British system.

But

favour of adopting the new,un-

in

tradition prevailed until 1968,

when

Congress directed the secretary of commerce to undertake a "U.S. Metric Study."

was transmitted

Its report

"A Metric America,

A

to

Decision

Congress in 1971

;

entitled

Whose Time Has Come,"

was an unqualified recommendation that the country go metric. Congress acted in 1975, and Pres. Gerald Ford signed the bill with the remark that the main impetus for it

had come from the private

the legislation plication at

last

was that ordinary people,

seen

the

light.

There

is

like

sector.

some doubt, however,

quarter.

No

the only coins one had

—the dime) and —the penny). No

half-dollar.

be useful (except in a chemistry lab), besides being hard to say

and

doesn't get easier

spell. It

a cubic centimetre

Who

is

when one knows

a millilitre, that

is,

home would ever want

in the

of a

litre.

litre

(about a quart) into 1,000 parts anyway?

The same difficulty commonly used

units

that

one-thousandth to divide a

exists for units of length.

The SI

are the metre (about a yard), the

centimetre (one-hundredth of a metre), and the kilometre

whether ordinary people had much to say about it, or whether they would have wanted metric if they had known

of a metre)

what they were

in for.

centimetre

main arguments that have been proposed

Two and

a half centimetres

who

feet 10 inches tall turns into 178 centimetres

What in

are the

favour of the international metric system (SI, for Sys-

teme International)? And how well do those arguments stand up to examination?

arguments

Basically, there are four

The

first is

that metric

is

more

a

in

favour of metric.

rational

of everyday

life.

The second

is

that the metric system

and easier to learn, and that its adoption produce significant savings in educational time and money. The third is that there are major computational advantages of metric over customary units. And finally, is

easier to teach

will

it

is

said that

by switching

(one thousand metres). The millimetre (one-thousandth

to metric the U.S. will join

the rest of the world in an inevitable progress

is 5

large

is

is

admittedly for machinists. But even the

not convenient for humans.

number and

is

It's

too small.

not quite an inch.

certainly no easier to say or

A

person

is the same as 1.78 metres. The metre is not most home measurements. It's too large. The most useful people-size measurement of all, the

because

it

foot, disappears.

The

(one-tenth of a metre is

nearest thing to

—

less

it is

the decimetre

than four inches), and this unit

not commonly used in the SI system. The kilometre is a unit of a useful size

for measuring

But so is the mile, which is easier to say and spell. Nature regards neither as sacred. It is approximately 3,000 miles from New York to San Francisco, the large distances.

Earth

is

greater international communication and understanding.

Sun

approximately 93 million miles away.

Metric More Convenient? Metric units may be more rational than customary units, but are they more con-

easier in kilometres; one just gets larger numbers.

toward

Is

Ask for justification of metric and one is told that humans have ten fingers and ten toes, that most countries use a decimal number system and a decimal

venient?

monetary system, and that

it is

untidy to suffer from such

Herbert Greenberg

is professor and past chairman of the department of mathematics at the University of Denver. His specialties are applied mathematics, numerical analysis,

computing, and mathematical education.

—

remember

useful for

and convenient

system, and more appropriate for the ordinary activities

the

nickel.

Yet it is precisely this kind of inconvenience that metric measurements impose. A cubic centimetre, the metric building block of volume or capacity, is much too small to

The im-

you and me, had

the

life,

or thousandths

absent, are sorely missed.

their

first

that

appreciate the inconvenience that metric entails,

tion.

revolution against Britain, and during the

is

are en-

seldom required, while the halves and quarters

is

of the customary units,

during the early years of the Revolu-

When we

is

approximately 8,000 miles in diameter, and the

Temperature

It doesn't get

The scale Americans are used to is Markings of temperature in Fahrenheit

next.

called Fahrenheit.

are on the stove, in the car, on the fever thermometer, outside the

window, on the

living

room thermostat.

Metric temperatures are measured on the Celsius scale, which used to be called centigrade. On this scale, water freezes at 0° and boils at 100°. One of the big selling points is that this is a lot simpler to remember than the Fahrenheit equivalents of 32° (for freezing) and 212° (for

of metric

boiling).

Perhaps for chemistry exams; but the gain doesn't

— seem

to

amount

to

much when we remember

that in coun-

temperate zones of the Earth,

tries situated in the

like the

United States, the temperature largely ranges between 0° and 100° Fahrenheit. When it's 0° it's cold, when it's 100° hot,

it's

and everything

else lies pretty

The corresponding temperatures

much

in

about —18°

in Celsius are

and 38°, not exactly catchy numbers

between.

remember.

to

becomes apparent when one measures body tempera-

Normal body temperature is 98.6° on the Fahrenheit Not a very convenient number, to be sure. But look at it this way normal body temperature is just under 100° Fahrenheit. Over 100° call the doctor, under 100° wait and see. Normal body temperature on the Celsius scale is 37° a nondescript, hard-to-remember number if there ture.

scale.

:

—

ever was one.

The

humans

situation, as far as ordinary

when one asks

gets even worse

weight. Alas, there

none that

will

are concerned,

for the metric unit of

no metric unit of weight, or at

is

least

be taught to schoolchildren or used by ordi-

nary people.

"What about

gram?" one may

the kilogram or

"Aren't these units of weight?" The answer, sadly,

Neither the kilogram nor the gram

is

ask.

is

no.

a unit of weight. Both

weight.

Why?

The mass

good reasons for thinking the claims are not

main reason

is

Because mass

is

more

the

basis for this psychological

cation,

is

simply absurd to

mass because of

be any of the ten numbers 0 to

metric system.

to

its

insist

inch

millimetre

foot

centimetre

yard

metre

mile

kilometre

acre

hectare

ounce cup

millilitre

pint

decilitre

quart

litre

ounce (weight)

gram

pound

kilogram

on a concept

invariance from place to place in

mass are still inconvenient for orFrom gram to kilogram is a huge jump, with ounce

like the

—

in

between.

The pedantry of metric measurement is also apparent when we deal with smaller amounts of substances, used by people most commonly in medicines. Take, for example, the vitamin pill. In metric terms we do not say that we are taking a half-gram

And

tell

pill

of vitamin C, nor does the label

us that. No, each

since a milligram

is

should know,

is

500 milligrams.

gram

—which,

as everyone

gram is three sylWhich conveys mean-

just one-half. One-half

lables to say, 500 milligrams

ing

pill is

one-thousandth of a gram, each

contains 500/1,000 of a

pill

more readily? Which

is

is six.

easier to spell? Unfortunately,

fractions like one-half, one-third, one-fourth are considered to

be "unmetric."

is

and

to learn.

The

The U.S. educational establishment

especially vociferous on this point, going so far

—

as re-

ported in a U.S. Metric Study Interim Report (1971) as to claim that savings of substantial

spent teaching arithmetic, and as

much

amounts of time $500 million a

as

first

centilitre

thing that

becomes obvious

is

that the English

words are much shorter than the metric ones. Next, except in one case (the word ounce has two meanings), the English

words are dissimilar

similarities exist

among

to

many

each other, while

the metric terms.

Both the short

word length and

the dissimilarity are distinct advantages customary system for communication. And, of course, the English words are easier to say and spell.

of

the

There

is

a pattern to the metric terms,

which

is

the basis

for the claim that they are preferable to the customary

terms. differ

The metric terms for length all end in "metre" and in prefix. The same holds true for the metric

only

terms for capacity, where the ending mass, where the ending

same

Metric Easier to Learn? Proponents of metric are unanimous in maintaining that the metric system is easier Is

to teach

the area codes can range

from place

physicist, the units of

on the bottle

9,

from 000 to 999, so a total of 1,000 different areas can be labeled. That is more than enough to blanket the Bell System. More than three digits would be redundant and would add to the memory and system burden. Now back to metrics. Listed in the left-hand column

when our concerns about weight never get any farther from home than the neighbourhood store and the gym! And even if one gets used to thinking like a

—

only

theoretically

the universe,

nothing useful

Why

symbols should be as short as possible.

three digits to a telephone area code? Since each digit can

same mass whether they are on the Earth, on the Moon, or in orbit. But they only weigh one-sixth their Earth weight on the Moon and are weightless in orbit.

dinary use.

"Information theory"

us that, to reduce errors in communication,

the

like

fact.

we must make the words of a code as dissimilar as possible. One further mathematical point. Information theory also tells us that, for maximum efficiency of communitells

basic physical

of an object doesn't change

it

The

If a number of objects are assigned code names, the more similar the names are (in the absence of other clues), the more difficult it is for the human mind to learn to associate the names with the objects. There is a mathematical

gravitational attraction present. So astronauts always have

frank,

true.

that there are serious psychological obsta-

cles to learning the metric system, especially for English-

place in the universe. Weight does, being a measure of the

To be

absolutely

is

and weight of the customary system. In the right-hand column are an equal number of most-used units in the

In SI one measures the mass of an object rather than

unit.

from the fact that there

no hard evidence to support these claims, there are also

below are the most-used units of length, area, capacity,

are units of mass.

its

educational costs, would result from the adoption

in

of metric. But aside

speaking people.

Another human dimension of the discredited customary units

year

in

is

is

"litre,"

each case, those most used being milli

thousandth),

centi

tenth), and kilo

(=

(=

and for

"gram." The prefixes are the

one-hundredth),

deci

=

one-

(=

one-

(

one thousand).

Superficially, the pattern in metric names seems to give them an advantage over the totally unrelated words of the customary system. The catch is that for English-speaking

people, especially children but probably for the majority of adults as well, the prefixes milli, centi, deci,

and

kilo

—

—

can only be considered as nonsense syllables. So to remember the association between of things

—

more

or,

and the

these syllables

precisely (where computation

sizes re-

is

The importance of emphasizing these skills becomes even more evident when it is realized that inexpensive hand-

now available to do exact human mind is uniquely suited

held electronic calculators are

quired), the collection of multiples 1/1,000, 1/100, 1/10

computation, whereas the

and 1,000 which they represent must be an exercise in pure memory and a difficult one at that. Proponents of the metric system often ridicule the rods,

for the reasoning that underlies estimation.

—

fathoms,

furlongs, square perches, poles, chains, cords,

drams, hogs-

cables, nautical miles, leagues, pecks, gills,

In 1975 the National Assessment of Educational Progress published a report

on problem-solving competence of

U.S. children and adults in several age groups. Simple

word problems were posed that required

On

problems.

translation into

average,

heads, and barleycorns of the customary system. Yet these

one-step arithmetical

most people never use or have to learn, but which make good sense and are familiar and appropriate to (and even beloved by) the sailor, horse trainer, farmer, or whoever lives with them. But if one

problems were missed by about one out of three adults and

are specialized units, which

thinks customary units are a laugh, get a load of the metric tera, giga,

prefixes milli,

mega,

kilo, hecto,

deka, deci, centi,

The only

micro, nano, pico, femto, and atto.

things

was found that only a very small percentage of those who up the problems correctly (that is, knew what to do) were then unable to do the computations (that is, failed it

set

Also, psychologically, one should not forget the intimate

selves

it is

human body. This

and our relation

is

way we view

human

entire metric

human dimension. human mind, and isn't it

spirit, that

the adult foot

thumb

length, that the first joint of the length, that a man's stride

is

is is

our-

more humanly,

But the

independent of any

a disadvantage for the to the

not only significant

to the universe or,

the relation of the universe to us.

system

is

also important for the

Is

it

really

significant

about a foot in

about an inch

in

about a yard?

to arithmetic,

what about the claim that metric

units will simplify computation? It is easier to divide

lometres, one

is

by 1,000

to

go from metres to

ki-

told as a typical example, than to divide

by

5,280 to get from feet to miles. If one merely compares

two division problems

by 1,000

ing

this

may

be true. The rule for divid-

—move the decimal three places

do

to

arithmetic itself

This suggests strongly that the

it).

not where the trouble

is

lies.

curriculum and teaching of metric reminds

to the left

many

of the

situation during the 1960s that surrounded the imposition

of the

"new math" on

been

tallied,

from tens

to

and parents. The "new math" has not yet

teachers, students,

cost to the United States of the

was undoubtedly

high. Estimates range

hundreds of millions of

dollars, to say nothing

but

it

of the subsequent violent backlash against any innovation

math

in

teaching.

Would

a Metric U.S. Join the Rest of the World?

argument here, of course, ric,

Does Metric Simplify Computation? Turning from pedagogy

know how

to

Indeed, the developing disputes and difficulties over the

connections that exist between customary units and the

for learning,

these

two out of three 13-year-olds. But, interestingly enough,

missing are chico, harpo, zeppo, and groucho.

dimensions of the

the

is

familiar.

By

The

switching to met-

the United States will join the progressive, enlightened

rest of the world, leaving only

presumably backward na-

Yemen, and Burma as holdouts. Even the United Kingdom, that last bastion of tradition, has given up the English or customary system of units. Of course, the U.K. no longer had the power to resist. tions like Liberia,

may

It

be that even the United States, with

was unable

to resist.

its

secure

enormous wealth and power, Certainly the world of American busi-

geographic position and

its

But

ness has felt that way. Hearings held prior to the passage

both rules have to be learned anyway, and in fact division

of the 1975 act revealed that the larger the business and

problems as such are seldom encountered! Only

the

is,

for some, simpler than the rule for long division.

in class-

more

its scope, the more fervently it supThe disadvantages of the metric as

international

rooms and textbooks are we asked to divide one number by another. What we encounter in daily life are problem situations; what is significant is the ability to reduce such

ported metrication.

problems to mathematical computation. This

with the disadvantages of continuing to use two different

is

called

problem solving, and at the level we are discussing it requires knowing what operation to use. Do you add, subtract, multiply, or divide to get the

answer?

of units does not simplify that problem at

Moreover,

in

mere change

all.

everyday problem situations, exact answers

are seldom required, only estimates.

numbers

A

We

usually round

to the nearest ten, hundred, thousand, million,

we compute, regardless of the system of measurements we are using. For example, it would be abor billion before

surd to use an "exact" figure for the mileage between Chi-

cago and Denver and an "exact" airspeed of a plane to compute the "exact" time required to fly a jet between the

two

cities.

Instead,

we estimate

the distance at 1,000 miles,

the air speed at 500 miles per hour, and divide 500 into

1,000 to

come up with an estimate

Newer schoolbooks attention

to

of two hours' flying time.

recognize this and devote considerable

estimation,

approximation,

and rounding.

—

compared with the customary system of units and I think they are clear may seem to pale when compared

—

systems in a world that grows smaller every day. In the last analysis,

it is

a matter of the majority having

won. The majority of nations, large and small, have adopted the metric system over the

now I

the richest

last

two centuries, and

and strongest nation must join the

rest.

have no quarrel with the idea that the majority should

rule.

There

isn't

any other principle that works,

persons and nations disagree. But in this case

so long as

wish the

I

majority had joined the minority. Just think what we've lost (if

—besides having

you're a U.S. taxpayer) that,

as high as

No more

$100

billion before the

"An ounce

conversion

No more

of prevention

is

pay a

is

may

bill

go

finished.

No more

worth a pound of

measure out our lives. As we change, from variegated

coffee cups to

the language changes, so will

human

to

estimated,

giving an inch, or fathoming the deep.

proverbs like cure."

it is

being to universal metricated man.

—

Mexican Mythology and Modern Society by Jose Lopez

Portillo

From the dawn of time, man has re-created in mythology his eager quest to find the

mystery of of almost

The

his being.

all religions

answer

to the

fundamental

world's mythologies, the source

and customs, reveal

to us that

everywhere entertain similar longings, although they

men may

be manifested in different forms. At the same time, these differences bear witness to the unlimited diversity of man's

imagination and to the creative potential of humankind.

Man

has used mythology to symbolize the possibility of

discovering his origins and the forces that influence his

Thus he

existence.

created, through allegory,

norms and

patterns of behaviour that in the course of time evolved into moral codes.

In the mysterious and fascinating world of mythology, gods and heroes bestow on

above

all

man

and

his life

they preside over his destiny.

his reason,

It is

but

here that the

deepest roots of culture are born, in the comforting illusion

man is protected by higher powers who will save him from brute and unfeeling nature. Within the mythological that

realm

all

things are possible; as in a dream, everything

occurs in uncertain places where instinct and conscience that restless duality which sets

creation

—

men

apart from the rest of

are balanced.

Four thousand years ago, the early peoples of MesoAmerica produced a mythological complex that foreshadowed one of the most splendid cultures of history. Throughout a rich and imaginative cultural process, the mythology of ancient Mexico

became one

finally

of

its

people's fundamental expressions and an inseparable ele-

ment

in its great

achievements.

the mythical world of

A

special being brightens

Meso-America.

It

representative

is

of primal strength, an entity associated with creation life;

with the aspiration to elevate

altar of perfection, to

transform

edge and work. This being

is

The Plumed Serpent.

human

and

nature to the

through knowl-

reality,

Quetzalcoatl.

Quetzalcoatl

is

an entity that

embodies two irreconcilable beings: Quetzal, the bird, and Coatl, the serpent. It

is

the result of the

of the serpent which, after dragging the earth,

is

transformed into the

its

metamorphosis

inferiority along

spirit

of the

plumed

Quetzal. Thus, this transmuted being embodies humanity's ideal of rising

above

itself,

overcoming

and achieving the excellence of which

The same

origin of Quetzalcoatl

historical horizon that

may

its

it is

baser instincts, capable.

be gleaned from the

gave birth to the Meso-Amer-

Jose Lopez Portillo was elected president of Mexico on Limestone sculpture symbolizing Quetzalcoatl's rebirth. Transformed into the morning star, he emerges from the jaws of a serpent, illustrating the symbolic

permanence

From the ancient

Uxmal, Maya culture, seventh century AD.

city of

of Quetzalcoatl in the heavens.

July 4, 1976, and inaugurated on December 1. A lawyer and for many years professor of political science at the National University of Mexico, he later entered govern-

ment

service,

becoming secretary for finance

istration of Pres. Luis Echeverria Alvarez.

in the

admin-

Representations of the plumed serpent Quetzalcoatl appear the ancient city of Teotihuacan, north of Mexico City.

in

the ruins of

COURTESY, JOSE L6pEZ PORTILLO

from Casas Grandes

the north to

the

im-

This mythical entity was an intimate part of daily

life,

cultures

in

penetrable jungles of El Darien.

education, religion, and government. At the same time,

possessed a diverse nature:

was a

it

it

principal deity of the

pre-Hispanic cosmogony, a teacher and priest which lent its

name

an

to generations of priests,

initiator

emplar of moral codes, and a wise and austere

and

ex-

ruler, living

promise of a future state of justice and prosperity.

The

Gifts Of the God.

The manuscripts

how Quet-

tell

was present, together with other primorduring the interminable darkness when, gath-

zalcoatl, as a god, dial deities,

ered around the campfire, they

first

thought of placing the

Sun, and then the Moon, and finally the stars in the heavens.

They next thought

men, and

in

of peopling the Earth with

order to bring about man's creation they sacri-

ficed themselves

by plunging

the custom of calling

men

into the

fire.

From

the macehnales,

this

comes

which means

"those merited through penitence." Another version

how

Quetzalcoatl sprinkled his

bones of those The plumed serpent Quetzalcoatl

(Coatl: serpent; Quetzal: bird), symbol

of spiritual elevation and cultural creativity from the earth to the realm of the spirit.

—

ican cultures. It

emerged with the

those peoples,

is

with them.

it

From

of

human nature

historical identity of

as old as they are,

a simple

totem

rising

and

it

developed

—the serpent appears en-

graved on the pottery of the Pre-Classical period, when agriculture

was being discovered and the peoples

along

lakeshores

—

evolved into

settled

imparting

who had

life to

own blood upon

tells

the ancient

lived in previous worlds, thus

man.

As the god of the winds, Quetzalcoatl foretold the rains and the time to sow. He was credited with the discovery of maize (corn) and with teaching men how to cultivate it.

He bestowed

music and the arts upon

men

in order to

cheer their lives during their sojourn on Earth.

God

of inner light, of the knowledge that brightens

men's paths, Quetzalcoatl was eternally at war against darkness and the gods of the netherworld.

He

practiced

entity

penitence and preached the subjection of natural impulses

through a process of mythical maturing. In the course of

through asceticism. Nevertheless, one fatal day, misled by

the

that process

it

it

a

divine

intermingled with the symbol of the water

deity, giving rise to a great

symbolic synthesis that be-

speaks a mature and complex cultural concept.

From

that

moment, as if preordained, the representation of the plumed serpent appears on the friezes and altars of the great temples, on the ceramics, and in the codes of all the

the deceitful

become

words of

intoxicated,

his enemies, he allowed himself to

fell

into temptation,

and revealed

his

weakness. Repentant, he later looked upon his countenance, deformed by time and penance, ordered his palace set afire,

and departed sorrowfully toward the

coast.

Ac-

cording to the Tellers of Sahagun:

Quetzalcoatl portrayed as God of the Wind with a bird's beak and wearing the Venus symbol in his conical headdress from which emerges a flowering bone (symbol of the creation of life) out of which the bird of spirituality drinks. On his shield is the cross of Quetzalcoatl, representing the balance between opposing forces and the dialectical harmony of opposites. On his breast is a shell-shaped box from which the winds emerge, a symbol of

natural evolution. From the Magliabecchi Codex, Mixtec culture, eighth century AD.

COURTESY, JOSE

L6PEZ

PORTILLO

COURTESY, JOSE l6pEZ PORTILLO

quired his identity. There he

first

learned admiration for

his people, pride in

work

beautiful and for

that justifies man.

all

well done, and love for things

The manuscripts also mention an exemplary ruler named Quetzalcoatl. Scholars have speculated endlessly on the legend of the white, bearded man/god who, according to the annals, ruled over the Toltec city of Tula-

The

Xicocotitlan.

dates of his birth and the

wisdom and

names

of

but he was renowned for his

his parents are uncertain,

for his earnest desire to transform

and im-

prove his people. Under his tutelage, they experienced a renaissance of science and the arts, becoming famous as

men who

We

put heart and soul into their work.

have evoked Quetzalcoatl

two," the mythical

in the

site of dialectical

Omeyocan

("place

dualism) as a focus of

when he cried out the words of the Chilam Balam (Book VIII) " 'Am I someone?' wonders Man in consciousness

:

his spirit.

'Am

I the

one

who

midst of Earth." In the midst,

I

am?' he wonders

in the

heavens

too,

in the

he

is

an

and a serpent; sprung from two, wind and darkness, the Yohali-Ehecatl, he is the origin of light and feather.

eagle in

The mythical personage Quetzalcoatl, idealized as the "tall, bearded man who would dictate the philosophies of an inward perfection." Reverse of a pyrite mirror, Totonac culture, seventh century AD.

As

in the case of Quetzalcoatl, this

mies conspired

to

legendary god's ene-

seduce him with earthly pleasures and,

following in Quetzalcoatl's footsteps of repentance and sacrifice,

he abandoned Tula and vanished. But before his

When to the divine sea's edge He arrived, upon the luminous

disappearance he promised to return and once again lead

Border of the ocean, he stopped and wept. His adornments he donned, one by one; The plumed mantle of Quetzal His Turquoise mask,

his people

And once again

handed over

that the unfortunate Aztec ruler

splendor himself

in

Set aflame.

And

it

is

said that

on the path of wisdom. The tradition of that

promise was so strong among the peoples of Meso- America his

empire

Montezuma

Hernan Cortes was the god come back again. A New Nation. Just as all myths blend disparate symbolic elements and assume unpredictable guises, the myth

when consumed

His ashes rose anew, other birds were seen Birds of lovely plumes That rose and flew on High. When his ashes stopped burning

of Quetzalcoatl

Quetzalcoatl's heart begins to rise.

ences to priests and rulers. Nevertheless,

They look upon him, they Lifted up to Heaven

the extraordinary cultural

And

tell

is

entangled with historical data, so that

the mythical allegories intermingle confusedly with refer-

say,

it is

evident that

development of the pre-His-

panic cities can only be understood in terms of the intense

Wherein he entered.

The Ancients

practically

to the Castillians in the belief that

that he

was transformed

dedication to

Into the morning star And may be seen at dawn.

work and

to excellence

—

to vocation

— that

constitutes the heart of Quetzalcoatl's epic.

is why he is called "He who masters the Dawn" And it is said from thence He began to reign.

That

Earthenware jug in the shape of a snail adorned with serpentine motifs which suggest the spiral movement of organic evolution and the creation of life. Maya culture, seventh century AD, Villahermosa Museum, Tabasco, Mexico.

Thus the fall and the rise of the hero are accomplished. Through purification, he recovers his lost virtue and turns into a sign of brightness, a light that returns each

out of the darkness of night.

The deeper meaning

day

of the

allegory,

the spiritual pilgrimage whereby excellence is achieved through penitence, informed the character and

world view of the Meso-Americans and these qualities, were reflected in the grandeur of their art and

in turn,

the orderliness of their daily lives.

For centuries the cult of Quetzalcoatl was presided over by priests who were called by his name. Thus Quetzalcoatl was called the wise teacher of the young, as well as the ancient priest of the heavenly observatory and instructor to

countless generations of builders and artificers. His

abode, the calmecac (the "temple of wisdom" where boys

were instructed

in the priestly arts),

was the crucible and

fountain of knowledge. There the ancient Mexican acCOURTESY, JOSE LOPEZ PORTILLO

Teotihuacai, the city of the gods. "The deeper meaning of the allegory, the spiritual pilgrimage whereby excellence is achieved through penitence [was] reflected in the grandeur of their art and the orderliness of their daily lives." .

To

inquire whether

and

in

.

.

what manner Quetzalcoatl's

teachings have reached beyond the Conquest

is

to

ask

how

the identity of a people, their culture, their language, and

common

their

pre-Hispanic culture as a whole affected the formation of

row

present-day Mexico. Pre-Columbian culture

to acquire

is

two great roots of modern Mexico; the other with

ish,

its

one of the the Span-

is

valuable Occidental heritage. Mexico was born

in the traumatic collision of these

two cultures, with

their

widely varying technologies and world views. The birth

and infancy of the nation were difficult, not least because, in both societies, the bulk of the common people had suffered centuries of oppression and misery.

But

in the

new culture appeared. To this culture, ancient Mexico contributed experience,

its

end a vital

impulse toward perfection, both individual

and

collective. Officially,

tion

were obliterated by the Spanish conquerors, but it among the people. Thus, the old religion remained,

traces of pre-Hispanic civiliza-

lived on

cloaked under the appearance of the

new

doctrine, often-

times strangely coincident with the rituals of Christianity.

So

it

was that the essence of Quetzalcoatl's example and became integrated into the habits

teaching survived and

and customs of colonial

life

and, later, into the

life

of the

independent nation, so deeply rooted a part of our national being that

To

find

how

it

cannot be excised.

Quetzalcoatl's aspiration toward perfection

tion.

first

life,

our nation-

look back to our beginnings as a na-

Nationality springs from the fact of birth.

To belong

Like Quetzalcoatl, we have eagerly sought within ourselves the

meaning of our existence, our mode of

structure,

legal

the perpetual vocation

bolsters the will of a people satisfactorily

quences, but

it

was not

but nevertheless remained

Mexico

until the

its

conse-

triumph of the Revolu-

tion that the nation achieved the right to determine its

own

destiny through

its

own

counsel, subject to

its

own

and in accordance with its own will. Thus each new Mexican generation finds itself deeply committed, to the nation's history and to its future. Each new generation must revitalize the institutions inherited from its predecessors, renewing them constantly so that views,

they can better serve the country's purposes. This sense

commitment bequeathed by each gen-

eration to the next, finds an echo in the dedication of the

ancient Mexicans to the discovery, through each succeeding generation, of the reason for their existence.

The Legacy

From

One

emanate

our that

who were often abused and

has been an effort to overcome colonialism and

on a certain

this soil

treated

life,

for justice

true to themselves. In large part, the history of

great only

blood and

as our

ing on that territory into a superior synthesis.

be born of a certain blood, to be born this

we took

vocation mestizaje, the blending of the two races coexist-

to a nation is to soil.

lawful, sovereign identity before his-

in a territory full of contrasts,

of history, of the

has affected our history, our contemporary

hood, we must

own

our

Rooted

tory.

never its

triumph and the sorOver ISO years ago, we Mexicans decided

history, the pride of

of defeat.

if

it

of Quetzalcoatl.

A

nation can become

gives due importance to the individual.

of the fundamental teachings of the allegory of the

plumed serpent

that

is

man, through self-discovery and

the discipline of self-knowledge, can learn to recognize and interpret the evidence of the natural order and to reshape

through his own

it

myth

efforts.

It

precisely here that the

is

of Quetzalcoatl reproduces the

human

adventure,

who

the individual or collective experience of beings

who

destined to act in history and

tiny.

drawn

as a seashell

movement with

upon Quetzalcoatl's chest, identifies this upward spiraling of the shell toward

the

perfection.

For the ancient Mexicans as well as

for those of the

deepest meanings of the

the serpent that dons the quetzal's plumage, symbolizes

Mexicans, although,

myth apply

to all

in truth, the

Quetzalcoatl

myth and

stand out:

Mexhuman

the experience of present-day

awareness of the dynamism of

events; awareness of the dialectical synthesis of opposites;

and a sense of harmony. The Dynamism of History. Society

may

as a structure in process of becoming, as

permanence amid

change and flow. If change were chaos and not even the

we would be

memory

be conceived

total, the result

would be

of society would remain;

ignorant of our very existence. But though

everything changes, something remains to provide that sense of continuity

Many

we

call

philosophers have questioned whether this fluidity

represented

A view

of the ancient

Catterwood vegetation

in is

movement

by

a

wisdom, and his need meaning embodied in this ancient symbol is admitted by one and all: the purpose of development is to become a fully realized human being, a person of dignity, and society is responsible for creating the conditions whereby man may contribute effectively to

hieroglyph

called

his eagerness for

to achieve eminence.

Today

the

the task of building a better world.

And

the only

better world

is

way

concur with the

cans

contribute' to the building of a

to

through labour. Here again, modern Mexiteachings

of

Quetzalcoatl,

who

preached dedication and the necessity of striving toward the creation of transcendent works.

man

history.

has any meaning. In their symbolism, the ancient Mexi-

cans

present day, the

man's superiority,

mankind.

Three coincident points between the meaning of the ico

with Quetzalcoatl to indicate

we can find parallels between the pre-Hismyth and some fundamental concerns of today's

understanding and transforming the world. And.

here that

panic

it

dynamics have a meaning and a desAnother ancient symbol, "the jewel box of the wind,"

that such historical

human event has a clear purpose: to excel. Each human being has the fundamental right to desire and to search for perfection. That is why Quetzalcoatl,

bility for it is

are

thus bear the responsi-

mahuiollin and associated

is

effort

able to build his

own

future,

Today, as yesterday, and Mexico's creative

has been inspired by the magnificent reminders of

its past.

The Toltecs became

builders,

and great

artists

skilled craftsmen, excellent

because of their high regard for

Mayan city of Chichen Itza in Mexico's state of Yucatan, as seen by the archaeologist Frederick 1844. At left is a stone carving of the plumed serpent. The structure in the background covered with known as the Castillo or castle. It probably was built in the ninth century AD.

productive

the

and

effort

We

brothers to the gods.

make men

that

creativity

have been inspired by their ex-

to wish for a better life. From them we learn that we can achieve that better life only by working together, by gladly accepting the task before us. Finally, just as we Mexicans believe work to be a fundamental right, we also feel that song, dance, and laughter are ends in themselves. If we join together work, heart, and intellect, we have the full definition of a human being.

ample

Today, as yesterday, man has the possibility of building

own

managed

future. Mexico, though, has

its past.

The Synthesis

a nation, Mexico Our earliest desire would reconcile the

of Opposites. As

emerged from the fusion of two

was

his

inspira-

from the magnificent achieve-

tion, for its creative effort,

ments of

draw

to

races.

an identity, that

to find a face,

by our two cultural we chose an emblem of

opposites contributed

For our

flag,

roots.

synthesis:

the

union of the high-flying eagle, symbolizing the heavens,

and

a serpent

symbolizing the earth, perfection, that which

Thus

exists as a possibility.

which we aspire

to

integration of

is

essences, for through our nationalism

all

throbs the very synthesis of

Quetzalcoatl

pent,

represented the synthesis

our eagerness for perfection: the

in

all

humanity. Eagle and

same

the

represents

ser-

com-

principle,

bining, in a creative tension, an awareness of reality with

upward

the

We may

toward perfection.

flight of the spirit

apply

sense of synthesis to the vision

this

have for our country. Our objective

to

may

help us achieve

become integrated

own

tity, is

common

objectives:

into a unity, but without losing our

individual characteristics;

the enrichment of the

A

human

and

so

to

contribute to

in history

through

and that which

identifies,

and consequently

is

be found

to

in

its

selves, to be kin, to

wholly as

men and

origins

—the

its

unites,

to identify our-

will

therefore worthy to participate in the is

achieved through a process of

embodied in our vocation of mestizaje, which demands respect for our two roots. This is becoming a

integration,

reality in

A

our national

life;

its

that

fulfillment

Sense of Harmony. The synthesis

impulse of the quiescent toward

which

is

life,

the

the order of

scattered,

is

our destiny.

of opposites, the

movement creation

—

to join all

are

by the hieroglyph form of a cross which represents the beginning of harmony. The vertical axis joins heaven and earth and the found

in Quetzalcoatl, as is indicated

in the

horizontal, love

and

Quest for harmony

pain.

of opposites, in a union that of

its

may

—Quetzalcoatl

verted into great

humani-

—

for the individual is the means through which the collective achieves consciousness, satisfaction,

lective values

pain or joy. Quetzalcoatl means

harmony

in the synthesis

of opposites, in the unity of what can be different but desires to follow

only one path. His name, too, conjures up

the sense of reality that

is

needed

transformed into full-blown

wisdom on Earth, of

bol of

human

experience in

its

man

great ideals are to be

The serpent

the slime that

is

is

a

sym-

gathered by

quest to be useful. This experi-

ence has been transformed by will take

if

realities.

its

upward momentum;

it

to a true fulfillment.

Mexico's political constitution, which synthesizes the

whereby great

their

ideals are con-

realities.

out that democracy

it

regime but a

Such effect

man's

being.

Such

That

our social democracy, our nationalistic Revolution,

not only a juridical system or a

way

is

inequality.

why, faced by dehumanizing ideologies and technolo-

is

of life, something so vital that renewed daily through the constant pursuit of the economic, social, and cultural improvement of the people. political

the spirit's

aspiration but to man's imperative need for justice.

gies,

a social

best of the aspirations and purposes of our history, points

Our times seem marked by imbalance and Desire for harmony corresponds not only to is

by

tarianism that gives equal weight to individual and col-

union

in the

represents this and, in addition,

the sense of the possible

proposes the equilibrium of a balanced science and ecology, well-thought-out and enriched

be different from each

components but that embodies the best of

aspiration

creative effort has been inspired by the magnificent reminders its past."

of

national iden-

be Mexicans, to recognize ourselves

universal values. Identity

The murals of Jose Clemente Orozco in the Hospicio Cabanas in Guadalajara, Mexico, mingle the dreams and thoughts of the past with present reality and the illumination of the spirit. "Today, as yesterday, man is able to build his own future, and Mexico's

experience.

known

society

we

to discover whether,

our society, we can find kindred

in the contradictions of

identities that

is

is

the great purpose of full is

democracy

in

our country: to

vocation toward the realization of his

also the ultimate

meaning of QuetzalcoatPs

message, so profoundly ours within the history and tradition of Mexico.

PEOPLE OF THE YEAR Biography

24

Olympic Champions

59

Nobel Prizes

62

Obituaries

65

BIOGRAPHY

-

KEYSTONE

women who

Herzen Foundation

a selected list of men and influenced events significantly

The following

is

in 1976.

Ahrweiler, Helene

A woman

president of the Sorbonne? InMessieurs! But after 700 years Helene Ahrweiler was elected to that post. A Frenchwoman by marriage, she was born Helene Glykatzi in Athens on Aug. 29, 1916. She spent pari of her career as a his-

croyable,

Mme

the samizdat ("published abroad") pamphlet Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984? and one of the most celebrated

of

Soviet dissident intellectuals of the past decade, arrived in Amsterdam by air from Moscow. He and his wife had been deprived of Soviet citizenship and expelled from the U.S.S.R., as had Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn two years previously. Since 196S Amalrik had spent some six years in labour camps and in recent years had been subjected to harassment by the kgb the Soviet political police. Amalrik told reporters at Schiphol Airport that he was sad at being banished from his country and hoped to be able to return one day. In a later interview on bbc television he said that he had always felt hostile to many aspects of the Soviet system, mainly because of the lies and deceit that formed its very basis, but he would not say that there

—

24

team and

this it

versity's

(PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)

was

Joe Morgan, the National League's most valuable player for the second consecutive year in 1976, looked at major league baseball's best team and pointed out its most valuable man without hesitation. He selected a prematurely white-haired fellow who did not have a single hit in 1976, Sparky Anderson. "Team discipline is the key to

and archaeologist there, moving to France in 19S0. She is considered an outstanding expert on the Byzantine Empire, the subject to which she devoted her doctoral thesis and on which she subsequently wrote several other works. In 1967 she became head of the department of history at the Sorbonne, and in 1970 one of the uni-

Amalrik, Andrey Alekseyevich On July IS, 1976, Andrey Amalrik, author

1969. Amalrik

Anderson, Sparky

torian

vice-presidents. Elected president on Feb. 12, 1976, she found herself presiding over 30,000 students, 700 professors, and up to 2,000 guest lecturers. Petite, speaking with a marked Greek acAhrweiler gives an impression of cent, fragility and grace that hides great strength and determination, the qualities that won her the confidence and the votes of her colleagues, most of whom were men. Although a member of the most powerful university teachers' union (SNES-Sup), she has resisted union pressure in choosing members of the university councils and commissions.

in

arrested in May 1970 and sentenced to three years' detention at a labour camp for "disseminating falsehoods derogatory to the Soviet state and its social system." In July 1973 he was sentenced to another three years; he was released in May 1975. (k. m. smogorzewski)

was nothing good in the Soviet Union. He had wanted to stay but was faced with the choice of leaving or going to prison. Amalrik was born in Moscow in 1938, the son of a historian and great-grandson of a

French industrialist who settled in Russia in the mid-19th century. He studied history at Moscow University but was expelled in 1963 because, in a paper entitled The Varangians and the Kievan Rus, he opposed Soviet historians who denied the Norse origin of the Rurik dynasty. He became a playwright but in 196S was arrested because the kgb said that one of his plays (none of which was ever performed in a Soviet theatre) was "pornographic." He was deported to Siberia but his three-year sentence was quashed by the Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R. Returning to Moscow in 1966 he was employed by the Novosti Press Agency. In 1968, when he and his wife took part in a demonstration against arms deliveries to Nigeria during the Biafran war, he lost his job and became a postman.

The

typescript

of

his

Will

the

Soviet

Union Survive Until 1984? was brought to The Netherlands by Karel van het Reve, professor of Russian literature at the University of Leyden and in 1967-68 Moscow correspondent of a Dutch newspaper. It was published in Amsterdam by the Aleksandr

all

there's the

possible,"

Morgan

guy who makes

said of Anderson,

manager of the Cincinnati Reds. The Reds won their second straight baseball championship in 1976, becoming the first team ever to win the league play-offs in three straight games and follow with four consecutive wins in the World Series. "I'm glad the best team is a bunch of great guys

who

Anderson to

the

don't always have to be different," said, making an obvious contrast

individualistic

Oakland

A's,

Series

winners from 1972 through 1974. George Lee Anderson, born Feb. 22, 1934, in Bridgewater, S.D., became the youngest

major league manager when the Reds hired him Oct. 9, 1969. His team won 102 games and the National League pennant the next season, and in Anderson's seven years the Reds have won five divisional titles, four league pennants, and the World Series in 197S and 1976. His 683-443 record gave him a .607 winning percentage, the best in National League history. When the 1976 Reds quickly disposed of the Philadelphia Phillies in the league playoffs and the New York Yankees in the

World

Series,

many

considered them one of

best teams in baseball history. Their 210 stolen bases and 141 home runs led the league, an unusual combination of power and speed, and their .280 batting average and 857 runs were tops in baseball. Anderson batted .218 in 152 games with the 1959 Phillies, the only time he played in the major leagues. In ten seasons as a

the

minor league

infielder, he

home

batted .263 and

He became

a minor league manager in 1964, and his teams finhit only 19

runs.

.

ished lower than second place only once after 1965. Perhaps remembering his own days as a substitute, Anderson was careful to use all of the players as much as possible.

(kevin m. lamb) Andreotti, Giulio

One tian

of the leaders of Italy's ruling ChrisDemocratic Party for decades, Giulio

Andreotti in 1976 formed his third government (the 39th in the history of the Italian republic) following the June 20-21 general elections. It was a one-party government, voted in by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate only by virtue of the abstention of the Communist Party, Italy's second largest political force.

The new government's

survival depended, in fact, upon the Communists' tacit support. With that support, Andreotti was able to introduce, early in October, a package of austerity measures necessitated by the country's worsening eco-

nomic

Armstrong, Anne When Anne Armstrong was mentioned

Biography

possible Republican vice-presidential candidate for the 1976 elections, it was the first time in U.S. political history that a major party seriously considered giving its vicepresidential nomination to a woman. But being first is not unusual for Anne Legendre Armstrong. In February 1976 she became the first woman to be U.S. ambassador to Great Britain. Pres. Gerald Ford's appointment of Mrs. Armstrong to the prestigious

diplomatic post was not merely a token act please

to

the

women's movement;

it

was

done because of her proven capabilities as an administrator and her demonstrated skill in dealing with difficult political problems.

Both Republicans and Democrats praised the appointment.

Rome

on Jan.

14,

was given an appointment as undersecretary by Premier Alcide De Gasperi and retained 19S3. He chose to be left Pella formed a centreright government with the Liberal Party in 19S3, but was interior minister in Amintore Fanfani's first government the following year. He was later in charge of finances treasury (1958-59), defense (1955-58), that post until

when Giuseppe

(1959-66), and industry and commerce (1966-68) His first government, a one-party attempt in 1972, lasted only four months. The crisis that followed ended after 21 days when Andreotti himself was able to form his second government, this time in a coalition with the Liberals and Social Democrats. From 1974 he held office as minister for defense and later for the budget. Long active in journalism, Andreotti was a co-founder of his party's daily newspaper, // Popolo. He was a writer of repute and author of, among other works, De Gasperi e il suo tempo ("De Gasperi and His Time") His main quality was described as the capacity to be politically mobile, but throughout his career he remained essentially a party man. "Power destroys," somebody once said to him. "Power destroys those who haven't got it," he replied. (fabio galvano)

named

her ambassador to

(hal bruno)

Assad, Hafez

al-

1976 Syria's president, Gen. Hafez alAssad, defied the opposition of all the Arab states except Jordan in his massive intervention in Lebanon to end the civil war there and prevent partition of the country. In

Having cut and leftist

off military aid to the

Palestinian

formed a de facto alliance with the Lebanese rightists and aroused the strong enmity of most elements forces,

he

the Palestine Liberation Organization. Despite the Arabs' decision to replace the Syrians in Lebanon with a peacekeeping force, Assad remained heavily committed in Lebanon and was thought to have ambitions to establish a Syrian-Jordanian-Lebanese federation under Syrian leadership. Hafez al-Assad was born in the Lataki province of Syria in 1928 to a poor family of Alawites, a minority Islamic sect. He graduated from the Horns Military Academy in 1955 as a pilot officer and was sent to the U.S.S.R. in 1958 for training in night warfare. He was later promoted to squadron leader but was dismissed from the armed forces in 1961 because of his opposition to Syria's secession from the union with Egypt. He then devoted his activities to the Baath Party, which he had joined as a student in indignation against social conditions in Syria, and became one of the key

1919, took a degree in law at the University of Rome, and was president of the Catholic students' federation. A member of the Constituent Assembly elected in June 1946, he

out

ranch, until Ford

Great Britain. The British press dubbed her "Auntie Sam," and she quickly became a popular and respected ambassador.

in

WIDE WORLD

situation.

Andreotti was born in

BOOK OF THE YEAR

as a

.

figures in the it

party's military

wing when

took power in 1963. In 1964 he was made

commander in

Born Dec.

27, 1927, in

New

Orleans, La.,

Mrs. Armstrong earned Phi Beta Kappa honours at Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, N.Y. She became active in Texas Republican politics after raising her family on the 50,000-ac ranch her husband Tobin operates near the town of Armstrong, Texas. She

in chief of the Air Force, and February 1966 he became minister of

defense

throw

after of the

the

radical

Baathists'

over-

moderate international Baath Syria. In 1969-70 he was in-

rank and brought Mrs. Armstrong to Wash-

leadership in volved in a power struggle with the party's civilian wing that came to a head after Syria's unsuccessful intervention (to which he was opposed) in the Jordanian civil war. When the civilian Baathists refused cooperation, he formed his own government and in March 1971 was elected president for a seven-year term by 99.2% of the votes cast in a national plebiscite. As president, Assad liberalized the government in several ways and reduced Syria's isolation by improving relations with other Arab countries (although remaining hostile toward the rival Baathist regime in Iraq).

ington as a top-level adviser in the Nixon administration's second term. She was the White House liaison to Spanish-speaking voters, women, and youth groups, and served on delegations to the 1974 World Food Conference in Rome and the 1975 International Women's Year Conference in Mexico City. In Washington, she was a leader in support of the Equal Rights

His new alliance with Egypt culminated in their close collaboration in the October 1973 war against Israel, but differences over the cease-fire and the subsequent U.S. -sponsored disengagement agreements with Israel soon arose. Late in 1976 there was a rapprochement, with talk of a renewed political federation on the lines of the defunct United (peter mansfield) Arab Republic.

served as the state party's vice-chairman, as national committeewoman, and was the first woman to be elected a co-chairman of the Republican national committee. In 1972, she became the first woman to deliver a keynote address at a major party's national convention and the first woman to be named a counselor to the president. The counselor post was one of Cabinet

Amendment. During the dark days of Watergate, she the Nixon administration's link to Republican Party leaders across the country and did her best to rally them in support

was

of

their

embattled

president.

Inside

White House, Mrs. Armstrong advocated

the full

disclosure of the circumstances surrounding

Watergate. In the aftermath of Watergate, Mrs. Armstrong remained in the White House to assist Pres. Gerald Ford through the difficult transition period and attempted to help cut the disastrous Republican losses in the 1974 elections. She "retired" briefly to the Texas

Ayckbourn, Alan Britain's most prolific author and most successful exporter of stage comedies, Alan Ayckbourn, rarely allowed a year to go by

without writing something new. In 1976 Just Between Ourselves had its world premiere at the Library Theatre in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, temporary home of the Theatre-in-the-Round Company; Ayckbourn had been the company's resident dramatist for ten years and artistic director since 1975. During 1976 he also had a mixed bill

of five short plays with related themes,

called Confusions,

running

in

London.

KEYSTONE

25

Now

minister of finance

Biography

affairs as well as premier,

BOOK OF THE YEAR

immediate

COLIN

and economic

Barre faced the

task of halting inflation and stabilizing the franc. In short order, he introduced a comprehensive plan, based on such

DAVEY — CAMERA

austerity measures as price control in some sectors, wage restraint, and credit restrictions, which, however, met with a mixed reception. At the same time he showed that as

to

head of government he was determined exercise

full

responsibility

in

political

matters. Here his problem was to extend the parliamentary and electoral majority toward the centre-left in order to win the legislative elections scheduled for 1978.

Born

at

Saint-Denis-de-la-Reunion, Re-

union, on April 12, 1924, Barre was an agrege in law and one of France's leading economists. His distinguished teaching career, from 1963 as professor at the Institute for Political Sciences in Paris, involved some participation in political affairs in an advisory capacity. During 1959-62 he headed the ministerial cabinet of J.-M. Jeanneney, minister of trade and later of industry. In 1967 he became vice-president of the European Commission, in charge of economic and financial affairs. In that capacity he was responsible for advising Gen. Charles de Gaulle in 1968 against a devaluation of the franc, contrary to the weight of expert opinion. He left the Commission in 1972 and was appointed a director of the Banque de

France by Pres. Georges Pompidou. In 1975 Ayckbourn had four plays running concurrently in London's West End: the trilogy of The Norman Conquests, due to open on Broadway in 1977; and Absurd Person Singular, which won the 1973 Evening Standard best comedy award, was a Broadway hit in 1974, and had been staged

ANDANSON— SYGMA

All

best

dance company and describes the

described

After Bennett conceived the show, imPapp sponsored a series of workshops at which the prospective cast discussed their lives. The taped conversations provided the raw material that writers James Kirkwood and Nicholas Dante worked into a cogent script that the workshop participants, in turn, performed. As rehearsals proceeded, Bennett encouraged the performers to bring more of their own experiences to the developing play. Hence, when it reached the stage of the Shubert Theater, packed houses witnessed a dramapresario Joseph

Mr. Whatnot (1963), How Loves (1970), Time and

as

bitter

comedies

poking

way of life, were tried his new plays there him-

He

directed all self, as well as those of younger writers he sought to encourage. He also wrote plays for television and for children. (ossia trilling) out.

Barre,

Raymond

Following Jacques Chirac's enforced resignation, Raymond Barre replaced him as France's premier on Aug. 25, 1976. A longstanding friend of Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing, who had appointed him minister of foreign trade in January, Barre belonged to no political party but supported the presidential majority.

26

lives of

the dancers.

roots

fun at the bourgeois

first-hand experience inspired Line, which is part revue, part

musical drama, and something more original than either. A dancer's show, it depicts the process of creating a Broadway musical's

Scarborough in 1964, and from there Ayckbourn wrote many of his best-known

Time Again (1972), Absent Friends (1974), and the musical Jeeves (197S). The lastnamed was written with Andrew Lloyd Webber, composer of Jesus Christ Superstar, but it failed. A new, unperformed play called Bedroom Farce went into rehearsal in the winter of 1976 and was due to open at London's new National Theatre in the following spring, 19 years after Ayckbourn's first play, The Square Cat (19S8). Married, with two sons, Ayckbourn lived in Scarborough, where most of his plays,

this

4 Chorus

in

plays, including the Other Half

for Follies

in 1972.

Born April 12, 1939, in London, Ayckbourn had worked in the theatre since leaving Haileybury School. He began as an actor and stage manager in the provinces and joined the late Stephen Joseph's Theatrein-the-Round Company while it was still a

The company put down

school before his senior year to join the Broadway chorus line of Subways Are for Sleeping. At 19 he was teaching jazz dance at June Taylor's school. He met his best friend and constant collaborator, Robert Avian, in the West Side Story rumble scene, went on to choreograph Promises, Promises

and Seesaw and win two Tonys

throughout Western Europe and also in Eastern Europe. The Norman Conquests won the Evening Standard and Plays and Players best play awards for 1974, when Ayckbourn was also voted playwright of the year by the Variety Club of Great Britain.

touring group.

Born in Buffalo on April 8, 1943, Bennett began dancing there at the age of three, then went on to study ballet, tap, jazz, and modern dance. He began teaching when he became a teenager and dropped out of high

tization

Barre was a pragmatist, tending to be didactic. But he surprised public opinion

by the

clarity of his speeches, political cir-

by the forcefulness of his attitudes and decisions, and even ministers by the inflexibility' with which he pursued his aims and overrode objections, including on occacles

sion those of President Giscard d'Estaing himself. (pierre viansson-ponte)

Bennett, Michael

"To commit

suicide in Buffalo is redundant," according to one of the characters in A Chorus Line. But Michael Bennett, who con-

choreographed, directed, and coproduced that musical, went on from Buffalo to become "Broadway's wonderboy," in the words of the editor of Dance Magazine, and, ceived,

according to the New York Times, "the youngest, richest, most acclaimed, ItalianJewish, Buffalo (N.Y.)-born, directorchoreographer-producer" in show business. A Chorus Line swept the Tony awards and

won

a Pulitzer Prize in 1976.

of

the

life

of

"Chorus Line." Later the

a

Broadway

real

script

was

deliber-

new member joined the cast and every time a new touring company was born. At one point Bennett was ately altered each time a

rehearsing three companies simultaneously. Universal Pictures paid $5.5 million for the film rights, matching the record price paid for a Broadway musical. The deal

Bennett to choreograph the Hollyproduction and to make three more

called for

wood

films of his

own

choosing.

Among

the

many

honours he received was Dance Magazine's (philip kopper) annual award.

Bergman, Ingmar "It

is

possible

that

my

professional

work

be so strongly linked with my environment and my language that I will not manage a readjustment now in the 58th year of my life." So wrote Ingmar Bergman, the internationally famous Swedish filmmaker, in a farewell letter published during 1976 by a Stockholm newspaper. He had decided to leave his native land for good because

may

,

a frightening experience with Sweden's tax authorities that had led to a nervous breakdown. Bergman and the government had disagreed over his tax liability for cerof

tain

foreign income

from

his

films.

Early

1976 he had been accused of tax evasion, during a rehearsal, and dragged away for questioning. The criminal charges in

arrested

were

later

dropped, and Sweden's

prime

minister publicly appealed to Bergman to stay. But he departed just the same; his loss and the ham-fisted techniques of Sweden's tax collectors became political issues in the 1976 election campaign that saw the defeat of the Social Democrats who had governed Sweden since 1932.

Ernst Ingmar Bergman was born in Uppon July 14, 1918. The son of a Lutheran pastor, he had been preoccupied for many years with religious questions. Events in his private life, including his many marriages

Biography

Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, Prince of The Netherlands

Among

BOOK OF THE YEAR

the varied ramifications of the

Lock-

heed Aircraft Corp. bribery affair no revelations were more devastating in effect than those implicating Prince Bernhard, the consort of Queen Juliana of The Netherlands.

Not only was

the prince himself disgraced political and constitu-

and humiliated but a

crisis jeopardizing the monarchy arose, while the Dutch people were disillusioned by the ignominious downfall of the

tional

man

they had adopted

symbol

wartime

first

as a

popular

then

as a figurehead for Dutch economic enterprise. (See Netherlands, The.) of

resistance,

sala

and divorces, inspired some

of

his

KARSH OF OTTAWA — CAMERA PRESS

work.

Bergman admits that he has often contemplated suicide. Some of his films have de-

who did not know whether they were sane or not. A complete filmmaker, he writes his own screenplays, chooses a cast, and directs the entire producpicted persons

tion.

He

actresses,

hires the

same

—

He

Bergman

HUGH — SYGMA

The 240-page report of the three-man commission appointed to investigate Prince Bernhard's activities found that in 1960-62 Lockheed, through its intermediary Fred Meuser, had paid $1 million into the secret Swiss bank account of Col. A. E. Panchulidze, a former member of the tsarist Imperial Guard and a friend of Bernhard's mother. The colonel died in 1968 but the commission concluded that the money was intended for Bernhard and that it had reached him. In 1968, said the commission, Lockheed made a further payment in the form of a check for $100,000 made out to "Victor van Baarn" and deposited in SwitzThe payee's name was fictitious but Baarn was the name of the village in which the Dutch royal palace of Soestdijk stands. Perhaps even more damaging to Bernhard's reputation was the evidence that he had actively solicited payment for promoting Dutch purchases of Lockheed aircraft. In a letter to Parliament Bernhard admitted that his relations with Lockheed had "developed along the wrong lines" and that he accepted the consequences. Prince Bernhard was born at Jena, Thuringia (now in East Germany), on June 29, 1911, the son of Prince Bernhard Casimir

and nephew

,

also

Timor.

attacked Fraser over what

—

erland.

reputation was at its peak during the early '60s when he produced a trilogy, Through a Glass Darkly ( 1961 ) Winter Light ( 1962 ) and The Silence (1963), which many consider his best work. These films deal with the borderline between sanity and madness and between human contact and total withdrawal. In 1976 his adaptation of Mozart's opera The Magic Flute was widely praised: (victor m. cassidy)

of its takeover of East

he regarded as the Liberal Party's excessively environmentalist concern with the problems of mineral exploitation and for failing the islanders in Torres Strait when Australia and Papua New Guinea adjusted their maritime border. Bjelke-Petersen's opposition to any concession in the state boundaries of Queensland, which until June 1976 reached almost to the coast of Papua New Guinea, led him a nation to say that Papua New Guinea smaller than Queensland had been "able to put it all over Canberra," even though it had no legal or moral claim to any part of the Torres Strait, except for its desire to lay hands on oil supposed to occur in

the artist is taken as seriously by the public as any novelist, painter, or composer. Bergman had begun his career in the the-

JIM MC

Premier of Australia's conservative "deep north" state, Queensland, Johannes BjelkePetersen attacked both the federal Liberal government and the Labor Party opposition on a variety of issues during 1976. Despite continuous rebukes from Australia's foreign minister, Andrew Peacock, for expressing his views on sensitive foreign policy issues, Bjelke-Petersen continued to do so. He focused on what he considered the government's weak-kneed policy in dealing with Communists in East (formerly Portuguese) Timor, attacking Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser for prevarication and for not re-

approved

—

atre, as an actor, director, and playwright, while attending Stockholm University during the early '40s. In 1945 he wrote and directed Crisis, his first film. Many more films followed during the late '40s. Secrets of Women and Monika (both 1952) mark the beginning of his mature work. He recognition achieved international with Smiles of a Summer Night (1955), the first Bergman film to be shown widely outside Sweden. He followed it with The Seventh Seal (1956), a medieval morality, and Wild Strawberries (1957), a meditation on old age. Both were international successes. His

Bjelke-Petersen, Johannes

assuring Indonesia publicly that Australia

associates actors, cinematographers for one film

after another.

opposing the German invasion in 1940 and afterward, based in England, became a pilot and flew with the Royal Air (k. m. smogorzewski) Force. forces

of Leopold IV, the last reigning prince of Lippe-Biesterfeld. He was educated at the universities of Lausanne, Munich, and Berlin, where he studied political science. Following the majority of German princelings after 1933, he joined the ReiterSS Corps. In 1936, while working for the

German chemical concern IG Farbenindustrie in Paris, he met Crown Princess (later Queen) Juliana, and in January 1937 they were married. Bernhard, who took Dutch citizenship and received the title of prince of The Netherlands, served with the Dutch

—

that part of Queensland and Australia. Shrugging off criticism that he was exceeding his power by not consulting the Cabinet on the issue, Bjelke-Petersen fruitlessly pursued his campaign against the for-

mer Labor Party government by

investi-

gating the background to Gough Whitlam's attempt to obtain an A$400 million loan from Arab sources. No evidence of graft and forgery involving senior members of the Whitlam ministry was found. Born Jan. 13, 1911, at Dannevirke, New Zealand, the son of a Danish immigrant, Bjelke-Petersen made his home at Kingaroy, the heart of Queensland's peanut-growing industry. He was Country Party representative in the Queensland Legislative Assembly for Nanango from 1947 to 1950 and afterward for Barambah. He served as Queensland's minister for works and housing from 1963 until 1968, when he became state premier, (a. r. g. Griffiths)

Black, Shirley

Temple

first woman in 200 years to hold this job," said Shirley Temple Black when the Senate confirmed her appointment as the U.S. State Department's chief of protocol in June 1976. And through the rest of the year the former child movie star worked her customary 14-hour day as the person in charge of visiting foreign dignitaries. It is the chief of protocol who welcomes them to the U.S., arranges and sometimes escorts their U.S. tours, introduces them at White House social functions in their honour, and generally determines what is and is not proper to do or say with visiting heads of state. Born April 23, 1928, in Santa Monica, Calif., Shirley Temple was a child movie star, Academy Award winner, and international celebrity by the age of six. Her film career ended when she became a teenager,

"I'm pleased to be the

27

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR PENNY TW EE Dl

E

— CAMERA

PRESS/ FRANZ 1

E,

FURST

Miller and his Dutch-born partner, Johan Valentijn, the new 12-metre yacht is shorter, lower, and will carry more sail than her predecessor. Executive chairman of the Bond Corporation, tralian

Amalgamated Industries, West AusLand Holdings, Robe River, and

other companies, Alan

Bond has been one

of

Australia's most successful business tycoons. Born in 1938, he started as a signwriter in

1952

and formed

his

own company, Nu

Signs, in 1957. His empire

grew

by the the news-

until

mid-1970s he was seldom out of papers with his wide-ranging deals. In the 1974 America's Cup races, his "Southern Cross" lost four straight races to the U.S. "Courageous." Bond said he and his associates were putting up half the funds needed to mount the 1977 challenge, and expected to raise the rest (about $434,000) from public contributions. He had already sold another former challenger, "Gretel II" (purchased after the 1970 series), to a syndicate of yachtsmen

who hoped to race it against Bond in the pre-Cup series at Newport. Bond's new ship would also have to defeat Swedish and French contenders in the pre-Cup series to determine who would contest the U.S. de(A. R. C.

fender.

an early Hollywood marriage, one child, and a divorce, she faded from pubview and became a licensed interior lic decorator. In 1950 she married Charles Black, a businessman and marine biologist; they have two children. Mrs. Black returned to public life in 1967 as a Republican candidate for Congress from her California district near San Francisco. She lost that election, but it

and

after

marked the start of a new career in and diplomacy. She raised $1 million Republican Party

in the

politics

for the

1968 election and

was named a delegate to the UN General Assembly by Pres. Richard Nixon. In 1973 she was a member of the executive committee of the UN Commission a year later

By

Borg, Bjorn Though no longer a teenage idol, Bjorn Borg did not let this affect his tennis in 1976. The Swedish prodigy with the flowing blond hair celebrated his 20th year by winning the Wimbledon tournament and the World Championship Tennis (wct) title.

He

finished second in the U.S. Open, spoiling his bid to become the first to win the sport's modern Triple Crown. Borg also won the U.S. professional championships for the third consecutive year. He opened his season by losing the U.S.

Black had demonstrated involvement in politics and diplomacy was serious, and convinced even then, Mrs.

that her

her severest critics that she had the ability to go with her celebrity status. Pres. Gerald Ford then nominated her to be U.S. ambassador to Ghana. In that post, she worked long hours, visiting villages in the countryside, learning Ghanaian languages and culture, championing women's rights, and opposing racial separation in Africa. She was honoured by being named a deputy chief

since Chuck McKinley of the United States in 1963. He defeated Romania's Hie Nastase 6-4, 6-2, 9-7 in the finals and said, "I have

never played better."

At the U.S. Open

in September. Borg said, want this more than anything." But Connors denied him victory in a 3-hour

"I

10-minute duel, 6-4, 3-6, 7-6, 6-4. "I've always been unlucky against him," Borg said. "I hit the ball hard the same as Connors. And he likes that." Born June 6, 1956, in Sodertalje, Sweden, Borg was given a tennis racket at age nine and played the Swedish junior circuit until there were no more Swedish juniors to beat.

He

joined

professional

the

and won the French Open at 14

Italian 18.

Open

circuit

at 17

at

age

and the

In 1975 he helped lead

Davis Cup, and in late 1976 he broke the hearts of thousands of girls by announcing his engagement to Ro-

Sweden

to

its

first

mania's Mariana Simionescu. (j.

timothy weigel)

Brooks, Gwendolyn (Elizabeth) "She wrote about being black before

it

was

considered beautiful," a Houston Post reporter said. "She does not write violent militaristic poems," but she does record black emotions, something she has been doing since she was 16. In 1950 Gwendolyn Brooks became the first black woman to win a Pulitzer Prize, and 26 years later she was the first of her race and sex to be elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters. WIDE WORLD

professional indoor tournament in February to Jimmy Connors, the man who later defeated him in the U.S. Open. After losing matches in Palm Springs, Calif., and Hawaii in

March

spectively,

UNESCO.

tO

GRIFFITHS)

don, where Borg was sensational. He became the first man to capture the title without losing a set (he won 21 in a row)

Connors and Arthur Ashe, reBorg won the wct title in Dallas,

to

Texas, in May. He defeated Argentina's Guillermo Vilas 1-6, 6-1, 7—5, 6-1. In the French Open in June, Borg tried for

a

third

successive

title.

He

lost

to

Adriano Panatta in the quarterfinals, but the defeat may have been a blessing. It gave him an extra week to prepare for Wimble-

Ghanaian tribe. Her work in Ghana and her international fame led to Mrs. Blacks appointment as of a

chief

of

protocol.

When

they

arrived

in

Washington, visiting heads of state often recalled having seen her childhood films, and Mrs. Black used that opening to take

From the time Brooks began publishing, the catholic appeal of her poems won her numerous honours, long before the establishments that awarded them dabbled in what militants call "tokenism." Mademoiselle magazine named her one of its ten Women of the Year in 1945. The following year she won an award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters and the first of two consecutive Guggenheim fellowships. She is a member of the Society of Midland

firm charge of their U.S. tour. Early reviews indicated that she handled the job with skill and developed into a knowledgeable diplomat, always making sure that it was the foreign visitor not the legendary Shirley Temple who was in the spotlight.

—

—

(HAL BRUNO)

Bond, Alan Australians sailing magnate promised to enter a yacht made of aluminum in the next

America's

Cup

Newport,

series.

The

In 1968 she was named poet laureate of Illinois, and as Carl Sandburg's successor, she promptly offered an annual prize for young black writers of prose and poetry.

Authors.

races, to be sailed

September 1977, would be the colourful millionaire's second attempt to defeat the Americans. At a news conference on September 30, Bond unveiled his latest challenger, tentatively called "Southern Cross II." Designed by Australian Bob off

R.I., in

Brooks was born in Topeka, Kan., on June 7, 1917, and was raised in Chicago, where she attended Englewood High School ALAtN

28

hOGUES — SYGMA

— and graduated from Wilson Junior College in 1936. Three years later she married Henry Blakely, a writer, and the couple had two children. She contributed poems to the Chicago Defender, was a reviewer for the Chicago Sun-Times, and taught at Columbia College in Chicago. A frequent speaker on college campuses, she is known for remaining apart from vocal movements. According to the Post:

why women's liberationwould identify with her poetry, but she does not identify with that move"She understands

ists

ment. T think we should not get embroiled in women's liberation. It is a diwe don't need any more viding faction dividing factions. ... I favor black women and men getting married and having chil" not ?' dren. In her work she celebrates the lives of .

.

.

;

Why

blacks in Northern cities. Her books of poetry include A Street in Bronzeville, Annie Allen, The Bean Eaters, Selected Poems, In the Mecca, and Riot. She also wrote Maud Martha, a novel, and a children's book, Bronzeville Boys and Girls. (PHILIP kopper)

ordinary

Callaghan, (Leonard) James

When James

Callaghan succeeded Harold Wilson as prime minister of the United

Kingdom

in April 1976,

he was indisputably

most senior and the most experienced member of the Labour government. An MP since 1945, he had been a junior minister in Clement Attlee's government during 194751. In Wilson's first government he was chancellor of the Exchequer (1964-67) and home secretary (1967-70), and in the second Wilson government foreign secretary from the

1974, these three offices being considered the premier offices of state. In the election for party leader his status as an elder statesman told against him to some extent, for he was regarded as the safe, conventional choice. In the first ballot he was edged into second place among six contenders by the more radical Michael Foot, but he went into the lead in the second ballot and in the final ballot had a clear majority over Foot of 176 to 137. Callaghan's special strength lay in his instinctive understanding of the Labour rank and file and his knowledge of the workings of the party machine. A member of the party executive since 1957, he had established strong ties with the trade-union movement and had opposed the Wilson govern-

son's unofficial inner cabinet, but he made a strong comeback as foreign secretary when he adroitly managed the renegotiation of

terms for British membership in the European Economic Community. A robust mix of bluntness and jollying along had earned him the nickname of "Sunny Jim." As prime minister he at once set about telling the nation the harsh truth of its economic situation. "No one owes Britain a living," he said. He was prepared to take a line that was unpopular with the intellectual left, and in October called for a much harder view of the purpose of education in fitting people for jobs in an industrial society.

Born in Portsmouth on March 12, 1912, Callaghan knew what poverty was like. His father died when he was nine and he went to work as a clerk straight from school unlike his Oxford-educated predecessors in the Labour leadership, Attlee, Hugh Gaitskell,

(harford thomas)

and Wilson.

Callaghan, Morley by Edmund Wilson in The New Yorker "the most unjustly neglected writer in the English language," Morley Callaghan has happily collected anecdotes about people in faraway places who have discovered him. A productive writer, he has 18 books to his Called

Too Close to the Sun (1976). With the publication in 1976 of his play Exit the Witch (in Exile, a literary journal edited by his son Barry), Callaghan became known as a playwright as well as a writer of novels and short stories. His play is a study of a patriarchal relationship, reflecting his belief that the family provides the truest social picture. credit, the latest being

PICTORIAL PARADE

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR

ing

World War

II

and the postwar years,

he wrote scripts for the National Film Board of Canada and was a regular contributor to the New World Magazine. From 1943 to 1951 he became well known to the Canadian public as a radio figure. He was the chairman of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation program "Citizen's Forum" (1943-47) and was also a regular guest on the cbc television program "Fighting Words" from 1950. Another creative period for Callaghan was 1950-62. During this time he published one of his favourite pieces of writing, A Passion in Rome, which grew from a journalistic assignment he had in the Eternal City in 1958.

A Fine and Private Place (1975) is the story of an author who wants to be recognized, especially in his own country. Callaghan insisted that it was not autobiographical. He had, in fact, begun to gain recognition as an author in Canada in the 1950s. The Loved and the Lost (1951) won the Governor-General's Award for fiction, and his novella, The Man with the Coat, won the Maclean's Magazine Award (1955). (DIANE LOIS WAY) Carter,

Jimmy

"Every man

wrote the is an exception," philosopher S0ren Kierkegaard. That observation is a favourite of the newly elected president of the United States. Appropriately, it is nearly the only generalization that can safely be made about James Earl Carter, Jr., who, after an extraordinary four-year quest for the nation's highest office, achieved that goal while flying in the face of almost all the conventional wisdom about U.S. politics in the 20th century. Jimmy Carter he steadfastly refused any other name, even suing in two states to have the ballots changed to his nickname rather than his proper name began his presidential campaign with no national political experience. Indeed, he was virtually unknown outside his native South. A former one-term governor of Georgia, he began in 1972 an incredibly methodical, well-conceived assault on the established leadership of the Democratic Party. Traveling almost constantly for the last two years of his campaign, Carter demonstrated both an uncanny sense of the national political mood and a determination and self-confidence that dwarfed the ambition and energy of his other national rivals. In the first presidential campaign since the Watergate scandals drove Richard Nixon from office in 1974, Carter set himself apart from other Democrats by appealing to a

—

—

ment's abortive attempt to impose legislative controls over trade-union activities in 1969. At that point he was dropped from Wil-

sort

and

of political fundamentalism of trust truth. He recognized that traditional

promises of more social spending were discounted heavily in the political market and instead stressed conservative values such as efficiency and the reorganization of the federal bureaucracy. His own "born-again" Baptist faith and his experience as a prosperous peanut grower and processor supported those political claims. Carter campaigned through the primaries as an outsider, ready to cleanse Washington of both its immorality and its ineptitude. Early victories in the Iowa caucuses and then in the New Hampshire primary gave him the aura of a winner. His defeat of George Wallace in Florida earned him the gratitude of black voters and a solid hold on the South. His nomination at the Democratic national convention in July had been assured a month earlier by a victory in Ohio, liberal

Born

Toronto

1903, Callaghan began his writing career as a reporter on the Toronto Daily Star while still a student at the University of Toronto. Graduating from Osgoode Hall Law School, Toronto, in 1928, he turned to a career in writing instead of law because of the success of his first novel, Strange Fugitive (1928). He married Loretto Florence Dee in 1929, in

and they spent

in

their

honeymoon

in Paris,

associating with such people as F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway, an old friend from the days on the Toronto Daily Star. The 1930s proved to be Callaghan's most prolific period, during which he published five novels and many of the short stories that helped to establish his reputation. Dur-

being

LES WILSON — CAMERA PRESS

29

— "enthusiastically

Biography

destroyed"

at

the

end.

Some patrons booed the supernumeraries, who were not conventional "spear carriers"

BOOK OF THE YEAR CHARLES M. RAFSHOON — PICTORIAL PARADE

but toted modern rifles instead. Others were shocked when the Rhinemaidens were depicted as prostitutes. Evidently the audience disagreed with Chereau's implication, as critically interpreted, that

"the basic issues

of the days of Nibelheim main basic issues in our

and Valhalla

preferred

re-

own

day." EviWagner's dictum:

dently

they

"Any

person knows that if we are Mozart, it is not the adapted to our age but should adapt ourselves to the age Giovanni."

intelligent

to be in tune with work that should be

we who of Don

RAJAK OHAN1AN

— RAPHO/ PHOTO

RESEARCHERS

1970 he was executive assistant to Robert leader of the Progressive Conservatives in Parliament. Clark was elected to Parliament himself in 1972.

Stanfield,

The young unknown from demonstrating an ability to win

in the

north-

ern industrial states. After his nomination, Carter chose Sen.

Walter Mondale

The eral

(q.v.) as his

running mate.

was a shrewd one, adding a liband Washington "insider" to the party's choice

ticket.

At

this point, Carter's

surefootedness

a lacklustre campaign through the fall against Pres. Gerald Ford (q.v.) and in the process was credited with dissipating one of the largest leads ever held by a presidential candidate. But he did succeed in defeating Ford, by nearly two million votes. His victory was based on the votes of the "Old South," and Carter was the first president from that region since before the Civil War. Carter was born Oct. 1, 1924, in Plains,

vanished.

He

ran

Ga. After attending Georgia Tech. he was graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy. He remained in the Navy until 19S3, becoming a specialist in nuclear engineering. After returning to Plains he served as state senator from 1962 to 1966 and as governor from 1971 to 1974. (JOHN f. stacks)

Chereau, Patrice The Bayreuth Festival was 100 years old and Patrice Chereau only 30 when he staged Richard Wagner's Ring cycle in the summer of 1976. Though he had directed only two operatic works before, he came highly recommended to Wolfgang Wagner, the com-

who runs the festival in Bayreuth, West Germany. Pierre Boulez had agreed to conduct, and when other plans fell poser's grandson,

through Wagner hired the young French director on Boulez' advice. Boulez' "aural approach seemed to demand a new visual one too," the grandson believed. A new look was what he got. As one critic wrote, Chereau "broke away entirely from the symbolic representations that have

become de rigueur ever since the revolutionary ideas of the Wagner brothers Wolfgang and the [late] Wieland revived Bayreuth in the early '50s." In Siegfried a dragon moved its paws and wings; the .

.

.

—

Rheingold forest was made of real trees; a rainbow pointed to Valhalla; and Die Walkiire rode live horses. Even such things might have been forgiven, but not the hydroelectric dam site in the opening scene of Das Rheingold, or Valhalla's

30

New

Yorkish skyline which was

the

West was

not yet in line for the leadership of his party. His victory came after several other contenders at the convention in February had been eliminated on the first three ballots. Clark presented himself as a middleof-the-roader who could bridge the divisions between the party's right and left wings. He also had the advantage of being able to speak French, a useful asset at a time

Boulez' conducting got higher marks, but Chereau's spectacle stunned "the very heart of Wagnerland where every note is supposed to be pure and sacred, where every one of

Der

Meister's stage instructions is supposed to be taken literally." At a press conference after the first complete cycle, one Ger-

man

berated Chereau for tampering with the mysteries and inexplicable motives critic

Wagner

ascribed to his characters. The director replied, "I don't believe in [those] miracles ... I am interested only in the human psyche and emotions. Those are

much more important than myths." (PHILIP kopper)

Clark, Joe

When

he won the leadership of Canada's Progressive Conservative Party in February, 36-year-old Joe Clark became the youngest man ever to lead a major political party

Canada. Joseph Charles Clark was born in High River, Alta., on June 5, 1939, the son of a newspaper publisher. He studied at the University of Alberta and taught po-

in

from 196S to 1967. But was more than an academic matter for Clark. At 16 he had sat in the gallery of the House of Commons in Ottawa, watching Liberal Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent beat back opposition critics. From litical

science there

politics

then on, Clark sided with the Progressive Conservatives. At 20 he became private secretary to the leader of the Alberta Conservatives, W. J. C. Kirby. He became national president of the Progressive Conservative Student Federation and was active in the struggle to oust John Diefenbaker as leader of the Progressive Conservatives in 1965. Two years later he ran the victorious campaign of Peter Lougheed for leadership of the opposition in Alberta. From 1967 to

when Canadian politics is split between French and English sectors. He said, "I intend to make [the Conservatives] an open, active party, a home for all Canadians." Should he succeed in that, he might very well become Canada's next prime minister. (DIANE LOIS

WAY)

Comaneci, Nadia The most acclaimed Olympic Games was a

athlete of the 1976 slim, poker-faced 14-

year-old from Romania, Nadia Comaneci. Her superb performances in the gymnastics arena merited all the superlatives used by the sportswriters to hail a new superstar. Comaneci caught the eye, but she was only one outstanding member of an inspired Romanian gymnastics team that challenged the Soviet Union's long domination of the sport. Nadia Comaneci was born in 1962 at

Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, a new industrial centre in eastern Romania. Among its sports organizations was a flourishing gymnastics squad, coached by Bela Karolyi, who was reported to have chosen the young Comaneci for gymnastics training as much for her uncomplaining toughness as for her latent ability. It was said that she never cried. Certainly her coolness and composure remained unshaken by the pressures of Olympic competition; the boldness of her routines and her massive self-confidence, even when somersaulting on a beam 10 cm wide, showed how well she had absorbed the lessons during her rigorous training schedule. Her performance lifted gymnastics to new peaks of excellence, in which grace was

matched by

discipline.

The

control of her

apparently frail body seemed effortless; her technique was unsurpassed. In the individual events Comaneci won three gold medals and a bronze, while her near-faultless consistency helped the Romanian women to the silver

medal

The came in

in the team event. highlights of Comaneci's display the beam and uneven bars exercises,

CHRIS SMITH

— CAMERA

PRESs/FRANZ

E.

FURST

and Portuguese Socialist leaders Francois Mitterrand and Mario Soares. He described himself as "a reformist Socialist, open to modern liberal ideas." An attentive student of economics and the history of socialism, Craxi headed the European Institute for Social Studies, which issued, among other Listy, to publications, a magazine called which prominent refugees from Czechoslo(fabio galvano) vakia contributed.

Crombie, David In July 1974 Time magazine named Mayor David Crombie of Toronto one of the likely leaders of the world of the future. At the time he was only in his first term as mayor. In December 1976 he was elected to his third term by a landslide, making him at least the political master of Toronto and one of the most successful mayors of that city since the turn of the century. in Swansea, Ont. (now part of Toronto), on April 24, 1936. After receiving a degree in economics from the University of Western Ontario and doing postgraduate work at the University of Toronto, he lectured on political science and urban affairs at York University and Ryerson Polytechnic Institute in Toronto. From 1966 to 1971 he was director of student services at Ryerson. He ran unsuccess-

Crombie was born

a

-

she scored a perfect mark of This was the first time a gymnast had accomplished this feat in the Olympics. Comaneci made her debut in competition in 1969. In 197S she won four titles at the European championships. What summits of achievement were left for her to conquer after Montreal? Some enforced adjustments in technique seemed likely, for it was reported that, following the Games, she experienced weight problems associated with the onset of puberty. However, this youngest-ever Olympic individual gymnastics for in both 10.

champion seemed

likely

sport for several years.

dominate the (brian Williams) to

draxi, Bettino

The dramatic setback

suffered by the Italian the general elections of June 20 and 21, 1976, resulted in the resignation of party secretary Francesco De Socialist

Party

Martino and (generally

in

his

replacement by Benedetto as "Bettino") Craxi, a

known

comparative newcomer to the Italian parlia-

fully

for

alderman

in

He was

In public

affairs.

He

for education (196S-67), president of the Board of Trade (1967-69), secretary of state for local government and regional planning (1969-70), and secretary of state for the environment of state

from 1974.

CENTRAL PRESs

/

MILLER SERVICES

elected

life

His platform, both alderman and as mayor, was to maintain

city as a place to live.

as

the character of neighbourhoods. He sought to do this by preserving older buildings, maintaining stiff controls on the height, density, and style of new buildings, replacing

private autos with mass transit, and providing pedestrian malls where shoppers

could

stroll

freely.

CANADIAN PRESS

In his first months at the Foreign Office, Crosland traveled a great deal, visiting China, Japan, and the U.S. as well as Britain's European neighbours. In his first diplomatic confrontation he showed a certain practical decisiveness in conceding some British interests to settle the "cod war" with Iceland over fishing limits. He went on to take a tough line over British inshore fishing rights in negotiations for a 200-mi limit for the European Community as a whole. But given Britain's much diminished status in the world, Crosland could not expect to

make powerful

individual initiatives, and in negotiations over Rhodesia the diplomatic initiative was taken up by the U.S. Crosland was born on Aug. 29, 1918, of a successful professional family of the upper middle class. He made a distinguished academic record at Oxford and might have settled down there as an economics don, but he had been involved in Labour politics since his schooldays, and in 19S0 he became a member of Parliament. Crosland established a reputation as a political thinker, philosopher, and writer with his book The Future of Socialism (1956). He continued to develop his thinking in books and pamphlets, most recently in a Fabian Society Tract on Social Democracy in Europe (1975), in which he argued that a mixed economy is essential to democracy and that state collectivism is the

after his reelection in 1972.

In 1973, after the coup in Chile that overthrew Pres. Salvador Allende and brought the Pinochet regime to power, Craxi went to Chile as a member of a Socialist

International delegation, consisting of a representative from each of the Socialist parties in The Netherlands, France, Austria,

Craxi was a personal friend of the French

marily concerned with domestic

had been secretary

alderman in 1969. Crombie built a reputation as a peacemaker between pro- and antidevelopment groups, a reputation that helped him in his successful run for mayor in 1972. His hope was to preserve the core of the tion.

was based locally in Milan. Belonging to the more advanced wing of the Socialist Party, he always appeared to favour the practical rather than the ideological way of solving problems. His pragmatism proved invaluable to his party in the climate of economic and social unrest so evident in a large industrial city. Craxi first entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1968 and became a member of the defense committee. By now assistant party secretary, he became a member of the foreign affairs committee

1974.

Appointed foreign secretary in the reconstruction of the U.K. Labour government in April 1976, Anthony Crosland would probably have preferred to be chancellor of the Exchequer. A leading theoretician of the British version of social democracy, he had previously held Cabinet posts pri-

1964, to protest the

activity

in

Crosland, (Charles) Anthony Raven

plan to allow a high-rise building in the tree-lined middle-class neighbourhood where he lived with his wife, Shirley, and their three children. In 1966 he helped form the Civic Action League, a reform organiza-

24, 1934, Craxi joined the Socialist movement when still a student, and for many years his political

tion. Craxi carried out a similar mission in Portugal following th'at country's revolution

New Zealand, where a taped interview with him was repeated twice on television. (diane lois way) as

city's

mentary scene. Born in Milan on Feb.

Sweden, and Italy. This group was among the few to shed some light on the details of the coup and to collect valuable information needed for a diagnosis of the situa-

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR

By the start of his third term as mayor, Crombie was known to urban audiences in cities and towns across Canada and the United States where he was invited to speak on his ideas. He had become the champion

—

of the city dweller that overgoverned, underrepresented, and increasingly marginal citizen. This struck a response- as far away

31

in 1972,

and he signed a contract with the of the nba. The nba decided,

Biography

Atlanta

BOOK OF THE YEAR

however, that playing rights to Erving belonged to the Milwaukee Bucks, who had originally drafted him. Erving returned to Virginia and w as purchased in 1973 by the New York Nets of the aba for a reported S4 million. There he found happiness until :

incompatible with liberty. His qualities as a thinker and as a Cabinet minister did not win him the rank and file support he needed to make a bid for the party leadership, and he ran last in the first ballot for a new leader

when Harold Wilson

retired in

March

PI

1976.

Dole, Robert Joseph of U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford's over conservative Ronald Reagan (q.v.) in the fight for the 1976 Republican nomination apparently conpresidential vinced the Ford strategists of the need to mollify the party's right wing. The selection of conservative Kansas senator Robert J. Dole, 53, as Ford's vice-presidential running mate was designed to serve that purpose.

The narrowness

victory

high rating with conservatives during his terms in the U.S. House of Representatives and in the Senate. He entered the Senate in 1969, the same year Richard Nixon entered

the

White House, and immediately

became one

of the president's strongest consupporters, especially over the war in Vietnam. The senator himself had been a war hero in World War II. While leading a charge on a German machine gun position, he was severely wounded, leaving

gressional

his right

arm

useless.

His strong support for Nixon led the president to name him Republican national chairman in 1971. From that position, Dole supported Nixon on Watergate, but he soon ran afoul of the White House loyalists by suggesting that they were isolating the president. Nixon fired Dole in 1972, and the senator managed to keep enough distance between himself and Watergate to gain reelection to the Senate in 1974. In the Senate, Dole earned a reputation for a slashing tongue as well as an often pleasing ability to laugh at himself. He used both qualities in his vice-presidential

campaign, perhaps to excess. As he and his opponent, fellow senator Walter F. Mondale, prepared for the first televised vicepresidential debate in U.S. history, Dole was wisecracking that he was a bit nervous, but that "liberals never get nervous, they just vote yes." During the debate, he blamed the Democrats for the deaths of 1.6 million Americans in wars conducted during their administrations. The debate ended with Mondale labeling Dole a "hatchet man."

constitution, reconcile the three major poparties to a realistic approach to the

litical

Eanes, Antonio dos Santos Ramalho On June 27, 1976, Gen. Antonio dos Santos Ramalho Eanes was elected president of Portugal under the new constitution promulgated on April 2. His campaign for the presidency was fought against the back-

ground of vicious infighting and political maneuvering among the military and supporting civilian parties that had followed the November 1975 attempted coup. General Eanes' platform was grounded on the need to carry out the work of institutionalizing democracy while promoting the economy. He was regarded as the man who could, with the power vested in him through the

32

KEN REGAN — CAMERA

country's problems.

General Eanes was born on Jan. 25, 1935, the son of a small builder from Castelo Branco, near the Spanish frontier. He graduated from army school in 1956 and rose smoothly through the ranks, fighting in the

5

I!

colonial wars in Africa as well as serving Macau and Portuguese India. He was among the organizers of the first of the "captains' movements," which fought for pay and prestige and formed the basis for the Armed Forces Movement (afm), which took power on April 25, 1974. After the revolution, General Eanes was recalled to

in

and appointed, through Gen. Antonio de Spinola, as the afm representative on the Portuguese television network, where he continued until the abortive Spinolista countercoup of March 11, 1975. He was exonerated from any part in the coup and sent to reorganize and purge the Army's 5th Division, which had displayed serious antigovernment tendencies. At that time he became associated with "the nine," a group of officers who stood out against Premier Vasco dos Santos Goncalves' nationalization program. The actions of "the Portugal

nine" led to polarization in the Army and an attempted left-wing coup on November 25, 1975. General Eanes organized the resistance to the coup and was rewarded by being appointed army chief of staff. He defined himself as a "professional soldier," but recognized the need for a stable society and law and order if he was to carry out his functions as president.

When

(MICHAEL WOOIXER)

delphia,

The

description seemed to stick. Though there is no official vote count for vicepresident, opinion polls gave Mondale a huge lead over Dole, who came to be regarded as either insufficiently serious or too bitter in his partisan attacks. Many, even within his own party, blamed him for Ford's defeat. (john f. stacks)

merger. When Nets' owner Roy Boe could not come up with the money to renegotiate Erving's seven-year S1.9 million contract, Erving was sold to the Philadelphia 76ers in a $6.5 million deal. Born Feb. 22, 1950. in Roosevelt, N.Y., Erving learned to play basketball on that city's playgrounds. He grew to 6 ft 7 in, but it was his coordination and jumping ability that made him outstanding. He had a five-year aba scoring average of 28.5 points a game and 12 rebounds a game and helped draw crowds that kept the league alive. In the aba's last year, he led the Nets to the championship, led the league in scoring, and ranked high in rebounding, shooting accuracy, blocked shots, assists, and steals. the

(HARFORD THOMAS)

Dole was well suited for the role. He was born July 22, 1923, in a two-room farmhouse in Russell, Kan., and had earned a

Hawks

Erving, Julius

The ultimate

tribute to the basketball talent

Erving is that he became widely acclaimed as one of the most spectacular players in history without the benefit of of Julius

national exposure. From nursery schools to federal courts, he is known as "the fabulous Dr. J," yet he operated for years in such American Basketball Association cities as Richmond, Va., San Antonio, Texas, and Louisville, Ky., largely ignored by tele-

Then came the merger with the older National Basketball Association before the start of the 1976-77 season. Erving, who passed up his senior year at the University of Massachusetts to join the aba Virginia Squires in 1971, did things with a basketball that never had been seen before. His repertoire of slam dunks, midair fakes, and magical ball-handling kept him in what seemed to be a perpetual storm of controversy over his services. A court ruled his Virginia contract void vision.

Erving was purchased by Phila76ers sold §48,000 worth of

the

season tickets the next day. The 76ers, who paid the Nets S3 million for him, contracted to pay Erving approximately S600.000 a year for

six

years,

making

highest-paid player,

(j.

him basketball's timothy weigel)

Faildin, Thorbjorn

Following general elections in September 1976, Thorbjorn Faildin became Sweden's prime minister in four first nonsocialist decades. Leader of the Centre Party, the nation's second biggest, he staked his entire political' career on impassioned opposition to the further development of nuclear power in Sweden. "Mankind has intruded into an area where it does not belong," he said. "Retreat we must." He accused the minority Social Democratic government of endangering the lives of future generations by

em-

barking upon an ambitious nuclear power program. In place of nuclear power, he called for a massive national effort to conserve energy and considerably larger capital investments in alternative energy sources

— Fidrych spoke to the

ball,

he said, to help

Biography

"I've always done the same things," he explained. "Most of it is unprintable. But the gist of it is, 'Come on now, curve ... we got to curve.' Or if my pitches are getting above the knees too much, 'Get down, get down and stay down.' Or if I need a strike, 'Come on now, get over. You need a strike on the outside corner.' " Sometimes the act was as effective as the fastball. "How can you hit a baseball when

concentration.

his

BOOK OF THE YEAR several cultural and entertainment periodicals, as well as a record-publishing firm. Prouvost, finding himself obliged to sell off some of his publishing ventures in 1975 to save his industrial concerns, handed over

Le Figaro

to Robert Hersant (q.v.) but in August 1976 refused to sell Paris-Match to his former photographer. It thus proved

you're almost laughing?" asked Cleveland's Rico Carty. Fidrych smooths the mound to

necessary to set up the fiction of a sale to the Hachette Publishing group. A few weeks later, Hachette resold its holdings in the magazine to Filipacchi, who thus finally be-

in the opposing pitcher's footcheers teammates for good plays and consoles them after bad ones. Fidrych did it all for baseball's minimum salary of $16,500. "This is the most I've

avoid striding

step.

ever pens

He

made if

I

in

my

life,"

get a raise?

he said. It

came its owner and editor. The magazine was in considerable

"What hap-

might go

to

my

head and I might start losing. I don't need an agent. All this publicity is really a weird trip, but I'll take it. The only other job I 8ENYAS-KAUFMAN — BLACK STAR

Flindt,

Falldin,

largely

self-educated,

passed his examination for leaving school in 1945. Active within the Centre Party (formerly the Agrarian Party) from his youth, he became its leader in 1971. He rapidly transformed and enlarged it by adopting a pro-environment and antinuclear profile that had considerable appeal. First elected to the Riksdag (Parliament) in 1958, he lost his seat in 1964 but regained it in 1967. He served on several standing committees in Parliament and was a deputy member of the Nordic Council. He was serving on the National Conservation Board when he met Hannes Alfven, Sweden's Nobel Prize-winning plasma physicist. Alfven told him of growing scientific skepticism as to whether the problem of how to dispose of deadly radioactive nuclear wastes could ever be solved. Probing deeper into the problem, Falldin said he became convinced that the Swedish government should reject nuclear

power.

owned a hilltop farm near Ramvik Angermanland, northern Sweden, where he and his family raised sheep and grew potatoes. He maintained a public image of the politician with rural virtues and common-sense judgment which served him well during the election campaign. (ROGER NYE CHOATE) Falldin

in

Fidrych,

Mark

none has talked to the basesmoothed the dirt on the mound with his hands like a kid playing in a sandbox. Fidrych, whose 6-ft 3-in, 1 75 -lb body and flighty personality have been compared to Big Bird of TV's "Sesame Street," played like a kid all summer. His delightfully naive 19 games, but

ball or

antics helped

'

stadiums throughout the fastball helped him finish second in voting for the Cy Young Award as the league's best pitcher, and he was named rookie of the year. His 19-9 record with a 2.34 earned run average, 97 strikeouts, and only 53 walks spoke for itself; fill

American League. His

ballet traditions. There, dancers have always been most respected citizens, so it was not surprising that Flemming Flindt, born Sept. 30, 1936, the son of a well-known Copenhagen restaurateur, became aware of his destiny at an early age. Encouraged by his parents, he had his first dancing classes at eight; two years later he joined the Royal Danish Ballet School, where he came under the influence of its director, Harald Lander. Observers at his graduation class in 1953 were astounded at his mature technique, perfect placing,

could be doing is working in a gas station back home." Born Aug. 14, 1954, in Worcester, Mass., Fidrych was Detroit's tenth-round draft choice in 1974 when he graduated from high school in Northboro, Mass. He developed so quickly in the minor leagues he was invited to spring training, where he spit tobacco juice all over the front of his uniform because he "wanted the guys to know I chew." (j. TIMOTHY WEIGEL)

Filipacchi, Daniel

Mark "The Bird" Fidrych is a pitcher who won 19 games as a rookie for the Detroit Tigers in 1976. Many pitchers have won

Flemming

of the best breeding grounds for male dancers is Copenhagen, where the Royal Danish Ballet preserves Europe's oldest

One

such as solar, geothermal, and wind power. Apparently the nuclear issue tipped the balance in the close elections, although opposition to high taxes and a spreading bureaucracy was also a factor. Falldin's coalition partners in his government included the Liberal and Conservative parties. Born April 24, 1926, in Hogsjo, northern

Sweden,

diffi-

having lost about half of its readership over the past ten years. Filipacchi's first actions were to announce a reduction of about 25% in the 173-strong staff and to cut back stringently on expenses in the hope of saving the last great illustrated magazine in the French national press. (PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE) culties,

In 1976 Daniel Filipacchi, an ex-staff man, became the owner and editor of ParisMatch, the largest illustrated weekly magazine in France. He had joined the periodical in 1948 at the age of 20 (he was born in Paris on Jan. 12, 1928) as a photographer. That was the time when it was being relaunched by Jean Prouvost, an industrial magnate in the press and the woolen industry who had owned it before World War II. Filipacchi left Paris-Match 12 years later, in 1960, to set up and manage a number of publications for young people, including Salut les Copains and Mademoiselle Age Tendre, as well as jazz, skiing, and photography magazines. Then he took over Lui, the French equivalent of Playboy, and later

and sense of

line.

Joining the company in 1955, he was soon dancing major roles. Considered to have potential equal to that of Erik Bruhn, who had left Denmark to dance elsewhere, Flindt realized that he, too, should work abroad in order to reach international standards. He went to London where he was auditioned by Anton Dolin and accepted as a principal of the London Festival Ballet in 1956. In his four years with the company he gained a great reputation, initially helped by a Eurovision presentation of Lander's Etudes during the 1956 wedding celebrations of Prince Rainier III of Monaco and Grace Kelly. In 1960 Flindt became a star of the Paris Opera Ballet and while there created, originally for Danish television, a ballet based on Eugene Ionesco's play The Lesson; it was

performed on the stage at the Paris OperaComique in 1963 and taken into the Royal Danish repertory the following year. Ionesco then wrote a scenario especially for Flindt The Young Man Must Marry. His international reputation established, Flindt returned to Denmark and became director of the Royal Danisih Ballet in 1966. The existing Danish repertory was mainly devoted to the 19th-century works of Auguste Bournonville. Flindt knew that it was vital to preserve these classics but saw that the company must also move with modern trends. He enlarged the repertory with works by famous international choreographers as well as creating several himself, the most successful being The Three Musketeers, The Miraculous Mandarin, and the fullevening The Triumph of Death (again inspired by Ionesco), and also reproduced the Danish and Russian classics. His wife, Vivi (nee Gelker) is a principal dancer in the company and has appeared in many of her ,

husband's

ballets.

(peter Williams)

33

ra

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Ford, Gerald Rudolph For more than a year, Gerald Ford struggled to prevent his name from becoming forever associated with two descriptive words accidental president. Yet, when the close election of 1976 was over, Jerry Ford, 13-term congressman from Grand Rapids, Mich., had

—

on his own the office he inherited from Richard Nixon as a result of the Watergate scandals. Ford was defeated narrowly by a once-obscure former Georgia failed to achieve

governor, Jimmy Carter (q.v.). Ford had, however, earned more than a historical footnote. In the two years he served in the White House, he had, by all accounts, restored public confidence in the presidency itself. Although public criticism and doubt followed his pardon of Nixon, Ford himself was seen as a thoroughly honest and decent man. So strong was this perception, in fact, that a much-publicized investigation by the federal special prosecutor into allegations of Ford's misuse of campaign funds an investigation that produced nothing did not appear to significantly damage his candidacy. Ford had never sought the presidency before being picked by Nixon as the successor to Spiro Agnew. His highest public ambition had been to become speaker of the House of Representatives. But once installed in the White House, he fought hard to be chosen to serve a full four-year term. Despite the advantages of his incumbency, Ford had major political problems. He had presided over the worst economic recession since World War II, and that had followed the worst bout of inflation since the Civil War. He had been unable, largely because of the opposition of a Democratic Congress, to fashion a national energy policy. The final collapse of the U.S. presence in Vietnam occurred early in his tenure. Ford held the White House without any real national political constituency and thus faced a desperate struggle even within his own party to secure the nomination.

— —

Through months

press/franz

e.

furst

(q.v.). Finally, at the most dramatic Republican convention since Dwight Eisenhower was selected in 19S2, Ford edged out his

of primary elections state party conventions, Ford fought

and with

former California governor Ronald Reagan

conservative rival. He immediately selected conservative Sen. Robert Dole {q.v.) from Kansas as his running mate. Ford began the election race far behind in the opinion polls but waged a skillful

campaign, mostly from the White House. The large lead Carter enjoyed in the summer to challenge the Democrat debates, an unprecedented move for an incumbent president. While Ford seemed to win the first of their three confrontations, Carter appeared to have the edge in the second and third. In the end,

months to

led

Ford

a series of

Ford won more states than did his Democratic rival and a switch of a few thousand votes in two states would have given him (john f. stacks) the election.

Gandhi, Sanjay Until June 1975 Sanjay Gandhi, younger son of India's prime minister Indira Gandhi, was an automobile engineer busy implementing a project to produce small cars. Some prototypes of his Maruti ("wind god") car were already on the road when Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency, which resulted in dramatic changes in Indian politics. Young Sanjay was catapulted into the political arena and found himself drawn close to his mother, who was facing the most serious challenge yet to her position as prime minister. The mother-son combination soon became the dominant factor on the Indian scene.

Gandhi first entered public life in December 1975 when he became a member of the Executive Committee of the All-India Congress Party's youth wing. In November 1976 he was chosen as the youth wing's national leader. Bespectacled and of moderate height, he talked little in public, admitting that he was not used to making speeches. Nevertheless, he continued to impress many wherever he went. During frequent visits to India's remote towns and villages he preached the policies of the government and the youth congress. He coined the slogan "Work more, talk less," which became the favourite motto in government offices throughout the country. He also framed his own five-point program calling for abolition of the dowry system and the caste system, rigorous practice of family planning, planting of trees, and encouragement of adult literacy. He insisted that he had no ideology except the uplift of the poor and the weak. He was not in favour of large-scale nationalization of companies and would rather let public sector firms compete with private

ones on an equal footing and let the former a natural death if they failed. While his political ambitions remained unstated, Indian officialdom as well as the masses began looking to him as an important leader. Born Dec. 14, 1946, Sanjay Gandhi had his early education in Indian public schools. He spent some time in the late 1960s at the Rolls-Royce factory in Derby, England, taking a course in auto mechanics. Returning home, he started work on his plans for manufacturing a small car. He had already established the factory in the suburbs of Delhi when the political emergency changed die

his

(govindan tinny)

life.

of France, Valery Giscard d'Estaing could see threatening storms brewing on the political horizon. In 1976 France was undergoing a delayed but quite severe economic and

monetary led jointly

crisis;

by the

the left-wing Socialists

Rassemblement pour

la

Republique).

Giscard's first move to stem the tide was to force the resignation of Premier Jacques Chirac, the udr leader, and replace him with

an economic technocrat and academic, Raymond Barre (q.v.). Barre immediately launched measures to deal with the country's economic difficulties, in the belief that this would be the key to victory in forthcoming electoral battles: the municipal elections of 1977 and the parliamentary elections currently scheduled for 1978. Giscard also published a book, Democratic francaise an immediate best-seller in which he set out the basis of his political beliefs and

—

—

described the main lines of his policies and those of his government in coming years. Giscard had been narrowly elected in 1974 with less than 51% of the vote. Since then he had lost a little in popularity and prestige. If this worried him, he did not show it. Putting increasing stress on the almost monarchical character of his presidential role, he extended the number of his official receptions and official journeys in France and abroad, repeatedly expressing confidence in the outcome of the approaching elections and of the struggle against inflation. Born in Koblenz, Germany, on Feb. 2, 1926, Giscard came from a patrician background, his family owning land at Estaing in the Auvergne. After a brilliant academic career he became an inspector of finances in 1954 and was elected depute for Puy-deDome in 1956. Secretary of state at the

Ministry of Finance from 1959, he was minduring 1962-66 and 1969-74. ( PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)

ister of finance

Goldsmith, Sir James Michael Sir James Goldsmith (better known

as

Jimmy Goldsmith) had never disguised his interest in making money. Still in his early 40s, he was one of the young tycoons who made their fortunes in the 1960s. Indeed, he was almost

Giscard d'Estaing, Valery After two years as president

WIDE WORLD

munists, took the lead in the opinion polls and in several by-elections; and to make matters worse the presidential majority itself split between the liberal "Giscardians" or centrists and the Gaullists of the Union des Democrates pour la Republique (udr; re-formed, as from December 5, as the

opposition,

and the Com-

the last survivor of Britain's 1960s generation of City whiz kids. When the 1974 crash came, Goldsmith had a good

money in the real wealth of companies making and selling things while others were going down in a whirlpool of worthless paper. slice of his

By an ironic twist, Goldsmith was summoned to the rescue of the man who was

thought to be master financial wizard of them all, Jim Slater (q. v.), and took over as chairman of the desperately troubled Slater, Walker Securities Ltd. in October 1975 He came into the news with more than usual prominence when, early in 1976, he launched a series of libel actions and other legal proceedings against the satirical magazine Private Eye. Some of these actions were still proceeding at year's end. Goldsmith started out rich, having family connections with the European banking .

Lambert (of Belgium), and Oppenheim (Germany). Born on Feb. 26, 1933, he had a French mother, was brought up in France, became bilingual, and went to Eton College. A substantial part of the Goldsmith empire was to be found in France, in food, property, hotels, and finance families

of

(

KEVIN M. LAMB)

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR was among four women who passed series

first

of

tests

astronaut program, but was later eliminated degrees became a requirement. After working for Sperry Rand Corp. as a technical editor for five years, she started racing full time in 1973.

In the U.K. Goldsmith began to move into the food business in the 1960s, buying up

well-known food manufacturers and retail chains and consolidating them into a group named Cavenham Foods Ltd.; its controlling company was called Anglo-Continental Investment & Finance Co. Ltd., and Goldsmith was chairman of both. In November 1976 he was one of the bidders for the Observer, the ailing 185-year-old Sunday newspaper that was eventually acquired by Atlantic Richfield Co. (See Publishing.) Goldsmith received his knighthood in Prime Minister Harold Wilson's controversial personal retirement honours list of April 1976, which was criticized, especially by the left wing of the Labour Party, for its inclusion of big-business personalities.

(HARFORD THOMAS)

Grogan, Steve The New England Patriots told the football world how much they thought of Steve Grogan on April 5, 1976, when they traded quarterback Jim Plunkett to the San Francisco 49ers for four high draft choices and reserve quarterback Tom Owen. The message was that Grogan, a second-year player, would be their next quarterback. They even turned down chances to trade Plunkett for more experienced "name" quarterbacks. When Plunkett was the first college player drafted in 1971, he was thought to be the future saviour of the chronically inept

But he never saved them. He was

often injured and wanted to be traded during their 3-11 1975 season, when the Patriots decided a brighter future lay with Grogan. Grogan did what the more publicized Plunkett could not do. The Patriots shocked the National Football League with an 11-3 record in 1976, their first winning season

(j.

Guthrie, Janet

A former physicist who worked as a research engineer, Janet Guthrie passed the first series of tests for the U.S. scientist-astronaut program, flew a plane solo at 16, edited a book on genetics, and has driven race cars for 13 years. But in 1976 she accomplished much more than

all that. She became accepted. In the exclusive male fraternity of automobile racing, she became a "good ol' girl." Until 1976 Guthrie's race experience was mostly on road courses such as Sebring and Watkins Glen. When car owner Rolla Vollstedt announced that he would help sponsor her in an attempt to qualify for the Indianapolis 500 in May, the plan was labeled

the for the U.S. scientist-

when Ph.D.

Rothschild,

within the group called Generate Occidentale SA, of which Goldsmith was chairman.

Patriots.

vincing score of 48-17 with Grogan passing for three touchdowns and running for two. Born July 24, 1953, in San Antonio, Texas, Grogan became Kansas State University's third best all-time passer with 166 completions in 371 attempts for 2,213 yd and 12 touchdowns. His 1976 statistics, misleadingly poor because his best plays were in the most important situations, were 145 of 302 (48%) for 1,903 yd, 18 touchdowns passing, and 58 carries for 406 yd running.

TIMOTHY WEIGEL)

Healey, Denis Winston Since March 1974 Denis Healey, as U.K. chancellor of the Exchequer, had been the principal strategist in Britain's long struggle for economic recovery. In 1976 he was at the centre of the battle to save the pound. A big, burly man, he impressed by the power of his intellect, his determination to persist in courses he believed were right, and sometimes by his brutal rudeness in debate. SELWYN

T

a publicity stunt. "If it were possible for women drivers to do well against men in racing, I would love it," said veteran driver Bobby Unser. "It won't happen." At Indianapolis, Vollstedt's car was a

lemon, and Guthrie was unable to qualify in it for the 500. Owner-driver A. J. Foyt loaned her his backup car at the last moment, and she turned in a fast lap of 180.796 mph before Foyt and his crew decided against letting her try to qualify in it. "I just gave her a ride to see if she's capable," said Foyt. "I wanted to find out myself. I found out she is. Very much." Before Indianapolis, Guthrie drove Vollstedt's car in the Trentonian 200 in her United States Auto Club (usac) debut. "Janet and gentlemen, start your engines," the promoter said. "I would have been happier," she said, "to hear 'Championship drivers, start your engines.' " She placed 15th.

After Indianapolis, Guthrie was invited World 600 in Charlotte, N.C.

to run at the

She finished 15th, winning a trophy for working her way up from 27th. Born March 7, 1938, Guthrie earned a B.S. degree in physics from Michigan State and worked six years at Republic Aviation on Long Island, N.Y. In 1965 she

attention to economic and rather reluctant starter in the contest to succeed Harold Wilson as prime minister. Having once entered, however, he declined to drop out after finishing fifth among six in the first ballot. "I am not a quitter," he said, and stayed on to the second ballot, which placed

His

single-minded

policy

made him

a late

him number three. Born in Mottingham, Kent, on Aug. 30, 1917, Healey grew up in Bradford, Yorkshire, and had a brilliant academic career at Oxford. Immediately after World War H he moved into Labour Party politics full-

since 1966, and they made the play-offs for the first time since 1963 before losing a 24-21

heartbreaker to Oakland. Although he did not have Plunkett's ability to throw long

Grogan had the discipline to do anything necessary to help New England score. He resisted the temptation to throw long passes, concentrating instead on establishing the team's running game even if it meant passes,

time with a job in the party secretariat.

He was head of its international department for seven years before becoming an in 1952. The Foreign Office seemed his natural destination, but as it turned out he was minister of defense for six years (1964-70), then chancellor when Labour returned to power in 1974. He remained at the Treasury after James Callaghan became prime minister in April 1976. Healey pushed through tough, even harsh, measures in successive budgets, but he was criticized in some quarters for unduly optimistic forecasts of British economic recovery and for failing to stem the slide in the exchange value of the pound (although this was due mainly to causes outside the control of the British authorities). He was largely instrumental in persuading the trade unions to accept limits on wage increases,

MP

running himself. Grogan set an nfl record for a quarterback by running for 12 touchdowns. The Patriots were still considered a league doormat when they played powerful Miami in their second game, but Grogan passed for three touchdowns and ran for another in their 30-14 victory. The next week, against defending nfl champion Pittsburgh, New England overcame a 20-9 thirdquarter deficit and won 30-27 with Grogan passing for two touchdowns and running

Then the following week New England became the only team to beat Oakland in the regular season, doing so by the confor one.

WIDE WORLD

35

(Limoges), L'Eclair de I'Ouest

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR and he fought through the case for public expenditure cuts in party committees and at the party conference. "I am not in politics to be loved," he said. His latest budgetary package, delivered Dec. IS, 1976, imposed wide-ranging public expenditure cuts to help meet the International Monetary Fund's conditions for a vital £2,400 million loan.

(HARFORD THOMAS)

The world premiere

at

Covent

Garden,

Hans Werner Henze's We Come to the River (libretto by playwright Edward Bond) marked the com12, 1976, of

poser's first major essay in the operatic field for ten years. Since The Bassarids was staged at the Salzburg Festival in 1966,

Henze's work had been almost wholly influenced by his new-found Marxist affiliations, brought about by his emigration from West Germany to Italy and his contact with the Italian intellectuals of the

Born

at

"new

left."

Gutersloh, Westphalia, July

1,

had been brought up during the traumatic era of the Third Reich and had 1926, he

been drafted into the

War

end of World

German Army

II, in spite

at the of a nature all that the

against Nevertheless, he managed to become trained as a musician and after the war had jobs in various North German theatres while continuing to study, parthat

rebelled

Nazis stood

totally

for.

with Wolfgang Fortner and at Heidelberg. This upbringing bore fruit between 1947 and 1951 in the shape of symphonies, concertos, and ballet music, but his first major success came in 1952 with his opera Boulevard Solitude (an updating of the Manon Lescaut story). Konig Hirsch (1956), Elegy for Young Lovers (1961), and The Bassarids established Henze as undoubtedly the leading opera composer of the day after Benjamin Britten, and one who could be generally appreciated for the beauty ticularly

and

clarity of his music.

Then came

paper, France-Soir. This concentration of ownership in the French newspaper industry aroused active opposition from journalists and printing unions and brought references to "Citizen Hersant" and a "dictatorship of opinion." A deputy for the Oise since 1956, Hersant belonged to the Centre Democratic et Progres (cdp) or centrist reform party, and was a member of the presidential majority in Parliament. However, he claimed to be apolitical insofar as his newspapers were concerned, pointing out that he published socialist as well as Gaullist and right-wing papers, and that in this matter he was a businessman interested only in making profits. Nonetheless, his links with Jacques Chirac (premier until August 1976 and after that an opponent of the Giscardian Independent Republicans and leader of the Gaullists) as well as the wide ramifications of his publishing empire, aroused the indignation of the opposition and disturbed a section of the majority party. This did not seem to worry Hersant, who continued his march toward what was interpreted by some as a rationalization of the French press hard hit by the economic crisis and by others as the construction of a machine to drug public opinion. Hersant was born at Vertou, LoireInferieure (now Loire-Atlantique) on Jan. 31, 1920, the son of a sea captain, and went to school at Rouen and Le Havre. He was mayor of Ravenel (1953-59) and of Liancourt from 1967. Elected originally as a Radical-Socialist deputy (1956), in 1968 he ,

Henze, Hans Werner London, on July

(Nantes),

and Le Berry Republicain (Bourges), among others. Then, in 1975, came his acquisition of the leading national morning newspaper, Le Figaro, and in 1976 a considerable holding in the leading popular evening news-

the crisis in Henze's career

and an apparent turning away from orthodox opera. The Raft of the Medusa (1968), an "oratorio volgare e militare," and the musictheatre piece El Cimarron, about a runaway Cuban slave, were the visible results of his change in direction; so were various concert pieces such as Essay on Pigs (1969), Voices (1974), and Tristan (1974). We Come to the River proved a summation of this work, employing his brilliantly sophisticated technique and dramatic sense to create, in his and Bond's words, "the image and consciousness of the working class." The work was predictably controversial,

,

—

—

,

was adopted by Progres et Democratic Moderne (later cdp), which he formally joined in 1972. He was active in the various French newspaper and periodical owners' associations.

(pierre viansson-ponte)

—

—

Tse-tung in September touched changes in Chinese politics. The man who displayed unexpected ability in coping with the crisis and emerged on top off climactic

9 9 i

creating a small uproar at its German premiere at the (West) Berlin Festival in September, part of which was devoted to a celebration of Henze's 50th birthday. What

was not in doubt was Henze's high place in the musical firmament in the second half of the century. (alan blyth) Hersant, Robert Joseph Emile In 1976 France found it had a

press lord

Communist Party,

So little was known about Hua that only October did Communist sources, even then unofficially, venture to mention his

in

—

age 56. He was at first widely reported as a Hunanese from Mao's own district of Hsiang-t'an. After foreign reports suggested a family link between Mao and Hua, semiofficial references to the new chairman began specifying that he was born to a poor peasant family in Shansi Province. The limited information on Hua's record suggested, however, that he had always been extraordinarily close to Mao. During the Cultural Revolution of the late 1960s he had clashed with Hunan's military leaders and been saved by Mao who transferred him to Peking. In 1974 there had been a poster campaign against him by the radicals then in the ascendance. Again Mao plucked

him out

harm's way.

of

Hua

has been credited with considerable administrative ability. In the early days he

was particularly concerned with irrigation and water conservancy projects in Hsiangt'an. By 1955 he was secretary of the party's committee. Elected to the Central at the ninth party congress in 1969, in 1973 he was named a member of the Politburo and in 1975 became minister (t. j. s. george) of public security. district

Committee

Hume, George

Basil Cardinal

—

1976 George Hume Basil was added when he joined the Benedictine Abbey of In

Ampleforth

— became

named archbishop

of

the first monk to be Westminster since the

restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy England in 1850. Installed as archbishop on March 25, he was made a cardinal on

in

The appointment came after inand inaccurate press speculation and was a surprise on reflection, a welcome surprise, for Cardinal Hume brought to Westminster the Benedictine tradition of spirituality which combines deep inner se24.

—

renity with a keen sense of the need for adaptation. In September he announced the reorganization of the Westminster archdiocese: the aim was to encourage smaller, more human groupings, and to release the cardinal from day-to-day administration. Cardinal Hume was born in Newcastle upon Tyne on March 2, 1923, the son of Sir William Hume, a heart specialist, and a French mother. After education at Ampleforth College, he entered the Abbey in 1941, and later studied history at Oxford and theology at Fribourg in Switzerland. From then on his life was identified with that of Ampleforth, where he taught modern languages to the boys and theology to the junior monks until, in April 1963, he was elected abbot, a post he held until he moved to

Canterbury.

as a publisher began in 1945 with a weekly motoring magazine, he had since specialized in buying up publishing enterprises that had run into difficulties. Within a few years he had founded or acquired several dozen specialized journals

He

also

encouraged boys of

the Serbian and Russian to go to

ment. the the

Orthodox churches Ampleforth as an ecumenical experiwas entirely in character that, on

It

day

of his installation, he should lead

monks of Ampleforth to Westminster Abbey where, for the first time since the

and

local weeklies, eventually taking control handful of sometimes quite sizable regional dailies such as Paris-Normandie

36

declared chairman of the thus succeeding Mao.

At Ampleforth his ecumenical spirit was already evident in his friendship with Donald Coggan, archbishop of York and later of

whose career

Reformation, they sang vespers. Cardinal Hume was a reconciler and wont to move cautiously, but that did not mean he was afraid to speak out. In the first few

a

(Rouen), Nord- Matin

named acting premier. Two months later he became premier, following the disgrace of Teng Hsiao-p'ing, the man Chou En-lai had picked for the job. In October Hua was

Westminster.

named Robert Hersant. A self-made man

of

Hua

tense

The death in 1976 of the two men who had come to symbolize the Chinese revolution Premier Chou En-lai in January and Chair-

man Mao

—was

May

Hua Kuo-feng

—

heap for the time being at any an unknown party functionary, Kuo-feng. In February Hua was

the

of rate

(Lille), Centre-Presse CAMERA PRESS

he was now driving, Hunt won six Grand Prix races to take the championship. He was named Britain's Sportsman of the Year by the Sports Writers' Association in Britain. (william c. boddy) cars

position by the Communist leadership was interpreted as an attempt by party chief

Hussein bin Onn, Datuk Following the death

in

January 1976 of

Tun Abdul Razak (see Obituaries), Datuk Hussein bin Onn became prime minister of Malaysia. At the moment of succession Datuk Hussein, whose own state of health had been poor, appeared to be overwhelmed by the prospect of high office. Yet, if he at first seemed to be a political lamb, he soon gave the lie to this impression. At a critical juncture in Malaysia's short history,

months of

his administration he wrote a about allegations of torture in Brazil to the visiting president of that country and a letter to The Times denouncing a projected film on the sex life of Jesus. He became a familiar figure on television, emerging from probing interrogation not only unscathed but with his reputation for shrewd gentleness enhanced. (peter hebbleth watte) letter

Hunt, James The Grand Prix automobile

racing drivers' to

James

Hunt by

a single point (69 to 68) over his on the circuits, Niki Lauda {q.v.). Hunt won the title in a final dramatic race in rain and mist in Japan, in which he came in third and Lauda retired. season's

Datuk Hussein was born in Johor Baharu, Malaya, in 1922. He was trained as a soldier in India and served during World War II with the British Indian Army. He returned to Malaya in 194S and on demobilization joined the Malay Administrative Service. resigned

to

father, the late

world championship of 1976 went rival

A

determined and dedicated racing driver, quickly won the admiration of followers of this dangerous and exacting sport. Good looks also gave him plenty of female supporters, although his marriage to Susan Miller came to grief, and she later married actor Richard Burton. Born on Aug. 29, 1947, Hunt was educated at Wellington College and was destined for a medical career. His school days were occupied largely with sporting pursuits, of which squash and tennis were his favourites.

Hunt

He showed little interest in cars until the age of 17 when he attended a motor race. He then abandoned any idea of becoming

when

a revival of racial tensions was matched by the revival of Communist insurgency, he showed himself to be a man of courage in acting against corrupt Malay politicians. He thereby provided assurance to the nonMalays that as prime minister he would be guided by the rule of law and not communal loyalty. His political philosophy, which appeared to derive from the influence and example of his father, former leader of the United Malays National Organization (umno), found expression in the Third Malaysia Plan, which he announced in July and which stressed the intention to improve the quality of life of all Malaysians.

He

19S0 served as

go into

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR

politics

with

his

Dato Onn bin Jaafar, and in umno's national youth leader

and secretary-general. Leaving the party when his father's multiracial philosophy was rejected, he went to London, where he studied law and qualified as a barrister. Datuk Hussein did not return to political life until 1968, when Tun Razak persuaded him to rejoin umno. He entered Parliament in 1969 and in the following year was appointed minister of education. In 1973 he was chosen as deputy prime minister following the death of Ismail bin Dato Abdul Rahman. (michael lelfer)

Ingrao, Pietro Elected speaker of the Italian Chamber of Deputies following the general election of June 20, 1976, Pietro Ingrao was the first Communist Party official to accede to that high position. He secured 488 votes in the 630-seat Chamber. His selection for the

remove from direct involvement one of the strongest critics of his proposed compromesso storico, or parliamentary compromise between Christian Democrats and Communists. On the other hand, the choice might reflect the high esteem in which Ingrao's public capacity and his stern commitment to the Italian constitution were generally held. In an interview he said: "As president of the Chamber, it is my task and duty to help guarantee the functioning and development of the democratic regime set out in the constitution of my country I see no contradiction between the task Enrico

Berlinguer to

political

.

.

.

.

.

.

and my political faith as a Communist." Born on March 30, 1915, in the small town of Lenola, near Rome, Ingrao was a university graduate in law and philosophy. While a student he had his first contacts with the clandestine Communist movements, and he became a party member in 1940. To avoid

arrest he escaped to the southern region of Calabria, where he founded the

first

local

Communist group. On July

25,

1943, upon Mussolini's fall, Ingrao came into the open and addressed a mass meeting in Milan. From that day to the end of World War II he worked as a journalist for the Communist paper L'Unitd, which was then printed secretly. In 1947 he be-

came

the paper's editor in chief, a position

he held for ten years. Considered one of the strongest supporters of former Italian Communist chief Palmiro Togliatti, Ingrao nevertheless dissented at times from the party's official line. He was, for instance, a critic of Stalinism and could be regarded as one of the in"national Communism" and spirers of "democratic centralism" theories. He entered the party's Central Committee in 1956. First elected to Parliament in 1948, he beof the Communist group in after the 1968 general elections.

came chairman the

Chamber

(fabio galvano)

Jenkins,

Roy

Harris

After 28 years in Parliament and 8 years as a Cabinet minister in Labour governments, at the end of 1976 Roy Jenkins left British politics to become president of the

Commission

of the

European Community,

beginning in January 1977. Awarded the

Charlemagne Prize and the Robert Schuman Prize for services to European unity in 1972, Jenkins for many years had been leader of the pro-European group in the Labour Party. His experience and ability made him a possible choice as a future prime minister, but he had antagonized the left wing of the party by his unwavering support for the European idea. In 1972, when Labour was in opposition, he had resigned from the deputy leadership rather than be associated with party decisions hostile to British membership in the eec. In the late 1960s Jenkins was the most powerful of the younger ministers in the Cabinet. He had proved a liberal-minded reforming home secretary in 1965-67. As chancellor of the Exchequer from 1967 to

a physician, and after trying his hand with a Mini-Cooper, acquired a Russell-Alexis

Ford before he was 21. With this car he began racing in Formula Ford events. This brought him to the notice of Lotus, which sponsored his entry into Formula Three (F3) racing in 1969. In 1970 he joined the A long series of crashes followed, but Hunt did win the F3 race in France and later drove an F3 March. He then joined up with Lord Alexander Hesketh and drove his March and Hesketh

Lotus Grand Prix team.

Formula One (Grand Prix) cars. From then on his fame as a racing driver advanced rapidly. In 1973 his best performance was to place second in the U.S. Grand Prix at Watkins Glen, N.Y., in a March 731. In 1974 the new Hesketh 308 had innumerable troubles, but Hunt managed three third places in championship races. His first victory was achieved in 1975 in the Dutch Grand Prix, and he also finished second in the Argentine, French, and Austrian Grands Prix. In 1976, a season marred by protests about minor technicalities of the McLarefi

shown remarkable effectiveness with the financial crisis of 1967-68 and had succeeded in swinging the British balance of payments into surplus a rare 1970, he had

in coping

—

occurrence.

Born Nov. 11, 1920, at Abersychan, Wales, the son of a miners' union official and LaWIDE WORLD

37

A.F.P./p

Jane Austen. Her style is marked by precision, economy, and a fine sense of irony. Born in Cologne, Germany, on May 7, 1927, of Polish parents, Ruth Prawer went to live in England in 1939. She took a degree

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR ENTRA L PRESs/ PICTORIAL PARADE

English literature at the University of

in

London. In 1951 she married an Indian architect and moved to India. Her earlier novels include To Whom She Will (1955), The Nature of Passion (1956), Esmond in India (1958), and The Householder (1960), which has been filmed. She has also written television plays and, in collaboration with the director James Ivory, the scripts for

several films including Shakespeare Wallah and, most recently, Autobiography of a

(yolanta may)

Princess.

Jones, Bert Defensive linemen were the largest people Baltimore Colt quarterback Bert Jones stood up to during the National Football League season, but the toughest was Robert Irsay, his team's owner. When Irsay fired Colt coach Ted Marchibroda after the team's 2-4 exhibition season, Jones said that he

MP, he entered Parliament at the age of 27. During the 13 years from 1951, when Labour was out of office, he made a name for himself as a political biographer, and at one time considered giving up politics for writing. Oxford-educated, he held honorary degrees from Yale, Harvard, and other U.S. and British universities. By temperament Jenkins was a reformer and a gradualist, with a philosophical he was responsistreak. As a private bour

MP

would leave the Colts at the end of the season if Marchibroda were not rehired. Irsay relented, and Jones's stand helped the Colts continue to improve in 1976 after going from 2-12 in 1974 to 10-4 in 1975, Marchibroda's rookie season. They finished with an 11-3 record in 1976 and averaged nearly 30 points a game before losing to Pittsburgh 40-14 in the play-offs. After his confrontation with Irsay, the matter of dazzling the league and winning a second straight divisional title was comparatively routine for Jones. He completed 207 of 343 passes (60.4%) for 3,104 yd and 24 touchdowns, and his passing rating was second in the league to that of Ken

who had

the best since the rating

Scion, and now head, of one of the two leading Druze clans in Lebanon, Jumblatt was born in 1919. He studied sociology and law at Beirut and at the Sorbonne in Paris. In his youth he supported the pro-French National Bloc, but in 1943 he switched his support to those seeking Lebanese independence, led by Bishara al-Khuri, who became the first president of independent Lebanon. Soon after becoming minister of national economy in 1947, however, he turned against Khuri and in 1949 founded the Progressive Socialist Party, which advocated extensive social reforms and the

two important measures of law reform, on libel and on obscenity. As the controversy over devolution of power to Scotland and Wales developed, he said that

Stabler,

system was devised. "Bert can unload one 70 yards away any time he likes and hit a dime," said his favourite receiver, Roger

secularization of Lebanese

he found himself increasingly sympathetic toward the philosophy of devolution an issue that he might find relevant to the constitutional future of the European Community, now at a crucial stage in its devel-

Carr.

Jones had been largely responsible for turnabout in 1975, when he was their most valuable player. He threw only

blatt lands in the Shuf Mountain area to the farmers there. His party became increasingly radical in the 1950s, supporting Gamal Abd-al-Nasser and Arab socialism

four interceptions in the last ten games of that season, despite having three cracked

Druze population

ble for

—

opment.

(

HARFORD THOMAS)

thfr Colts'

ribs for

Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer "Every' writer is lonely but I don't think there's greater loneliness than being an English writer in India," said Ruth Prawer Jhabvala in an interview. "Very few people there have read what I wrote and they certainly haven't liked it." Notwithstanding this loneliness and indifference, she was the author of eight novels and four volumes of short stories that had brought her wide acclaim in the West as one of the finest contemporary novelists writing in English. She won the Booker Prize for fiction in 1975 for her novel Heat and Dust which explores one of her favourite themes, the effect of India on an outsider; and in 1976 her fourth volume of stories, How I Became a Holy Mother, appeared.

Ruth Prawer Jhabvala is an acute obof different European reactions to

server India.

Some of her characters, like Douglas Heat and Dust, remain patronizing and detached. Others, like Clarissa in A Backward Place (1965), or the three European girls in A New Dominion (1972), become so intent on merging with Hindu civilization in

most

of that time.

Jones was born Sept.

7,

1951,

and 2\

months later his father, Dub, tied a National Football League record by scoring six touchdowns in one game for the Cleveland Browns. Bert made the Joneses the only father-son combination in the nfl record book in 1974 when he completed 17 con-

Even as a boy in Ruston, where he was born and raised, Bert showed his strong arm by flinging rocks.

secutive passes. La.,

After setting 20 school records at Louisi-

ana State University, Jones was the Colts' draft choice in 1973 and the second player taken in the nfl draft. Scouts figured that it would take more than three years for him to become a consistent quarterback, but he sped up the process by turning his bachelor apartment into a quarterbacking classroom. He mounted a screen on one wall and made a film projector a permanent fixture, studying the techniques of other quarterbacks for hours at a time.

first

(

Jumblatt, In

1976

KEVIN M. LAMB)

Kamal the

veteran

Lebanese

politician

that they risk a complete loss of personality. herself believes firmly in the need

Kamal Jumblatt achieved new prominence

The author

as

to maintain

alliance

an independence of spirit when confronted with an alien culture. Although she writes almost exclusively about India, she does so from within the European literary tradition, the tradition of Chekhov and

38

the

leader

of

the

left-wing

forces

As an example he

while retaining

poli-

its

distributed

political base

some Jum-

among

in the Shuf. In

the

1952 he

joined with Camille Chamoun to force Khuri's resignation, but in the 1958 quasicivil war he was one of the leaders of the opposition to President Chamoun. A member of Parliament from 1947 to 1957, and again from 1964, Jumblatt held several Cabinet posts after 1958 and became minister of the interior in 1969. In this capacity he legalized the Baathist and Communist parties in Lebanon and voiced enthusiastic support for the Palestinian guerrillas and their activities against Israel while at the same time trying to control their behaviour in Lebanon. This brought him into conflict with heads of the Army and the secret services and with former president Fuad Chehab who backed them. In the 1970 presidential elections his and his supporters' votes were decisive in securing the election by one vote of Pres. Suleiman Franjieh over the Chehabist Elias Sarkis (q.v.). As the situation steadily deteriorated into the civil war which began in earnest in the spring of 1975, Jumblatt became the

acknowledged political spokesman for the combined forces of socialists, Baathists, Nasserists, and Communists allied with the Palestinian guerrillas. (peter mansfield)

in

with the Palestinians in the Lebanese civil war. He made visits to Cairo and Paris to seek support and sympathy for his cause, and he bitterly denounced Syrian intervention in the war.

communal

tics.

Keating, Late the

in

Tom Britain's

intriguing

blistering

story

broke

1976 of

summer

how Tom

Keating had "set up" the art world, asserting to Geraldine Norman, salesroom cor-

TOPIX

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR of the most famous faces in Canada as a regular panelist from 1962 on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television program "Front Page Challenge." As the host of an interview program on a Toronto radio station from 1959, she became perhaps the

best-known woman in Toronto broadcasting. Together with her husband, she began Kennedy Horizons Ltd., a company that produces educational films. Betty Kennedy served as a member of the Toronto Hospital Planning Council and of the University of Toronto Governing Council. The premier of Ontario in 1975 appointed her a member of an advisory body to review government spending.

respondent of The Times, that he had faked drawings reputed to be by the English 19th-century painter Samuel Palmer. He also claimed to have produced during the last 25

work

years around 2,000 pastiches of the about 100 artists and in late Oc-

of

named

"Constable" drawhis motive was not personal gain, although at a 1970 tober

five specific

own. He said that

ings as his

London

auction a

gallery

paid £9,400 for

one of his "Palmers" ("Sepham Barn"). Usually his works seemed to have been given away or abandoned, sold by other people to junk shops, and eventually "discovered." He alleged that occasionally shady dealers had commissioned him to paint pastiches, but paid him little for them. by the Keating, perhaps embittered chronic poverty of his childhood and imbued with socialist dislike of middlemen, seemed likely to succeed in his declared intention of embarrassing the art establishment. If his claim

was

true,

many

experts must have

even if it were to be proved false, much alarm had been engendered. Although the British Antique Dealers Association set up a committee to investigate the original 13 suspect "Palmers," owners in general were slow to put their pictures to the test even police investigation was delayed because the police could not act been deceived

;

;

had received complaints. MeanKeating was collaborating with

until they

while,

Norman

Geraldine

book about

the production of a identipastiches hitherto accepted

his life

in

and work; rapid

any as originals would depend on how specific he was willing or able to be about them. He maintained that he had deliberately made fication of

his pictures ultimately recognizable for

they were, writing his

under

oils,

name

what

in lead paint

and for drawings using paper

not of the imitated

artist's

period.

Keating was born at Forest Hill in south London on March 1, 1917, one of the many children of a house decorator. A naval stoker during World War II, he received a grant to study commercial and later fine art at Goldsmiths' College, University of London. Thereafter he made a tenuous living as a restorer of paintings, thus becoming familiar with the styles of many artists.

(STEPHANIE MULLINS)

Keneally,

Thomas Michael

Australian novelist Thomas Keneally became something of a cult figure in 1976, appearing in the feature film The Devil's Playground, the only Australian film to be selected for Director's Fortnight at the Cannes Film Festival. In the film Keneally played a priest who supervised boys during a retreat. Round-faced and jolly, the priest

chatted genially with the other priests in a teachers' common room and then went off to deliver the boys a hell-fire sermon. Keneally himself left St. Patrick's College, Manly, a Roman Catholic seminary, shortly before ordination, and later taught in a Roman Catholic boys' school in Sydney. In 1976 Thomas Keneally worked on his new novel and moved to New York, where he established a new home. Season in Purgatory, published during the year, was set on an Adriatic island during World War II, and concerned the experiences of a young English surgeon tending wounded Yugoslav partisans under the worst imaginable conditions. His previous novel, Gossip from the Forest, runner-up for Britain's prestigious Booker Prize in 1975, had as its central theme the World War I Armistice, signed in a railway carriage in Compiegne in Normandy in November 1918. Critics observed that Keneally described in detail and atmosphere the meeting of Marshal Foch, Admiral Wemyss, and Matthias Erzberger, but failed to provide new interpretations. Thomas Keneally, born in 1935, became one of Australia's most prolific modern novelists, and his books won him a series of prizes and fellowships. His earliest successful novels, such as The Place at Whitton (1964) and Three Cheers jor the Paraclete (1968), re-created the pungent atmosphere of boyhood in Catholic institutions in the Australian bush. Other books included The Fear

(1965), Bring Larks and Heroes (1967), Halloran's Little Boat (1969), Childermas (1969), The Survivor (1969), The Dutiful Daughter (1971), The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1972), and Blood Red, Sister Rose (1974), dealing with themes ranging from cannibalism among Arctic explorers to (a. r. g. Griffiths) Joan of Arc.

Kennedy, Betty of her husband Gerhard December 1975, Betty Kennedy felt that she must write something concerning his death and dying. The result was Gerhard, A Love Story (1976), written in only four days, which is an account of Gerhard Kennedy's last few months of life and his preparation of both himself and his family for his death. Betty Kennedy saw family life as the base which gave support, and her life with her husband and four children had always taken first place in her life.

After the death in

In her marriage to Gerhard, there always seemed to be enough room for each of them to do what he or she wanted. Gerhard had several careers, ranging from the fashion industry to being a promoter of air-supported enclosures for warehouse, industrial, and recreational uses. Betty Kennedy became one

Born in Ottawa, Ont., in January 1926, the former Betty Styran began her career as a journalist on the Ottawa Citizen in 1942. In 1945 she moved to Montreal and became a fashion coordinator, editing and publishing a trade journal. It was there that she

met and married Gerhard Kennedy, who was in Montreal to open a branch of his family's firm which manufactured and marketed sports clothes. When the Kennedys moved to Calgary, Alta., in 1951, Gerhard acted

as

a

representative

for

and Betty began her career

a

distillery

in broadcasting

with the radio discussion show "State Your Case." After spending three years in Ottawa in an unsuccessful attempt to launch a national wildlife conservation foundation, the

Kennedy family moved to Toronto in 1959 where Betty became the public affairs director for radio station cfrb.

In 1974 Betty

Kennedy became

a

member

board of directors of Simpsons Ltd., a Canadian department store chain. In October 1976 she married the chairman of that of the

board, G. Allan Burton,

(diane lois

way)

Khorana, Har Gobind What achievements might

a scientist willingly accept in trade for 10 or 20 years of his life ? An efficient way to manufacture such vital biological products as insulin and hemoglobin? A technique to correct genetic defects? A step along the path toward a cure for cancer? In 1976 organic chemist and Nobel laureate Har Gobind Khorana laid claim to the potential for all of these

accomplishments and more when he and research team from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology announced their

his

success in synthesizing a gene that was able to function within a living cell. Born in Raipur, Punjab, India, on Jan. 9, 1922, Khorana first won wide recognition as a researcher at the University of British Columbia in the 1950s for his syntheses of several kinds of proteins, called coenzymes, that play a crucial role in human metabolism. Later, at the University of Wisconsin, he helped decipher the genetic

code by re-creating through synthetic techniques each of the three-letter "words," or triplets

of

dna nucleotides, that serve

in

combination as instructions for the natural protein-synthesizing mechanism of the cell. For this latter work he shared with two other scientists the 1968 Nobel Prize in

Physiology or Medicine. To Khorana, however, this historic research was but the groundwork for an even more ambitious endeavour the synthesis of an entire functional gene. By 1970, after

—

five

years of intense labour, his research

team had succeeded in constructing a molecule of yeast dna from chemically synthesized fragments joined with enzymes to

39

Ear Gobind Khorana form

a double-stranded helix 77 nucleotides

long.

But the gene was not functional, nor

was a larger 126-nucleotide bacterial gene that Khorana synthesized three years later

moved within reach only when Khorana cleared yet another formidable hurdle the determination and synthesis of additional stretches of nucleotides, known as the promoter and terminator, that constitute the start and stop signals for the larger gene. Once completely assembled, the 207-nucleotide molecule was at mit. Total success

—

inserted into a mutated strain of bacterial virus that depended for its infectiousness on the proper functioning of the gene. That the virus thrived was the ultimate triumph, for it was proof that the gene worked as well as its natural counterpart. Accepting the admiration of the scientific community with characteristic modesty, Khorana maintained that his successes were not goals in themselves but stages in the

1912, he had risen to prominence as an antiJapanese resistance leader. Guerrilla leaders who fought by his side in Manchuria and northeast China later shored up his power base in Korea. Kim was handpicked for leadership by the Soviets who had occupied northern Korea during World War II. As leader of the Communist Party (later the Korean Workers' Party), he proclaimed the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in 1948. His attempt at forceful reunification of Korea in 1950 was foiled by UN intervention.

Korea

He was named

president

of

North

in 1972.

genetic

diseases

and

of

mechanisms of malignant

the

rampant

cells.

Artificial

willingness to negotiate a new treaty as a sign of weakness and called for the continuation of U.S. sovereignty in the Canal Zone. Reagan's criti-

Panama Canal

cisms helped him

primary

II

appeared mortal after all; a cancerous tumour in his neck was getting worse. His search for a reliable successor seemed to have been confined to the family. Starting in 1973 he had tried to project his son Kim Chong II as a national figure, but it now appeared that his wife, Kim Sung Ae, and younger brother Kim Yong Ju were actively opposing that choice. It was a portentous development for Kim, who had been the object of a relentless

Born Kim Song Chu near Pyongyang on April IS, personality cult for three decades.

40

come back from

and

his attacks

his early

on Kissinger

Criticism of Kissinger from the crats focused on his involvement in

Demo-

White House wiretapping during the Nixon administration and his alleged penchant for conducting "secret diplomacy." Though it once had deferred to Kissinger's judgment, Congress firmly rejected the Ford adminisfor funds to aid antiforces in Angola. But for a brief period in the spring, Kissinger showed some of his old form as he engaged in "shuttle diplomacy" in southern Africa. After years of neglecting the

request

tration's

Communist

Sung

Over the years North Korea had stayed in the limelight mostly by rattling the sabre against the South. Through much of the exercise, it had succeeded in projecting the image of a strong and monolithic partyleadership presided over by an unchallenged "great and beloved leader," Pres. Kim II Sung. That image was rudely dented in 1976 with news of an unprecedented power struggle in Pyongyang. Despite expensive worldwide publicity campaigns that suggested otherwise, Kim

losses,

continued until the Republican convention.

genes could also be used to endow bacteria, yeast, and other rapidly proliferating organisms with the ability to make valuable proteins normally obtainable at great expense only from higher organisms. (CHARLES M. CEGIELSKl)

Kim

nomination, Ronald Reagan (q.v.) zeroed on Kissinger's policy of detente with the Soviet Union, charging that the U.S. had conceded too much and received too little in exchange. Reagan attacked the Ford adminin

istration's

refinement of a technique that would allow calculated changes in a gene to be made and the results observed. In this way it might be possible to clarify the nature of

and somewhat bitter end. Criticism of Kissinger reached an intense level during the presidential election campaign, severely limiting his diplomatic maneuverability on the world stage. Ironically, the worst sniping came from within Pres. Gerald Ford's own party. After years of defending Kissinger and claiming his triumphs as their own, many Republicans turned on their secretary of state, and some even urged that he be replaced before the campaign began. In challenging Ford for the Republican

area and supporting the status quo, Kissinger suddenly reversed direction by proclaiming "unrelenting opposition" to white minority rule in Rhodesia. He pledged U.S. support

In later years, Kim proved expert at steering clear of big-brother entanglements,

of racial justice in Africa and wrung major concessions from the ruling white regimes

but

of Rhodesia and South Africa. Even here, however, the agreements he had put together appeared in danger of collapse at year's end.

evidently he could not build up a cadre of acceptable national leaders. The violent border clash with U.S. guards in August 1976 rocked the leadership, and more serious trouble apparently followed the bizarre events in October that identified some North Korean embassies as smuggling centres for duty-free goods and drugs. Tokyo even buzzed with rumours of Kim's arrest. This turned out to be incorrect, but there was little doubt that Kim, master of his country for a generation, had reached a watershed. (t. j. s. george)

Kissinger,

With the

Henry Alfred

election of 1976, the era of Henry Kissinger as the master craftsman of United States foreign policy came to a dramatic

It

was

Jimmy

inevitable

that

President-elect

Carter would replace Kissinger as

secretary of state, though a group of Demothat he be retained. Carter indicated he would choose his own man and selected Cyrus R. Vance. Kissinger was born in Fiirth in what is now West Germany on May 27, 1923. He became a U.S. citizen after fleeing Nazi Germany with his family in 1938. He taught cratic senators urged

government at Harvard University and in 1968 was named assistant for national security affairs to then President-elect Richard he was named secretary of state in 1973. (HAL BRUNO)

Nixon

;

FRANK EDWARDS — FOTOS INTERNATIONAL / PICTORIAL PARADE

who were

Kodama, Yoshio Dressed in a World War II kamikaze uniform with a white band around his head, a 29-year-old Japanese movie actor aboard a small rented airplane crash-dived into the residence of Yoshio Kodama in 1976. This was done apparently in protest against Kodama, who had served as a secret agent of Lockheed Aircraft Corp. in Japan. The pilot was killed on the spot, while Kodama, who had been ill in bed, escaped without injury. Kodama had wielded strong influence

Tokyo March

among top Japanese

politicians,

but he

fell

from power following the disclosure in February 1976 that he had received payments of $7 million from Lockheed for his contribution to the firm as a secret agent. Sen. Frank Church (Dem., Idaho), head of the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, referred to Kodama by saying that the most disturbing fact that the panel had come upon was the

employment

of

Yoshio Kodama, "a promi-

leader of the ultra-right-wing militarist faction in Japan." Kodama's relationship with Lockheed began in 19S8 when the Japanese government was beginning to rebuild its Air Self-Defense Force (asdf). At about that time Lockheed opened its Tokyo office for the sale of the F-104 Starfighter, and Kodama was chosen as a secret agent of the company because of his influence among Japanese politicians. The Japanese government had already decided to choose the Grumman F-ll as the asdf's next main fighter plane, but Kodama pressed the government to overturn its decision in favour of the Star-

nent

fighter.

Born

1911 in Fukushima Prefecture, of Tokyo, Ko(140 mi) dama moved to Tokyo at the age of 17. The next year he joined a right-wing political group. During World War II he organized the "Kodama Agency" in Shanghai at the request of the Japanese Imperial Navy and played an active role in obtaining intelligence and military materials. He was imprisoned as a war criminal in December 194S but was never brought to trial. On his return from China to Japan after the war, Kodama carried with him a vast amount of cash, diamonds, and platinum, which was said to have been used to help finance the establishment of the Liberal Party, a predecessor of the present ruling Liberal-Democratic Party. in

about 230

km

N

(yoshinobu emoto)

As a poet Philip Larkin was perhaps most admired by those who like to see poets as capable craftsmen, respectably occupied like other clerical workers. Self-restraint and regrets for the themes

what might have been were

of his austere poems. Their quiet desperation might well be shared by other apparently contented administrators. The sharp, slangy expletives that occasionally erupt in them sound like executives swearing in a hotel bar. The fvs Foundation of Hamburg, West Germany, awarding Philip Larkin its 1976 Shakespeare Prize (for outstanding contributions to culture), described him as the

European most im-

portant English lyric poet of his generation. Larkin's first collection, The North Ship (1945), was strongly influenced by Yeats. He developed a more congenial style after reading Thomas Hardy; but he did not publish a new collection until The Less Deceived in 19S5, although meanwhile he produced two admired novels, Jill (1946) and A Girl in Winter (1947). The poets

in

"The Move-

ment," in 19S6, saw him as the prime exemplar of the "neutral tone" they favoured. His fondness for jazz records, which he reviewed in the Daily Telegraph from 1961 to 1971, was a symbol of their hostility to traditional snobberies. His rejection of bardic or Delphic flamboyance was a strong, negative response to the exuberance of Robert Graves and Dylan Thomas. Larkin's refusal to show off was a form of mid-20thcentury dandyism. It did not conceal his undoubted power, tenderness, and skill. The critic Clive James wrote of him: "The sole encouragement offered by Philip Larkin's poetry is the existence of the poetry itself, arguing with its own beauty against the anguish it professes." His most recent collection was High Windows (1974). Larkin was born on Aug. 9, 1922, in Coventry, Warwickshire, the son of the city treasurer. He went to school there, took an arts degree at St. John's College, Oxford, in 1943 and became a librarian in Belfast, Northern Ireland. His health prevented military service, and a stammer inhibited him from teaching. From 1955 on he was in charge of the Brynmor Jones Library at the University of Hull, Humberside, and he rarely left this environment. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. In 1973 he edited the Oxford Book of Twentieth-Century Verse, a successor to Yeats's selection. Among other awards, in 1965 he received the Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry.

jones)

(d. a. n.

that I am in my own a survivor in a world that may not be worth surviving in." As Mary Hartman she takes TV commercials seriously. She's held hostage by a mass murderer. Her husband is selectively impotent, i.e., only in her direction. Her promiscuous sister works briefly in a massage parlour. Her side of the person life

...

grandfather

Lasser, Louise Some lives seem

Mary Hartman." The five-times-weekly likely

product of

series

Norman

Lear,

is

the

who

unpro-

Family" and a half dozen other hits. Turned down by the major networks, Lear finally sold "MH 2" to a syndicate of more than 100 independent stations. Part soap opera, part a parody of soap opera, it enraptured millions and offended thousands with its deadpan discussion of sexual problems, madness, and other "adult" subjects. Louise Lasser became what Vogue duced "All

in the

called a "Soaperstar."

New York

City about 1940 (her age is her secret), she was the daughter of the celebrated tax expert S. Jay Lasser

and was

in

raised in luxury's lap. She

dropped

out of Brandeis University to become an

bowing on Broadway as Barbra Streisand's replacement in / Can Get It for You Wholesale in 1962. Her path crossed that of Woody Allen, who was not yet the celebrated writer and comedy film maker. "She promptly bought him a new trenchcoat and they lived together for the next five years," according actress,

one account. Their marriage, solemnized on Groundhog Day, lasted four years. Allen, to

who

is still her friend, calls her "brighter than I am, funnier than I am." Louise Lasser is a skilled actress and a brilliant, if temperamental, woman who has survived 15 years of psychoanalysis. "It's just very tough to be a human being," she

"When people in their work and their art touch the children in us, they are using says.

the one thing

were

all

we

all

have

in

common: we

once short."

In her current role she plays "the under-

is

Ohio

fictional

to be guided by a star. Louise Lasser's television career skyrocketed in a kitchen. Not so long ago she played a dippy housewife in a commercial. The housewife's flu-racked husband thanks her for a dose of patent medicine with "you're a good wife." She replies, "I know, I know." In 1976 she became a household word in the unlaundered soap opera "Mary Hartman,

Born

Larkin, Philip Arthur

gathered together

When

flasher."

known

to

police

in

their

"the Fernwood her father disappears, her

town

as

bumblingly wooed by a lonely The high school basketball coach drowns in a bowl of Mary's chicken soup. Her best friend is maimed in a collision with a station wagon full of nuns. Having become a celebrity in a soap

mother

is

detective.

opera that's stronger than mirth and dirtier than life, Lasser believes that "it's more real than realism." As if to prove this, she made headlines in an incident that could 2" script. When have come out of an a Beverly Hills boutique wouldn't accept her credit card, she made a scene and refused to leave. Police were called, routinely searched her, and charged her with the illegal

"MH

possession of cocaine. "If I died tomorrow on the way to work," she says, "the exact death could be used to explain why I'm gone." (philip kopper)

Lauda, Niki Son of a wealthy Austrian family, Niki set his sights on becoming Grand Prix automobile-racing world champion driver. Getting no support from his parents, he arranged a £35,000 bank loan and arrived in England in 1971 to drive for the March team. He was promoted to Formula One in 1972 but had a disastrous year with

Lauda

the unsuccessful

March

72

IX

car.

A

tele-

from Louis Stanley transferred Lauda to the British Racing Motor team for the 1973 season. As co-driver with Clay Regazzoni and Jean-Pierre Beltoise, the Austrian had a firm contract with Marlboro and performed well at Monaco and in the

phone

call

catastrophic British Grand Prix at Silverstone, where he momentarily ran even with race-leading Ronnie Peterson. A Ferrari talent-spotter reported on Lauda's driving ability to Enzo Ferrari at Modena, Italy, and when Regazzoni agreed to share Ferrari responsibilities with him, Lauda was signed on by the famous Italian team. Driving for Ferrari, he experienced setbacks in 1974, including a puncture when in the lead in the British Grand Prix at

41

there for Flin Flon, where I got to play with Clarke and started thinking about a (j. timothy weigel) pro career."

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Lefebvre, Monsignor Marcel

Roman

Few

ring in the German Grand Prix when attempting to out-brake another driver. But he rose to the top in 1975 after being in pole position in nine of his races, as he had been in 1974, and became one of the young-

Church had heard of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre until, in 1976, he became widely known as the spokesman of a traditionalist movement that regarded Pope Paul VI as a dangerous heretic and a crypto-Protestant. The immediate occasion of the conflict was the Tridentine mass, the form of eucharistic service, in Latin, that was authorized by

coveted world chamof 26 (he was born on Feb. 22, 1949) the English-speaking Austrian clinched the title before a delirious

est drivers to gain the

pionship.

At the age

crowd by finishing third in the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, won for Ferrari by co-driver Regazzoni. In 1976 Lauda was heading for the world championship again when he had a bad Italian

accident at the Niirburgring during the GerPrix. This put him in the hospital on the danger list, with serious burns and lung injuries. But in a very short time the driver who was expected to be out of racing for the rest of the season was back

man Grand

rounds of the championship, in which James Hunt (q.v.) of Britain, driving for Marlboro McLaren, was beginning to for the final

challenge him. In the contest to decide the championship, in Japan, Lauda declared the rain conditions too dangerous and did not finish the race, leaving the 1976 world driver's championship to Hunt, by 69 points (WILLIAM C. BODDY) to 68.

Leach, Reggie For an athlete who was dumped by two National Hockey League teams before he was 25, Reggie Leach proved he belonged on skates in the 1975-76 season. All the Philadelphia Flyers' forward did was have the greatest season any scorer ever enjoyed in nhl history, a record 80 goals, including 19 in the Stanley Cup play-offs. His 61 regular-season goals made him only the second player in league history to reach 60. In the play-off finals against Montreal, Leach was voted the Conn Smythe Trophy, only the third player on a losing team ever to be honoured as most valuable player in the series. "It was just one of those years where everything went right," he said. "Everything I shot at the net seemed to go in for me. It scares me. They'll probably expect me to do the same thing this year." Despite the records, Leach was criticized for his defensive shortcomings and was

sometimes overlooked on his own line, which included centre Bobby Clarke and left wing Bill Barber. The trio set an nhl record of 141 goals, with Clarke contributing 30 and Barber SO. Both were first-team AllStars while Leach was relegated to second

Catholic

the 16th-century Council of Trent. After Vatican Council II (1962-65) it was replaced by more varied services in the vernacular. Lefebvre, however, continued to celebrate the banned Tridentine mass, and the high point of his resistance came on August 29, when 6,000 traditionalists gathered for a mass in a Lille, France, sports stadium. The threat of schism was real. Subsequently Lefebvre met Pope Paul and, without in any way abandoning his positions, moderated his language. Observers might be forgiven for thinking that the unedifying quarrel could easily have been resolved with a little more tolerance on all sides. But for Msgr. Lefebvre the defense of the Tridentine mass was a symbolic battle in his campaign against the contemporary church. In his Profession of Faith (November 1974), he declared: "We refuse and have always refused to follow the Rome of neo-modernist and neo-Protestant leanings." Lefebvre was particularly worried by what he considered to be a too generously accommodating attitude to Marxists and Freemasons. His true spiritual

home was

traditionalist French right by Charles Maurras' L 'Action francaise. Not content with denouncing the Vatican in speeches and statements, in 1971 he had founded a seminary at Econe in

wing

Gen. Charles de Gaulle's famous "Vive le libre!" of 1967 echoed jubilantly throughout Canada's mainly French-speaking province of Quebec in 1976. In the

Quebec

Brands Hatch and a crash at the Niirburg-

inside or outside the

Levesque, Rene

the

typified

Switzerland in order to instill his values into future priests. Several times ordered to close it down, he did nothing and as a result was "suspended" on July 24, 1976. Lefebvre was born at Tourcoing, northeastern France, on Nov. 29, 1905. Ordained in 1929, he was a Holy Ghost missionary in West Africa, becoming the first archbishop of Dakar, Senegal, in 1948 and later superior general of his congregation. In this capacity he was present at Vatican II where he was an articulate member of the small minority who resisted change. In particular, he opposed the decree on religious liberty and, ironically in view of subsequent happenings, insisted that the pope should not yield any of his authority to the world's bishops. (peter hebblethwaite)

November tional

15 election to the provincial

Parti Quebecois secured 69 of the 110 seats, ousting Robert Bourassa's Liberal Party government in a dramatic upset. Sworn in as Quebec's new premier on November 26, Levesque shortly afterward reaffirmed that political independence for the province from the rest of Canada remained his party's

firm objective. He anticipated that a refthe question would be held within three to five years' time.

erendum on

Rene Levesque was born at New Carlisle, Bonaventure County, Quebec, on Aug. 24, 1924. He went to school in Gaspesie and afterward to Laval University, Quebec City. Already a part-time journalist while still a student, he broke off his law studies to serve in Europe (1944—45 ) as a reporter and correspondent attached to the U.S. forces. Back in Quebec after the war, in 1946 he joined the international service of Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, became a war correspondent in Korea (1952), and from 1956 to 1959 was commentator on the popular TV program "Point de mire." Levesque entered politics in 1960 and in that year was elected to the Quebec National Assembly as a Liberal member for Gouin, joining Jean Lesage's government as minister of public works and hydraulic resources (1960-61). He then held the newly created portfolio of natural resources (196166), and in 1966, during the last months of the Lesage government, he was minister of family and social welfare. Meanwhile he had been reelected in the constituency of Laurier in the 1962 and 1966 legislative the

elections.

In October 1967 Levesque left the LibParty and founded, with others, the Souverainete-Association, which the following year combined with other separatist groups to form the Parti Quebecois, with Levesque as its first president. Unsuccessful in the 1970 and 1973 elections, he returned to journalism, writing daily political articles in the Journal de Montreal and the Journal de Quebec. (j. e. davis) eral

Lopez It

Portillo, Jose

was a hot summer day on

Mexico.

He

the Gulf of looked out at the sea of faces

him and uttered the same brief speech he had already made to hundreds of similar crowds all over Mexico's 31 states. He thanked them for coming, promised to raised to

Monsignor Marcel

team. Leach, born April 23, 1950, in Riverton, Man., is part Cree Indian. He played junior hockey at Flin Flon, Man., with Clarke. In 1970, the Boston Bruins made Leach their top pick in the junior amateur draft. He scored only two goals for the Bruins in his first year before being traded to California, where he scored 23 one year and 22 the next. When the Flyers asked Clarke about his old friend, Clarke said, "Take him and he'll score 40 goals in a bad year." Leach scored 45 in 1974-75 before his record

Lefebvre

season.

Leach

not the flamboyant, talkative I was young," he said. "Quit school, did this, did that. type. "I

is

was a disturber when

was crazy. You name it, I tried it. I liked the game and was pretty good but I lived in a tough town, Riverton. The best I

thing that ever happened to

me was

leaving LONDON DAILY EXPRESS / PICTORIAL PARADE

42

Na-

Assembly Rene Levesque's separatist

Lowry,

Sir

Biography

Robert Lynd Erskine

BOOK OF THE YEAR

The

lord chief justice of Northern Ireland, Sir Robert Lowry, found himself in a key political role when he was appointed chairman of the constitutional convention elected in May 1975 to devise a new constitution for Northern Ireland. A brilliant lawyer, he had become lord chief justice in 1971 at the age of 52, and unlike his lawyer father, who had been an Ulster Unionist and a Northern Ireland attorney gen-

MP

he had stayed out of politics. His political independence was a necessary qualification for the post of convention chairman. Though he came from a family background that could be called Ulster Protestant establishment, he won the respect of both eral,

Northern Ireland's sectarian conflict by his fairness and firmness, by the clarity and grip of a good legal mind, and by his personal charm, even temper, and simple good manners in a situation where these qualities were often absent. That the convention proved abortive was no fault of his. Indeed, he had been able to show that there was a willingness among reasonable men and women in Northern Ireland to work together. He had been notably effecsides in

when he was and departed for the next town. Jose Lopez Portillo, 56, who on Dec. 1, 1976, became president of Mexico and chief of state for 60 million Mexicans for a sixyear term, ran unopposed in the July election. No candidate of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (pri) had lost an election for president, governor of a state, or federal senator since 1929. (The small carry out the country's laws

elected,

opposition Partido Accion Nacional did not even field a candidate for president this time.) But the pri candidate always campaigns as if the devil himself were running against him. Portillo came from an excellent background. His father took part in the revolution of 1910. Lopez was a law

Lopez

political

professor for many years and a teacher of political science at the National University. As a late-blooming member of the pri he did not attain Cabinet rank until less than three years before the party nominated him for the presidency. As minister of finance he seemed anything but a politician eager to ingratiate himself with the public. Mexicans think of him as tough. This attribute

was most

in evidence

when

became

it

his

duty to impose some unpopular taxes. Those who follow Mexican affairs wondered for a time whether the long-expected devaluation of the peso would be ordered by outgoing Pres. Luis Echeverria Alvarez or whether he would hand that embarrassment along to his successor. In the end, Echeverria attached his own name to the first devaluation of the peso in 22 years (down from eight U.S. cents to about four cents at the end of October) Echeverria also, in November, decreed implementation of a land reform that led to serious disorders even as Lopez was being inaugurated and

behind the scenes. Born on Jan. 30, 1919, he was brought up in Belfast, went to Cambridge, where he took a double first in classics, and then into the Army, serving in Northern Ireland regiments during World War II. On his return to Northern Ireland he turned to the law, becoming a High Court judge in tive in private discussions

1964. As a judge, he was remembered for firmness in refusing to take evidence obtained under duress in cases against Irish Republican Army terrorists. In the social life of Northern Ireland he was well known in the world of show jumping and was a past chairman of the Show Jumping Association of Ireland. Sir Robert was knighted in 1971. He was a member of the Privy Council from 1974 and of the Privy Council (Northern Ireland) from 1971.

his

(HARFORD THOMAS)

McCormack,

.

was still Lopez

in dispute at year's end.

Portillo announced that he would follow a policy of austerity and discipline to stabilize the economy. He hoped the flow of foreign capital and tourists would return to former levels and that exports, made more competitive by the devaluation, would bring in

mother

in the "pro-life"

movement

until 1970.

Her

experience was as a Conservative Party volunteer in the 1974 New York senate race. Professional politicians were surprised when her supporters quickly raised $5,000 from each of 20 different states, making first political

Mrs. McCormack's campaign eligible for federal matching funds. She actively campaigned in 18 Democratic primaries, win-

much

ning as

as

9% of 3%

and an impressive sylvania

contest.

the vote in

Vermont

in the crucial

Twenty-two

Penn-

delegates

voted for her nomination at the Democratic convention.

But more important than percentages was the effect of Mrs. McCormack's candidacy on the rest of the campaign. Other candidates found themselves compelled to take a stand on an explosive issue many would have preferred to avoid. Long after Mrs. McCormack stopped running, the right-tocontinued to stage emolife movement

Democratic candidate Carter was their special target because, though he personally opposed abortion on demand, he did not (as they did) favour amending the Constitution to pro-

tional demonstrations.

Jimmy

hibit It

it.

was

difficult

to

measure the net

sult of the abortion issue, since the

reright-

to-life movement also produced a strong counterreaction from pro-abortion forces. One thing was certain, however; Ellen McCormack, the housewife from Merrick, had had her own personal impact on the 1976 election. No one would laugh if she ever decided to run for office again.

(HAL BRUNO)

McKee, Fran "She always pretty much made up her own mind. It never entered her head that she couldn't do anything." Thus Fran McKee's mother described her daughter as a child. And Fran McKee made a career of doing things that no woman had ever done before. In 1976 she was appointed the first woman line rear admiral in the United States Navy. Staff officers are limited to such activities as supply, law, and medicine, but there is no restriction upon the type of duty that a line admiral can perform. Admiral McKee said that she was "euphoric" about her promotion and she called it a "great step forward for women." Fran McKee's naval career had begun

1950

more than 25 years

earlier.

McKee

received a B.S. in chemistry University of Alabama. She planned to enter medical school, but the

from

in the soft, didactic the professor, Lopez Portillo is a muscular six-footer who runs a mile every day, swims, and punches the bag. He is married to the former Carmen Romano and they have three children: Jose, 21; Carmen, 17; and Paulina, 14. A.

and the grandmother of

four;

of

two, Mrs. McCormack had been active in her own Roman Catholic parish in Merrick, Long Island, but did not become involved

She was born on Sept. 13, 1926, in Florence, Ala., but her father worked for a railway company and the family moved often. In the

Korean War had just begun and McKee "wanted to do something" for the country. Friends recommended the Navy so she signed up, intending to stay for two years.

of

(JEREMIAH

The wife of John McCormack, a New York City deputy police inspector; the

rather casually

more dollars. Though he speaks

style

Ellen

Scarcely anyone in political circles took it seriously when Ellen McCormack, a 49year-old housewife, announced that she would run for president of the United States as the candidate of the Pro-Life Action Committee. But before the 1976 election was over, her name had been placed in

nomination at the Democratic National Convention and the antiabortion cause she represented had become the campaign's most difficult and emotional issue.

After completing Officer Training School, administrative aide to the chief of naval research in Washington,

McKee became an

O'LEARY, JR.) WIDE WORLD

43

two million Xhosas,

Maori Kiki,

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR D.C., where she found herself meeting the scientists who had written her college textbooks. McKee soon concluded that the Navy "was a great place to make one's mark." She rose through the ranks in personnel, training, and educational administration and in 1973 was the first woman ever chosen to command an activity of the Naval Security Group. Three years earlier, she had been one of the first two women officers selected to attend the Naval War College. Over 25 years McKee lived in eight cities, including Rota, Spain, and Port Lyautey, Morocco. She thrived on this nomadic life. "There are just so many exciting places," she said. She once raced her sports car, but now drove it in road rallies. Raising tropical fish, listening to music, and reading historical novels were other spare-time activities. A patriot of the best sort and, in her quiet way, a feminist, Fran McKee felt strongly that "women have just as much responsibility as

men

to support our insti-

and traditions." Women now could do what they wished with their lives purtutions

—

sue a career, raise a family, or both: "The nice thing is, we are now able to make a choice." (victor m. cassidy)

Maiiley, Michael In 1976 Michael Manley, S3, prime minister of Jamaica and president of the People's National Party, was a man sitting on a political and economic volcano. The husky former Royal Canadian Air Force pilot and onetime bbc newsman declared a state of emergency in June because of rioting, shootings, and tension in the capital city of Kingston. Some of the turbulence was due to the rivalry between Manley's party and the opposition Jamaica Labour Party, but the real roots of the island's problems were overpopulation, unemployment, and declining receipts from sugar, bauxite, and tourism. The Jamaican crisis was important to the nearby U.S. because there was heavy American investment in the five major aluminum companies. The U.S. imported 60% of its supply from Jamaica. When Manley won 1972, Jamaica was riding a prosperity and Manley was regarded as friendly to the U.S. In the face of the challenge from the jlp and its leader, tough, pro-U.S. Edward Seaga, Manley took a turn to the left. He negotiated with the foreign bauxite companies for purchase of 51% control and imposed special taxes on bauxite and alumina. His diplo-

election

wave

in

tional

In 1976 Papua New Guinea's minister for foreign relations and trade, Sir Albert Maori Kiki, outlined new directions in a more self-confident foreign policy. One of the problems following independence in 1975 was that the relics and images of a colonial past still existed, especially in the minds of foreign nations who tended to think of Papua New Guinea as an appendage of Indonesia or Australia. The Swiss ambassador in Indonesia, for example, held additional accreditation to Papua New Guinea, but Sir Albert was adamant that foreign diplomats in Australia would not

be able to have similar accreditation. He said that if countries wanted to be represented in Papua New Guinea, their diplomats could not come from Canberra: "We

have to get away from

this colonial tie."

One of Sir Albert's major achievements was the solution of a crucial foreign relaproblem with Australia over the future of some islands in the Torres Strait. These Boigu, Dauan, and Saibai were islands tions

—

—

designated Australian even though they were only a stone's throw from the Papua New Guinea mainland. Sir Albert and the Australian foreign minister, Andrew Peacock, arrived at a compromise agreement on the maritime border question. The new border between Australia and Papua New Guinea ran south of the islands, but the islands themselves remained Australian and their people Australian citizens. Albert Maori Kiki was born in Orokolo village, Gulf District, in 1931. He was educated at a mission school at Sogeri and at a medical school in Fiji. He worked as a patrol and welfare officer, was founder of Papua New Guinea's first labour union, president of the Port Moresby Council of Trade Unions, and served as a member of the National Education Board. He left a promising career in public service to found the Pangu Pati (the independence party). Maori Kiki organized the Pangu Pati's election campaign in 1968 and helped to devise the slogan "One name, one country, one people." He was himself unsuccessful in the election, but subsequently under his guidance the emerging nation developed sound lines of foreign and defense policy. (A. R. G. GRIFFITHS)

of

matic and cultural flirtation with Marxist Cuba, only 90 mi away, caused the opposition to charge Manley with trying to turn Jamaica into a Cuban-style Communist state. Manley and his ministers contended that their government was a non-Communist "democratic socialist" state. The election on December 15 brought a landslide affirmation for Manley. His People's National Party won a whopping majority in Parliament. His first act afterward was to issue an appeal for national unity, warning Jamaicans that the days of "frills and soft options" were over. An attractive but temperamental man whose father was a Jamaican national hero, Manley is married to former radio and television personality Beverly Anderson. He has two daughters and a son by previous marriages. An inveterate reader and music lover, he owns a record library containing more than 1,000 albums. (JEREMIAH A. O'LEARY, JR.)

44

Sir Albert

Matanzima, Kaiser Daliwonga On Oct. 25, 1976, Paramount Chief Matanzima became prime minister

the

Transkei republic, the first African homeland, or Bantustan, to be given its independence by the Republic of South Africa. Although his small country, the home of about

re-

precursors to a multiracial federation. a strong upholder of Xhosa nationalism, which he saw as an important element in black nationalism at the same time, however, he strongly defended the idea of a wide multiracial society. Born June 15, 1915, at Qamata in the Transkei, the son of the chief of the emigrant Tembus, Matanzima was educated first in the Lovedale Missionary Institute and later at Fort Hare University, the nursery of black nationalism in South Africa. He abandoned his law studies in 1955 to devote himself to the interests of his tribe, and became chief in his father's place in 1958. Three years later he was elected chairman of the Transkei Territorial Authority, which later became the Transkei Parliament. He became chief minister in 1963, when Transkei was established as the first partially self-governing Bantustan. as

He was

;

Matanzima through

had

methods against

up his power and by using tough opposition. Although

built

political skill his

often described as a "collaborator" with the South African apartheid system, he was in fact a staunch critic of racist policies. His tactics in choosing to take Transkei into a kind of independence were vigorously criticized by other prominent homeland leaders, such as the KwaZulu spokesman, Chief Gatswa Buthelezi, and by radical nationalists

and white liberals. But he remained convinced that his policies would do more to transform South Africa than those advocated (colin legum) by his critics.

Mehta, Zubin The Los Angeles Philharmonic was on tour just finished

Orchestra

London. Zubin Mehta had conducting a work by the U.S. in

composer Charles Ives. The applause began, and someone in the audience shouted, "Not bad for colonials !" In a body, the orchestra's trombone section arose and answered these cries by playing "Rule Britannia." Such exuberant behaviour is not common in the concert hall except when Mehta is conducting. Praised as a genius by some and

—

others, the of

Matanzima

mained convinced that black and white South Africans would succeed in ending what he described as the "unjust society" only by accepting independent black states

criticized

Kaiser

failed to gain interna-

Chief

recognition,

theatrical and eccentric by flamboyant Mehta bores no one.

as

In 1978 Mehta would replace Pierre Boulez as musical director of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, the latest move in a career that had taken him around the world several times. He was born April 29, 1936, in Bombay, India, to a family of Parsis, descendants of Zoroastrian Persians who emigrated to India during the 8th century. The Parsis have been interested in Western music since the early 1930s. Mehta's father helped found the Bombay String Quartet and the Bombay Symphony Orchestra, and Zubin was surrounded by Western music as a child." Mehta was still not fully committed to music as an adolescent, and he entered college with the intention of becoming a physician. But one day, when he was told to dissect a lizard, he rebelled, quit school, and soon left India for Vienna, where he enrolled in the

Akademie

fur

Musik und

darstellende

Kunst. In Vienna he acquired a fondness for the "Vienna sound," which he characterized as "rich, round, and velvety." Mehta's special interest is in the late Romantic and early modern composers. In 1958 Mehta won first prize in the Liverpool International Conductor's Competition and became associate conductor

U.S. Senate to balance Carter's lack of experience in the federal government. The net effect of such ticket-balancing is usually just some mild reassurance to some voters. But Mondale proved to be much

Many political experts, Carter's own campaign staff,

more than cluding

that.

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR HIROJI

KUBOTA— MAGNUM

in-

be-

the Minnesota senator was a critical element in the Democratic victory. By election day, polls showed Mondale was preferred as vice-president by a margin of 51%, compared with 33% for Republican

lieved

that

candidate Sen. Robert Dole {q. v.)

.

"He gave

two or three extra points," observed Carter campaign manager Hamilton Jordan. In an election that Carter won by only three percentage points, Mondale was indeed imus

portant.

Born Jan. S, 1928, in Ceylon, Minn., the son of a Methodist minister, Mondale rose in national politics by a curious route: having been appointed, to every public job he held. In 1960, after practicing law in Minnesota, he was appointed state attorney general; and in 1964, when his mentor, Sen. Hubert Humphrey, was named to run for vice-president with Lyndon Johnson, Mondale was appointed to fill Humphrey's term in the Senate. After both appointments, Mondale ran on his own and won reelection. Considered one of the most capable

.

of the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic for a year. His reputation grew swiftly as he made guest appearances all over the world, and in 1961 he was appointed musical director of the Montreal Symphony. That same year Mehta had guest conducted a wellreceived concert with the Los Angeles Philharmonic. He was offered more appearances, but Georg Solti, the newly appointed musical director in Los Angeles, was not consulted. In a fit of anger Solti quit, and Mehta got his job. For the next several years, Mehta

members

commuted between Montreal and Los Angeles.

He

greatly

improved the Montreal

orchestra and was credited with building the Los Angeles Philharmonic into a firstrate ensemble. (victor m. cassidy)

Mondale, Walter Frederick Candidates for the vice-presidency of the United States are usually chosen for their ability to appeal to constituencies not attracted to the candidate at the top of the party's ticket. Minnesota Sen. Walter "Fritz" Mondale, Jimmy Carter's running

mate in 1976, was no exception. He was from the North, was seen as more liberal than Carter, and had served 12 years in the

,

of the Senate,

Mondale was

fre-

quently mentioned as a possible presidential candidate himself. In 1974, he put out an exploratory bid for the 1976 presidential nomination. But less than a year later, after 200,000 mi of travel, he withdrew. Mondale was left largely on his own during the 1976 campaign and, with a wellorganized effort and an impressive showing in the first debate between vice-presidential nominees in U.S. history, further impressed Carter. Although vice-presidents are usually relegated to passive ceremonial and political roles, it seemed likely that Mondale would play an important part in the Carter administration. (JOHN f. stacks)

Moon, The Reverend Sun Myung In a period when exotic religious cults were growing with remarkable speed in the U.S., the Rev. Sun Myung Moon was proving to be the most successful of the new religious entrepreneurs. The Reverend Moon founded his Unification Church in Korea in 1954 and began full-scale missionary operations in the U.S. in 1973. Starting with a few hundred followers, he built his U.S. membership to more than 10,000 in three years.

Worldwide, the Unification Church claimed between 500,000 and two million members, mostly in Korea and Japan. In his book Divine Principle, the Reverend Moon sets forth his autobiography and theology. Born on Jan. 6, 1920, in Jung Joo, (North) Korea, he claims to have been clairvoyant as a child. When he was 16, he writes, Christ appeared to him in a vision and commanded him to "carry out my unfinished task." Moon's theology was subsequently revealed to him by Abraham, Buddha, and Moses. Moon believes that God has chosen him to save mankind from Satanism, and he sees the Communists as Satan's representatives in the world today. Moon began to preach his doctrines in

Korea in 1946. Two years later he was excommunicated by the Presbyterian Church, and shortly thereafter he was imprisoned by the North Korean authorities, for reasons that are not entirely clear. In 1950 he escaped or was released and fled to South Korea, where he founded what was to become the Unification Church. Combining his religious activities with a business career, he built his Korean enterprises, which in-

—

—

eluded factories producing armaments, paint, machinery, and ginseng tea, into an empire said to be worth $30 million. His assets in Japan were estimated at $20 million, and after moving to the U.S., he spent millions of dollars on real estate. A typical American Moonie, as the press called his converts, was single and young and was probably introduced to the Unification Church at a campus meeting. The conversion process usually began with a weekend session at a recruiting centre and continued with an intensive weeklong workshop. A full-time church member was required to give all possessions to the church. Thereafter, he or she lived communally with other members under strict discipline and spent long days recruiting, raising funds,

and praying.

The parents of some members charged Moon's intensive conversion techniques amounted to brainwashing, and some used physical force to remove their sons and daughters from Moon's living centres. But that

Moon

replied that anyone could leave his church at will. He produced testimony from parents who were happy to have their children jn the Unification Church. Moon also said that his converts were old enough to think for themselves. (victor m. cassidy)

Morris, Joe

On

Oct.

14,

1976,

Canada experienced

its

nationwide general strike called for political reasons. Its aims were to end the

first

wage and price controls imposed by the Canadian government in 1975 and to force the government to give the labour unions an equal voice with government and busiin economic decision-making. More than one million workers participated. The organization leading the strike was the Canadian Labour Congress, a federation of 115 Canadian unions with a total membership of 2.3 million workers. President of the exc was a former logger named Joe Morris,

ness

who was

able to unite the

movement

be-

hind him and to get the affiliated unions to grant him authority they would not have considered granting even one year earlier. The son of a British trade unionist, Joseph

LAWRENCE FRANK — PHOTO RESEARCHERS

45

UN

in late Moynihan had almost quit the 1975, when his continued denunciation of the third world nations brought widediplomats spread criticism from other and, Moynihan thought, from U.S. Secre-

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR

UN

Morris was born on June 14, 1913, in LanEngland. He emigrated to Canada in his youth. While working as a logger in the British Columbia forest produces industry, he became involved in labour union activities. In 1936 he helped to organize a

cashire,

local of the International

America

(iwa)

secessionist

on

Woodworkers

of

Island. A the local was Morris was elected

Vancouver

movement within

in 1948, and president. At that time he also joined the staff of the international iwa. By 1953 he was president of the iwa District Council, a position he held until 1962, when he was made executive vice-president of the Canadian Labour Congress. As president of the

thwarted

rallied the labour movement in a common cause as never before, making the clc a political movement.

clc since 1974, he

tary of State Henry Kissinger (q.v.). In "the one speech, Moynihan termed the scene of acts we regard as abominations." His rhetoric may have been undiplomatic, but it had the support of U.S. public opin-

UN

ion and Pres. Gerald Ford gave Moynihan a personal vote of confidence that kept him on the job a bit longer. Moynihan abruptly resigned early in 1976, on grounds that he was not being supported by the Ford administration and was being undermined by Kissinger. This time, the president let

him go and Moynihan immedi-

ately plunged into Senator Jackson's presidential primary campaign. Despite a previous pledge not to run for office if he left the UN, Moynihan began his own quest for the New York Senate seat

soon after Jackson's presidential campaign folded.

CANADIAN PRESS

He first had to win a bruising Democratic primary fight involving himself, Rep. Bella Abzug, former U.S. attorney general RamseyClark, New York City Council President Paul O'Dwyer, and businessman Abraham Hirschfeld. Moynihan won, despite the opposition of many liberal Democrats and Puerto Rican and black voters, who could not forgive him for once advocating "benign neglect" of race problems when he served as an urban affairs adviser to Pres. Richard Nixon. Throughout the primary campaign, Moynihan described himself as "a man of the centre," and he stuck to that theme in the fall election battle against the incumbent senator, James Buckley, a Conservative7

Morris considered himself a true interHe contended that unions must

nationalist.

become

truly international in order to deal with multinational corporations. In 1966 he had become a member of the workers' delegation to the International Labour Organiagency drawing representation zation, a from government, management, and labour. In 1976 he served as chairman of the rxo workers' delegation and as a member of the new executive board, and was called the one man in the rxo with the political awareness to deal with issues raised by employers, labour unions, and governments. In Canada Morris used his abilities in an advisory capacity to the federal government as a member of the Economic Council of Canada. He was appointed in 1974 to this body, which is made up of leaders of

UN

and the general

industry, labour, finance, public.

(

DIANE LOIS way)

Moynihan, Daniel Patrick Typically, it was a year of turmoil and several incarnations for Daniel Patrick Moynihan, beginning with his role as the embattled U.S. ambassador to the United Nations and ending with his election as U.S. senator from New York. In between, he resigned his post, lectured at colleges and universities, campaigned for Sen. Henry Jackson's ill-fated presidential bid, and won his

UN

own

five-way primary fight for the Demonomination in New York.

cratic Senate

46

Republican. Moynihan won the election by 500,000 votes. For the 49-year-old Moynihan, born March 16, 1927, in Tulsa, Okla., it was another achievement in a brilliant career that began with a poverty-stricken childhood in New York City's "Hell's Kitchen." A graduate of Tufts University, Medford, Mass., he taught government at Harvard and served in advisory roles under four different presidents John Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, Nixon, and Ford. (hal bruno)

—

ceded that the National Party needed more forcefulness than Marshall was likely to provide were slow to approve the coup by to the leadership, making the 1975 election result all the more sen-

which Muldoon came sational.

Rob Muldoon was born

of New Zealand's fifth prime minfour years seemed irresistible. Senior partner in a firm of accountants, Robert Muldoon won the National Party leadership during the only term it had been in opposition during his 15 years in Parliament, then turned a 25-seat deficit to a 23seat winning margin at the general elections of November 1975. A former finance minister, Muldoon had rise

ister in

based his campaign on his credentials for rescuing the economy, but at the end of his first year in office that was still a prospect. His greater impact was in New Zealand's relations with Africa; forthright expression of personal support for New Zealand sports contacts with South Africa added fuel to the flames when African

withdrew from the Montreal Olympics rather than compete against New Zealand athletes. Muldoon's forthrightness had provoked countries

personal attacks against him at the general elections, when his opponents warned that he would develop a dictatorship based on character assassination. The chunky, impatient free enterpriser had won the party leadership in July 1974 from the more passive Sir John Marshall, who had led the party to defeat in 1972. Many who con-

Auckland on

25,

(JOHN

Muldoon, Robert David The

in

1921, grandson of a LiverpoolIrish Methodist lay missionary who came to New Zealand in the 1880s. While serving with the Army in New Caledonia, Egypt, and Italy during World War II, he began to study cost accounting, and he continued this in London after his discharge. In 1946 he was the first winner outside Britain of the Leverhulme Prize of the London Institute of Cost and Management Accountants. He built a successful career in accountancy before entering politics. Member of Parliament for Tamaki from 1960, Muldoon was undersecretary to the minister of finance (1963-66) and became finance minister himself in 1967. In 1972 he became deputy leader of the National Party, and during February-November of that year was deputy prime minister. Sept.

Nicholls, Sir Douglas

A.

KELLEHER)

Ralph

There was wide acclaim and almost no opposition when Sir Douglas Nicholls was named as the first Aboriginal to hold viceregal office in Australia. But soon Sir Douglas, whose life's work was the reconciliation of black and white Australians, was distressed to find himself at the centre of controversy following Queen Elizabeth IPs approval of his appointment as governor of South Australia. Sir Douglas, who spent his first nights in Melbourne sleeping on a bed of cabbage leaves at the Victorian market, was immediately affronted by questions from a Melbourne television reporter that he considered offensive. During the interview Sir Douglas called a reporter a "racist" for asking Lady Nicholls how she felt about fitting in with Adelaide's garden party set. He threatened to call the police to evict the reporter and demanded in vain that the interview not be broadcast. He then found himself at the centre of a rapidly developing row when some claimed that he would not be able to do the governor's job because he would not understand the papers he would have to sign. Aboriginals demonstrated outside the television station, but the controversy ended when Sir Douglas accepted an apology, remarking sadly that

GUILIANI — SYGMA

AUSTRALIAN INFORMATION SERVICE

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR Born on March 5, 1937, in Abeokuta, Obasanjo was a Yoruba but insisted on describing himself as a Nigerian. He was a Baptist, a teetotaler, and a nonsmoker. For recreation he played squash, table tennis,

A soft-spoken, thoughtful he enjoyed a considerable reputation as a leader of impeccable integrity and (colin legum) quiet modesty. and

billiards.

soldier,

Oh, Sadaharu the Orient, Sadaharu Oh has been known for years as the "Babe Ruth of Japan." On the afternoon of Oct. 11, 1976, the first baseman of Tokyo's Yomiuri Giants

Throughout

He

the title before 50,000 hometown fans in Korakuen Stadium. The crowd arrived in high spirits, but intense anticipation gradually gave way to sullen disappointment as Oh was walked the first four times at bat. Then it happened. Oh got a pitch he could hit and sent his 48th home run of the season sailing out of the ball park. Pandemonium broke loose as Oh leaped into the air and circled the bases. The handsome left-hander had just surpassed Babe Ruth's lifetime total of 714 home runs. Sportswriters on both sides of the Pacific had long predicted that moment and were equally sure that the 5 -ft 10-in Oh would not only out-homer Hank Aaron (755) but would raise his home run total to 800 or more before retiring. Whatever Oh's final figure, he was sure to become the greatest power hitter of all time anywhere. Just how good is Sadaharu Oh? In 1974 the touring New York Mets had a chance to see for themselves. In one game against the Mets, Oh grounded out to first, got a clean hit with the bases loaded, then clouted a grand slam home run to win the game. Most Mets readily agreed that Oh could hit 35 or more home runs a season playing in the U.S. Actually the more closely Oh's record is scrutinized the more impressive it becomes. During his 18 years with the Giants, he has averaged 39.8 homers per season playing the 130-game Japanese schedule. Ruth's average was 32.5 over 22 years, and Aaron's 32.8 over 23 years. And the playing season for each had 24 to 32 more games. Moreover, none of Oh's numerous home runs during championship games is included in his official career total. In the process of rewriting the record book, Oh has also hit has four home runs in a single game

and

homered

justified

"ratbags get in on a thing like this. Now they are the racists yes I mean the Ab-

that leaders should teach by their exemplary behaviour. As the founder of his nation he

originals."

remained committed to the idea of creating an egalitarian socialist society based on the concept of self-reliance. He described himself as a non-Marxist socialist who believed in achieving revolutionary change through democratic methods. Born in March 1922 in Butiama, Musoma district, Nyerere became a staunch Roman Catholic. After studying at Makerere College (Uganda) he graduated from the Uni-

—

as an Aboriginal and a Christian, he could reconcile his living in luxury and lavish surroundings at Government House with his own people's plight, Sir

Asked how,

Douglas replied that he expected criticism from his own people, "but what can I do? It's a social problem. It's not my responsibility. There are plenty of organizations working in the field." He added that' he would not be a rubber stamp governor, and

would

refuse to give assent to legislation that he believed was not in the best interests of the people of South Australia. Born Dec. 9, 1906, at Cummeragunja in

New

South Wales, Nicholls attended school and became one of Australia's bestknown Aboriginal sportsmen, being especially expert as a runner and playing league football (rugby) for Fitzroy. He served as an adviser to the Victorian Ministry of Abthere

original Affairs, a director of the Aborigines a pastor of the

Advancement League, and

Churches of Christ Aboriginal Mission. He

was knighted

in 1972.

(a. r. c.

Griffiths)

Nyerere, Julius Kambarage

When

U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kishis African diplomatic mission in 1976, the first leader he sought out was Pres. Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. Nyerere was the influential chairman of the "front-line presidents," so-called not only because their countries (Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, and Botssinger

embarked on

Rhodesia and South Africa but also because they were most actively committed to the struggle for majority rule in the area. One of the archi-

wana)

border

closest

on

the modern Pan-Africanist moveof the Organization of African Unity, Nyerere's stand on principle had on occasion brought him into conflict with other African leaders. Examples included his support for the right of the Ibos to establish their short-lived Biafran Republic tects of

ment and

neighbour Pres. Idi Amin of Uganda, whom he denounced as "a murderer." Nyerere announced during the year that he would not run for reelection when his present term expired in 1982. The decision was typical of the man, who, when he be-

and

his bitter opposition

to

his

came president, chose to be known by the honorific title of Mwalimu, a Swahili word meaning teacher. A moralist who strongly believed in upholding principles, he held

and rethe St. Francis in 1952. From his School, early school days he was a rebel against the colonial system and a pioneer of the black nationalist movement. Chief minister of Tanganyika in 1960 and prime minister Edinburgh

versity

of

turned

home to teach Dar es Salaam,

(Scotland) at

when

the country gained its independence 1961, he became president in 1962 and continued in office when Zanzibar joined Tanganyika to form Tanzania in 1964. in

(COLIN LEGUM)

Obasanjo, Oluscgun Lieut. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo became head of state of Nigeria on Feb. 13, 1976, when Ramat Mohammed (see Brig. Murtala

Obituaries) was killed in an abortive coup. A former chief of staff of the Nigerian armed forces, General Obasanjo was an engineer with a distinguished military career. enlisted as a soldier at the age of 21, after training at the Mons Officer Cadet School in England he became a lieutenant

1959. He subsequently obtained further military training at the Indian Staff College, the Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, England (where he won a citation as the best Commonwealth student ever to attend the school), and at the Royal College of Defence Studies in London, where he wrote a dissertation on British aid to Nigeria. Obasanjo served with the Nigerian unit forces in the Congo in 1960, of the and won his spurs as a fighting soldier in 1969 during Nigeria's civil war as commander of the 3rd Marine Commando Division. After the civil war he took command of the Engineering Corps and served for a time in a ministerial capacity as federal commissioner for works and housing. As chief of staff of the armed forces, he became the de facto prime minister after the July 1975 coup that deposed Gen. Yakubu Gowon and brought Brigadier Mohammed in

UN

to

power.

—

;

seven straight games; has set a Japanese season record of 55 home runs (1964) and has led the Giants to 13 Cenin

;

tral

League pennants and

11

Japan

Series

championships. In 1973 he won the triple crown of batting with a .355 average, 51 home runs, and 114 runs batted in. Sadaharu Oh, a citizen of Nationalist China (Taiwan), was born in Tokyo on May 20, 1940, the son of a Chinese restaurant owner and a Japanese mother, both of whom were born in Taiwan. His pitching and long-ball hitting in high school so impressed professional scouts that the Yomiuri Giants signed the promising teenager to a contract in 1959. At the plate Oh uses an unorthodox "flamingo stance." Raising his right foot off the ground, he balances all 170 lb on his rear leg before moving into a pitch. With an annual income estimated at about $350,000 (including commercial endorsements), Oh is able to support his wife and three daughters quite comfortably. If anyone thinks that the 36-year-old superstar is already over the hill, he hasn't

47

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR been reading the sports page. In 1976 Oh home runs (plus 3 more in the Japan Series), batted in 123 runs, and for the eighth time was named the Central League's (arthur latham) most valuable player. hit 49

seasons and the only one to register more than 100 assists in a season. Boston discovered Orr 12 years after he was born, March 20, 1948, in Parry Sound, Ont. He joined the Bruins at 18 and helped the team to the play-offs eight seasons in a row following his rookie year. During that time Boston won two Stanley Cups. His first operation was in 1967 on his right knee. Five followed on the left knee, all for cartilage

59-61 for illustrations of selected Olympic winners.

Olympic Champions: Orr,

damage.

(j.

timothy weigel)

see pages

Bobby

In 1976 hockey's most publicized power play in June, when the sport's "natural

came

resource" moved from Boston to Chicago. Bobby Orr, after failing to reach agreement with the Bruins, signed a five-year, $3 million contract with the Black Hawks. "He's the greatest hockey player who ever lived. He could play for me on one knee," said Black Hawk president Bill

Parker, Alan

Bugsy Malone, written and directed by Alan Parker, was the British cinema's unlike1976. Combining success story of liest pastiche of both gangster movies and the Hollywood musicals of the 1930s, the film LESLIE BAKER — CAMERA PRESS

my own

kids kept nagging

me

that going

to the pictures wasn't as special as I kept telling

them

it

ought to be." (

DAVID ROBINSON)

Payton, Walter

One Chicago Bear lineman was grabbing Walter Payton by the waist and holding him three feet off the ground. Another was stealing the football as a souvenir, which would have delayed the game except that the crowd was too noisy for the contest to continue anyway. Chicago's fans and linemen were celebrating Pay ton's 1,000th rushing yard of the 1976 season. "One grand for our man," shouted offensive guard Noah Jack-

man who

son, the

stole the football.

Payton let his linemen do the celebrating for him all season. They were given the football to spike on the ground every time Payton scored, which was often. That ritual normally reserved for scorers, not unheralded blockers.

is

Deeply

Payton gave full credit and the Lord whenever he had

religious,

to the line

Wirtz. Orr, who revolutionized hockey by becoming the highest scoring defenseman in history, admitted he was "not the same player I once was" after a fifth operation on his left knee stopped his 1975-76 season in

his routinely spectacular games. He repeatedly said, "I feel guilty about not getting more yards behind the holes those

one of

another year, allowed his contract to and Chicago won what was described as hockey's "Battle of Wounded Knee." After much argument over compensation to the Bruins, there were lawsuits and counterlawsuits filed and dropped. The Black Hawks claimed that the Bruins were entitled to nothing, and the Bruins insisted that the deal might not be complete for

linemen make for me." He had developed his closeness with offensive linemen in college, when he insisted on taking one of them with him whenever he was interviewed. Payton finished the season with 1,390 yd, replacing Gale Sayers as the best singleseason runner in Bear history and gaining 100 yd in seven different games. He lost the league rushing title to O. J. Simpson on the season's last day but led the National Conference despite several injuries. Payton was the youngest Bear in 1976 even though it was his second professional

years.

season.

Boston at ten games. The Bruins, convinced that Orr could not last

expire,

After

High School KEN REGAN — CAMERA

cast whose average age was 12 years. Custard pies and "splurge guns" emitting what looked like cascades of whipped cream replaced the bombs and tommy guns of

had a

adult-size Prohibition-era mobsters, and the cars that whined or roared around Bugsy's underworld were powered by pedals. Initially rejected by the Cannes Film Festival,

Bugsy Malone turned out to be the most popular film on show there. It went on to enjoy an impressive box-office success. For Alan Parker it was the culmination of a personal success story. Born Alan William Parker on St. Valentine's Day, 1944, he was the child of working people living in Islington,

in

contests against the Soviet

Union and

Czechoslovakia. As expected, he missed games early in the National Hockey League season while undergoing examinations of his knee. Speculation mounted over how long he could continue to play. With 16 individual awards, Orr was hockey's most decorated player. He was the only defenseman ever to score more than 100 points in a season and the only defenseman to lead the league in scoring. He was the only player to score 100 points for six straight

48

North London, and

on his master's degree in education of hearing-impaired children and had an off-season television job in Jackson, Miss.

Payton was born in Columbia, Miss., on July 25, 1954. He intended to register at the University of Kansas when he stopped on the way to visit his brother, Edward, at Jackson (Miss.) State. Edward, then a senior, challenged Walter to stick around and see who could be better at Jackson State.

Payton

did,

and

set a college record

with 464 points in four seasons. The Bears chose him in the first round of the 1975 college draft, and as a rookie he led the league in kickoff returns.

(KEVIN m. lamb)

his

proudly proclaimed his origins. He left school at 19 to be post boy in an advertising agency, but soon graduated to writing copy. At 24 he was directing commercials, and in 1970 he established his own production company. His previous film work anticipated both the style and the preoccupations of Bugsy Malone. Many of the 600 or more commercials he had made were nostalgic parody or pastiche of old films, and they evinced accent

Orr proved that he could still play hockey September by starring in the Canada Cup of Hockey. Playing for the victorious Team Canada, he was especially impressive

Columbia (Miss.) became involved in

special education while waiting for the next college year to begin. During 1976 he worked

S

in

finishing early, he

still

a characteristically vivacious camera style. Parker's interest in children, especially when they are assuming adult poses, was already evident in his 1971 story and screenplay for Melody, the first film produced by David Puttnam, the producer of Bugsy Malone, and again in The Evacuees, the story of

two Jewish boys evacuated from London during World War II, which Parker directed for television in 1974. This was his first feature-length film as a director; previously, in 1973, he had directed three fiction shorts. Writing of how Bugsy came into being, he explained: "I wrote it because

Poveda Burbano, Alfredo After

coup

11,

the

d'etat on Jan. regime of Pres. Guillermo Rodriguez Lara was overthrown, Vice-Adm. Alfredo Poveda Burbano headed the military government of Ecuador. Poveda was chief of the Armed Forces Joint Com-

the bloodless 1976, in which

mand and commander

of the Navy when leaders of all the military branches decided to end Rodriguez' rule. The junta

the

cited Ecuador's battered

economy when

it

took power without violence and with a simple declaration of martial law, courteously delaying the coup long enough to let Rodriguez attend the wedding of his daughter.

Nominally, the junta that took over was a triumvirate, but Poveda quickly established his primacy as presiding officer and spokesman for the new government. In Ecuador's long history of military rule, it has been unusual for a navy officer to run the country, and it was equally rare for a man from the sierra, the Andean high

— country, to find his career and be popular

Guayaquil. promised to restore

Biography

in the coastal city of

^he

junta rule

cratic

Poveda

BOOK OF THE

demo-

said

successful tenure as governor 1975, Reagan had eyed a chance to become president, and in 1976, with the nation's first unelected president in office,

before

ganize the civilian population into "functional" groups representing labour, business, the church, and other interests. Meanwhile, he said he would strengthen and revitalize private and public institutions.

ended

He

also studied at the

Brazilian

Naval War College and a U.S. naval mine warfare school. As a result, he speaks both English and Portuguese. In 1973 he was named minister of government and police, a position of power second only to the presidency in Ecuador.

He

thus

was seen as the natural leader when the armed forces chiefs decided that it was necessary to depose Rodriguez. Poveda's mountain background, plus his close ties with the coastal region, probably cemented his role as the first among equals as president of the Supreme Council of Government.

(JEREMIAH

A.

O'LEARY, JR.)

Ramgoolam, Sir Seewoosagur Few men could be less alike than Uganda's Gen. Idi Amin, and chairman of the Organization of African Unity (oau) for 1976-77, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, prime minexplosive

president,

his successor as

Mauritius. A gentle, subtle poliwith strong Gandhian pacifist views, the 76-year-old Mauritian leader had headed his government since 1967, continuing in late 1976 as head of a coalition government even though his Independence Party won only 28 of 70 parliamentary seats in the December elections. This was a considerable feat in an

ister

of

tician

island

community riven by communal and among Indians, Creoles, and

racial tensions

French, as well as being sharply divided between militant right-wing and left-wing political movements. His style of leadership was always to conciliate seemingly an ideal quality for the first non-African chairman of the oau in a year when that body was split (by the Angolan issue) as never before.

—

A

lifelong

member

of the

Fabian Society,

he had close affiliations with Labour Party.

the

British

Ramgoolam was born in Belle Rive, Mauritius, on Sept. 18, 1900, the son of a Hindi scholar who was also a sugar estate overseer. He studied medicine at University College Hospital, London, in the 1920s, and practiced as a doctor from 1935 to 1967. He first entered politics as a member of the Mauritius Legislative Council in 1940 and as the founder of the island's Labour Party. In 1968 he became prime minister when his country gained its independence. Short and stocky, with thick white hair

and heavy horn-rimmed

spectacles,

"Ram"

resembled a kindly family doctor. His interests included art, literature, and travel. Ramgoolam was knighted in 1965 and became a member of the British Privy Council from 1971. (colin legum) closely

Ray, Elizabeth In a city shaken by the Watergate scandals 1974, the sex scandal that loomed in Washington, D.C., in the late spring of 1976 seemed at first to be of little importance. The confession of a rather pathetic Capitol Hill secretary, 33-year-old Elizabeth Ray, that Rep. Wayne Hays (Dem., Ohio) had of

kept her on his official payroll only for her sexual favours hardly amounted to a con-

his

in

he thought he saw it. He began his campaign with the kind of doctrinaire promises that had ruined Goldwater. Late in 1975 he promised that, if elected, he would turn $90 billion in federal programs in such fields as education and health back to the states, and he spent much of early 1976 explaining that idea away. Thereafter, he stuck to safer themes, such

Poveda was born Jan. 24, 1926, in Ambato, Tungurahua Province, in the high sierra. He attended both the Ecuadorean and Argentine naval academies and the Royal Navy Gunnery School at Plymouth, England.

YEAJR

Ecuador within two years. the objective would be to or-

to

Yet the affair drove the powerful and autocratic Hays from office and added, though perhaps only marginally, stitutional crisis.

.

to the distrust of

Washington that coloured

the politics of 1976.

Born in Marshall, N.C., Ray claimed she was paid $14,000 a year by Hays but that her only duties were twice-weekly sexual liaisons with the 65-year-old legislator. After initially denying the charges, Hays admitted his sexual indiscretions, but he continued to claim that the government payroll had not been misused since Ray did some clerical work. The revelations titillated Washington, and Ray became the object of media attention. Offered $25,000 to pose nude for one men's magazine, she declined, accepting instead a $250 fee for similar photos in a magazine she considered more tasteful Playboy. She continued to be seen around Washington, often in revealing costumes and accompanied by a nurse hired to help her cope with the pressure of sudden notoriety. A fictionalized account of her escapades was rushed into print and had high

as criticizing detente. Throughout the primary season, Reagan and Gerald Ford (q.v.) traded victories, and when it ended neither man was assured of the nomination. The contest turned into a nearly vote-by-vote campaign aimed at the large group of uncommitted delegates. Reagan's manager was John Sears, a

young former Nixon operative who mounted what was, by comparison with the Ford effort, a brilliant campaign against bright

the long odds of unseating an incumbent president. Yet by mid-July Reagan seemed locked into second place. Sears decided to try a long shot. He approached liberal Sen.

Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania and asked him to be Reagan's vice-presidential running mate. Schweiker accepted, but even 'before the convention it was clear that the gambit had alienated some ideological purists while failing to add hoped-for delegates from Northern states. TONY KORODY — SYGMA

initial sales.

Hays meanwhile was

besieged by

demands

chairmanships of two important committees. He quickly let go his control of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, held on somewhat longer to the powerful House Administration Committee chairmanship, but soon was forced out of that spot as well. Finally, on that he

resign

his

August 13, Hays announced his retirement from Congress, largely to avoid further legal investigations of the matter. Ray too ended her career on Capitol Hill, turning instead to the stage, but her debut at a small theatre in Illinois was panned by

(john

critics.

Reagan, Ronald The energetic, activist lican

f.

heart of the

stacks)

Repub-

Party has for years belonged to

its

most conservative faction. But after its fling with Barry Goldwater, and the consequent electoral disaster of 1964, the party had been wary of sending a right-wing ideologue into battle for the nation's highest office. In 1976, however, the gop came within 60 delegate votes of doing it again. The new object of the conservatives' af-

was Ronald Reagan, who was born Tampico, 111., on Feb. 6, 1911, and went on to a movie career in which he characteristically played the leading man's best friend. Once a liberal Democrat and head fections in

of

the

politics

became

screen actors' union, he entered as a right-wing Republican and governor of California in 1967. Even

After his loss, Reagan contended that he thought of himself as a "nonpolitician." The Schweiker maneuver hurt that claim, but Reagan obviously still held the loyalties of many cop conservatives. He seemed likely to continue as an important voice on the right, through his newspaper column and daily radio program, and to be a contender for leadership of the defeated Republican Party. (john f. stacks)

Rowland, Roland was heard of "Tiny" Rowland (the nickname was a tribute to his imposing height and heavy build) until he was in his middle 40s. A farmer in Rhodesia, he Little

49

;

;

characterize Carl Sagan, a Cornell Univer-

Biography

who by

1976 had earned a reputation as one of the most controversial and colourful space scientists in the United States. Sagan concurred with his col-

sity

BOOK OF THE YEAR

astronomer

was invited in 1961 to take over the management of the small London and Rhodesian Mining and Land Company, later to be known as Lonrho Ltd. By the end of the decade he was one of Rhodesia's most successful and colourful business entrepreneurs, while Lonrho, under his management, had become an international conglomerate of some 400 companies operating in Africa and more recently in the Middle East.

league's estimate, stating his belief that the most important question facing mankind

In the process of this hectic expansion the company acquired a controversial reputation in South Africa, in Rhodesia, and in the U.K. and in 1973 became the subject of

Sagan was born Nov. 9, 1934, in New City. He became interested in astronomy as a boy and once remarked, "I didn't make a decision to pursue astronomy rather, it just grabbed me, and I had no thought of escaping." After receiving bachelor's, master's, and doctor's degrees from the University of Chicago, he served from 1962 to 1968 as lecturer and then assistant professor of astronomy at Harvard University and as astrophysicist at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Mass. In 1968 he joined the Cornell University astronomy faculty, where in 1976 he was the David Duncan professor of astronomy and space sciences and director of the Laboratory for Planetary Studies. Sagan and others have proposed the existence of several hundred billion planets in our galaxy with environments suitable for the development of intelligent civilizations capable of transmitting messages by

a U.K.

Department

of

Trade inquiry. The

department's report, published in July 1976, was critical of Lonrho's methods of operation and of certain of its directors for neglecting to exercise proper control of the executive. It opined that Rowland's achievement would be all the greater if he would

"allow his enthusiasms to operate within the ordinary processes of company management."

Rowland's flamboyant and aggressive personal style led some of the Lonrho directors in 1973 to demand his dismissal. He immediately challenged this in the High Court; though he lost the case seeking an injunction to set aside his dismissal, he won enough time to secure a ballot of shareholders who voted six to one in his favour. The publicity given in 1973 to Rowland's style of life and to the lavish payments to the Lonrho chairman, Lord Duncan-Sandys, provoked Edward Heath, then Conservative prime minister, to a much-quoted comment on "the unacceptable face of capitalism." Little is known about Rowland's early life. He seems to have been born in India on Nov. 17, 1918, of German parents who went to Britain before World War II, and he emigrated to Rhodesia in 1947. (

HARFORD THOMAS)

Sagan, Carl "Sagan desperately wants to find life someplace, anyplace on Mars, on Titan, in the solar system or outside it everything he has done has had this one underlying

—

.

.

.

purpose." Thus did a professional colleague

today

is

whether there

is

life,

intelligent or

not, elsewhere in the universe. As a member of the Viking-lander imaging team, which analyzed the photographs sent back

Earth from Mars by Vikings 1 and 2, he found himself in 1976 in the long-desired role of looking for evidence of extraterresto the

trial life.

York

radio. In the belief that

some

of these

girl

had ever

Any man who

did not like the

new

Laurent look might be well advised

Saint

to brace

himself for several years of suffering. Haute couture, dependent on a relatively small number of wealthy women, was no longer the financial mainstay of the French fashion industry, and the House of Saint Laurent was busy producing thousands of ready-towear copies to be sold at Saint Laurent's boutiques throughout the world. Furthermore, Saint Laurent was one of the most copied of designers, and by year's end inexpensive peasant-look dresses were appearing in shopping centres and discount stores. Whether they would actually replace the pants suits and sportswear look clothes recently in favour remained to be seen.

may

a week is a short time, and the likelihood of success was small, but still I found my-

depressed." Sagan's ability to articulate his ideas so that they are interesting and meaningful to laymen caused him to be in great demand for lectures and television appearances. To those who criticized such activity, he responded that the kind of science he likes

self

—

—

to do requires money the public's money and someone has to take the scientists' case to the people.

Saint Laurent,

(david

r.

calhoun)

Yves Henri Donat

In the late 1940s women everywhere, weary of wartime shortages and uniforms, swept their closets bare to make room for Christian Dior's extravagantly romantic New

Look. Nothing quite like it had happened since. Perhaps because of a faltering economy, perhaps because of the women's movement, women had tended to resist sudden style changes, and the younger ones had even shown a lamentable preference for durable jeans and overalls. But the clothing industry and its attendant groupies the fashion writers and the women who make a career of chic had never ceased to hope. It may have been that hope that inspired the staid New York Times to use the term

—

—

"revolutionary" in describing Yves Saint Laurent's fall 1976 collection and to report

on the front page. "It's the intensity of approach that gives his collection such an impact," the Times declared. Saint it

his

Laurent,

who had

popularized man-tailored,

pin-striped suits for women, had abruptly abandoned that style to show peasant-type dresses clearly derived from the traditional

costume of pre-Revolutionary Russia. But

JEFF ALBERTSON — STOCK, BOSTON

— fabrics no genuine farm

be trying to contact the Earth, Sagan in 1975 spent a week at the Arecibo radio telescope listening for any such signals. He did not hear them and said afterward, "I know

Mathieu

50

lame seen.

the peasant look was just a starting point for Saint Laurent. To produce his rich gowns he used taffeta, chiffon, and gold

Born Aug.

1936, in Oran, Algeria, Saint prize in a fashion-drawing competition at the age of 17. This distinction brought him an introduction to Dior, with whom he worked closely until Dior's death in 1957. He succeeded the Master as head of the House of Dior and scored an international triumph with his trapeze line. Three years later, Saint Laurent established his own house, and from that moment on his reputation as one of the most original and daring fashion designers increased each year. (victor m. cassidy)

Laurent

won

1,

first

Sampson, Will It is difficult to be an eloquent deaf-mute, but Will Sampson achieved it when he played Chief Bromden in One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975). He portrayed an inmate of a mental hospital who defied the system by pretending to be a deaf-mute.

New Yorker, stated that Sampson brought "so much charm, irony, and physical dignity to the role of the resurrected catatonic that this movie achieves [author Ken Kesey's] mythic goal." Sampson, a full-blooded Creek Indian who detests the stereotypes by which motion pictures usually portray native Americans, broke the traditional patterns in which Indians were used as "livestock" (his term). Besides Chief Bromden, a complex character who cannot be classed as either a noble savage or a murderous one, Sampson had played Ten Bears, the proud chief of the Comanches, in Clint Eastwood's The Outlaw Josey Wales; Crazy Horse, the great Sioux warrior, in J. Lee Thompson's The Pauline Kael, in The

White Buffalo (with Charles Bronson) and William Halsey, the highly educated interpreter for the Sioux chief Sitting Bull,

ported by the Lebanese rightists and by Syria but opposed by the left. However, Sarkis succeeded in establishing his independence as a compromise leader at the Arab summit meetings in Saudi Arabia and Egypt in October and won the grudging acceptance of the left. It was decided that the Arab peacekeeping force in Lebanon should be

under

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR Agency, which the committee had voted to withhold from publication. Schorr believed that the report should be made public, and when his own television network, cbs, did not accept the material he gave it to New York's Village Voice newspaper, which printed it and touched off a year of contro-

his control.

Born

in the village of

Ash Shabaniyah

in

Matn

region of Mount Lebanon on July 20, 1924, Sarkis was not a member of any of Lebanon's leading political families. He worked his way through school and college and obtained his law degree from Beirut's Jesuit Universite Saint Joseph in 1948. He was appointed judge at the Audit Office in 1953. His intellect and administrative ability brought him to the attention the

al

versy.

Most Washington reporters agreed with Schorr that the report should not have been suppressed once it got into a journalist's hands; but some questioned the professional

Gen. Fuad Chehab, who, on becoming

it to a news organization other than his own, even though he was not paid by the Village Voice. At Schorr's re-

president in 19S8 after that year's quasi-civil war, appointed him to one of the new reform committees. The next year Sarkis became the president's legal adviser, a post he

quest, the paper had made a donation to the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Schorr, a controversial but respected

continued to hold under Chehab's successor, Charles Helou. In 1967 Helou appointed Sarkis governor of the Central Bank, where he was respon-

newsman, was born

of

ethics of giving

Aug.

banking system after the collapse of the Intra Bank sible for the reorganization of the

Robert Altman's Buffalo Bill and the Indians or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (with Paul Newman). Notwithstanding his personal success in films, Sampson remains aware of the damage done by white prejudice and the painful problems of many other native Americans. He gives occasional talks on Indians at schools and prisons and contributes to Red Wind, a California organization that helps in

alcoholics.

The 42-year-old, 6-ft S-in Sampson came by accident he considered himself a painter first. His paintings of Western and cowboy subjects have been exhibited all to acting

—

and for helping restore confidence in Beirut as a major financial centre. In the 1970 presidential elections he was the Chehabist candidate and widely expected to win, but the unpopular increase in the power of the military intelligence under Chehab led to his defeat, by one vote, by the supporters of Kamal Jumblatt (q.v.). Sarkis remained as governor of the Central Bank, and although he was opposed by the leftist forces the 1976 presidential elections, the fact that he was a technocrat who did not belong to any of Lebanon's traditional political clans gave him some advantage in his desire to appear as a moderate capable of reuniting the country, (peter mansfield) in

Schorr, Daniel

For television newsman Daniel Schorr, it was a clear and simple proposition: He had acquired a copy of a congressional commiton the Central Intelligence tee's report

in

New York

City on

He graduated from

the City College of New York and worked for various news agencies before joining cbs in 19S3. He served in West Germany, the U.S.S.R., and other overseas posts and was considered a tough investigative reporter when covering the U.S. Congress. The network supported Schorr's right to make the report public, but suspended him from his congressional beat when it became known that he had given it to the Village Voice. 31, 1916.

Congressional and administration

officials

were furious and determined to find Schorr's '

source for the report. After several months of delay, the U.S. House of Representatives appropriated $150,000 for an investigation by its Ethics Committee, which interviewed about 400 witnesses over a period of five

months. The committee was stymied when Schorr stood on his First Amendment rights and refused to reveal his source, even when subpoenaed and threatened with a possible contempt of Congress citation. Schorr conceded that the House Intelligence Committee had a right to keep the report secret if it could, but it did not have the right to prevent him from publishing it once he had obtained a copy. The Ethics Committee finally limited itself to calling

over the West, including the Amon Carter Museum in Fort Worth, Texas, as well as at the Smithsonian and at the Library of Congress in Washington. The self-taught painter also did a huge mural for the International Petroleum Exposition in Tulsa, Okla.

Schorr's action "reprehensible," admitting that it could not find the leak. When the investigation ended, Schorr resigned from cbs and said that he would become involved in lecturing and in writing a book.

(HAL bruno)

Sampson was born in Okmulgee, Okla., and grew up around ranching. He left school at 14 and began working in a rodeo. He was also an oil field and construction worker,

Shoemaker, William Lee He had already become

the winningest jockey in horse racing history in 1970, and so it was with some nonchalance that William Lee Shoemaker greeted the 7,000th triumph of his career at age 44 on March 14,

a telephone lineman, and a lumberjack. He got the part in Cuckoo's Nest when a rodeo announcer recommended him for an audition to a casting scout. He said he accepted the role because acting still left him time for painting. And Sampson sees parallels between the two activities, viewing them both as media through which the artist tries to convey his understanding to the audience.

"I

1976.

knew

sooner or

later.

was bound

it

I

anticipating this one said,

to

happen was

think everyone else

after bringing

more than I was," he Royal Derby II from

behind

in the fifth race at Santa Anita racetrack in Arcadia, Calif. Few racing experts believe anyone will

(JOAN NATALIE REIBSTEIN)

match Shoemaker's record. Only one man before him ever had 5,000 winners, Johnny Longden, whose mark of 6,032 was broken by Shoemaker on Sept. 7, 1970. Royal Derby II was the 29,203rd mount

Sarkis, Elias

A

technocrat turned politician, Elias Sarkis elected president of Lebanon on May 8, 1976, by Parliament in the most difficult possible circumstances, in the middle of a civil war. Although the constitution had been specially amended so that his election could be brought forward four months, he was unable to take office until September 23 because of Pres. Suleiman Franjieh's refusal to withdraw. His election was sup-

was

of Shoemaker's 27-year career. In addition to 7,000 victories, he had 4,598 secondplaces finishes and 3,603 thirds at the time of the milestone. Thus, in an astounding 52% of his rides he finished "in the money."

Shoemaker's mounts won more than $58 which the jockey gets at least

million, of ENN1S BRACK — BLACK STAR

51

Jack Richard Simplot and his market had been trading in commodity fuagreements made by farmers to detures liver specified amounts of a commodity at some future date. At the beginning of each growing season, a potato farmer may con-

Biography

rivals

—

BOOK OF THE YEAR PETER BORSARI

— CAMERA

5

tract to deliver his entire crop to a broker at a certain price. The farmer receives cash

pay his operating expenses and has a buyer for his crop. The broker then sells to

the potato future to a speculator. The speculator hopes that the market price of potatoes will rise during the course of the season. If it does, his profit will be the difference between the price paid to the farmer and the market price for potatoes at harvest time.

memorable

qualities of the tdf: wise planning, daring execution, the element of surprise, and heroic performance. It was a supreme test for the commander's capability,

and performance." The decould have added that Shomron had left Israel on Saturday a man for his planning fense minister

except in intimate Army circles and returned on Sunday as an officer whose

unknown

name had become

a

worldwide byword for

courage and daring.

of the National Football League. "When he told me that, wow, it was mentally an upper," said Shoemaker. "Where I was riding four or five times a day before the test, I'm back to six or seven races a day." Shoemaker, who prefers the nickname "Bill" to "Willie," is 4 ft 11 in tall and weighs less

in 1937, during

the "Arab troubles," in kibbutz Ashdot Yaacov. At the age of 19 he was a junior paratroop officer in the capture of the Mitla Pass during the Suez War of 1956. In the Six-Day War of 1967 he led the commando unit that was the first to reach the Suez Canal in the northern sector. He then took command of a much-coveted commando battalion, the successor to the famed 89th that had been Moshe Dayan's unit 20 years earlier.

Born Aug. 19, 1931, in Fabens, Texas, Shoemaker began his career in 1949, becoming national riding champion five times and leading money-winning jockey ten times. Among his top achievements were three victories in the Kentucky Derby, two in the Preakness, and five in the Belmont

Within the idf, Shomron became know^n for his raids into Arab territories, in Jordan against terrorists and into Egypt during the war of attrition in 1969. In 1971 he was appointed commander of an armoured brigade that excelled during the most difficult days of the Kippur War (1973). As commander, from 1974, of the InfantryParatroop Combined Operations Unit, he was largely responsible for organizing the force that was able to carry out the Entebbe operation at short notice. Within six weeks of Entebbe, on Aug. 29, 1976, Shomron was appointed to a new, senior post that w^as not officially identified.

Stakes.

The

Shoemaker suffered serious injuries in 1968 and 1969. A broken pelvis caused many to predict his career was finished at age 37, but he was back in action three months later. (j. timothy weigel)

surprise

than 100

lb.

would have to wait for the next would again bring Dan

that into

Shomron

command

public

focus

position. (See

Uganda.)

in

his

latest

Defense; Israel; (ton kimche)

Simplot. Jack Richard

Shomron, Dan During the evening

of July 4, 1976, Israel's Shimon Peres, called a

defense minister, press conference at short notice and opened it with the words: "Good evening. May I introduce, on my right the tdf [Israel Defense Force] chief of staff, Major-General Gur; on my left is Brigadier-General Dan Shomron who commanded the Entebbe [Uganda] operation during last night. When his force left the State of Israel yesterday afternoon it left behind a country in deep distress. When he returned this morning he found a proud country, for that night his idf force had displayed some of the most

52

Yom

Israelis

"Big potato boys playing chicken," said William Bagley, chairman of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, in the spring of 1976. Two powerful groups of speculators had been struggling for weeks in the potato futures market. Prices had fluctuated wildly. In late May, Jack Richard Simplot and his trading partner, P. J. faulted.

grew and processed potatoes, raised livestock, manufactured chemicals, and mined '

The sales of his firms totaled roughly $600 million per year. Simplot and Taggares bought potato fu-

iron.

tures

in

1975

believing

that

the

market

The prediction was correct. Prices went up spectacularly and they agreed to deliver 50 million lb of Maine potatoes would

rise.

another group of speculators in May 1976, realizing a huge paper profit. The other speculators bought from Simplot and Taggares because they believed that prices would to

Dan Shomron was born 10%. Thus, he earned close to $6 million, and probably more, making him one of the richest athletes in the world. Mention retirement, however, and he says, "What else would I do?" Two months after his 7,000th winner, Shoemaker was informed by sports physician Robert Kerlan that he was in better physical shape than many of the Los Angeles Rams

Jack Simplot probably knows as much about potatoes as anyone in the U.S. Born Jan. 4, 1909, in Dubuque, Iowa, he quit school as a boy of 14 and started to work sorting potatoes for an Idaho broker. He saved his money and soon was growing potatoes himself. In 1943 he founded J. R. Simplot and Co., which over three decades grew into one of the largest privately held industrial empires in the country. Simplot

Taggares, had deto fulfill con-

They were unable

to deliver 50 million lb of Maine potatoes worth $4 million. It was probably the largest default in the history of the U.S. commodities market. As of late 1976, government regulatory authorities had yet tracts

to resolve the situation.

rise

even more. But Simplot and Taggares

correctly anticipated that the market would fall. By the spring of 1976, they thought, they could purchase potatoes at low cost, fulfill their legal obligation, and pocket the profit. But when May arrived, they were unable to buy Maine potatoes at any price. No one would sell to them. Their rivals were trying to force up the price of potatoes in order to lessen or to eliminate their paper losses. Simplot and Taggares had no choice (%*ictor m. casstdy) but to default.

Slater,

James Derrick

Slater, Britain's prototype whiz-kid financial tycoon of the boom years of the 1960s and early 1970s, was the most notable

Jim

victim of the great crash of 1974-75. In the 12 years from its founding in 1964, the value of Slater, Walker Securities Ltd. rocketed to an estimated £600 million in 1972, only to crash to around £6 million by September 1976. (Peter Walker, a Conservative Cabinet minister in the Edward Heath government, had been Slater *s partner from 1964 to 1970, hence the parent company's name.) Born in Brighton, England, on March 13, 1929, Slater was trained as an accountant, moved into industry*! and had become deputy sales director of Leyland Motor Corp. Ltd. by the time he decided to launch out on his own. In the beginning Slater, Walker specialized in taking over poorly run companies, putting in more energetic manage-

ment,

and

(known

selling

off

underused

assets

as asset-stripping). By the end of the 1960s it was branching out into banking and financial services, and in the early 1970s its takeover activities extended overseas to Australia, the Far East, Asia, Europe, and the U.S. When the 1974 recession set in, the firm was hopelessly overextended, with loans it could not recall and assets of declining value in shares and property, many bought with

mistic view of Rhodesia's future as scaremongering and continued his waiting game. Born on April 8, 1919, at Selukwe, Southern Rhodesia, Smith was educated at Chaplin School, Gwelo, and Rhodes University in South Africa. He served with the Royal

loans at high rates of interest. Because of the extent of its banking activities, the Bank of England had to come to the rescue in 1975, and in October 1975 Slater resigned

which was taken over by James Goldsmith (q.v.). The affairs of Slater, Walker were then examined by accountants on behalf of the company, and by the Department of Trade. The accountants' report, published on Sept. his chairmanship, Sir

Air Force during World War II. A farmer, he entered politics in 1948 as a member of the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Assembly. In 1961 he was a founding member of the Rhodesian Front, becoming its president in 1965. Beginning in 1962 he held various ministerial appointments, and in April 1964 he became prime minister of Rhodesia, which unilaterally declared its independence from Britain in November 1965. (nicola smith)

14, 1976, shattered Slater's legendary reputation as a financial wizard (although the investment management branch was found to

be competently run). At this stage Slater said that he himself owed £1 million. Meanwhile he was faced with court proceedings for alleged breaches of the U.K. Companies Act, and the government of Singapore was seeking his extradition to answer charges concerning the management of the Singapore company Haw Par Brothers International, in which Slater, Walker secured an

Steel,

On

(harford thomas)

interest in 1972.

Smith, Ian Douglas Sept. 24, 1976, Rhodesian Prime MinIan Smith broadcast the terms of his "package deal" with U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Black leaders immediately rejected the proposed two-year transition to

majority

comed

it

as

and few observers welthe solution urgently needed to

law concerning abortion. As president of the Anti-Apartheid Movement in Great Britain from 1966 to 1969, he was prominent in

He

clearly thought-out views tional devolution for Scotland.

had

'

John Paul

The American Bar Association had called him "practical, not always bound by the

1976, David Steel was elected leader of the British Liberal Party in a ballot of party constituencies. He had entered Parliament at the age of 27 when he won a by-election at Roxburgh, Selkirk, and Peebles in 1965. Since 1970 he had been Liberal chief whip or parliamentary party manager a job more onerous than might appear at first glance in that it involved handling the small group of highly individualistic Liberal MP's. 7,

conventional wisdom, analytic, very smart, moderate, imaginative, elegant, aggressive, a little brisk, hard to categorize." On Dec. 19, 1975, John Paul Stevens was sworn in associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, the 101st justice to serve on that court and the first appointed by Pres. Gerald Ford. Justice Stevens, generally regarded as as

a moderate or a moderate conservative, filled the vacancy left by the retirement of Justice

William O. Douglas, a noted liberal. Unlike several Supreme Court nominees the previous administration, Stevens of generated little opposition except among feminist groups such as the National Organization for Women, which criticized his

rule,

CAMERA PRESS

secure Rhodesia's future. Smith's record of negotiated settlement was uninspiring. He had met with various British government officials and African nationalist leaders, but his views against black majority rule helped prevent any agreement on power sharing. After Smith's inconclusive talks with African nationalist leader Joshua Nkomo early in 1976, increasing pressure from South Africa, Britain, and, finally, the U.S. led to a Rhodesian constitutional conference in Geneva. When

on constitu-

(harford thomas) Stevens,

David Martin Scott July

another area of basic liberal principle. kept his family home in his Scottish

constituency, living in Ettrick Bridge, a small village 40 mi S of Edinburgh, and

—

On

ister

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR

record on women's and minorities' rights '

and his failure to support the proposed Equal Rights Amendment. He was given the highest possible evaluation by the American Bar Association committee that assessed his record.

talks formally

Stevens was born in Chicago on April 20, 1920, into a prominent family, graduated from the University of Chicago in 1941, and soon thereafter joined the Navy. During

rejection of

World War

opened on October 28, Smith's any modification of his "deal" with Kissinger created an immediate impasse. A week later, irritated by the lack of

II he served as an intelligence After the war he attended Northwestern University School of Law, graduating first in his class. In 1948 Stevens clerked for Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Wiley B. Rutledge. Returning to Chicago, he joined a local law firm where he gained experience in antitrust law. In 1951 and 1952 he was associate counsel of the House Judiciary officer.

progress, he returned to Rhodesia, leaving his delegation in charge of deputies. He re-

joined the conference on December 8, but no settlement was reached by the year's end. Rhodesia's internal situation was most difficult. In May, faced with an escalating guerrilla

war,

Smith

put

approximately

25,000 Territorial Force reservists on "continuous" call-up and launched a new "antiguerrilla initiative." This, plus the extension of the national service period from one year to 18 months, increased the pressure on an economy already strained by Mozambique's sanctions, declining tourism, and rising emigration. Smith, however, dismissed a pessi-

Steel took over in a difficult situation. For many months the party had been racked by bitter internal disputes that led to the resignation of Jeremy Thorpe from the leadership. A quiet, calm, but determined man, Steel quickly put his stamp of authority on the Liberal Party by insisting that Liberals must be prepared to join in a coalition government "if the conditions are right." Encouraged by the support of the party assembly, he began to canvass the need for a coalition government. Born March 31, 1938, at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, Steel went to school in Nairobi, Kenya, where his parents were then living. His Scottish roots were deep, his father being a moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. His involvement in Liberal politics went back to his later school and university days in Edinburgh. His first

job was as assistant secretary to the Scottish Liberal Party. As a bbc television reporter in Scotland for a short time before becoming an MP, he learned some of the professionalism that later made him an effective broadcaster.

made his mark- in the House of securing the passage of a private member's bill for the liberalization of the Steel soon

Commons,

Committee's subcommittee on monopoly power; from 1953 to 1955 he served on the Attorney General's National Committee to Study Antitrust Laws. In 1969 he also served as general counsel to an Illinois commission to investigate judicial corruption. Through his longtime friend Charles Percy, Republican senator from Illinois, Stevens came to the attention of Pres. Richard Nixon, who appointed him judge of the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals in 1970. In 1975 Stevens' name appeared on a list of possible nominees to the Supreme Court drawn up by Attorney General Edward

Levi.

The justice's opinions showed a great respect for precedent and a reluctance to stretch beyond the facts and law of a particular case to expand the court's interpretation of the Constitution. He was said to be tough on defendants in criminal cases but insistent that the police and the courts follow proper procedure, especially in regard to search and seizure. He occasionally sided with the liberals on the court, although more often he held to a centrist or conservative position. (joan natalie reibstein)

Suarez Gonzalez, Adolfo The appointment on July 3,

1976, of Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez as premier in Spain's second

DAROUENNES — SYGMA

53

— of the 1964 transatlantic race and was given four months' leave to compete. Sailing "Pen

Biography

13.6-m plywood-hulled ketch design, he arrived victorious at Newport on June 19, 1964, after 27 days 3 hours 56 minutes at sea, beat-

Duick

BOOK OF THE YEAR

built

government under King Juan Carlos I provoked widespread and mixed reaction. Outside Spain and among liberal and opposition circles at home the feeling was one of surprise mixed with disappointment, but it was one of delight among some Spanish rightists. It seemed to them that Suarez' position in the previous government (secre-

II," a

his

to

own

ing the record holder, Sir Francis Chichester. In 1967, with "Pen Duick III" (17.45 m), his wins included the Fastnet and SydneyHobart races. He was forced to abandon the 1968 transatlantic race after his giant

House of Representatives (the lower house of the Diet). He later held a number of Cabinet posts, and in 1972 he was chosen as the chairman of the Liberal-Democratic Party, which had governed Japan since World War II. He became the nation's prime minister that same year, the first to hold that office who had not graduated from Tokyo of the

University. SVEN

S

IMON

KATHERI NE YOUNG

/

KEYSTONE

tary-general of the National Movement Franco's reformed Falange), coupled with his sympathy toward the powerful Catholic organization Opus Dei, comprised a guarantee of his loyalty to the Francoist past. In addition, the refusal of Manuel Fraga Iribarne and Jose Maria de Areilza, two of the most liberal members of the last Cabinet, to join the new government reinforced the impression that democracy in Spain had suffered a setback. Adolfo Suarez, the youngest Spanish premier of the century, was born Sept. 25, 1932, in Cebreros, near Avila (Castilla). He graduated in law from Salamanca University and held various small posts in the provinces, of them within the National Movement. Later he worked with the national

most

radio and television network and became responsible for the first television channel. After serving as civil governor and provincial head of the National Movement in Segovia during 1968-69, he moved back to radio and television as director general. In March 1975 he was appointed deputy secretary-general of the National Movement and in December became secretarygeneral, with Cabinet rank. Also in 1975, he was founder-member and later president of the Union del Pueblo Espanol, a mildly reformist political association within the National Movement. In June 1976 he strongly defended in the Cortes the new

law

legalizing political parties.

Suarez' Cabinet consisted mostly of technocrats in their 40s and 50s with little political experience. However, the government published a new and more liberal draft of the Political Reform Bill, which was approved by the Cortes on November 18 and by 94% of the voters in a referendum on

December

(franchise lotery)

15.

Tabarly, Eric Marcel

you've lost your automatic steering equipment calls for more than human toughness. In June 1976 French yachtsman Eric Tabarly won the Single-Handed Trans-

Race by

sailing his

"Pen Duick VI"

— a 22.5-m ketch that normally would carry a crew of 15 or so — across the North Atlantic through some of the worst weather in recent He arrived in Newport, R.I., seven hours ahead of his closest competitor, just 23 days, 20 hours, and 12 minutes after leaving Plymouth, England. Eric Tabarly was born in Nantes, France, on July 24, 1931. From childhood, sailyears.

was

dominant passion in his life. gave him a singlemasted boat built in England in 1898, Tabarly molded a plastic hull around the old timbers and renamed it "Pen Duick," the Breton name for a small black-headed bird. ing

When

the

in 1953 his father

This, the

first

cessfully

for

of

its

many

line,

years

was

to sail suc-

with

its

19th-

century rigging.

Meanwhile Tabarly had joined the French fleet air arm and gone on to naval training college. He was a sublieutenant at the time 54

leaders.

trimaran "Pen Duick IV" was rammed by a cargo vessel. In 1969, with "Pen Duick V,"

won

he

handed

the race.

San Francisco-Tokyo single"Pen Duick VI" was designed

round-the-world race (1973), which he was forced to abandon after a series of misfortunes. As of 1976, Tabarly, for the first

how

a lieutenant commander, was assigned to the French armed forces' sports and phys-

ical

education service.

(pierre gutelle)

Tanaka, Kakuei At about 6:30 sedan

Tokyo

Guy

Sailing alone across the Atlantic is no easy task at any time, but to do it after a storm has knocked out the electric system and

atlantic

Immediately after he became prime minTanaka visited China to establish diplomatic relations between the two nations. A public opinion poll conducted after his visit to China showed that he had 60% support, highest figure among postwar ister,

district

on July 27, 1976, a black two prosecutors of the

prosecutor's

office

slipped

through the entrance into the spacious front yard of former Japanese prime minister Kakuei Tanaka. More than two hours later, Tanaka, once the nation's most powerful politician, was arrested in connection with the

"Lockheed

affair."

Tanaka was

indicted on August 16 on suspicion of having accepted 500 million yen in bribes from the Lockheed Aircraft Corp. According to the indictment, Tanaka, then prime minister, was asked in 1972 by executives of Marubeni Corp., Lockheed's sales agent in

his

popularity

did

not

last,

At to be

his

resignation,

blamed

affairs invited

public."

Tanaka

for the fact that

"I am personal

said,

my

misunderstanding among the

(YOSHINOBU EMOTO)

Tarjan, James

am

carrying

But

mainly as a result of a decline in the nation's economic growth. An expose of shady financial dealings in an influential Japanese monthly, indicating that Tanaka had profited illegally from his office, caused him to resign as prime minister in December 1974.

Japan, to exercise

his influ-

ence upon All Nippon Airways to buy Lockheed's L-1011 Tristar airbuses. It was charged that, after the ana did decide to buy the Tristars, Tanaka received money in four installments from the Marubeni Corp. Born May 4, 1918, in Niigata Prefecture, Tanaka was the only son among the six children of a poor cattle dealer. Having learned that his family could not afford to send him to secondary school, at 15 he left home alone for Tokyo. There he attended technical school at night while working as a construction clerk. Upon graduation, he set up his own construction firm. During World War II he was able to enlarge his business, thanks to big contracts with the Army. In 1947 Tanaka was elected as a member

has a long beard. He thinks all day of knights, kings, queens, and castles. No, he is not Don Quixote. And he is certainly not mad. He is James Tarjan, who in 1976 became the first U.S. chess player in 12 years to attain the title of international grand master, the highest permanent honour the chess world bestows. There were 100 grand masters in the world in 1976. Of these, 12,

He

including Tarjan, were American. Tarjan's rise was swift. He was born in Pomona, Calif., on Feb. 22, 1952, and learned the game from his father and brother, watching over their shoulders as they played. He entered his first tournament when he was 12 years old and a year later won first place in the American Open for players under 14. In 1967 Tarjan became 3. master. Four years later he earned his senior master's rating. While he studied in secondary school and at the University of California at Berkeley, he played in many tournaments both at home and overseas. In November of 1975 he entered and won a tournament at Subotica, Yugos., where he defeated several grand masters. In a 16-player tournament at Skopje, Yugos., held February 29-March 18, 1976, Tarjan shared fourth and fifth places. His success in these tourneys qualified him for the title of international grand master, according to the rules of the Federation Internationale des fichecs, the ruling (victor m. cassidy) body of world chess.

—

Pittsburgh in 192S. For many years he also been the voice of Movietone News. In addition he was known for his television

in

had

broadcasts, for his role in the development of Cinerama, as a world traveler, and as the

author of more than SO books. Lowell Thomas was born on April 6, 1892, in Wflodington, Ohio, but his family moved to Cripple Creek, Colo., in 1900. Thomas received his B.S. degree from the University of Northern Indiana and went on to study at the University of Denver, Kent College of Law, and Princeton University. In 1915 he gave the first of what were to become

famous

illustrated travelogues, describing a Alaska. He began touring with his lectures, speaking first before small groups and later at such prestigious locations as the trip to

Smithsonian Institution.

Woodrow

to

who appointed him to commission on the history of World War I. On his travels he met Gen. Edmund Allenby and T. E. Lawrence, giving Wilson,

for motion-picture-illustrated

lectures entitled "With Allenby in Palestine" and "With Lawrence in Arabia." In 1924 he published his first and probably most famous book With Lawrence in Arabia.

Thomas made

national radio debut on the Columbia Broadcasting System's Monday through Friday evening news program. He moved to the National Broadcasting Company in 1932 but returned in 1947 to cbs, where he remained. His television career began in 1939, when he started broadcasting the news for nbc. Thomas visited every continent and nearly every country in the world. One of his most famous trips was a 1949 visit to the once-forbidden city of Lhasa in Tibet, at the invitation of the Dalai Lama. Many of his books dealt with his various travels or with great adventures or great adventurers. They included Beyond the Khyber Pass (1925), India: Land of the Black Pagoda (1930), The Untold Story of Exploration (1936), Adventures Among Immortals (1937), With Allenby in the Holy Land (1938), Back to Mandalay (1951), and Lowell Thomas'

on Sept.

Book

his

29, 1930,

of the

tion.

His personal popularity

much

at ease

High Mountains (1964). (JOAN NATALIE REIBSTEIN)

rhorn, Gaston

Prime minister of one of the world's smallest countries, Gaston Thorn was often in the foreground of the international political scene during 197S-76. As head of govern-

civilizations in

Europe,

and he

coalition.

JAN

R.

ENGELS)

of 1974 Leo Tindemans, prime minister of Belgium, was invited by his fellow heads of government in the European Economic Community to draw up a report on the future of European unity.

He made

PICTORIAL PARADE

as

Tindemans, Leo Toward the end

a fact-finding tour of the capitals

of the nine eec countries and presented his report in December 1975, but as 1976 drew to a close he found to his chagrin that his colleagues had made little headway in studying his proposals for greater integration. There was compensation, however, in the award to Tindemans of the 1976 Charlemagne Prize for services to European unity. On the domestic front, Tindemans' government of Social Christians and Liberals, later joined by the Rassemblement Wallon (Walloon federalist party), faced serious problems from the start. To begin with, although Tindemans secured the Walloons' support in exchange for a promise to grant greater autonomy to the regions with devolution of powers, they proved erratic partners in the coalition. Then, with unemployment and inflation continually ris-

abled him to establish close contacts with the leading European political figures. In 1968 he became minister of community relations under Gaston Eyskens, and in the brief second Eyskens government (1972) he was .minister of agriculture. As leader of the Social Christians, he became deputy prime minister when Edmond Leburton's tripartite coalition took office in January 1973, and he took office as prime minister in April 1974. (J

strip

"Doonesbury."

At a time when many newspapers had been forced to drop or reduce the size of their comic strips, "Doonesbury" was a remarkable success. Its creator, Garry Trudeau, seemed able to express the flavour of social and political life in the 1970s with just the degree of bite that appealed to large

numbers

inevitable was clearly understood by Belgians, as indicated by the results of the October 1976 municipal elections, which were favourable for his Social Christian Party.

Zwijndrecht, Antwerp Province, Tindemans took a masin economics and began a ter's degree career in journalism. Joining the Social Christian political study centre, he became the party's national secretary in 1958 and a member of Parliament three years later.

Born

in

on April

16, 1922,

strongly interested in foreign and particularly European affairs, and his appointment as secretary-general of the European Union of Christian Democrats en-

readers, especially

among

the

The Doonesbury Chronicles) The artist's achievement was recognized by his receipt in May 1975 of

latest

being

marked

were

of

young. "Doonesbury" was appearing in some 400 U.S. newspapers, and nearly a million of Trudeau's several books (the

trade-union opposition. He nevertheless succeeded in obtaining parliamentary approval for an economic recovery program embodying wage restraints. His warnsacrifices

ENGELS

observers of the 1976 election campaigns felt that Virginia Slade was the one candidate most likely to win. She was the liberated black law student running for Congress in Garry Trudeau's satirical comic

had been

that

R.

Many

Tindemans' attempts to curb rising production costs by temporarily suspending the automatic wage indexation ran into strong

AN

Trudeau, Garry

ing,

He was always

a firm believer in the need for European unity.

politics,

(

Multilingual, living at the crossroads of the is

was

A. F. P. /

—

domination in Luxembourg was asked to head the new

ing

he

— he

BOOK OF THE YEAR

soccer fans as with contributed to the

fellow statesmen Liberal success in the May 1974 election, which ended SO years of Christian Socialist

ment and foreign minister of Luxembourg he was included in all the councils of Europe. In September 1975 he was elected president of the 30th UN General Assembly from Jan. 1, 1976, for the first half of the year, he was president of the European Council of heads of government of the nine EEC member states and also of the eec Council of Ministers; and in March 1976 he was elected president of the newly formed Federation of Liberal and Democratic Parties within the European Community. Germanic and Latin

among

his

the attention of Pres.

civilian

him material

Biography

3,

"So long until tomorrow" was the famous tag line. This time it was just, "So long." On May 14, 1976, he made his last broadcast of "Lowell Thomas and the News," ending the longest continuous run in the history of network radio broadcasting. In the course of that time the voice of Lowell Thomas had probably been heard by more people than any other person's in history. Thomas gave his first broadcast on station kdka

Thomas came

in Luxembourg on Sept. 1928, the son of a railway engineer, and raised in France. The family returned to Luxembourg at the outbreak of World War II and in 1943, during the German occupation, Gaston was sent to Germany for "corrective training" after organizing a demonstration against compulsory antiaircraft drill at school. After the war he studied in Switzerland and at the Sorbonne. It is said that Thorn was launched in politics without his knowledge by his wife, who agreed on his behalf that he would run for the Luxembourg town council in 19S7. But politics was in his blood (a Thorn had headed the Luxembourg Liberal Party early in the century), and two years later he became a member of Parliament and soon afterward of the European Parliament in Strasbourg. His political skill was rapidly recognized, and at 33 he became chairman Luxembourg's Liberal (Democratic) of Party. He at once set out to remodel the party's rather conservative program, giving it a more pragmatic, left-of-centre orientation. Following the 1968 general election he became foreign minister and minister for trade in the Christian Socialist-Liberal coali-

Thorn was born

rhomas, Lowell

head a

)

;

sold.

Pulitzer Prize for cartooning. This the first time the prize had been given to a non-editorial-page cartoonist. Trudeau's characters had been both real

the

and fictional. Presidents Nixon and Ford, Attorney General John Mitchell, Rolling Stone writer Hunter Thompson, and other national figures had all done stints in "Doonesbury" panels. But perhaps Trudeau's most popular character was Ms. Joanie Caucus, a runaway housewife turned law student. The cartoonist claimed he received so

much

mail addressed to her that

mailman thought he was living with her. Garretson Beekman Trudeau was born in New York City in 1948 but grew up in his

Saranac Lake, NY. He attended St. Paul's School in Concord, N.H., and entered Yale in 1966. Soon thereafter he drew his first comic strip. He became the editor of the campus humour magazine and an occa-

55

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR Yale Daily News. In 1968 he began doing a strip called "Bull Tales" for the campus paper, poking fun at Yale notables and introducing Michael J. Doonesbury, an armchair liberal who later sional writer for the

became the

strip's central character.

After graduating from college, Trudeau entered the Yale School of Art. About the same time he signed up with the new Universal Press Syndicate for a national comic strip, with the name "Bull Tales" changed to "Doonesbury" to avoid offending readers.

appeared in October first 1970 in 28 newspapers, including the Washington Post.

"Doonesbury"

"Doonesbury" nevertheless managed to offend some people. Probably the largest flap arose over a cartoon that

appeared

in

May

1973, in which "Doonesbury" 's militant radical declared John Mitchell "guilty, guilty, guilty" in the Watergate scandal. The decision of several newspapers in refusing to run that episode met with strong reader protest. Several million people clearly believed that "Doonesbury" was right on

(joan natalie reibstein)

target.

Ustinov, Dmitry Fedorovich Appointed Soviet minister of defense on April 29, 1976, following the death of

Mar-

Andrey Grechko (see Obituaries), Dmitry Ustinov was the first civilian to hold that office since Leon Trotsky in 1918 (excluding Marshal N. A. Bulganin, minister of defense during 19S3-SS, who was also

the Soviet military delegation at the September 1976 maneuvers of the Northern Group of the Warsaw Pact forces, held in

published a quietly homosexual novel, The City and the Pillar, and was banished by the literary establishment. For a while he pub-

western Poland. Dmitry Ustinov was born in Samara (now Kuybyshev) in 1908, the son of a worker. After graduating in 1934 from the Institute of Military Engineering in Leningrad, he worked first as a construction engineer, then as director of an armaments factory. In 1941 Stalin appointed him people's commissar of armaments. He kept this post after World War II and after Stalin's death continued to serve as minister of armaments (the designation commissar having been abolished in 1946) in Georgy M. Malenkov's Council of Ministers (March 1953-February

lished detective stories

19SS), retaining the same portfolio under Bulganin (February 195S-March 1958). When Nikita S. Khrushchev replaced Bulganin as chairman of the Council of Ministers, he appointed two first vice-chairmen: Aleksey N. Kosygin and Ustinov, the latter continuing as minister of defense industries. When, after Khrushchev's downfall in October 1964, Brezhnev became first secretary of the party's Central Committee, Ustinov remained in the government. In 196S he was made an alternate member of the Politburo the supreme policymaking body and a secretary of the Central Committee in charge of defense industries. At the 25th party congress in March 1976 he was elected a full member of the Politburo. (k. m. smogorzewski)

—

—

shal

Vidal,

Gore

Vidal earned

upward

of $1

million

from

an irreverent

his

tion's Centennial. A man Vidal scorned the celebration, saying "I should think a year of mourning would be highly salutary for our lost innocence, our eroding liberties, our vanishing resources, our ruined environment." Time magazine quipped that the author of 1876 had bit "the land that feeds him,"

the army and three months later marshal of the Soviet Union. Although no professional soldier, Ustinov was an expert in the field of armaments production, and as such was no doubt preferred by Communist Party General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev to either of the two obvious military candidates, Marshal Grechko's deputies Gen. Viktor G. Kulikov, chief of the general staff, and Marshal Ivan eral

of

Yakubovsky (see Obituaries), commander in chief of the Warsaw Pact forces. The appointment could be seen as an as-

I.

sertion of party and civilian authority over the armed forces, so favouring a continuation

of

Ustinov's

detente first

policy.

official

One

duties

of

was

Marshal to head

about the naof many words,

historical novel

—

characterizing

him

as "a cinder in the public

eye" for three decades. But

like

many who

twitted the literary gadfly for his often perverse opinions, Time granted that the novelist-playwright-essayist-homosexual apologist-scenarist-television commentatorpolitician managed to persevere with undeniable style and diversion. The book was "as funny as it is unsettling ... an ornate 200th birthday card inscribed with a poison pen." 1876 was the fictional memoir of Aaron Burr's illegitimate son, an impoverished office seeker who saw U.S. Senate seats sold for $200,000 and West Point appointments for $5,000. Vidal described the chicanery with a straight face, part of his public pose as a jade.

He was born Eugene Luther

Vidal, Jr., 1925, in Cadet Hospital at West Point, N.Y., delivered by a future surgeon general of the U.S. His father, an athlete and aviator, moved the family to the home of Vidal's grandfather, Sen. Thomas Gore of Oklahoma, a blind legislator to whom young Vidal often read aloud. When the boy was ten his parents were divorced. His

on Oct.

3,

mother quickly remarried and he went to live with his stepfather who later became stepfather to Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy. After graduating from Phillips Exeter Academy, in New Hampshire, he enlisted in the Army and spent part of World War II in

—

the Aleutians. His first novel, Williwaw (1946), written in the Army, won rave reviews. He vied

with

Truman Capote

of literary NOVOSTI

56

D.C. (1967), Myra Breckinridge (1968), and Burr (1973). The latter offered a new look at the Founding Fathers and set the stage for 1876. Julian (1964), a historical novel about a 4th-century Roman emperor, led him to Italy where he continued to spend most of his time. Said Vidal: "I have the face now of one of the later, briefer

(phixip kopper)

emperors."

Videla, Jorge Rafael After a long-planned, bloodless coup on the night of March 23, 1976, which overthrew the almost nonfunctioning government of Pres. Isabel Peron, Lieut. Gen. Jorge Rafael Videla became the 39th president of Argentina. Videla, who had long resisted injecting the

military

when

into

politics,

finally

moved

seemed to him that the unbridled terrorism and economic ineptness of the Peronist government could no longer be it

endured.

as army comfor so long that known as the "Reluctant when he and the other armed

Indeed,

mander, stayed he became Dragon." But

his

Videla,

hand

chiefs decided Argentina could no longer be allowed to drift, he moved swiftly and with precision. He gave the Army control of the struggle against the guerrillas of the left and right who had taken several thousand lives in Argentina during the past several years. In October he narrowly escaped assassination when a reviewing stand blew up at the military headquarters, the Campo de Mayo, moments after he had left. Once regarded as a follower rather than a leader, Videla proved to be strong and competent. He got along well with the other junta leaders, Adm. Emilio Massera and Air Force Chief Orlando Agosti, but there was no question that Videla wielded supreme authority. Videla was a sworn anti-Communist and a tough-minded infantry soldier who was credited with deeply ingrained Roman Catholic moralist views. His personal integrity was unquestioned, and he was described in Argentina as a "man from another time" who loathed corruption and would not tolerate it in his government. Born on Aug. 2, 1925, in Mercedes, about 75 mi from Buenos Aires, Videla was the son of an infantry colonel. A tall, lanky man with a prominent nose and mustache and a personable but shy manner, he was exceedingly polite but had difficulty with small talk and would not abide off-colour stories. One of his closest advisers was Msgr. Adolfo Tortolo, the Army's chief chaplain. (JEREMIAH A. O'LEARY, JR.)

forces

While millions observed the U.S. Bicentennial with something close to reverence, Gore

essentially a civilian). Simultaneously

with appointment Ustinov was named gen-

under a pen name, Edgar Box, then wrote TV and movie scripts. He had two Broadway hits before riding into Washington on the Kennedy coattails, a camp follower in Camelot who subsequently had a falling out with Robert Kennedy. Among his later books were Washington,

for the

boy wonder.

Two

postwar

title

years later he

Vorster, Balthazar Johannes South Africa's prime minister, B. J. Vorster, marked, the tenth year of his accession to power in 1976 with a remarkable diplomatic partnership with U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger that apparently persuaded the Rhodesian leader, Ian Smith (q.v.), to accept black rule for his country. But Vorster remained adamantly opposed to any such future for South Africa; he insisted that apartheid (racial separation) would remain no matter what modifications might be made to cope with the increasingly militant aspirations of black South Africans.

GODFREY ARGENT— CAMERA PRESS/ FRANZ

E.

FURST

appearance. She books but a busy lecturer and broadcaster, a great traveler (at one time regularly spending four months of every year abroad), and an

energy that belied her

was not only a

frail

Biography

prolific writer of

BOOK OF THE YEAR CAREN GOLDEN — PICTORIAL PARADE

adroit activist behind the scenes. She had learned how to exploit the potential of nongovernmental organizations (ngo's) to influence governments, notably at the world conferences which provided a forum where ngo's could be heard. Born in England on May 23, 1914, Barbara Ward might well have become a university teacher. On leaving Oxford she spent a few years as an extramural univer-

UN

sity lecturer,

but then switched to journalism

and was soon an

assistant editor

Economist. After her marriage

on The

1950 she India, Pakistan,

Vorster was a Afrikaner leaders

man who

in the tradition of believed both in the

supremacy of Afrikaans-speaking South Africans and in rigid segregation between the races. He was, however, quite capable of adopting flexible attitudes when the occasion demanded and was quick to understand the consequences of the collapse of the Portuguese colonial empire in 1974. Vorster offered cooperation with neighbour-

political

ing African leaders in trying to achieve a peaceful settlement of the simmering crises

Rhodesia and Namibia. But this initiative was lost when he sent South African forces into southern Angola in an unsuccessful campaign to oppose Soviet and Cuban support for the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola. Later, however, he in

became Kissinger's enthusiastic partner, working with other African leaders to defuse violence in southern Africa. Vorster was born at Jamestown, Cape Province, on Dec. 13, 1915, and studied law at the University of Stellenbosch, the cradle of Afrikaner nationalism, where he showed early promise as a student leader. His legal career was interrupted by his internment during World War II by Field Marshal C. Smuts's government because of his active opposition to the Allies' war effort. J.

He

entered Parliament in 19S3 and was

a junior minister

made

weeks later, finally achieving full Cabinet rank in 1961 as minister of justice. When Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd was murdered in 1966, five

the National Party turned to Vorster as the toughest leader in their ranks to guide them through the difficult years ahead.

(colin legum)

Ward, Barbara (Lady Jackson) With her books Only One Earth, written in collaboration with Rene Dubos for the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972, and The Home

M an,

UN

written for the Conference on Settlements (Habitat), held in Vancouver, B.C., in 1976 (see Environment: Special Report), Barbara Ward became perhaps the world's best known voice in the great debates of the 1970s on environment of

Human

and development. Her status as something of an international guru was recognized when, in June 1976, she was given a life peerage in Britain's House of Lords. (Her appellation of Lady Jackson derived from her marriage to Sir Robert Jackson, an undersecretary-general of the UN.) The- founder-president of the International

Institute for

Environment and De-

velopment, with headquarters in London, Barbara Ward was a woman of immense

in

lived at different times in and Ghana, gaining a first-hand view of development in the third world that prompted the first of a series of books on this theme. In the 1960s she began to spend more time in the U.S., which was some years ahead of Europe in its concern over industrial pollution. Brought up a Roman Catholic, she was appointed to the pope's Commission for Justice and Peace in 1967 and in 1971 was the first woman ever to address a Vatican Assembly. (

HARFORD THOMAS)

Wertmiiller, Lina Arcangela Felice Assunta Wertmiiller von Elgg Spanol von Braucich-Job is an enigma.

Born in Rome "somewhere between 1812 and 1928, I'll never tell precisely," she was the socialist great-great-granddaughter of a Swiss aristocrat who fled Zurich after a duel and the renegade daughter of a distinguished lawyer whose wife sent him packing after 50 years of marriage. Possessed of "boiling blood" herself, as a schoolgirl she once set fire to a teacher's robes. In 1957 she graduated from the Academy of Theatre in Rome, worked in the avant-garde theatre and with a puppet theatre that staged Kafka for children, and then became Federico Fellini's protegee (having met the director through a childhood friend who married his leading actor, Marcello Mastroianni) By 1976 she had made more than half a dozen films, been named best director at the Cannes Film Festival, become the toast of American movie audiences, and signed a multifilm Hollywood contract. Among the films of Lina Wertmiiller, as she was better known, are Love and Anarchy, The Seduction of Mimi, Swept Away, and Seven Beauties. They were wildly applauded in the U.S. one earned more than .

—

the film about sex or politics? Viewers disagreed. Newsweek's critic saw it as "a kind of witty and slapdash Marxist comedy that owes as much to Groucho as to Karl." (

PHILIP KOPPER)

Williams, Shirley Vivien Teresa Brittain the departure of Roy Jenkins (q. v.) Brussels as president-designate of the Commission of the European Community, Shirley Williams found herself the nominal leader of the moderate social democrat wing of the British Labour Party. She did not enter the contest for the party leadership when Harold Wilson resigned in March 1976, but in October she was persuaded, somewhat against her will, to run against Michael Foot, a left-wing radical, as deputy leader. She lost by 166 votes to 128, and while it could not be said that this left her as number three in the party hierarchy, it established her as a serious contender for the leadership in a few years' time. In the September reconstruction of the James Callaghan government she became secretary of state for education and science, a step up from secretary of state for prices

With to

—

$100,000 in two weeks though critics disagreed as to what they were about, let alone what they meant. "Wertmiiller's films are a torrent of paradox," wrote one. "Opposites always go together. Her villains or, rather, those who embody noxious ideas, are touched with some splendor or at least some humanity." Similarly, her heroes were tainted with madness or the macabre. If she had a single message it lay in such seeming contradictions. "It is not the bad guys who

make

society what it is," she told an American interviewer. "It is us. have to keep clear that society is us, the result of our choices." Her effect rested in part on her ability to be constantly complex to present many compelling conundrums at once, while mixing metaphors, mores, and morals. Swept Away, for example, involved a Communist deckhand and a haughty yacht mistress. in dinghy, Adrift a the millionairess scorns him; marooned on ah island, he beats her; they fall madly in love, but after they are rescued she goes her way again. Was

We

—

KEYSTONE

57

Born March 11, 1916, in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire, Wilson won a scholarship to Oxford University, where he became a

Biography

BOOK OF THE YEAR consumer protection, the post that brought her into the Cabinet in 1974 and

and

into the centre time of rampant a reputation for and a capacity

common

of political attention at a inflation.

There she gained

her relaxed, informal style, to argue with persuasive

lecturer in economics before going into the civil service during World War II and then into Parliament in 1945. He became presi-

dent of the Board of Trade in Clement Attlee's

Labour government

in 1947, at the

age of 31, and was elected leader of the Labour Party in 1963 following the death of

Hugh

Gaitskell.

Worth, Irene Irene Worth, Broadway's best actress in 1976, gave her Tony award-winning performance in a short-run revival of Tennessee Williams' Sweet Bird of Youth, In it, she said, she found "the C Major track" of total loyalty to the author's composition. If the metaphor seemed unlikely for a dramatic actress, it was appropriate for this performer. Washington Post critic Richard L. Coe once said "her voice must be one of the finest on the English-speaking stage." Furthermore, she is a dedicated advocate

as a committed European as a woman of resolute principle, for she said she would leave the government if Britain were to leave the Community. She

Wilson showed no loss of energy after his retirement. During April 7-June 13 he wrote a book called The Governance of Britain, based on his own long experience in office, which was published in October. This remarkable ability to write books at top speed had been demonstrated earlier, when his

Merce Cunningham and composer-conductor

political toughness at the 1976 Labour conference by defending public expenditure cuts, a highly sensitive issue. Born July 27, 1930, Shirley Williams was brought up in an intensely political family. Her father, Sir George Catlin, and her mother, the writer Vera Brittain, were both

lengthy memoirs of the Labour government of 1964-70 appeared in 1971. By a nice touch of irony, there was another compulsive writer in the Wilson Cabinet. Richard Crossman (d. 1974), the second volume of whose memoirs also appeared in October 1976 with a highly critical view of Wilson's perfor-

Pierre Boulez. "I think all the arts should stimulate each other," she told an interviewer. "The movies have changed everything for the stage actor. We have to find the kind of urgency and documentary truth that you can get with a hand-held camera, and ... to get it every night."

prominent in left-wing politics in the 1930s. At Oxford she was the first woman chairman of the university Labour Club. Before entering Parliament in 1964 she had been general secretary of the influential Fabian Society. She was familiar with academic life, both her father and her husband, Bernard Williams (from whom she was now divorced), having been university professors. (HARFORD THOMAS)

mance

sense.

In 197S the referendum on British membership in the eec also brought her into the limelight, both

and

demonstrated her

Wilson, Sir (James) Harold

On March

16, 1976, five

days after his 60th

birthday, Harold Wilson announced his resignation as prime minister of the United Kingdom. He had decided as long ago as July 1974 to retire, preferably in the autumn of 1975, but his involvement in the counterinflationary program had obliged him to defer the date. He told the queen in December 1975 that he would give up office in March 1976. But to the public the an-

nouncement came as a stunning surprise, for had been a well-kept secret, and Wilson was in good health. The reasons he gave for withdrawing from active politics (though he remained a member of Parliament) were the length

it

of his time in office, the need to find a new party leader before the next general election, and the fear that he might come to lack freshness of response to rapidly changing situations. He had been prime minister for eight years, longer than any other British prime minister in peacetime in the 20th century. For almost 30 of his 31 years as an he had sat on one or the other front bench.

MP

TERRY KIRK— CAMERA PRESs/ FRANZ

58

E.

FURST

prime minister. Wilson was created a Knight of the Garter, an honour in the personal gift of the queen. In October he was appointed to head an inquiry into the role

On

She would like to media by seeking out ways to

of interdisciplinary arts.

mix

artistic

work with such

diverse creators as dancer

.

.

.

as

his retirement,

and functioning tions,

DONALD COOPER

of British financial institu-

(harpord thomas)

Winkler, Henry "Live fast, die young, and leave a goodlooking corpse." Such was the philosophy of Arthur Fonzarelli, a character in "Happy Days," a U.S. television comedy series depicting high-school student life during the 1950s. Fonzarelli, or "The Fonz," as everyone called him, was a high-school dropout who wore a leather jacket, rode a motorcycle, and combed his greasy black hair into a ducktail. One of his favourite expressions

was "Aaaayyy!" "The Fonz" was largely the creation of Henry Winkler, the actor who portrayed him. Winkler was astonished by his sucand worried that he might be typecast forever as a likable clod in a leather jacket. His personal history could hardly be more different. Winkler's Jewish parents fled Hitler's Germany during the 1930s and came to the U.S., where his father became president of an international lumber firm. Henry was born in New York City on Oct. 30, 1945. His mother and father, who hoped that their only son might someday become a diplomat, sent him to excellent schools. As a student, Henry dressed neatly and rarely misbehaved. He admitted that a person like "The Fonz" would have frightened him when he was an adolescent. An interest in acting that began during his early teens intensified while Winkler was earning his B.A. from Emerson College in Boston. He then enrolled at Yale School of Drama where he earned his M.A. He appeared in some 60 plays with the Yale Repertory Company over the next five years. A stint of radio and television work in New York City followed. In September 1973 he moved to California to appear in a film. Two months later he successfully auditioned for the role of Arthur Fonzarelli in "Happy Days." The scriptwriters had originally envisioned Fonzarelli as a pleasant and rather uninteresting fellow who wore a cloth coat and casual shoes. Winkler suggested black boots, a leather jacket, a ducktail haircut, and the motorcycle. The director of "Happy Days" liked Winkler's ideas and his portrayal of "The Fonz." So did the television audience. A series that was once a modest success became a hit. And Henry Winkler became its star. (victor m. cassidy) cess

The remark contains cess,

a clue to her suc-

which has always depended on well-

practiced skill as well as talent. This was one reason for her notable devotion to reper-

tory theatre, acquired long before the repertory movement swept the U.S. in the 1960s. Worth was born June 23, 1916, in either Nebraska or California (reports differ). After taking an education degree at ucla, she taught school for several years. Turning to the stage, she made her professional debut with a road show in 1942, then appeared on Broadway a year later with Victor Jory. Seeking classical training and experience, she went to London in 1944. Within five years her star had risen so high that she appeared in the premiere of T. S. Eliot's The Cocktail Party at the Edinburgh Festival, then returned to Broadway for the New York production. She worked frequently with the Old Vic Repertory Company and the Royal Shakespeare Company, touring South Africa with the former and Eastern Europe with the latter's production of King Lear. In 1953 she appeared in the first production of the Stratford (Ont.) Shakespeare Company with Alec Guinness. She received her first Tony award for her performance in Edward Albee's Tiny Alice. (PHILIP kopper)

OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS GERRY

C

LONDON DAILY EXPRESS / PICTORIAL PARADE

RAN HAM

WIDE WORLD

Lasse Viren of Finland repeated his 1972 victories, thus becoming the first man to win both the 5,000~tn and 10,000-m events in successive Olympiads.

WIDE WORLD

Soviet gymnast Nikolay Andrianov displayed amazing virtuosity in capturing seven Olympic medals: jour gold, two silver, and one bronze.

a

mk\

-\

Shun Funmoto, performing on the rings with a fractured knee, ended his routine with a solid landing after a triple somersault and twist; his skill and courage helped secure a team victory for Japan.

Nelli Kim captured three gold medals and a silver to the Soviet Union's brightest new gymnastic star.

of Italy became the first athlete ever to win the gold medal for platform diving in three successive Olympiads.

Klaus Di Biasi

Klammer of Austria won the downhill event, the icy course at an average speed of 66.5 mph.

Alpine skier Franz racing

down

KATHERINE YOUNG

SYNDICATION INTERNATIONAL

/

PHOTO TRENDS

become

Rosi Mittermaier of West Germany won gold medals in the slalom and downhill and narrowly missed an unprecedented grand slam, losing the giant slalom by just 12-hundredths of a second.

sven Simon

CAMERA PRESS/FRANZ

E.

FURST

Dorothy Hamill of the U.S. excelled in both the compulsory and freestyle events to win the gold medal in women's figure skating.

Tedfilo Stevenson of Cuba became the first boxer ever to defend successfully an Olympic heavyweight championship.

Competing

in her fourth Olympics, Irena Szewinska of Poland established a new world record in winning the 400-m dash.

John Curry of England won the men's Olympic figure skating championship with a routine that

was

as artistic as it was exciting.

Perennial record-breaker Vasily Alekseyev of the Soviet Union set a

new Olympic mark

for

super heavyweights with a prodigious combined lift of

440 kg (978

lb).

/

katherine young

World record holder Guy Drut of France won an Olympic gold medal by finishing first in the 110-m hurdles.

Nadia Comaneci, a 14-year-old Romanian gymnast, made Olympic history in the process of winning three gold medals and one silver: she received seven perfect scores of 10.0.

Edwin Moses of the U.S. shattered the world record as he swept to victory in the 400-m hurdles.

CENTRAL PRESS/PICTORIAL PARADE

CANADIAN PRESS

The nearly invincible women swimmers from East Germany were led by world champion Kornelia Ender, who captured four gold medals.

John Naber of the U.S. set world records in the 100-m and 200-m backstroke and was awarded four gold medals and one silver.

depardon/ uzan — gamma/ liaison

U.S. superstar Bruce Jenner set a world record of 8,618 points in capturing the grueling two-day decathlon.

Alberto Juantorena of Cuba set a world record in the 800-m run

and finished the SVEN SIMOn/kaTHERINE YOUNG

first in

the finals of

400-m dash. GERRY CRANHAM

NOBEL PRIZES For the 1901,

first

time since their inception in Nobel Prizes for the year

of the

all

were awarded

to citizens of a single nation,

the United States.

A

contributing factor to

unique happening was the small number only two prizes were shared of recipients and the Prize for Peace was withheld for the 20th time. this

—

The U.S. monopoly was presumably the The

result of coincidence rather than intent.

nominees' nationalities were to have no bearing on the final choices of the Nobel award committees. Moreover, some observers speculated that the selection of Milton

Friedman to receive the Prize for Economics was really a Hobson's choice. Established by the Bank of Sweden in 1968, this ancillary award had already been given to most of the living original thinkers in economics, a

that experienced few real breakthroughs in any generation. Also not sur-

field

prising was the choice for the Prize for Literature; it went to Saul Bellow, a novel-

who had been a favoured candidate two previous years.

ist

More important than the science laureates was projects had in common; tions.

As a

pressed

it,

New

the citizenship of

what

their cited

involved pure predetermined applica-

no

with

research

in the

all

York Times

editorial exthe science selections "might al-

most have been designed to provide an answer and rebuke to those with more power than vision

who

fail

to

understand that basic

research yields the richest dividends. the Nobel Prize committee seems to be telling the financiers and directors of research is that in the long run nothing is .

.

.

What

more practical than basic studies whose mate implications none can foresee."

ulti-

In the heat of his unsuccessful election campaign, U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford tried to

make some sort of political hay out of "the dean sweep," as many papers had dubbed His Democratic opponent,

it.

Jimmy

Carter,

had charged that American prestige was declining around the world under Republican administrations, and Ford said the Nobel selections "surely put to rest" such insinuations. This comment, in turn, provoked ten U.S. Nobel laureates to point out that "Nobel Prizes usually reflect work done over long periods of time. This year's prizes

do

not, therefore, reflect this year's strengths. Indeed, Mr. Ford's budgets have not been such as to encourage the growth of American science. The current appropriation for the National Science Foundation, cor-

rected for inflation, is actually 10% lower than it was in the year when Mr. Ford took office. ... His partisanship was unfortunate and his implicit claims inaccurate." In 1976

each prize, awarded on December 10, the 80th anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death, carried an

honorarium of $160,000.

Celebrated for his "exuberant ideas, flashing

irony, hilarious comedy and burning compassion," novelist Saul Bellow finally won the 1976 Prize for Literature. Bellow had been nominated previously at least

when

the prize

was shared by two Swedish novelists and in 1975 when it went to an Italian poet. Receiving the news gracefully, he said, "The child in is

me

is

delighted.

The

adult in

me

skeptical."

Weeks later in a conversation with Joseph Epstein, editor of Phi Beta Kappa's journal American Scholar, Bellow reflected, "Last 62

pointment,

felt

I

Winning it makes you an eminent gives you certain kinds of power. have never had much taste for the power

aspects.

person; I

it

that goes with eminence." In another context he noted that "Nobel Prizes are rarely good for Americans, at least not writers. Sinclair Lewis and John Steinbeck hardly had a sober time afterward. Hemingway quit writing." Steinbeck's fate, in particular, saddened Bellow. The two had been friends and the 1962 winner had inscribed a copy of his Nobel address to "Saul Bellow. You're next." Bellow's selection in 1976 brings the number of American laureates in literature to seven, including William Faulkner, Pearl Buck, and Eugene O'Neill. "There is no literary life I want to live,"

Bellow

writer,"

said.

"I'm just an old-fashioned

who hoped

the prize

would neither

go to his head nor falsely symbolize some unattainable achievement. "All I started to

do was show up

my

brothers.

I

didn't have

to go this far."

He was born July Lachine, Que., where his parents, Russian immigrants, had settled two years earlier. The family moved to Chicago when he was nine. Entering the University of Chicago, he found it "too dense" and transferred to Northwestern University where he earned honours in anthropology in 1937. He worked on the Works Progress Administration (wpa) Writers' Project during the depression of the 1930s, served in the merchant marine, helped edit the two-volume index (the Synlopicon) to Encyclopedia Britannica's Great Books of the Western World, and returned to the University of Chicago as a professor of literature. He was the only man to have won the National Book Award three times; in 1976 he also Bellow came far indeed.

their

common humanity,

of the fact,

if

you

they have souls." Occasional playwright and frequent essayist, he was known most widely for his eight novels: Dangling Man (1944), The Victim (1947), The Adventures of Augie March (1953), Seize the Day (1956), Henderson, the Rain King (1959), Herzog (1964), Mr. Sammler's Planet (1970), and Humboldt's Gift (1975). In 1976 he published To Jerusalem and Back, the memoir of a personal journey to Israel. will, that

Prize for Chemistry William Nunn Lipscomb, Jr., winner of the 1976 Prize for Chemistry, was "one of the extraordinary scientific innovators of our time," according to an article in the journal Science. Working with boranes, which are compounds of boron and hydrogen, he made fundamental discoveries about how molecules are held together. The long-known chemistry of hydrocarbons, compounds of carbon and hydrogen, suggested one concept of bonding, wherein each pair of atoms is linked by a pair of electrons. Explaining the stability of boranes in this fashion, however, was a frustrating problem because they lack sufficient electrons. Lipscomb demonstrated how a pair of electrons could be shared by three atoms, a theory that served to describe successfully even the most complex borane structures known as well as many other analogous molecular structures.

10, 1915, in

WIDE WORLD

won

the Pulitzer Prize. "If Saul Bellow didn't exist, someone exactly like him would have had to have been invented," wrote John Leonard in the York Times, "... a very special sort of novelist, a highbrow with muscles, to tell the story of the Jewish romance with Amer-

New ica."

The Swedish Academy, which awarded

Nunn Lipscomb,

the prize, cited him "for the human understanding and subtle analysis of contemporary culture." When he began writing, "the

William

anti-hero of the present was already on the way and Bellow became one of those who took care of him. ." He made the antihero a man "who keeps on trying to find a foothold during his wanderings in our tottering world, one who can never relinquish his faith that the value of life depends on its dignity, not its success." Regarding the importance of literature, Bellow said, "When it is going well a novel affords the highest kind of truth; a good writer can lay claim to a disinterestedness that is as great as that of a pure scientist— when he is going well. In its complicated, possibly even mysterious way, the novel is an instrument for delving into human

chemistry

.

Prize for Literature

twice in succession, in 1974

momentary

feeling of disaprather relieved that [Eugenio] Montale won the prize. As I said, I have gotten a great deal of recognition, and I like to think I wouldn't have minded if I had been passed over. Perhaps this is the calm hindsight of a winner speaking, perhaps not. One of the things one fails to realize till one has won it is that the Nobel Prize for Literature has many extraliterary

year, after a

truths. to

me,

.

it

.

Now more than ever, it seems becomes the writer's job to remind .

.

people of their

common

stock of emotion, of

Jr.

Lipscomb became at

the

interested in borane California Institute of

Technology where he earned his doctorate in 1946 and studied with Linus Pauling, eventual two-time Nobel laureate. A year later, at the University of Minnesota, Lipscomb adopted a technique that Pauling had borrowed from physics: the use of

X-ray

diffraction for elucidating molecular structures. The difficulty of the work was

compounded by

the unstable, volatile nature of the boranes, which forced the use of vacuum-line handling and low temperatures.

At first he encountered a bewildering pattern of three-dimensional geometrical structures that belied the tidy, predictable order found

in chain

hydrocarbons. Realizing that theory could never accommodate the boranes, he pressed on to develop "a classical

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vast

and diverse chemistry

[of]

cage-like

molecules hardly imaginable a few years ago." At the foundation of Lipscomb's theories was the idea that two boron atoms could be linked to a hydrogen atom by one pair of electrons. As Science's contributor commented, "This concept was the key to the development of a topological theory of bonding in the boranes which not only provided a plausible explanation of the known structures but, more importantly, made possible the prediction of new compounds. "By the early 1960s the boranes were the largest known family of molecular hydrides other than the hydrocarbons, [and] nearly the general theory developed to deal all with these compounds had come from .

Lipscomb and

his

associates.

.

.

.

.

.

The

boranes, once viewed as molecular maver-

have in fact provided the key to conceptually link a whole vast array of clustertype molecules for which classical Lewis bond descriptions fail." In terms of practical applications, Lipscomb's work led to the synthesis of a variety of materials, ranging

icks,

extreme thermal and chemical stability to ones of use experimentally in radiation therapy of brain tumours. Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Dec. 9, 1919, Lipscomb took his undergraduate degree at the University of Kentucky, an affiliation that earned him the nickname "Colonel." During World War II he worked in the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development, then resumed his studies at Cal Tech. After more than a decade at Minnesota, he moved on to Harvard University's Gibbs Laboratory where he became Abbott and William James Lawrence professor of chem-

from compounds

of

of quarks, "but to understand the structure of the new psi particle, a fourth quark is

very likely," one with a special property arbitrarily called charm. The Washington Post described the significance of the breakthrough with a certain elegance of brevity. "While it's making

them work harder, the finding

of the psi or J particle has simplified things for highenergy physicists. It says there are hundreds of subatomic particles but only a few fundamental entities that make up the

cosmos, not dozens and dozens as has been supposed." Working independently at opposite ends of the continent, Richter and Ting used dissimilar exploratory methods. Heading large teams of investigators, each spent years planning his experiments and amassing the necessary equipment. Then, curiously, they both discovered the same particle within weeks of each other and jointly announced the

news

in 1974.

Another interesting aspect

its presentation for work barely two years old, a fact justified perhaps by the scientific community's consensus on its revolutionary importance.

of this prize

was

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Subsequently he worked at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (cern) in Geneva and taught physics at Columbia University in New York City. A professor at mit since 1967, by 1976 he was directing three research groups, at Brookhaven, cern,

Lipscomb maintained a reputation for running a loose and lively experimental ship and for approaching the work with a rare degree of wit. He quoted Lewis Carroll in his elegant papers, belonged to the Baker Street Irregulars (a society devoted to the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes), and

am

rose at 6

Prize for Physiology or Medicine Primitive people sent D. Carleton Gajdusek

Burton Richter

and Baruch

Burton

particles,"

it

had no immediate applica-

tions, as Richter himself candidly admitted.

significance is that we have learned something more about the structure of the universe" by gaining a clearer understanding of its smallest components. Many new, interrelated elementary particles have been discovered in the past IS years, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences observed, but "the new [psi/ J] particle is something separate and new and it has formed the beginning of a new family of its own. "Is there anything further in these particles, thought to be the smallest building blocks of matter?" the Academy asked. "For centuries physicists and chemists have devoted much of their efforts to a search for

"The

.

the

.

.

smallest

components of matter. The

moved from atoms ... to what are known as elementary particles. For some years now the physicists have had to move this limit limit of the smallest has slowly

been

downward, and the signs are that the elementary particles, too, consist of yet smaller units, quarks." It was first theorized that the search

might end with three basic types

fre-

quently worked seven 16-hour days a week at cern and commuted home to Lexington, Mass., to visit his wife and daughters every other weekend.

skill

Richter and Samuel C. C. Ting shared the 1976 Prize for Physics for independently discovering a subatomic particle that they respectively named "psi" and "J." Called by one Nobel judge "the greatest discovery ever in the field of elementary

Hamburg, West Germany. He

and

daily to practice the clarinet,

fize for Physics

according to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Sorting through the subatomic debris, Ting observed evidence of the same heavy particle, which he called J. Ting was born in Ann Arbor, Mich., Jan. 26, 1936, while his father was studying at the University of Michigan. He returned with his family to mainland China, then moved to Taiwan and finally to the U.S. as a student in 19S6. He earned three degrees at the University of Michigan, including a doctorate, in six years.

istry.

which he played with near-professional in chamber groups.

Samuel C. C. Ting

Richter,

March

who was born

in

Brooklyn, N.Y.,

22, 1931, received his doctorate

from

S.

Blumberg down independent

paths that led to the 1976 for Physiology or Medicine. The two versatile physicians had something

investigative Nobel Prize

common: both were

medi-

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (mit) Determined to investigate the behaviour of matter and energy at their most

else in

levels, he began work at Stanford University, where he built the world's first pair of electron storage rings, in which intense beams of particles could be made to collide with each other. In the 1960s he designed the Stanford Positron-Electron Accelerating Ring (spear), a larger device that drove particles of matter and antimatter together at many times the energy of the older storage rings. It was anticipated that such energetic collisions might create heavy, motionless, very unstable particles, yet the massive particle that did result at one specific collision energy had a lifetime 1,000 times longer than expected on the order of

In 1955 Gajdusek began work at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research in Melbourne. Australia. He learned from a medical patrol officer that the Fore people, an aboriginal tribe in New Guinea, were being decimated by a disease

.

fundamental

—

a hundredth of a billionth of a billionth of a second. Theorized to be formed of two charmed quarks, it was this entity that

Richter dubbed

psi.

Working on Long Island, N.Y., Ting used the Brookhaven National Laboratory's Alternating Gradient Synchrotron, a machine in diameter. With it he fired streams of protons at a stationary beryllium target and observed the decaying particles that resulted. Gathering fruitful data was like "hearing a cricket close to a jumbo jet,"

some 200

m

cited for

that at its inception obvious practical application.

cal

research

had no

kuru, meaning trembling. He study the Fore and the fatal disease that seemed unique to them. Quickly learning their language, the scientist traded axes and tobacco for the bodies they

called

went out

to

kuru victims. Inside a bamboo-walled laboratory he performed autopsies outside he studied the tribe's culture. Gajdusek postulated that kuru was an infectious neurological disease transmitted through the of

field

;

human brains, part of the funeral custom in which survivors hoped to assure the deceased's immortality while acquiring his virtues. But the disease was odd; infected persons did not become ill immediately, often not for years. In 1958 he joined the U.S. National Institutes of Health (nih) outside Washington, D.C., and studied the matter further. Working with Clarence J. Gibbs, Jr., he implanted filtered brain material from kuru ritual eating of tribal

63

—

— pursued by local banks, in the first place in the United States. It is very rare for an economist to wield such influence, not only on the direction of scientific research but also on actual policy." Friedman was cited for "his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy." His selection followed an unusually heated debate among the Nobel award committee, which centred particularly around allegations that Friedman had advised the military junta in Chile to the horror of its moral opponents. Friedman's colleagues and supporters strongly rejected these stories as mere "myths." Such arguments aside, much of Friedman's work was seen as apolitical. He apparently did not change his

icies

Nobel Prizes

BOOK OF THE YEAR

.

victims into the brains of healthy chimpanMonths later the animals exhibited neurogenic symptoms associated with kuru. The investigators concluded that the disease was transmitted by a slow-acting virus, perhaps one that lies dormant for long periods. Following this pivotal discovery, slow viruses became implicated as causes of such puzzling nervous disorders as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and a rare form zees.

of senility

known

ease.

for work in virology, he was also a recognized expert in anthropology, comparative child behaviour, pediatrics, genetics, immunology, and neurology. He spoke seven European and Middle Eastern languages and

several tribal ones.

Born in Yonkers, N.Y., Sept. 9, 1923, to Hungarian immigrants, Gajdusek graduated summa cum laude from the University of Rochester (N.Y.) when he was 19. He earned his medical degree at Harvard University three years later, then did postdoctoral

work

at the California Institute of

Technology and Harvard before serving

as

a visiting investigator at the Pasteur Institute in the Iranian capital of Teheran. In the course of his travels, Gajdusek, a bachelor, adopted 16 sons in various parts of the South Pacific. Regarding the Nobel honorarium, he said, "I'll use the money to put the boys

through college."

Another globetrotter, Blumberg worked variously in Africa, India, the Arctic, and the Pacific islands to understand why certain ethnic groups contracted certain ailments and others did not. "In a lot of these places I would be the only outsider except for some anthropologist. So naturally I got interested in anthropology and such questions as how social behaviors influence susceptibility

to disease."

While studying samples of blood serum from thousands of persons, he discovered that the blood of an Australian Aborigine and of an unevenly distributed fraction of the world population contained a protein also found in the blood of hepatitis victims.

—

D. Carleton Gajdusek

.

—

as Creutzfeldt-Jakob dis-

Gajdusek said the next order of virological business was to understand how the minute kuru virus actually works after its long dormancy. A glance at the laureate's resume suggested that he might look very far afield and come up with solid connections. Cited

.

harmonize with any

poli-

rather, he broke with politicians

when

economic tune tician

;

to

they ignored his views.

Baruch

S.

Blumberg

the "Australia antigen," he it learned that it was part of the virus that caused hepatitis B infection, a serious form of the liver disease that in chronic cases was suspected of leading to cancer. Early application of his work led naturally to an antigen test for hepatitis B virus. Widely used in blood banks, the test sharply reduced the once tragically common transmittal of the virus via blood transfusions.

Naming

A

later

result

was the development of an

experimental hepatitis vaccine. Blumberg was born July 28, 1925, in New York City. He studied at Union College in Schenectady, N.Y., received his medical degree from Columbia University's College of Physicians and Surgeons and a doctorate in biochemistry from the University of Oxford in 1957. Like Gajdusek, Blumberg performed part of his work at nih. As of 1976 he was associate director of the Institute for Cancer Research in Philadelphia vand a professor of anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania. The father of four joked, "I'm especially pleased that someone from Philadelphia won [a Nobel]. It's appropriate in the bicentennial year and makes up in part for the Phillies not making it to the World Series."

Prize for

Economics

Milton Friedman, winner of the 1976 Prize for Economics, was a fiscal conservative and controversial dean of the so-called Chicago school of economists. The New York Times described him as "perhaps the foremost American exponent of the monetarist school of economics, which maintains that the economic cycle is determined more by money supply and interest rates than by fiscal policy. His philosophy is generally associated with a 'laissez-faire' or hands-off

Friedman's impact on the science of economics was undeniable. One observer wrote that his "most important overall contribution has doubtless been his success in reviving respect for the market as an allocator of resources and promoter of economic efficiency. A great deal of recent work and the push in Washin regulatory theory

—

ington

—

deregulation is the result of his work." Another notable effect was the U.S. Federal Reserve Board's apparent new inclination to follow Friedman's "fixedfor

throttle" policy, which called for steadily increasing the money supply by 3-5% per year in order to support noninflationary

economic growth. Friedman was born in Brooklyn, N.Y., on July 31, 1912, and grew up in Rahway, N.J., the son of immigrant parents. He worked his way through Rutgers University where he was a student of Arthur Burns, who later became chairman of the Federal Reserve Board Friedman took advanced degrees at the University of Chicago and Columbia University. Former president of the American Economic Association, he went to the University of Chicago in 1946, where ;

he later occupied the Paul Snowden Russell Distinguished Services chair. Paul A. Samuelson, a previous laureate, frequent professional adversary, and fellow Newsweek columnist, called Friedman "an economist's economist." When he learned of his selection, Friedman said "it is not the pinnacle of my career" and that he cared more for the opinion of his peers than for that of the people on the Nobel (pecilip kopper) selection committee.

Milton Friedman

policy in regard to business and trade." In these respects he was at odds with the followers of John Maynard Keynes, who

had held sway among academics and governments for many years. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences stated that "Friedman was a pioneer in the well-founded reaction to the earlier postKeynesian one-sidedness. And he succeeded mainly thanks to his independence and brilliance in initiating a very lively and fruitful scientific debate. ... In fact, the macroeconometric models of today differ greatly from those of a couple of decades ago as far as the monetary factors go and this is very much thanks to Friedman. The widespread debate on Friedman's theories also led to a review of monetary pol-

—

—

WIDE WORLD

—

OBITUARIES The following

is

a selected list of

prominent men

Bauhaus, Albers rejected all art based on selfexpression and emotion in favour of art based on purely intellectual calculation. He created a style characterized by the reiteration of abstract rectilinear patterns and the use of highly saturated primary colours along with white and black. In 1933, when the Nazis closed the Bauhaus, he went to North Carolina where he organized the fine-arts curriculum at Black Mountain College and taught there until 1949. The following year, he began an eight-year tenure as chairman of the art department of Yale University. In his series of engraved plastic "Transformations of a Scheme" (1948-52), and in the series of drawings "Structural Constellations" (1953-58), he created complex linear designs, each subject to a variety of spatial interpretations. His paintings, on the

and women who died during 1976.

(Hugo) Alvar Henrik, Finnish architect Kuortane, Fin., Feb. 3, 1898— d. Helsinki, May 1 1, 1976), had an influence on modern architecture that ranks with that of Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Le Corbusier. But Aalto differed from such pioneers

Aalto, (b.

Fin.,

of the "international style" in his individualistic,

"organic" approach, which in its finest expressions was characterized by deep affinity with Finnish landscape and culture. After graduating from the Helsinki University of Technology in 1921, he established his reputation with three major commissions:

The Turun Sanomat newspaper

in

Turku (1930);

at

Paimio (1933);

offices

tuberculosis sanatorium and the Municipal Library

the

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•

other hand, explored colour relationships. "Homage to the Square" (begun in 1949) consists of superimposed squares of colour so calculated that the colour of each square appears to alter the sizes, hues, and apparent spatial relationships of the others. Like his paintings, his poems play with various modes of reality, but they have a sense of lyricism and gentle irony. They were published in Poems and Drawings (1958).

Anda, Geza, Hungarian-born

pianist (b. Budapest, Hung., Nov. 19, 1921— d. Zurich, Switz., June 13, 1976), was best known for his interpretations of Mozart, all of whose concerti he recorded with the Salzburg Mozarteum; the second movement of the Concerto in C Major K 467 was chosen for the film Elvira Madigan and became a best-

He was a pupil of Erno Dohnanyi at the Budapest Academy of Music and made his debut 1939 playing Brahms's Concerto No. 2 in B Flat Major with the Amsterdam Concertgebouw. Anda, who emigrated to Switzerland in 1943 and seller.

in

took Swiss citizenship in 1955, popularized Bela Bartok's concerti, all of which he recorded. In 1969 he became an honorary member of the Royal Academy of Music in London and played with the English Chamber Orchestra and the

Northern Sinfonia.

Armstrong,

Anthony

(Anthony

Armstrong

Willis), British author and playwright (b. Jan. 2, 1897 d. Haslemere, England, Feb. 10, 1976),

—

at Viipuri (1930-35; destroyed 1940). He also designed the Baker House dormitory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he was research professor from 1946 to 1948. Though he also built in France, West Germany, and other

countries, the finest examples of his mature style are in Finland. Such creations as the Saynatsalo

town

hall

group

(

1950-52)

illustrate his

aware-

ness of individual settings and his use of regional materials. Aalto also designed furniture, often using laminated and bent birchwood. Among many awards and honours, he received gold medals from the Royal Institute of British Architects ( 1957) and the American Institute of Architects (1963).

Abramsky, Yehezkiel, Jewish

rabbi and renowned

—

Grodno, Russia, March 1886 d. Jerusalem, Israel, Sept. 18, 1976), wrote 28 books of commentary on the Tosejta, a collection of oral traditions related to Jewish law. Rabbi at Smolevitch and later at Slutzk (1924-28), he was arrested in Moscow (1930) and sentenced without trial to five years of penal servitude in Siberia on suspicion of informing a U.S. delegation about alleged lack of religious freedom in the Soviet Union. He was released in 1931 and expelled from the U.S.S.R. as a result of international pressure. He went to Britain and was rabbi of the Machzike Hadath congregation in East London, and in 1935 became head of the London Beth Din (court of the chief rabbi). He retired to Israel in 1951. legal scholar (b.

Josef, German-born artist (b. Bottrop, Germany, March 19, 1888 d. New Haven, Conn., March 25, 1976), was a painter, poet, and influential aft teacher and theoretician, important as

Albers,

—

an innovator of such art styles as Colour Field painting and Op art. In 1920 he became a student at the newly formed Bauhaus, soon to become the most important school of design in Germany. After 1923, when he became a teacher at the

was a frequent contributor (1924-33) to the humorous magazine Punch. While wartime editor of the Royal Air Force's training memorandum Tee

Emm,

he created the fictitious blunderer Pilot Officer Prune. He also wrote humorous books as well as plays for radio and stage. Ten Minute Alibi (1933) and The Strange Case of Mr. Pelham (1957) were among those made into films. Armstrong was made an Officer of the British Empire in 1944.

Bachauer, Gina (Mrs. Alec Sherman), Greekborn pianist (b. Athens, Greece, May 21, 1913 d. Athens, Aug. 22, 1976), was a forceful, intellectual performer, supremely able to interpret such works of masculine power as Beethoven's "Emperor" concerto. She went from the Athens Conservatory to Paris where she was taught by Alfred Cortot and worked with Sergey Rachmaninoff. She launched an international career after winning a gold medal in Vienna in 1933. During World War II she gave over 600 concerts for Allied forces in the Middle East. Four years after moving to Britain, she married (1951) the conductor Alec Sherman, and commenced annual tours

in the

U.S.

Baddeley, Angela (Madeline Angela ClintonBaddeley), British actress (b. London, England, July 4, 1904 d. Essex, England, Feb. 22, 1976),

—

known

to older theatregoers as a versatile classical player, achieved new fame and gained wider recognition as Mrs. Bridges, a grumpy, but lovable cook in the television series "Upstairs, Downstairs." Her long career included roles in Night Must Fall (1935), Dear Octopus (1938), The

Light of Heart (1940), Love for Love (1943), and The Cherry Orchard ( 1965). When she became ill she was starring in a London production of the musical A Little Night Music.

Baker, Sir Stanley, Welsh film actor (b. Rhondda Valley, South Wales, Feb. 28, 1928 d. Malaga,

—

Spain, June 28, 1976), was a handsome actor of spirit and intelligence who gained success in strong masculine roles, notably under Joseph Losey's direction in Blind Date, The Criminal, Eve, and Accident. He made his screen debut in Undercover (1943) and spent two years with the Birmingham Repertory Company before acting in The Cruel Sea, The Red Beret, Sea Fury, Hell Is a City, and The Guns of Navarone. Having formed his own company in the 1960s, he made and played in Zulu and Sands of Kalahari. Baker, who was knighted in 1976, became a director of Harlech Television in 1968.

Beaumont, Cyril William,

British balletomane (b. Lambeth, London, England, Nov. 1, 1891 d. London, May 24, 1976), a noted critic and scholar of classical ballet and the author of The Complete Book of Ballets ( 1937), wrote prolifically on all aspects of ballet and other dance forms. For others who shared Beaumont's love of dance, his London bookstore (1910-65) was a house of treasures beyond compare. While editor (1924-70) of the magazine Dance Journal, he wrote about such dancers as Pavlova, Nijinsky, and Fonteyn, and called upon his impressive array of background knowledge in discussing such ballets as Giselle and Swan Lake. Beaumont Press (1917-31) issued not only dance manuals produced in collaboration with Enrico Cecchetti but the works of many renowned contemporary novelists and poets. Beaumont's memoirs, entitled Bookseller at the Ballet, were published in 1974.

—

Berkeley, Busby (William Berkeley Enos), U.S. choreographer (b. Los Angeles, Calif., Nov. 29,

1895— d. Palm

Springs,

Calif.,

March

14,

1976), added to the glamour of Hollywood with a series of highly imaginative and extravagantly produced musicals. Berkeley was able to create a dazzling kaleidoscope of constantly developing patterns by filming (sometimes directly overhead, or even from the bottom of a huge swimming pool) as 100 or more women performed in unison. Besides the Gold Diggers films of the 1930s, he was responsible for such other musicals as Fortysecond Street, Footlight Parade, Ziegfeld Girl, Broadway Serenade, and For Me and My Gal. Blair,

David (David Butterfield)

,

British ballet

—

dancer (b. Halifax, England, July 27, 1932 d. London, England, April 1, 1976), who became a principal dancer at 18, created many roles for the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet (1947-53) and the Royal Ballet at Covent Garden (1953-73), but his position as the Royal Ballet's leading male dancer suffered a partial eclipse with the arrival of Rudolf Nureyev in 1962. Blair gave memorable performances dancing the lead roles in John Cranko's Pineapple Poll, Harlequin in April, and The Prince of the Pagodas and in Sir Frederick Ashton's La Fille Mai Gardee. During the 1960s he worked as producer with several U.S. ballet companies, notably the American Ballet Theatre in New York. From 1973 he worked with the

Royal Academy

made

a

of

Commander

Dancing and of the Order

in

1964 was

of the British

Empire.

Bodnaras, Emil, Romanian Communist leader (b. Iaslovats, Moldavia, Rom. [later Moldavian S.S.R.], Feb. 10, 1904— d. Bucharest, Rom., Jan. 24, 1976), played a major part in the overthrow of Gen. Ion Antonescu's dictatorship in 1944 and in the post-World War II Communist succession to the monarchy. He was a member of the party Politburo from 1945 until his death, minister of defense from 1947 until 1955, and held other high posts in party and government leadership, including the vice-presidency of the State Council from 1967. Of German-Ukrainian parentage, Bodnaras became a career army officer in 1927 and defected to the U.S.S.R. in 1932. In 1934, on a secret mission to Romania, he was arrested and imprisoned until 1942. On his release he went back to the U.S.S.R., finally returning home at the time of the 1944 coup and Romania's armistice with the Allies.

Despite his close

Soviet links, Bodnaras was a firm supporter of Pres. Nicolae Ceausescu's pursuance of the independent line adopted by the Romanian Communists in 1964.

65

— eluded Death in Venice (1973, based on Thomas Mann's story). Britten's choral music and church entertainments included Curlew River (1964), which owed

Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Bosco, Henri Fernand Joseph Marius, French novelist and poet (b. Avignon, France, Nov. d. Nice, France, May 4, 1976), won 16, 1888 the French Academy's prize for literature in 1968. Many of his stories were set in his native Provence and showed deeply primitive life-patterns hidden beneath the veneer of modern society. Bosco, who was educated as a language teacher, was professor of comparative literatures at the French Institute in Naples from 1920 to 1930. His more than 30 books include Pierre Lampedouze Antiquaire (1931), Hyacinlhe (1941), and (1954). Le Renard dans Vile ( 1956; Fox in the Island, 1958) and Barboche (1957; Eng. trans., 1959) were among those translated into English.

—

V

Bradwell,

Thomas Edward

Neil Driberg, Baron,

Crowborough, London, d. England, Aug. 12, 1976), served on Lord Beaverbrook's Daily Express from 1928 to 1943, for ten years as its original "William Hickey" columnist. As a member of Parliament for Maldon, Essex ( 1942-55), and for Barking (1959-74), British journalist and politician (b. Sussex, England, May 22, 1905

—

he generally associated himself with the leftwing of the Labour Party. During World War II and in Korea he was a war correspondent and became a frequent lecturer and broadcaster. Driberg never left the back benches of Parliament, though he belonged to the Labour Party National Execu-

Committee (1949-72) and was its chairHe was made a life peer in ( 1957-58 ). 1974. As an active Anglican interested in liturgical reform, he also served (1968) on the Churches' Commission on International Affairs at Uppsala,

tive

man

Sweden. His books include a critical biography of Beaverbrook and Guy Burgess: A Portrait with Background, both published in 1956.

Brecon, David Vivian Penrose Lewis, 1st Baron, Welsh parliamentarian (b. Aug. 14, 1905 d. Llanfeigan, Wales, Oct. 10, 1976), was U.K. minister of state for Welsh affairs (1957-64) in Harold Macmillan's Conservative government and as such was Wales's first direct representative in Parliament. In 1973 he was appointed a member of the British delegation to the European Parliament at Strasbourg, France. Brecon, who was

—

something to Japanese No drama as well as to medieval church drama, and the church "parables" The Burning Fiery Furnace (1966) and The Prodigal Son (1968). Among song cycles were The Holy Sonnets oj John Donne (1945) and Songs and Proverbs of William Blake (1965). War Requiem, his masterpiece for choir and orchestra, was based textually on the Latin requiem mass and poems by Wilfred Owen; other choral works included Spring Symphony (1949) and Voices for Today (1965), written for the 20th anniversary of the UN.

works

MAURICE AMBLER — CAMERA PRESS

,

Buchan, Alastair Francis,

British diplomatic and London, England, Sept. 9, 1918 d. Oxford, England, Feb. 3, 1976), was a seminal thinker about the strategic consequences nuclear weapons. He was the son of John of Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir, a former governor-general of Canada. Buchan was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford, and became a staff officer in the Canadian Army during World War II. From 1948 to 1951 he was assistant editor of The Economist, then became Washington correspondent ( 1951-55) and a diplomatic and defense correspondent ( 1955-58) in strategic theorist

—

(b.

London on The Observer. He next directed the for Strategic Studies (1958-69), was

Institute

commandant of the Royal Studies in London (1970-71 appointed Montague Burton

College ),

and

of in

Defence 1972 was

professor of international relations at the University of Oxford. His writings include War in Modern Society (1966) and Lije of Walter Bagehot (1959).

Bultmann, Rudolf (Karl), German theologian (b. Wiefelstede, Oldenburg, Germany, Aug. 20, 1884 d. Marburg, West Germany, July 30, 1976),

—

movement. After studying in London he worked Paris and southern France painting bizarre, underworld scenes peopled by figures that often resembled automatons. His first one-man exhibition was held in 192 9. His later work was much affected by the Spanish Civil War and World

or in

War COURTESY. JAMES

M.

ROBINSON

II.

A

retrospective exhibition

London's Tate Gallery Butler,

Sir

in

was held

in

1973.

Mervyn Andrew Haldane,

army

British

—

general (b. Toronto, Ont., July 1, 1913 d. England, Jan. 3, 1976), commanded the British parachute brigade that took part in the AngloFrench-Israeli attack on Suez in 1956. Divisional commander in the British Army of the Rhine (baor) from 1962 to 1964, he held staff appointments during 1964-67, then returned to the baor as corps commander (1968-70). He was appointed commandant of the Royal College of Defence Studies in 1972 but retired for health reasons the following year. Colonel commandant of the Parachute Regiment from 1967, he was knighted in 1968.

(Edward) Benjamin Britten, Baron, Encomposer (b. Lowestoft, Suffolk, England, Nov. 22, 1913— d. Aldeburgh, Suffolk, Dec. 4, 1976), was recognized at home and abroad as England's foremost operatic composer since Henry

human

Burra, Edward, British painter (b. London, England, 1905— d. Sussex, England, Oct. 22, 1976), achieved recognition and acclaim as a surrealist who, however, belonged to no particular school

and piano. Britten was created a Companion of Honour (1953), was awarded the Order of Merit (1965) and was made a life peer (1976).

glish

excelled in the display of

his efforts

for

Britten,

He

Testament studies by

Make

a peer in 195 7, developed the family quarrying business and became chairman of the Joint Industrial Council for the Quarrying Industry and a director of what was then Television Wales and West Ltd.

Purcell.

New

demythologize the New Testament in order to discover its true message. He also made important contributions to philosophy and systematic theology. Among his principal works were History oj the Synoptic Tradition (1921; Eng. trans., 1963), Jesus and the Word (1926; Eng. trans., 1934), and Theology of the New Testament (1948-53; Eng. trans., 1952, 1955). to

children were especially an Opera (1949), in which an audience mostly of children joins in with a cast mostly of children; Noye's Fludde (1958), a church pageant opera for children's orchestra; and The Golden Vanity (1967), for boys' voices Britten's

notable: Let's

made

and instruments together and

course of

voice

in his settings of the

English language: in opera, sacred music-drama, choral symphony and pageant, and in works for children's voices. Deeply rooted as his inspiration was in the earlier traditions of English music, he was alert to all that 20th-century music had to_ offer, and this made him, especially from the mid-1960s onward, one of the most contemporary of composers. He was also an outstanding pianist and conductor.

Calder,

Alexander,

[now part

U.S.

sculptor

(b.

Lawnton

of Philadelphia], Pa., July 22, 1898

Britten composed as a child; at 12 he began studies under Frank Bridge and attended the

Royal College of Music, London. He composed at first for the radio, cinema, and theatre (music for plays by W. H. Auden). During 1939-42 he

was in the U.S., where he wrote Sinjonia da Requiem, his only major orchestral symphony, and his first opera, Paul Bunyan, to Auden's text. Back in England he undertook concert tours with the singer Peter Pears, who became his lifelong companion, and composed the Hymn to St. Cecilia, with Auden's words, and Serenade. It was, however, his opera Peter Grimes (1945, libretto after George Crabbe's The Borough) that brought him to world notice. It was succeeded by The Rape o) Lucretia (1946) and Albert Herring (1947), both chamber operas; Billy Budd (1951); Gloriana (1953); and The Turn oj the Screw (1954, based on Henry James's story), a chamber opera. During this period Britten formed the English Opera Group and in 1948 launched the Aldeburgh Festival. Later major operas in-

66

was regarded as one of the most important, and most controversial. New Testament scholars of the 20th century. Educated at the universities of Tubingen, Berlin, and Marburg, he taught at the universities of Breslau (1916-20) and Giessen (1920-21) before joining the University of Marburg (1921), where he remained until his retirement in 1951. Bultmann. who was greatly influenced at Marburg by the Existentialist philosopher Martin Heidegger, profoundly influenced the LONDON DAILY EXPRESS/ PICTORIAL PARADE

New York, N.Y., Nov. 11, 1976), originated the mobile, a type of kinetic sculpture that moves with the aid of air currents and its own delicate balance. After graduating (1919) as an engineer from Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N.J., Calder studied art in New York and was for some time a commercial artist. In 192 6 he went to Paris, where he met such avant-garde artists as Joan Miro and Piet Mondrian. In 1931 he began to make motor-driven sculptures, a form he abandoned in 1932 in favour of mobiles. While often lacking in specific reference, his mobiles and stationary metal sculptures (stabiles) recall movements, shapes, and structures in nature. Calder's inventiveness also produced a mercury fountain, stage sets, and many commissions for architectural sculpture. His work can be seen all over the U.S. as well as in Europe, Japan, Australia, and South America. d.

Richard Gardiner Casey, Baron, Australian statesman (b. Brisbane, Australia, Aug. 29, 1890 d. Melbourne, Australia, June 17, 1976), was Australian minister for external affairs (1951-60) and governor-general of Australia (1965-69). He studied engineering at the uni-

^asey,

—

of Melbourne and Cambridge, and worked as a mining engineer in Australia until 1924, when he joined the Department of External Affairs and was sent to London. There he attended versities

the Imperial Conference of 1930. After returning to Australia, Casey represented Corio, Victoria, in Parliament (1931-40) as a member of the United Australia Party, became treasurer in J. A. Lyons' government in 1935, and attended the

1976), was the principal author of the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1968. As an acknowledged authority on international law he served at the League of Nations from 1924 to 1938, then joined Gen. Charles de Gaulle in Britain as a prominent member of his government-in-exile during World War II. Cassin subsequently held high legal and administrative offices in France, was a delegate to the United Nations and a founder of unesco, president of the UN's Human Rights Commission ( 1955-57), and president of the European Court of Human Rights (1965-68).

Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Henry Kissinger

U.S. special envoy

that

Pres.

Richard Nixon had decided to withdraw from Vietnam. The historic meeting between Mao and Nixon that took place in Peking in February 1972 was, to a great extent, arranged and implemented

by Chou En-lai. Christie,

Dame Agatha (Mary

Clarissa)

(Lady

Mallowan),

Chou En-lai, Chinese statesman (b. Huaian, Kiangsu Province, China, 1898 d. Peking, China, Jan. 8, 1976), was the architect under Mao Tse-tung of Communist China's foreign policy. A descendant of an old Mandarin family, Chou attended Japanese universities for two years

—

British detective novelist and playwright (b. Torquay, England, Sept. 15, 1890 d. Wallingford, England, Jan. 12, 1976), whose books sold more than 400 million copies and were

—

SNOWDON — CAMERA PRESS

before returning to China in 1919. He was then sent by Mao to study in Paris, where he became a Communist organizer and met the Vietnamese revolutionary Ho Chi Minh. Having returned to China in 1924, he was appointed by Mao to the political department of the Whampoa Military

Academy where Chiang Kai-shek was

training

a new generation of military leaders. In 192 7, 'the year Chiang Kai-shek turned definitively ROBERT COHEN— AGIp/ PICTORIAL PARADE

Imperial and London conferences in 1937 and 1939. In 1940 he was appointed Australia's first minister to the U.S. and established close relations with Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt. Persuaded by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the Australian government permitted Casey to join the War Cabinet as British minister of state in the Middle East in 1942 and then

COURTESY,

AUSTRALIAN INFORMATION SERVICE

against the Communists, Chou was elected to the Politburo of the party and between 1928 and 1931 traveled to Moscow and worked in the Communist underground in Shanghai. During the epic Long March of the Communists to Shensi Province in 1934-35, he was political commissar of the

Red Army.

War II Chou served as commissar for foreign affairs of the Yen-an Communist government that agreed to support Chiang's Nationalists against the Japanese invaders. As head of liaison, Chou accompanied Mao to the 1945 Chungking talks with Chiang and again participated in talks in 1946 with U.S. Gen. George C. Marshall that failed to establish a Communist-Nationalist coalition in China. On Oct. 1, 1949, when the People's ReDuring World

govern famine-stricken Bengal (1944-45). Australia's Liberal-Country later served Casey Party government as minister of works and housing (1949-51) and of national development (1950-51 ) in charge of the Snowy Mountains hydroelectric project. In 1951 he was made minto go to India to

shortly afterward the anzus Treaty, for mutual Pacific area defense, was signed by Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. At the 1959 Washington, D.C., conference on the future of Antarctica he was able to secure acceptance of existing territorial claims, including Australia's extensive stake. Casey was made the first Australian life peer in 1960. He published a number of books, including his diaries as foreign ister

for

external

affairs;

minister.

Cassin, Rene-Samuel, French jurist (b. Bayonne, France, Oct. 5, 1887 d. Paris, France, Feb. 20,

—

public of China

into existence, Chou was retained the post until he

came

named premier and

died. On Feb. 14, 1950, Chou signed in Moscow a 30-year Chinese-Soviet treaty of alliance and in 1954 headed the Chinese delegation at the conference on Korea and Indochina in Geneva. At the 1955 Afro-Asian conference that convened in Bandung, Indon., he offered support to Asian neutrals. Between 1956 and 1964 Chou traveled widely throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa and proclaimed the latter continent "ripe for revolu-

tion."

Though Chou

visited

Moscow

in

Novem-

ber 1964, fundamental differences between the U.S.S.R. and China were not resolved. During the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (196569), Chou was, quite typically, an advocate of moderation. In October 1971 Chou learned from

translated into 103 languages, was one of the world's most widely read authors. Though her first detective hero was the eccentric Belgian Hercule Poirot, she later preferred to write of the elderly and inquisitive spinster Jane Marple, first introduced in Murder at the Vicarage (1930). During World War I Christie became a qualified pharmacist, thus acquiring knowledge of poisons utilized in her first Poirot story, The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1920). After her first major success, The Murder oj Roger Ackroyd (1926), she produced some 7 5 other novels, including Murder on the Orient Express (1934) and nondetective stories under the pseudonym Mary Westmacott. Her plays include Ten Little Niggers (1943; U.S. title Ten Little Indians) and The Mousetrap (1952). At the time of her death the latter had run continuously for nearly 2 4 years in London. Christie frequently traveled with her archaeologist husband, Sir Max Mallowan, in the Middle East, a setting she used for some of her stories. Curtain, in which Poirot meets his end, appeared in 1975, and her last book, Sleeping Murder, a Jane Marple story, in 1976; both had been written several years earlier but had been withheld from publication.

Chu

Teh, Chinese military leader (b. I-Lung, Szechwan, China, Dec. 18, 1886 Peking, d. China, July 6, 1976), was founder of the Chinese

—

Communist Army. The son

of a landlord, he

was

reckless and adventurous in youth and gravitated toward military life. After graduating from the Yunnan Military Academy, he rose rapidly and by 1916 was a brigadier general. In the early

1920s he went to Germany where he met Chou and was persuaded to join the Chinese

En-lai

Communist

Party.

He

studied in

Moscow

before

returning to China in 192 6 where he joined the Kuomintang. In 192 7 he commanded an officers' training school at Nan-ch'ang. In the same year, Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang turned against the Communists. Chu organized a revolt among Kuomintang troops in Kiangsi and in 1928 joined forces with Mao Tse-tung. Thus began a military partnership that was to revolutionize

China.

In

1931

Mao

appointed

Chu 67

mond

BOOK OF THE YEAR

commander in chief of the Red Army. Defeated by Chiang, the Communist forces under Chu began the Long March (1934-35) to Yen-an in northern Shensi. On Aug. 10, 1945, Chu's army moved into

work of such authors as HamInnes and Alistair MacLean. His interest in natural history stimulated production of the unrivaled Collins Guides on geology and flora and fauna, and he started the New Naturalist Series. He also introduced to British readers the novels of contemporary Russian writers such as Boris Pasternak and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. He died just before the launching of his spectacularly ture stories, the

Obituaries

Manchuria

to

successful

Clarke, David, British archaeologist (b. Nov. 3, 1937 d. Great Chesterford, England, June 28, 1976), was a leading exponent of the "new which emphasized quantitative archaeology," data-handling techniques in prehistoric archaeology. Clarke turned to archaeology from physics and chemistry and chose it as a field for scientific interpretation. Cambridge University granted him a lectureship just before his death; the importance of his work, notably expressed in Analytical Archaeology (1968), was acknowledged by U.S.

—

Constable, William George, British art historian (b. Derby, England, Oct. 27, 1887— d. Boston, Mass., Feb. 3, 1976), was curator of paintings at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts (1938-57). Previously he had been assistant director (192931) of the National Gallery, London; director (1932-38) of the newly founded Courtauld Institute of Art at the University of London; and Slade professor of fine arts at the University of Cambridge (1935-37). He compiled many catalogs of art collections and exhibitions and in 1953 published a definitive study of the 18thcentury English artist Richard Wilson. He was a contributor to Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Cosfo Villegas, Daniel, Mexican intellectual (b. Mexico City, Mexico, July 23, 1898 d. Mexico City, March 10, 1976), was a prolific and highly respected author, whose more than 300 books and articles include Historia moderna dc Mexico His writings cm the administration ( 1955-72). of Pres. Luis Echeverria Alvarez were the first critique of a government still in office. After studying law in Mexico and economics at U.S.

—

Cosio taught in Mexico, founded the Economic Culture Fund publishing house, and was an adviser to various technical bodies, in-

(Leo Jacoby), U.S. actor (b. New York, N.Y., Dec. 8, 1911— d. Woodland Hills, Calif., Feb. 11, 1976), was widely regarded as one of the most accomplished character actors of his day. Though usually cast in supporting roles, Cobb more often than not provided some of the most memorable moments of the production. One of his greatest triumphs, both critically and personally, was his stage portrayal (1949) of Willy Loman, the lead in Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman. In 1969 he also received enthusiastic acclaim as King Lear in his first Shakespearean role. Cobb's numerous other credits included On the Waterfront, Twelve. Angry Men, Anna and the King of Siam, The Brothers Karamazov, ,

the television series

"The

Vir-

ginian."

Cogley, John, U.S. journalist (b. Chicago, 111., March 16, 1916 d. Santa Barbara, Calif., March 29, 1976), was a Roman Catholic lay theologian

—

who

reported regularly on

modern Catholic

is-

sues, many of which came into sharp focus during the second Vatican Council (1962-65). He took a degree in theology at the University of Fribourg, Switz., and worked with Dorothy Day's Catholic Worker movement during the Depression. After World War II he edited Today, a national

Catholic youth magazine, then became executive editor (1949) of the weekly journal of opinion, The Commonweal. In 1955 Cogley joined the Fund for the Republic in Santa Barbara and produced Report on Blacklisting (2 vol., 1956), a hotly discussed expose of the radio, television, and motion-picture industries and their sanctions against real or suspected political leftists. After two years as religion editor for the New York Times (1965-67), he rejoined his former colleagues in Santa Barbara at the (since 1959) Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions and became founding editor of Center Magazine. His book Catholic America appeared in 1973. That same year, having already given up a weekly syndicated column because of personal differences with the Catholic Church over such matters as birth control, Cogley transferred to the Episcopal Church and was ordained a deacon.

Alexander Roy, British pubGlasgow, Scotland, May 23, 1900 d. Tonbridge, Kent, England, Sept. 21, 1976), fifth in line in the Scottish family business of William Collins Sons and Co., Ltd., maintained its high traditions and added a distinguished general list to its trade in stationery, printing, and Bibles. At first he published mainly middlebrow adven-

Collins, Sir William lisher

68

(b.

—

rejected the soft-focused, sentimental

then still popular in favour of sharply focused prints, such as "Two Callas" (c. 192 9), that conveyed a sensuous delight in nature. After the breakup of Group .f.64, Cunningham ran a portrait gallery and taught at the San Francisco Art Institute. Many of her late prints continued the tradition of Group f.64 of not manipulating the image after the photograph has been taken. Others, however, showed significant image manipulation and betrayed the persistence of Romanticism in her work.

Daerwyler, Max, Swiss pacifist (b. Unterentfelden, Zumikon, d. Aargau, Switz., Sept. 7, 1886 Switz., Jan. 26, 1976), began a personal crusade against war during military service in 1914, and

—

over a period of 60 years visited many countries in the hope of bringing his cause to the attention of their leaders. On two occasions he marched from New York City to the White House and in 1958 he demonstrated in Red Square in Moscow. He undertook hunger strikes and suffered internment

and imprisonment for his and often bearing a white

beliefs. flag,

White-bearded

he was a familiar

figure in the streets of Zurich.

Daley, Richard J(oseph), U.S. politician

May

1902— d.

(b. ChiChicago, Dec. 20,

cago,

cluding the

1976), became one of the nation's best-known Democratic politicians during his long tenure (1955-76) as mayor of the country's second largest city. As a young man he worked in the stockyards and attended law classes at night be-

UN

Economic and Social Council.

John Aloysius,

Irish lawyer

and

politi-

—

Dublin, Ireland, June 20, 1891 d. Dublin, Jan. 5, 1976), was Taoiseach (prime 1948-51 minister) of the Irish republic during cian

J.

Cunningham photography

universities,

Costello,

archaeologists and institutions.

Boomerang! and

Bible.

accept the surrender of the

Japanese and to cooperate with the Soviet armies. In 1946 Chiang launched an all-out offensive against Chu's armies in the north, but the Communists rolled back the huge Kuomintang forces in a final and decisive victory. On Oct. 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was established and Chu became one of the six vice-chairmen of the new government and commander in chief of its armed forces. In 1954 he was elected vicechairman of the Central People's Government Council, which made him, in effect, Mao's successor. In 1959 he was relieved of this position and lost his place on the Standing Committee of the Politburo, but was reinstated in 1967. In 1975 he became chairman of the Permanent Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (nominal chief of state).

Cobb, Lee

Good News

Edward Weston ten of her plant photographs were included in the "Film und Foto" exhibition (1929), sponsored by the Deutscher Werkbund, an association of German designers and architects. In 1932 Cunningham joined the association of West Coast photographers known as Group f .64. Like other members of the group, tion of

(b.

111.,

15,

PIC

and 1954-57. In the interim, and from 1957 to 1959, he was opposition leader in the Dail Eireann (Irish parliament). College, Dublin, he

A

graduate

was

of

University

to the Irish bar assistant to the in new Irish Free State's attorney general and was himself attorney general from 1926 to 1932, when the (Republican) Fianna Fail under Eamon de Valera ousted the Fine Gael (United Ireland) government of William T. Cosgrave. In 1933 Costello was elected to the Dail as a Fine Gael representative, and 15 years later was chosen to lead the coalition that replaced the de Valera government. The following year (1949) he took Ireland out of the Commonwealth, hoping thereby to defuse Republican extremism, which thereafter centred increasingly on partition. In 1951 the Roman Catholic hierarchy's opposition to his government's proposals for state maternity services resulted in its fall. Costello's second administration ended as a result of dissension within the coalition over renewed Irish Republican Army activity. He then returned to his law practice, but remained a member of the Dail until 1959.

1914.

called

From 192 2 he was

Cuisenaire, Emile-Georges, Belgian educator (b. Quaregnon, Belgium, Sept. 7, 1891 d. Thuin, Hainaut, Belgium, Jan. 1, 1976), invented a practical method of teaching arithmetic to children by means of rectangular rods or tally sticks of various lengths and different colours, each representing a number from one to ten. The feasibility of teaching children to count by associating numbers and colours gained international acceptance after the publication of Nombres en couleur (1951).

*

—

Cunningham, Portland, cisco,

Imogen,

Ore.,

Calif.,

April

June 24,

photographer (b. 1883 d. San Fran1976), was widely ac-

U.S. 12,

—

claimed for her portraits and for her exquisite photographs of plants and flowers. Her professional career began at the turn of the century when she worked in the studio of Edward S. Curtis, famous for his photographic documentation of the American Indians. After studying photographic chemistry in Dresden, Germany, she opened a portrait studio in Seattle, Wash., and soon established a national reputation. Although her commercial work was straightforward, she also continued to produce soft-focused, allegorical prints, such as "The Woods Beyond the World" (c. 1912). After her marriage she moved with her family to San Francisco. On the recommenda-

fore being admitted to the bar in 1933. He began career in politics as an Illinois state representative and senator (1936-46), then became state director of revenue (1948-50) and clerk of Cook County (1950-55). In 1955 he was elected his

to the first of six consecutive four-year terms as mayor of Chicago. Apparently convinced that he could not carry out his plans for the city without complete and absolute control, he set to work to strengthen the local Democratic political organization, which was highly efficient in "getting out the vote" on election days and was often denounced as corrupt. Numerous large construction projects, both public and private, transformed the face of Chicago during Daley's administration, but only token progress was made on such social issues as racial desegregation. Daley was perhaps never a more controversial figure than during the violent demonstrations that occurred at the Democratic national convention in Chicago in 1968 and when he ordered the police to shoot

to maim looters and to shoot to kill arsonists after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Though several of Daley's closest political

cronies were convicted and imprisoned for graft or other crimes, similar charges were never leveled at Daley himself.

He moved

to Campion Hall (formerly Pope's 1927 and became its master in 1932; from 1945 to 1950 he was Jesuit provincial superior. Among his more than 20 books were The Nature oj Belief (1931) and The Mind and Heart of Love (1945).

Hall)

Obituaries

in

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Cardinal Dbpfner, a reformist of liberal tendencies, attracted criticism in 1969 when his friend and assistant, Bishop Matthias Defregger, was found to have been implicated in a war crime in Italy in 1944 while serving in the German tion.

Dalnoki-Veres, Lajos, Hungarian army

officer (b.

1889

—

Hungary, Oct. 4, d. London, England, March 29, 1976), was a patriot swept away from his country on a tide of changing fortunes. Descended from a Szekler Calvinist military family, he fought in World War I, and after 1920 joined the Hungarian Army. After serving as military attache in Vienna during the 1930s, he returned to Budapest convinced that Austria's union with Germany would entangle Hungary in Hitler's strategic plans. During the Sepsiszentgyorgy,

German-Hungarian offensive against the Soviet Union in October 1944 Dalnoki, then a commanding general, was ordered by the Hungarian regent Miklos Horthy to surrender to the Soviet forces. Before he was able to do so, however, he was arrested by the Germans and imprisoned in Germany. After World War II he returned to Hungary to organize the patriotic underground "Hungarian Community," but in 1947 was sentenced to life imprisonment. Freed by the Hungarian rising of October 1956, he reached England, where he became president of the Hungarian League of Freedom Fighters. He wrote a history

(1920-45)

of the

Hungarian Army, which was in Munich, West

published (1972) in Hungarian

Davies, Rupert, Welsh actor (b. Liverpool, England, 1917 London, England, Nov. 22, d. 1976), won the television actor of the year award in 1961 for his portrayal of Georges Simenon's detective character Maigret, appearing in 52 epi-

—

Tolstoy's War and Peace he played Count Rostov and appeared in such films as The Spy Who Came in from the Cold. He was also an excellent stage actor who graduated from the Young Vic and the Birmingham Repertory to the Old Vic and the West End. sodes. In

a

television

serialization

d'Avigdor-Goldsmid, Sir Henry Joseph, 2nd Baronet, British bullion broker and parliamentarian (b. Tonbridge, Kent, England, June 10, 1909— d. London, England, Dec. 1 1, 1976), Con-

member of Parliament for Walsall South (1955-74), became chairman of the Select Committee on Public Expenditure in 1972. His exservative

pertise in financial matters was also recognized by appointments to select committees on nationalized industries, corporation tax, and public expenditure. He became chairman of Bank Leumi in 1961 and held the same post with the AngloIsrael Bank.

Germany.

Dehn, Paul,

Dam,

(Carl Peter) Henrik, Danish biochemist (b. Copenhagen, Denmark, Feb. 21, 1895 d. Copenhagen, April 18?, 1976), was awarded, jointly with Edward A. Doisy of the U.S., the 1943 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the antihemorrhagic vitamin K (Koagulations-

—

British scriptwriter, critic,

and poet

—

Manchester, England, Nov. 5, 1912 d. London, England, Sept. 30, 1976), was particularly successful with his screenplays, which included The Planet oj the Apes series, the adaptation (1974) of Agatha Christie's Murder on the Orient Express, and Franco Zeffirelli's version of The Taming oj the Shrew. A journalist who (b.

quickly specialized in film criticism, he became a member of the distinguished bbc Sunday program "The Critics." He wrote (with the composer James Bernard) the script for Seven Days to Noon, as well as libretti for Lennox Berkeley's A Dinner Engagement and Castaway and for William Walton's The Bear. He also published four volumes of poetry.

WIDE WORLD

De La Warr, Herbrand Edward Dundonald Brassey figure

(b.

9th Earl, British political June 20, 1900 d. London, England,

Sackville,

Army.

of

—

Jan. 28, 1976), was responsible as postmaster general (1951-55) for legislation that authorized commercial television in Britain. A Labour peer who later joined the Conservatives, De La Warr held minor appointments in the Labour governments of 1924 and 1929-31 and served in all the National governments of the 1930s. He served in the Cabinet (1937-38) as lord privy seal, then left the government after a term as president of the Board of Education (1938-40). When he stepped down as chairman of the National Labour Party (1931-43), he became director of Home Flax Production (1943-49).

Dowling, Eddie (Joseph Nelson Goucher), U.S. theatre virtuoso (b. Woonsocket, R.I., Dec. 9, 1894—d. Smithfield, R.I., Feb. 18, 1976), was already an established actor, playwright, singer, songwriter, director, and prize-winning producer on Broadway when, in 1945, he rejected a surefire commercial success to co-produce, co-direct, narrate, and play in Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie. The production made theatrical history and turned the obscure Williams into a celebrity. Up to the time of his retirement in the 1960s, Dowling continued to display his remarkable versatility.

Edwards,

—

economist (b. Kingston, Ont.,

Dam

and Doisy, working invitamin from alfalfa (lucerne). A graduate of the Copenhagen Polytechnic Institute (1920) and of the University of Copenhagen (1934), Dam taught in Copenhagen until 1939. In 1940 he went to the U.S. and became senior research associate at the University of Rochester, N.Y. (1942-45). After returning to Denmark in 1946, he was professor of biochemistry and nutrition at the Polytechnic Institute until 1965 and headed the biochemical division of the Danish Fat Research Institute from 1956 to 1963. His many publications inVitamin). In 1939

isolated

the

cluded papers on cholesterol metabolism, lipids, and gallstone formation.

D'Arcy, The Rev. Martin Cyril, British Roman Catholic priest (b. Bath, England, June 15, 1888 d. London, England, Nov. 20, 1976), was a Jesuit intellectual whose writings, lectures, and broadcasts influenced many in Britain and the U.S. D'Arcy entered the Society of Jesus at the age of 18 and from Stonyhurst College went to Pope's Hall, Oxford, in 1912, where he took' a

—

humanities. After his ordination in 1921, he was assigned to Farm Street Church, London. first in

British industrialist

with special reference to industrial organization, London School of Economics (lse), the University of London, from 1949. Edwards, who began work at 15 and obtained a commerce degree by means of a correspondence course, taught at the lse from 1935, and after war work with the Ministry of Aircraft Production (194045) returned to the lse as Sir Ernest Cassel reader in commerce (1946-49). He was deputy

chairman

(1957-61)

and chairman

(1962-68)

of the Electricity Council (the central state body responsible for electricity supply), a member of

numerous

academic boards and governmental committees of inquiry, and published several works on industrial research and business organization. He was knighted in 1963. Elazar, David, Israeli army commander (b. Sarajevo, Yugos., 192 5 d. near Tel Aviv, Israel, April 14, 1976), was accused by a commission of inquiry of bad judgment and lack of preparedness in the fourth Arab-Israeli war that started on Oct. 6, 1973. When Elazar resigned on April 2, 1974, he noted that the commission apparently chose to ignore his role in Israel's spectacular recovery and that Israeli forces crossed the Suez Canal under his command. Elazar migrated to Palestine in 1940, studied at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, and served in the Haganah, the Jewish illegal army. After

—

fighting in the

War

of Independence

1949) he —January Army. During

(May 1948

was commissioned

in

the

the second Arab-Israeli

war

(October-November 1956) he commanded a brigade in the Sinai Peninsula; in 1961 he headed the Armoured Corps, and in 1965 the Northern Command. In the third Arab-Israeli war (the socalled Six-Day War of June 1967) troops under Elazar's command conquered the Golan Heights against strong Syrian defenses. Four years later he became chief of general staff and commander in chief of the Israeli Army with the rank of lieutenant general.

Quinton, Sask., Feb. 26, 1911 d. 18, 1976), had a multifaceted career as an educator, government official, and high-level economic adviser. He graduated from Queen's University in Ontario in 1934 and later served his alma mater as chief administrator and professor of economics. Deutsch joined the newly founded Bank of Canada in 1936 as research assistant and held a multitude of other posts before becoming first chairman of the Economic Council of Canada in 1963. He was named director of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce in 1967 and a member of the Canada Council in 1974.

Ernst, Max, German-born painter and sculptor (b. Bruhl, Germany, April 2, 1891 d. Paris, France, April 1, 1976), was a leading figure of the Surrealist movement and a pioneer of Dadaism in

Db'pfner, Julius Cardinal, German prelate of the Roman Catholic Church (b. Hausen, Bavaria, Germany, Aug. 26, 1913 d. Munich, West Germany, July 24, 1976), archbishop of Munich from 1961 and president of the West German episcopal conference from 1965, played an important role in the second Vatican Council as one of its four moderators. He studied in Rome, was ordained in 1939, and at 35 became bishop of Wurzburg (1948-57), then of Berlin (195761). He was created cardinal in 1958 by Pope John XXIII and was later named by Pope Paul VI as vice-president, together with John Cardinal Heenan, of the Vatican commission on contracep-

childhood paintings that contained fantastic years later, while studying psychiatry at the University of Bonn, he became fascinated by the paintings of the mentally ill. After meeting with such artists as August Macke and Jean Arp he dropped his studies and became a full-time painter. After producing "The Elephant of the Celebes" (1921) under the banner of the Cologne Dadaists, he moved to Paris (1922), where he was a member of the Surrealists from their formation in 1924 until 1938. Paintings of this period, including "The Barbarians March Westwards" (1935), showed an increasingly apocalyptic strain. After

March

dependently,

Ronald Stanley,

at the

Israeli

Deutsch, John James, Canadian

Sir

and academic (b. London, England, May 1, 1910 London, Jan. 18, 1976), was chairman d. (1968-75) and then president of the Beecham multinational pharmaceuticals group before the government took over British Leyland and named him chairman of the U.K.'s largest auto manufacturer. He was also professor of economics,

—

—

Germany. His mature work was foreshadowed

—

in

and dream-inspired images;

69

— Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR A. F. P. /

PICTORIAL

PARADE

(1951), and Countess Rosmarin Ostenburg in The Dark Is Light Enough (1954). During her film career, Evans portrayed a deluded pensioner in The Whisperers and received the best actress award at the Berlin International Film Festival (1967). Her last stage performance was a zestful one-woman show in 1974.

Ewald, Marina, German educationist (b. Berlin, Germany, 1888 d. Salem, West Germany, Sept. 14, 1976), was associated with Kurt Hahn in the foundation (1920) of his renowned school at Salem, the principles of which were later followed at Gordonstoun School in Scotland. When

—

the rise of the Nazis obliged Hahn to go to Britain, she ran Salem and its branch schools until they were taken over by the Nazis, then resumed control after World War II. From 1956 she administered a traveling scholarship for sixth-form pupils of European schools.

search, and (1974) a member of the Arts Coun1975 he led a campaign to enlist trade cil. In union support for Britain to remain in the

European Economic Community. Sir Edward Hedley, British air vicemarshal (b. Bracknell, Berkshire, England, Dec. d. Edinburgh, Scotland, Nov. 8, 1976), 4, 1903 had charge of aircraft flights of the British royal family; he was flight captain for King George VI (1936-52) and for Queen Elizabeth II ( 195262), after which he became air equerry to the queen ( 1962-69) and was promoted to air vice-

Fielden,

—

From Malvern College, Fielden entered Royal Air Force and undertook meteorological flights in all weathers. His association with the royal family (broken only by service in World War II) began when Edward, prince of Wales, chose him as his pilot in 1929. marshal. the

Fierlinger,

Farley,

James Aloysius,

U.S. political strategist

(b. Grassy Point, N.Y., May 30, 1888— d. New York, N.Y., June 9, 1976), was a major political figure during the first two presidential terms of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Though never elected to any office higher than that of New York state assemblyman, Farley had great patronage at his disposal as U.S. postmaster general (1933-40) and exercised political power across the entire nation as chairman (1932-40) of the Democratic National Committee. He accompanied Roosevelt during the latter's first two presidential campaigns, winning friends and securing votes for the Democrats with an astonishing display of memory for names and faces. When Roosevelt an-

fall of

the of

JACK MANNING

France (1940) he spent the remainder

World War

II in the U.S.,

became a

— THE

NEW YORK TIMES

—

later

became

all

—

latter post after the Soviet invasion of Czechoslo-

vakia in 1968.

Frumkin, Aleksandr Naumovich, Soviet

electro-

chemist (b. Kishinev, Moldavia, Oct. 24, 1895 d. Tula, U.S.S.R., May 2 7, 1976), was from 1958 director of the Institute of Electrochemistry at

Academy

of Sciences in

Moscow; he

of many awards, including the Lenin (1931) and Stalin (1941) prizes, he specialized in surface phenomena and evolved theories of kinetics in electrochemical reactions (1929) and the quantitative influence of an electrical field upon molecular adsorption. Frumkin was at the Karpov Institute of Physical Chemistry in Moscow from 1922 to 1946 and in 1930 was named to the chair of electrochemistry at Moscow University.

Evans, Dame Edith, English actress (b. London, England, Feb. 8, 1888 d. Kilndown, Kent, England, Oct. 14, 1976), brought rare interpretive gifts to almost every part she played, but was most widely acclaimed for her Shakespearean roles and her acting in Restoration comedy. Evans was a milliner's apprentice and drama student when she was discovered in 1912 by the producer William Poel. In time she undertook a Shakespeare tour with Ellen Terry (1918) and achieved her first popular triumph as Mrs. Millamant in Congreve's The Way of the World (1924). The

Evans

(b.

earlier served as director (1939-49) of the Academy's Institute of Physical Chemistry. A winner

prize at the Venice Biennale (1954); during the early 1960s retrospective exhibitions were held in New York City, Paris, London, and other European and U.S. cities.

of

politician

Austria-Hungary, July 1, 1891 d. Prague, Czechoslovakia, May 2, 1976), was Socialist prime minister (1945-46) and president of the National Assembly ( 1953-64). After fighting for Czechoslovak independence during World War I, he held diplomatic posts in many capitals, including Moscow (1936-39 and 194145). In 1948 he united his Social Democratic Party with the Communists, retaining high office and serving as chairman of the Committee for Czechoslovak-Soviet Friendship. He resigned the

Moravia,

the Soviet

citizen in

1948, but returned to France the following year and in 1958 acquired French citizenship. Ernst received wide acclaim only after winning grand

name

Zdenek, Czechoslovak

Olomouc,

(Jean-Alexis Moncorge), French

Gabin, Jean

—

France, May 17, 1904 d. 1976), was among France's bestloved film actors for almost 40 years, usually evoking sympathy in roles portraying workers, film actor

Paris,

(b. Paris,

Nov.

15,

KEYSTONE

but inseparable

from such Shakespearean women as Portia, Rosaand the nurse in Romeo and Juliet. Other outstanding performances included Lady Bracknell in Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest (1939), Mrs. Malaprop in Sheridan's The Rivals (1945), Helen Lancaster in Waters oj the Moon lind,

nounced MIRRORPIc/pHOTO TRENDS

his intention to run for a third term in 1940, Farley parted company. During the following years he continued to attend Democratic national conventions as a delegate and held the

positions of chairman of the Coca-Cola Export Co. and, later, president of Coca-Cola International Corp. until his retirement in 1973.

Feather, Victor Grayson Hardie Feather, Baron, British trade unionist (b. Bradford, England, April 10, 1908 d. London, England, July 28, 1976), led the Trades Union Congress (tuc) in its confrontations with governments over industrial relations legislation between 1969 and 1973. He joined the tuc staff in 1937, became assistant

—

secretary (1947-60), assistant general secretary (1960-69), and finally general secretary. The main issues during his leadership of the tuc were the legislative proposals of the Labour government set out in its 1969 White Paper In Place of Strife, which had to be scrapped, and the following Conservative government's Industrial Relations Act of 1971, union opposition to which brought the government down and cost Edward Heath the leadership of the Conservative Party. Feather was made a life peer in 1974. On retiring in 1973 he became president of the European Trade Union Confederation, a governor of the British Broadcasting Corporation and the

National Institute of Economic and Social Re-

70

criminals, or the unfortunate. At 19 he joined the Folies-Bergere. He first appeared in film in 1930 and soon built an international reputation in such films as Maria Chapdelaine (1934), La Bandera (1935), La Belle equipe (1936), Les

Bas-fonds (1936), Pipe le Moko (1936), and the masterpieces La Bete humaine (1938;

$4 billion. His art collection alone was valued at several hundred million dollars. Getty's father, a Minneapolis lawyer, laid the foundation of the family fortune by successfully wildcatting for oil

adapted from Zola by Jean Renoir), Quai des brumes (1938; Port of Shadows), and Le Jour After an indifferent se leve (1939; Daybreak) stint in Hollywood, Gabin returned home in 1943 to serve in the Free French forces during World War II. He then adapted himself to maturer parts, playing an old peasant in Le Plaisir ( 1952 ) and an aging gangster in Touches pas au Grisbi (1953). .

He continued to invest in oil stock during the Depression and eventually cajoled his widowed mother into relinquishing control of George F. Getty Inc. (Her husband had refused to sell their son more than one-third interest in protest against his first three marriages.) By 1937 Getty had acquired control of Mission Corp., which held large shares in Tidewater Oil Co. and Skelly Oil, lionaire.

—

clude The Snow Goose, a sentimental novelette that became immensely popular; The Poseidon Adventure, which initiated a long series of disaster films after its success as a movie; and Farewell to Sport.

Geiger-Torel, Herman, German-born opera director (b. Frankfurt am Main, Germany, July 13, 1907 d. Toronto, Ont., Oct. 6, 1976), began directing symphony orchestras at age 16 but, with encouragement from his pianist-composer mother, turned to opera and made it a career. He attended Goethe University in Frankfurt and was assistant to Lothar Wallerstein at the prestigious Salzburg Festival in 1930. From 1930 to 1937 he directed operas in the major houses of Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Switzerland. After ten years as a stage director in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay he accepted (1948) a three-month assignment in Toronto to teach opera music and to direct a fledgling opera school at the Royal Conservatory of Music. He remained for 2 7 years, gradually transforming the Canadian Opera Company (established in 1950) from a student organization into a highly trained group of performers. As stage director and producer, and from 1959 also as general manager, Geiger-Torel recruited young talent that he molded into a close-knit ensemble of professional singers, coaches, managers, conductors, and stage directors. Having staged 69 productions for the Canadian Opera Company, he retired in 1975.

—

Getty, J(ean) Paul, U.S. oil tycoon (b. Minneapolis, Minn., Dec. 15, 1892 d. outside London, England, June 6, 1976), amassed vast personal wealth from oil investments and from substantial interests in some 200 other concerns. Estimates of his total holdings, which were concentrated in the Getty Oil Co., ranged between $2 billion and

—

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Oklahoma. At 2 1 young Getty began to buy and sell oil leases and within two years was a milin

Gallico, Paul William, U.S. writer (b. New York, d. Monte Carlo, Monaco, N.Y., July 26, 1897 July 1 5, 1976), was a gifted sportswriter whose literary talents also extended to short stories, tales for children, novels, animal stories, war reports, and film scripts. After graduating from Columbia University in New York, he was hired by the New York Daily News as a movie critic. He was soon switched to the sports department, where he became the sports editor and a widely read columnist (1924-36). A fine athlete who admired authentic champions, Gallico created his own news stories by getting knocked out in less than

two minutes by Jack Dempsey, by swimming against Johnny Weismuller, and by challenging Bobby Jones on the golf links. While sports editor of the Daily News he also organized the first Golden Gloves boxing tournament. From 1950 Gallico lived outside the U.S. His writings in-

Obituaries

but his most important coup came in 1949 when he secured Saudi Arabia's half-interest rights to the Neutral Zone, which the Saudis shared with

Kuwait. Getty, who married five times, lived the last 25 years of his life outside the U.S. In 1973 he refused to pay $16 million to Italian kidnappers for the release of his grandson, arguing that compliance would simply make tempting targets of his other grandchildren. The young man was eventually released after his father made a reduced

payment. Gilligan, -

Arthur Edward Robert, English 1894

—

crick-

Pulborough, West Sussex, Sept. 5, 1976), was one of the fastest bowlers of his time, a superb fielder at mid off, a quick-hitting batsman, and an inspiring leader who captained England at cricket in Australia (1924-25) and in India and Ceylon (1926-27). He also captained Sussex, and was president of the Marylebone Cricket Club during 1967-68. eter

(b.

Dec.

23,

d.

Gold, Ernest, British meteorologist (b. Warwickshire, England, 1881 d. London, England, Jan.

—

30, 1976),

who played an important

part in the

Gubbins, Sir Colin McVean, British general (b. Tokyo, Japan, July 2, 1896 d. Isle of Harris,

—

Scotland, Feb. 11, 1976), director of operations (1940-43) and executive head (1943-46) of the Special Operations Executive, the British equivalent of the U.S. Office of Strategic Services, was responsible for organizing and supporting resistance movements in German-occupied countries during World War II. The Special Operations Executive was also active in Southeast Asia against the Japanese and supported Marshal Tito in Yugoslavia. Gubbins was knighted in 1946 and decorated by all the principal Allied powers except the Soviet Union.

Haddow,

Sir Alexander, British pathologist (b. Scotland, Jan. 18, 1907 d. Chalfont St. England, Jan. 21, 1976), a leading authority in the field of cancer research, was professor of experimental pathology at the University of London (1946-72) and director of the Chester Beatty Research Institute of the Institute of Cancer Research, Royal Cancer Hospital, London (1946-69). A graduate of the University of Edinburgh, he joined the Research Institute in 1936 and was among those whose experiments demonstrated conclusively that certain hydrocarbons in coal tar can cause cancer. He was also among the first to recognize the possibility of treating cancer

—

Fife,

Giles,

effectively through chemotherapy. Haddow, who served as president of the International Union Against Cancer (1962-66), became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1958 and was knighted in 1966.

formation of international meteorological services,

was with Britain's Meteorological Office from 1910 to 1947. While Schuster reader in dynamical meteorology (1907-10) at the University of Cambridge, he provided an explanation of the puzzling phenomenon that, whereas the temperature of the Earth's troposphere (lower atmosphere) decreases with altitude, that of the stratosphere (upper atmosphere) is relatively constant. Gold was president of the International Commission for Synoptic Weather Information (191947) and a fellow of the Royal Society from 1918.

Goulart, Joao,

former

president

March

of

—

Brazil

(b.

1918 d. Corrientes Province, Argentina, Dec. 6, 1976), was a po-

Sao Borja,

Brazil,

1,

protege of Getulio Vargas, who ruled Brazil as a virtual dictator from 1930 to 1945. On the strength of his earlier social programs, Vargas was returned to power in 1950 and named (1953) Goulart minister of labour, industry, and commerce. After Vargas committed suicide (1954) amid reports of government scandals, Goulart assumed leadership of the Labour Party and was elected (1955) vice-president in the administration of Juscelino Kubitschek. He was elected to the same office under Pres. Janio Quadros, who litical

August 1961. Though Goulart term (1961-64) was beset with ever increasing opposition from landbusinessmen, lords, and the military, all of whom

suddenly resigned

was

in

ratified as president, his

resented his left-wing political policies. With inflation out of control and foreign investment declining, Goulart faced economic and political chaos. A military coup put an end to civilian rule in April 1964. Goulart went into exile in Uruguay for some nine years, then moved to Argentina.

Grechko, Andrey Antonovich, marshal of the Soviet Union (b. Golodayevka [later Kuybyshevo], Rostov region, Russia, Oct. 17, 1903 d. Moscow,

—

U.S.S.R., April 26, 1976), Soviet minister of defense, was a career soldier who graduated from the Frunze Military Academy in 1936 and from the General Staff Academy in 1941. During the Soviet-Finnish War (1939-40) he was chief of staff of a cavalry division and in World War II successively commanded five different armies, recapturing the Black Sea city of Novorossiysk in 1943. He was given command of the Soviet forces in East Germany in 1953, was promoted to the rank of marshal in 1955, and in 1957 became first deputy minister of defense. In 1960 he was narned commander in chief of the Warsaw Pact forces and in April 1967 minister of defense. Grechko, who became a full member of the Politburo in 1973, was an opponent of detente diplomacy and reduction of armaments.

Tom, British ethnologist (b. England, d. near Bangkok, Thailand, Jan. 1976), was at the time of his death senior research associate in anthropology at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., enthusiastically involved in the institution's Southeast Asian Program; he

Harrisson,

Sept. 26, 1911

—

18,

was also visiting professor and director of the Mass-Observation Archive at the University of Sussex in England and emeritus curator of the Sarawak Museum in Malaysia, of which he was government ethnologist and curator from 1947 to 1966. After expeditions to Arctic Lapland and Borneo, Harrisson spent two years among cannibals in the New Hebrides, whose society he described in Savage Civilisation (1937). In 1936 he opened up a new area of investigation when he co-founded Mass-Observation; the project developed into a study of the British people, especially under the stresses of World War II. In 1944 he parachuted into Borneo to organize guerrilla resistance to the occupying Japanese forces and prepare the people for the impending Allied invasion; he later described these experiences in his book World Within: A Borneo Story (1959). Harrisson, whose writings included a number of books and numerous articles for scientific journals, was also a noted ornithologist and, according to longtime colleagues, a raconteur par excellence.

Hart, Philip Aloysius, U.S. politician (b. Bryn Mawr, Pa., Dec. 10, 1912 d. Mackinac Island, Mich., Dec. 26, 1976), was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1958 as a Democrat from Michigan and during three successive six-year terms came to be known among his colleagues as "the conscience of the Senate." Though soft-spoken and unobtrusive, Hart was a potent force in shaping legislation to protect the rights of ordinary peo-

—

He sponsored, among other bills, the Drug Safety Act (1962), the Truth-in-Packaging Act (1965), and the Truth-in-Lending Act (1966), as well as the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Saving Act (1972). He was also floor manager for the Voting Rights Act (1965, extended 1970) and for the civil rights open housing bill of 1968. In Michigan, school busing for purposes of desegregation became an explosive political issue, but Hart consistently opposed legislation to curb ple.

Knowing full it. home of numerous

that Michigan was the hunters, he nonetheless urged more stringent gun controls. Even though the U.S. auto industry was concentrated in his home state, Hart favoured antipollution laws and safety standards for cars. On these, and countless other issues, Hart's votes were accepted as expressions of sincere convictions. well

71

Heisenberg, Werner Karl, German physicist (b. d. Munich, Duisburg, Germany, Dec. 5, 1901 West Germany, Feb. 1, 1976), revolutionized modern physics by discovering (1925) a way to formulate quantum mechanics in terms of mathematical matrices. Two years later he published (or indeterminacy) principle, his uncertainty namely, that the position and the velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly at the same time. Indeed, the very concept of exact position and exact velocity taken together has no meaning in nature. The principle is vital to an understanding of subatomic particles because of the intimate connection between such particles and waves.

—

Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Harvey, Len, British boxer (b. Cornwall, England, d. London, England, Nov. 2 8, July 1 1, 1907 1976), at various times between 1929 and 1942

—

held the British welterweight, middleweight, lightheavyweight, and heavyweight championships; in 1942 he lost a bid to become world light-heavyweight title holder when he injured his back and was defeated by Freddie Mills of Great Britain. The Cornishman twice earlier challenged unsuccessfully for world crowns, going. 15 rounds against middleweight Marcel Phil of France in 1932 and 15 rounds against light-heavyweight John Henry Lewis of the U.S. in 1936.

CAMERA PRESS

Heidegger, Martin, German philosopher (b. Messkirch, Baden, Germany, Sept. 2 6, 1889— d. Mess1976), prokirch, West Germany, May 26, foundly influenced atheistic existentialists and Bultmann Rudolf (q.v.). theologians as also such

A

serious student of the pre-Socratic philosophers Heraclitus and Parmenides, he also owed much to the 19th-century Danish philosopher S0ren Kierkegaard. In his major work, Sein und Zeit

(1927; Eng. trans. Heidegger examined a theoretical

Being

— context —

and

Time,

1962),

a practical rather than the meaning of being and

in

DE TOVARNICKY

— L'EXPRESs/ CAMERA

PRESS

sophisticated space equipment for the U.S. govern-

ment.

As early as the 1930s Hughes gave evidence a complicated personality. Though he apparently enjoyed being seen in the company of beautiful women and savoured his role as a glamorous pilot who twice won the Harmon Trophy for setting world speed records in planes he designed and built himself, he frequently negotiated huge business deals at strange hours in out-of-the-way places. One grandiose Hughes venture was dubbed the "Spruce Goose," an immense wooden-framed aircraft intended to transport U.S. troops to Europe during World War II. Hughes flew it just once for one mile at an altitude of 70 ft. In the 1950s, some years after he was disfigured and almost killed in a plane crash, Hughes went into seclusion. Abruptly moving his headc?f

Heisenberg,

who was awarded

the Nobel Prize

for Physics in 1932, received his Ph.D. from the University of Munich at the age of 22, then

Max Born in Gbttingen and Niels Bohr in Copenhagen. From 1927 to 1941 he was professor of theoretical physics at the University of Leipzig and later director (1941-45) of the

studied under

Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin. After World War II, as founder and director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics, he continued to study a wide range of topics and became widely respected as a philosopher of science through such books as Philosophic Problems of Nuclear Science and Physics

and Beyond.

—

based metaphysical assertions on the

literal

mean-

ings of the roots of Greek and German words. He left Freiburg University in 1923 to become professor of philosophy at Marburg, but he returned to Freiburg in 1928 where he was appointed rector five years later. Among his works available in English are Kant and the Problem

Metaphysics (1929), What Is Philosophy? (1956), The Question of Being (1958), and On Way to Language (1971).

of

the

Heinemann, Gustav, West German

politician

—

(b.

Schwelm, Germany, July 23, 1899 d. Essen, West Germany, July 7, 1976), president of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1969 to 1974, was previously Christian Democratic minister of the interior (1949-50) under Konrad Adenauer, then Social Democratic minister of justice (196669) in the "grand coalition" led by Kurt Georg Kiesinger. He changed parties over the issue of West German rearmament, to which he was determinedly opposed. While president he sought to make the office less remote and took a special interest in young people, the handicapped, foreign workers, and artists. His few state visits abroad were mainly to countries that had suffered under the Nazis. As an active member of the German Confessional Church, Heinemann steadfastly opposed the Nazis under the Third Reich.

72

Hory, Elmyr de, Hungarian painter (b. 1906 d. Ibiza, Balearic Islands, Spain, December 1976), was an extraordinarily skillful imitator of the works of Picasso and other modern painters, many copies of which were sold as authentic mas-

A Hungarian-Jewish refugee who settled Ibiza in 1960, Hory was arrested for forgery 19 74, but he persistently denied having been involved in any criminal activities. Shortly after he was informed that he would be extradited to France to stand trial, he died from an overdose of sleeping pills. Clifford Irving made Hory the subject of his book Fake! (1969) and Orson Welles did the same in the movie Question Mark terpieces. in in

quarters from one country to another (Bahamas, Nicaragua, Canada, England, Mexico), he arrived at each new destination unnoticed, took elaborate precautions to ensure absolute privacy in a luxury hotel, and was rarely seen by anyone except his five male aides. Often working for days without sleep in a black-curtained room, he sometimes subsisted on a diet of fudge and cakes carefully cut into perfect squares. Toward the end of his life, Hughes again became a feature news item. A fraudulent biography, purportedly compiled by Clifford Irving during a series of secret meetings with Hughes, resulted in jail sentences for the author and his wife. And in 1975 it was disclosed that the strangely constructed "Glomar Explorer" had not been built by Hughes to retrieve ore from the ocean floor the vessel had been commissioned for a secret mission by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Hughes married at least three times but left no immediate relatives. He reportedly intended to leave the bulk of his wealth, managed by the Summa Corp., to the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Miami, but the disposition of his estate was expected to involve years of legal battles. Dozens of wills were produced, but all appeared to be forgeries.

—

(1973).

Hughes, Richard Arthur Warren, British author Hughes, Howard

(Robard), Jr., U.S. business tycoon (b. Houston, Texas, Dec. 24, 1905 d. en route to the U.S. from Acapulco, Mexico, April 5, 1976), was one of modern America's most bizarre and fascinating personalities. After his parents died, Hughes, then 18, took over personal control of the Hughes Tool Co., which manufactured and leased rock and oil drills and was worth about $700,000. During the next halfcentury Hughes became a daring entrepreneur and a billionaire. He produced motion pictures and became sole owner of rko studios. He owned hotels, Nevada gambling casinos, airlines, television networks, and precious-metal mines. And he manufactured helicopters, missiles, and highly

—

Weybridge, Surrey, England, April 19, 1900 Talsarnau, Gwynedd, Wales, April 28, 1976), was best known as the author of A High Wind in Jamaica (1929; U.S. title, The Innocent Voyage), a tale of piracy and the capacity that young children have for evil; and of In Hazard (1938), another maritime novel. His most ambitious project was entitled The Human Predicament, a (b.

—

d.

trilogy of historical novels covering the years between the two World Wars. Only two volumes were completed, The Fox in the Attic (1961) and The Wooden Shepherdess (1973). Hughes also wrote poetry, children's books, radio dramas, and two stage plays, The Sisters' Tragedy (1922) and A Comedy of Good and Evil (1924).

Ingersoll, Royal Eason, U.S. admiral (b. Washd. Bethesda, Md., ington, D.C., June 20, 1883 May 20, 1976), graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1905, then steadily advanced in rank while serving aboard ship and at desk jobs ashore. On Jan. 1, 1942, some three weeks after the U.S. entered World War II, he was given command of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet as a vice-admiral. For the next three years he was responsible for the defense of the U.S. East Coast and for the transportation of troops and supplies across the submarine-infested Atlantic. Late in 1944 Ingersoll was reassigned to the Pacific area as commander of the Western Sea Frontier and was named deputy commander of the U.S. Fleet and deputy chief of naval operations. After receiving a Distinguished Service Medal, he retired as an admiral

Aug. 25, 1976), shared the 1974 Nobel Prize for Literature with his compatriot Harry Martinson. Johnson's massive novels, though of the Swedish proletarian school, ranged from exposures of

—

in

1946.

Islam, Kazi Nazrul,

Bengali poet (b. Churulia, Bengal [now India], May 24, Bangladesh, Aug. 29, 1976), was a highly gifted poet who used his literary

Burdwan

district,

1899— d.

Dacca,

talents to stir his fellow countrymen into action against the British; but more significantly, his 3,000 poems, many clamouring for revolution, provided the subcontinent with some of its finest 20th-century literature. Though poverty brought an end to Islam's formal education at about age 15, he taught himself Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit and acquired a thorough understanding of Indian religions and philosophies. His poetic imagery and allusions also bore witness to a more than ordinary acquaintance with Christian literature. Seeking support for Indian independence, Islam urged the young to tear apart "even the Sun, the Moon, and the planets" if that was the only way to freedom. Such incendiary talk stirred the country and guaranteed a prison cell for Islam. Even in confinement he poured out. his heart in poems and song, and many of those he set to music were sung across the land. Islam also took up his pen to denounce class differences, disdain for others, and self-righteous attitudes. Some of his finest writings on such themes form a collection called Samyabad ("Egalitarianism").

lames, Sid (Sidney Balmoral James), British comedian (b. Johannesburg, South Africa, May 1913 Sunderland, England, April 26, d. 8, 1976), whose battered features and gravelly Cockney voice distinguished an original comic talent, was the son of a South African vaudeville team. After arriving in England in 1946, he worked in repertory and played character parts

—

SYNDICATION

INTERNATIONAL / PHOTO

TRENDS

capitalism in Bobinack (1932) to a tetralogy of grim sub-Arctic logging labour in Romanen om Oloj ("Novel of Olof," 1934-37); he also examined neutrality in Krilon (1941-43) and totalitarianism in Hans n'ades dagar ("The Days of His Grace," 1960), set in the Dark Ages. His more experimental Strdndernas Svall (1946; Eng. trans., Return to Ithaca, 1952) was inspired by James Joyce. Johnson served as a link to the Norwegian underground during World War II.

Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR

State Opera (1952). In September 1975 he was appointed principal conductor of the bbc Symphony Orchestra.

Kerner, Otto, U.S. lawyer and politician (b. Chicago, Ilil, Aug. 15, 1908— d. Chicago, May 9, 1976), was U.S. attorney for the Northern District

Jouve, Pierre Jean, French poet and novelist (b. Arras, France, Oct. 11, 1887 d. Paris, France, Jan. 8, 1976), combined Christian and Freudian imagery to explore inner conflicts of spirituality and carnality. After his conversion to Roman Catholicism in the mid-1920s, Jouve shook off the early influence of the Symbolists and the Unanimistes of the Abbaye group and produced his most characteristic works, which blended mysticism and eroticism. These elements appear in the poems of Les Noces (1931), Sueur de Sang (1935), and Matiere celeste (1937), and in the novels Paulina 1880 (192 5), Le Monde desert (1927), and La Scene capitate (1935). During World War II he wrote poems supporting the Resistance {La Vierge de Paris; 1946). Jouve was also a music critic who wrote important works on Mozart and Alban Berg, and was a translator of Shakespeare. He was awarded the French

—

-

Academy's Grand Prix de Poesie

Kampmann,

in

(b.

Copen-

hagen, Denmark, July 21, 1910 d. Copenhagen, June 3, 1976), was an able finance minister who served as prime minister of Denmark from 1960 to 1962. A member of the Social Democratic Party, he worked in the Danish taxation department before joining the Cabinet as finance minister briefly in 1950 and again from 1953 to 1960. He then replaced H. C. Hansen as prime minister on the latter's death, but was compelled to resign the premiership two years later because of ill

conductor (b. Niederpoy-

—

Germany, June 14, 1910 d. Zurich, Switz., 1 1, 1976), was musical director (1961-70) and principal conductor (1970-75) of Britain's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. Kempe was noted for his interpretations of the works of Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss and in the 1960s was responsible for historic productions of Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen and Lohengrin at Bayreuth. Kempe, an oboist, became repetiteur and later conductor (1936) at the Leipzig Opera ritz,

May

House. After opting to remain in Germany and in the Army during World War II, he conducted at Weimar (1948) and Dresden (1949) before becoming musical director of the Bavarian serving

entering

before

being paroled, terminally

politics

as

a

ill

with cancer.

Kethly, Anna, Hungarian politician (b. Budapest, Hungary, Nov. 16, 1889 d. Blankenberge, Belgium, September 1976), was a minister of state in Imre Nagy's brief government in Hungary before its overthrow in 1956 by Soviet forces; she then became president of the Hungarian Social Democratic Party-in-exile. In 1922 she was the first woman Socialist to be elected to the Hungarian Parliament, later evaded capture by the German Gestapo, and became vice-president of the National Assembly in 1945. She resigned in 1948 on the forced union of her party with the

—

,

Communists, and was imprisoned

health.

Kempe, Rudolf, German

Illinois

1966.

Viggo, Danish statesman

—

of

Democrat. In 1954 he was elected a Cook County judge and six years later won the governorship of Illinois in an impressive victory. Kerner's reputation as governor was so far above reproach that Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson asked him to serve as chairman of the President's National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. The Kerner Report, published in February 1968, pointed to "white racism" as a major cause of the 1967 urban riots. In 1968 Kerner relinquished the governorship to accept an appointment to the U.S. Court of Appeals. In December 1972 the country was shocked to learn that Kerner had been indicted for pushing through legislation, while governor, that favoured racetrack owner Marjorie Everett. In exchange, Kerner had been allowed to buy stock in her Thoroughbred Enterprises at below-market value. He was convicted and served seven months of a three-year sentence before

1954.

till

Hugh Kenyon Molesworth Kin2nd Baron, British merchant banker (b. 1899 d. Tonbridge, Kent, England, Oct. 7, 6, 1976), was managing director (1927-64) and chairman (1953-64) of Lazard Brothers and Company Ltd., of which his father had been chairman before him. Serving in the firm from 1919, he became governor of Royal Exchange Assurance (1955-69) and then first chairman of Guardian Royal Exchange Assurance. During his career Kindersley was also a director of the Bank of London and South America (1938-60) and chairman of Rolls-Royce Ltd. (1956-68), and

Kindersley, dersley,

—

May

served as

a

director

of

the

Bank

of

England

(1947-67). Klijnstra, Gerrit Dirk Ale, Dutch industrialist (b. Amersfoort, Neth., Jan. 5, 1912 d. Rotterdam, Neth., Dec. 18, 1976), became a director of the international concern Unilever in 1955 and later served as its chairman (1971-74). He was made a director of Imperial Chemical Industries, another giant corporation, in 1973. From the Delft College of Technology he joined Unilever in The Netherlands as a chemical engineer in 1938. He rebuilt factories in the Netherlands East Indies

—

after

World War

II,

then

moved

to

London

(1954), where he became technical director with world responsibility.

Kopanski, Stanislaw, Polish army

/ .

—

(b.

St.

W. Sikorski, commanding a new Polish Army, to Syria to lead the Polish Carpathian brigade. After the fall of France the brigade served in British Palestine and North Africa and later became the nucleus of the Polish Army Corps, which distinguished itself in Italy. Shortly before his death in 1943, Sikorski appointed Kopanski chief of staff of the Polish military headquarters in London. In May 1946 Kopanski became inspector general of the Polish Resettlement Corps, demobilizing more than 200,000 Polish troops in

such films as The Lavender Hill Mob (1951), Trapeze ( 1956), and various Carry on productions. He also acted in the stage play Guys and Dolls (1954), but his wide popularity was most firmly established through television. He appeared in "Hancock's Half Hour," in his own comedy' series "Citizen James," and in the series "Bless This House" (1971-76). in

.

officer

Petersburg, Russia, May 19, 1895 d. London, England, March 23, 1976), commanded Polish forces in the Allied cause in North Africa and Italy in World War II. At the outbreak of World War II Kopanski served on the Polish general staff, escaped to France, and was sent by Gen.

.

Johnson, Eyvind, Swedish novelist (b. Boden, Sweden, July 29, 1900 d. Stockholm, Sweden,

—

the West. WIDE WORLD

73

——

— CENTRAL PRESS

Obituaries

—

BOOK OF THE YEAR

Kubitscbek de Oliveira, Juscelino, former president Diamantina, Brazil, Sept. 12, 1902 near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Aug. 22, 1976), was responsible for the construction of Brasilia, the nation's new ultramodern capital that sits on a plateau 600 mi from Rio. Kubitschek's hope of Brazil (b.

—

Histadrut post. In September 1961, supported by testimony of a former agent, Lavon accused a group of officers all Ben-Gurion appointees of having attempted to frame him in 1954. BenGurion, who had returned to power in the summer of 1955, rejected a new inquiry into the "Lavon affair" and resigned the premiership, asserting that he would not return to office so long as Lavon

d.

that the transfer would open up the interior of the country to new development was being more fully realized with each passing year. As president (.1956-60) he also pushed forward rapid industrial development, strove to stabilize prices by

increasing food production, and initiated numerous public works projects to improve transportation. His greatest problem was persistent inflation. Kubitschek, who graduated from medical college with honours in 192 7, entered politics in the 1930s and advanced steadily toward the presi-

dency through lower elective offices. He was killed in an auto accident along the Sao Paulo-Rio de Janeiro highway.

remained as secretary-general of the Histadrut. Mapai's Central Committee then voted to oust Lavon.

Lawther, Sir William, British labour leader (b. Choppington, Northumberland, England, 1889 d. North Shields, fyne and Wear, England, Feb. 1, 1976), was president of the Mineworkers' Federation (1939-45) and of its successor, the National Union of Mineworkers (1945-54), and a staunch supporter of the moderates in the Labour Party. One of his most cherished goals, nationalization of the mines, was achieved in 1947. Lawther was knighted in 1949.

Lehmann,

Lotte, Prussian-born singer (b. Perle-

berg, Prussia, Feb.

2 7,

1888

—

d.

Santa Barbara,

U.S. evangelist (b. Concordia, Tulsa, Okla., Feb. 20, 1976), used radio, television, and coast-to-coast prayer meetings to establish her credibility as an instrument of divine faith healing. Although certain medics testified that some cures were authentic, critics and skeptics viewed such cases as nothing more than obvious examples of self-deception.

26, 1976), was one of the most operatic sopranos and lieder singers of her time, particularly renowned for her renditions of the songs of Robert Schumann and in the roles of Leonore in Beethoven's opera Fidelio and of the Marschallin in Richard Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier. Lehmann received her early training in Berlin and made her first major operatic appearance in Hamburg as Freia in Wagner's Das Rheingold in 1910. She went to the

GARY SETTLE — THE NEW YORK TIMES

KEYSTONE

Calif.,

Aug.

illustrious

Kuhlman, Kathryn, Mo.,

c.

1915— d.

Gielgud's Benedick, she went York, where she won two Antoinette Perry (Tony) awards for best actress, in Rattigan's Separate Tables (1956) and Tennessee Williams' The Night of the Iguana ( 1962). She also received a British Society of Film and Tele-

Beatrice to John to

New

Arts

vision

best

supporting

performance in Go-Between (1971).

Joseph

her

actress

award

Losey's

film

for

The

Lin Yutang (Lin YO-t'ang), Chinese author (b. Lun-ch'i, Fukien Province, China, Oct. 10, 1895 d. Hong Kong, March 26, 1976), was a prolific and versatile writer who expressed himself with equal grace in both Chinese and English. His output included novels, humorous and satirical essays, historical and philosophical works, plays, short stories, translations, and a Chinese-English dictionary. After teaching English in China, Lin

obtained an M.A. degree from Harvard University and a Ph.D. in philology (1923) from Leipzig University in Germany. On his return to China, he wrote for Chinese literary magazines, edited English-language journals, and taught. In an effort to introduce Western-style journalism to China, he founded (1932) "Analects Fortnightly," the country's first magazine of humour. Lin's popularity in the West derived from such writings Country and My People (1935), The as Importance of Living (1937), Moment in Peking (1939), The Wisdom of China and India (1942), Chinatown Family (1948), Widow, Nun and Courtesan (1951), and Lady Wu (1956).

My

Lisagor, Peter Irvin, U.S. journalist (b. Keystone, W.Va., Aug. 5, 1915— d. Arlington, Va., Dec. 10, 1976), graduated from the University of Michigan in 1939, then joined the Chicago Daily

Kuhlman was baptized a Baptist at 14, began preaching at 16, and was ordained by a nondenominational group now called the Evangelical Church Alliance. A $430,000 lawsuit former administrator brought

filed

surgery and died.

Lavon, Pinhas,

Israeli politician

(b.

Kopyczynce,

Eastern Galicia, Austria-Hungary [now KopyUkraine, U.S.S.R.], July 12, 1904 d. Tel Aviv, Israel, Jan. 24, 1976), was educated at Lwow [now Lvov] University and joined the Zionists in 1924. He settled in Palestine in 1929, and became (1935) secretary of David BenGurion's Israeli Labour Party (Mapai) and a member of its executive committee (1942). After the proclamation of the state of Israel, Lavon was elected (1949) to the Knesset (Parliament), becoming at the same time secretary-general of the Histadrut, or general federation of labour. He

—

chintsy,

was named minister

of

agriculture

Ben-Gurion's Cabinet and

in

in 1950 in January 1954 be-

came minister of defense under Prime Minister Moshe Sharett. Shortly thereafter Lavon was accused of involvement in a miscarried bomb plot intended to embroil the U.S. and Britain with Egypt at the time British troops were about to leave the country. Although three inquiries cleared him, Lavon had to resign from the government (February 1955) but returned to his

74

News

by a

Kuhlman unfavour-

able publicity; it was finally settled out of court several months before she underwent open-heart

Vienna State Opera in 1914 and became closely associated with pre-World War II Viennese culture. There Richard Strauss, who later composed for her the title role in Arabella (1933), chose her for roles in several of his operas. Lehmann also appeared successfully on English stages from 1913 and in the U.S. from 1930. At the Metropolitan Opera in New York City, where she made her debut in January 1934, she sang chiefly Wagnerian roles. From 1938 she lived in the U.S., becoming a citizen and continuing an active career both as a teacher and as a leading performer until her retirement in 1961.

Leighton, Margaret, British actress (b. Barnt Green, Worcestershire, England, Feb. 26, 1922 d. Chichester, England, Jan. 14, 1976), began her career with Sir Barry Jackson's Birmingham Repertory Theatre, and later joined the Old Vic company at the New Theatre, London (194447), where her many roles included Regan opposite Laurence Olivier as King Lear. She then played a trio of parts in James Bridie's A Sleeping Clergyman, acting with Robert Donat, with whom she later worked in the film of Terence Rattigan's The Winslow Boy. After being Stratford-upon-Avon's leading lady and playing

as a sportswriter.

He was

hired

away by

United Press in 1941 as a reporter on general assignment but soon after entered the Army and toward the end of World War II was managing editor of Stars and Stripes in London (1944-45) and its editor in Paris (1945). By 1946 Lisagor was back with the Chicago Daily News reporting general news. While attending Harvard University on a fellowship (1948-49) he began to concentrate also on international affairs. The Daily

News

transferred

him

to the nation's capital as

a foreign policy specialist and in 1959 named him chief of its Washington, D.C., bureau. Lisagor quickly emerged as one of the country's finest and most respected journalists. He accompanied every president from Dwight D. Eisenhower to Gerald Ford on both domestic and international trips and became well-known to the general public as a columnist and through regular television appearances on Meet the Press and Washington

Week

in

Review.

Livesey, Roger, British actor

Barry, Wales, England, Feb. 5, 1976), made his acting debut at age 1 1 on a London stage, then developed into a character

June 25,

1906

—

d.

(b.

London,

actor of note, often playing opposite his wife, Ursula Jeans. Important stage roles included the part of Matey in James Barrie's Dear Brutus

— and the title role in George Bernard Shaw's Captain Brassbouna" s Conversion. Livesey appeared in such films as The Life and Death oj Colonel Blimp and The League oj Gentlemen and gained a wide following on British television as the duke of St. Bungay in "The Pallisers."

Lomnier, Stig, Danish comedian, revue producer, and artist (b. Copenhagen, Denmark, June 19, 1907 d. Copenhagen, June 28, 1976), estab-

—

lished his revues of

own tradition comedy and

of small-scale but lavish

that featured the "Lommer girls." In the mid-1920s he began a diversified career as a comic actor, newspaper caricaturist and illustrator, and producer of revues. He founded the celebrated Hornbaek Revues at his own theatre in 1935 and after World War II put on revues at a succession of Copenhagen theatres,

two

of

satire

which he owned.

Laurence Stephen, British painter (b. Manchester, England, Nov. 1, 1887 d. Mottram Longdendale, Cheshire, England, Feb. 23, in 1976), made the drab scenes of industrial north-

Lowry,

—

ern England the chief object of his artistic talents. only child and a bachelor, he chose to people his bleak paintings with kindred souls those who appeared to share his pervasive sense of loneliness. He was trained at the Manchester Municipal College of Art and was virtually unknown before his one-man exhibition (1939) at the Lefevre Gallery in London. The Tate Gallery held a major exhibition in London in 1967 and the Royal Academy, to which Lowry was elected in 1962, held a retrospective in 1976.

An

—

Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich, Soviet plant geneticist (b. Karlovka, Poltava Province, Ukraine, 1898 Russia, Sept. 29, d. Kiev. Ukraine, U.S.S.R., Nov. 20, 1976), the son of a peasant, persuaded both Stalin and Khrushchev that environment could cause hereditary changes in plants, a view that lent support to Marxist theory. After dominating much of Soviet science for many years, Lysenko was denounced as a charlatan. His

—

refusal to permit research along lines that did not meet his approval also caused severe setbacks in

Soviet work in biology and genetics. After graduating in 192 5 from the Kiev Agricultural Institute, he worked at experimental selection stations and in 1929 was appointed senior specialist at NOVOSTI

McAuley, James Phillip, Australian poet Lakemba, New South Wales, Oct. 12, 1917

Obituaries

(b.

—

d.

Melbourne, Victoria, Oct. 15, 1976), achieved notoriety in the 1940s when, with Harold Stewart, he perpetrated a literary hoax by producing and gaining acclaim for verse attributed to Ern

BOOK OF THE YEAR KEYSTONE

Malley, an imaginary writer. The verse, in effect, ridiculed the pretentiousness and deliberate obscurity of some 20th-century poetry by constructing nonsensical sentences out of words and phrases that had no logical relationship. A professor of English at the University of Tasmania from 1961, McAuley published several collections of poetry, one of which was entitled A Vision oj Ceremony (1956).

Maclnnes, Colin,

British author (b. London, England, Aug. 20, 1914 d. Folkestone, England, April 22, 1976), first gained wide public recognition for novels dealing with the problems of teenagers and blacks in London. His perceptions were sympathetically and convincingly set forth in the trilogy City oj Spades ( 1957), Absolute Beginners (1959), and Mr. Love and Justice (I960). Other London books were Sweet Satur-

—

day Night (1967), about music halls, and Three Years to Play (1970), set in Shakespeare's time. June in Her Spring (1952) and All Day Saturday (1966) featured Australia, where Maclnnes was educated, while Out of the Garden (1974) concerned Ulster gun-running. He also wrote Loving Them Both (1974), on bisexuals, and contributed to the magazines Gay News and New Society. of MacLeod, Dame Flora, Scottish Highland clan chief (b. London, England, Feb. 1878 d. Ytham Lodge, Grampian, Scotland, 3, Nov. 4, 1976), devoted her life to promoting the Clan MacLeod. From her ancestral Dunvegan Castle on the Isle of Skye she traveled as far as Australia and the U.S. and Canada for clan gatherings. She also worked at home to advance the prosperity of the Highlands, sitting on the Inverness-shire County Council between 1932 and 1952. Dame Flora, whose biography was published in 1974, was succeeded by her daughter's son, John Wolrige-Gordon.

MacLeod

—

MacMillan, H(arvey) R(eginald), Canadian lumber tycoon (b. Newmarket, Ont., Sept. 9, 1885 d. Vancouver, B.C., Feb. 9, 1976), amassed a sizable fortune harvesting trees and exporting lumber to worldwide markets. The company that he founded in 1919 (which was later merged to become MacMillan Bloedel Ltd.) was known for its efficient methods and advocacy of planned reforestation. During World War II MacMillan served as president of Wartime Merchant Shipping Ltd. and as timber controller for the Department of Munitions and Supply. Educational institutions were the chief beneficiaries of his philanthropy, notably the University of British Columbia, which on one occasion received more than $S million.

Macmillan, Norman, British

air pilot and author (b. Glasgow, Scotland, Aug. 9, 1892 d. Treliske, Cornwall, England, Aug. 5, 1976), made many pioneer flights including the first from Britain to Sweden (1923). After serving (1916-18) in the Royal Flying Corps, he became an Air Ministry test pilot

and

—

later chief test pilot for the

Fairey Aviation Company (1923-30) and the Armstrong Siddeley Development Company (1930-33). He served in the Royal Air Force during World War II and last flew operationally during the subsequent Malayan emergency, retiring from the rap Volunteer Reserve in 1958 with the rank of wing commander. His writings include The Art oj Flying (1928), The RAF in the World War (4 vol., 1942-50), an official history, and such lighter books as Best Flying Stories (1941). the department of physiology of the Ukrainian Institute of Selection and Genetics. In 1936 he became director of the All-Union Institute of Selection and Genetics in Odessa, and in 1938, with

Malraux, Andre Georges, French novelist and interpreter of art (b. Paris, France, Nov. 3, 1901 d. Paris, Nov. 23, 1976), was the author of La Condition humaine (1933; Man's Fate), one of

Stalin's backing, was made president of the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. From this position of power he was able to discredit scientists who doubted his "discoveries," notably Nikolay I. Vavilov, who died in exile in Siberia in 1942. After an eclipse following Stalin's death (1953), Lysenko again rose to a position of influence under Khrushchev, who was intent on improving Soviet harvests. With Khrushchev's removal from power in 1964, Lysenko disappeared from public view.

century, about in the 1920s. Malraux, who showed an early interest in the arts and a longing for adventure, went to Indochina in 1923 and became involved in the revolutionary movement there and later in China. In the late 1920s and 1930s he made archaeological investigations in Indochina, Afghanistan, Iran, and Arabia. Malraux fought against Fascism in the Spanish Civil War and in World War II became an officer in the French Resistance. In

the

great

nascent

novels

of

Communism

the

in

20th

China

1945 he became an active supporter of Gen. Charles de Gaulle, who in 1958 appointed him minister of cultural affairs, a post he held for ten years. Malraux's experiences during the Spanish Civil War were related in L'Espoir (1937; Man's Hope). Among his books on art were Les Voix du silence (1951; The Voices oj Silence), sounding a note of universal humanism, and Le Musee imaginaire de la sculpture mondiale (1952-54; Museum Without Walls). Malraux wrote about de Gaulle in Les Chines qu'on abat (1971; The Fallen Oaks) and published two volumes of an autobiography, Antimemoires (1967) and La Corde el les souris (1976).

Mannheim, Lucie, German-born

—

actress (b. Berlin,

Germany, April 30, 1905 d. Braunlage, West Germany, July 28, 1976), joined the Berlin Volksbiihne at age 14 and was a leading actress (1924-33) at the Berlin Staatstheater, playing Shakespeare, Ibsen, Chekhov, Gerhart Hauptmann, and Shaw as well as musical comedy. She left Germany for England in 1935 and during World War II often broadcast to Germany on the bbc European Service. She returned to the German stage after the war, and in 1959 received the Grand Cross of the German Order of Merit. Her services to the theatre were further acknowledged in 1963 when she was made Berlin State Actress.

Mao

Tse-tung, Chinese revolutionary leader (b. Shaoshan, Hunan Province, China, Dec. 2 6, 1893— d. Peking, China, Sept. 9, 1976), was a

rich peasant's son, who led the revolution that established China as one of the world's most important and powerful Communist nations. Mao was intellectually restless by nature, profoundly

and distrustful Western liberalism. After graduating from college (1918) in Ch'ang-sha, he became a librarian at Peking University, where he founded a Marxist student circle and encouraged Chou En-lai (q.v.) to accept a scholarship in Paris while he remained dissatisfied with Chinese society,

of

in China. In 1921 Mao helped to found the Chinese Communist Party (ccp). When the party formed an alliance with Sun Yat-sen's more popular Kuomintang (kmt), Mao also joined the kmt and served on its central executive committee. Sun Yat-sen died in March 192 5 and Chiang Kai-shek succeeded him as head of the kmt. In April 192 7 Chiang began to purge both the

kmt and

the

Army

of

Communist

infiltration,

thereby effectively severing relations with Moscow. Mao reacted by reorganizing the 50,000strong ccp, deeply convinced that the power of the ccp resided in the peasant masses rather than in the industrial proletariat.

Mao

then initiated

peasant revolution in the southern provinces of Hunan, Kiangsi, and Fukien from which a Chi-

75

at removing higher officials with prosympathies. The Sino-Soviet conflict remained tense after U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon's visit to Peking in 1972, which renewed U.S. contacts with China after more than 20 years.

15, 1976), was a highly imaginative and versatile designer who considerably enriched the American theatre with sets for over 300 dramas, musicals, ballets, and operas. Mielziner, whose talent helped create moods ranging from sombre to semirealistic

Mao's writings and speeches, summarized in his renowned "Little Red Book," shaped Chinese Communism, which he saw as expressing the aspirations of the masses. As he neared the end of his life, Mao became enfeebled. Chiang Ch'ing, his third wife and leader of the hard-line radicals, was accused of trying to seize power after her husband's death and became the object of a bitter campaign of vilification.

to carefree,

was aimed

Obituaries

Soviet

BOOK OF THE YEAR SYSMACH1NE

French conductor (b. Lyon, d. Paris, France, March France, Jan. 10, 1910 1, 1976), was an accomplished violinist and prizewinning composer before he gained fame as conductor and interpreter of early 20th-century French music. During a 1945 tour he was asked repertory included (its to lead an orchestra some of Martinon's compositions) when the conwho studied at the ductor became ill. Martinon, Lyon and Paris conservatories, later directed the Lamoureux Orchestra of Paris (1951-57), the Israeli Philharmonic (1958-59), and was associate director of the London Philharmonic becoming music director before (1954-56) (1960-65) for the city of Dusseldorf, West Germany. In 1963 he replaced Fritz Reiner as director of the renowned Chicago Symphony Orchestra. Though an object of bitter controversy, he remained in Chicago until 1968. He then took charge of the National Orchestra of French Radio and Television (1968-73).

Martinon,

Jean,

—

Mehl, Robert Franklin, U.S. metallurgist

nese Red Army was recruited. In 1930 Chiang launched a campaign against the Red-dominated provinces and by October 1934 drove the Communists out of southern Kiangsi. Then began the epic Long March to Shensi Province in north-

ern China by the

Red Army commanded by Chu

Teh

Mao

(q.v.), with

as its chief political

com-

missar and Chou as deputy. The Sino-Japanese War that began in July 1937 brought Chiang into an uneasy alliance not only with the U.S.S.R. but also with Mao. In 1941, however, Soviet aid to China ceased abruptly when Stalin concluded a pact with Japan. After the collapse of Japan in August 1945 Mao met Chiang but the two leaders parted company without agreement, never to meet again. During the civil

war that followed, the Red Army moved

relentlessly south,

winning victory after victory

over Chiang's demoralized troops. On Oct. 1, 1949, as Chiang and his Nationalist followers fled to the island of Taiwan, Mao proclaimed the People's Republic of China with himself as chairman of the Republic and of the ccp. When Mao visited

Moscow

(his first trip abroad) in

Decem-

ber 1949, Stalin canceled a 1945 treaty he had made with Chiang, and soon after signed a 30year Sino-Soviet treaty. During the Korean War Mao sent a Chinese army to North Korea that effectively stalemated the forces. In the process of turning China into a socialist state, Mao purged landlords and collectivized the land. In 1956, in an effort to attract intellectuals to his cause, he welcomed criticism with his policy of "letting a hundred flowers bloom." When the criticism became sharper than expected, Mao announced: "All who help to build socialism belong to the people and all who resist it are enemies." In November 1957 Mao revisited Moscow, alarmed by the ever increasing number of U.S. advisers in South Vietnam. In 1958, to accelerate industrialization, he launched the Great

UN

Leap Forward to produce more and better goods in a faster and more economical way. Nikita S. Khrushchev, Stalin's successor, warned Mao that he could expect Soviet help only in case of direct U.S. aggression. Nevertheless, China began an unsuccessful bombardment of two offshore islands held by Nationalists, as a preliminary to liberating

Taiwan. Disagreement between Mao and Khrushchev (continued with Leonid I. Brezhnev after 1964) erupted in April 1960 when the Chinese attacked "revisionists," and in July and August some 10,000 Soviet military and industrial advisers left China.

The Great Proletarian started by

76

Mao

Cultural

Revolution,

and Lin Piao on Aug. 29, 1966,

March

(b.

—

Lan-

d. Pittsburgh, Pa., 30, 1898 Jan. 29, 1976), studied at Franklin and Marshall College in Pennsylvania and Princeton and Harvard universities before eventually moving to the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now CarnegieMellon University, Pittsburgh) as first director of the Metals Research Laboratory (1932). Mehl was largely responsible for valuable contributions to metallurgy in the fields of diffusion, phase transformations, and precipitation hardening. He and his colleagues also elucidated fundamental principles involved in the heat treatment of steels. In his honour an annual gold medal is awarded by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers.

caster, Pa.,

—

urban guerrilla

activities led to illiberal

changes

West German criminal law. The daughter of well-to-do parents, she became known during the in

1960s as a radical left-wing journalist. Involved the 1968 student riots in West Berlin, she met Andreas Baader shortly before his imprisonment for arson, and helped to free him in a 1970 prison raid. Together they established a group calling itself the Red Army Faction, which received training in terrorism from the Palestinians. Charged with five murders and innumerable other crimes, Meinhof was arrested in 1972. Guards at Stuttgart's Stammheim prison found her hanging from the window of her cell with a makeshift rope around her neck. in

Mercer, Johnny, U.S. songwriter (b. Savannah, Ga., Nov. 18, 1909— d. Bel Air, Calif., June 25, 1976), had an instinctive feel for musical moods and matching lyrics that inspired scores of popular songs and brought him four Academy Awards, even though he never learned to read a score. His ability to work in easy harmony with others was a factor in some of his biggest hits, including four Oscar-winning songs: "On the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe" (1946, with Harry Warall

ren), "In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the

Evening"

(1951, with Hoagy Carmichael), "Moon River" (1961, with Henry Mancini), and "Days of Wine and Roses" (1962, also with Mancini). Mercer, who also sang part-time and composed for Hollywood films, included among his sparkling array of credits such longtime favourites as "Jeepers Creepers," "Goody Goody," "That Old Black Magic," "I'm an Old Cowhand," "Lazybones,"

"Too Marvelous for Words," and "You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby." Mielziner, Jo, U.S. set designer (b. Paris, France, March 19, 1901— d. New York, N.Y., March

five

Tony and

five

Donaldson

and

Salesman, The King and I, Can-Can, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, the opera Don Giovanni, and the ballet Slaughter on Tenth Avenue. Miles, Frederick George, British aircraft designer (b. March 22, 1903 d. Worthing, Sussex, England, Aug. 15, 1976), produced, with the support of Rolls-Royce, Ltd., the Miles Magister, which remained the Royal Air Force's standard trainer throughout World War II, and the Miles

—

Master

fighter-trainer.

His firm also produced a

small four-engined plane and a cargo plane with detachable body that could be loaded onto a truck. After financial difficulty overtook his company, Miles became involved in the development of electronics

and

plastics.

Miller, Ruby, British actress (b. London, England, d. Chichester, England, April 2, July 14, 1889 1976), began her career at the Gaiety Theatre in London in 1903, advanced from the chorus line of the much-feted "Gaiety Girls" to leading lady, and appeared in such shows as A Little Bit of Fluff (1915) and the long-running (600 performances) Going Up (1918). Later she went into management and wrote plays. In her memoirs she recalled the time when a Russian grand duke drank champagne from her slipper the supreme accolade for an Edwardian lady of the chorus.

—

—

Minkowski, Rudolph Leo Bernhardt, Germanborn astronomer (b. Strassburg, Germany [now

—

Strasbourg, France], May 28, 1895 d. Berkeley, Calif., Jan. 4, 1976), obtained a Ph.D. in physics (1921) from the University of Breslau, then joined the faculty of the University of Hamburg. In 1935, after migrating to the U.S., he commenced a highly successful career in astrophysical research at the Mt. Wilson and Palomar observatories in southern California. Minkowski's spectroscopic observations of individual supernovae in external galaxies led to the classification of two principal types and his intensive study of remnants of supernovae in the Earth's galaxy led to

Meinhof, Ulrike, West German terrorist (b. Oldenburg, Lower Saxony, Germany, Oct. 7, 1934 d. Stuttgart, West Germany, May 9 or 10, 1976), was co-leader of the Baader-Meinhof gang, whose

won

received an Academy Award for colour art direction in the movie Picnic. His long list of credits includes South Pacific, Death of a

awards

an identification of the central star

of

the

Crab Nebula. In 1960 he discovered the largest red shift for a normal galaxy. Other studies focused on planetary nebulae and on sources of X-rays and radio waves. Minkowski also supervised the compilation of a series of photographs, the Palomar Observatory Sky Atlas, published by the National Geographic Society (1954); it has been of immense practical value to students of

astronomy. Mitchell, Martha, U.S. personality (b. Pine Bluff, Ark., Sept. 2, 1919— d. New York, N.Y., May 31, 1976), was the vivacious, outspoken, politically conservative wife of a successful New York lawyer, but she did not become widely known until after her husband, John N. Mitchell, became U.S. attorney general in 1969 and later national campaign manager for Pres. Richard M. Nixon. When the full pattern of the Watergate scandal began to emerge in 1973, Mrs. Mitchell, suspecting her husband's involvement but fearful that he would be made a scapegoat for the misdeeds of others, made headlines with a bizarre late-night phone calls to the unsolicited comments about Nixon's involvement in Watergate, faithfully reported but not totally believed, so infuriated her husband that the couple's personal relationship was dam-

series

of

press.

Her

aged beyond repair. They separated permanently in the fall of 1973. Mrs. Mitchell died of bonemarrow cancer 17 months after her husband and three other former government officials were convicted in a federal court.

Mohammed, Murtala Ramat,

Nigerian military leader (b. Kano, Nigeria, Nov. 8, 1938 d. Ikoyi Island, Nigeria, Feb. 13, 1976), became head of state on July 29, 1975, after the peaceful coup that removed Gen. Yakubu Gowon from power. A Muslim Hausa from the north, Mohammed first came to prominence during the July 1966 coup that established Gowon, and he fought in the civil war (1967-70) against the secessionist Eastern Region (Biafra). As head of state he vigor-

—

— COURTESY, IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM

ously combated

corruption but could not stem shot while in his limousine at the outset of an abortive military coup staged by a small group of self-styled "young revolu-

wage

inflation.

Obituaries

He was

BOOK OF THE YEAR

tionaries."

and John Paul Jones. He also chronicled the exploits of the U.S. Navy during World War II. To give authenticity to his writing, Morison undertook numerous voyages himself, sailed the ocean routes followed by Columbus, and during wartime served on 12 ships as a commissioned officer in the Naval Reserve. His writings include: Maritime History of Massachusetts (1921); The European Discovery of America (2 vol., 1924); Admiral of the Ocean Sea (1942), a biography of Columbus that won a Pulitzer Prize; John Paul Jones (1959), which also received a Pulitzer; The Oxford History of the American People (1965), Morison's "legacy" to his country; and the monumental History of U.S. Naval Operations in World War II (15 vol., 1947-62).

Sir (Walter) Thomas, British painter London, England, Oct. 2, 1902 d. Tunbridge Wells, England, Jan. 7, 1976), was a pupil of Henry Tonks at the Slade School of Art in London and taught there from 1949 to 1967. He 1931, first exhibited at the Royal Academy in becoming an associate that year and a full academician in 1938. Monnington was a sensitive draftsman and painter of both portraits and landscapes and excelled at mural paintings, a notable example of which is the conference room ceiling in the Council House at Bristol. As president of the Royal Academy from 1966 he was responsible for such notable events as the Bicentenary and Bauhaus exhibitions of 1968. He was knighted in 1967.

Monnington.

—

(b.

Monod, Jacques-Lucien, French

Napoli, Mario, Italian archaeologist (b. 1915? d. Salerno, Italy, April 1976), was best known for his work at the site of the Greek colony of Paestum near Salerno in southern Italy. There he discovered (1966) the first Greek frescoes ever found outside Greece itself. Among his notable discoveries was a tomb with wall paint-

biochemist (b. Cannes, France, May 31, 1976), shared, with Francois Jacob and Andre Lwoff, the 1965 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for discovering a new class of genes that regulate other genes. After graduating from the University of Paris (1931), he taught in its zoology department before moving (1945) to the Pasteur Institute. He became head of cellular biochemistry there in 1954, and proParis, France, Feb. 9,

1910

—

d.

ings,

described

in

his

book

La

Tomba

del

Tugatore (1970).

Naughton, Charlie (Charles John Naughton), Following steady promotions and the outbreak of World War II, Montgomery was given responsibility for the South Eastern Command in England. When Gen. W. H. E. Gott was killed in Egypt, Montgomery took command of the British 8th Army. He reorganized the forces, which had retreated into Egypt, then won a historic victory over Gen. Erwin Rommel's army at el-Alamein in November 1942. Within a few days Montgomery was rewarded with the rank of full general. The ensuing pursuit of Rommel's Afrika Korps and the linkup with Allied forces attacking from Algeria ended with a German surrender in Tunisia on May 7, 1943. Montgomery next took part in the invasion of Sicily and the early fighting in Italy before being sum-

CAMERA PRESS

moned to England to command the 21st Army Group during the invasion of Europe. After the landings on June 6, 1944, he led his troops across northern France, Belgium, and The Netherlands into Germany. On May 4, 1945, near Liineburg, Montgomery received the surrender of all German forces in northwest Germany. After the war he was appointed commander in chief of the British Army of the Rhine and British military governor, and joined the Allied Control Council of Germany. Montgomery became a field marshal in 1944, and in 1946 was successively named a viscount, chief of the Imperial General Staff, and a Knight of the Garter. In 1948 he was appointed

fessor in the faculty of sciences at the University of Paris in 1959. In 1967 he was appointed professor of molecular biology at the College de France and in 1971 was named director general of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. In his book Le hasard et la necessite (1970; Chance and Necessity, 1971), which became a best-seller, he concluded that matter and life are merely different arrangements of the same atoms, and that man an accident in is the simple product of chance the universe.

—

of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount, British field marshal (b. London, England, Nov. 17, 1887 d. near Alton, Hampshire, England, March 24, 1976), in World

Montgomery

—

War

German Army

at el-Alamein led the British and Canadian forces to victory in Europe. His father, an Ulsterman, in

II defeated the

Egypt and

to Tasmania in 1888 and became bishop Tasmania the following year. After Bernard

went

turned to England, he studied at

of re-

Paul's School in London, was commissioned in the Warwickshire Regiment in 1908, and then served in India till 1913. In World War I he was badly wounded at Ypres, Belgium, was awarded the Distinguished Service Order, and by the age of 30 was a lieutenant colonel. He later became a directing member of the Staff College, Camberley, before taking command of his old regiment's 1st Battalion overseas (1931-34).

British comedian (b. Glasgow, Scotland, April 21, 1886 d. London, England. Feb. 1 1, 1976), was a member of the much-loved Crazy Gang, which for more than 30 years delighted London variety audiences including, on occasion, the royal family. Naughton first joined with Jimmy Gold to form a music-hall dance team, then in the early 1930s formed the Crazy Gang with Bud Flanagan, Jimmy Nervo, Chesney Allen,

—

—

Teddy Knox, and "Monsewer" Eddie Gray. The Gang gave its last performance in 1962. Nevers, Ernest ("Ernie") Alonzo, U.S. football player (b. Willow River, Minn., June 11, 1903 d. San Rafael, Calif., May 3, 1976), was named by the Football Writers Association of America as the greatest college fullback to play between 1919 and 1969. The 1925 Rose Bowl game provided one measure of his greatness. Walking abnormally on two tightly taped ankles (both fractured

yards

for

previous Stanford in

the

year), defeat

he gained more than the famed

UPI COMPIX

chairman of the Western Union Commanders-inChief Committee and from 1951 to 1958 served as deputy supreme commander at nato. Never reticent about expressing his personal opinions, Montgomery reiterated his sharp wartime criticism of Dwight D. Eisenhower's command in his

Memoirs (1958).

Morand, Paul, French diplomat and author (b. Paris, France, March 13, 1888— d. Paris, July 23, 1976), was a writer of vision and style who wrote about the world as he saw it, evoking in the "lost generation" of the 1920s. Educated at the universities of Paris and Oxford, he entered the diplomatic service in 1912 and held posts in London, Rome, Madrid, and other capitals. Morand, a member of the French Academy from 1968, wrote novels, short stories, memoirs, history, and essays. Among his better known early fiction were Ouvert la nuit ( 1922; Open All Night, 1923) Fermi la nuit (1923; Closed All Night, 1924) and Lewis et Irene (1924; Eng. trans., 1925) His last book, Allure de Chanel, about the couturiere Coco Chanel, appeared in 1976. particular

,

,

.

V

St.

Morison, Samuel Eliot, U.S. historian

(b. Boston, Mass., July 9, 1887— d. Boston, May 15, 1976), found time during a 40-year teaching career at Harvard University to re-create in vivid prose

some

maritime stories of recent times. Combining a rare gift for narrative with meticulous scholarship, he stepped back into history to relive the adventures of such stirring figures as Magellan, Columbus, Sir Francis Drake, of the greatest

"Four Horsemen" gained for Notre Dame in victory (27-10). Besides playing professional foothis six touchdowns and four conversions for the Chicago Cardinals in a 1929 game against the Chicago Bears is still a National Football League record he pitched for the St. Louis Browns baseball team (1926-28). In 1927 he ball

—

—

77

— Democratic congressman from Texas, who in 1963 became the powerful and controversial chairman of the Committee on Banking, Currency, and Housing in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR

In his relentless battle to curb the influence of "big money interests," Patman often resorted to

added his bit to the Babe Ruth legend by being charged with two of the Babe's record 60 homeruns. After retiring from sports, Nevers became a businessman in San Francisco. Nicoll, (John Ramsay) Allardyce, British historian d. London, England, April 1 7, (b. June 28, 1894

—

1976), was educated in Scotland and taught English at East London College (now Queen Mary College) of London University before transferring to Yale University in Connecticut as professor (1933-42) of the history of drama and dramatic criticism. He then served at the British embassy in Washington, D.C. (1942-45). After returning to England he was professor of English language and literature at the University of Birmingham (1945-61) and director of the Shakespeare Institute at Stratford-upon-Avon (1951-61). Nicoll's major work was the definitive six-volume A History of English Drama, 1660-1900 (195259), supplemented (1973) by English Drama, 1900-1930. His numerous other books include Studies in Shakespeare ( 192 7), Masks, Mimes and Miracles (1931), World Drama (1949), The Elizabethans (1956), and English Drama: A Modern Viewpoint (1968). poet (b. Budapest, Bratislava, Czech., d. Dec. 27, 1904 Sept. 4, 1976), was a notable Communist poet whose books included Sunday ( 1927). Rhomboid (1932), and The Open Window (1935). He joined the Communist Party in his youth, took part in the 1944 Slovak uprising against the Germans, and was elected to the Central Committee of the party and to Parliament. He was purged in 1954 but was readmitted to the party in 1964 and again held office.

ruses to promote or kill proposed legislation, and was roundly condemned by his colleagues for doing so. Before being ousted as chairman in 1975,

Patman compiled a record that included several successes: he helped secure a bonus for veterans of World War I; he co-authored legislation that protected small businesses against unfair chainstore competition; he pushed through the Employment Act of 1946, which established the Council of Economic Advisers and the Congressional

Joint

Economic

Committee

and

made

"maximum employment,

production, and purchasing power" a national goal; and he formulated legislation that created federal credit unions and the Small Business Administration.

Paul of Yugoslavia, Prince, former regent of Yugoslavia (b. St. Petersburg [now Leningrad], Rus-

—

d. Paris, France, Sept. 14, April 15, 1893 1976), was the son of Prince Arsen Karageorgevich, younger brother of King Peter I of Serbia, and a man of culture. He read history at Christ Church, Oxford, and when his first cousin King sia,

Alexander was murdered in 1934 became regent during the minority of King Peter II. He was overthrown and exiled in March 1941, shortly before the German Army overran his country.

Novomesky, Ladislav, Slovak

—

Hung.,

Oldfield, William Albert Stanley, Australian cricketer (b. Sydney, New South Wales, Sept. 9,

—

Sydney, Aug. 10, 1976), kept wicket for Australia from 1920 to 1936, achieving the superb record of playing in 54 test matches and dismissing 130 batsmen (52 by stumping). He set a standard of Australian test wicketkeeping that successors have tried to emulate. In the Sheffield Shield matches he played for New South Wales.

1896

d.

Onsager, Lars, Norwegian-born chemist (b. Kristid. ania [now Oslo], Norway, Nov. 27, 1903 Coral Gables, Fla., Oct. 5, 1976), was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for "the

—

discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes." Onsager's early work in statistical mechanics attracted the attention of the Dutch chemist Peter Debye, under whose direction Onsager studied (1926-28) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. He then went to the U.S. and taught at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland and Brown University in Rhode Island. He received his Ph.D. (1935) from Yale University, where he became (1945) professor of theoretical chemistry. His explanation of the movement of ions in solution as related to turbulences and fluid densi-

Penfield, Wilder Graves, U.S. -born neurologist (b. d. Montreal, Spokane, Wash., Jan. 26, 1891 Que., April 5, 1976), made important contributions to medical science with research on epilepsy and cerebral nerve cells. Using electric probes as stimulants, Jie was able to map the cerebral cortex and show a dependent relationship between specific areas of the brain and such functions of man as memory, speech, and physical movement. Applying this knowledge to corrective surgery, he was able to cure or alleviate epilepsy in a large number of cases. In 1934 Penfield both became a Canadian citizen and founded the Montreal Neurological Institute with a $1.2 million grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. With Penfield as its director (until his retirement in 1960), the institute became one of the finest centres for brain surgery in the world.

—

Piatigorsky, Gregor, Russian-born cellist (b. Yekaterinoslav, Russia, April 17, 1903 d. Los Angeles, Calif., Aug. 6, 1976), was a Romantic by nature but always in control of his interpretations. His renditions of such pieces as Richard Strauss's "Don Quixote" and the cello concerto of Antonin Dvorak fulfilled his own definition of a virtuoso: one who shows how good the music really is.

—

name which

While

his early teens, Piatigorsky became with the Imperial Opera orchestra in Moscow, but in 1921 he fled the Soviet Union by swimming across a river to Poland, his precious cello held high above the water. In later life Piatigorsky habitually walked on stage holding his Stradivarius high in the air, apparently in memory of that event. After performing with the Warsaw Opera orchestra, he moved to Berlin, eventually becoming first cellist and soloist with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra under the direction of Wilhelm Furtwangler. His U.S. debut (1929) was followed by some 20 years of touring, during which he appeared with virtually every major symphony orchestra and conductor in the world. After 1949 he combined teaching at the University of Southern California with less frequent public appearances, but during the 1960s he and violinist Jascha Heifetz formed part of a select group that gave occasional chamber recitals. Piatigorsky, a delightful raconteur, displayed his talent for storytelling in Cellist (1965), his autobiography. still in

first cellist

Polanyi, Michael, Hungarian-born chemist and philosopher (b. Budapest, Hungary, March 12, 1891— d. Oxford, England, Feb. 22, 1976), made important contributions in thermodynamics, X-ray analysis, and reaction kinetics before turning to problems of political theory. After obtaining degrees in medicine (1913) and chemistry (1917) from the University of Budapest, he became a 'leading scientist at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin (1925-33), but resigned in protest against the Nazis. He then taught physical chemistry in England at the University of Manchester, where he later (1948-58) became professor of social studies. Polanyi, who co-founded two international organizations to promote academic free-

dom and was severely critical of Soviet repression of intellectuals, became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1944. His writings include The Logic of Liberty (1951), The Study of Beyond Nihilism (1960).

Man

(1959), and

Pollard, (Henry) Graham, British author and bibliographer (b. March 7, 1903 d. Oxford, England, Nov. 15, 1976), was a preeminent bibliographical scholar, who joined with John Carter to expose the bibliographical frauds of T. J. Wise in their celebrated An Enquiry into the Nature of Certain Nineteenth Century Pamphlets (1934). Their expose was based to a great extent on a revolutionary chemical and microscopic examination of paper and typography. Pollard attended University College, London, and Jesus College, Oxford, before entering the world of antiquarian bookselling and bibliography.

—

Pons, Lily (Alice Josephine Pons), French-born singer (b. Draguignan, France, April 12, 1904? d. Dallas, Texas, Feb. 13, 1976), was a coloratura soprano whose international popularity derived almost as much from her charming personality and glamorous image as from her remarkable

ties had an important effect on the development of physical chemistry and has been described as providing the fourth law of thermodynamics.

Panagoulis, Alexandres, Greek politician (b. Athens, Greece, July 2, 1939 d. Athens, May 1, 1976), made an abortive attempt (Aug. 13, 1968) to assassinate the military dictator Georgios Papadopoulos and became a popular hero and a symbol of resistance to the regime during his subsequent imprisonment and torture. Having had his death sentence commuted as a result of international pressure, Panagoulis was freed under a general amnesty in August 1973 and remained in Italy until the junta fell in July 1974. As a Centre Union Party parliamentary deputy, he worked to bring to justice those guilty of crimes under the junta. He died in an automobile accident that members of the opposition claimed was a planned

—

political assassination.

Patman, (John William) Wright, U.S.

politician

—

(b. Patman's Switch, Texas, Aug. 6, 1893 d. Bethesda, Md., March 7, 1976), was a 24-term

78

•CATHERINE YOUNG

PICTORIAL PARADE

voice. in

Her

bel canto parts included the title roles Lucia di Lammermoor, Gilda in

Lakme and

Rigoletto, and Rosina in II Barbiere de Siviglia. After studying piano at the Paris Conservatory, Pons spent years training her voice under the tutelage of Alberti di Gorostiaga. Following an uneventful debut in Alsace ( 1928), she auditioned with the Metropolitan Opera Company of New York City and became an overnight sensation with her first appearance in 1931 singing the role of Lucia. Pons was a reigning diva at the Met for 2 5 years and drew record crowds in many parts of the world. Her second husband was the

Andre Kostelanetz, with whom she made a number of successful tours. Her last public performance was at a New York Philharmonic Promenade concert in May 1972 with Kostelanetz, from whom she was divorced in conductor

1958, conducting.

Simeon, British philologist (b. London, England, Jan. 19, 1898 d. East Molesey, England, Aug. 6, 1976), Baines professor of English language and philology at the University of Liverpool ( 1945-65), was the author of enjoyable and significant textbooks on the English language, notably Our Language (1950), Language in the Modern World (1960), and Changing English (1969). Educated at Kilburn Grammar School, London, and at the universities of London and Oxford, he lectured at the Masaryk University, Brno, Czech. (1924-31), taking his doctorate (1931) at the Charles University, Prague, before returning to England to lecture at the University of Southampton (1931-45). Potter wrote the article "English Language" in the 15th edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Potter,

—

Pradel, Louis, French administrator (b. Lyon, France, Dec. 5, 1906— d. Lyon, Nov. 27, 1976), was mayor of Lyon for nearly 20 years, succeeding the colourful Edouard Herriot in 1957. He worked tirelessly to make his city a centre of European business and cultural activity, tearing down slums and personally inspecting the construction of such things as a congress hall, a commercial centre, a concert hall, expressways, an underground railway, housing, schools, and sports grounds.

Queneau, Raymond, French novelist, poet, and encyclopaedist (b. Le Havre, France, Feb. 21, 1903 d. Paris, France, Oct. 25, 1976), was a multifaceted creative genius, whose work influ-

—

enced French prose, poetry, and cinema. A graduate of the Sorbonne in Paris, he joined the publishing house of Gallimard and became ( 1955) editor of the Encyclopedic de la Pleiade, where his scholarship had full play. His succession of brilliant comic novels included Le Chiendent (1933, his first), Chine et chien (1937; The Bark Tree, 1968), Un Rude Hiver (1939), Pierrot mon ami (1943), and Journal intime de Sally Mara (1951). Queneau was a polymath also interested in language and experiment. Exercices de style (1947) described in a series of stylistic parodies a man on a bus fastening a button. In Zazie dans le metro (1959), made into a film by Louis Malle, he told of a working girl of freeranging, slangy conversation. Queneau's poetry, which extended to songs for cabarets, included Bucoliques (1947), Petite Cosmogonie portative (1950), and Cent milles milliards de po'emes (1962), an exercise in poem-making. The avantgarde writer and film director Alain RobbeGrillet acknowledged an indebtedness to Queneau,

who became in

a

member

of the

Academie Goncourt

Radziwill, Prince Stanislaw, Polish nobleman (b. Szpanow, Volhynia, Poland, July 21, 1914 d. Essex, England, June 27, 1976), was an 18thgeneration descendant of a famous Polish-Lithuanian family. He had been a deputy provincial governor in Ukrainian Poland before he fought as a cavalry officer at the outbreak of World War II and escaped to Paris. He served the Polish government-in-exile in the West at the International Red Cross Committee at Geneva and after the war went into business in London. In England Prince Stanislaw helped to organize the Sikorski Historical Institute and a Polish school near Henleyon-Thames, where he also founded St. Anna's Church in memory of his mother. The prince's third wife was Caroline Lee Bouvier, sister of Mrs. Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis.

Razak bin Hussein, Tun Abdul, Malaysian politician (b. Pekan, Pahang State, Federated Malay 1922 States, March d. London, England, 1, 1

—

Jan. 14, 1976), was a key figure in gaining his country's independence from Britain in 1957 and

from 1970 was prime minister, foreign minister, and defense minister of Malaysia. As deputy to Tunku Abdul Rahman, first prime minister of independent Malaya (Malaysia from 1963), he

was

largely responsible for the country's significant achievements in rural and national development. Appointed head of the National Operations Council set up with emergency powers in 1969, he steered the country through that year's violent racial disturbances. Razak was a lawyer by training, joined the civil service in 1950, and entered politics in 1955 when the first general elections were held. He served as minister of education (1955-57), as deputy prime minister and minister of defense (1957-70), as prime minister during Tunku Abdul Rahman's temporary retirement in 1959, as minister of rural development (195969), and as minister of home affairs (1969). As prime minister he pursued a policy of nonalignment, in furtherance of which he established relations with China in 19 74.

theatrical director

—

(b.

Tyn

nad Vltavou, Bohemia, Dec. 7, 1914 d. Vienna, Austria, April 26[?1, 1976), staged notable productions in many European capitals, including John Osborne's The Entertainer Maksim Gorky's The Last Ones, and Garcia Lorca's Donna Bernardo's House. From 1938 he worked at the Burian Theatre in Prague and at the Plzen (Pilsen) City Theatre. After imprisonment (1943-45) during World War II, he directed opera at the Prague Theatre of May 5, working with the stage designer Josef Svoboda, with whom in the 1950s he developed Laterna Magica, a mixed-media form of entertainment. Radok directed at both the Prague City and Czech National theatres. Following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968) he moved to Sweden, where he became a director at the Goteborg People's Theatre. ,

BOOK OF THE YEAR

resigned in 1950, having persuaded Pope Pius

XII

to appoint an Indian in his place. After his return to England, his nonconformist views on such matters as contraception and the church's

marriage regulations frequently set him in conflict with John Cardinal Heenan and other members of the hierarchy.

Robeson, Paul, U.S. singer and outspoken

critic of

racial injustice (b. Princeton, N.J., April 9, 1898 d. Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 23, 1976), was the

—

son of a runaway slave and a man endowed with extraordinary talents. While attending Rutgers College in New Jersey on an academic scholarship, he was twice named to the All-America football team, received a Phi Beta Kappa key in his junior year, and was designated class valedictorian (1919). He then obtained a law degree (1923) from Columbia University before becoming a celebrated dramatic bass-baritone on the stage and in motion pictures. After playwright Eugene O'Neill saw Robeson perform with the Provincetown Players in Greenwich Village, he gave the actor a part in All God's Chillun Got Wings (1924), then the lead in The Emperor Jones EB INC.

Reed, Sir Carol, British film director (b. London, England, Dec. 30, 1906 d. London, April 2 5, 1976), made his most outstanding films in the 1940s: Odd Man Out (1947) and Graham Greene's The Fallen Idol (1948) and The Third

—

Man (1949). After acquiring acting experience, he became stage director ( 192 7) for Edgar Wallace and then went to Ealing Studios (1932) unHe directed his first film in 1934 and counted among his credits The Stars Look Down (1939), Night Train to Munich (1940), Kipps (1941), Outcast of the Islands (1951), Our Man in Havana (19 59), The Agony and the Ecstasy (1965), and Kidnapped (1972). Reed, who won an Academy Award for his musical Oliver! (1968), was knighted in 1952. der Basil Dean.

Richter, Hans, German-born artist and filmmaker (b. Berlin, Germany, 1888 d. Locarno, Switz., Feb. 1, 1976), was absorbed most of his life with the nihilism of Dada, the spirit of which he explained in Dada: Art and Anti-art (1964). Without ever totally neglecting his painting, he concentrated on films after 1921, when he produced the first abstract animation, Rhythm 21. His bestknown movie, Dreams That Money Can Buy

—

(1947), dramatized the artistic vision of six Dadaist associates. After migrating to the U.S. in 1941, Richter became associated with the City College of New York, where he directed the Institute of Film Techniques from 1943 until his retirement

in

1956.

1951.

Radok, Alfred, Czech

Obituaries

—

Roberts, Cecil Edric Mornington, British writer (b. Nottingham, England, May 18, 1892 d. Rome, Italy, Dec. 20, 1976), was the author of such best-selling novels as Sails of Sunset (1924), Spears Against Us (1932), Pilgrim Cottage (1933), and Victoria Four-Thirty (1937). He was a war correspondent during World War I and editor of the Nottingham Journal (1920-2 5) as well as a lecturer and traveler. He also published poems and five volumes of autobiography. He was awarded the Italian Gold Medal in 1966.

—

Most Rev. Thomas D'Esterre, BritRoman Catholic Church (b. Le Havre, France, March 7, 1893 d. London, En-

Roberts, the

ish prelate of the

—

(1924). Robeson's charismatic stage presence as Brutus Jones created a sensation in New York in London ( 192 5). Soon he was thrilling audiences in the musical Show Boat with "01' Man River," which Jerome Kern had composed for Robeson's resonant voice. The actor's greatest dramatic triumph came in Othello, first staged in London (1930). Revived in 1943, it set an alltime record run for Shakespearean plays on Broadway with 295 performances. Robeson's remarkable career, however, was severely damaged when, after visiting the Soviet Union, he became involved with left-wing groups and publicly espoused the cause of "scientific socialism." Following World War II many Americans began to resent his repeated glowing endorsements of the Soviet political system and one

and

Robeson concert was disrupted by violence. When concert halls were denied him, his annual income dwindled to almost nothing. In 1950 the U.S. government revoked Robeson's passport when he refused, on legal grounds, to sign an affidavit disclaiming membership in the Communist Party. Two years later he received the Stalin Peace Prize. By 1958, however, Robeson was able to return to the stage and his first U.S. concert in 1 1 years was greeted in Carnegie Hall with thunderous applause. That same year he renewed his overseas tours after a ruling of the Supreme Court restored his passport. In ill health, he returned to the U.S. in 1963 to spend his remaining years with his family and a few close friends.

gland, Feb. 28, 1976), was a Jesuit schoolmaster in Liverpool when he was "appointed archbishop of Bombay in 1937. For the next 13 years he was a dedicated pastor in India, showing special concern for the poor, the prostitutes, and seamen. He

Robinson, Sir Edward Stanley Gotch, British numismatist (b. Bristol, England, 1887 d. London, England, June 13, 1976), was probably the world's leading authority on ancient Greek coin-

—

7Q

— Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR

joined the Department of Coins and Medals at the British Museum in 1912 and became keeper of the department (1949-52). He enriched the national collection with gifts of Greek coins and advanced the study of Greek and Roman coinage through his writings. During 1938-58 he was reader in numismatics at Oxford University and honorary curator of Greek coins at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, to which he contributed his own coin collection in 1964. Calouste Gulbenkian, owner of a magnificent age.

He

Greek coins, was but one of many who valued Robinson as an adviser. Robinson, who was knighted in 1972, began rewriting B. V. Head's 1911 edition of the Hhtoria Numorum (on Greek coinage), but the huge task was never series of

completed. Rothfels, Hans, German historian (b. Kassel, Gerd. Tubingen, West Germany, April 12, 1891 many, June 22, 1976), who specialized in the Bismarck and Nazi periods, was acclaimed for Opposition to Hitler his book The German (1948). He was professor of modern history at Konigsberg, East Prussia, till forced out of his post by the Nazis in- 1934. He became a research fellow (1939) at St. John's College, Oxford, guest professor (1940) at Brown University in Rhode Island, and professor (1946) of modern history at the University of Chicago. In 1951 he transferred to the University of Tubingen.

—

Rosalind, U.S. actress (b. Waterbury, Conn., June 4, 1912? d. Beverly Hills, Calif., Nov. 28, 1976), won four Academy Award nomi-

Russell,

—

nations and countless fans by giving free rein to her natural wit and effervescent personality. She made her professional debut on the Broadway stage, then moved to Hollywood where she attained stardom in The Women (1939), which pitted Russell against Paulette Goddard in a memorable hair-pulling, clothes-tearing battle. Among the many other career-girl comedies that featured her were His Girl Friday (1940), a remake of the Ben Hecht-Charles MacArthur play The Front Page with the lead character changed from a man to a woman, No Time for Comedy

KEYSTONE

In 1917 he became a citizen of Switzerland, where he was already lecturing at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. In 1926 he was made professor of organic chemistry at the University of Utrecht, Neth., but three years later he returned to Zurich to become professor of chemistry. Ruzicka's research on natural odoriferous compounds led to his discovering the unusual molecular structures of muscone and civetone, important to the perfume industry. In these molecules, carbon atoms are linked in rings larger than had been thought capable of existence. He also discovered the molecular structure of testosterone and other male sex hormones and suc-

ceeded in synthesizing them.

Ryle, Gilbert, British philosopher (b. Brighton, England, Aug. 19, 1900 d. Whitby, North Yorkshire, England, Oct. 6, 1976), was Waynflete professor of metaphysical philosophy at the University of Oxford (1945-68) and one of Britain's

—

modern philosophers. Educated at Brighton College and Queen's College, Oxford, he was tutor in philosophy at Christ Church (1924-45) and later, as professor, a fellow of

most

influential

magazine

Punch.

His

illustrated

Memory (1957) and Drawn from

Drawn from Life

(1962)

were autobiographical.

Shimada, Shigetaro, Japanese admiral (b. Tokyo, Japan, 1883 d. Tokyo, June 7, 1976), graduated from the Japanese Naval College in 1904 before serving as naval attache at the Japanese embassy in Rome. He then held several ship commands and was successively named commander in chief of the Japanese second fleet, the Kure naval station, and the Yokosuka naval station. In 1940, when Japan was at war with China, he was promoted to the rank of admiral. Shimada held the influential post of minister of the navy in Tojo's Cabinet when Japanese planes attacked Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941. In February 1944, with the tide of the Pacific war turning against Japan, Shimada became chief of the naval general staff. After the war the International Military Tribunal

—

the Far East tried and convicted (1948) Shimada as a war criminal and sentenced him to imprisonment. He was paroled in 1955 suffor

life

fering

from

ill

health.

College. His first book, The Concept of is considered a modern classic. A tenet of Ryle's philosophy was that misuse basic of language is to blame for conceptual (mental)

Shtemenko, Sergey Matveyevich, Soviet general (b. Uryupinsk, near Tsaritsyn [now Volgograd], Russia, 1907 d. Moscow, U.S.S.R., April 23, 1976), was promoted rapidly by Stalin as a first-

in other words, most philosophical problems arise because of the confusion between logical concepts and the language used to express them. Almost as important as Ryle's own writings was his editorship from 1948 to 1971 of the in-

rate staff officer, becoming deputy chief (1943) and chief (1949) of the general staff. He was elected a candidate member of the Communist Party's Central Committee in 1952 and also became deputy minister of the armed forces. In January 1953 an alleged Jewish "doctors' plot" to murder prominent leaders loyal to Stalin included General Shtemenko as a purported victim. Appointed chief of staff in East Germany in February 1953, he was recalled by Khrushchev and demoted to the rank of lieutenant general but still occupied important posts. After Khrushchev's fall in 1964

Magdalen

Mind (1949), confusion;

fluential philosophical journal

Mind.

Sachs, Emil Solomon, South African trade unionist d. (b. Dvinsk, Latvia, Russia, Nov. 3, 1903 London, England, July 30, 1976), migrated to South Africa (1913), where he studied law and economics at- Witwatersrand University and became (1928) general secretary of the Garment Workers' Union. The Nationalist government forced him to resign the position in 1952 under the Suppression of Communism Act, even though he had been expelled from the South African Communist Party in 1931. Following his resignation, Sachs left for Britain, where he wrote Rebel's Daughters (1957) and a number of other books on the growth of the South African Garment Workers' Union. The South Africa Treason Trial appeared in 1958.

—

Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl, German Expressionist artist (b. Rottluff, near Chemnitz (now Karl-MarxStadt), Germany, Dec. 1, 1884 d. West Berlin, August 1976), was a founder-member in 1905 of Die Briicke ("The Bridge"), a group of German artists who moved away from Impressionism to Expressionism by juxtaposing flat areas of colour emotively ("Self-Portrait with Monocle"; 1910). In 1911 Schmidt-Rottluff moved from Dresden to Berlin. Influenced by Negro art, he produced prints ("Head of Christ," woodcut, 1918) and carvings of rough simplicity. After 1933 his works were not allowed in public galleries. After World War II he taught at the Schmidt-Rottluff Academy of Fine Arts in West

—

—

Shtemenko was given back his rank of army general and regained his post of deputy chief of general staff. In August 1968 he was appointed

Warsaw Pact forces under Marshal I. I. Yakubovsky, and in that capacity coordinated the invasion of Czechoslovakia.

chief of staff of the

Sim, Alastair, Scottish actor (b. Edinburgh, Scotland, Oct. 9, 1900— d. London, England, Aug. 19, 1976), was a tall, droll, precise-voiced comedian, whose considerable talents often found a felicitous medium in such James Bridie plays as Mr. Boljrey and Dr. Angelus. During a career that lasted more than 40 years, Sim starred in movies, on television, and on the stage and showed the breadth of his talent by also giving impressive dramatic performances that extended to Shakespeare's Shylock and Charles Dickens' Scrooge. In 1950 Sim was voted Britain's most popular film star and in 1953 was named a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Slonimski, Antoni, Polish writer (b. Warsaw, Poland, Oct. 15, 1895 d. near Warsaw, July 4, 1976), the "grand old man" of Polish literature,

—

Berlin.

Seydlitz-Kurzbach, Walther von, German general (b. 1889 d. Bremen, West Germany, April 28, 1976), was second in command to Gen. Friedrich Paulus at the Battle of Stalingrad during World War II; in 1940 he commanded an infantry division during the invasion of France. At Stalingrad, when the German Army was clearly outflanked by the Soviet forces, von Seydlitz in defiance of Hitler's orders vainly urged Paulus to retreat. After their surrender (February 1943), he at first supported Soviet-sponsored anti-Nazi movements but was later reimprisoned by the Soviets '(1950-53) before being finally allowed to settle in West Germany.

—

—

(1940), and

My

Sister Eileen (1942). In 1953 Broadway to star in Wonder-

Russell returned to

ful Town. Though she compared her singing to gargling, no one seemed to care; tickets sold by the thousands. In 1956, before arthritis ended her career, Russell played the lead in Auntie on Broadway (and later in the movie). Her per-

Mame

formance may have so identified the madcap role with the actress herself that future Auntie Mames had best beware. Ruzicka, Leopold (Stephen), Swiss chemist (b. Vukovar, Croatia [now in Yugoslavia], Sept. 13, 1887 d. Zurich, Switz., Sept. 1976), was joint recipient of the 1939 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work on ringed molecules and terpenes.

—

80

Shepard, Ernest Howard, British artist and book illustrator (b. London, England, Dec. 10, 1879 d. Lodsworth, Sussex, England, March 24, 1976), provided the first and best-known visual images of the characters in A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh books (1924-28). Earlier classics for which his illustrations became definitive were Richard Jefferies' Bevis: The Story of a Boy and Kenneth Grahame's The Golden Age, Dream Days, and

The Wind in the Willows. Shepard, who studied at the Royal Academy Schools in London and first exhibited in 1901, was also a long-time contributor of humorous drawings to the weekly WIDE WORLD

articles, essays, and a novel, but was especially celebrated for his poetry. Sonnets, his

wrote plays,

published work, appeared in 1913. After Poland regained independence in 1918, Slonimski became one of the most influential Polish writers of his time and remained so until his death. At the onset of World War II he went to France and then to England, where he edited New Poland; after the war he helped found unesco. Having returned to Poland, he became a leading spokesman of the Polish writers' demands for cultural first

its combination of spatial simand rich decoration stained glass by John Piper and a tapestry by Graham Sutherland and for the moving inclusion of the burned-out

tion in 1951 for

Obituaries

—

plicity

BOOK OF THE YEAR

—

shell of the old cathedral. Spence also designed the British embassy in Rome (completed 1971), the

UPI COMPIX

Household Cavalry Barracks at Knightsbridge (1970), numerous university buildings (especially at Sussex), and large country houses. He was knighted in 1960 and awarded the Order of Merit in

1962.

freedom and a fighter for humanitarian causes.

He was

also president of the Polish Writers'

Union

(1956-S9). Smith,

Gerald L(yman)

K(enneth),

U.S.

self-

styled rabble-rouser (b. Pardeeville, Wis., Feb. 27, 1898— d. Glendale, Calif., April IS, 1976), was a fundamentalist preacher who became a national figure as a right-wing extremist. After moving (1928) to Shreveport, La., he became an enthusiastic supporter of Gov. Huey P. Long's legislation to "soak the rich" and offered himself as a spokesman for Long's Share-Our-Wealth clubs. Following the assassination of (then U.S. senator) Long in 1935, Smith became a virulent critic of Jews, Catholics, Communists, blacks, labour unions, and Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt. To provide a forum for his views, he founded such organizations as the National Christian Crusade (1947) and acquired a printing press to publish, among other things, his monthly The Cross and the Flag (since 1942). In recent years Smith attacked the U.S. Congress as "impotent, insipid and cowardly" and called for the impeachment of the Supreme Court for its "pro-criminal, proCommunist, pro-pornographic" decisions.

Speaight, Robert William, British actor and author (b. Jan. 14, 1904— d. Benenden, Kent, England, Nov. 4, 1976), developed fine acting skills to complement his excellent voice, all of which he used to great advantage in Shakespearean roles and in his portrayal of Becket in T. S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral (193S and many revivals). In the bbc radio production of Dorothy Sayers' The Man Born to Be King (1941-42), he was the voice of Christ. Speaight also wrote four novels and biographies of Thomas Becket (1938), Hilaire Belloc (1957), Teilhard de

Chardin (1967), and others. Spence, Sir Basil Urwin, Scottish architect (b. Bombay, India, Aug. 13, 1907 d. Eye, Suffolk, England, Nov. 19, 1976), was most widely known as the architect of the new cathedral at Coventry,

—

replacing the edifice destroyed in World War II. educated at George Watson's College, Edinburgh, and at the schools of architecture at London and Edinburgh universities. Spence's design for a new Coventry cathedral won a competi-

He was

Starkie, Walter Fitzwilliam, Irish scholar and musician (b. Aug. 9, 1894 d. Madrid, Spain, Nov. 2, 1976), was best known as an authority and defender of European Gypsies whom he accompanied on travels over southeastern Europe, Italy, and Spain and commemorated in such books as

—

Raggle Toggle (1933), Don Gypsy (1936), In Sara's Tents (1954), and Scholars and Gypsies (1962). He took special delight in playing the violin as the Gypsies entertained themselves and others. Starkie attended Trinity College, Dublin, and trained in music at the Royal Irish Academy of Music. He was a professor of Spanish and lecturer in Italian literature at Dublin University (1926-47), was named first director of the British Institute in Madrid in 1940, and lectured

widely.

Stoneley, Robert, British geophysicist (b. Clacton, Essex, England, May 14, 1894 d. Cambridge, England, Feb. 2, 1976), used seismological data to demonstrate that the theoretical deformation of the Earth by tidal forces is only about onehalf of that indicated by observation of tides alone. He also discovered that the depth of the Earth's crust is only about one-third of that previously thought. He held appointments at Sheffield (1920-23), Leeds (1923-34), and Cambridge (1934-61) universities, and was president of the International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (1946-51) and honorary director of its International Seismological Summary (1957—63).

—

Stopford, the Right Rev. Robert Wright, Anglican clergyman (b. Liverpool, England, Feb. 20, 1901 Berkshire, England, Aug. 13, d. Newbury, 1976), bishop of London (1961-73), was prominent in formulating the Church of England's educational policies. He was ordained in 1932 while senior history master at Oundle School and was principal of Trinity College (193 5-41), Kandy, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and of Achimota College (1941-45), Gold Coast (now Ghana). After returning to England he became moderator of the Church Training Colleges (1947-55), secretary of the Church Assembly Schools Council (195255), suffragan bishop of Fulham (1955-56), and bishop of Peterborough (1956-61). He also served as vicar-general of the episcopal church in Jerusalem and the Middle East (1974-75) and was bishop of Bermuda at the time of his

—

death.

Strand, Paul, U.S. photographer (b. New York, N.Y., Oct. 16, 1890 d. Oregeval, France, March 31, 1976), was a master of realism who turned away from the soft-focus romanticism of his contemporaries to produce photos that were artistic without necessarily being beautiful. Because his chief concern was "something outside himself" rather than "inner states of being," he refused

—

to

doctor

negatives

to

create

effects

that

the

camera itself did not record. Such photos as "The Blind Beggar Woman" (1915), "Picket Fence" (1915), and "The Family" (1953) were proof of his success. Strand also photographed the beauties of nature and from the mid-1 930s was involved in motion pictures. Notable accomplishments included Redes ("Nets"; English title, The Wave), a remarkable 1935 study of Mexican fishermen on strike.

Tchernicheva,

Lubov

Pavlovna,

Russian-born

[now Leningrad], London, England, 1976), was, with her husband Sergey

ballerina (b. St. Petersburg Russia, Sept. 17, 1890 d.

—

March

1,

Grigoriev, a member of Sergey Diaghilev's Ballet Russe throughout its existence (1909-29) and afterward helped Colonel de Basil's company (1932-52) preserve some of the Diaghilev traditions. She danced her first solos in 1913 during a South American tour and became ballet mistress in 1926. Memorable performances included the title role (1937) in David Lichine's Francesco da Rimini. After 19 52 she worked with British ballet

companies and made her last stage appearance (1959) in Milan, Italy, portraying Lady Capulet in John Cranko's Romeo and Juliet. Teyte, Maggie (Dame Margaret Cottingham), English soprano singer (b. Wolverhampton, Stafd. London, fordshire, England, April 17, 1888 England, May 26, 1976), made her name singFaure, Berlioz, and Ernest Chaussongs of ing the son and in the lead role of Debussy's Pelleas el Melisande. Trained in Paris by Jean de Reszke, she joined the Opera Comique and subsequently sang in England and in the U.S. She joined the British National Opera Company in 1922 and the Covent Garden Opera in 1930; her last performance, a recital, was in 1955. Teyte, a chevalier of the Legion of Honour (1957) and a dame of the British Empire (1958), described her career in Star on the Door (1958).

—

Thadden-Trieglaff,

Reinhold von, German Lu-

theran layman (b. Mohringen, East Prussia, Aug. d. Fulda, West Germany, Oct. 10, 13, 1891 1976), was founder and president from 1949 of the German Evangelical Church's Kirchentag (Laymen's Church Congress) movement to increase contact between church and laity. After finishing his university education, he undertook social work in Berlin and opposed National Socialism (Nazism) by helping to write the 1934 Barmen Declaration of the German Confessing Church. During World War II in Belgium he was placed in charge of the German-occupied district of Louvain but refused to arrest and execute 30 hostages; for this act of courage he was made an honorary citizen of Louvain in 1947. The following year he became a member of the Central Committee of the World Council of Churches.

—

Thomas,

Sir

(James

William)

Tudor,

British

Breckonshire, Wales, May 23, 1893— d. Cardiff, Wales, Jan. 23, 1976), was the technique of corneal grafting. pioneer in a Trained at Cardiff Medical School in Wales and at Middlesex Hospital in London, he early spe-

ophthalmic surgeon

(b.

cialized in

ophthalmology and became associate

surgeon

charge of the corneal plastic depart-

in

ment at the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital (1935-40). He then returned to Wales as ophthalmic surgeon to the Cardiff Royal Infirmary. He was president of the British Medical Association (1953-54) and of the Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom (1966-68), and master of the Oxford Ophthalmological Congress (195658). He was knighted in 1956. of Fleet, Roy Herbert Thomson, 1st Baron, Canadian-born newspaper proprietor (b. Toronto, Ont., June 5, 1894 d. London, En-

Thomson

—

Si

BOOK OF THE YEAR

gland, Aug. 4,

1976), was joint-chairman with

his son Kenneth of the Thomson Organisation, Ltd., which owns The Times of London and the Sunday Times newspapers; he was likewise chair-

man of both The Scotsman Publications, Ltd., and Thomson Newspapers, Ltd., Canada, and had Early in life Thomson worked as a clerk and salesman, later failed as a prairie farmer and supplier of motor substantial

television

interests.

parts, then sold radios successfully own radio station at North Bay,

and

built his

Ont.,

sets.

in

In

and made

it a daily; two other radio stations were added, and by 1944 four more; that year he acquired four newspapers. He moved back to Toronto, and his chain of newspapers grew to include some in the U.S., where, in 1960, he purchased the Brush Moore group. In 1952 Thomson was defeated as a Conservative candidate for election to Canada's federal Parliament, but in the same year he was invited to buy The Scotsman newspaper and went to Edinburgh to run it. Seeing its potential, he also took up the franchise of Scottish television. He left the Canadian side of his business to his son's

management but, regarding Canada as his base, continued to expand there into television. In 1959 he acquired the Kemsley group of newspapers, the largest in Britain, which included the Sunday Times, to which he added (1962) Britain's first colour magazine supplement. In 1963 he became a British citizen, set up the Thomson Foundation, and in 1964 was created a baron. In 1967 he made his most outstanding newspaper purchase, The Times of London. Lord Thomson strove to give the newspaper needed financial stability and injected £5 million into it. In 1972, in his last big venture, he formed a consortium with Occidental and Getty Oil to acquire a North Sea oil concession. Thomson was a man who put pure business and money first but tempered his acquisitiveness with exceptional frankness and honesty. He was also exceptional in the freedom he allowed his editors.

Thorndike,

Dame

(Agnes) Sybil, British actress (b. Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, England, Oct. 24, 1882 d. London, England, June 9, 1976), was

—

acclaimed Britain's foremost actress since Ellen Terry. After injuring her wrist, she turned from music to acting and in 1908 married the actor and Socialist Lewis Casson. The Cassons lived and worked together till he died in 1969 at the age of 93. During World War I, while Lewis was in the Army, Sybil became a Shakespearean actress under Lilian Baylis at the Old Vic and showed signs of future greatness in tragic roles. After the

London and

Among

other

books

she

Luchino, Italian director (b. Milan, Nov. 2, 1906— d. Rome, Italy, March 17, revolutionized post-World War II film1976),

Visconti, Italy,

making with

realistic portrayals of

human

strug-

modern society. His first film, Ossessione (1942), marked Visconti as the father of Neorealism and foreshadowed the later works gles for survival in

of

Roberto Rossellini, Vittorio De Sica, Federico

in

ROBERT COHEN— AGIp/ PICTORIAL PARADE

Tobey, Mark, U.S.

artist (b. Centerville, Wis., Basel, Switz., April 24, 1976), made his living early in life as an illustrator, but after a visit to the Orient in 1934 he developed "white writing," a technique based on Chinese "Transit" calligraphy. In such paintings as (1948), one form flows from the other in much the same way as rapidly written Chinese characters flow from a writing brush. Tobey, who held the post of artist in residence (1931-38) at

Dec. 11,

1890— d.

Dartington Hall

in

South Devon, England, was a

religious man who viewed his abstract works as visual representations of the music of the universe that permeates nature. Among his awards was first prize at the 29th Venice Biennale (1958). The largest collection of his paintings is in the Seattle (Wash.) Art Museum.

Tubb, Carrie (Mrs. Caroline Elizabeth Oliveira), English dramatic soprano (b. London, England, May 17, 1876 d. London, Sept. 20, 1976), made her career on the concert stage, specializing in oratorio and the works of Wagner. She studied at London's Guildhall School of Music and in 1910 sang several operatic roles at Covent Garden. Later, she was regularly heard

—

at Sir Henry Wood's Promenade Concerts. After retiring from singing about 1930, she taught at the Guildhall School for almost 30 years.

Turin, Ducio, Italian architect

(b. near Turin, Italy, July 29, 1976), became the first professor of building (1965) at the University of London, and in 1974 deputy

Italy, April

1,

1926— d.

UN

Conference on Human director general of the Settlements (Habitat), held in Vancouver, B.C., in 1976. He qualified in South America as an architect, and later turned also to economics. After working for the French government, he joined the Economic Commission, first in Europe and then in Africa, where he was based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. From there he went to University College, London, to occupy the chair of building set up to encourage a closer understanding between architects and the building in-

UN

Hungarian-born philologist and linguist (b. Budapest, Austria-Hungary, June 13, 1914 d. Oxford, England, Jan. 10, 1976), obtained a doctorate in modern languages from the University of Budapest before moving to England (1939), where he worked for the British Stephen,

—

(1946-53) and Romance philology and French at the University of Leeds (1953-68). He became professor of Romance languages at Oxford University in 1968, was editor of Archivum Linguisticum (1949^64), and served as president of both the Philological Society (197075) and the Modern Language Association (1973). Ullmann's scholarly reputation was firmly established through such books as The Principles of Semantics (1951), Pricis de semantique francaise (1952), Style in the French Novel (1957), The Image in the Modern French Novel (I960), Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning (1962), Meaning and Style (1973), and Words and Their Meanings (1974). Utiley, Alison, British author Derbyshire, England, Dec. 17,

(b.

1884

Cromford,

—

d.

High

Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England, May 7, 1976), was best known for The Country Child (1931) and other tales of late Victorian rural life, and for a vast output of books for young children, featuring such characters as Little Grey Rabbit, Sam Pig, and Brown Mouse. Though a physicist, she turned to writing after her husband's PRESS/PHOTO TRENDS

and Michelangelo Antonioni. In 1948 Visconti's La terra trema won the Grand Prize at the Venice Film Festival for its documentarylike study of Sicilian fishermen. Among other Fellini,

notable films were Senso (1953), Rocco and His Brothers (1960), The Leopard (1964), and Morte a Venezia (1971; Death in Venice). Visconti was equally impressive on the stage, directing the plays of Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, Jean-Paul Sartre, Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, and Erskine Caldwell. His operas included outstanding productions of La Traviata (1955) in Milan and Don Carlos (1958) in London.

Vogue, Comte Robert-Jean

dustry.

Ullmann,

gow

— CAMERA

(1930).

Ambush of Young Days (1937), Country Hoard (1943), and A Traveller in Time (1939).

wrote

1970 was made a Companion of Honour. In addition to their stage work, the Cassons actively supported many humanitarian and left-wing causes. outside

Broadcasting Corporation's monitoring service (1940-46). He then taught Romance philology and general linguistics at the University of Glas-

FREDDIE FEEST

death

early

which

advertising revenue and helped to sell 1933 Thomson opened a second station at Timmins, 200 mi farther north. In 1934 he took over an ailing Timmins weekly newspaper

brought

the Cassons ventured into actor-management with presentations of The Trojan Women and Medea, classical tragedies by Euripides. In 1924, in G. B. Shaw's Saint Joan, Sybil Thorndike scored a triumph that she later repeated in Paris, South Africa, and Australia. In 1931 she was made a dame of the British Empire. During World War II the Cassons acted in government-sponsored Old Vic tours, and from 1954 to 1962, undiminished in vigour, they toured many countries to act and give dramatic and poetry recitals. In 1969 Thorndike opened the Thorndike Theatre

war

Obituaries

de, French champagne producer (b. Menetou-Salon, France, Aug. 3, 1896 France, Oct. Paris, d. 17, 1976), joined

—

champagne firm of Moet et Chandon as managing director in 1930 and became chairman in 1967, after the firm became a public company the

in 1962. A son of Louis, marquis de Vogiie, and the princesse d'Arenberg, he married Ghislaine d'Eudeville, a descendant of Claude Moet, who founded the business in 1 743. Vogiie personally advocated a greater degree of worker participation that became law in 1959. After 1962 the company expanded, uniting in 1971 with Tas.

Hennessy et Cie to form Moet-Hennessy, of which he was the first president. It also bought an interest in Parfums Christian Dior, and

M

founded

&

H

Vineyards at Napa Valley

in

California. He was a Commander of the Legion of Honour and had been awarded several medals for his role in the Resistance.

Walkley, Sir William Gaston, New Zealand oil magnate (b. Wellington, New Zealand, Nov. 1, 1896 d. Sydney, New South Wales, April 12,

—

pioneered full-scale oil exploration in Australia and was founder and managing director (1939-67) of Ampol Petroleum Ltd. and its associate company, Ampol Exploration Ltd. He was educated in Wellington and was a chartered ac-

1976),

in New Zealand (1925-35). Walkley, also an enthusiastic patron of football, and Australian journalism, was knighted

countant

who was sailing, in

1967.

Weigle, Luther Allan, U.S. biblical scholar (b. Littlestown, Pa., Sept. 11, 1880 d. New Haven,

—

ARTHUR GRACE — THE NEW YORK TIMES

Conn., Sept. 2, 1976), long-time dean (1928-49) of the Yale University Divinity School, was appointed chairman in 1929 of a committee of 22 scholars who, with the help of others, eventually produced the Revised Standard Version of the Bible. Millions of copies were sold after publication, the New Testament first appearing in 1946, the Old Testament in 1952. The new translation, sponsored by the National Council of Churches (which Weigle helped organize), was meant to replace the American Standard Version (1901), which was in turn a revision of the Authorized (King James) Version, published in 1611.

Obituaries

BOOK OF THE YEAR

tional organizations in British Foreign Policy

51) before joining Chatham House in 1953. Younger, who was knighted in 1972, was chairman of both the Howard League for Penal Reform (1960-73) and the Committee of Inquiry on Privacy (1970-72).

Sir (Robert Eric) Mortimer, British archaeologist (b. Edinburgh, Scotland, Sept. 10, 1890 d. Leatherhead, England, July 22, 1976), was well known as a popularizer of his science, particularly on television. His principal interests were Great Britain, continental Europe, India, Pakistan, and Africa. During his career he was

—

Zinkeisen, Anna Katrina, British painter (b. Kilcreggan, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, Aug. 28, 1906—d. London, England, Sept. 23, 1976), employed her wide-ranging skill in a variety of fields that included portraiture, murals (notably for the

Cunard KEYSTONE

the equivalent. In 1946 White moved to San Francisco, where he worked closely with Ansel Adams and learned to previsualize how the scene or object would appear in the final print. The next year White succeeded Adams as director of the photography department of the California School of Fine Arts, where, during the course of his teaching, he developed a method of reading photographs called space analysis. He wrote extensively on his theories of photography as the editor of Aperture, which he founded in 1952, and Image, which he edited from 1953 to 1957. White was also a leading abstract photographer, often giving mystical interpretations to his photographs. His already great position of influence was further enhanced in 1965, when he was made professor of creative photography at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology.

Rupert, German-born astrophysicist (b. Munich, Germany, June 25, 1905 d. Orleans, Mass., Jan. 9, 1976), completed his doctoral studies at the University of Berlin (1927) and worked at the university observatories in Bonn and Gottingen before moving to the U.S. in 1935. The greater part of his professional career was spent at Yale University (1946-73). Wildt was credited with two major discoveries regarding planetary and solar atmospheres. In 1938 he theorized that the masses of Jupiter and Saturn consist mainly of compressed hydrogen and therefore have low densities. The following year he concluded that the negative hydrogen ion is the

Wildt,

Whipple, George Hoyt, U.S. pathologist (b. Ashland, N.H., Aug. 28, 1878— d. Rochester, N.Y., Feb. 1, 1976), shared the 1934 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with George R. Minor and William P. Murphy. Whipple's independent research with anemic dogs matched the findings of Minor and Murphy and established the fact that pernicious anemia can be controlled by a This discovery signaled a treatment of noninfectious diseases even though many years passed before the vitamin B12 in liver was identified as the extrinsic factor responsible for restoring the blood to a healthy state. Whipple studied and taught at Johns Hopkins University and was director of the Hooper Foundation for medical research in California before moving (192 1-55) to the University of Rochester in New York. diet containing liver.

major advance

in the

White, Minor, U.S. photographer (b. Minneapolis, Minn., July 9, 1908 d. Boston, Mass., June 24, 1976), was one of the most creative and influential photographers of his day. White's creativity began to express itself early in his career as an employee of the Works Progress Administration. In 1945 his style acquired definitive form when he learned from Edward Weston the value of realism and tonal beauty in prints, and from Alfred Stieglkz the expressive potential of the sequence (photos presented as a unit) and the equivalent (an image viewed as a visual metaphor). Both in his photographs and in his writing, White became the foremost exponent of the sequence and

—

in

(1964). The second son

MP

Wheeler,

secretary of the British Academy (1949-68), director (1940-44 and 1949-54) and president (1954-59) of the Society of Antiquarians (and recipient of its gold medal in 1944), and trustee of the British Museum (1954-59 and 1963-73). He became professor of ancient history to the Royal Academy in 1965, and was a fellow of University College, University of London, from 192 2 until his death. Wheeler, who was knighted in 1952 and made a Companion of Honour in 1967, became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1968.

Changing Perspectives

of a viscount, he was Labour for the fishing borough of Grimsby (194S-59) and held junior positions at the home and foreign offices (1947-

—

liners

"Queen Mary" and "Queen Eliza-

beth"), flower painting, book illustration, posters, and ceramics. Her illustrations in the field of medicine included those wounded in the London "blitz" and Sir Archibald Mclndoe's plasticsurgery patients at East Grinstead in 1944. Among those who sat for her were Mclndoe and Prince Philip. Zinkeisen won a scholarship to the Royal Academy Schools at 15, and first exhibited at the

Royal Academy at

18.

Zukor, Adolph, Hungarian-born motion-picture magnate (b. Ricse, Hungary, Jan. 7, 1873 d. Los Angeles, Calif., June 10, 1976), was a nearly penniless orphan of 16 when he arrived in New York City and took a job sweeping floors in a fur shop. Three years later (1892) he opened a successful fur business with Morris Kohn in Chicago, then moved it to New York where, in 1903, they started the Automatic Vaudeville Co., a penny arcade. With financial backing from Marcus Loew (later head of Metro-GoldwynMayer), Zukor was soon offering music and short films to arcade customers in several major East Coast cities. Zukor then advanced to make-do nickelodeon theatres with longer pictures and in 1912, having split with Loew, presented the first feature-length (40 minutes) movie ever shown in the U.S.: Queen Elizabeth, a French-made fea-

—

WIDE WORLD

essential radiation-absorbing element in the solar atmosphere. Both theories were later confirmed. In 1966 Wildt received the Eddington Gold Medal of Britain's Royal Astronomical Society.

Yakubovsky, Ivan Ignatyevich, Soviet marshal (b. Zaytsevo, Mogilev Province, Belorussia, Jan. 7, 1912— d. Moscow, U.S.S.R., Nov. 30, 1976), became commander in chief of the Warsaw Pact

forces in 1967. In 1932 he entered the Military College of Minsk and during World War II commanded troops in the defense of Moscow, Stalingrad, and Kursk. He also led an armoured corps that participated in the capture of Berlin and twice won his country's highest military decoration for bravery. Having graduated from the general staff academy in 1948, he commanded a di-

and later the armoured forces of the Carpathian military district. Yakubovsky served as deputy commander in chief of Soviet forces in East Germany (1957-60) before being named commander in chief (1962-65). He became a

ture starring Sarah Bernhardt. Its success on tour

member

led to the formation of the

vision

Committee of the Communist Party in 1961 and was promoted to the rank of marshal in 1967, the year he assumed of the Central

responsibility for the

Warsaw Pact

forces.

Younger, Sir Kenneth Giimour, British politician and expert in international relations (b. Dec. 15, 1908 d. London, England, May 19, 1976), was

—

director of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) from 1959 to 1971,

during which time he sought to change Britain's pattern of post-imperial relationships. He expounded a policy of participation in new interna-

Famous Players Co.

and provided Zukor with the necessary money and incentive to form Paramount Pictures Corp. after merging with Jesse L. Lasky's Feature Play Co. and lesser concerns. Essentially a businessman with only minor interest in the actual creation of films, Zukor generally steered clear of Hollywood. One of his most far-reaching decisions was to guarantee distribution of the films Paramount produced by buying up a chain of movie houses across the country. He became board chairman of Paramount in 193 5 and did not retire until ten years before his death at age 103.

83

—

CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS JANUARY 1

China's Cultural Revolution

India suspends constitutional

defended

rights

Democratic presidential nomination after winning 27.6% of the vote in Iowa's precinct caucuses.

Cambodians relocated The Cambodian government was

Congress Party also agreed to postpone parliamentary elections for at least a year, to continue indefinitely the state of emergency proclaimed in 1975, and to amend

and class

struggle," said the editorial.

the constitution so as to give Prime

edly continuing

new wave workmen were

"The role of Parliament has been eroded and there is a danger that it will be eroded

of violence, ten Protestant shot to death near Belfast, where five Roman Catholics had been killed the previous night. Their deaths raised the number of persons killed in fighting between Catholic and Protestant extremists to 16 in the first five days of 1976. The British government ordered more troops into the country.

In a

8

still

settled

areas

in

the

northwest. The forced migration began in

October 1975.

22

Cease-fire in

A

further."

political

Lebanon

and military agreement was

underwritten by Syria to end the fighting in Lebanon. The agreement granted some

15

Muslim demands

Vatican statement on sex

for

a

greater share in

power; the Christian minority had previously dominated the government. political

The Roman Catholic Church

reiterated

its

condemnation of sex outside marriage and stated that homosexuality cannot be condoned under any circumstances. The Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of

International monetary reform

24

the International Monetary Fund agreed in Kingston, Jamaica, to a reform of the international monetary system. The new arrangement would permit the values to

18

Steelers defeat -

of currencies to "float" in the world market according to supply and demand. The

Cowboys

in

agreement also would increase the amounts of currency countries can borrow from the

for the

IMF.

over Dallas.

ball

in

Super

Bowl

The tenth annual Super Bowl

in

coast and of air bases at Torrejon, Saragossa, and Moron. Spain was to get $1.2 billion in credits and grants for military, technical, and cultural assistance.

Miami

championship of the National FootLeague was won by Pittsburgh 21-17

1975. Here combines

U.S. treaty with Spain

The U.S. and Spain signed a five-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation the first formal treaty between the two countries since the Spanish Civil War. It gave the U.S. continued use of naval facilities at Rota on the Mediterranean

the Faith stressed continuation of the church's traditional stand on sexual ethics.

Finance ministers of countries belonging

The Soviet Union reported a poor grain crop are at work in Krasnoyarsk,

its

hundreds of mainly to sparsely

Min-

Indira Gandhi more power in relation to the judiciary. Voicing his opposition, one member of Parliament said,

Violence in Northern Ireland

report-

massive relocation of thousands of its people,

ister

5

Carter emerges from the pack

Former governor Jimmy Carter of Georgia emerged as a leading contender for the

basic rights guaranteed by. the constitution: freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom to form associations and labour unions, the right to move freely and to live in any part of the country, the right to own property, and the right to pursue any profession, trade, or business. India's ruling

fending the results of the Cultural Revolution. It appeared to be an effort by the aged Mao to ensure that his revolutionary policies would continue after his death. One of the poems mocked Soviet "goulash Communism"; the editorial included criticism of the Soviet emphasis

economic efficiency. "Stability unity do not mean writing off the

9

The Indian government suspended

Peking published two new poems by Chairman Mao Tse-tung and an editorial de-

on

1

25

House committee reports on intelligence agencies

Federal intelligence agencies in the U.S. operate in such secrecy as to be "beyond the scrutiny" of Congress, according to an unpublished report of the House Select

Committee on Intelligence. The report, which was leaked to the press, cited a number of irregularities on the part of the agencies in question, which included the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the National Security Agency.

26

Economists predict gradual recovery Pres. Gerald Ford's Council of Economic Advisers said it would be several years before the inflationary trend of recent years

was overcome

in the U.S. In its annual report it called for a gradual recovery from the 1973-75 recession. "What we need is a durable recovery," it said, "not a boom that carries the seeds of renewed instability in prices, incomes, and employment." It predicted that unemployment in 1976 would average 7.7% and that prices would continue to rise by 6%.

Chronology

FEBRUARY uary. Turnover on January 30 was a record 38,510,000 shares. The previous record month was May 1975, when 457,410,000 shares were traded. The Dow Jones average of industrial stock prices rose more than 122 points in January,

Congress rejects aid to Angola Despite a last-minute plea from Pres. Gerald Ford, the House of Representatives voted to cut off all U.S. assistance to the two Western-supported factions in Angola. The administration had expressed grave concern over massive Soviet military assistance to the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola.

Supreme Court

rules

on

The U.S. Supreme Court its

to provide loans for developed countries

The Soviet Union's

ruled that no limbe imposed on spending by candidates for federal office. This had been a major provision of the 1974 election reform law. But the court upheld the law's provisions for public financing of presidential campaigns, limits on contributions to

Petroleum Exporting

agreed to make interest-free loans to less developed countries from a fund of $800 million in 1976.

Countries

may

campaigns for federal

office,

and

strict

contributions and expenditures. The court's ruling against limits on spending did not extend to presidential candidates who accept public funds in their campaigns which included all the major candidates in 1976. The court held that

reporting of

Stock market bullish

New York

Stock Exchange concluded

—

the busiest month in its history. A total of 635,850,000 shares were traded in Jan-

Soviet jive-year plan report

1

dropped

OPEC

The

thus

to the

Constitution. It also required Congress to reshape the Federal Election Commission set up under the law.

3

less

of

is

ending at 975.28.

election law

The Organization

campaign spending is "speech" and protected by the First Amendment

6%

agricultural

output

in 1975. Its grain harvest

was

the worst in a decade, according to the final economic figures for 1975 released by the Central Statistical Board. The fiveyear plan that ended in 1975 had called for industrial growth of 42 to 46%, while actual growth over the five years was 37.2%. The underfulfillment was attributed to a failure of productivity to grow as fast as planned. The grain harvest in 1975 came to 140 million tons, less than two-thirds of the planned 215.7 million tons. The Soviet Union had to buy about 25 million tons of grain abroad, mostly from the U.S., Canada, and Australia, and to cut the size of its livestock herds.

FEBRUARY he had been kept in a mental hospital for 2^ years because of his political beliefs. He said there were 60 other "political pa-

Repression in India

The government of India arrested hundreds of members of the opposition Dra-

tients" in the hospital.

ar-

rested in 1972 after publishing articles in a number of clandestine publications and

vidian Progressive Federation party.

Elliot

He had been

had been interned January 1975.

Richardson becomes

in the institution until

commerce secretary Richardson was sworn in as U.S. secretary of commerce, his fourth Cabinet Elliot L.

4

UNESCO

in its efforts to

Moynihan

Young victims

resigns

in

illiterates

11 counEcuador, Ethiopia, Guinea, India, Iran, Madagascar, Mali, Sudan, Syria, and Tanzania. tries

— Algeria,

An earthquake

illiteracy

Americans."

said:

800 million

had been concentrated on only

Earthquake

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization said it is failing

He

now

compared with 735 million 1965. However, its ten-year program

in

Guatemala

fails to eradicate

"I may be at this very moment entering the Guinness Book of Records as the most sworn-in of

post in six years.

that there were in the world,

end

of the

illiteracy. It

estimated

killed

23.000

people

in

Guatemala and injured more than 75,000. Over half a million were rendered homeworst disaster in the history of Central America.

less in the

earthquake that shook Guatemala

in

February.

Moynihan resigned as U.S. representative to the United Nations. He charged that many officials of the State Daniel P.

Department had not supported his policies at the UN. He had strongly criticized Middle Eastern and African governments for antidemocratic stands. He denied emphatically charges that he was resigning to run for political office. their

Kissinger defends arms control agreements with U.S.S.R. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said in San Francisco that the arms control agreements reached with the Soviet Union since 1963 had brought some restraint in Soviet-U.S. nuclear rivalry. An even more important advance would be made, he said, "if the 1974 Vladivostok accord leads to a new agreement."

Plyushch attacks Soviet

political

repression

Leonid cian

I.

who

Plyushch, a Soviet mathematiU.S.S.R. in January, said

left the

JEAN-PIERRE

LAFFONT — SYGMA

85

Chronology

FEBRUARY ADN-ZB

/

EASTFOTO

Trial of Patricia Hearst begins

Lawyers made their opening statements in the bank robbery trial of U.S. newspaper heiress Patricia Hearst. The issue was whether she had joined her kidnappers in the robbery willingly or had been coerced.

Concorde on

trial

U.S. Transportation Secretary William T. Coleman, Jr., ruled that the FrenchBritish Concorde supersonic airliner would be allowed to fly to Washington and New York on a 16-month trial basis.

Lockheed scandal breaks The Lockheed

Aircraft Corp. paid $7.1 million in bribes to a right-wing Japanese militarist to

promote

sale of a

commercial

according to company documents released by a U.S. Senate subcommittee. Other countries in which Lockheed reportedly bribed officials included Italy, Turkey, Mexico, Colombia, and The Netherlands, where a commission was formed to investigate charges that Prince jetliner,

Bernhard Lockheed

received

$1.1

promote the the Dutch armed

craft to

4— 1 5

to

million

Residents of

from

Huambo

in

Angola welcome forces

of the

forces.

consultations between the governments of the two countries on foreign policy matters the first such agreement by the U.S.

Daniel Schorr suspended

—

XII Winter Olympics

CBS News suspended TV news correspondent Daniel Schorr pending a con-

with any Latin-American government.

The XII Winter Olympic Games were held in Innsbruck, Austria. A total of 1,054 athletes from 37 nations competed.

Popular Movement

for the Liberation of Angola.

sale of its air-

investigation

gressional

17

secret

U.S. intelligence agencies reformed

House

Select

for

leaking

Committee on

the

Intelli-

gence report on intelligence agencies.

Ford announced a reorganization of U.S. intelligence agencies, the most sweeping reform since 1947. Pres. Gerald

5

Doctors protest malpractice insurance rates Doctors in southern California ended a 35-day work slowdown protesting a 327%

19

Britain's

make

premier of Iceland severs

China

Hua Kuo-feng, a sixth-ranking deputy premier, had been appointed acting premier to fill the vacancy created by the death of Chou En-lai on January 8.

Peking announced that relatively

9-11

21

supported nationalist factions. The Organization of African Unity announced that it was recognizing the Angolan government formed by the victorious Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola.

Soviet political leaders meet

At the 25th congress

Com-

broke diplomatic relations with Great Britain in a dispute over the amount of cod that British fishing boats could take from Icelandic waters. This followed clashes between Icelandic gunboats and

munist Party in Moscow, party leader Leonid I. Brezhnev said the Soviet Union would continue to favour detente with the U.S. but would not abandon the struggle

British trawlers.

against capitalism.

of the Soviet

Nixon goes

to

China

Ford wins

New

Hampshire

presidential primary

Former U.S. president Richard M. Nixon arrived in Peking to begin an eight-day to China at the invitation of the Chinese government. He was greeted by

visit

Acting Premier

Hua

Kuo-feng.

Israel withdraws in Sinai

back to new posithe Sinai desert under terms of the Israeli-Egyptian troop disengagement

Pres. Gerald Ford won the New Hampshire gop presidential primary, receiving 51% of the votes to Ronald Reagan's 49%. Among the Democrats, former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter received 30%, Rep. Morris Udall of Arizona 24%, and Sen. Birch Bayh of Indiana 16%.

Israel pulled its forces

Kissinger tours Latin America

U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger visited Venezuela, Peru, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, and Guatemala. In Brazil he signed an agreement calling for semiannual

86

24

wins in Angola

Soviet-supplied Angolan forces led by Cuban troops seized the central Angolan town of Huambo, headquarters of a government established by two Western-

16-24

with Britain

Iceland

unknown

MPLA

ties

meeting of leaders of the AssoSoutheast Asian Nations was

of

held in Bali, Indonesia. The leaders of Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, and the Philippines agreed to set up a secretariat and high council in Jakarta.

Labour government decided to large cuts in planned public spending, amounting to $3.6 billion in 1977-78 and $6 billion in 1978-79.

participated.

Southeast Asian summit meeting

first

ciation

doctors in the Los Angeles County area

Hua Kuo-feng named

The

British socialism retrenches

increase in the cost of malpractice insurance. About three-quarters of the 4,400

7

23-24

tions in

agreement. United Nations forces moved into the buffer zone. Three American surveillance stations were opened at the Mitla

and Giddi

passes.

Microwaves Soviet

officials

in

Moscow

admitted beaming micro-

at the U.S. embassy in Moscow in order to disable U.S. electronic eavesdropping devices.

waves

Chronology

MARCH Enrico Berlinguer told the delegates that Italian Communists favoured cooperation with capitalism. The congress was boycotted by the leader of the French Communist Party, who had criticized the Soviet Union for suppressing political dissidents.

Military rule to end in Portugal Portuguese military and political leaders signed an agreement to end military rule and establish a freely elected government. Legislative elections were scheduled to be held in April.

28

Dissension in

29

oil countries promise to finance Egypt's debt

Arab

Egypt's

leader of Italy's Communist Party took a strongly independent line at the 25th Soviet party congress in Moscow.

The

Anwar

as-Sadat

returned

countries of the Persian Gulf with pledges of $750 million in grants. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait each promised to give $300

Ford denounces Castro

million, and the United Arab Emirates $150 million. Bahrain and Qatar were expected to raise the total sum to around $1 billion. It was reported that those countries would also help Egypt pay back its $4 billion debt to the Soviet Union.

U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford called Cuba's Prime Minister Fidel Castro an "international outlaw" for sending "12,000 soldiers to intervene in a civil war in Angola" on behalf of the Soviet-backed mpla.

Moscow

Pres.

from a tour of the oil-producing Arab

MARCH Henry Jackson

23%

leading Democrats were Rep. Morris Udall

The Spanish government announced it

would soon allow not

free political

those of terrorists, separatists, or Communists.

but

closed

borders

with

armed

forces

its

what it said was aggression by Rhodesia. The closing of the border cut off Rhodesia's access to the sea. The British government announced its support for Mozambique's move.

6

former

contribution

for proposing to accept of $630,000 from Iraq's

governing Baath Party. that

parties—

8

man

Early

redated

anarchists,

Two

scientists reported the discovery of remains of early man dating back as far as 3,750,000 years ago. This was said to indicate that Australopithecus, once considered to be an ancestor of man, was ac-

South Vietnam charts economic course

tually a

against

Examining the crater made by

Labor Party Labor prime minister

leadership of Australia's

censured

to fight

its

Rhodesia and mobilized

The

Spain moves toward democracy

primary, Pres. Gerald Ford won 62% of the votes and former California governor Ronald Reagan 35%.

Mozambique

Australian leader censured

a

Republican

Mozambique prepares

7

Gough Whitlam

of Arizona (18%), Gov. George Wallace of Alabama (17%), and former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter (14%). In the

5

with socialized industry.

Gen. Emin Alpkaya, commander of the Turkish Air Force, resigned after allegations that he had received a bribe from the Lockheed Aircraft Corp.

of Washington won of the Democratic votes in the Masprimary. Other presidential sachusetts

Sen.

considerable private enterprise to coexist

Turkish commander implicated in Lockheed scandal

5

Jackson wins Massachusetts presidential primary

foreign minister of South Vietnam, Mrs. Nguyen Thi Binh, said in Moscow that South Vietnam's economy will be arranged in a five-tier system, allowing

The

became

contemporary of early

man

that

extinct.

Meteorites

fall in

China

100 stony meteorites fell near Kirin in northeastern China, representing perhaps the largest stony meteorite fall in recorded history. The largest fragment found weighed an estimated 3,900 pounds.

More than

a meteorite in northeastern China.

9

Ford wins Florida primary Pres. Gerald Ford defeated former California governor Ronald Reagan in the Florida Republican presidential preference primary, winning 53% of the votes.

Among Democrats were

former

the leading candidates

Georgia

governor

Jimmy

Carter (34%), Alabama Gov. George Wal-

(31%), and Sen. Henry Jackson of Washington (24%). lace

10

South Korean dissidents arrested critics of the South Korean government of Pres. Park Chung Hee were arrested and charged with agitating to overthrow the government. One of those arrested was the opposition party's most

Eleven

recent presidential candidate.

Nixon

testifies

on wiretapping

In a written deposition taken on January 15 and released on March 10, former U.S.

87

Chronology

MARCH ALAIN

DEJEAN — SYGMA

tions

president Richard M. Nixon testified that he ordered the fbi to tap the telephones of national security aides and newsmen in 1969, and that Secretary of State Henry Kissinger selected those who were to be

23

Dow Jones

as the intervention of

Angola.

Reagan wins North Carolina

Former California governor Ronald Reagan upset Pres. Gerald Ford in the North

passes 1,000

Carolina Republican presidential preference primary, receiving 52% of the votes to Ford's 46%. Among the Democrats, former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter received 54% of the votes, Gov. George

Dow

The

in

primary

tapped.

1

abroad" such

Cuban troops

Jones industrial stock average closed above the 1,000 mark in trading on the New York Stock Exchange.

Wallace of Alabama 35%.

Military coup in Lebanon

The commander

of

garrison, Brig. Gen.

the

Roman

Beirut military

declared himself to be the military governor of Lebanon.

The National Opinion Research Center reported that a survey showed the Roman Catholic Church in the U.S. had suffered substantial losses in religious devotion and

Nigeria executes rebels

The government

nearly $1 billion in annual church income because of its ban on artificial means of

of Nigeria executed the

former defense minister and 29 others who had taken part in an attempted coup on February 13 in which the head of government, Brig. Murtala Ramat Mohammed, was assassinated.

Harold Wilson waves goodbye after resigning as prime minister of Great Britain.

Egypt abrogates treaty with Soviets

dropped from the Politburo of the Communist Party.

•

Anwar as-Sadat announced that the Egyptian government was abrogating its 1971 treaty of friendship and cooperation with the Soviet Union. Moscow replied that Sadat had been pursuing an "unfriendly policy" toward the Soviet Union

birth control.

24

19

Rhodesian

27

group, broke off negotiations on the question of eventual majority rule

nationalist

some time.

in the

country and

its

South African troops leave Angola South

timing.

forces

U.S. cancels meetings with U.S.S.R.

1

Meg and Tony State Department officials said that because of the Soviet part in the civil war in Angola, the U.S. would not participate in scheduled meetings of Soviet-U.S. joint

20

British prime minister resigns

Harold Wilson announced that he would resign as prime minister of Great Britain as soon as the Labour Party members of the House of successor.

Commons

separate

29

Thailand orders U.S. forces out Thailand ordered the U.S. to remove its military forces in four months, except for 270 military aid advisers.

is

foreseen

Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia said breakdown of talks between Rhodesia's white government and black nationalists would engulf the country in war. Pres.

the

Carter wins Illinois presidential

Newspaper

Patricia Hearst was convicted in the federal district court in San Francisco of armed robbery and use of a gun to commit a felony.

primary Former governor Jimmy Carter

heiress

won 48%

of California.

it

Argentina gets new government

Rhodesian war Patricia Hearst guilty

Wallace of Alabama was second with 28%, Sargent Shriver got 16%, and Fred Harris 8%. In the Republican primary, Pres. Gerald Ford received 59% of the votes to 40% for Ronald Reagan, former governor

its

Lieut. Gen. Jorge Rafael Videla took the oath of office as Argentina's new president. He named a Cabinet of two civilians and six military officers. Videla pledged to carry out a "national reorganization" aimed at creating a strong state.

could choose a

of Georgia of the votes in the Illinois Democratic presidential primary. Gov. George

Africa withdrew the last of from southern Angola, where

had maintained a buffer zone during the Angolan civil war.

After 16 years of marriage, Princess Margaret of Britain and her husband, Lord Snowdon, announced that they were separating but no divorce was planned.

commissions.

presi-

dent of Argentina since July 1974, was deposed and arrested by the commanders of the three branches of Argentina's armed forces. She was flown under guard to Neuquen Province.

talks fail

Prime Minister Ian D. Smith of Rhodesia and Joshua Nkomo, leader of a black

Argentine president overthrown

Maria Estela Martinez de Peron,

Pres.

for

Catholic Church reported

losing strength in U.S.

Abdel Aziz al-Ahdab,

22

30

Britain offers assistance in Rhodesia Britain

offered

its

help

in

ending

the

Rhodesian crisis provided the Rhodesian government would accept majority rule and agree to hold democratic elections in the near future.

Israeli

Arabs

Arab

citizens

strike

to

in

protest

call general strike Israel

a

held

a

general

government plan

to

appropriate Arab land for a housing de-

velopment

3

1

in Galilee.

Court rules Karen can die

Ann Quintan

Soviet agriculture chief replaced

Kissinger warns

The Soviet

minister of agriculture,

Polyansky, lost his job as a consequence poor grain harvest of 197S, lowest in a decade. He had previously been

S.

of the

88

Cuba

Dmitry U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger warned Cuba that the U.S. "will not accept further Cuban military interven-

The New Jersey Supreme Court

ruled

unanimously that the father of Karen Ann Quinlan could request that she be removed from the mechanical respirator that had kept her alive for nearly a year.

Chronology

APRIL

APRIL

ALAIN NOGUES

— SYGMA

Callaghan becomes prime minister

*

Foreign Secretary James Callaghan became the new prime minister of Great Britain, succeeding Harold Wilson, who resigned.

Antiradical demonstrations in

Peking demonstrations Peking and other Chinese

Violent

took cities,

place

in

apparently

opposition to the "antirightist" campaign begun by Chinese radicals after the death of Premier Chou En-lai.

in

6

Ford wins Wisconsin primary Gerald Ford won the Wisconsin Republican presidential primary with 55% of the votes against former California governor Ronald Reagan. Among the governor Democrats, former Georgia Pres.

Jimmy Carter received 37% of the votes, Rep. Morris Udall of Arizona 36%, Gov. George Wallace of Alabama 13%, and Sen. Henry Jackson of Washington 7%. Jackson wins

New

York primary

French students gather under the

7

Sen. Henry Jackson of Washington won the New York Democratic delegate primary with 38% of the convention delegates. Rep. Morris Udall of Arizona got

Hua becomes

Eiffel

Tower

in Paris

of 15 years. Relations deteriorated in the 1950s because of a border dispute that led to a brief war in 1962.

Chinese premier

late

Moving

against public demonstrations, the Chinese leadership hurriedly named Hua Kuo-feng premier of China and first vice-chairman of the Chinese Communist Party. It also dismissed Teng Hsiao-ping, once expected to become premier, from all his posts, allowing him to retain his party membership "to see how he will

25%, and former governor Jimmy Carter of Georgia 13%, while 24% of the delegates were uncommitted.

behave himself

Election posters cover a wall in Lisbon.

1

6

the country's rapid population growth.

in the future."

Congress approves immunization

Congress appropriated $135 million for a national immunization program against an anticipated outbreak of swine influenza.

25

West Bank

Local elections in the Israeli-occupied West Bank of the Jordan River brought to power large numbers of Palestinian nationalists

15

and Arab

Democratic Union

strated in Paris to protest changes in university curricula aimed at bringing educa-

27

1.

Kissinger announces policy

new African

with China

India announced that it would send an ambassador to Peking, easing a hostility ALAIN

in Portugal

a government. The centrist Popular Democrats won 71 seats, the conservative Centre Democratic Social Party won 41, the Communists 40, and the far-left Popular

Tens of thousands of students demon-

ties

win

Socialists won 106 of the 263 seats in Portugal's elections for a National Assembly, giving them the power to form

French students protest curriculum changes

India renews

celebrated

Vietnamese elect joint assembly

Socialists

radicals.

tion closer to job requirements.

II

Voters in North and South Vietnam elected a joint National Assembly that was expected to seal the reunification of the two Vietnams into one country.

Foes of Israel grow stronger in

Queen Elizabeth turns 50 Britain's Queen Elizabeth her 50th birthday.

program

13

India stiffens birth control policy

The Indian government announced a new, more rigorous policy aimed at slowing

21 12

during the April demonstrations.

U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said in Zambia that the U.S. would work to force the government of Rhodesia to

DEJEAN — SYGMA

89

Chronology

MAY institute majority rule. Prime Minister Ian D. Smith of Rhodesia replied that the U.S. had "fallen into a trap."

28

Carter triumphs in Pennsylvania

Report on government intelligence issued

Former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter won a smashing victory in the Democratic presidential primary in Pennsylvania, re-

Pope appoints new cardinals

The Senate

The Vatican announced the appointment of 21 new cardinals, including one American. The names of two of the cardinals were not announced.

Select

Committee on

Intelli-

gence declared that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other national intelligence agencies had violated the constitutional rights of hundreds of thousands of U.S. citizens by investigating their po-

ceiving 37% of the votes as against 25% for Sen. Henry Jackson of Washington, 19% for Rep. Morris Udall of Arizona, and 11% for Gov. George Wallace of Alabama. It was Carter's seventh victory in the first nine primaries of 1976.

litical activities.

MAY 4 UN

such as the wiretaps.

debates Israeli occupation

Black Panthers, and

mary, with 39% of the votes as against for former Georgia governor Jimmy

illegal

38%

Carter. Carter

The United Nations Security Council debated a resolution condemning Israel's occupation policies in the West Bank and

10

Gaza Strip. There were 21 Israeli settlements in the West Bank territory, which was taken from Jordan in the 1967 war.

On May

Cabinet voted to remove ultranationalist settlers from an army base near Nablus, but it stressed that it would continue establishing settlements in selected areas of the

6

Earthquake

killed

as Poland.

U.S. proposes world resources bank U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger proposed the creation of a world resources

bank at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development meeting in Nairobi, Kenya.

7

Cambodian

soldiers executed

Cambodian

refugees in Thailand reported that about 300 officers and soldiers of the former Cambodian army who had been captured in the 1975 civil warfare had

been executed in scale executions in

January. Other large-

Cambodia had

previ-

ously been reported.

8

Lebanon picks new president The Lebanese Parliament

elected a new president of the country, but this failed to end the civil war. The president-elect, Elias Sarkis, held consultations with leaders of

both

FBI

sides, to

no

avail.

director apologizes

M. Kelley, director of the FedBureau of Investigation, apologized to the public for some of the FBI's activities during J. Edgar Hoover's 48-year term as director. According to reports by the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, the abuses and excesses included the persecution of civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., harassment of political groups Clarence eral

90

nomination of the Democratic con-

vention "on the

Reagan and Ford

split

first ballot."

Fighting intensifies in Lebanon

primaries Fighting between Muslim and Christian forces in Lebanon reached a new peak, with hundreds of casualties.

Ronald Reagan beat Pres. Gerald Ford in the Nebraska Republican presidential

an estimated 1,000 people in northeastern Italy and destroyed many buildings. The quake, measured at 6.5 on the Richter scale, was felt as far

away

the

13-19 11

the Connecticut pri-

ton. Carter said that he expected to get

West Bank.

hits Italy

An earthquake

British Liberal Party leader resigns

Jeremy Thorpe, leader of Britain's Liberal Party, resigned, charging the press with spreading false reports concerning an alleged homosexual affair.

9 the Israeli

won

mary, getting 33% of the vote to 31% for Rep. Morris Udall of Arizona and 18% for Sen. Henry Jackson of Washing-

primary. The former California governor got 55% of the votes. Ford won in West Virginia with 57% of the votes.

Church and Carter win Sen. Frank Church of Idaho won Nebraska Democratic presidential

the pri-

14

India and Pakistan agree India and Pakistan agreed to resume in July diplomatic relations that were broken off in 1971 during the India-Pakistan war. Transportation services between the two countries also were to be restored.

Chronology

JUNE

17-22

French president

visits U.S.

French Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing paid an official state visit to the United States

honour of the U.S. Bicentennial. He traveled on the new supersonic Concorde

in

developed through French-British col-

jet

laboration.

1

8

Carter wins

M ichigan, loses

Maryland Former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter barely won the Michigan Democratic presidential primary, getting

43%

44%

of the votes

for Arizona Rep.

Morris Udall. Alabama Gov. George Wallace got 7%. Carter lost in Maryland to California Gov. to

Edmund

G. Brown,

5%

who

Jr.,

of the votes to Carter's

got

49%

37%. Udall got

and Wallace 4%.

Ford wins Maryland

in

Michigan and

Pres. Gerald Ford won the Michigan Republican presidential primary with 65% of the votes to 34% for former California

governor Ronald Reagan. Ford also defeated Reagan in Maryland, 58 to 42%.

19

Senate establishes committee on intelligence

An Arab gunner

After extensive hearings on the functioning of U.S. intelligence agencies, the U.S. Senate voted to establish a permanent Select Committee on Intelligence charged with overseeing the activities of the Central Intelligence Agency.

25

Candidates

in

Lebanon uses an

split

antiaircraft

gun as makeshift

ground nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes and providing for U.S. on-site inspection of Soviet tests. The accord paved the way for ratification of a companion treaty limiting underground nuclear weap-

primaries

Carter won Democratic presidenprimaries in Arkansas, Kentucky, and Tennessee. But the former Georgia governor lost the Oregon and Idaho primaries to Sen. Frank Church of Idaho and the

Jimmy tial

21

NATO The

24

warns of Soviet strength

North Atlantic Treaty Organization warned that the Soviet Union was increasing its military

Brown, Jr., of California. Pres. Ford defeated Ronald Reagan in Repub-

strength in Central Europe.

lican

foreign ministers of the

Nevada primary

Gov.

ons tests to the level of 150 kilotons agreed

by Pres. Richard Nixon in 1974. The signing took place two weeks after the U.S. had postponed it indefinitely without giving a reason. The postponement was thought to have been in response to presto

Edmund

G. Gerald

presidential primaries in Oregon, Kentucky, and Tennessee. He lost to the former California governor in Arkansas, Nevada, and Idaho.

Concorde service begins Concorde jets began regular from London and Paris to Dulles International Airport near Washington, D.C. The transatlantic runs took a little less than four hours. The service was established on a 16-month trial basis.

to

idential candidate

Ronald Reagan's

criti-

cisms of Ford in the primary campaign.

3

Supersonic

artillery in the civil war.

1

Syria sends troops into Lebanon

flights

28

Nuclear testing treaty signed

moved into Lebanon on a large scale in an effort to end the civil war. Palestinian forces in Lebanon opposed the Syrian move. Syrian troops

The U.S. and

the Soviet Union signed a five-year treaty limiting the size of under-

JUNE 1

Candidates Pres. Gerald

split

primaries

Ford won the Rhode Island

Republican presidential primary but lost in Montana and South Dakota to former governor Ronald Reagan of California. On the Democratic side, former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter won in South Dakota but lost in Rhode Island to Gov.

Edmund

G. Brown, Jr., of California and in Montana to Sen. Frank Church of Idaho. Carter now had 905 delegates of the 1,505 needed for the nomination.

protesting

Congressional sex scandal develops

Wayne L. Hays of Ohio came under from congressional colleagues after charges were made that he had placed his mistress, Elizabeth Ray, on the payroll of a House committee.

against

reductions

in

milk

quotas and other farm subsidies.

Rep. fire

5

Man-made

A new dam burst,

on the Teton River in Idaho resulting in a flood that killed 11

persons and

Quebec farmers protest About 5,000 Quebec dairy farmers rioted on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. They were

flood strikes Idaho

left

30,000 homeless. Environ-

and geologists had warned that the site was on particularly porous ground in an earthquake zone, though the sudden failure had not been predicted. mentalists

91

Chronology

JUNE UP! COHPIX

15

Chairman

Mao

no longer

receiving visitors

The Chinese government announced that Chairman Mao Tse-tung was no longer receiving foreign leaders who visited China. The decision was said to have been made by the Communist Party's Central Committee, which had evidently been for a special meeting.

1

6

U.S. ambassador to

convened

Lebanon

killed

The

U.S. ambassador to Lebanon, Francis E. Meloy, Jr., and his economic counselor, Robert O. Waring, were shot to death together with their embassy chauffeur while crossing the "green line" or no-man's-land in Beirut to engage in negotiations between Christian and Muslim factions.

16-19

Blacks riot in South Africa

A

demonstration by 10,000 black students Soweto, near Johannesburg, South Africa, turned into a riot that spread to a number of black townships and to two in

This

is all

that

was

left of

Idaho's Teton

Dam

after

collapsed June S.

it

universities,

6

Celtics

win

The Boston

NBA

Mexico acts against opium growers title

Mexico announced that it had destroyed most of the opium poppy fields in the country, which had been a major source

Phoenix

Kissinger criticizes Chile U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, v in an address before a meeting of American foreign ministers in Santiago, Chile, criti-

government was accused

of "arbitrary jailings, persecutions, and torture" by a commission of the Organization of American States.

British

The

pound

cized violations of human rights by the government of Chile: "A government that tramples on the rights of its citizens denies the purpose of its existence."

gets help

British pound,

which

fell

to

an

all-

9

time low of around $1.70 on June 4, rallied after the government obtained a standby credit of $5.3 billion from a number of foreign countries including the U.S.

8

of all instruction in black schools be given in Afrikaans, the language of the majority of the white ruling class.

Enrico Berlinguer leads Italy's Communists.

of heroin entering the U.S.

Chile accused of police terror Chile's military

persons

some part

Celtics defeated the

Suns, 87-80, to capture their 13th National Basketball Association championship, four games to two.

7

leaving at least 17S

dead and more than 1,000 injured. The immediate cause was a requirement that

Spain legalizes political parties

The Spanish Cortes (parliament) approved a bill to legalize political parties, forbidden since the end of the Civil War in 1939.

However, the government would still have the power to reject a party that it disap-

Carter assured of Democratic

proves

nomination

of.

that the

Carter won the Ohio Democratic presidential primary, practically assuring himself of nomination on the first ballot at the party convention in July. In California, Carter lost to Gov. Edmund G. Brown, Jr., and he also lost in Jersey where delegates committed to him received only 28% of the votes. But his Ohio victory was enough to start a stampede to him by party leaders.

Rightists in the Cortes argued was unconstitutional.

bill

Jimmy

New

10

Rhodesian troops face

guerrillas

The Rhodesian government

said guerrilla

warfare on its frontier with Mozambique had taken the lives of 39 government troops and 291 black nationalist insurgents since

January

1.

Arab peacekeeping force planned for Lebanon Ford and Reagan

split

primaries

Ford won the Ohio and New Republican presidential primaries but lost to his opponent Ronald Reagan in

Pres. Gerald

Jersey

As the primaries ended, neither candidate could be certain of the Republican nomination in August. California.

Syria and 19 other Arab League countries agreed in Cairo to put a token peacekeeping force drawn from several Arab countries into Lebanon to replace the 10,000 to 12,000 Syrian troops currently there. Syria had been criticized in Arab circles for intervening in Lebanon. NOGUES — SYGMA

92

Chronology

U.S. to

arm Kenya and Zaire

The

U.S. agreed to sell 12 F-5 jet fighter planes to Kenya and various items of military

equipment

to Zaire.

The purpose was

to offset Soviet military -aid to the neighbouring states of Uganda, Somalia, and

Angola.

18

Kuhn

opposes million-dollar

player sales U.S. Baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn ordered the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox to return three star players they had bought from Charles Finley, owner of the Oakland Athletics, for $3.5 million. While the sales broke no rules, Kuhn said they were "inconsistent with the best interests of baseball."

19

Ethiopia calls

off

Eritrean campaign

The Ethiopian government to the mobilization

called

a halt

of tens of thousands

of Christian peasants on the borders of its Muslim province of Eritrea. It said it was

negotiating with the guerrillas in Eritrea who were seeking independence.

20

U.S. nationals

withdrawn from

Beirut

The U.S. evacuated 263 Americans and other foreign nationals from Beirut by ship. But more than 90% of the Americans in

on, for

the Lebanese capital preferred to stay some of them hoping to leave by road Damascus in Syria.

20-21

Communists gain win power

in Italy but

jail to

In

Italian

parliamentary

elections

Communist Party made impressive

the gains

but the Christian Democrats, who had governed Italy for 30 years, kept their share of the popular vote. The result appeared to be an intensification of Italy's crisis. The Christian Democrats 263 of the 630 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and the Communists 228; a majority required 316 seats.

political

won

23

U.S. denies Angola entry to

the

23-24

of large increases in food prices in Poland led to strikes in several parts of the country. Railroad tracks were torn up near Warsaw. The government promptly dropped the proposal. It was the third time in 20 years that Polish workers had struck over living conditions. Other protests had occurred in 1956 and 1970.

to

United Nations because of the

continued presence of Cuban troops in the country. The Ford administration had requested Angola to defer its application, hoping to keep the matter from becoming an issue at the Republican national convention in August.

Kissinger and Vorster meet

U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and South African Prime Minister B. J. Vorster met in West Germany's Bavarian

towns of Bodenmais and Grafenau

to dis-

cuss the political situation in southern Africa. Among the subjects they talked

about were South Africa's policy of apartheid (racial separation) and Rhodesia's white minority government.

Dorado Beach, near San Juan, Puerto Rico. They pledged to aim at sustained

Polish workers protest food price increases

The announcement

UN

The U.S. vetoed Angola's application join

25

27

In their first free presidential election in century, Portuguese voters chose Gen. Antonio Ramalho Eanes, 41-year-old army chief of staff. Eanes, a moderate socialist, received 61.5% of the vote.

half a

Economic summit held

29—30

in

Puerto Rico

major

meeting of the leaders of seven

industrial

nations

was

held

in

Communist leaders from 29 European countries met in East Berlin. The gathering

at

and French Communist

ish,

parties,

and

the leaders of Eastern European parties. They endorsed the independence of each national party in seeking its own road to socialism a break from the former predominance of the Soviet party. Several delegates spoke against that predominance, including those from Italy and Yugoslavia. The sharpest attack came from the leader

—

outlawed Communist Party, "For years Moscow was our Rome. Today we have grown up." of

A summit

Communists hold summit East Berlin

included President Tito of Yugoslavia, General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev of the U.S.S.R., leaders of the Italian, Span-

Portuguese choose General Eanes

27—28

economic growth but to go slow on expansion that might lead to inflation. The countries represented were the U.S., Canada, the United Kingdom, France, West Germany, Italy, and Japan.

Spain's

who

said:

93

Chronology

JULY

JULY 2

ships use the Afrikaans language in teaching some subjects. The issue had touched off several days of rioting in June in the Johannesburg and Pretoria areas that caused the deaths of at least 175 persons.

Death penalty held constitutional U.S. Supreme Court held, 7 to 2, that the death penalty in and of itself does not violate the Constitution's ban on "cruel and unusual punishment." It upheld capi-

The

tal punishment statutes in Georgia, Texas, and Florida, but struck down those of North Carolina and Louisiana.

Vietnam

is

6-11

II of

Earth stations in 40 Indonesian with telephone and television signals. The only other countries with domestic satellite systems were the U.S., Canada, and the Soviet Union. linking

Great Britain visited

the U.S. to join in the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the country's independence. She visited Philadelphia; Washington, D.C.; Charlottesville, Va.; New

York City; New Haven, Conn.; Providence, R.I.; Newport, R.I.; and Boston.

10

A ngola. executes mercenaries Four mercenary

7

HEW father-son

ruling overruled

Ford ordered the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to suspend at once a ruling that prohibited father-son or mother-daughter school events. The hew's Office for Civil Rights had held that such events violated a law barring discrimination on the basis of sex in schools receiving federal funds. Pres. Gerald

3

Indonesia entered the space age by launching a communications satellite from Cape Canaveral in the U.S. The spacecraft, named "Palapa," was to be in permanent orbit over the 3,000-mile-long archipelago,

visits the U.S.

until its collapse in April 1975.

Pacific Islanders

satellite

cities

Queen Elizabeth

reunified

North and South Vietnam became one country again, with Hanoi as the capital. The country had been divided by the 1954 Geneva Agreement following the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. The southern part was ruled by a government in Saigon

Queen Elizabeth II

Indonesia launches

demand

independence

Two

separatist groups from the U.S. -administered Marshall and Palau islands in the Western Pacific appeared before the Trusteeship Council demanding "inde-

UN

soldiers, three British

and

one American, were executed by firing squad in Angola. Nine others had been sentenced to prison terms ranging from 16 to 30 years. They had taken part in the civil warfare that preceded the establishment of the new Angolan state. U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford and Britain's Queen Elizabeth had asked for mercy.

10-12

U.S. shows support for

Kenya

pendence now."

8

3-4

Israelis rescue hostages in

An

Israeli

to

Entebbe

commando airport,

unit flew 2,500 miles

Uganda, where

hi-

20 Uganda soldiers, and returned to Israel with 91 passengers and 12 crew members of the hijacked plane.

Mexicans

elect

Lopez Portillo

Jose Lopez Portillo, nominee of the ruling Partido Revolucionario Institucional, was elected president of Mexico.

U.S. Bicentennial observed

The U.S.

celebrated its Bicentennial with pageantry, prayer, games, parades, picnics, and fireworks. In New York City millions watched an armada of tall-masted sailing ships from 31 countries pass in review on the

J

Hudson

Italian

River.

Communist

gets key post

The Communist Party

of

Italy

won

its

most important political post as Pietro Ingrao was elected speaker of the Chamber of Deputies.

6

South A frica drops required A frikaans in schools

The government

use of

of South Africa revoked a law requiring that schools in black town-

94

in

New

Former U.S. president Richard M. Nixon was ordered disbarred by a New York court for obstructing "the due administration of justice" during his presidency.

Israeli

commandos

U.S. sent a warship and Navy patrol plane to Kenya to show support for that country in its dispute with neighbouring Uganda. Kenya had been accused by Pres. Idi Amin of Uganda of cooperating with Israel in its raid on Entebbe airport the night of July 3-4.

The

York State

U ganda

jackers were holding a French jetliner and nearly 100 Israeli hostages. The commandos killed 7 of the 10 hijackers, as well as

4

Nixon disbarred

like these carried out the surprise raid in

Uganda.

Chronology

JULY PICTORIAL PARADE

12-15

Jimmy

Carter nominated for

president

Jimmy Carter, 51, was awarded the presidential nomination by an unusually united Democratic Party at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The former Georgia governor was the first presidential nominee of a major political party to hail from the Deep South since Zachary Taylor in 1848. He chose as his running mate Sen. Walter F. Mondale of Minnesota, 48, a liberal and a protege of Sen. Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota.

15-17

Busload of children kidnapped

Twenty-six schoolchildren and their bus driver were abducted in central California and imprisoned in a buried truck. After IS hours they dug themselves out. Three sus-' pects were later arrested.

17

Olympic Games begin The

XXI

Olympiad

was

opened in Great was marred by politics. Athletes from Taiwan were prevented by Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau from participation under their official designation, which had been accepted by the International Olympic Committee. And the governments of 31 third world countries, most of them in Africa, forced their athletes to withdraw because of the presence of athletes from New Zealand, whose rugby team had toured South Africa. Montreal by Queen Elizabeth

II of

Britain, But the occasion

20

U.S. leaves Thailand

Bicentennial fireworks in Washington, D.C., lasted an hour and drew nearly a million observers.

26

The last U.S. serviceman left Thailand. The Thai foreign minister said the U.S. troops had been stationed in Thailand to press the war in Vietnam, and with the war over the government had requested them to withdraw. Viking reaches

Mars

Reagan chooses

miles that took 11 months. It sent back colour photographs showing a windswept,

ambassador

killed in

perpetrators as the common Irish and British people.

enemy

of the

his

running mate

sylvania would be his choice as candidate for vice-president if he received the nomination. Schweiker, 50, was considered one of the most liberal and pro-labour Republicans in Congress. The surprising and unprecedented move was seen as an effort to win delegates from Northern states away from Pres. Gerald Ford.

Dublin

Christopher T. E. Ewart-Biggs, the British ambassador to Ireland, was killed by a land mine that was set off under his car as he left his official residence in Dublin. The explosion, which blew a crater ten feet deep in the road, also killed the ambassador's secretary. Two other passengers, the top British civil servant in Ulster (Northern Ireland) and the ambassador's chauffeur, were seriously injured. In London, Prime Minister James Callaghan described the

Martian

Hotly pursuing the Republican nomination for president, Ronald Reagan announced that Sen. Richard S. Schweiker of Penn-

rocky plain, and later prepared to sample the soil for chemical and biological analysis by means of automated apparatus on board. Another Viking craft was expected to reach Mars in a few weeks. British

in

Viking project scientists announced that the first tests of the atmosphere on Mars revealed 95% carbon dioxide, 2 to 3% nitrogen, 1 to 2% argon-40, and 0.3% oxygen. "It doesn't show that there's [any life] there, but it shows that there's a chance," said one scientist.

The U.S. Viking I robot craft landed on Mars after a voyage of nearly half a billion

21

Nitrogen found atmosphere

Americans evacuated from Beirut The U.S. Navy evacuated 308 Americans and other foreigners from the Muslim section of Beirut, Lebanon, under the protection of the Palestine Liberation Army and the Al Fatah guerrilla group. They were taken to Athens.

28

Britain breaks relations with

The

British government broke diplomatic relations with the African state of Uganda, a member of the Commonwealth. The

break followed four years of growing tension between the two countries, heightened by Israel's July 3-4 raid on Entebbe airport. Uganda Pres. Idi Amin said the break was further evidence of British involvement in the planning of the Israeli raid.

Earthquakes strike northeast China

Two

27

Former Japanese prime minister implicated in Lockheed scandal

Uganda

major earthquakes, which occurred

16 hours apart and measured 8.2 and 7.9 on the Richter scale, struck northeast

China. T'ang-shan, an industrial city of about one million persons, was virtually

Kakuei Tanaka, who was prime minister of Japan from 1972 to 1974, was arrested and jailed in connection with the Lockheed Aircraft payoff scandal. He was accused of taking bribes of $1.7 million from Lockheed while in office. Tanaka was a member

destroyed. Extensive damage was also reported in Peking and Tientsin. Though no official casualty figures were announced by the Chinese government, a report filtering out of China put the death toll at about 700,000 and was generally accepted as re-

of the ruling Liberal-Democratic Party.

liable.

95

Chronology

AUGUST

AUGUST

SYGMA

Vacationers drown in Colorado flood

1

A

flash

flood on July 31

along the Big

Thompson Canyon, SO miles north of Denver, took many lives. The flood was caused by heavy rain that turned the Big

Thompson River motorists,

dents

1-8

who

into a torrent, drowning fishermen, campers, and resilived on its banks.

International Eucharistic Congress draws Catholics

The 41st International Eucharistic Congress met in Philadelphia. Nearly one million Roman Catholics took part in the conference, celebrating the central position of the Eucharist (Lord's Supper) in the life of the church. The first such congress held in Lille, France, in 1881.

2

was

"Legionnaires' disease" strikes in

Pennsylvania

North Korean

soldiers attack U.S.

and South Korean

soldiers at

Panmunjom.

A

mysterious flu-like disease was found to be causing illness and deaths among people who had attended a Pennsylvania state American Legion convention in Philadelphia July 21-24. A total of 180 cases, including 29 deaths, were later reported. Scientists were unable to identify the cause.

8

Rhodesia destroys

New

rioting in

The government of Rhodesia said that its raiding forces had killed more than 300

killed in

two days.

Vietnam expands diplomatic The government pleted

of unified

diplomatic

ties

Vietnam com-

with the nonCommunist countries of Southeast Asia by reaching an agreement with Thailand. its

ties

was

in retaliation for a

mortar

ing of the 20-year-old

bomb

Bandung Conference

attack on a Rhodesian army base in which four soldiers were killed. Other sources put the number killed at 675 or more.

11

FBI

Colombo

Leaders of 85 nonaligned nations met in Colombo, Sri Lanka, It was the fifth meet-

black nationalist guerrillas at their base camp in neighbouring Mozambique. The

South Africa

South African police fired on crowds of youths in the black township of Soweto, near Johannesburg. The rioters were trying to keep workers from commuting to their jobs in the city. The rioting subsequently spread to dozens of other locations, including Cape Town, where 27 persons were

Nonaligned leaders meet in

raid

4-12

16-20

guerrilla base

movement since the of 1955. Where in

meetings had been concerned with problems of colonialism and the cold war, this time the major emphasis was on "economic imperialism." The final communique called on the world's rich countries to give better economic terms to the less developed countries. earlier years the

reorganized

A

major reorganization of the Federal Bureau of Investigation was announced by its director, Clarence M. Kelley. The changes were instituted after disclosures were made that the fbi had engaged in illegal and abusive practices against vari-

18-19

Ford wins Republican nomination

Gerald Ford won the presidential nomination of the Republican Party on the first ballot at the party's convention in Kansas City, Mo., getting 57 votes more than the 1,130 needed. He chose Sen. Robert Dole of Kansas as his vice-presidential running mate. Pres.

ous radical groups. Kelley said that the bureau's domestic intelligence investigations were being transferred to the general investigative division.

Lebanese capture Palestinian camp Iran plans

new

military purchases

from U.S.

States in the years 1975-80. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said that the U.S.

wanted a powerful Iran

Amin

in the

Middle East.

pledges peace

After several years of hostility, Pres. Idi

Amin of Uganda and Pres. Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya signed peace documents that pledged them to resume normal relations.

96

Palestinian refugee

camp

of Tall

Muslim enclave

in

the

Earthquakes

Panmunjom

North Korean soldiers attacked a group of U.S. and South Korean soldiers in the demilitarized zone, killing two U.S. officers with axes and clubs and wounding nine enlisted men. The U.S. and South Korean soldiers had been pruning a tree at Pan-

Christian-dom-

inated area of Beirut.

16-17

Soldiers clash at

Zaa-

tar in Lebanon fell to right-wing Christian forces after a 52-day siege. It was the last

The U.S. and Iranian governments announced that Iran would spend $10 billion for military purchases from the United

Idi

18-21 The

strike China,

munjom.

An earthquake

struck China's Szechwan Province, about 800 miles southwest of the area devastated by the previous quakes of July 28. Another severe quake shook the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, producing tidal waves that killed more than 8,000 people and left 175,000 homeless.

In response, the U.S. sent flights

of planes over South Korea and cut down the tree that had been the centre of the

Philippines

dispute.

23

Australian leaders flee demonstrators

Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser and Governor-General Sir John Kerr were forced

Chronology

SEPTEMBER from violent student demonwas surrounded by brickthrowing students, Aboriginals, and migrant workers at Monash University in Melbourne who were protesting cuts in educational and health allowances. Kerr was trapped inside an office at the University of Sydney by students throwing eggs and tomatoes.

to take refuge

strators. Fraser

23-25

Unrest continues South Africa

in

Blacks in Soweto clashed with each other over attempts by militants to keep the township's labour force from commuting to work in Johannesburg. Twenty-one blacks were reported dead as bands of Zulu vigilantes roamed the streets attacking demonstrators. Fourteen others were killed

by

25

27

France gets new premier

Scientists synthesize a gene

Jacques Chirac resigned as premier of France and was replaced by Raymond

A

Barre, the foreign trade minister. Chirac, a Gaullist leader, had disagreed with the political strategy of Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing.

they had constructed the first complete the basic unit of heredity synthetic gene and had implanted it in a living bacterial

26

scientists at the

of

Massachusetts

Technology announced that

—

cell.

3

Prince Bernhard disgraced

group of

Institute

Roman

1

Catholic bishops criticize

Carter's abortion stand Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands, the husband of Queen Juliana, resigned most of his military and business posts after a Dutch government commission criticized his

Jimmy

"unacceptable" relationship with the

Lockheed Aircraft Corp. He had been charged with accepting bribes of $1.1 million, but the commission said only that his conduct had been "extremely imprudent."

police.

Carter met with six

Roman Catho-

bishops, but a spokesman for the bishops said that they remained "disappointed" with his position on abortion. Carter had refused to support a constitutional amendment to forbid abortion, though he stated that he was personally opposed to aborlic

tion.

SEPTEMBER Hays

1

Zurich. Both stated afterward that "proghad been made. Kissinger set about

resigns congressional seat

ress"

preparing for a round of African leaders.

Wayne L. Hays, Democrat of Ohio, resigned from the House. Once a powerful Rep.

figure

known as "the mayor Hays had been accused

of Capitol of keeping his mistress on the congressional payroll although she did no work. Hill,"

6

Viking 2 lands on

Mars

The Viking

2 spacecraft lander settled the edge of the Martian polar cap in a region named Utopia Plains. It sent

down on

back photographs of a landscape strewn with boulders.

9

southern

A

Soviet

MiG-25

jet

was flown

to

Mao Tse-tung dies in Peking leader of the Chinese Communist revolution, who founded the People's Republic of China in 1949, died at the age of 82.

The

There was no indication of who would succeed Mao as chairman of the Communist Party. Observers expected an intense struggle for power.

Soviet pilot defects with plane

by a

3

visits to

Japan The

pilot seeking refuge in the U.S.

twin-engine plane, believed to be the Soviet Union's most advanced fighter, was considered a valuable prize by U.S. military intelligence authorities. Pres. Gerald Ford later granted the pilot asylum. After a long delay, the plane was shipped back to the U.S.S.R. in pieces.

9-15

Unrest continues in South

A frica and demonstrations by blacks and Coloureds in the Johannesburg and Cape Town areas of South Africa led to the deaths of at least 33 persons. Strikes

Vietnamese identify missing pilots

4-6

The Vietnamese embassy

Kissinger and Vorster meet in

Zurich Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and Prime Minister B. J. Vorster of South Africa met for a new series of talks in

More than

half oj the

Martian horizc

in Paris identified U.S. pilots as having been killed in action in the years 1965-68. The U.S. government replied that the list included "only a small portion of the many hundreds" of cases of missing men, and urged a full accounting.

12

missing

10

Air crash

kills

176 persons

The worst midair disaster in history occurred when a Yugoslav DC-9 and a BritAirways Trident collided over northern Yugoslavia, killing all 176 persons aboard.

ish

10-12

Hijackers use fake weapons

Croatian terrorists hijacked a New Yorkto-Chicago jet and flew to Paris. They ordered propaganda leaflets to be dropped from the air over several cities. After surrendering, they revealed that their weapons were not real.

11

Syria ignores Brezhnev appeal Soviet leader Leonid I. Brezhnev appealed to Syria's President Hafez al-Assad for the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon. Assad rejected the Soviet appeal, and the Syrian troops continued their efforts to crush Palestinian guerrillas in Lebanon.

12

Mexico devalues the peso Mexico established a new value

for its currency at 19.9 pesos to the U.S. dollar. Until

97

Chronology

SEPTEMBER 21

Chilean exile assassinated in

Washington

A

former Chilean Cabinet minister, Orlando Letelier, was killed in Washington, D.C., by a bomb placed in his car. Letelier had been ambassador, interior minister, foreign minister, and defense minister in the government of Salvador Allende Gossens, overthrown in 1973. An associate, Ronni Karpen Moffitt, was also killed.

22

Government bans use of red dye

in

food

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the use of Red No. 4 dye and carbon black in foods. Red No. 4, the colouring agent in maraschino cherries, was thought to have a possible association with bladder polyps.

23

Ford and Carter hold The

first

first

debate

debate between Pres. Gerald Ford

Democratic challenger, Jimmy Carter, took place at the old Walnut Street Theater in Philadelphia, before a national audience estimated at around 90 million. The subject of the debate was domestic affairs. A Gallup Poll taken afterward found that 38% of those asked thought

and

his

TV

The body

of

Mao

Tse-tung, leader oj the Chinese

Communist

Newsman

August 31 the peso had been worth 8 U.S. cents; its new value was about S cents.

14

Peking rebuffs death

The government

revolution,

lies in

defies

Congress

Television news reporter Daniel Schorr refused to tell a U.S. congressional committee how he obtained the Pike committee report

Moscow on Mao's

Ford had won, while 25% thought Carter had won and 29% called it a draw.

state in Peking.

24

Patricia Hearst sentenced to prison

A

federal judge sentenced Patricia Hearst seven years in prison on charges of armed robbery and the use of a firearm to to

on intelligence activities, citing his rights under the First Amendment. The committee did not hold him in contempt.

commit a felony. The sentence was more severe than most observers expected. On March 20 a jury had declared the newspaper heiress guilty of taking part in a

of the People's Republic

China rejected messages of condolence on the death of Mao Tse-tung from the Communist parties of the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies. A spokesman in Peking said, "We have no party-toof

1

6

Episcopalians to ordain

The Episcopal Church approved nation of

party relations with them."

women

Kissinger persuades Rkodesian leader

Secretary of State Henry Kissinger visited the African countries of Tanzania, Zambia,

to be priests

San Francisco robbery.

the ordi-

and bishops.

26

voted to concur with a resolution of the House of Bishops that the ordination requirements apply

The House

14-24

women

equally to

20

to persuade African leaders to compromise their differences over white-ruled Rhodesia and South West Africa (Namibia). On September 24 Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith told his people in a broadcast message that after conferring with Kissinger in Pretoria he and his government had accepted Kissinger's proposal for the establishment of an immediate biracial government and for black majority rule within two years.

15

women and men.

Sweden's

socialists

turned out

Sweden's Social Democratic Party was narrowly defeated in parliamentary elections after more than 40 years in power. It had been opposed by a coalition of the Conservative, Liberal, and Centre parties emphasizing the issues of high taxes and bureaucracy. They said, however, that they would not try to dismantle Sweden's welfare state. Thorbjorn Falldin, the Centre Party leader, was named to succeed Olof Palme as prime minister.

Carter admits lust for

India fights population growth

A Ministry of Health and Family Planning announced that sterilizations had tripled in the last year as a result of the government's drive to slow the growth of population. India was the world's second most populous country. India's

98

Damascus

hotel

Four pro-Palestinian guerrillas seized a hotel in Damascus and held 90 people hostage. Syrian troops overpowered them in a bloody battle in which one of the guerrillas and four of the hostages were killed. The three surviving guerrillas were hanged the next day opposite the hotel.

South Africa, Zaire, and Kenya. His aim

was

Guerrillas raid

of Deputies

Playboy

magazine

women

28

British

The

pound

British

hits

pound

new low

fell

to a

low of $1.64

market. This was what it had been

in the foreign-exchange

about two-thirds of worth at the end of 1971. The drop reflected fears that the Labour government would be unable to stem Britain's doubledigit inflation.

30

California recognizes right to die California

became the

U.S. state to

interview with in controversy when he was quoted as having said that he had "looked on a lot of women with lust." His remarks were made in the course of a discussion of his Baptist religious be-

give terminally ill persons the right to authorize the withdrawal of life-sustaining procedures when death is believed to be imminent. The authorization has to be in writing and signed by the patient in the

liefs.

presence of two witnesses.

Jimmy

Carter

resulted

first

Chronology

OCTOBER

OCTOBER 3

Helmut Schmidt squeaks through

6

West Germany's Social Democratic Party kept a narrow hold on power. It won 214

Pres. chal-

the Bundestag (lower house of Parliament) while its ally, the Free Democratic Party, won 39 seats, giving them a slim majority over the opposition Christian

Democratic Union and

margin.

seats in

party,

the

Christian

its

Bavarian

sister

Union

(243

Social

seats)

12 Hua named

Military seize power in Thailand

The government

4

of Thailand fell to a milcoup after three years of democratic regimes. "We set our sights too high," said

Earl Butz resigns

a leader of the coup.

7

British borrowers to

The

5

contract,

which provided

additional days off a year, was hailed by union leaders as a step toward a four-day working

week.

Presidential debaters

Jimmy

13

15%

raised the

8

Mao

Mao

Tse-tung's widow, Chiang Ch'ing, and other radical leaders were reported to have been arrested. The Shanghai-based group was accused of plotting a military takeover. Others named were Wang Hungwen, Chang Ch'un-ch'iao, and Yao Wen-

of

15%

Mao's body embalmed The body

succeed

Chinese "radicals" arrested

Bank

England's minimum lending rate to in a move to slow inflation.

Auto workers end Ford strike The United Auto Workers reached a pathbreaking agreement with the Ford Motor Co. after a four-week strike. The new

British government

pay

to

China's Premier Hua Kuo-feng was chosen to succeed Mao Tse-tung as chairman of the Communist Party of China. He kept his posts of premier and chairman of the party's powerful Military Commission.

itary

U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Earl Butz was forced to resign in the wake of a report that he had made an obscene remark about blacks. Butz apologized for his "gross indiscretion."

the drawing boards

The U.S. Air Force was reported to be developing a new intercontinental ballistic missile that would be twice as heavy as present icbm's. It would have several times the payload, carry many more warheads, and be much more accurate.

Jimmy

Carter, took place in San Francisco at the Palace of Fine Arts. The general subject of the debate was foreign affairs and defense matters and most observers thought Carter "won" by a slim lenger,

New ICBM on

9

Ford and Carter hold second debate The second television debate between Gerald Ford and his Democratic

yiian.

of China's revolutionary leader

Watergate convictions upheld

Mao

Tse-tung will be kept in a crystal sarcophagus and displayed to the public, the Chinese government said.

A

federal appeals court upheld the Watergate conspiracy convictions of three aides

—

John to former president Richard Nixon N. Mitchell, H. R. Haldeman, and John D. Ehrlichman. They were convicted in 197S

Carter (lejt) and Gerald Ford face their interrogators.

of conspiring to cover up the 1972 break-in at the headquarters of the Democratic

National Committee.

13

King Tut's ancestor

identified

the University of Michigan announced that they had identified the mummy of King Tutankhamen's grandmother, who lived from 1397 to 1360 bc. They X-rayed her skull and analyzed samScientists at

ples of her hair in order to termination.

15

make

the de-

Dole and Mondale debate Vice-presidential candidates Sen. Robert Dole and Sen. Walter F. Mondale met in a nationally televised debate in Houston. Republican Dole said Democrat Mondale was "the Senate's most liberal member," and his opponent replied that Dole had "richly earned his reputation as a hatchet man here tonight."

17-18

Arab leaders agree on in Lebanon

cease-fire

Six leaders of Arab countries, meeting in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, agreed on a ceasefire for Lebanon. They were the presidents of Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon, the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the rulers of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.

99

Chronology

NOVEMBER AUTHENTICATED NEWS INTERNATIONAL

1

9

U.S. economy slows

The recovery

down

of the U.S.

22

In their third and final debate, at the ColWilliam and Mary in Williamsburg, Va., Pres. Gerald Ford and his opponent, Jimmy Carter, discussed a wide array of issues, both domestic and foreign.

economy slowed

in the third quarter of 1976, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce. Ford

lege of

administration spokesmen called it a "pause" and predicted that the upswing

would

get under

way

again.

24 21

Nobel

prizes to

won

all

Cincinnati wins

Hua

Three days of celebrations over the downfall of the "gang of four" (Chiang, Wang, Chang, and Yao) ended in a mass rally in Peking at which Hua Kuo-feng was hailed as the new chairman of China's Communist Party. The rally was televised throughout China.

five

World

25-26

Series

The Cincinnati Reds won the fourth and final game of the World Series against the New York Yankees. They were the first National League baseball team in 54 years

win two consecutive

to

Chinese hail

Americans

Nobel prizes for 1976. The winner in literature was novelist Saul Bellow. The prize for medicine was awarded jointly to Baruch S. Blumberg and D. Carleton Gajdusek, and the economics prize went to Milton Friedman. Burton Richter and Samuel C. C. Ting shared the physics prize, and William N. Lipscomb won the award for chemistry. Americans

Ford, Carter hold third debate

Series.

Student demonstrators taken captive at Bangkok's after troops occupied the campus on October 6.

Arab League meets

in Cairo

An Arab League summit

conference in Cairo approved the arrangements for a cease-fire in Lebanon and an Arab peacekeeping force that had been agreed to at a

meeting of six Arab leaders in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, October 17-18.

Thammasat

University

mummy

Scientists identified this Tiy, grandmother of King

26

as Queen Tutankhamen.

Transkei acquires statehood

The

republic of Transkei was given its independence by South Africa. The first of South Africa's black homelands to gain independence, it was not recognized by

other nations because of general disapproval of South Africa's policy of separate development of blacks and whites.

27

Mexican peso drops again The Mexican government allowed to float again dollar. Since

pegged at 19.90

28

to the dollar.

Rhodesians confer

The

Geneva

opened

the peso

and it fell to 26.50 to the September 12 it had been

in

conference

Geneva on

Rhodesia

in the Palais des Nations. It

was

attended by representatives of the government of Rhodesia and four black nationalist delegations, under a British chairman. Its purpose was to work out a temporary biracial

government that would lead

to

black majority rule.

NOVEMBER 1

Former

An

leader of Sinn Fein slain

elaborate funeral was held in Belfast, Northern Ireland, for Maire Drumm, a former officer of the Provisional Sinn Fein, the political wing of the Provisional Irish Republican Army. She was shot dead by gunmen as she lay in a Belfast hospital where she was being treated.

100

Carter wins presidency

Jimmy

Carter was elected president of the

United States with an electoral vote of 297 to Gerald Ford's 240. (One elector cast his vote for Ronald Reagan.) A strong factor in Carter's victory was support from the black voters of the South. About 53% of those eligible to vote went to the polls.

Indian government gets more power India's lower house of Parliament approved the Constitution (44th Amendment) Act amending the country's constitution to give the government more power. Opponents of the move charged the amendments would "open the floodgate to regimentation and dictatorship."

Chronology

NOVEMBER KEYSTONE

15

Separatists win in

Quebec

Elections in Canada's province of Quebec brought a smashing victory for the Parti Quebecois, which seeks to eventually separate Quebec from Canada.

17

London marchers to cut

protest plan

government spending

About 40,000 people marched to the House of Commons in London to protest the Labour government's proposal to cut public spending.

19

Patricia Hearst released

Newspaper htiress had been convicted bank robbery, was

Patricia

on

bail

Hearst,

who

earlier in the year of

released from prison family posted $1,250,000 bail pending the appeal of her conviction. after

21

Guests shout "Banzai/" as Hirohito observes his 50th anniversary as emperor.

her

Communist

bloc bars congressional

investigators

5

Army spokesmen. It will have essentially the same guns, track, and engine as West Germany's Leopard 2. cording to U.S.

India postpones elections

A

U.S. congressional fact-finding commisits tour of Europe after being barred from all Communist countries except Yugoslavia. It had sought to check on compliance with the 1975 security and cooperation pact signed in Helsinki. sion ended

The lower house

of the Indian Parliament voted to postpone national elections for another year. It was the second postponesince the government of Prime MinIndira Gandhi declared a state of emergency 16 months earlier.

14 Jimmy

Carter's church integrated

ment

ister

0

Syrian troops enter Beirut Syrian military forces entered Beirut, the capital of Lebanon, without encountering resistance. They acted under the aegis of

The congregation

of

the

Plains

Baptist

voted after much discussion to drop its 11 -year-old-ban on attendance by blacks. The ban had been opposed by Jimmy Carter when it was first introduced, but he had not been able to persuade the congregation at that time.

Church

in Plains, Ga.,

22

Carter meets with Ford Carter visited the White Pres. Gerald Ford on the transition to a new administration. Pres.-elect

Jimmy

House and talked with

Jubilation in Montreal: Supporters o) Quebec separatism celebrate

the Arab League, as part of a multinational Arab peacekeeping force though the other countries sent no sizable contingents.

—

their party's victory in the provincial elections.

Hirohito has a golden jubilee

Emperor Hirohito

of Japan celebrated the 50th anniversary of his reign. But many

members of Parliament boycotted the event, and there were protest demonstrations by antimonarchists.

1

U.S. to sell grain to East

Germany

East Germany agreed to buy

1.5

million

to 2 million metric tons of grain a year from the U.S. until 1980. Under the agree-

ment East German

ships were to be alto dock at U.S. ports for the first time since diplomatic relations were estab-

lowed

lished in 1974.

Security Council deplores Israel's occupation policies

The

UN

Security Council unanimously deplored the establishment of Israeli settlements in the occupied Arab territories and Israel's annexation of eastern Jerusalem.

2

LE PARTI 1-2

Chrysler to build

new army tank

^''^hCs

QUEBECO

oui

The Chrysler Corp. will build the new U.S. main battle tank, called the Abrams, ac-

i

*

CANADIAN PRES

101

Chronology

DECEMBER PICTORIAL PARADE

24 Human

rights abuses scored by Scranton at the UN

William Scranton, U.S. ambassador to the UN, decried abuses of human rights: "The only universality that one can honestly associate with the Universal Declaration of

Human

Rights

is

universal lip service."

Quake hits eastern Turkey An earthquake in eastern Turkey took an estimated 4,000

lives.

The devastation

blizzards that hampered relief efforts in the mountain villages.

was followed by

28

Amy

Carter to attend public school

Mrs. Rosalynn Carter announced that her nine-year-old daughter, Amy, would attend a predominantly black public school near the White House in Washington, D. C.

Australia devalues

its

currency

Australia devalued its dollar by a peacetime record 17.5%, making it equal to U.S. $1.0174.

30 U tah

convict wins plea for execution

The Utah Board of Pardons granted the plea of Gary Mark Gilmore that he be executed by a firing squad rather than face imprisonment. Organizations opposed to capital punishment said they would try to obtain a stay of execution.

life

Pres. Gerald

Ford

(left)

shows Pres.-elect Jimmy Carter around the Executive Mansion in

Washington, D.C.

DECEMBER 1

Poland slows economic growth

Japanese elections strengthen the opposition

Polish political leaders announced a slowdown in the planned rate of economic growth. Edward Gierek, leader of the Communist Party, said that the need to continue importing grain and meat at greatly increased prices had forced the government to cut back on funds for investment. In June an attempt to pay for the imports by charging higher prices to con-

The conservative Liberal-Democrats, who had ruled Japan for 21 years, suffered a

setback. An election held in the aftermath of the Lockheed bribery scandal gave them only 249 of 511 seats in the House of Representatives (lower house of Parliament). Moderate opposition parties increased their representation.

Mexico's Pres. lost Ldpez Portillo (lejt), with outgoing Pres. Luis Echeverria Alvarez.

sumers had led to rioting.

Ldpez Portillo inaugurated Mexico

in

Jose Lopez Portillo was sworn in as the president of_ Mexico, succeeding Luis Echeverria Alvarez. Lopez Portillo appealed for political unity and economic austerity to enable the country to overcome its current crisis.

Cyrus Vance

to

succeed Kissinger

Jimmy Carter announced that Cyrus R. Vance, who had been deputy secretary of defense and a diplomatic troubleshooter in the Johnson administration, would be his secretary of state. Carter

Pres.-elect

also said he planned to move "aggressively" to get the deadlocked negotiations

with the U.S.S.R. for a second strategic arms limitation treaty "off dead center." PCOROOY— SYGMA

102

Chronology

Chirac

followers in

rallies his

France Former French premier Jacques Chirac was elected president of a new antileftist party. Called the Rassemblement pour la Republique,

it

7

replaced the former Gaullist

was

party, which

dissolved.

Supreme Court sick

The

U.S.

federal

rules

on pregnancy

pay Supreme Court ruled rights

civil

company

6 to 3 that

law did not require

disability plans to provide preg-

nancy or childbirth benefits. Justice William H. Rehnquist, for the majority, said that failure to do so did not constitute discrimination. Women's rights advocates were strongly critical.

Waldheim

to continue as

UN

secretary- general

Kurt Waldheim of Austria won approval

UN

Security Council for a second of the five-year term as secretary-general of the United Nations, defeating Luis Echeverria Alvarez, former president of Mexico.

on

freeze

NA TO countries rule out ban

9

on nuclear

Britain tightens

strike

West

British government announced a series of measures designed to overcome its financial crisis. These included cuts in government spending, increases in excise taxes, and a $3.9 billion loan from the International Monetary Fund. The chancellor of the Exchequer said that the British econ-

nuclear weapons and to freeze membership the alliances. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said in a speech to the

Spain's voters gave overwhelming approval in a national referendum to the holding of free parliamentary elections in the spring.

Democrats

The new Cortes would have power

write the laws of the Franco era. About 80% of those eligible voted, and about 95% were in favour of the political reform bill. However, many people in the Basque provinces and Catalonia, where separatism is strong, did not vote.

in the U.S. House of Representvoted unanimously to investigate

charges that South Korean agents had sought to bribe members of Congress.

Geneva conference on Rhodesia adjourns

16

Swine

flu

The swine

Congressmen say no U.S. prisoners left in

Indochina

A

committee of the U.S. House of Repreconcluded that no Americans were still being held prisoner as a result of the war in Indochina. "There comes a time when you have to make sad state-

sentatives

ments," said a member.

literary manuscripts

found

A

treasure chest of 19th-century literary papers, including manuscripts by Byron and Shelley, was discovered in a bank vault

flu

21

London.

inoculation program

17

OPEC

splits

The Liberian-registered tanker "Argo Merchant" split in half after running aground near Nantucket Island and released 7.5 million gal of crude oil into the Atlantic. The oil slick endangered commercial fishing grounds to the northeast and beaches to the west.

North

24

elected prime minister of Japan, succeeding Takeo Mild, who resigned. Fukuda had already replaced Miki as leader of the Liberal-Democrats, long the governing party of Japan.

31

of Petroleum Exporting

Countries, meeting in Qatar, divided over the question of prices to be charged in the next six months. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates decided to raise their price by 5%, while the other 11 member countries said they would raise

5%

their prices by 10% (and by another after July 1, 1977). Initially the Saudi representative had called for a six-month

Fukuda named Japanese premier Takeo Fukuda was

was

on price increase

Oil tanker spills cargo in

North Atlantic

to re-

program suspended

The Organization

5

Old

in Britain

suspended because scientists said they could not be sure that it was not linked to an outbreak of a paralytic illness called the Guillain-Barre syndrome.

negotiate with various black delegations during the recess. Britain's Ivor Richard, the presiding officer, said he would use the interval to visit Rhodesia and neighbouring countries in an effort to persuade the

move toward agreement.

said he expected the

only

atives

parties to

20

in

to investigate

The deadlocked Geneva conference on how to achieve majority rule in Rhodesia was adjourned until January. Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith said that he would

He

Spanish voters open way for parliamentary democracy

charges of bribery by South Korean agents

14

prices.

show "appreciation," presumably

ways. Iraq's oil minister accused the Saudis of acting "in the service of imperialism and Zionism."

that the rate of inflation

meeting that it would be dangerous to specify in advance when the West might choose to move from conventional to nuclear weapons in the face of an attack.

to

in political

2% in 1977 and would continue at about 15%. He was criticized by opponents on both the left and the right. omy would grow by

in

1

again

The

Foreign ministers of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization rejected a proposal from the Warsaw Pact alliance in Eastern Europe that the two opposing military alliances agree not to initiate the use of

Congress

its belt

Unrest reported in China

Armed

conflicts

broken out

were reported

to

have

in parts of China, including the

Pao-ting area south of Peking, Fukien Province opposite Taiwan, and the western province of Szechwan. Chairman Hua Kuo-feng on December 24 called for a purge of party members and local government organizations in order to get rid of those who had collaborated with Chiang Ch'ing's "gang of four."

103

BOOK OF THE YEAR WIDE WORLD

Aerial Sports The year

for aerial sports

was highlighted by two

dar-

ing attempts to achieve the first transatlantic balloon

crossing and

Gliding above Chicago's

Gold Coast, a competitor the International Free Flight Delta

in

Glider championships is

pulled by a

tow rope

from a boat on Lake Michigan.

It

was part

of Chicago's Lakefront Festival in August.

by the

first

1,000-mi glider

flight.

Ballooning. In October, fully aware of six previous fatalities, Ed Yost of Sioux Falls, S.D., piloted his two-ton "Silver Fox" helium balloon more than 2,000 mi from Milbridge, Maine, to a point 750 mi short of the Portuguese coast. The 57-year-old balloon designer, who spent an estimated $100,000 of his own money on the project, was forced to ditch his craft when winds unexpectedly turned northerly and drove him toward the South Atlantic. Before being rescued by a West German freighter, he stayed aloft for more than 106 hr, thereby breaking the endurance record of 87 hr set in 1913 by H. Kaulen of Germany. German-born balloonist Karl Thomas made the 13th attempted crossing in June but with less success. His red, white, and blue "Spirit of '76" balloon reached a point 550 mi SE of New York City before it was driven

downward by

to leap

from

a violent storm.

gondola some 200

Thomas, forced

above the waves when his life raft inadvertently ejected, was rescued by a Soviet merchant ship. A duration record of 2 hr 49 min for 400-600-cu m balloons was claimed in May by S. Peter Owens of Canada. his

ft

Karl Thomas sought to pilot his balloon from but had to abandon it in mid-ocean.

New

Jersey to Paris,

Gliding. Britain and Australia wrested the open and standard world soaring championships from the U.S. and West Germany in 1976, but Karl Striedieck of Port Matilda, Pa., claimed a world record with a

1,004-mi, 13.5-hr, out-and-return

The world in

flight.

soaring championships, which took place

Rayskala, Fin., were plagued by

rain.

George Lee

of Britain defeated 38 other pilots to win the open

an AS-W 17 Ingo Renner of Australia, flying a PIK-20B, beat 45 pilots to win the standard class with 4,056 points. Poland won both second and third place in the open class; in standard class Sweden took second and Britain third. There was, however, considerable controversy over the U.S. representation. George Moffat, one of the world's foremost sailplane pilots and the defending open class champion, had an off day during a qualifying competition in the U.S. and was not allowed to compete in the world championships. The Federation Aeronautique Internationale was pressured to seed incumbent world champions in the next world class competition with 4,594 points in sailplane.

competition.

Karl Striedieck of Pennsylvania made a record May on an out-and-return course over the Allegheny Mountains, and Hans Werner Grosse of West Germany set a 646-mi distance record for a sailplane flight over a triangular course at Waikerie, Australia. Other record nights included Friedrich Kensche's 45.8-mph average speed in a 1,004-mi flight in

WALTER KALE

©

Ik CHICAGO TRIBUNE

CENTRAL PRESS / PICTORIAL PARADE

British pilots flew these

American-built Pitts S-1S special biplanes at the world aerobatics contest near Kiev, U.S.S.R., in July

and August. The Soviet Union took first place, Czechoslovakia second, and the United Kingdom third.

motorglider over a 60-mi course in France and a 62.1motorglider flight over a 300-mi course in The

mph

Netherlands. Kurt

Heimann made a 372.8-mi out-andWest Germany in April.

return motorglider flight in

world hang gliding championships, held in September at Kossen, Austria, the Class 1, Class In the

2,

first

and Class

3

contests were won, respectively,

by

New

Zealand, and Australia. Trip Mellinger and Gene Blythe of the U.S. claimed a hang gliding

Austria,

distance record of 47.29

mi

Parachuting. At the world parachuting championRome in September, the Soviet team took the overall title for men and the U.S. the overall for also

won overall titles in individmen and women, but the

ual competitions for both

won both

and the women's titles for team accuracy. The individual accuracy championship for men went to France and that for women to the U.S. The women's style title was won by East Germany and the men's by the U.S.S.R. The U.S. Army's Golden Knights parachuting team set a world record in Kissimmee, Fla., for accurate night jumps onto a disk target by making three consecutive dead-centre landings and one just 0.04 m off target. Chuck Collingwood of the U.S. established a world individual daytime accuracy record with 33 dead centres and a night record with 37. Cheryl Stearns of U.S.

the men's

Scottsdale, Ariz., set an accuracy record for

with 19 dead centres.

women

The extraordinary performance

of the U.S. also included a record

33-man

star for-

mation (free-falling through the air with hands joined) and a 19-woman star. U.S. women also set two ten-

woman

star speed records.

Powered

Aircraft. Flying a Learjet 36, golfer Arnold Palmer established a round-the-world business jet flight record with co-pilots James Bir and L. L. Purkey. Their 22,984-mi flight took 57 hr 25 min. In addition, Jack Chrysler of the U.S. set world speed records for light and business piston aircraft.

The 1976 all-woman Powder Puff Derby transcontinental air race was won by Trish Jarish of Irvine, Calif. Flying solo, she

averaged 209.7

mph

over the

2,926-mi course. The 29-year-old Derby was terminated, largely because of cost and air traffic congestion.

(MICHAEL

D.

A

republic in central Asia, Afghanistan

the U.S.S.R., China, Pakistan,

KILIAN)

[452.B.4.d]

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Ski Flying (1975).

is

bordered by

and Iran. Area: 252,-

000 sq mi (652,000 sq km). Pop. (1976 000, including (1963 est.) Pashtoon

est.)

:

19,796,-

59%; Tadzhik

29%; Uzbek 5%; Hazara 3%. Cap. and Kabul

in California.

ships in

women. The Soviets

Afghanistan

largest city:

1974 est., 352,700). Language: Dari Persian and Pashto. Religion: Muslim. President in 1976, Sardar Mohammad Daud Khan. The most important alteration in Afghanistan's external relations during 1976 was a marked relaxa(pop.,

mounting tension with Pakidue to persuasion by Pres. Nikolay V. Podgorny of the Soviet Union and the shah of Iran. tion of the previously

stan, largely

AFGHANISTAN Education. (1973) Primary, pupils 621,437, teachers 16,293; secondary, pupils 160,458, teachers 7,376; vocational, pupils 4,729, teachers 445; teacher training,

students 5,332, teachers 426; higher, students 9,399, teaching staff 1,264. Finance. Monetary unit: afghani, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free official rate of 49.30 afghanis to U.S. $1 £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and foreign (85 afghanis exchange (June 1976) U.S. $106,530,000. Budget (1974-75 est.): revenue 10,252,000,000 afghanis; expenditure 9.8 billion afghanis. Money supply (March 1976) 13,020,000,000 afghanis. Foreign Trade. (1974-75) Imports U.S. $2 76 million; exports U.S. $210 million. Import sources (1973U.S.S.R. 21%; Japan 17%; U.S. 12%; India 74) 10%; West Germany 6%. Export destinations (197273): U.S.S.R. 29%; India 24%; U.K. 16%; West Germany 6%. Main exports: fruits and nuts 40%; cotton 15%; natural gas 13%; carpets 9%; karakul (Persian lamb) skins 6%.

—

:

Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 17,973 km. Motor vehicles in use (1971): passenger 38,400; commercial (including buses) 26,100. Air traffic (1974): 260 million passenger-km freight 13.5 million net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 23,000. ;

Radioreceivers (Dec. 1973) c. 450,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975) corn c. 800; wheat c. 3,000; rice c. 450; barley c. 400; cotton, lint c. 43; wool, clean c. 14. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle c. 3,550; sheep c. 17,000; karakul sheep (1971) c. 6,800; horses c. 411; asses c. 1,251; goats c. 2,300; camels c. 300. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 197475) coal 187; natural gas (cu m) 2,946,000; cotton fabrics (m) 68,100; rayon fabrics (m) 20,865; cement 144; electricity (kw-hr) 527,200.

Aden: see

Yemen, People's

Democratic Republic of

:

:

Advertising: see Industrial

Review

Aerospace Industry: Defense; Industrial Review; Space Exploration; Trans-

see

portation

Afars and Issas: see Dependent States

CZECHOSLOVAK NEWS AG ENCY / EASTFOTO 4

serious economic difficulties.

These were due largely world recession and inflationary pressures. The Organization of African Unity. The organization of 48 African member states passed through a to the

particularly difficult time in 1976 because of the con-

over Angola, the Western Sahara, and Djibouti. failed in its policy to prevent a civil war from breaking out in Angola and to prevent inter-

flicts

The oau

national involvement in the fighting.

national crisis developed

when

A

serious inter-

Cuba Move-

the U.S.S.R. and

intervened militarily on the side of the Popular

ment

for the Liberation of Angola (mpla), and the South African Army entered on the side of the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (fnla) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (unita). The two latter movements also had U.S. financial backing. The oau emergency summit meeting to discuss Angola in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in January resulted in a deadlock, with half its mem-

bers supporting recognition of the

mpla

as the legal

regime and the other half insisting on the right of three rival

Nut merchants quietly tend their wares at the market in Kabul. Most of the people of Afghanistan are

farmers and nomads.

Thus, when floods and earthquakes devastated the provinces of Herat, Helmand, and Qandahar in April, Pakistan sent a message of sympathy and contributed substantially to relief operations. By mutual consent, both countries refrained from hostile propaganda. Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan accepted an invitation to visit Kabul in June. There, both countries undertook to follow principles of respect for territorial integrity and noninterference in internal affairs set forth by the 1955 Bandung Con-

ference of Asian and African nations. Talks were continued in Islamabad when President Daud Khan paid a return visit. Domestically, Daud Khan pursued schemes of eco-

nomic development and agricultural improvements with substantial aid from China, the U.S.S.R., Iran, and Kuwait, partly in the form of long-term loans and partly in technical aid. An attempted coup at the end of November, instigated by discontented retired officers and led by a retired general, Mir Ahmed Shah, was discovered and some 50 persons were arrested, (l. f. rushbrook williams)

all

to share equally in the inde-

pendence government. But South Africa's intervention against the mpla led to a two-thirds majority of African states backing the mpla's Agostinho Neto as the legal head of state. The Angolan conflict

marked

the first occasion

when Communist

nations

intervened militarily in an African domestic dispute,

and when the South African

Army

crossed

its

frontiers

into an independent African country.

The 13th annual summit conference of the African heads of state was held in Port Louis, Mauritius, in July. The two most seriously divisive issues were the Western Sahara and Djibouti. Algeria had won some support for Polisario's resistance to the takeover of the Western Sahara when the Ministerial Council of the oau had met in Addis Ababa in February, and when it met again in Mauritius in June before the

oau summit; this brought a threat of boycotting the Mauritius summit from both Morocco and Mauritania, a threat which Morocco carried out. The conference eventually passed a disingenuously worded resolution that left matters as they stood. In the case of Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia remained strongly

how to ensure that the promised referenon independence should be conducted, with each side fearing that the outcome might jeopardize its interests in the area. Both these unresolved problems were left in the hands of the chairman of the oau for 1976-77, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, the prime minister of Mauritius (see Biography). divided over

dum

[978.C.2]

African Affairs Three African countries changed status during 1976.

The

their

dependency

Seychelles, a British colony,

became independent in June. The Western (Spanish) Sahara was partitioned and absorbed by two of its neighbours, Morocco and Mauritania; this change was violently resisted by the Algerian-backed Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario Front), which declared the independent state of the Saharan Arab Democratic Re-

The Republic of Transkei was proclaimed as an independent state by South Africa in October, but its independence failed to obtain any international recognition. France promised independence to its last possession on mainland Africa, Afars and Issas (Djibouti), after a referendum early in 1977. Negotiations for the independence of the rebel British colony of Rhodesia and for the former international trust territory of Namibia (South West Africa) were inconclusive. public on February 27-28.

Most African

movements

countries

continued to experience

Southern Africa. The

international

Angola had two major consequences. The decision

by the

crisis first

over

was a

so-called "front-line" African presi-

Zambia, Mozambique, and Botswana, later including Angola) on February 7-8 to break off their negotiations with South Africa's prime minister, B. J. Vorster (see Biography), for a peaceful settlement of the problems of Rhodesia and Namibia; the second was a decision by the U.S. to dents

(of

Tanzania,

actively involved in trying to deescalate the violence in southern Africa and to stem further military intervention by the U.S.S.R. and Cuba. U.S.

become

Secretary of State

Henry Kissinger embarked on one

of his notable diplomatic shuttles after announcing strong U.S. support for majority rule in Rhodesia and

South West Africa and progress toward the ending of apartheid in South Africa in a major policy statement delivered in Lusaka, Zambia, in April. His initiative was backed by Britain and had the support of the

SVEN SIMON — KATHERINE YOUNG

front-line presidents as well as of Vorster.

Faced with

formidable opposition, the Rhodesian leader, Ian Smith (see Biography), agreed in September, after meetings with Kissinger and Vorster, to accept the principle of majority rule within two years for his country. Britain invited white and black Rhodesian this

leaders, including

Zimbabwe

People's

the guerrilla

Army

commanders

of

the

(zipa), to a conference in

implement the Anglo-American The Soviet Union and Cuba strongly opposed the conference, arguing that it was an "imperialist trick" to deny the military victory which they felt was in zipa's grasp. The conference opened on October 28 under the chairmanship of Ivor Richard, Britain's permanent representative to the UN, and adjourned on December 14 with the parties still deadlocked. Smith insisted on sticking to the terms of his understanding with Kissinger, which called for a mixed black and white transitional government headed by a council with a white chairman. This was rejected by all the

Geneva

in

October

to

proposals accepted by Smith.

black nationalist leaders at the conference,

Mugabe

cluded, in addition to Robert

who

in-

of zipa, Joshua

Nkomo,

Bishop Abel Muzorewa, and the Rev. Ndabaningi Sithole, but they were unable to reach a

vancement

common

acceptable to swapo.

negotiating

position

Britain's offer to provide a

the transition appeared to

among

themselves.

commissioner to oversee be unacceptable to both

Richard announced Jan. 17, 1977, as the target date for resumption of the conference, and at year's end he began a tour of Zambia, Rhodesia, South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, and Tanzania in an effort to end the stalemate. Kissinger was less successful in arranging for negotiations on Namibia, which had been entrusted as a mandate to South Africa after World War I. Although he won Vorster's agreement to include the South West Africa People's Organization (swapo) in negotiations, this failed to persuade all the Namibian leaders sides.

to

come

to a conference.

tinued to grow along

As

the

a result, violence con-

dangerous frontier with its indepen-

December

to

1977,

but on terms un-

into

South Africa expressed willingness to accept internal changes, especially after urban black violence had erupted in Soweto in June and spread to other black urban and rural areas, as well as to Coloured residential areas in Cape Province; but no substantial progress was

Rhodesian soldiers look across the border

made during

the year

to

Mozambique, where

guerrillas of the

Zimbabwe

People's

Army

have taken refuge.

defuse the

serious threat of violent disorder in the continent's

and most heavily industrialized country. The its faith on the success of its policy of granting independence to nine black Bantustans, or African homelands (of which the Transkei was the first to receive independence from richest

Vorster regime continued to pin

the republic in October), as the only

way

of resolving

the country's racial conflicts.

Wars and Coups.

Africa's series of

little

wars con-

Angola. South Africa promised Namibia

tinued to threaten to escalate into larger conflicts,

dence by the end of 1978 with a possibility of ad-

especially after Angola.

The

challenges to the Rhode-

4

Chinese Vice-Premier

Sun Chien, flanked on the

left

by Pres.

Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia and on the right by Pres. Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, inaugurated

the new

Tanzam railway

in July. Built

with Chinese help, it links Zambia with the Tanzanian port of Dar es

Salaam

on the Indian Ocean. G

.

BUTHAUO — NORMA/ KATHERINE VOUNS

108

African Affairs

sian regime by zipa (operating from bases in Mozambique and Tanzania) and to the Namibian regime by swapo (operating from bases in Zambia and Angola)

both grew sharper. These movements enjoyed the full support of the oau as well as of the Soviet bloc, China, and some Western European countries. The situation in the Horn of Africa continued to deteriorate ominously as the Ethiopian military regime failed not only to

make any

progress against the tena-

war waged by the Eritrean LiberaFront (elf) and its Marxist wing, the Eritrean

cious secessionist tion

Popular Liberation Front (eplf), but also failed to control the growing armed insurrections in many other regions. The expected French withdrawal from Djibouti during 1977 heightened the tensions between Ethiopia and Somalia over their rival interests in the strategic Red Sea port. The U.S. continued to act as Ethiopia's main supplier of arms, but relations be-

tween the two countries worsened during the year.

The

U.S.S.R.,

still

the

became more

main supplier of arms

to So-

seriously engaged in developing

The Arab

countries

make progress in overdecade-long resistance by the Chad Nafailed to

Front (Frolinat), whose forces operborder with Libya. An attempted military invasion of the Sudan from Libya almost succeeded in July. The attack, though mounted from Libyan soil, was staged by opposition Sudanese forces tional Liberation

ated along

Western

of the Saharan Arab

Democratic Republic, they skirmished with the armies of Mauritania

and Morocco. The Spanish withdrew from the former colony in February, ceding the territory to the two African countries, but the guerrillas had other ideas.

—

The most serious dispute on the continent, however, continued to be between black Africa and the whiteruled states of South Africa, Rhodesia, and Namibia.

bouring states and within regions. The most significant

coming the

in

in a state of

security position in the Horn.

The Chad regime

(Spanish) Sahara. Calling themselves soldiers

Muammar al-Qaddafi, kept continuous conflict with four of its neighbours Egypt, Sudan, Tunisia, and Chad. He supported Algeria in its angry dispute with Morocco and Mauritania over the Western Sahara. Libya's president, Col.

Libya

displayed growing concern about the deteriorating

a closer alliance with Ethiopia.

prisoners

between President Neto's regime in Angola and two of his neighbours, Zambia and Zaire; both had vigorously defended the right of his two rival movements to a share in the government of independence. Angola's relations were partly restored with Zambia, which recognized the Angolan government in April, but those with Zaire remained uneasy even though Zaire had recognized Neto's government at the end of February. Relations between Ethiopia and Somalia continued to worsen (see above).

this conflict the African states were largely united. In spite of these many conflicts and difficulties there were signs of growing cooperation between neigh-

malia,

Guerrillas guard their

locked neighbour by insisting on cash payments for fuel and other imports. Relations remained troubled

the

and by elements identified as black mercenaries. An attempted military coup in Nigeria was quickly put down in February but only after Nigeria's head of state, Gen. Murtala Ramat Mohammed (see Obituaries), was killed. He was succeeded by Lieut. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo (see Biography). Other unsuccessful coup attempts took place in Ethiopia, Chad,

In

development was the restoring of good relations between the two wealthiest West African countries, Nigeria and the Ivory Coast, as demonstrated in the petroleum sales agreement reached between them in January. Their governments pledged to work closely together to develop the 15-nation Economic

West African

Commu-

which had been launched in 1975. Set against this was Gabon's withdrawal in September from the Common African and Mauritian

nity of

States,

Organization.

The East African Community continued

to hold to-

gether despite the differences between Kenya, Uganda,

A

the

significant new grouping developed among Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zambia. In September the Economic Community of

military

the Countries of the Great Lakes

Comoros, Niger, and Uganda. The only successful coup occurred in Burundi, where Pres. Michel Micombero was overthrown in November. Intra-African Relations. Uganda and Kenya, normally friendly neighbours, came close to war in February when General Amin laid claim to large areas in western Kenya, as well as in the Sudan. Pres. Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya forced a retraction from Amin after applying severe economic pressures on his land-

and Tanzania.

during the year

lished Zaire.

was formally estabRwanda, and Another step toward closer cooperation was

by the heads of

state of Burundi,

taken with the establishment of an African Parlia-

mentary Union based in Abidjan (Ivory Coast). It was to serve as a link between the African states and the European Economic Community (eec). External Relations. Africa continued to have strained

with

relations

the

industrialized

nations,

Western Europe and North America, over demands for a "new international economic order." The serious differences between the two sides were revealed at the crucial fourth UN Conference on Trade and Development (unctad rv) meetings held in Nairobi in May, and at the North-South Dialogue, conducted at the Conference on International Economic Cooperation in Paris during the year. The third Franco-African conference of heads of government especially those of

was held

in Paris

to contribute

and Versailles

10%

in

May. France agreed

of the capital to a proposed African the French Central Fund for Eco-

Solidarity Fund; nomic Cooperation would have an expanded role; and France would participate in the African Development Fund, set up in 1972. Although the African countries, all members of the Group of 77, succeeded in winning some concessions at the Nairobi meeting, their dissatisfactions were strongly expressed at the summit of the nonaligned nations in Colombo. Sri Lanka, in August. The Colombo political and economic declarations were

sharply critical of Western policies. Despite these L.

GIMENEZ— UP! COMPIX

CAMERAPIX

/

KEYSTONE

however, most African governments showed a ready willingness to cooperate with the United States in regard to Kissinger's initiative in southern Africa, and the policies of some countries, such as Egypt and Sudan, continued to favour closer cooperation with the West. Similar trends were reflected in African relations with the eec. The majority of African countries continued to adopt a critical stand toward Israel over the Palestinian question. Although a number of African governcriticisms,

ments undoubtedly admired

Israel's

daring act in

rescuing the victims of the hijacked plane at Entebbe airport in

Uganda (see Defense), they nevertheless condemned this act of intervention on

collectively

African soil. While most African countries took a pro-Arab stand on the Middle East, Afro-Arab economic relations remained uneasy. An attempt to settle their differences was made at an Afro- Arab ministerial conference in Dakar, Senegal, in April. The final declaration at the conference stressed the wish to promote cooperation based on the principles of noninterference in internal affairs, equality between nations, sovereignty over national resources, and respect of mutual interests. Relations with the Communist world were anxiously debated following the Soviet/Cuban military intervention in Angola in defiance of the oau's virtually unanimous opposition to external intervention of any kind in the local power struggle; however, after South Africa's military intervention, criticisms of the

Com-

munist role became more blunted. But the front-line presidents decided to try to prevent the recurrence of international involvement in the struggle over Rhodesia. A particular concern of African leaders was the heightened Soviet-Chinese rivalry for influence in the continent. Some African leaders believed that the Soviet intervention was not directed primarily toward eroding the Western position but had more to do with Moscow's interest in undermining the Chinese, who had supported the mpla's two rivals. Economy. Africa's economy continued to perform poorly during 1976, and was particularly hard hit by the world's inflationary cycle and by the burden of higher energy costs. With an average growth rate of only about 2.8% a year, the majority of African countries were hardly able to keep up with their annual population growth,

let

alone grow richer.

The World

Bank's annual report for 1976 observed that the least-

developed countries (which included a majority of African nations) had relatively few policy options open to them when attempting to deal with the consequences of the sharp cutback in imports by industrial

most commodity prices, and the higher prices of manufactured goods. These countries also were not able to attract sufficient capital from abroad to sustain their growth. Many were forced to recognize the need for economic and fiscal reforms. As a result, their burden of external debt continued to increase, and their ability to pay service charges was countries, the fall in

The

debt of the 34 African countries south of the Sahara (excluding South reduced.

total external public

Africa) totaled $15,957,300,000 at the end of 1974;

payments

year when the Export Earnings Stabilization System (Stabex) was implemented. It was designed to help

commodity exby guaranteeing them against both drops in production caused by climatic circumstances and declines in sales due to fluctuations in the world market. The countries largely dependent on their

speaker used to describe

ports

the world

12 commodities protected in this

way were

peanuts,

cocoa, coffee, cotton, coconuts, palm nut and kernel, hides,

wood, bananas,

tea, sisal,

and iron

ore.

The con-

tributions paid varied in size depending on the loss suffered, the

importance of the product

in

terms of a

country's exports, and the eec's share in the country's total exports.

The Economic Commission

for Africa (eca) pub-

development

lished a five-year plan for socioeconomic in the continent.

to achieve

The plan was based on

both greater economic self-reliance and a

self-supporting ability to the

Africa's need

proposals

for

grow and diversify. Among were plans to create

industry

African-owned multinational corporations, long-term agreements to supply raw materials, and development of surface transport, but the main emphasis was on (colin legum) the growth of the rural sector. See also Dependent States; articles on the various political units.

D-E] Encyclopedia Britannica Films. Boy of Botswana (1970) City Boy of the Ivory Coast (1970); A Family of Liberia (1970); Two Boys of Ethiopia (1970); Youth Builds a Nation in Tanzania (1970); Africa: Living in Two [971. D. 6; 978

;

Worlds (1971); Elephant (1971); Giraffe (1971); Lion Zebra (1971); Cheetah (1972); Silent Safari (1971) The Pygmies: People of the Forest (1975); The (1972) Pygmies of the lturi Forest ( 1975). ;

;

Agriculture and Food Supplies Food

supplies were again generally

ample throughout

The Soviet Union's dramatic recovery from its disastrous 1975 harvest (see Special Report) was the single largest the world for the second year in a row.

change

in

the world agricultural situation and had a

as a percentage of exports of

substantial effect on the level of both world and de-

goods and nonfactor services (those not used in the process of production) stood at 7%, as compared with 2.3% at the end of 1972. The first benefits of the Lome Treaty between the eec and the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (acp) countries, which had been signed in 1975 and went into effect in April 1976, were registered during the

veloped country agricultural output, and upon the level of world trade and prices for agricultural prod-

their service

"Islands of prosperity in oceans of poverty" were the words one

Crops were damaged by drought in both Europe and Australia, requiring adjustments in livestock industries there, but the food supply was not endanucts.

gered.

The

developed countries generally shared but they were not able to match the

less

in the gains,

at the

economy

UN Conference

on Trade and Development in

May.

It

met

at

the Kenyatta Conference Centre in Nairobi, Kenya.

110

remarkable advances

Agriculture and

Food Supplies

I0 °d production

>

made

in

1975. Only in South

of the less develo P e d regions, did per capita

Asia

but even there the food situation

fall,

was generally good because of

plentiful supplies

from

1975's bountiful crops.

A substantial buildup in world grain stocks appeared in prospect in 1977, the first since poor crops in 1972 and 1974 led to stocks being drawn down to nearminimum working levels. The traditional exporting countries most notably the United States and Canada continued to hold the largest share, but other countries, including the U.S.S.R., also appeared to increase their holdings. Wheat stocks appeared likely

—

—

to reach the highest levels since the early 1970s, but

coarse grain stocks were also expected to increase somewhat. World food security was not generally a front-page issue in 1976. With food supplies ample, food aid was a less pressing issue than in earlier years. Little or

no progress was achieved in establishing a world grain reserve system as key nations differed over the scope and details of such a system. A central question was what effect a new administration in Washington in 1977 would have on the impasse. Both the U.S. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 (the major legislation applicable to domestic agriculture) and the authorization for the Agricultural Trade and Development Assistance Act of 1954 (Public Law [PL] 480, the major legislation applicable to food aid for the less developed countries) were scheduled

AGRICULTURE AND FOOD PRODUCTION Production Indexes. World agricultural output cluding China) increased about

3%

(ex-

in 1976, according

to preliminary estimates (in December) contained in indexes prepared by the Economic Research Service (ers) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (usda). Limited crop and weather reports suggested that China

would probably do well

to maintain its

1975 level

of agricultural output.

by both the developed developed countries also were around 3%. The U.S.S.R.'s strong recovery from the disastrous 1975 drought generated a more than 15% rise in its agricultural output which provided the single largest impetus to agricultural growth in the developed countries. That, together with the spurt in Canadian output, outweighed production declines in Western Europe, Oceania, and Japan as well as the littlechanged U.S. and Eastern European output. The European and Oceanic declines were primarily the result Overall agricultural gains

and

less

of severe droughts. In the less developed nations, all

regions shared in the production increases, particu-

and western Asia. In-

larly the countries of eastern

creases were smallest in southern Asia, where largest gains

The ers

had been recorded

indexes also indicated that world food pro-

duction (excluding China)

may have

increased a

faster than overall agricultural production in

The

director general of the

UN

little

1976.

Food and Agriculture

to expire in 1977.

Organization (fao) announced a preliminary estimate

There was important, although uneven, progress in coping with matters affecting longer-term agricultural

2 to 3% increase in food production (including China) to a meeting of the fao Council at the end of November. While food production rose about equally rapidly in both the less developed countries (ldc's) and developed countries, the much faster population growth rates in the ldc's 2.5%, compared with 1% meant that their rate of in the developed countries increase in food output was less than one-third that of the developed countries on a per capita basis. Al-

development in 1976. The possibility and consequences of greater weather variability in the future were beginning to be recognized and studied. Agricultural development assistance increased sharply between 1973 and 1975, both in total and as a share of official devel-

opment

was some

assistance, although there

sign of

slowing in 1976, and the oil-exporting and less devel-

oped countries could not yet reach an agreement on establishment of the

new

International Agricultural

Development Fund. Progress was being made

in agri-

cultural research in the less developed countries, but

much more remained

to

be done.

Table

of a

— —

though the nearly 1% per capita increase for the ldc's far less than the extraordinary 6% recovery in 1975 from their poor performance in 1974, it was still above the 0.4% annual trend increase from 1960 to 1975. Eastern Asia led the rise in per capita

was

Indexes of Agricultural and Food Production Average 1961-65 equals 100 Per capita food production

Total food production

Total agricultural production

Region or country

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976*

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976*

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976*

Developed countries

124 122 120 120 119 132 129 110 115 142 126 135 129 133 119

131

129 118 112 127 125 139 145

127 127 126 123 120 136 129 115 123 137 140 158 151 159 137 122 138 157 150 125 119 107

131

125 127 122 120 119 132 128

133 130 124 122 122 136 155

131

111

122 150 125 132 130 134 119 100 119 152 137 122 122 113 119

127 125 133 145 146 143 131 118 130

126 157

118 110 95 118 116 130 129 98 104 117 103 114 119 106

119 120 115 112 107 125

no

115 115 106 112 112 124 117 100 104 118

115 120 106 114

no

161

164 138 125 125 113 119 145 148 126 160 132

134 136 141 120 116 136 149 108 128 143 134 166 157 173 139 129 139 168 158 132 138 109 125 158 162 135

121

144

129 135 128 123 120 137 127 115 133 144 129 159 156

United States

Canada Western Europe European Community Eastern Europe U.S.S.R.

Japon Oceania South Africa Less developed countries East Asia

Indonesia Philippines

South Asia

Bangladesh

101

India

119 155 139 123 119 114 119 125 132 104 133 124

Pakistan

West Asia Africa

Egypt Ethiopia

Nigerio

America Mexico

Latin

Argentina Brazil

World •D

I:

124 124 122 122 135 155 110 116 119 131

148 142 142 130 116 129 159 129 119 120 111

112 129 140 114 131 131

no 119 1.18

134 152 149 145 124 110 122 163 141

125 118 115 119 139 140 123 149 131

121

140 148 123 150 132

i

Source:

U

S.

the

in 1975.

Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

128 138 120 116 136 150 109 118 136 144 166 153 171

138 125 138 161

158 129 124 111

125 145 146 130 154 136

131

142 107 140 126

127 118 124 111

113 136 151

118 144 133

124 112 127 125 140

131

150 154 146 124 115 121

161

139 127 139 163 150 127 132 105 121

150 165 126 164 134

181

139

101

106 105 103 97 80 98 117 107 97 98 92 95

102 104 95 109 110

117

106 114 114 127 140 99 106 95 103 113 116 107 105 93 105 121

96 92 97 88 88 104 107 103 109 115

97 88

96 119 102 95 96 87 90 107 102 109 118 113

111

126 112

131

93

94 102 102 108 120 116 118 105 94 106 115 110 94

99 79 89 108

101 80 89 111

no

104 114 126 115

101

108 105 107 118 118 113 107 95

108 115 107

108 117 113

food output

among

—largely because of good and Malaysia — followed by

AON-ZB

/

EASTFOTO

the ldc's

crops in the Philippines

Latin America, western Asia, and Africa.

Southern Asia

—which contains

the largest

of people near the bare subsistence level

number

—matched

the previous year's level of total food production but

could not maintain 1975's recovery in per capita output; the per capita index there fell from 107 to 105

(1961-65

=

100). India weighed most heavily in the

regional per capita decline, but Sri Lanka's output

most sharply, because of an early tapering monsoon rains. Pakistan held its own. Fertilizers

fell

of the

and Pesticides. The food production

shortfalls of 1972

demand

off

and 1974 led to greatly increased by farmers attempting to ex-

for fertilizers

rapidly. The fertilizer industry could output rapidly enough because overexpansion of the industry in the 1960s had discouraged investment in new productive capacity. Fertilizer prices climbed to record levels, spurred also by panic and speculative buying. Although fertilizer use continued to grow in the centrally planned countries in 1974-75, sharply reduced consumption in the United States, France, and India resulted in the first decline

pand production not increase

its

-

consumption since World War II. The regrowth in inventories, particularly in many ldc's which had imported fertilizer at higher prices

in fertilizer

sulting

than their farmers could afford, helped reduce the de-

mand

for fertilizer traded on the

world market and

contributed to a sharp decline in such prices in 1975, to the relatively

World

moderate levels of 1973.

fertilizer

increases in

leveled

prices

then strengthened a

demand

little

in

off

1976.

and

in response to substantial

United States and

in the

to a

smaller increase in Europe and South America. But inventories remained high in several fertilizer-importing countries, particularly in Asia. Prices there re-

mained high, dampening consumption many governments would neither reduce prices to farmers for expensive fertilizers purchased earlier nor permit the importation of fertilizers at lower world market prices until the high-priced inventories were worked off. The problem was intensified in countries where recent ample crops had reduced the prices received by farmers for their crops. The world fertilizer market was ex;

pected to continue fairly stable into 1977.

New to

fertilizer-producing facilities were beginning

come on stream,

particularly in the ldc's.

is difficult

to estimate the exact timing of

additions,

fertilizer

While

new

it

plant

capacity was expected to grow

demand in the next few years. The fao/UN Industrial Development Organization (unido) /World Bank Fertilizers Working Group

at least as fast as

projected that nitrogen

capacity would grow over

17% between mid-1976 and

mid-1978, and

all

three

nutrients (nitrogen, phosphate, and potash) were ex-

pected to exceed consumption through the late 1970s. Pesticides, according

1975, but

became more

to

fao, remained scarce in

plentiful in

1976.

The im-

provement resulted partly from new production facilities becoming operational earlier than expected. Pesticide prices leveled off at relatively high

1975

which served to curtail demand, particularly in the ldc's. Their share of world pesticide production was estimated by fao at less than 10%. levels

Grains. Forecasts (in mid-December) of a record world grain harvest in 1976/77 based on estimates .of crops already harvested in the Northern Hemisphere and preharvest reports for the Southern Hemisphere indicated the first substantial rebuilding of

—

—

world grain stocks in three to four years. World grain production (wheat, milled rice, and coarse grains)

was forecast at 1,321,000,000 metric tons, 100 million tons above 1975/76 and well above the 16-year trend. Record harvested area up some 1.5% and nearrecord yields were responsible. The 79 million-ton recovery in the Soviet Union from an extraordinarily poor 1975/76 crop was largely responsible. Substantial production increases in Canada and the United States about offset smaller crops in Europe and Australia. Variations were expected to

—

—

be small in the other developed countries. The less developed market economies as a group increased output faster than their average 2.5% population growth, although gains were largely concentrated in South

America (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay) and in North Africa and the Middle East (Algeria, Morocco, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq). Only marginal increases or decreases were expected for the other less developed market economies that had experienced generally favourable crops in 1975/76. Limited crop

and weather reports from China suggested a somewhat smaller grain harvest than in the previous year.

The increases in wheat and coarse grain production about equaled each other in quantity, but the rate of increase for wheat (15%) was almost twice that for coarse grain. Among the coarse grains, barley output seemed likely to increase the most, with progressively smaller increases for rye, corn (maize), oats, and sorghum. Rice production, however, was expected to fall a little, although the level of production for wheat,

New combine

harvesters

an East German grain field. East Germany has been importing grain from the West in

in

recent years.

9

Table

World Production and Trade of Principal Grains

II.

—

1972-75

1961-65

average

World

254,525

total

1

average

975

f— 62,163

354.93C

—

1972-75

1+64,653'

average

1975

99,686

/ — 12,739'

154,031

1

EUROPE 704

Austria

Belgium

-24

c.945

826

703

2,213

c.3,100

/ \

Bulgaria

/ \

Czechoslovakia

1,779

535

541 I

559

448

Finland

/ 1

France

1

2,495

15,041

/

Germany,

1,357

c.2,900

4,607

7,013

Greece

1,765

2,078

Hungary

2,020

4,084

East

Ireland Italy

Netherlands, The

Norway

343

212

8 857

9 620

606

528

19

62§

-13 +149* -14 +88* -306 +6,610 -1,645* -2,115

1

Germany, West

+309*t -27* +295*

-812

c.4,500 I

Denmark

563

-l,303t

485

635 c.1,500

3,506

-l,065t

+231 *f -85*

5,194 1,155

6,594

c.9,727

Imports

1961-65 average 47,813

1961-65

1975

average

average

47,976

f-1,623* 1+1,717*

-14

306

389

c.263

141

c.60

/

1

792

+ 8*

c.650

713

379

f

1

828

1,423

2,583

c.l, 947

1,291

c. 3.000

+608* -63*

3,462

6,971

+4*

248

c.924

-14* +743* -197

970

c.735

-486{ -1,495

+413

-1,868

+33

575

886

850

c.800

2,185

3,445

276

610

+748 -334

390

336

440

445

143

+ 1*

/ \

-1,800

/ I

108

-73 +31*

357

159

545

506

+14* -279 +189 -126

+168 /

-390

1

+33

Portugal

Romania Spain

2 988

4,365

c.5

000

4,354

Sweden

909

1,476

Switzerland

355

320

64,207

.65,000

3,520

4,435

U.S.S.R.

United Kingdom

Yugoslavia

-278 -18* +660} -11* +90* -15 +532

646

562 4 321

-1,540

530

c 5

+ 8* -384* + 1*

37 38

ms

-1,677*

China

38! .22,200 c.41,000

-c.5,700*

India

11,193

(

{

Indonesia Iran

2,873

Iraq

849

5,483 c.860

(

I

Japan

1,332

c.241

277

150

1,959

-38*

96

c.3,940 c.85

c.800

6,877

1,167

6,668

557

1,956

80

c.l

c.35,000

8,436

703

+78

/ 1 I

158

421

+ 1*

-36 +22*

+ 161*

2,641

c.3,230

+500* -586 +388 -27* +45*

+223* -568*

2,590

c.2,900

-985*

792 851

1,380

1,438

c.400

182

141

69

367

c.307

1,741

c.l, 800

3,031

2,125

j

271

154

1

+17* -68* +19*

2

c.27

1,601

c. 2,000

221

-1,335

2,225

-456

-54 +1*

I

-l,473f

\ (

1

474

c.600 f

-5'

1

+182

-5*

—3,288

1

c.537

3,350

\

-

3,633

/

c. 7,100

/

c. 5,290

63

/ \

4

3

7,466 c.6, 810

/ 1

177 95

c.80

-35 +27 -70

-18*

c.30

/ 1

619

+5*

1,304

1,360

40

c.63

-30* +222 -160

385

247

-4,646

-88

+T

\

20

—959 -237* +300*

509

5,853

c.7,000

/

1

6,052

c.l

1,000

f-c.200* 1

802

1,531

1

[

343

368

+29* -22 +19* -11*

142

324

52

c.32

{

15,093

+96 -33 —700*

9,000

14

119§

13,122

c.8,000

f

1 /

21

1 t

169

-36*

/

+1*

98

1 1

9,390

5,618

I

—

—

c.l, 690

c.3,000

— —

-

— —

-

— —

-

— —

-

4

c2§

58

85§ .33,000

c. 22,720

4,593

c.5,500

2,804

c. 3,500

16

-

145

-

-

-156

28

-101

cl§

2

+r —146

f

+3

-52* -155 +35* -5'

/ 1

88

c.94

36

55

612

1

+4*

/

-12*

+4* -3*

1

—

-

/

931

-16* +373 -92 +31* -7*

/ I

/ \

-

-

— 65 167

-22*

f

+1*

l

40

c.58

386

c.384

-50{

+50 -17*

-259

-19* -209* +100* -134

-4,300*

+473*

390

c.2, 000

f

{

-3,209

+13* —181*

15,034 7,786 c. 83,200

— 20*

31§

—327 c.l 8,500 320 c.8,700 .114,000 -(-c.2,900*

+

c

-3*

/

+2*

I

23

+160

+8

c.30§

141

+1*

52,733

c.70,500

+ 150*

12,393

23,100

-112*

851

1,386

-234 +25*

/ 1

-1,181*

-100*

/

+3*

\

-

-

c.39

-71

-c.2, 400* I

-2*

+3* —14*

I

+1*

( /

120

-3,346

/

1,848

1,101

-13*

1

/

—623

14§

617

1

447

-c.70* /

-4,001 +1,086*

/

-37* +194*

-27*

155

10§

c.l

+216 —593 -39* +535* -259

+10

1

312

1

c.70

-516{

531

-

37

/

c.30§

55 241

-34* +20*

-347 +3,322

-50* +1* -69t +26*t -4*

/

37

+1*

1

-9,206* 1+9,194* /

1

-232

/

c.8,143

3 /

1975

—99 2,760

2

c.l9§

-4*

96

c.30§

-7,308

26

c.60§

-462*

8

c.9

§

—188*

138

-26*

c.200 17,101

/

4,809

6,485

J

1,140

c.l, 900

16,444

-32 +344* —482*

1

Korea, South

-1,780

Pakistan

1,419

-378*

Malaysia

-4*

+2* 4,152

-1,174

7,299

118

137

— —

—

— —

37

—

-3*

— —

15

—

+1*

I

+38*

513

-4*

904

3,657

1,824

f

— 300*

t

+22* —20* +560

j 1

Philippines

Syria

1,093

c.1,500 .

-5*

—553 —132 +134*

597

—4*

—3*

2

+14*

2§

.14,750

AFRICA

+ 197*

Algeria

1,254

c.652

-1,379'

Egypt

1,459

-1,952

Ethiopia

663

2,033 c.618

Kenya

122

c.160

1,336 16

c.1,267

840

1,815

Nigeria South Africa

c.6

NORTH AND SOUTH AMER CA Canada Mexico United Stales

Brazil

Chile

Colombia Peru

Uruguay Venezuela

+ 15*

495

400

-49*

476

307

137

118

1,323

c.700

-c.2*

-52' +32'

5

15

c.22

+1*

2

1,316

c.l, 187

-21*

18

-854

37

+230*

28

+22*

-349" -12"

000

—

117

5§

+2*

c.28

734

700

-

-

+4*

c.4§

—

—

—

— 10*

110

2

25

5

11

c.2,600

743

c.l, 077

1,110

c.l, 600

352

_ —

1,040

420 c.l, 000

—2*

5,229

9,516

f

17,100

1,549

c. 3,000

33,040

58,074

+11,873

3,860

c.9,500

175

c.260

8,676

8,340

-778*

+15* -27

8,200

-141 • +2,026

679

574

1,500

-2,396

26

1,082 118

I, 003

74

86

-708 -349

106

150

150

-699

185

465

497

1

c.l

594 c.26§ 121 c.130 c.l

70

+3,352

6,075

+7* -294 +1,267

+93

f

4,440

1

-60* 76

c.77

13,848

9,535

676

414

/ 1

-26 +13*

c.42

-5* +144 -9*

319

522 {

—

-

1,073

+191

c.3,600

/

\

7,369

c.9,300

/ 1

-22 +412

828

454

+ 135*

422

280

{

— 25

17

c.19

+263 +52

—

* 1

95,561

146,487

4,984

7,700

10,1

1

1

6,491

/

89

-24

4

131

c.l§

— 8* -1*

7

1

204 826

12

c

490

c.l


»"

pected.

«.

The dominant problem was

struggle for

power between the

still

the trilateral

and

U.S., the U.S.S.R.,

China, with each supporting indigenous groups favourable to

its side

and with the U.S. and China

alliance to contain the U.S.S.R.

tung's death in

Chairman

in a tacit

Mao

Tse-

September further complicated an

al-

ready uncertain scene.

North Vietnam, victor

in the

30-year Indochinese

war, incorporated South Vietnam into the Democratic

Republic of Vietnam which, with a population of about 45 million, constituted a formidable secondrank power in the area. The North Vietnamese armed forces were reduced only slightly, to 615,000 personnel.

The Army

of 600,000 included

18 infantry

and T-59 18 SA-2 launchers each. The 12,000-man Air Force had 80 MiG-17 and 30 Su-7 fighter/ground-attack aircraft and 30 MiG-19 and 50 MiG-21 interceptors. In addition, North Vietnam had captured great quantities of South Vietnamese equipment, including 500 M-48 medium and M-41 light tanks, 1,200 M-113 armoured personnel carriers, 1,300 105-mm and 155-mm guns and howitzers, and 1,100 aircraft of various types. Nominally, these were worth some $2 billion, but their actual military value was uncertain since they depended on captured stocks of U.S. spare parts for maintenance. Captured small arms could be of use to Communist guerrilla groups supported by Vietnam. In practice, however, the Vietnamese leaders seemed preoccupied with domestic reconstruction, consolidating their hold on the South, and securing the Communist position in Laos, where a contingent of 35,000 Vietnamese troops posed a potential threat to divisions equipped with 900 T-34, T-54,

medium

tanks, and 20

sam regiments with

Thailand.

Khmer Liberation Army remained men, organized into four divisions and three independent regiments. Deployed in small detachments on internal security duties, they were ruthlessly carrying out the xenophobic policies of the government. The 40,000-man Lao People's Liberation Army, successor to the Royal Lao Army, inherited limited amounts of U.S. equipment from its predecessor. On paper, the Thai armed forces with 210,000 personnel offered a good defense capability, but their combat value was doubtful, especially as U.S. aid diminished. A right-wing coup in October In Cambodia the

at about 80,000

emphasized the determination of the Thai military to resist Communist influence and guerrillas. To the south, Malaysia maintained armed forces totaling 62,300 personnel, including an army of 52,500 and an air force and navy with about 5.000 each. Malaysia was facing a limited revival of Communist insurgency, but it was shifting from the countryside to the cities and was being contained. About one-third of Indonesia's 180,000-man Army was tied down with civil and administrative duties. The Air Force of 28,000 men had only 30 combat aircraft, not all of them operational; a number of Soviet-supplied aircraft were in storage. The 38,000-man Navy also had a number of nonoperational ex-Soviet ships. Nevertheless, Indonesia consolidated its hold on the former Portuguese colony of Timor, which it had occupied late in 1975, and was receiving increased U.S. military aid. The U.S. was also building up its Diego Garcia base in the Indian Ocean as a major naval support facility. The Philippine armed forces of 78,000 included an army of 45,000 infantry and a navy and air force of 17,000 and 16,000 men, respectively relatively small forces to deal with the guerrilla problems posed by Maoist and Muslim insurgents. In China the People's Liberation Army (pla), totaling three million men, continued to play an important political role. In the struggle for power that followed the death of Chairman Mao Tse-tung, the pla supported the moderate Hua Kuo-feng, who had become premier after the death of Chou En-lai in January, against the radical group led by Mao's widow, Chiang Ch'ing, and including the chief political commissar of the pla, Chang Ch'un-ch'iao. In October the radicals were arrested, and Hua Kuo-feng succeeded to Mao's positions of chairman of the Communist Party and head of the Military Commission, effectively commander in chief. (See China.) The pla's senior officers had already indicated their fears that Mao's policy of depending on the two extremes of minimal nuclear deterrence and "people's war" to deter the Soviet Union might no longer be adequate. North Vietnam's victory had shown that large-scale operations by mechanized forces could still bring- rapid military and political gains, leading pla commanders to wonder whether they could deter or

—

contain .a similar action by the U.S.S.R. against, for example, the industrial base of Manchuria. The pla

in

demonstration September.

242

ifense

was poorly equipped to do this. It had only ten armoured divisions with 8,000 tanks, mostly obsolete. The bulk of the pla strength was infantry (121 divisions) and artillery (40 divisions). Similarly, the 250.000-man Air Force, although large numerically, had only relatively elderly armament, including CSA-1 (SA-2) sam's and, among its 4,250 combat aircraft, 1,500 MiG-17 and 2,000 MiG-19 interceptors. Four nuclear tests were held during the year, bringing the total to 21 since testing began in 1964, but the nuclear deterrent force remained minimal. About 20-30 irbm's with a range of 1,500-1,750 mi had been deployed, as well as 30-50 mrbm's with a range of 600-700 mi. There were also 65 Tu-16 medium bombers with a radius of action of up to 2,000 mi, and Chinese built F-9, could

fighter aircraft, including the

be used for tactical nuclear delivery. But the stock-

both nuclear and thermonuclear weapons was yields, from 20 kilotons to 3 megatons, were relatively low; and the delivery systems

pile of

small (200-300)

;

could become vulnerable to a Soviet

first strike

by the

end of the decade. possible way for the Chinese to upgrade their was through the importation of Western technology. An example of this was China's agreement with Rolls Royce of the U.K. to provide the technology for the manufacture of the Spey jet engines used in British and U.S. military aircraft. It was being argued in Washington that a selective transfer to China of certain defensive technologies would be to the West's advantage, given the shared Western and

One

forces

Chinese interest

in containing the

U.S.S.R.

Of China's neighbours, Japan maintained only minimal conventional forces. The $5,058,000,000 (0.9% of gnp) spent on defense provided an army of 153,000 with 600

medium

tanks, an air force of 43.000 with

448 combat aircraft, including 80 F-4EJ Phantoms, and a navy of 39,000 with 30 destroyers. The deficiencies of the air defense system were demonstrated when a Soviet defector landed his MiG-25 interceptor at Hakodate Airport without being intercepted. (See U.S.S.R., above.) Japan finally ratified the 1968 nuclear nonproliferation treaty, but

ergy industry would enable

weapons on short notice

The

continuing

it

to

its major nuclear enmanufacture nuclear

necessary.

if

tension

in

divided

Korea

was

brought to public attention by the killing of two U.S. officers in the demilitarized zone in August. (See Korea.) U.S. forces in South Korea, including tactical nuclear weapons, remained as evidence of the U.S. guarantee of the South's independence. The South had 595,000 men under arms, including 520,000 in an army equipped with 840 M-47/48 medium tanks and 30,000 in an air force with 204 combat aircraft, among them 72 F-4D/E's, and 78 on order from the U.S. This compared with the North's 495,000-man armed forces: an army of 430,000 men with 1,150 T-34, T-54/55, and T-59 medium tanks and an air force of 45.000 men with 600 combat aircraft, including 300 MiG-15/17s and 150 MiG-21s. Taiwan remained able to deter a conventional Chinese attack. It spent $1 billion on its 470,000-man armed forces, which included an army of 330,000 men with 1,500 medium tanks and an air force of 70,000 men with 268 combat aircraft.

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA The victory

of the

mpla

fighting for control of the

of Angola

was part

in the postindependence former Portuguese colony

of a general Soviet drive for influ-

ence in Africa that seriously threatened Western

in-

and reinforced black pressures against the white-controlled governments of Rhodesia and South Africa. By the end of 1976 Rhodesia had apparently accepted the inevitability of black majority rule, and South Africa's once unassailable position seemed threatened by external guerrilla activity and domestic unrest. In Angola, the mpla's two indigenous opponents, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (fnla) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (unita), had been supported by a South Africa anxious to lessen the threat to Namibia (South West Africa) from guerrillas of the South West African People's Organization (swapo). South terests in that continent

Africa feared that the guerrillas, then operating out of Zambia, could also use Angola as a base if the

mpla won. By October 1975 South African forces were directly intervening in support of fnla/unita forces, and by mid-November they threatened the MPLA-controlled capital .of Luanda. The Soviet Union, which had been aiding the mpla with military supplies, responded by increasing this aid and sending regular Cuban troops into Angola. The number of Cubans rose from 2,500 in November to 11.400 in January 1976, and they played a decisive role in the defeat of the anti-MPLA forces, which was largely accomplished by February. Soviet military aid to the mpla amounted to over $200 million. U.S. military aid to the fnla and unita had been much lower and was terminated by Congress, assuring the mpla of an easy victory. Secretary Kissinger's protests against the Soviet inby Cuban proxy had no effect, since they

tervention

had no military or political backing. Nor was it clear that he was correct in arguing that the Angolan conflict was a test of strength between the two superpowers. The U.S.S.R. had long been committed to the mpla and was unlikely to let its ally go down to defeat when decisive action could secure a quick victory. But the precedent was ominous. As experience had shown, successful intervention in one local conflict encouraged further interventions elsewhere, and the U.S.S.R. seemed certain to step up support for African guerrillas operating against Rhodesia and Namibia. The Rhodesian government of Prime Minister Ian Smith, which had unilaterally declared its independence from the U.K. in 1965, found itself, by mid1976, unable to ensure the security of the ruling white

The government

minority.

of neighbouring

Mozam-

bique was allowing the Chinese-backed Zimbabwe People's Army (Zipa) under Robert Magube to launch guerrilla attacks across the border, and Rhodesian guerrillas were also based in Zambia. Rhodesia had only 278.000 whites in a population of 6.420.000. Its

and

totaled 7,900 men, with a reserve of 10.000. paramilitary force, the British South African

army its

Police,

had 8,000 men active and 35,000

By May

1,

1976,

reservists.

activity

increased guerrilla

had

forced partial mobilization, so that all men 17 through 25 years old who had completed conscript service were liable to

be retained

in the forces indefinitely.

factor in Rhodesia's independence had albeen South African support, including the pro-

The key ways

vision of military aid. but South African

Prime Min-

Vorster had clearly decided that the Smith regime was a lost cause. He had withdrawn the paramilitary forces of the South African Police and put ister B. J.

pressure on Smith to transfer power government. This Smith agreed to do

to in

an African September,

and although difficult negotiations appeared to lie ahead, it seemed clear that the days of white minority rule in Rhodesia were numbered. South Africa, where 4.3 million whites ruled a population of 26,230,000, also faced increasing pressures

on white minority rule. To counter guerrilla raids on Namibia, large-scale military operations had been undertaken to clear a fire-free zone along the border with Angola. Whether this would diminish the guerrillas' activities seemed doubtful, however, since large-

would be available to them. South African military forces were capable of repelling a conventional attack. Army personnel numbered 38.000 plus reserves of 138,000, and equipment included 161 medium tanks and 1,050 armoured cars. The 8,500man Air Force had 133 combat aircraft. How effective these forces would be against guerrillas with sophisticated Soviet equipment remained open to question, however. Domestic rioting by nonwhites during the year posed further problems for the South African security services, and defense spending rose to $1,494,(robin j. ranger) 000,000, or 5.3% of gnp. scale Soviet aid

See also

71%

other races, 91. Of

of the rate for births to white

all

women women

of

243

in

Demography

6.5% were reported to be illegitimate, whereas corresponding figure for nonwhite women was 42.7%. The number of white illegitimate births rose 1974,

the

3%

and the number of nonwhite illegitimate went up 2%. However, the rate (illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women) fell slightly for in 1974,

births

the fourth consecutive year.

declined between

1970 and 1974 for groups except those under 15 years. The largest declines, over 30%, were in the age groups 35 years and above, and the smallest was in the 15-19 year group. Rates for all birth-order groups fell between 1970 and 1974, the decline ranging from about 11% for second births to over 50% for fifth- and Birthrates

women

in all age

The most recent (June 1975) survey by the U.S. Bureau of the Census indicated that this trend toward fewer births per mother was

higher-order births.

likely to continue.

The number

of lifetime births ex-

pected per married woman was 2.2 for women aged 18-24 years and 2.3, 2.7, and 3.1 for the next three

The expectation data, combined with the continuing rapid declines in the rates for third- and higher-order births and for women at the five-year age groups.

Space Exploration.

[S3S.B.S.c.ii; S44.B.5-6;

was only

1974, 64.7, all

736]

higher ages, provided strong evidence that the two-

Demography Birthrate trends in most of the industrialized coun-

including the U.S., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Western Europe, had been generally downward since the late 1950s, with the decline more tries,

rapid in the years 1970-73 and less rapid in 1974 and 1975. In the few other countries that had reliable an-

nual statistics the rates apparently

fell

slowly or re-

mained stationary. During the same period death rates fell slowly or rose

somewhat

in countries like

child family was now regarded as the preferred size by most women. In other countries where birth registration was considered by the UN to be "90% or more complete, the birthrate fell in 22 countries from 1974 to 1975 and rose in 7. As in the U.S., the rates of most developed countries had fallen between 1970 and 1975. The most recent UN data indicated that birthrates around the world ranged from about 10 per 1,000 population to

over 50. In recent decades the birthrate had been the most

Denmark, Sweden, and the U.K. with "older" populations. The most significant effect of these changes

dynamic factor influencing

was a slowing of the rate of population growth in industrialized countries. Countries for which reliable annual vital statistics were not available tended to have higher vital rates and rapid population growth. During this period the marriage rate had risen in some industrialized countries and fallen in others, with decreases predominating in 1974 and 1975, while the

increase ranged

divorce rate rose steadily.

Birth Statistics. rate

The rapid

in all parts of the world.

Table

I.

in 1974-76.

Country

Egyptt Mauritiusf

Nigeria} South Africa}

Ac-

number

of

and the birthrate (births per 1,000 population) decreased less than 1% from 1974 to 1975. Decreases of about 3% occurred in the first seven months of 1976 compared with the same period in 1975. The fertility rate (births per 1,000 women aged 15^4 years) also decreased in 1975 and the first seven months of 1976. The birthrate and the fertility rate were 14.8 and 66.7, respectively, in 1975, compared with 15 and 68.4 in 1974. For the first seven months of 1976 the birthrate was 14.3, compared with 14.7 for the corresponding period of 1975, and the respective fertility rates were 64.1 and 66.4. The rate of natural populabirths

Tunisia

Cyprus Hong Kongf

Death

rate

rate

35.5 27.5 49.3 42.9 33.9

12.4

Infant

Philippines!

26.1

Singapore Thailand! Europe

17.8 29.3

Austria

Czechoslovakia

12.3 12.2 16.6 19.5

Dermarkf

14.1

Finland

14.2

France

14.1 10.8

Belgium Bulgaria

Germany, East Germany, West Greece Hungary Iceland Irelandf Italy

latest available U.S. birth data

by

colour, age

of mother, birth order, and other characteristics were

The crude birthrate for the white populacontinued to be much lower than for all other

for 1974.

fertility rate for

white

women

in

Netherlands, The

Birth-

Death

rate

rate

11.0

Spain

14.0 19.0 19.6 20.3 18.3

Sweden

12.6

Switzerland United Kingdom

12 4 12'4

mortality

Covntry

Norway

Kuwait Lebanon§ Malaysia

Israel

population) was 5.8 in 1975 and 5.7 in 1974.

The

Birth-

16.9 19.7 28.3 17.2 43.6 24.5 33.2

Japan

tion increase (excess of births over deaths per 1,000

groups, 21.4.

and Death Rates per 1,000 Population and 1975*

7.3

100.4 46.3

Poland Portugat 1

22.7 15.5 6.9

Romaniaf 62.6t

Asia

-

tion, 14,

Birthrates

Infant Mortality per 1,000 Live Births in Selected Countries,

of the U.S. birth-

between 1970 and 1973 slowed

rate of natural

from an actual decrease or increases

Africa

fall

cording to provisional figures, both the

The

rates of population increase

The annual

9.7 15.6 18.4 20.6 22.3 14.8 13.0

9.1

5.2 7.2 6.4

29.2 16.8 22.0 10.1

4.8

44.3t

4.3 6.5 6.9

13.6||

5.1

6.0

Yugoslavia North America Antiguaf Bahamas, The Barbados!

Canadaf

36.4 58.9 13.9 21.8

Costa Ricaf

Cubaf El

Salvador

Guatemala! Jamaica Mexico

12.7 12.2 10.3 11.5 10.2 9.4 10.6 14.3

20.8

15.7

Australiaf

12.1

21.lt 24.1 32.6 11.1 17.1 20.7 10.6

8.9

12.4 6.9 11.2 9.9 8.3

16.2t 22.9 20.9 11.5§ 10.2t 11.1

'Registered births ard deaths only. t1974.

970-75 UN estimote. Sources: United Nations, Population

Panama Puerto Rico§ United States

9.9 8.7 9.1

18.1

8.2 10.8 8.8 11.8 8.6

18.3

7.1

18.1

3.9 8.4 7.4 5.0 5.7§ 8.0 12.5 7.2 7.2 5.2 6.5

19.5 15.4 29.5 22.3 40.1 43.1 29.8

41.9 31.7 23.3 14.8

Infant mortalit

10.5f

24.8 37.9 35.0 13.8t 8.3

12.5t 16.0 40.5

31.4 29.2 37.7§ 15.0 37.6 28.9§ 58.3 79.6

26.3t 48.2 32.9f 24.2

9.0

16.1

4.4

21.4 16.5§

Fiii

40.1 18.4 28.8

Guam New Zealand

30.4 18.4

4.2

31.8 34.9 18.2

4.5

31.8

7.0

40.1

9.3

27.7f

Oceania American Samoa

8.7 6.9 8.1

20.6f 20.2 16.0

Pacific Islands,

Trust Terr, of

Western Samoa U.S.S.R.

§1973. ||1960.

Jl

and

Vital Statistics Report; various national publications.

244

Demography

most developed some countries of Africa, Recent rates for some of

homicide, and bronchitis, emphysema, and

of less than 10 per 1,000 population in

suicide,

nations to well over 30 in

asthma. Rates for

Latin America, and Asia.

the largest countries were U.S. 6; U.S.S.R. 9;

Japan Egypt 22; Pakistan 24; Nigeria 25; India 27; Brazil 28; and Indonesia 29. Death Statistics. The provisional crude death rate for the U.S. in 1975 was 9 per 1,000 population, slightly below the rate of 9.2 for 1974. The rate for the first seven months of 1976, at 9.2, was slightly below that recorded for the same period in 1975 (9.3). All the age-specific death rates were lower in 1975 than in 1974. Rates for the 45-54 and 55-64 age 13; China 18;

groups were the lowest ever recorded in the U.S. Howbetween 1974 and

ever, the largest percentage declines

1975 were

5

and 7.4%

in the

5-14 and 85-plus age

recent available age-adjusted U.S. death

were for 1974. Substantial differences by sex and by colour continued to be observed: in 1974 the age-adjusted rate for the male population was 1.8 times the rate for females, and the rate for persons other than white was 1.4 times the rate for the white population. By major causes of death, all rates were much higher for males than for females, except for diabetes, and much lower for whites than for all other races combined except for arteriosclerosis, suicide, and bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. rates

The ranking the

U.S. in

of the ten leading causes of death in

1975

is

shown below. There were no Estimated rate per 100,000 population

Cause of death

896.1

All causes Diseases of the heart

Malignant neoplasms (cancer) Cerebrovascular diseases Accidents Influenza and pneumonia Diabetes mellitus Cirrhosis of the liver Arteriosclerosis Certain diseases of early infancy Suicide

339.0 174.4 91.8 47.6 27.0 16.8 15.1

13.7 12.8 12.6

a decade or longer with a slowly

fell.

downward

trend.

The

few countries in other parts of the world that had reasonably complete statistics had generally reported declining rates, reflecting improvements in standards of living and health services. In 1975, among countries with at least 90% complete registration, 15 reported higher crude death rates than in 1974, showed lower rates, and 1 reported no change.

11

Infant and Maternal Mortality. The infant morcontinued its long downward

tality rate for the U.S.

from

16.7 deaths under 1 year per 1,000 1974 to the provisional rate of 16.1 in 1975, the lowest annual rate ever recorded for the U.S. Rates for white and nonwhite infants were also the lowest ever recorded for those groups, 14.4 and trend, falling

22.9,

respectively.

malignant neoplasms, influenza and pneumonia, and suicide, which were higher. Over the longer period of 1950-74, the age-adjusted rates for

5 of the 15 lead-

ing causes of death rose: cancer, cirrhosis of the liver,

Both the neonatal

rate

(infants

under 28 days) and the postrieonatal rate (28 days to 11 months) fell, the former from 12.3 to 11.7, the

Table in

II.

Life

Expectancy

Country Africa Burundi

P

r' 1

d

Egypt

1975* 1966

tiberia

1971

Madagascar

1966 1965-66 1975*

Nigeria Upper Volta Asia

Hong Kong

1971

India

1966-70 1 970-75 1973 1975 1970 1975* 1972 1964-67

Indonesia Israel

Japan Korea, South Pakistan

Taiwan Thailand Europe Albania

Belgium Bulgaria

Czechoslovakia

Denmark Finland

France

Germany, East Germany, West Greece

Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy

Netherlands, The

Norway Poland Portugal

Romania Spain

Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Yugoslavia

North America Barbados

Canada Costa Rica

Guatemala Mexico

Panama Puerto Rico United States

at Birth,

Years, for Selected Countries

Austria

changes from the 1974 rank order. Rates for all these causes were lower in 1975 than in 1974, except for

"Welcome?"

other leading causes

live births in

groups, respectively.

The most

all

As for the U.S., the crude death rates for European countries, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and a few others had fluctuated within narrow limits for

1969-70 1974 1968-72 1969-71 1973 1972-73 1972 1972 1969-70 1972-74 1970 1972 1966-70 1970-72 1970-72 1973 1972-73 1974 1973 1972-74 1970 1969-73 1969-72 1972-74 197C-72

Female

a e

41.4 48.5 45.8 37.5 37.2 37.5

44.6

67.4 48.2 46.4 70.2 71.8 63.0 52.4 66.8 53.9

75.0 46.0 48.7 73.2 77.0 67.0

66.5 67.4 67.8 68.6 66.8 70.8 66.6 68.6 68.9 67.9

69.0 74.7 74.2 73.9 73.6 76.3 74.9 74.4 74.2 74.4 73.8 72.6 76.3 73.5 74.9 77.2 77.6 74.6

51.2

44.0 38.3 36.7 40.6

52.1

72.0 58.6

70.1

66.9 70.7 68.8 69.0 71.2 71.3 67.8 64.7 66.8

71.1

71.3 75.0 77.2 76.2 75.6 70.2

69.7

72.0 70.2 69.2 65.4

1975* 1970-72 1975* 1975' 1965-70 1970 1971-73 1974

68.0 69.3 68.5 54.9 61.0 64.3 68.9 68.2

1972 1970-72

68.2 69.1

75.0 75.2

1970-75 1975* 1969-70 1965-70 1963 1963-64 1970-75*

65.2 58.8 60.5 56.5 62.5 65.5 62.9 65.0

66.0 59.6 66.7 71.6 66.7 74.0

73.0 76.4 .

72.1

56.6 63.7 67.5 76.1

75.9

Oceania Australia

New

Zealand

South America Argentina Brazil

Chile Peru

Surinam

Uruguay Venezuela U.S.S.R.

1970-71

71.4 63.1

•Projection.

Sources: United Nations, Demoqraphic Yearbook (1974); Statistical Yearbook 1975 (1976); official country sources.

BEHRENDT— HET PAROOL, AMS TE R DAM / ROTH CO

latter

from

4.4 to 4.3.

Improvement continued

in the

seven months of 1976, with a total infant mortality rate of 15.5, compared with 16.5 for the same

first

period in 1975.

Among

countries with

90%

or

more complete

regis-

The average number of children affected was 1.1 per divorce in 1974, not significantly different from the previous four years. However, because more divorces were occurring, the number of minor children by divorce each year was now estimated to

affected

tration, the infant mortality rate

ranged from about 12 some Western European countries to over 30 for some other European countries. Rates for most countries in Africa and Asia were estimated by the UN to range from 75 to over 150, but reliable data were not

be about

for

years earlier.

available.

divorce

The

provisional maternal mortality rate

(deaths

from complications of pregnancy per 100,000 live births) for the U.S. in 1975 was 10.8, below the record low reported final rate of 14.6 in 1974. Because of differences in definitions and classification procedures, maternal death rates are not comparable between the

1

million,

Few or no divorces occur in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In many countries divorce is forbidden or not recognized by law. is

for 1974. Expectation of life

is

the average

number

of years that an infant could be expected to live

Denmark

if

the age-specific death rates observed during the year

lying between the

its

Obviously it is a hypothetical figure, but it is is very useful in measuring changes in the

intrinsic rate of mortality.

According

to

was

1974

final figures, the life

expectancy

68.2 years and for females, 75.9 years.

was 72.7 years and for all other was significant that the expecbirth in the U.S. was now 7.7 years

For white persons

it

persons, 67 years. It tation of life at

longer for females than for males. This differential

was also observed

in the other technically

advanced

countries. In the less developed nations the female

advantage was usually two or three years, and in a few countries of Africa and Asia estimated life expectancy for females was less than for males. (See Table II.) Marriage and Divorce. In the U.S. both the number of marriages and the crude marriage rate per 1,000 population fell in 1975. The rate for 1975 was 10, compared with 10.5 in 1974. The decline began in 1973 when the number increased only slightly and the rate fell slightly. However, both the number and rate rose in the first seven months of 1976, the latter figure being 9.6, compared with 9.5 for the corresponding months of 1975.

Among

and Areas.

[338.F.5.b; 525. A; 10/36. C.5.d]

of birth were to continue unchanged throughout

for males

Next high-

1974 was Sweden, with 3.3 per 1,000 population. Other countries with high rates were East Germany, Denmark, Hungary, and the U.S.S.R. The trend of the divorce rate in most reporting countries had been (robert d. grove) upward for many years.

A

one that

the countries where

est in

See also Populations

Expectation of Life. The expectation of life at birth in the U.S. in 1975, based on provisional figures, was 72.4 years, appreciably higher than the 71.9 years

Among

permitted and reported with some reliability

the U.S. consistently had the highest rate.

countries of the world.

lifetime.

compared with about 340,000, 20

constitutional

includes

monarchy of north North and Baltic

the Jutland

Peninsula and

central seas,

Europe

Denmark

100 inhabited

and Skagerrak straits. Area (excluding Faeroe Islands and Greenland): 16,630 sq mi (43,074 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 5,059,000. Cap. and largest city: Copenhagen (pop., 1975 est., 729,400). Language: Danish. Religion: predominantly Lutheran. Queen, Margrethe II; prime minister in 1976, Anker j0rgensen. The beginning of 1976 found the Danes on a buying spree as a result of the 1975 "September compromise," the reduction in value-added tax from 15 to 9|% from the end of September 1975 to March 1, 1976, and also of the abandonment of a compulsory savings scheme. Imports increased and brought the balance of payments deficit to hitherto unseen heights. The tax reduction was intended to boost industry and create more jobs, but unemployment was only marislands in the Kattegat

ginally influenced.

The

April budget for 1976-77

was approved by the

Folketing (Parliament). It forecast expenditures of 79 billion kroner and a deficit of about 15 billion kroner, with an estimated foreign debt of about 30 billion

kroner.

In parliamentary debate about the

countries where reporting was believed to

budget, the five parties behind the "September com-

90% complete, the marriage rate rose from 1974 to 1975 in 7 countries and fell in 12, with no change in 4 countries. Comparability of marriage rates between countries is limited by several factors in

promise" the Social Democrat minority government with its allies- had difficulty keeping together. There were rumours of an early summer election which faded

addition to completeness of reporting, most notably

Progress Party would be the only one to gain.

be at least

the frequency of unofficial or in

many Both

common law

marriages

countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. the

number and

rate of divorces granted in the

U.S. continued to increase in 1975. Provisional data indicated that the crude rate

(divorces and annul-

ments per 1,000 married persons) in 1975 was 4.8, compared with 4.6 in 1974. The number of divorces for the first seven months of 1976 was 9% above the same period in 1975. The latest final U.S. statistics for 1974 showed that the median duration of marriage prior to divorce continued to fall and was 6.5 years in that year. However, it was only 8.3 years in 1900, indicating that, although more marriages now ended in divorce, the average time required for the marriage to fail had not changed greatly.

—

when

it

—

was seen that Mogens Glistrup's antitax

During the summer, the introduction of nuclear power in Denmark was vehemently debated, and popular opposition was strong enough for the government to decide to postpone the bill introducing nuclear power, pending further research into the question. A dispute between the government and the concession holder for the Danish North Sea sector about prospecting for natural gas there was settled; in 1977 Den-

mark would decide whether

to exploit this natural gas.

Early in August the government negotiated the largest foreign loan in Denmark's history, borrowing $292.5 million from an international group of bankers. The loan was to cover the country's balance of pay-

ments

deficit for the first half of 1976.

In an effort to stabilize the economy, the Social

Democratic government

tried to

work out arrange-

246

Dependent States

ments for an economic compromise that would be acceptable to other parties in Parliament and to employers and trade unions. It presented this as a package of 17 bills in August. Faced with strong opposition in Parliament,

it

was forced

to ally itself with

the Conservative Party in order to get the program passed. The program called for a cut in spending, controls

6%

on prices,

profits,

wage

a year on

and dividends, and a

limit of

increases. It also raised taxes on

consumer goods such as tobacco, alcoholic beverages, and sugar. The higher levies were expected to cost the average Danish family between $500 and $600 a year. While the austerity plan was being debated, more than 15,000 workers gathered in front of the Parliament building to protest the wage clause. The leftwing parties vigorously opposed the "August comprocars, gasoline, coffee,

mise" for abolishing free negotiation in the labour market and as bearing oppressively upon the working class. They also opposed its tax provisions. Glistrup and his Progress Party attacked the compromise as destroying "the will to work" and advocated cuts in the public sector and in taxes. Glistrup's party gained increasing popular support

(20-25%

the

of

electorate,

according

to

autumn

opinion polls), and the threat of his success was the

DENMARK Education. Primary, pupils (1974-75) 559,745; secondary, pupils (1974-75) 283,318; primary and secondary, teachers (1974-75) 58,425; vocational and teacher training (1973-74), pupils 112,159, teachers (teacher training only) 1,119; higher (including 5 main universities), students (1973-74) 85,284, teaching staff

(1974-75) 7,865. Finance. Monetary

unit: Danish krone, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 5.95 kroner to U.S. $1 (10.26 kroner £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $931 million. Budget (197475 est.): revenue 65,123,000,000 kroner; expenditure 61,402,000,000 kroner. Gross national product (1974) 183,710,000,000 kroner. Money supply (March 1976) 49,960,000,000 kroner. Cost of living (1970 = 100; May 1976) 169. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports 59,708,000,000 kroner; exports 50,031,000,000 kroner. Import sources:

=

eec

46%

(West

Germany 20%, U.K.

10%, The

Netherlands 6%); Sweden 14%; U.S. 6%; Norway 5%. Export destinations: eec 47% (U.K. 19%, West

Germany 13%, Italy 5%); Sweden 15%; Norway 7%; U.S. 5%. Main exports: machinery 21%; meat 15%; chemicals 7%; ships and boats 6%; dairy products 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 65,664 km (including 367 km expressways). Motor use (1974): passenger 1,256,318; commercial 211,128. Railways: (1974) state 1,999 km; private 494 km; traffic (state only; 1974-75) 3,190,freight 2,040,000,000 net 000,000 passenger-km, ton-km. Air traffic (including apportionment of international operations of Scandinavian Airlines System; 1975): 2,185,000,000 passenger-km; freight 97,767,000 net ton-km Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 1,371; gross tonnage 4,478,112. Shipping traffic (1974): goods loaded 7,852,000 metric tons, unloaded 31,701,000 metric tons. Telephones (including Faeroe Islands and Greenland; Dec. 1974) 2,164,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1974) 1,680,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1974) 1,527,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975) wheat 541; barley 5,194; oats 379: potatoes 661; sugar, raw value 423; apples (1974) c. 100; rapeseed c. 100; butter 138; cheese 152; pork (1974) c. 760; beef and veal (1974) c. 235: fish catch (1974) 1,835. Livestock (in 000; July 1975): cattle 3,048; pigs 7,748; sheep 59; horses (1974) c. 50; chickens c. 16,124. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): crude steel 557; cement (1974) 2,493; fertilizers (nutrient content; 1974-75) nitrogenous 83, phosphate 102; manufactured gas (cu m) 319,000; electricity (net; excluding most industrial production; kw-hr) 17,151,000. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1975) 983,000 gross tons. vehicles

:

Dentistry: see

Health and Disease

in

one issue that promised to unite the other ten parties Parliament which accused him of irresponsibility. When Parliament reopened in October Prime Minister j0rgensen urged the legislators to unite in conin

fronting

Denmark's economic problems. The problems

included 100,000 unemployed; a growing balance of payments deficit; and the desperate need to restrain rising prices and costs in order to keep Denmark's goods competitive in world markets. Indeed, inflation was slacking off: in 1974 prices had risen by 15%, in 1975 by 9%, and in the first six months of 1976 by an annual rate of 6%; but an export increase of 11% was overmatched by imports at 25%. Holding down wage increases would be the most important prerequisite for the success of the "August compromise," although there was some question as to whether the incomes policy would be able to survive the spring 1977 round of wage negotiations, (stener aarsdal)

See also

Dependent States.

[972.A.6.a]

Dependent States One dependent

state, Seychelles,

achieved

full

inde-

pendence with international recognition in 1976; the independence of Transkei, proclaimed on October 26, was recognized only by South Africa. (See Seychelles; South Africa; Transkei.) Other dependent territories, in the Caribbean and the Pacific, drew in their horns and opted for a year or two's postponement of the grant of independence; still others

demanded self-government dence; and

rather than full indepen-

were aware that in the prevailing state of world trade their insecure economies had need of external support, either through direct aid from the sovereign power or through association with partners. In North and East Africa belligerent politics cast a shadow over the former Spanish Sahara and the French Territory of the Afars and Issas. However small the dependent territories and wherever they were, most of them nursed vociferous and easily excited independence movements. Europe and the Atlantic. In Gibraltar elections held on September 29 produced a clear victory for the Labour Party and its rejection of accommodation all

with Spain over the colony's future status. In the French North Atlantic islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the French government, with the agreement of the local population, proposed that the territory's status should advance toward that of an overseas departement after a period of transition.

The

proposed plan of development was approved by the territory's General Council in June and was adopted

by the French Senate

in July.

Argentina's claims to the British Falkland Islands in

the South Atlantic were sharpened by rumours of The British Shackleton Mission sent out to the

oil.

Falklands in January was obliged to proceed by Royal ship, since air access, only possible via Argentina, was refused by the Argentine govern-

Navy survey

ment. The 2,000 Falklanders, like the Gibraltarians, unanimously desired to stay British, and the Shacklemillion in aid for develop-

ton report

recommended £5

ment and

for the construction of an adequate air-

strip.

Caribbean. the

It

seemed

likely in 1976 that each of

Commonwealth Caribbean

associated states, de-

drawbacks of small size and limited resources, would seek and attain independence within spite the basic

CAMERA PRESS/PHOTO TRENDS

two years. This had been advocated by the Caribbean Community and Common Market heads of govern-

ment conference

in December 1975. Whether or not independence would be coupled with interdependence remained an open question. St. Lucia, which had long advocated multi-island interdependence, was quick to announce that it would seek to go it alone by the end of 1976, but this date was subsequently postponed. The opposition St. Lucia Labour Party (slp) wished Prime Minister John Compton to hold an election or a referendum first. At the beginning of 1976 St. Lucia suffered further outbreaks of violence, attributed to slp fringe elements, including members of a Ras Tafarian (politicoreligious) cult. Independence was seen as likely to remove British governmental constraints on the desired expansion of the island's tourist and agro-industhis

A banana workers' strike in June weeks and cost ECar$l 70,000. In St. Kitts-Nevis, Prime Minister Robert Bradshaw's Labour Party, in power for 25- years, was returned again on Dec. 1, 1975; the main issues in the election were independence, public ownership of all sugar lands, and no secession for Nevis. However, both seats on Nevis were won by the separatist Nevis Reformation Party, which embarked on the type of separatist campaign waged by Anguilla in 1967. Antrial

investments.

lasted six

guilla officially

became

a self-governing British terri-

tory in February 1976. Issues in an election held in

mid-March included possible leasing of Dog Island to the U.S. Department of Defense for artillery practice, a proposal that incensed local fishermen. Ronald Webster and his Progressive People's Party won 58%

Martinique Emile Maurice was reelected

active. In

president in the cantonal elections.

The economy was

reported to be stagnating and tourism was suffering, while the population was expanding.

Unemployment

stood at 25%. In French Guiana the plan put ward by France's secretary of state for overseas departments and territories; Olivier Stirn, to recolonize for-

many thousands

found

of French applicants and also gal-

of the vote

tive

nounced

his

"green plan" for development, including

pulp plants and Fr 300 million to improve ports and roads.

The Netherlands

—Curasao,

a supporter of regional integration, tended to soft-

Aruba, Bonwere reported to fear independence, except for Aruba, which was taking a go-it-alone line and seeking support from Venezuela. Antilles Prime Minister Juancho Evertsz won a promise from the Dutch government not to push independence until at least 1980 and to

pedal immediate independence and to emphasize plans

retain the

of 17 seats to Walter's

5.

After his victory Bird, long

economy and rebuilding overseas confidence. Unemployment stood at 47%, had an ECar$90 million deficit, and sugar

for improving the

investors'

the island

production on

its

dry and poorly cropped land had

Bahamasdevelopment of tourism, the reintroduction of cane, and the expansion

stopped

in

1971. Bird's plans included a

style abolition of the

income

tax, the

of agriculture.

Milton Cato's fix a date.

local

A

aire,

Antilles

Martin, Saba, and

St.

Dutch garrison

Eustatius

St.

—

until that date.

Independence for Belize continued to be complicated by Guatemala's claim to the territory. The military threat from Guatemala abated after the earthquake of February 1976, which also forced the postponement of talks. These subsequently ended in failure. Meanwhile Belize had won overwhelming UN support for

its

right to self-determination, territorial

and independence, marking a considerable Latin-American attitudes. The issue was fur-

integrity, St.

Vincent Labour Party was com-

mitted to independence but seemingly in no hurry to

shift in

ther complicated

In

revival of the island's sugar industry for

consumption was planned, and moves were

started to assist the dwindling tourist trade. In

Dom-

independence caused little excitement. Prime Minister Patrick John took the view that it was of no value unless the state could be economically independent, and in December 1975 he stated his commitment to some sort of interdependence including a possible arrangement with the neighbouring French territories of Martinique and .Guadeloupe. John visited France in January 1976 to discuss economic and cultural cooperation. In the French Antilles the most publicized event was the evacuation of 70,000 people from Guadeloupe in August after the volcano La Soufriere became inica the idea of political

nationalism. Owned by a resettled French colonist from Algeria,

Bermuda

by

the possibility of offshore

the ruling United

tained a majority in the

May

oil.

Bermuda Party

re-

general election (26

seats to 14) but lost 4 seats to the Progressive Labour Party led by Lois Browne Evans. A coroner's jury cited two men serving sentences for armed robbery as the killers of former Gov. Richard Sharpies and his

Hugh Sayers, in March 1973. At the trial June and July 1976 one of them was cleared; the other, Erskine Burrows, was sentenced to death. The 1966-74 development explosion in the Cayman Islands had slowed to near stagnation by 1976. Tourism had risen from 8,054 visitors in 1966 to 54,145 in 1975, and the offshore financial sector remained healthy, -despite a flurry of liquidations in 1974 and aide, Capt. in

the continuing threat that the U.S. Internal

Revenue

it

was seized by a group of Corsican nationalists in

the territory in order to exploit its resources

vanized into opposition the independence movement' and extreme-left organizations. In May Stirn an-

and six out of seven seats in the LegislaAssembly. In Antigua the mechanics of granting independence rather than independence itself became a platform issue in the February elections. Prime Minister George Walter's Progressive Labour Movement (plm), which favoured negotiation, was ousted, though by a minority vote, by Vere Bird's Labour Party, which was campaigning for a referendum. Bird won 10 out

This wine-making

establishment on the east coast of Corsica became a symbol of Corsican

August 1975

in

protest

against French policies. One of the leaders, Edmond Simeoni, received a five-year prison sentence in

June 1976.

248

Dependent States

Service would investigate possible tax evasion. The construction sector was shrinking, however, and there

were no alternative industries to offer employment. The government's notable improvements in education and other services were balanced against its landdevelopment plans, reportedly resented by many of the electorate. In the elections of Nov. 10, 1976, for the 12-member Legislative Assembly, seven members

members of was expected to re-

lost their seats, including all four elected

the Executive Council, but policy

main unchanged. Despite

the

U.S.

recession,

the

British

Virgin

Islands showed a modest rise in tourism, from 58,486

1974 to 64,568 in 1975. Tourism had been to the luxury trade, however, and further development depended on attracting a broader socioeconomic cross-section of visitors. In the U.S. Virgin Islands fears that the runway at Charlotte visitors in

largely

limited

Amalie's Harry S. Truman Airport on St. Thomas Island was dangerously short were reawakened when an airliner crashed there on April 27. (See Disasters.)

In October, at the end of a week of talks, the U.S. assured the Panamanian government that a solution

ama,

would be found in its

to the

Canal Zone dispute. Panit would press for a

statement, said that

reasonable arrangement leading to a treaty extending

no further than the year 2000. (See Panama.) In Puerto Rico the severity of recession had been somewhat eased by U.S. financial aid and by the Food Stamp Program, under which the poor could buy cheap coupons that could be exchanged for food. Although Puerto Rico's per capita income of nearly $2,000 was higher than that of any Latin-American country except Venezuela, unemployment, chronic at about 10%, was running at 22% by January. Both right and left acknowledged the economy's critical state, and there was a revival of the movement for independence from the U.S., but the parties favouring independence received only about 6% of the vote in the Puerto Ricans seeking independence for their island from the U.S. gather outside the capitol in San Juan to hear their

Ruben Berrios

leader,

Neither of the two pro-independence Martinez.

parties

gains

made

in

election,

significant

the November

which was won

by a party favouring statehood.

November

the pro-statehood

election. Carlos

New

Romero Barcelo

of

Progressive Party defeated in-

cumbent governor Rafael Hernandez Colon, candidate of the Popular Democratic Party which supports continued commonwealth status, and the New Progressives captured both houses of the legislature.

Africa.

The

situation in South

West Africa (Na-

mibia) was complicated by the Angolan war and the

support given to the South West Africa People's Organization (swapo), which demanded complete

and unified independence from South Africa, by the

victorious Popular

swapo

Movement

for the Liberation of

(mpla). The mpla government harboured

Angola

guerrillas,

who continued

to

the clearing of the border on the

operate despite

Namibian

by

side

South African forces (in Operation Cobra) and the setting up of a checkpoint at Ruacana for workers on the Cunene Dam. The dam, of immense economic importance to both Angola and Namibia, was condemned by liberation movements because of its current political implications.

The

security of the

dam

was also vital to British interests in the Rossing uranium mine (expected to become the world's biggest), which feared that swapo had already come to

terms with the U.S.S.R. regarding future conmine. South African plans to set up an

trol of the

interim government

(protecting minorities)

in

Na-

mibia and to grant independence in 1978, still under discussion at a constitutional conference at Windhoek, were opposed by swapo. Two other areas continued to divide the Organization of African

Unity (oau), and no solution was

Madrid Agreement

sight.

Under

1975,

Spain had finally ceded

the

Morocco and Mauritania. The left for the Canary Islands on

Spanish Sahara last

Jan.

in

November

of

to

Spanish troops 1976, and

12,

there was a final handover on February 26. Partition

between Morocco and Mauritania to Algeria, however, and after some border skirmishing Algeria broke off diplomatic relations in March with Morocco and Mauritania and of

the

territory

was unacceptable

declared

its

indigenous

firm

support

for

movement prepared

Polisario, to

fight

a

largely

for

inde-

pendence. Arab and French attempts at mediation failed, and Morocco and Mauritania threatened to leave the oau if it recognized Polisario's "Saharan

Arab Democratic Republic." Polisario continued to mount raids, culminating with an attack on the Mauritanian capital of Nouakchott in June. The issue was complicated by economic and international questions. Algeria sought an outlet for iron ore, coveted

by Morocco; Morocco

its

Tindouf

for its part

aimed to control the Bu Craa phosphate deposits and become the world's largest phosphate producer. The second area over which oau opinion was divided was the French Territory of the Afars and Issas, or Djibouti. On tribal and strategic grounds, the territory was the subject of rival claims by Somalia and Ethiopia, backed, respectively, by the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. In December 1975 France had agreed to Djibouti's independence, provided there was a constitutional referendum first, and its sizable contingent of soldiers remained to keep rival factions at bay. In an incident that cast a shadow over the negotiations concerning independence, a bus carrying

some 30 French schoolchildren was hijacked near Djibouti on February 3 by members of an illegal Somalia-based independence group. French troops attacked the bus near the Somali border, killing six was also killed and several were and the troops exchanged fire with Somali

hijackers; one child injured,

soldiers across the border.

On

July 17 the head of the Djibouti government. Bourhan, resigned under pressure, together

Ali Aref

with his ministers, and was succeeded by Abdallah Mohammed Kamil. The change of leadership came six months after the nomination of a new French high commissioner and was interpreted as a step to decrease local tension. In October it was announced that the referendum to decide the question of inde-

pendence would be held

in the spring of 1977.

Somalia

NORMA/ (CATHERINE YOUNG

249

refused to agree to the referendum or to guarantee the territory's independence, since this

would "limit

Dependent States

the people's option."

Indian Ocean. In the Comoro Islands, which unilaterally declared their independence from France in July 1975 and were admitted to the UN in November of that year, one island, Mayotte, which had a considerable French base, twice overwhelmingly voted to remain French. In the February 1976 referendum the vote was 17,845 to 104. France itself was attacked in the UN and elsewhere for its acquiescent support of Mayotte's stand. In spite of financial aid from France, the economy of Reunion continued to stagnate.

Pacific.

When

Tuvalu (created

the separation of

1975; formerly Ellice Islands) from the Gilbert Islands went into effect on Jan. 1, 1976,

on Oct.

1,

Funafuti, the capital of Tuvalu, was

still

recovering

from the devastation of a hurricane in 1972. The U.K. pledged A$4 million as an establishment and development grant and Tuvalu was also aided to the extent of A$400,000 in its recurrent budget of A$l million. Tuvalu might opt for independence in 1977 without a prior period of self-government, since in practice many of the reserved powers, such as foreign

were already being exercised by a triumvirate of ministers elected from the House of Assembly. The Gilbert Islands were to receive self-government on Jan. 1, 1977, with independence to follow in 1978. By 1978 the phosphate resources of Ocean Island (Banaba), which provided considerable employment and revenue, would be exhausted. The people of Banaba claimed independence and association with

On guard in Afars and The French become

Issas.

affairs,

but their claim was not recognized by Britain despite the islanders' litigation in England's High Court of Justice. In one suit, for additional royalties as compensation for the sale of Banaban phosphates at prices that were too low, the judge ruled that the matter was not in the court's jurisdiction but called Fiji,

attention to "grave breaches of

.

.

.

obligations"

by

the British government.

France faced increasing unrest in its Pacific tercaused not only by its proposed use of Wallis and Futuna as a nuclear experimental base but also by deepening divisions in the New Hebrides condominium, which it shared with Britain, and by greater demands for self-government in nickel-rich New Caledonia. In the New Hebrides the movement for autonomy, Nagriamel, demanded French and British withdrawal from the territory before August 1976. ritories,

territory, soon to

independent, is located on the strategic Strait of Bab el-Mandeb, which connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.

The Solomon

Islands attained self-government on

London constitutional Solomon Mamaloni. Independence within two years was promised, but this was contested locally as coming too soon. In U.S. Micro-

January

2,

following the 1975

talks with Chief Minister

nesia, the last of the

1 1

trusteeship territories, the

northern Mariana group took another step toward commonwealth status within the U.S. when Pres. Gerald Ford signed enabling legislation on March 24.

The

draft constitution for the independence of the Marshall Islands and the Caroline Islands remained in dispute, largely over the question of U.S. land

use and control.

Portuguese Timor was taken over by Indonesia as a 2 7th province in July, following military interven-

December 1975 and a rubber-stamp acquiescence by the People's Assembly at Dili. The takeover tion in

representatives reaffirmed their countries' willingness

was reluctantly accepted by Australia in the face of UN inaction. Rebel bands continued to operate on the borders of Irian Jaya (former West New Guinea), to the embarrassment of the Papua New Guinea government which feared further Indonesian interference. A West New Guinea government-in-exile

to further independence.

established in Senegal in July 1975 continued to re-

Elected in

November

1975, the

first

representative

assembly met on April 29, 1976, in a strained atmosphere; it was not until June 29 that it held its first session, in the course of which British and French

In

New

support from African states, which saw the Melanesian peoples as the eastern flank of the pan-

Caledonia the year was marked by a mounting tide of opinion in favour of internal autonomy,

ceive

which swung the

black world.

in

The governor of the Portuguese possession Macau was authorized by Lisbon on October 9

territorial assembly in its favour October. In July Olivier Stirn had to postpone

Noumea. There were demonstrations in January, after the killing of a Melanesian by a policeman the previous month. The adherents of self-determina-

a visit to

tion in French Polynesia kept up their pressure. In June they forced suspension of the territorial assembly, and in September autonomist deputy Francis Sanford was reelected. Economic and social difficulties and the continuation of nuclear tests (two at Mururoa Atoll on July 10 and 22) by the French contributed to the support for autonomy.

of to

conduct relations with foreign states and conclude international agreements. The sultan of Brunei, fearing Malaysian designs on the territory, endeavoured in 1976 to discourage the British from their proposed withdrawal of protection over the sultanate. (philippe decraene; barrie macdonald;

molly mortimer; sheila patterson) See

also

African Affairs;

United Nations.

Commonwealth

of

Nations;

U.K.); exports 551 million kroner (32% to Denmark, 26% to France, 23% to Finland, 11% to West Germany, 7% to U.S.). Main exports: zinc ores 49%; fish and products 34%; lead ores

250

Dependent States

Agriculture. Fish catch (metric tons; 1974) 51,000. Livestock (in 000; Nov. 1973): sheep reindeer 0.8. 2 1 Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): lead ore (metal content) c. 24; zinc ore (metal content) c. 88; electricity (kw-hr; 1973) 110,000.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: French (metropolitan) franc. Budget (1972 est.) balanced at Fr 583 million. Cost of living (BasseTerre; 1970 = 100; June 1976) 183. Foreign trade (1974): imports Fr 1,104,230,000 (73% from France, 5% from Martinique, 5% from U.S. and Puerto Rico); exports Fr 277,730,000 (85% to France, 8% to Martinique). Main exports: bananas 47%; sugar 30%; rum 9%; wheat meal and flour 5%.

12%.

ANTARCTIC Claims on the continent of Antarctica and all islands south of 60° S remain in status quo according to the Antarctic Treaty, to which 19 nations are signatory. Formal claims within the treaty area include the following: Australian Antarctic Territory, the mainland portion of French Southern and Antarctic Lands (Terre AdeRoss Dependency claimed by New Zealand, Queen Maud Land and Peter I Island claimed by Norway, and British Antarctic Territory, of which some parts are claimed by Argentina and Chile. No claims have been recognized as final under inlie),

ternational law.

AUSTRALIA CHRISTMAS ISLAND Christmas Island, an external territory, is situof Australia. ated in the Indian Ocean 875 mi Area: 52 sq mi (135 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 3,300. Cap.: The Settlement (pop., 1971, 1,300).

NW

COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS Cocos (Keeling) Islands is an external territory of Darlocated in the Indian Ocean 2,290 mi win, Australia. Area: 5.5 sq mi (14 sq km). Pop. 540. (1976 est.):

W

NORFOLK ISLAND Norfolk Island, an external territory, is located in the Pacific Ocean 1,035 mi NE of Sydney, Australia. Area: 13 sq mi (35 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 1,600. Cap. (de facto): Kingston.

DENMARK FAEROE ISLANDS integral part of the Danish realm, are a self-governing group of islands in the North of Norway. Area: 540 Atlantic about 360 mi sq mi (1,399 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 40,400. Cap.: Thorshavn (pop., 1975 est., 11,300). Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 5,958; secondary, pupils 2,276; primary and secondary, teachers 421; vocational, pupils 1,301, teachers (1966-67) 88; teacher training, students 107, teachers (1966-67) 12; higher, students 24.

The Faeroes, an

W

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit: Faeroese

krone, at par with the Danish krone, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 5.95 kroner to U.S. $1 (10.26 kroner £1 sterling). Budget (1974-75 est.): revenue 196,314,000 kroner; expenditure 195,077,000 kroner. Foreign trade (1974): imports 607 million kroner; exports 487 million kroner. Import sources: Denmark 65%; Norway 19%: U.K. 5%. Export destinations: Denmark 22%; U.K. 12%; Italy 11%; Spain 11%: U.S.

=

8%; Norway 6%; West Germany 5%: 5%. Main

exports: fish

cluding fish meal

and products

France

89%

(in-

15%).

617.

Agriculture and Industry. Fish catch (metric 1974) 247,000. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1973): sheep c. 72; cattle c. 3. Electricity production (1974-75) c. 90 million kw-hr (c. 61% tons;

hydroelectric).

GREENLAND An

integral part of the Danish realm, Greenland, the largest island in the world, lies mostly within the Arctic Circle. Area: 840,000 sq mi (2,175,600 sq km), 84% of which is covered by ice cap. Pop. (1975 est.): 49,500. Cap.: Godthaab (pop., 1975 est., 8,300). Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 10,385; secondary, pupils 2,190; vocational, pupils 722; primary, secondary, and vocational, teachers 1,044; teacher training, students (1970-71) 58, teachers (1967-68) 3.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

Danish

krone. Budget (1973 est.) balanced at 58,282,000 kroner. Foreign trade (1974): imports 634 million

kroner

:

FRANCE

MARTINIQUE

AFARS AND ISSAS

The Caribbean

self-governing overseas territory of Afars and Issas is located on the Gulf of Aden between Ethiopia and Somalia. Area: 8,900 sq mi (23,000 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 226,000. Cap.: Djibouti (pop., 1976 est., 120,000). Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 10,469, teachers 336; secondary, pupils 1,644, teachvocational, pupils 670, teachers 59; ers 96; teacher training, students 11, teachers 4. Finance. Monetary unit: Djibouti franc, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of DjFr 163 to U.S. $1 (DjFr 280 =£1 sterling). Budget (1973 est.) balanced at DjFr 2,955,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports DjFr 12,675,060,000; exports DjFr 3,498,540,000. Import sources: France 49%; Ethiopia 12%; Japan 6%; U.K. 6%. Export destinations: France 84%. Main exports: ships and boats 16%; leather and shoes 7%. Transport. Ships enlered (1971) vessels totaling 5,788,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1973) 142,000 metric tons, unloaded 728,000 metric tons.

30 mi SE

(89% from Denmark, 6% from

island of Martinique, an overseas 24 mi N of St. Lucia and about Dominica. Area: 417 sq mi (1,079 sq km). Pop. (1974 census): 324,800. Cap.: Fort-de-France (pop., 1974 census, 98,800). Education. Primary, pupils (1973-74) 61,428, teachers (1971-72) 2,714; secondary (1972-73), pupils 35,866, teachers 1,978; vocational (197273), pupils 3,136, teachers 245; teacher training (1972-73), students 219, teachers 20. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: French (metropolitan) franc. Budget (1972 est.) balanced at Fr 392 million. Cost of living (Fort-deFrance; 1970 = 100; Jan. 1976) 176. Foreign trade (1974): imports Fr 1,405,110,000 (63% from France, 6% from Venezuela, 5% from Saudi Arabia, 5% from U.S. and Puerto Rico); exports Fr 347,110,000 (66% to France, 26% to Guadeloupe). Main exports: bananas 44%; petroleum products 22%; rum 12%; fruit pre-

departement,

The

serves

FRENCH GUIANA French Guiana is an overseas departement situated between Brazil and Surinam on the northeast coast of South America. Area: 34,750 sq mi (90,000 sq km). Pop. (1974 census): 55,100. Cap.: Cayenne (pop., 1974, 30,500). Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 6,830, teachers (1971-72) 315; secondary ( 1972-73), pupils 4,227, teachers 229; vocational, pupils 1,240, teachers 79.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit: French franc, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a Fr 4.92 to U.S. $1 (Fr 8.47 = £1 sterling). Budget (1974 est.) balanced at Fr 117 million. Foreign trade (1974): imports Fr 271 million; exports Fr 7 million. Import sources: France 68%; Trinidad and Tobago 9%; U.S. 8%. Export destinations: U.S. 62%; France 19%; Surinam 6%; Guadeloupe 5%; Martinique 5%. Main exports: timber 39%; shrimps 39%; hides and skins 5%.

(metropolitan)

free rate of

lies

of

6%.

NEW CALEDONIA territory of New Caledonia, together dependencies, is in the South Pacific 750 mi E of Australia. Area: 7,366 sq mi (19,079 sq km). Pop. (1974 census): 131,700. Cap.: Noumea (pop., 1974 census, 59,100). Education. ( 1975) Primary, pupils 31,138, teachers 1,353; secondary, pupils 5,604, teachers 235; vocational, pupils 2,221, teachers 218; teacher training, students 135, teachers 30; higher, students 337, teaching staff 26.

The overseas with

its

and Trade. Monetary unit: cfp Budget (1974 est.) balanced at cfp Fr 7,760,000,000 (including special French grants of cfp Fr 1,810,000,000. Foreign trade (1975): imports cfp Fr 27,049,000,000; exports cfp Fr 22,380,000,000. Import sources (1973): France 49%; Australia 12%. Export destinations (1973) France 46%; Japan 33%; U.S. 11%. Main exports (1973): ferronickel 45%; nickel Finance

franc.

:

26%;

nickel castings

24%.

Industry. Production (in 000; 1974): nickel ore (metal content; metric tons) 137; electricity (kw-hr) 1,790,000.

FRENCH POLYNESIA

RfiUNION

An overseas territory, the islands of French Polynesia are scattered over a large area of the south central Pacific Ocean. Area of inhabited islands: 1,261 sq mi (3,265 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 129,800. Cap.: Papeete, Tahiti (pop., 1971, 25,-

The overseas departement

600).

Transport. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 151; gross tonnage 49,-

teachers 840; vocational, pupils 7,516, teachers 381; higher, students 1,614, teachers 33.

Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 28,658, teachers 1,510; secondary, pupils 7,280, teachers 424; vocational, pupils 1,719, teachers 142: higher, students 111, teachers 7.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: cfp franc, with (Sept. 20. 1976) a parity of cfp Fr 18.18 to the French franc and a free rate of cfp Fr 89.40 to U.S. $1 (cfp Fr 154.05 sterling). Budget (1975) balanced at cfp Fr 10,-

of

Reunion

is

located

Indian Ocean about 450 mi E of Madagascar and 110 mi SW of Mauritius. Area: 970 sq mi (2,512 sq km). Pop. (1974 census): 476,700. Cap.: Saint-Denis (pop., 1974 census, 104,600). Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 124,120, teachers 3,942; secondary, pupils 44,450, teachers 2,123; vocational, pupils 4,013, teachers 275; teacher training, students 560, teachers 47; higher, students 1.295, teaching staff 56. in the

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

French

copra, vanilla, mother of pearl, coffee, citrus fruit.

(metropolitan) franc. Budget (1974 est.) balanced at Fr 1,927,000,000. Cost of living (SaintDenis; 1970 100; May 1976) 178. Foreign trade (1975): imports Fr 1,757,740,000 (61% from France, 8% from Italy, 7% from Madagascar in 1974); exports Fr 268,480,000 (76% to France, 19% to Italy in 1974). Main exports sugar 80%; essential oils 9%; rum (1974)

Tourism (1972) 111,300

5%.

=£1

071,000,000. Foreign trade (1975): imports cfp Fr 22,317,000,000 (59% from France, 15% from U.S. in 1973); exports cfp Fr 1,969,000,000 (82% to France in 1973). Main exports: visitors.

=

:

PIERRE AND MIQUELON

GUADELOUPE

S AINT

The overseas departement

The self-governing overseas departement

of Guadeloupe, together with its dependencies, is in the eastern Caribbean between Antigua to the north and Dominica to the south. Area: 658 sq mi (1,705 sq km). Pop.

(1974 census): 324,500. Cap.: Basse-Terre (pop., 1974. 15,500).

Education. (1974-75) 036, teachers

2,473;

Primary, pupils 75,secondary, pupils 35,624,

of Saint Pierre and Miquelon is located about 15 mi off the south coast of Newfoundland. Area: 93 sq mi (242 sq km). Pop. (1974 census): 5,800. Cap.: Saint Pierre, Saint Pierre. Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 1,287, teachers 53; secondary, pupils 37 7, teachers 32; vocational, pupils 107, teachers 12.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

French

(metropolitan) franc. Budget ( 1973 est.) balanced at Fr 3,406,000. Foreign trade (1974): imports Fr 125,553,000; exports Fr 59,352,000. Import sources: Canada 54%; France 38%. Export destinations (excluding ship's stores): Canada 70%; U.S. 25%; France 5%. Main exports: petroleum products (as ship's stores) 53%; cattle

30%;

fish

12%.

plaited

ware 10%; honey

8%.

UNITED KINGDOM

T OKELAU ISLAND S territory of Tokelau Islands lies in the South of Niue Island and 2,100 Pacific about 700 mi mi of New Zealand. Area: 4 sq mi (10 sq km). Pop. (1975 census): 1,600.

The associated

N

NE

Wallis and Futuna, an overseas territory, lies in the South Pacific west of Western Samoa. Area: 98 sq mi (255 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 9,000. Cap.: Mata Utu, Uvea (pop., 1969, 600).

NETH E RLANDS ANTILLES Antilles, a self-governing integral part of the Netherlands realm, consists of an island group near the Venezuelan coast and another group to the north near St. Kitts-NevisAnguilla. Area: 383 sq mi (993 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 244,100. Cap.: Willemstad, Curacao (pop., 1970 est., 50,000). Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 39,192, teachers 1,344; secondary, pupils 11,820, teachers 536; vocational, pupils 6,879, teachers 367; higher, students 434, teaching staff 34. Finance. Monetary unit: Netherlands Antilles guilder or florin, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a par value of 1.80 Netherlands Antilles guilder to U.S. $1 (free rate of 3.08 Netherlands Antilles guilders £l sterling). Budget ( 1972 rev. est.): revenue 1 16 million Netherlands Antilles guilders', expenditure 126 million Netherlands Antilles guilders. Cost of living (Curasao; 1971 100; Dec. 1975) 160.

=

=

Foreign Trade. Imports (1975) 4,372,000,000 Netherlands Antilles guilders; exports (1974) 4,776,000,000 Netherlands Antilles guilders. Import sources ( 1973): Venezuela 57%; Nigeria 17%; U.S. 8%. Export destinations (1973): U.S. 69%. Main exports (1973): petroleum products 84%: petroleum 8%. Tourism: visitors (1972) 553,000; gross receipts (1973) U.S. $145 million.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 1,150 km. Motor vehicles in use (1973): commercial (including passenger c. 39,000; buses) c. 8,000. Shipping traffic (1973): goods loaded 42,960,000 metric tons, unloaded c. 46,878,000 metric tons. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 35,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 19 73) 130,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 34,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): petroleum products c, 36,030; phosphate rock c. 107; electricity (kw-hr) c. 1,600,000.

NEW ZEALAND COOK ISLANDS territory of the Cook Islands consists of several islands in the southern Pacific Ocean scattered over an area of about 850,000 sq mi. Area: 93 sq mi (241 sq km). Pop. (1974 est.): 19,500. Seat of government: Rarotonga Island (pop., 1971, 11,400). Education. (1971) Primary, pupils 6,077, teachers 276; secondary, pupils 1,130, teachers 65; teacher training, students 75, teachers 10. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: New Zealand dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of NZ$1 to U.S. $1 (NZ$1.73 £1 sterling).

The self-governing

=

revenue NZ$1,702,000 (excluding New Zealand subsidy of NZ$2,943,000); expenditure NZ$4,695,000. Foreign trade (1973) imports NZ$4,947,000 (83% from New Zealand, 7% from Japan and Hong Kong); exports NZ$2,877,000 (98% to New Zealand in 1970). Main exports: citrus juices 41%; bananas 6%; canned fruit 6%; pineapple juice 5%.

(1971

actual):

:

NIUE ISLAND The self-governing

territory of Niue Island is situated in the Pacific Ocean about 1,500 mi of New Zealand. Area: 100 sq mi (259 sq km). Pop. ( 1974 est.): 4,000. Capital: Alofi (pop., .1971 census, 1,000). Education. ( 1975) Primary, pupils 925, teachers 69; secondary, pupils 387, teachers 23.

NE

Finance

island of Jan Mayen, a Norwegian dependency, lies within the Arctic Circle between Greenland and northern Norway. Area: 144 sq mi (373 sq km). Pop. (1973 est.): 37.

The

The Netherlands

Budget

NORWAY JAN MAYEN

NETHERLANDS, THE

and Trade. Monetary

unit:

New

Zealand dollar. Budget (1973-74 actual): revenue NZ$1,104,000 (excluding New Zealand

Dependent States

ANTIGUA

The

WALLIS AND FUTUNA

251

subsidy of NZ$1,588,000); expenditure NZ$2,407,000. Foreign trade (1973): imports NZ$721,000 (79% from New Zealand in 1971); exports NZ$137,000 (90% to New Zealand in 1971). Main exports: passion fruit 23%; copra 15%;

SVALBARD A

group of islands and a Norwegian dependency, Svalbard is located within the Arctic Circle to the north of Norway. Area: 23,957 sq mi (62,050 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 3,500.

PORTUGAL

state of Antigua, with its dependencies Barbuda and Redonda, lies in the eastern

Caribbean approximately 40 mi N of Guadeloupe. Area: 171 sq mi (442 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 73,000. Cap.: Saint John's (pop., 1974 est., 23,500). Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 12,138, teachers 440; secondary, pupils 6,300, teachers 290; vocational, pupils 153, teachers 23; teacher training, students 82, teachers 13. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: East Caribbean dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) an official rate of ECar$2.70 to U.S. $1 (free rate of

ECar$4.65=£l

sterling).

Budget

(1974

est.)

revenue ECar$34 million; expenditure ECar$33 million. Foreign trade (1973): imports ECar$94,exports ECar$S9,445,000. 504,000; Import sources: Venezuela 31%; U.K. 22%; U.S. 16%; Canada 6%. Export destinations: bunkers 37%; U.S. 21%; Switzerland 11%; Canada 9%; Bermuda 5%. Main exports: petroleum products 84%; aircraft and engines (reexports) 6%. Tourism (1974) 69,850 visitors.

MACAU territory of Macau is situated on of Hong mainland coast of China 40 mi Kong. Area: 6 sq mi (16 sq km). Pop. (1975

The overseas

W

the

est.):

260,200.

Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 22,025, teachers 677; secondary, pupils 7,006, teachers 466; vccational, pupils 1,2 58, teachers 130; teacher training, students 66, teachers 5; higher, students 55, teachers 3. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: pataca, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 5.16 patacas £1 sterling). Budget to U.S. $1 (8.90 patacas (1974 est.) balanced at 79,220,000 patacas. Foreign trade (1974): imports 714,492,000 patacas; exports 616,990,000 patacas. Import sources: Hong Kong 65%; China 25%. Export destinations: France 16%; West Germany 16%; U.S. 10%; Hong Kong 10%; Portugal 9%; Italy 6%; The Netherlands 5%. Main exports: clothing 51%; textile yarns and fabrics 28%.

=

Transport. Shipping traffic (1974): goods loaded 147,000 metric tons, unloaded 299,000 metric tons.

BELIZE Belize, a self-governing colony, is situated on the Caribbean coast of Central America, bounded on the north and northwest by Mexico and by Guatemala on the remainder of the west and south. Area: 8,867 sq mi (22,965 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 139,200. Cap.: Belmopan (pop., 1975 est., 320). Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 33,396, teachers 1,170; secondary, pupils 4,987, teachers 411; vocational, pupils 117, teachers 10; higher, students 110, teaching staff 22.

Finance and Trade. Monetary dollar, with

Bel$2

=

U.S.

(Sept. 20, 1976) (free rate $1

an of

unit:

official

Belize rate of

Bel$3.45=£l

Budget balanced at (1975 est.) Bel$49.5 million. Foreign trade (1974): imports Bel$115 million; exports Bel$99.7 million. Import sources (1970): U.S. 34%; U.K. 25%; Jamaica 7%; The Netherlands 7%. Export destinations (1970): U.S. 30%; U.K. 24%; Mexico 22%; Canada 13%. Main exports (1970): sugar 48%; timber 8%; orange juice 7%; clothing c. 6%; grapefruit segments 5%; lobster 5%. sterling).

SOUTH WEST AFRICA (NAMIBIA)

BERMUDA

South West Africa has been a UN territory since 1966, when the General Assembly terminated South Africa's mandate over the country, renamed Namibia by the UN. South Africa considers the UN resolution illegal. Area: 318,251 sq mi (824,268 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.) 883,000. National cap.: Windhoek (pop., 1975 est., 77,400). Summer cap.: Swakopmund (pop., 1975 est., 13,700). Education. (1973) Primary and secondary: Bantu, pupils 116,320, teachers 2,662; Coloured,

The colony

pupils 15,941, teachers 797; white, pupils 22,775, teachers 1,232.

Sept. 20, 1976, of Ber$1.72=£l sterling). Budget (1973-74 actual): revenue Ber$56,084,-

:

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

South

African rand, with (Sept. 20, 1976) an official rate of R 0.87 to U.S. $1 (free rate of R 1.49 = £1 sterling). Budget (1974-75): revenue R 85 million; expenditure R 91 million. Foreign trade (included in the South African customs union; 1972 est.): imports c. R 170 million (c. 80% from South Africa); exports c. R 240 million (c. 50% to South Africa). Main exports: diamonds c. 40%; fish and products 20%; livestock 15%; karakul pelts c. 14%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): corn c. 14; millet c. 14; beef and veal c. 12 7; mutton and goat meat c. 23; fish catch (excluding Walvis Bay) c. 30. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle c. 2,700; sheep c. 4,400; goats c. 1,900; horses c. 40; asses c. 61. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): lead ore (metal content) 55; zinc ore (metal content) 81; copper ore (metal content) tin concentrates (metal content) 26; 1.1; vanadium ore (metal content; 1973) 0.7; silver (troyoz; 1972) 1,125; diamonds (metric carats) 1,569; salt (1973) 147; asbestos (1969) 90; electricity (kw-hr; 1963) 188,000.

tic

about

of

Bermuda

570 mi

E

lies in

the western Atlan-

Cape Hatteras, North sq mi (46 sq km). Pop. of

Area: 18 56,000. Cap.: Hamilton, Great Bermuda (pop., 1970 census, 2,100). Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 6,919, teachers 397; secondary, pupils 4,700, teachers 325; vocational, pupils 510, teachers 49. Carolina.

(1976

est.):

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Bermuda dollar, at par with the U.S. dollar (free rate, at

000; expenditure Ber$54,096,000. Foreign trade imports Ber$l 54,620,000 (1974): exports Ber$33,828,000. Import sources: U.S. 44%; U.K. 15%; Netherlands Antilles 9%; Canada 9%. ;

Export destinations (1973): U.S. 14%; The Netherlands 10%; New Zealand 7%; Italy 6%; South Africa 6%; Portugal 6%. Main exports: drugs and medicines 48%; liquor 5%. Tourism: visitors (1972) 340,000; gross receipts (1971) U.S. $97 million.

Transport

and

Communications.

Roads

1973) 2 12 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 12,200: commercial (including buses) 2,200. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 59; gross tonnage 1,450,387. Telephones (1975) 36,000. Radios (1973) 49,000. Television receivers (1973) 20,000. (

BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY Located

in the western Indian Ocean, this colony consists of the islands of the Chagos Archipelago. Area: 23 sq mi (60 sq km). No permanent civilian population remains. Administrative headquarters: Victoria, Seychelles.

(1969): U.K. 33%; U.S. 15%; Trinidad and Tobago 11%; Canada 10%; The Netherlands and Antilles 6%; West Germany 5%. Export destination (1969) U.K. 84%. Main exports: bananas 46%; citrus fruit 7%; essential oils 6%. 000. Import sources

252

Dependent States

BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS of the British Virgin Islands is located the Caribbean to the east of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Area: 59 sq mi (153 sq km). Pop.

The colony in

(1975

11,000. Cap.:

est.):

Road Town, Tortola

(pop., 1973 est., 3,500).

Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 2,181, teachers 108; secondary and vocational, pupils 796, teachers 46.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

=

$5,374,000; expenditure U.S. $6 million. Foreign trade (1973): imports U.S. $9,467,000; exports U.S. $441,400. Import sources: U.S. 24%; Puerto Rico 19%; U.K. 16%; U.S. Virgin Islands 15%; Trinidad and Tobago 8%. Export destinations: U.S. Virgin Islands 59%; Netherlands Antilles

12%; St. Martin 8%; U.K. 7%. Main exports: motor vehicles (reexports) 15%; nonelectric machines (reexports) 14%; gravel and sand 10%; fish

9%;

timber (reexports)

6%;

beverages (re-

5%.

BRUNEI Brunei, a protected sultanate, is located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, surrounded on its landward side by the Malaysian state of Sarawak. Area: 2,226 sq mi (5,765 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.) 162,400. Cap.: Bandar Seri Begawan (pop., 1975 est., 44,000). Education. (1974) Primary, pupils 32,120, teachers 1,625; secondary, pupils 12,906, teachers 884; vocational, pupils 197, teachers 33; teacher training, students 601, teachers 42. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Brunei dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of Br$2.50 to U.S. $1 (Br$4.30 £1 sterling). Budget (1975 est.): revenue Br$l ,1 73,000,000; expenditure Br$471 million. Foreign trade (1974): imports Br$450.9 million; exports Br$2,352,680,000. Import sources: Japan 2 7%; U.S. 20%; Singapore 15%; U.K. 11%. Export destinations: Japan 78%; Malaysia 8%; South Africa 5%. Main exports: crude oil 82%; natural gas 12%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): rice c. 6; cassava c. 3; rubber c. 0.5. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1973): cattle c. 3; buffaloes c. 17; pigs c. 14; chickens c. 800. Industry. Production: crude oil (1974) 9,284,000 metric tons; natural gas c. 5,000,000,000 cu m. :

=

CAYMAN ISLANDS The colony

of

the

Cayman

NW

Islands lies

in

the

Caribbean about 170 mi of Jamaica. Area: 102 sq mi (264 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 14,000. Cap.: George Town, Grand Cayman (pop., 1970 census, 3,800). Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 1,964, teachers

72;

secondary, pupils

1,355,

teachers

93. _

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

Cayman

Islands dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of Cayl$0.83 to U.S. $1 (Cayl$1.44 £1 sterling). Budget (1974 actual): revenue Cayl$8,277,337; expenditure Cayl$6,949,749. Foreign trade (1974): imports Cayl$22 million; exports Cayl$287,000. Most trade is with the United States and Jamaica. Main export turtle products

=

93%._Tourism (1974) 53,100 visitors. Shipping. (1975) Merchant vessels 100

dencies

DOMINICA The

associated state of Dominica lies in the Caribbean between Guadeloupe to the north and Martinique to the south. Area: 290 sq mi (751 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 75,000. Cap.: Roseau (pop., 1974 est., 10,200). Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 16,989, teachers 448; secondary, pupils 5,535, teachers 217; vocational, pupils 972, teachers 45; teacher training, students 40, teachers 4.

and Trade. Monetary

East Caribbean dollar. Budget (1973 est.) balanced at ECar$26.9 million. Foreign trade (1973): imports ECar$31,209,000; exports ECar$16,710,unit:

is

of the Falkland Islands and Depensituated in the South Atlantic about 500

mi NE of Cape Horn. Area: 6,280 sq mi (16,265 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 1,900. Cap.: Stanley (pop., 1976 est., 1,100). Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 200, teachers 17; secondary, pupils 105, teachers 10.

Finance and Trade. Monetary Island pound, at (U.S. $1.72 =£1

par with

the

unit: Falkland sterling

pound

sterling). Budget: ( 1975-76 revenue FI£1,184,000; expenditure FI£955,000 (excludes dependencies; revenue FI£30,000, expenditure FI£21,000). Foreign trade (1974): imports FI£805,000 (83% from U.K. in 1971); exports FI£4,916,000 (93% to U.K. in 1971). Main export wool.

est.):

GIBRALTAR Gibraltar, a self-governing colony, is a small peninsula that juts into the Mediterranean from southwestern Spain. Area: 2.2 5 sq mi (5.80 sq km). Pop. (1974 est.): 29,400. Education. (1974) Primary, pupils 3,923, teachers 185; secondary, pupils 1,549, teachers 120; vocational, pupils 52, teachers 22. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Gibraltar pound, at par with the pound sterling. Budget (1974-75 est.): revenue Gib£l 1,850,000; expenditure Gib£12, 190,000. Foreign trade (1974):

(71% from U.K.); Gib£10,484,000 (31% to eec, 16%

imports Gib£25,089,000 exports

re-

to

1971). Main reexports: petroleum products 89%; tobacco 9%. Tourism (1974) 140,000

U.K.

in

visitors.

Transport. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 11; gross tonnage 28,850. Ships entered (1974) vessels totaling 13,973,000 net registered tons; goods loaded 5,000 metric tons, unloaded 411,000 metric tons.

GILBERT ISLANDS The

Gilbert Islands comprise 16 main islands, together with associated islets and reefs, straddling the Equator just west of the International Date Line in the western Pacific Ocean. Area: 102 sq mi (264 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 53,300. Seat of government: Bairiki, on Tarawa Atoll (pop., 1974 est., 17,100). Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 11,82 3, teachers 300; secondary, pupils 669, teachers 38; teacher training, students 53, teachers 11. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Australian dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of A$0.80 to U.S. $1 (A$1.38 =£1 sterling). Budget (including Tuvalu; 1973 est.): revenue A$5,497,000; expenditure A$5, 509,000. Foreign trade (including Tuvalu; 1973): imports A$6,670,000 (54% from Australia, 14% from U.K., 5% from New Zealand); exports A$9,732,000 (62% to New Zealand, 30% to Australia, 5% to U.K. in 1972). Main exports: phosphates 89%; copra

11%. Industry. Production (in 000; 1974): phosphate rock (metric tons) 562; electricity (kw-hr) c.

3,000.

GUERNSEY

W

gross

tons and over 56; gross tonnage 49,320.

Finance

Finance. Monetary unit: Hong Kong

The colony

unit: U.S. dol-

lar (free rate, at Sept. 20, 1976, of U.S. $1.72 £1 sterling). Budget (1975 est.): revenue U.S.

exports)

FALKLAND ISLANDS

mi SE of Canton. Area: 403 sq mi (1,045 sq km). Pop. ( 1976 prelim.): 4,407,000. Cap.: Victoria (pop., 1971, 520,900). Education. ( 1975-76) Primary, pupils 642,611, teachers 20,089; secondary, pupils 347,146; vocational, pupils 21,509; secondary and vocational, teachers 12,254; higher, students 20,427, teaching staff 1,935.

Located 30 mi of Normandy, France, Guernsey, together with its small island dependencies, a crown dependency. Area: 30 sq mi (78 km). Pop. (1971): 53,700. Cap.: St. Peter Port (pop., 1971, 16,300). Education. ( 1974-75) Primary, pupils 5,563, teachers 251; secondary, pupils 4,137, teachers 279; vocational, pupils 557, teachers 19.

dollar,

with (Sept. 20, 1977) a free rate of HK$4.88 to U.S. $1 (HK$8.40 = £1 sterling;. Budget ( 1975-76 est.): revenue HK$6, 184,000,000; expenditure HK$6, 61 5,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports HK$34,020,000,000: exports HK$31,455,000,000. Import sources:

Japan 21%; China 20%; U.S. 12%;

Taiwan 6%; Singapore 6%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 25%; West Germany 9%; U.K. 9%; Japan 6%; Singapore 5%. Main exports: clothing textile

33%;

9%;

machinery 10%; toys and games

visitors

1,295,000; gross

electrical

yarns and fabrics

5%. Tourism (1974):

$476 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 1,049 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974):

receipts U.S.

passenger 127,000; commercial 42,000. Railways: (1974) 36 km; traffic (1975) 279.1 million passenger-km, freight 51.7 million net ton-km. Shipping ( 1975) :• merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 104; gross- tonnage 418,512. Ships entered (1974) vessels totaling 37,938,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1975) 5,083,000 metric tons, unloaded 13,520,000 metric tons. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 989,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1973) 1 million. Television licenses (Dec. 1973) 748,000.

ISLE OF

MAN

Man, a crown dependency, lies in the approximately 35 mi from both Northern Ireland and the coast of northwestern England. Area: 221 sq mi (572 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 55,600. Cap.: Douglas (pop., 1971, 20,400). Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 5,641, teachers 214; secondary, pupils 4,329, teachers 251; vocational, pupils 133, teachers 32. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Isle of Man pound, at par with the pound sterling. Budget ( 1975-76 est.): revenue £29 million; expenditure £29.2 million. Foreign trade included with the United Kingdom. Main exports: meat and livestock, fish. Tourism (1975) 52 9,913 The

Isle of

Irish Sea

visitors.

JERSEY The

island of Jersey, a

W

crown dependency,

is lo-

of Normandy, France. cated about 20 mi Area: 45 sq mi (117 sq km). Pop. ( 1971): 72,600. Cap.: St. Helier (pop., 1971, 28,100). Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 5,017; secondary, pupils 4,051. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Jersey pound, at par with the pound sterling. Budget (1974): revenue £33,647,000; expenditure £24,890,000. Foreign trade included with the United Kingdom. Main exports: manufactures, potatoes, tomatoes. Tourism (1974): visitors c. 1.1 million; gross expenditure U.S. $110 million.

MONTSERRAT The colony

of Montserrat is located in the Caribbean between Antigua, 2 7 mi NE, and Guadeloupe, 40 mi SE. Area: 40 sq mi (102 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 13,300. Cap.: Plymouth (pop., 1974 est., 3,000). Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 2,623, teachers 107; secondary, pupils 486, teachers 34;

is

vocational, pupils 60, teachers

sq

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: East Caribbean dollar. Budget ( 1975 est.) balanced at ECar$8,064,000. Foreign trade (1974): imports ECar$15,298,000: exports ECar$260,570. Import sources (1973): U.K. 27%; U.S. 17%; Trinidad and Tobago 17%; Canada 8%. Export destinations (1973): Antigua 25%; Barbados 22%; 14%; Dominica St. Kitts-Nevis and Anguilla 9%; St. Maarten 7%; U.K. 5%; St. Lucia 5%. Main exports (1973): tomatoes 33%; recapped

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Guernsey pound, at par with the pound sterling. Budget (1974): revenue £14,793,000; expenditure £11,308,000. Foreign trade included with the United Kingdom. Main exports: tomatoes, flowers. Tourism (1974) c. 300,000 visitors.

HONG KONG The colony

Hong Kong

30%;

limes

11%.

PITCAIRN ISLAND

on the southeastern coast of China about 40 mi E of Macau and 80 of

tires

8.

lies

The colony South

of Pitcairn Pacific, 3,200 mi

Island

NE

of

is

in

New

the central

Zealand and

1,350 mi SE of Tahiti. Area: 1.75 sq mi (4.53 sq km). Pop. (1976 census): 67, all of whom live in the de facto capital, Adamstovvn.

ST.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

HELENA

of St. Helena, including its dependencies of Ascension Island and the Tristan da Cunha island group, is spread over a wide area of the Atlantic off the southwestern coast of Africa. Area: 159 sq mi (412 sq km). Pop. (1974 est.): 5,000. Cap.: Jamestown (pop., 1974 est., 1,600). Education. ( 1974-75) Primary, pupils 729, teachers 37; secondary, pupils 509, teachers 29; vocational, pupils 10, teachers 2; teacher training, students 4, teachers 2.

The colony

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: pound Budget (1974-75 est.): revenue £1,356,-

sterling.

expenditure £1,520,000. Foreign 000; (1974): imports £610,834 (61% from 28% from South Africa in 1968); exports

ST.

trade

U.K., nil.

KITTS-NEVIS-ANGUILLA

This associated state consists of the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis; Anguilla received a separate constitution in 1976. Area: (excluding Anguilla) 100 sq mi (259 sq km). Pop. (excluding Anguilla; 1976 est.): 48,000 (Anguilla about 6,S00). Cap.: Basseterre, St. Kitts (pop., 1976 est., 15,900). Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 9,629, teachers 344; secondary, pupils 4,966, teachers 253; vocational, pupils 183, teachers 22. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: East Caribbean dollar. Budget (1974 est.) balanced at ECar$3 1,290, 700. Foreign trade (1973): imports ECar$35.9 million; exports ECar$15.8 million. Import sources (1969): U.K. 28%; Canada 14%; U.S. 14%; Trinidad and Tobago 10%;

Barbados 5%. Export destinations (1969): U.K. 76%; Canada 10%. Main exports (1969) sugar and molasses 88%. ST.

LUCIA

The Caribbean

island of St. Lucia, an associated 24 mi S of Martinique and 21 mi NE Vincent. Area: 241 sq mi (623 sq km). 1975 est.): 111,800. Cap.: Castries (pop.,

state, lies

of St.

Pop.

(

1970, 3,600).

Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 30,577, teachers 930; secondary, pupils 4,105, teachers 232; vocational, pupils 23 7, teachers 32; teacher training, students 156, teachers 15.

Finance

and Trade. Monetary

East Caribbean dollar. Budget (1974 est.): revenue ECar$29,390,000; expenditure ECar$49,504,000. Foreign trade (1974): imports ECar$9 1,1 1 5,000; exports ECar$32, 909,000. Import sources (1973): U.K. 30%; U.S. 16%; Trinidad and Tobago 13%; Canada 5%. Export destinations (1973): U.K. 60%; Jamaica 10%; Barbados

8%;

Education. (1973) Primary, pupils 25,952, teachers 1,088; secondary, pupils 1,303, teachers 99; vocational, pupils 696, teachers 61; teacher training, students 88, teachers 18.

unit:

6%; Leeward and Windward Islands 6%. Main exports: bananas 64%; cardboard U.S.

boxes 10%; coconut 51,800 visitors.

10%. Tourism (1974)

oil

Australian dollar. Budget (1975 est.) balanced at A$9,050,000 (excluding capital expenditure of A$6.5 million). Foreign trade ( 1974): imports A$15,696,000; exports A$l 7,013,000. Import sources Australia 45%; U.K. 13%,; Japan (1973) Singapore 12%; 7%. Export destinations Japan 53%; American Samoa 13%; ( 1973): West Germany 7%; Australia 7%: Norway 5%. Main exports: copra 53%; timber 2 5%; fish fish

5%.

TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS The colony of the Turks and Caicos Islands is situated in the Atlantic southeast of The Bahamas. Area: 193 sq mi (500 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 6,000. Seat of government: Grand Turk Island (pop., 1970, 2,300). Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 1,791, teachers 90; secondary, pupils 354, teachers 17. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar. Budget (1974 actual): revenue $2,630,expenditure $2,552,684. 897; Foreign trade (1974) imports $6,597,000; exports $563,000. Main exports: crayfish 73%; conchs 2 5%. :

TUVALU The colony

of Tuvalu comprises nine main islands, together with their associated islets and reefs, located just south of the Equator and just west of the International Date Line in the western Pacific Ocean. Area: 9 l 2 sq mi (26 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 6,500. Seat of government: Funafuti (pop., 1976 est., 1,300). Education. Primary, (1975-76) students 1,570, teachers 39; secondary, pupils 250, teach-

/

ers

For additional

statistics see

Gilbert Islands.

UNITED KINGDOM and FRANCE NEW HEBRIDES British-French

condominium

of

the

New

Hebrides is located in the southwestern Pacific about 500 mi of Fiji and 2 50 mi NE of New Caledonia. Area: 5,700 sq mi (14,800 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 97,500. Cap.: Vila (metropolitan area pop., 1976 est., 16,600). Education. (1974) Primary, pupils 19,834, teachers 814; secondary, pupils 1,016, teachers

W

67; vocational, pupils 167, teachers 18; teacher training, students 112, teachers 11. Finance. Monetary units: Australian dollar and New Hebrides franc, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 79.47 => U.S. $1 (NHFr

NHFr

=

Condominium budget (1975 est.) balanced at A$l 1,268,000; British budget (1974-75 est.) balanced at A$7,885,000; French budget (1973 est.) balanced at A$7,524,136.93

£1

ST.

is

VINCENT

Vincent, including the northern Grenadines, an associated state in the eastern Caribbean

W

about 100 mi of Barbados. Area: 150 sq mi (389 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 93,000. Cap.: Kingstown (pop., 1973 est., 22,000). Education. (1971-72) Primary, pupils 34,-

000.

Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports NHFr 3,85«,exports NHFr 2,3 71,000. Import sources: Australia 33%; France 15%; Japan 15%; New Zealand 7%. Export destinations: France 59%; U.S. 22%; Japan 13%. Main exports: copra

521, teachers 1,765; secondary, pupils 3,647, teachers (1968-69) 92; teacher training, students 362, teachers 1 1.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: East Caribbean dollar. Budget (1975-76 est.) balanced at ECar$23.9 million. Foreign trade (1974): imports ECar$46, 540,000 exports ECar$l 1,820,000. Import sources (1971): U.K. 36%; Trinidad and Tobago 14%; U.S. 8%. Export destinations (1971): U.K. 59%; Barbados 19%; Trinidad and Tobago 9%; U.S. 7%. Main exports (1971): bananas 51%; arrowroot 7%; coconut oil 6%.

64%;

fish

27%.

Agriculture. Copra production (1975) c. 37,000 metric tons. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle c.

90; pigs

c.

62.

Industry. Production (in 000; 1974): manganese ore (metal content; exports; metric tons) 18; electricity (kw-hr) c. 13,000.

UNITED STATES AMERICAN SAMOA

;

SOLOMON ISLANDS The Solomon Islands

is a self-governing protectorate in the southwestern Pacific east of the island of New Guinea. Area: 10,983 sq mi (28,446 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 190,000. Cap.:

Honiara, Guadalcanal (pop., 1973

est.,

15,300).

CANAL ZONE The Canal Zone

is administered by the U.S. under treaty with Panama and consists of a 10-mi-wide strip on the Isthmus of Panama through which the Panama Canal runs. Area: 558 sq mi (1,445 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 44,000. Administrative headquarters: Balboa Heights (pop., 1970,

200).

Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 9,435; secondary and vocational, pupils 3,581; primary and secondary, teachers 552; higher, students 1973-74) 1,632, teaching staff (1971-72) 120. Finance. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar (Panamanian balboa is also used). Budgets (1975): Canal Zone government, revenue $69.4 million, expenditure $67.9 million: Panama Canal Com(

pany, revenue $253.7 million, expenditure $262.6 million. Traffic.

(1974-75) Total number of oceangoing vessels passing through the canal 13,609; total cargo tonnage 140,101,000; tolls collected U.S. $142 million. Nationality and number of commercial vessels using the canal: Liberian 1,950; British 1,368; Japanese 1,225; Greek 1,142; U.S. 1,097; Panamanian 1,050; Norwegian 832; West German 766; Dutch 420; Swedish 373.

GUAM territory,

is

SW

located in the Pacific Ocean about 6,000 mi of San Francisco and 1,500 mi E of Manila. Area: 209 sq mi (541 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 107,400. Cap.: Agana (pop., 1974 est., 2,500). Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 18,525, teachers 718; secondary, pupils 12,253, teachers 440; vocational, pupils 878, teachers 49; higher, students 2,337, teaching staff (1971-72) 140.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: U.S. dolBudget (1974 est.): revenue $112.6 million

lar.

(including U.S. grants of $11.5 million); expenditure $99.1 million. Foreign trade (1973): imports $211 million; exports $11 million. Tourism (1974) 234,000 visitors. Agriculture and Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): fruit and vegetables 1.6; fish catch 0.1; petroleum products c. 1,625; electricity (kw-hr) c. 1,250,000.

sterling).

000;

St.

(1973-74): imports $46.5 million (91% from U.S. in 1970); exports $83 million (95% to U.S. in 1970). Main exports (1970): canned tuna 90%; pet food 5%. trade

Guam, an organized unincorporated

12.

The

Dependent States

unit:

:

17%; canned

253

Located to the east of Western Samoa in the South Pacific, the unincorporated territory of American Samoa is approximately 1,600 mi NE of the northern tip of New Zealand. Area: 76 sq mi (197 sq km). Pop. (1974): 29,200. Cap.:

Pago Pago (pop., 1974, 4,700). Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 7,213, teachers 333; secondary, pupils 2,367, teachers (1971-72) 142; vocational, students 800, teachers 38; higher, students (1972-73) 909, teaching staff (1971-72) 32. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar. Budget (1973 est.) balanced at $33,921,000 (including U.S. grants of $30.4 million). Foreign

PUERTO RICO Puerto Rico, a self-governing associated commonwealth, lies about 885 mi SE of the Florida coast. Area: 3,421 sq mi (8,860 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 3,120,900. Cap.: San Juan (pop., 1975 est., 1,087,000). Education. (1975) Primary, pupils 478,335, teachers 17,181; secondary, pupils 330,454, teachers 12,455; vocational, pupils 26,699, teachers (public only) 490; higher, students 82,385, teach-

(1971-72) 4,400. Finance. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar. Budget (1973-74 actual): revenue $2,149,000,000; expenditure $2.1 billion. Gross domestic product (1974-75) $8,135,000,000. Cost of living (1970 = 100; April 1976) 154. Foreign Trade. (1974-75) Imports $4,951,000,000 (62% from U.S., 10% from Venezuela); exports $3,139,000,000 (85% to U.S.). Main exports (1972-73): chemicals 20%; textiles 18%; machinery 9%; fish products 9%; petroleum products 9%. Tourism (1974-75): visitors 1,339,000; gross receipts U.S. $380 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 16,827 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 608,000; commercial (including buses) 124,500. Railways (1974) 96 km. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 466,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1974) 1,752.000. Television receivers (Dec. 1974) 605,000. ing staff

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): sweet potatoes 8; yams c. 12; pumpkins 16; sugar, raw value (1975) c. 271; pineapples c. 40; bananas c. 112; oranges 31; grapefruit c.

254

Dependent States 8; coffee (1975) c. 12; tobacco 3. Livestock (in 000; Jan. 1974): cattle S41; pigs 233; poultry

4,635.

Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973): sand and gravel 6,786; stone 14,195; cement (1975) 1,427; electricity (kw-hr; 1974) 14,590,000.

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS The Trust Territory

islands,

numbering more than million sq mi in the

2,000, are scattered over 3 Pacific Ocean from 450 mi E of the Philippines to just west of the International Date Line. Area:

728 sq mi

VIRGIN ISLANDS

115,000.

The Virgin Islands

(1,884 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): Seat of government: Saipan Island (pop., 1972 est., 10,700). Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 30,746, teachers 1,433; secondary, pupils 7,358, teachers 457; vocational, pupils 268, teachers 39; teacher training, pupils 122, teachers 17.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: U.S. dolBudget (1972-73 est.): revenue $79,605,000

lar.

(including U.S. grant of $59.4 million); expenditure $62,812,000. Foreign trade (1973): imports c. $30 million (c. 50% from U.S., c. 2 7% from Japan in 1972); exports $1.9 million (54% to Japan in 1972). Main exports: copra 50%; fish 28%; handicraft items 10%; vegetables 5%.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): sweet potatoes c. 3; cassava c. 5; bananas c. 2; copra c. 10. Livestock (in 000; June 1974): cattle c. 16; pigs c. 29; goats c. 6; chickens c. 160.

of the United States is an organized unincorporated territory located about 40 mi E of Puerto Rico. Area: 133 sq mi (345 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 92,000. Cap.: Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas (pop., 1970, 12,200). Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 19,267, teachers (1971-72) 723; secondary and vocational, pupils 6,359, teachers (1971-72) 487; higher, students (1973-74) 1,698, teaching staff

(1971-72) 50. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar. Budget (1972 est.): revenue $90.7 million; expenditure $90,280,000. Foreign trade (1973): imports $850,336,000 (32% from U.S. in 1971); exports $636,093,000 (92% to U.S. in 1971). Main exports: petroleum products, sugar, rum, watches, woolen fabrics. Tourism (1972-73): 1,312,000 visitors; gross receipts U.S. $100,020,000.

Thomas island, overran the runway at the Harry S. Truman Airport, knocked down two fences, swept across an embankment, then burst into flames when it smashed into several buildings; 3 7 of the 88 persons aboard were killed, and many survivors were seriously injured. May 3 Monze, Zambia. A Twin Otter aircraft manufactured by de Havilland Aircraft of Canada crashed in south central Zambia while the Canadian pilot was demonstrating the aircraft to Zambian Air Force officers; of the 13 persons aboard, only 2 survived. May 9 Near Huete, Spain. A Boeing 747 cargo plane belonging to the Iranian Air Force caught fire and crashed during a storm as it was heading for a stopover in Madrid; all 17 persons aboard the aircraft were killed. June 1 Malabo Island, Equatorial Guinea. A Soviet Aeroflot St.

Disasters The

loss of life

and property from

disasters in 1976

included the following.

AVIATION Jan. 1 Saudi Arabia. A Lebanese Middle East Airlines Boeing 707, on a flight from Beirut to Persian Gulf states, crashed in a desert area of Saudi Arabia; all 82 persons aboard lost their lives.

Thirty-seven persons

were

killed in April

when an American Airlines Boeing 727 landing at St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands overran

the field and crashed into buildings beyond.

The plane carried 88 persons.

Jan. 21 Southern China. A Soviet-built An-24 airliner, with a capacity of 44 passengers, went down in southern China. In its first public announcement of a local air disaster, the Chinese government reported that one American and two Danish businessmen were among the undisclosed number of fatalities. March 5 Near Yerevan, Armenian S.S.R. A four-engine Soviet 11-18 turboprop airliner crashed as it neared the end of flight a from Moscow to Yerevan; unofficial sources placed the death toll at about 120.

April 14 Neuquen Province, Argentina. A British-made Avro 748 belonging to Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales, a government-owned oil company, crashed in west-central Argentina with the loss of 37 lives. April 23 Gulf of Mexico. A Bell 205 helicopter, on a routine morning flight to an offshore drilling rig, went down in the Gulf of Mexico; the bodies of seven victims were recovered, and five other persons aboard were presumed dead. April 27 Charlotte Amalie, Virgin Islands. An American Airlines Boeing 72 7 jetliner, on a flight from Rhode Island to

a flight from Luanda, Angola, to Moscow; 46 bodies were recovered after the wreckage was located in

Tu-154 crashed on mid-June. June 4 Guam.

An Air Manila Lockheed Electra, after taking from Guam International Airport, crashed into a hill, bounced over a highway, struck a small truck, and burst into flames; the truck driver and all 45 persons aboard the aircraft were killed. July 28 Near Bratislava, Czech. A Soviet-made 11-18 turboprop aircraft belonging to Czechoslovakia caught fire and crashed into Zlate Pisky Lake as it neared the end of a domestic flight from Prague; only 6 of the 76 persons aboard

off

survived.

Aug. 28 Near Peterborough, England. A U.S. Air Force C-141 jet transport, en route from New Jersey to a military base at Mildenhall, England, crashed near Peterborough; all 18 persons aboard the StarLifter were killed in the accident. Aug. 28 S0ndre Str0mfjord, Greenland. A U.S. Air Force C-141 StarLifter transport burst into flames after landing at S0ndre Str0mfjord; 21 of the 27 persons who had made the flight from Thule, Greenland, were killed. Sept. 4 Terceira Island, Azores. A Lockheed Hercules C-130 belonging to the Venezuelan Air Force crashed on the outskirts of Lajes Airport during a hurricane; the dead included all 8 members of the crew and the 60 members of a choir which was to represent the Central University of Venezuela at a festival in Barcelona, Spain.

Sept. 4 Near Cochrane, Ont. A single-engine DHC-3 Otter an intraprovince flight from Moosonee to Timmins, hit three transmission lines before crashing into a hill and burning; ten persons, including two staff members of the Royal Commission on Electric Power Planning, were killed. Sept. 6 Near Sochi, U.S.S.R. According to unofficial reports, two Soviet airliners collided in midair near the Black Sea resort town of Sochi; at least 90 persons were believed to have aircraft, on

died. Sept. 9 Managua, Nicaragua. A military helicopter, carrying 8 survivors of a plane crash to a hospital in the nation's capital, crashed on its way to Managua; all 13 persons aboard

were

killed.

10 Near Zagreb, Yugos. In the world's worst midto date, a British Airways Trident jet, flying from London to Istanbul, Turkey, collided at 33,000 ft with DC-9 heading for Cologne, West GerInex-Adria Yugoslav a many; the 176 fatalities included all 63 persons aboard the British plane and all 113 on the chartered Yugoslav aircraft. Sept. 19 Near Isparta, Turkey. A Turkish Airlines Boeing 727, on a flight from Italy to Antalya, Turkey, via Istanbul, crashed into the 7,2 20-ft Karakaya Mountain some 50 mi short of its destination; a pilot's miscalculation was blamed for the crash, which killed all 155 persons aboard. Sept. 26 Near Alpena, Mich. A U.S. Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker crashed and burned in rugged terrain some 12 mi from Alpena; 5 persons survived the crash that took 15 Sept.

air

collision

lives.

Oct. 12 Bombay, India. An Indian Airlines Caravelle jet, scheduled to fly to Madras, crashed and burned shortly after taking off from Bombay's Santa Cruz Airport; none of the 95 persons aboard survived the crash.

WIDE WORLD

13 Santa Cruz, Bolivia. An American-owned Boeing 707 cargo plane crashed through the downtown area of Santa Cruz shortly after leaving El Trompillo Airport; of the estimated 100 persons who were killed, many were children attending classes in a primary school that was partly destroyed by one of the plane's wings. Oct. 25 Villavicencio, Colombia. A DC-3 plane belonging to the El Venado airline company crashed in flames soon after taking off from Yopal Airport in Villavicencio; the 32 fatalities included one of Colombia's few female commercial pilots. Sept. 26 Near Hot Springs, Va. A Grumman Gulfstream II jet aircraft owned by the Johnson & Johnson Corp. crashed about 500 ft short of the Blue Ridge Airport runway when the pilot attempted an instrument landing; the three-man crew together with four company executives and their wives were all Oct.

255

Disasters

killed.

Nov. 6 Northern Peru. A Peruvian Air Force helicopter crashed in the Andes; officials listed all 11 persons aboard as missing and presumed dead. Nov. 23 Greece. An Olympic Airways YS-11A two-engine plane, on a domestic flight from Athens to Kozani, crashed and burned about 250 mi N of Athens; none of the 50 persons aboard the plane survived. Nov. 28 Near Moscow. A Soviet Tu-104 crashed shortly after taking off from Sheremetyevo Airport on a flight to Leningrad; unconfirmed reports said there were no survivors among the 72 persons aboard the aircraft. Dec. 25 Near Bangkok, Thailand. An Egyptian Boeing 707 crashed into a textile factory on the outskirts of Bangkok as it prepared to land some three hours after midnight; all 55 persons aboard the aircraft were killed and 18 night-shift factory workers were listed as dead or missing.

FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS Jan. 1 La Louviere, Belgium. A fast-spreading fire that set gas explosion in a small ground-floor cafe gutted a threestory building and trapped many of the young patrons inside; 15 were burned to death and nearly 40 others were injured. Jan. 9 Hamburg, West Germany. A boiler explosion aboard the 18,500-ton "Anders Maersk," under construction at the Bloehm und Voss shipyard, claimed 18 lives when the workmen were engulfed in searing steam; at least 20 other workers were seriously injured. Jan. 10 Fremont, Neb. A gas leak in the basement of the sixstory Pathfinder Hotel triggered an explosion and fire that killed 18 persons and injured about 50. Jan. 30 Chicago, 111. A fire that apparently started in a clothes closet on the fourth floor of the Wincrest Nursing and Rest Home took the lives of 23 elderly persons, most of whom succumbed from heavy smoke that poured into the chapel during morning services. Fire department officials suspected arson. Feb. 4 New York, N.Y. An intense early morning fire that started in a back apartment on the ground floor spread quickly upward through a six-story building; 7 of the 10 persons who died were young children. Feb. 16 Tiaret, Alg. A gas explosion that demolished two houses took the lives of 35 persons and injured 36 others. April 13 Lapua, Fin. In the nation's worst industrial accident to date, a brick unit of an ammunition factory was totally destroyed by an explosion of gunpowder; the casualty toll included more than 40 dead and some 70 injured. Aug. 12 Chalmette, La. An explosion in the fractionating tower of a refinery operated by the Tenneco Oil Co. killed 13 workers and seriously injured 6 others. Aug. 29 Bangkok, Thailand. A chemical explosion and fire in a Bangkok factory killed 14 persons, 12 of whom were teenoff a

aged girls. Dec. 24 Chicago, 111. A three-story brick building was set ablaze when a can of lighter fluid, used to ignite an indoor charcoal grill, burst into flames; the burning fluid sloshed onto the hall floors and staircase when someone tried to carry it outdoors; among the 12 fatalities were 10 children attending a Christmas Eve birthday party on the upper floor. Dec. 26 Numazu, Japan. A predawn explosion and fire, probably triggered by a gas leak in a bar, claimed the lives of at least

1

5

persons.

Dec. 26 Goulds, Newfoundland. Chafe's Rest Home, a twowooden structure, was totally destroyed by an early morning fire that apparently started with an electrical malfunction; 21 persons inside the building lost their lives.

story

MARINE Jan. 3 Rangoon River, Burma. A double-deck ferryboat burned and sank after an explosion was set off by careless smoking near a leaking drum of gasoline; 12 persons were known to have died, 2 7 were severely burned, and some 150 were missing. Jan. 9 Off Surat Thani Province, Thailand. Two ferryboats collided in predawn darkness off the southern coast of Thailand; though many passengers were rescued after one of the boats sank, 15 lost their lives and 50 others were reported missing. Jan. 18 Off east coast of Mindanao, Phil. Two crewmen from the 224,000-ton Norwegian supertanker "Berge Istra" were rescued by a Japanese fishing boat after being adrift on a life raft for 20 days. They reported that three explosions on Dec. 30, 1975, ripped apart the hull of the "Berge Istra," which sank with the loss of 30 lives. The freighter was the largest ship ever lost at sea. .

A

rescue worker covers a victim of aviation's worst midair collision.

Two

airliners, one British and the other Yugoslav, crashed head on near

Zagreb, Yugoslavia, in

September,

killing

all

176 persons

aboard the two planes. Jan. 19 Southern Bangladesh. A tidal wave that swept into the Ganges Delta from the Bay of Bengal took the lives of an estimated 800 fishermen in the vicinity of Barisal. Jan. 20 Ichamati River, India. A launch carrying about 150 persons capsized in the Ganges Delta; early reports indicated that probably more than 40 persons drowned. Late January Off southern Burma. About 160 of an estimated 200 passengers aboard a ferryboat reportedly lost their lives after a collision with a fishing trawler in the Andaman Sea. March 25 Southern coastal waters, Haiti. About 100 persons died when fire broke out aboard the ferryboat "St. Sauveur" as it was making its way eastward from Dame Marie to Portau-Prince. Aug. 7 Gulf of Thailand. An overloaded three-deck ferryboat, operated by an unlicensed skipper, capsized several hundred miles south of Bangkok; nearly 30 persons were known to have died, but dozens of others were missing and presumably

drowned. Aug. 16 Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. A 14-ft motor launch capsized in stormy weather after setting out from Perce, Quebec; all of the nine French tourists and three Canadians were presumed drowned after the empty boat was recovered and one body retrieved from the water. Aug. 29 Mindanao Province, Phil. Huge waves capsized a boat at the mouth of the Davao River; 19 of the 25 persons aboard were missing and presumed drowned. Oct. 15 West of Bermuda. The 590-ft vessel "Sylvia L. Ossa," en route from Brazil to Pennsylvania with a cargo of iron ore, broke up in heavy seas and sank about 140 mi due west of Bermuda; rescue teams spotted pieces of wreckage but found no evidence that any of the 37 crewmen survived. Oct. 20 Near Luling, La. The Norwegian tanker "Frosta" and the car ferry "George Prince" collided on the Mississippi River just before dawn; rescue divers recovered 71 bodies and more than 30 vehicles from the river, but an estimated 2 7 other persons were missing and presumed drowned; 18 persons survived.

Mid-October English Channel. Two small German ships, the tanker "Bohlen" and the freighter "Antje Oltmann," were lashed by gales in the English Channel; a total of 32 seamen were presumed to have lost their lives in the turbulent waters.

Rescuers look for survivors

from

the Mississippi ferry

boat "George Prince" after

it

collided

with a tanker at Luling, Louisiana, in October. Only 18 persons survived of about 120.

256

Disasters

Oct. 19 Off Newfoundland, Canada. The small Dutch freighter "Gabriella" was abandoned in heavy seas about 60 mi off the coast of Newfoundland; all but 2 of the IS persons aboard lost their lives. Nov. 11 Northwest of Honolulu, Hawaii. The 486-ft Japa-

nese lumber ship "Carnelian 1" flooded and sank in stormy seas about 1,400 mi from Honolulu; 14 crewmen were rescued but 19 others were missing and presumed dead. Dec. 25 Red Sea. An Egyptian passenger ship, the "Patria," caught fire and sank about 50 mi from Jidda, Saudi Arabia; most of the passengers were Muslim pilgrims returning to Egypt after visiting sacred shrines in Mecca and Medina; early estimates put the death toll at about 150.

9 and 11 Near Whitesburg, Ky. An explosion of methane gas in a mine operated by the Scotia Coal Co. claimed the lives of 15 workers; a second explosion some 36 hours later killed 1 1 more persons, including three federal safety inspectors, who attempted to investigate the mine and render it secure. Aug. 5 Breza, Yugos. An explosion killed 17 miners who were working 600 ft underground; of the 100 workers who escaped, only a few were injured by the blast. Sept. 7 Walbrzych, Poland. An explosion that shattered a coal mine shaft killed at least 17 workers and injured more than 30 others; some 70 other miners escaped unhurt. Mid-September Near Tete, Mozambique. A gas explosion inside a coal mine claimed the lives of more than 100 workers. October 4 Near Dhanbad, India. An explosion in a Sudamdih coal mine killed 39 workers and injured about 30 others. Dec. 31 Chlebovice, Czech. A gas explosion at the Staric coal mine trapped 45 workers underground; despite frantic rescue efforts, none of the 45 was expected to survive.

March

million.

A

cable car, carrying vacationing 9 Cavalese, Italy. to their lodgings at the end of the day, swung precariously when a cable loosened, then plunged 200 ft to the

back

frozen ground;

most

of the 42

persons

who

died were from

West Germany. April 16 Gulf of Mexico. A survival capsule, launched from a storm-battered oil-drilling rig that sank off the Texas coast, landed upside down in heavy seas; 13 workers who were trapped inside the capsule died. June 5 Snake River Valley, Idaho. The 307-ft-high Teton Dam, criticized as potentially dangerous even before its construction began, collapsed from its own inadequacy as its reservoir was being filled for the first time; the vast quantity of water that roared into the upper Snake River Valley killed 14 persons, made some 30,000 homeless, and caused damage estimated at hundreds of millions of dollars. Early July Madras, India. Bootleg liquor containing methyl alcohol and other toxic ingredients killed 84 persons and hospitalized about 100 others, some of whom faced possible death

ground

42

of the

43

aboard were

in

March,

skiers killed.

hit a section of

of 17 persons.

March

a cable car at a ski in Italy plunged

when a landslide

Esmeraldas.

January Jamaica. A shipment of imported flour contaminated by the insecticide parathion was blamed for the deaths

skiers

resort

lieved to have been killed

Mid-February Bitlis Province, Turkey. A series of avalanches in eastern Anatolia claimed the lives of 2 7 persons; intense snowstorms knocked out power lines, isolated towns, and trapped some 500 passenger buses on open roads. April 9 Esmeraldas, Ecuador. An earthquake that struck the port city of Esmeraldas claimed at least ten lives and caused damage estimated at $4 million. April 10 Faridpur, Bangladesh. A tornado that struck at least a dozen villages in Faridpur District in central Bangladesh killed 19 persons and injured more than 200 others. May 2 Near Fresno, Colombia. Torrential rains triggered a landslide on an east-west road crossing the Andes Mountains of Colombia; 13 persons died and 16 others were injured. May 6 Northeast Italy. A major earthquake that struck the northeastern area of Italy during the night caused extensive damage in several towns; late reports indicated that nearly 1,000 persons were killed. Mid-May Luzon, Phil. Record-breaking rains unleashed on the island of Luzon by Typhoon Olga caused massive flooding that took 215 lives and left at least 600,000 persons homeless; property damage and crop losses were estimated at $150

MISCELLANEOUS

to the

Jan. 2-3 Northern Europe. A violent storm packing winds 100 mph struck England with devastating force before moving on to the Continent; there were 26 fatalities reported in Britain, 12 in West Germany, and a total of 17 others in Denmark, Belgium, The Netherlands, Sweden, Austria, France, and Switzerland. Feb. 4 Guatemala. An earthquake that measured 7.5 on the Richter scale caused extensive damage in the heavily populated capital of Guatemala City and virtually destroyed several other towns and villages. As rescue operations proceeded, the estimate of casualties increased dramatically to an estimated in excess of

23,000 dead and some 75,000 injured. Feb. 11 Esmeraldas, Ecuador. At least 60 persons were be-

MINING

When

NATURAL

or blindness. Late July. Philadelphia, Pa. A mysterious flu-like disease attacked members of the American Legion attending a convention in Philadelphia; despite intense monitoring of patients and extensive laboratory research, medical authorities were unable to identify the disease that claimed 29 lives and hospitalized 151. Sept. 13 Karachi, Pakistan. A one-year-old six-story residential building collapsed because of inadequate foundations; of the 140 persons who were killed, 6 belonged to the family of the man who owned the building.

June 4 Pahire Phedi, Nepal. An early morning landslide took the lives of an estimated 150 villagers in central Nepal. Mid-June Bangladesh. Persistent torrential monsoon rains were responsible for the deaths of at least 143 persons, some of whom were buried under landslides; the rains also caused major rivers to overflow their banks. June 26 Irian Jaya, Indon. A major earthquake that struck the Indonesian province of Irian Jaya on the island of New Guinea claimed an estimated 500 to 1,000 lives. Mid-July Mexico. After nearly two weeks of almost constant rain, an estimated 120 persons were dead and some 50 others missing as a result of floods in central and eastern Mexico; in addition, hundreds of thousands were homeless and millions of acres of fertile farmland were inundated. July 14 Bali, Indon. An earthquake measuring 5.6 on the Richter scale killed more than 500 persons and injured about 3,400 others; fatalities included schoolchildren who were killed when their building in Seririt collapsed. July 28 T'ang-shan, Hopeh Province, China. Two devastating earthquakes, measuring 8.2 and 7.9 on the Richter scale, struck northeast China 16 hours apart. Though no official report on damage or casualties was released at the time, it was learned that the industrial city of T'ang-shan had been virtually leveled and that extensive damage had also taken place in Tientsin and Peking. The death toll was later reliably estimated to be about 700,000, which made the T'ang-shan disaster the second worst in recorded history. In 1556 an earthquake in Shensi Province, China, claimed some 830,000

lives.

July 31 Big Thompson River Canyon, Colo. A 30- ft high wall of water raced through the narrow Big Thompson River Canyon after unusual meteorological conditions caused more than a foot of rain to fall in six hours; though rescuers recovered 130 bodies, fears remained that other vacationers were still buried beneath the mud and rubble. Aug. 7 Chonju, South Korea. Torrential rains killed at least 25 persons, 15 of whom were buried by a landslide while attending religious services. Aug. 10 Northern Pakistan. Heavy rains that caused the Ravi River to overflow its banks caused extensive damage in northern Pakistan; more than 150 persons died in the floodwaters that extended to some 5,000 villages. Aug. 17 Philippines. A severe earthquake in the Moro Gulf created a 1 5-20-ft-high tidal wave that struck the island of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago with devastating force; Pres. Ferdinand Marcos estimated that the death toll would reach 8,000 and the damage to property would exceed $100 million.

Aug. 25 Hong Kong. The worst tropical storm to hit Hong in nearly 50 years killed at least 11 persons, injured 62 others, and left about 3,000 persons homeless. Sept. 5 Baluchistan Province, Pakistan. Floodwaters that eroded and then demolished the 442-f t-high earthen Bolan Dam washed away entire villages and inundated more than 5,000 sq mi of land; though no statistics were immediately available the death toll was expected to be high. Sept. 8-13 Southern Japan. Typhoon Fran battered southern Japan with 100-mph winds and deposited 60 in of rain on the land; 104 persons were killed, 57 were missing, and an estimated 325,000 were made homeless.

Kong

UPI

COMPIX

Oct. 1 La Paz, Mexico. A 30-ft-high earthen dam burst under the impact of Hurricane Liza, which packed 130-mph winds and dumped Si in ot rain on the city; a 5 - ft wall of water swept across a shantytown in La Paz and killed at least 630 persons; tens of thousands of persons were rendered homeless by the disaster. Oct. 6 Near Pereira, Colombia. Heavy rains caused a dike to burst shortly after midnight; at least 47 persons lost their lives and about 30 others were injured. Oct. 29 Irian Jaya, Indon. A severe earthquake in the Bime, Eipomek, and Nalka areas of Irian Jaya on the island of New Guinea killed at least 133 persons. Nov. 6 Trapani, Sicily, Italy. Heavy rains, which could not be carried off by Trapani's inadequate sewer system, generated floodwaters that took the lives of ten persons. Nov. 7 Khorasan Province, Iran. A moderately severe earthquake that struck Vandik and several other villages in north-

eastern Iran killed at least 16 persons and inflicted injuries on about 30 others. Nov. 20 Chameza, Colombia. A landslide that occurred about 190 mi from Bogota smashed into a cluster of peasant huts in Chameza and claimed an estimated 20 lives. Nov. 24 Van Province, Turkey. A major earthquake, measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale, struck eastern Turkey in the afternoon; heavy snows and rugged terrain impeded the work of rescue teams which expected the final death toll to reach about 4,000. Late November Eastern Java, Indon. Heavy rains that inundated large areas of eastern Java caused extensive property and crop damage and claimed the lives of at least 136 persons. Dec. 20 Aceh, Sumatra, Indon. Torrential rains caused severe flooding in villages within the administrative district of Aceh in Sumatra; at least 25 persons were killed.

RAILROADS Feb. 17 Near Alexandria, Egypt. At when a speeding train smashed into a

least 11 persons died train that was not in motion; about 50 other persons were seriously injured. Feb. 20(?) Near Caborca, Mexico. A collision between a train and a bus killed 30 persons and injured 50 others. April 21 Near Ta-ch'eng, Taiwan. An express train that crashed into a bus in central Taiwan killed 40 persons, about half of whom were students in their early teens. April 27 Northeast Egypt. A collision between two trains about 90 mi from Cairo took the lives of 12 persons and caused injuries to more than 50 others.

May 4 Schiedam, Neth. The ten-coach Rhine Express, on a run from the Hook of Holland to West Germany and Austria, crashed head-on into a slowly moving local train during the morning rush hour. All 23 fatalities, some of them children, were aboard the badly damaged Dutch train. May 23 Near Seoul, Korea. A truck loaded with 200 drums of fuel oil exploded in flames after striking a commuter train filled with families on their way to Sunday outings; flaming

was mainly responsible for the 19 dead and 9 5 injured. June 14 Jasen, Bulg. Ten persons were killed and three injured when a passenger train collided with a freight train about 100 mi from Sofia. June 27 Neufvilles, Belgium. A crowded express train traveling from Amsterdam to Paris jumped the tracks in southern Belgium; 11 persons were killed and about 30 injured. Sept. 6 Benoni, South Africa. A commuter train crashed into an express train that had halted for a red light at the Benoni station, 16 mi from Johannesburg; most of the 31 fatalities and 70 injured were aboard the express train, which was demolished. Sept. 9 Cameroon. Two passenger trains collided in southern Cameroon; though initial reports were sketchy, more than 100 were feared killed and about 300 injured. Sept. 20 Near Ljubljana, Yugos. An express train traveling to Trieste collided head-on with a local passenger train; at least 17 persons lost their lives and about 40 others were

oil

injured, some seriously. Oct. 10 Northwestern Mexico. A glass-domed passenger train traveling through scenic Sierra Madre Occidental slammed into a freight train after the engineer failed to heed a stop signal; the Red Cross reported 24 fatalities.

Nov. 3 Near Czestochowa, Poland.

A

passenger train, mak-

ing a scheduled stop at the small town of Julianka, was struck by an express train during a heavy fog; 2 5 persons were killed and 60 others injured. Nov. 10 Near Zagreb, Yugos. An express train, speeding past a crossing that had not been closed off by the attendant, crashed into the back half of a crowded bus and killed 10 of the persons aboard. Nov. 29 Near Kathekani, Kenya. An express train traveling from Mombasa to Nairobi plunged into the Ngaineithia River when the weight of the train caused a bridge, already weakened by swirling floodwaters, to give way; of the nearly 650 persons aboard the express, about 200 suffered injuries and at least 14 were killed.

TRAFFIC Jan. 4 Natal State, South Africa. Nineteen persons were reported killed and 38 injured when a bus plunged into the Umtawalumi River. Jan. 26 Near Nongoma, South Africa. A bus crash in a remote area of eastern South Africa killed 19 persons and injured 76 others.

Feb. 7 Beckemeyer, 111. A camper truck that was crossing an unguarded railroad track at night was hit by a fast-moving Baltimore & Ohio 67-car freight train; a grandfather and 11 young children were killed on their way to a roller-skating

Twenty-three persons

rink.

an express train at Schiedam, Neth.,

Feb. 7 Konya Province, Turkey. Ten persons were killed and eight injured when a driver lost control of his bus on an icy road in central Turkey. Feb. 10 Near Kinshasa, Zaire. A truck transporting work-

on a commuter train

were

killed

when

it

collided head-on with

in

May.

men to their jobs crashed when the driver lost control of the vehicle; 23 were killed and dozens were injured. March 5 Shivalli, India. bus, jam-packed with guests traveling to a wedding reception, went off the road, overturned, and plunged into a deep irrigation canal when the driver swerved to avoid a bullock cart; 79 persons were killed. March 29 Near Hoshiarpur, India. A reported 20 persons were killed and 40 injured when a bus crashed into a tree in northwestern India. Late March Near Poona, India. A tractor-drawn wagon

A

transporting wedding guests between villages fell into a canal; 45 bodies were recovered, but the death toll was expected to increase as recovery operations progressed. April 29 Luzon Province, Phil. A bus heading for the resort city of Baguio in northern Luzon crashed into a tree and burned; 2 2 persons were killed and 7 were injured. April 30 Near Baguio, Phil. A bus carrying trade school employees and their families to Baguio slipped over the edge of a 2S0-ft cliff that bounds the zigzag MacArthur highway; casualties included 29 persons dead and 2 7 seriously injured. May 21 Near Martinez, Calif. A bus carrying members of a Yuba City high school choir smashed through a guardrail and landed upside down 30 ft below a bridge ramp that was part of a freeway exit; 28 students and one adult were killed and many teenagers were seriously injured. May 28 Near Rishikesh, India. Forty persons lost their lives in northern India when a bus skidded and plunged into the Ganges River. Aug. 25 Northeast Iran. A passenger bus and a tank truck crashed into each other some 50 mi from Shahrud in northeastern Iran; the accident claimed 21 lives. September Near Trinidad, Cuba. A bus exploded in flames after colliding with a truck near Trinidad; 2 7 persons were reported killed. Sept. 2 Near Mexico City, Mexico. A passenger bus went over a 150-ft embankment about 2 5 mi of the nation's capital; at least 15 persons died in the mishap and some 30 others were injured. Sept. 19 Santiago, Chile. A runaway truck crashed into a crowd of people celebrating Chile's independence day; 23 persons died and 62 were injured. Oct. 15 Eastern Cuba. Two freight cars that broke away from an ore train at the Nicaro nickel mines smashed into a crowded bus at a lower level crossing; 54 persons were reported killed. Nov. 14 Near Manaus, Brazil. A bus loaded with voters failed to stop at an Urubu River ferry crossing and was swept downstream after plunging into the water; 38 persons were killed in the mishap. Nov. 29 Near Van, Turkey. A bus and taxi fell over a precipice and into Lake Van after colliding on a road; 25 persons were killed and 15 seriously injured. Dec. 12 Near Sao Paulo, Brazil. A bus traveling between

W

Sao Paulo and Igautu plunged into the Pardo River when the driver swerved to avoid hitting a group of pedestrians; 20 persons were killed and 16 injured. Dec. 21 Lyon, France. A school bus transporting handicapped children went off the road in heavy fog as the driver attempted to make a sharp turn; 17 persons died in the waters of the Rhone River and 2 others were reported missing.

Disciples of Christ: Religion

see

Diseases: see Health and Disease Divorce: see

Demography

Docks: see Transportation

number

of discussions with Venezuelan leaders as part

of the government's effort to broaden cultural and

economic

Dominican Republic

On

Covering the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, the Dominican Republic is separated from Haiti, which occupies the western third, by a rugged mountain range. Area: 18,658 sq mi (48,323 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.): 4,696,800, including (1960) mulatto 73%; white 16%; Negro 11%. Cap. and largest city: Santo Domingo (pop., 1975 est., 922,500). Language: Spanish. Religion: mainly Roman Catholic (94%), with Protestant and Jewish minorities. President in 1976, Joaquin Balaguer. In 1976 the country continued to be one of the most dynamic and stable nations in Latin America. However, agriculture,

the basic sector of the

economy,

continued to suffer the consequences of the previous year's severe drought.

Added

to this, the fact that the

re-

Aluminum Company

of

America's new contract, which provided greater turns to the nation. The tourist industry continued

reits

economic boom sustained by U.S. investments. There was notable construction of new hotels. The Lowe's International Hotel was said to be the largest tourist facility in the Antilles.

The high

cost of

oil

imports

and a shortage of electrical power forced a 20-30% cutback in industrial production. The principal international events were the official visits in June of the king and queen of Spain and U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. There were also a

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 833,439, teachers 15,216; secondary ( 1971-72 ), pupils 118,190, teachers 5,381; vocational ( 1971-72), pupils 6,923, teachers 409; teacher training ( 1971-72), students 621, teachers 51; higher (1973-74), students 37,538, teaching staff 1,709. Finance. Monetary unit: peso, at parity with the U.S. dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 1.72 pesos to £1 sterling. Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $60.9 million. Budget (1975 actual): revenue 652.4 million pesos; expenditure 639.9 million pesos. Gross national product (1973) 2,265,700,000 pesos. Money supply (July 1976) 381 million pesos. Cost of living (Santo Domingo; 1970 100; March 1976) 170. Foreign Trade. ( 1975) Imports 888.6 million pesos; exports 893.8 million pesos. Import sources: U.S. 71%; Japan 9%. Export destinations: U.S. 67%; The Netherlands 7%. Main exports: sugar 65%; coffee

=

5%. Transport and Communications. Roads

Fashion and Dress

improve

The Roman Catholic Church made pubconcern about increasing corruption at all levels of Dominican life. On April 27 Msgr. Octavio Beras Rojas, archbishop of Santo Domingo, was named a cardinal by Pope Paul VI, the first Dominican to achieve that honour. (gustavo antonini) tions of 1978. lic its

[974.B.2.b]

Drug Abuse Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs. Marijuana ceived a mild degree of

when

official

re-

support at the begin-

Drug

Abuse in the U.S. issued its fifth annual Marijuana and Health report. While the main message of the report was that pot smoking poses significant hazards for drivers, pilots, factory workers, and others who cannot afford any diminution in mental alertness or physical coordination, new research showed that the

This was the case with the

see

to

ning of the year

In the mining sector the government strove for

Theatre

attempting

their position for participation in the national elec-

same vigour as in past years prompted continued land invasions by the peasants. The sugar industry suffered from both the sudden drop of prices on the world market and the increased duties placed by the U.S. on

vision of agreements with foreign mining corporations.

Dress:

in the process of reorganization,

agrarian reform programs were not pursued with the

sugar imports.

Drama: see Motion Pictures;

ties.

the domestic scene the opposition parties were

(1971)

10,467 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger c. 59,000; commercial (including buses) c. 29,000. Railways (1975) 475 km. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 95,400. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) 180,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 155,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): rice 231; corn (1974) c. 38; sweet potatoes c. 100; cassava (1974) c. 205; dry beans c. 29; tomatoes c. 86: peanuts c. 93; sugar, raw value c. 1,245; oranges (1974) c. 64; avocados (1974) c. 129; mangoes (1974) c. 143; bananas (1974) 315; cocoa c. 30; coffee c. 54; tobacco c. 17. Livestock (in 000; June 1974): cattle c. 1,560; sheep c. 49; pigs c. 800; goats c. 340; horses c. 170; chickens c. 7,200. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1974): cement 643; bauxite 1,196; electricity (kw-hr) 1,512,000.

drug

the National Institute on

of value in reducing the internal pressure of

is

patients, that it may be useful vomiting in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, and that it can dilate the air tubes and

the eye in

glaucoma

in controlling

ease breathing in asthmatics.

The

report stressed that any eventual medical uses

of cannabis were likely to involve

synthetic compounds rather than the natural drug, and it added a warning that chronic users appeared to develop a tolerance, so that cannabis might not be the answer for the distressed asthmatic seeking a safe and pleasant means of permanent relief. Research conducted after publication of the previous report had failed to support earlier fears that chronic use of marijuana leads to genetic damage, lower fertility rates, or serious impotence problems. While not giving the drug a clean bill of health, which many had hoped for, the report did support the view that cannabis has only a low biological toxicity and stated that it is questionable whether any death can be attributed to an overdose.

The was

report stated that use of marijuana in the U.S.

increasing,

and that more than half of

all

Ameri-

cans between the ages of 18 and 25 had tried

it

at

least once. "In the past seven years," said the report,

"what was once

become

the

statistically

norm

deviant behavior has

for this age group."

As

a result of

and social acceptability of the drug, trade in cannabis had become a seller's market. The price in the U.S. had risen steeply, so that material which once cost between $10 and $20 an ounce now cost $150 an ounce or more. An expert from Nepal, writing in the British Journal of Psychiatry, took a less rosy view of the drug's the increasing use

innocence. B. P.

Sharma of Kathmandu, reporting

a

study of long-term cannabis users, found that, out of 166 married users, only 31 had a normal interest in the sexual side of marriage. He described their conversation as monotonous, full of unnecessary details,

and tending

to

—

be restricted to a few topics delicious who provided every sort of thing

food, kind angels

without any effort on their part, their own health, and how their families neglected them. However,

Sharma pointed out

that in

Nepal cannabis users had

always been thought of as people of "rather low calibre." Thus it might be that his findings reflected the fact that only persons who had inadequate personalities in the first place

would normally become

users.

Apart from the

effects of cannabis

on the mind, a

report from Indiana University's department of chemthat marijuana cigarettes

istry suggested

may

con-

tain higher concentrations of several cancer-causing

agents than tobacco cigarettes.

The study was based

on a comparison of the chemical composition of the smoke obtained from 2,000 Mexican marijuana cigarettes and 2,000 tobacco cigarettes, using a smoking machine. In the U.S. considerable publicity was focused on a $120,000, two-year study set up at the Southern

Illi-

nois University School of Medicine aimed at deter-

mining whether the sexual arousal produced

in

male

volunteers in response to pornographic films was affected by the smoking of marijuana cigarettes. The sex hormones circulating in their blood were also be measured before and after they had indulged "joints." Critics in Congress branded the study "tax-paid debauchery," and the National Institute

Drug Abuse withdrew After a fatal

its

to in

as

on

support.

accident in Britain, the blood plasma of the dead driver was found to contain very traffic

high levels of the active cannabinoids present in marijuana smoke, as measured by a new, highly accurate radioimmunoassay method. Reporting the case in the Lancet, the doctors concerned suggested that it should now be possible to accumulate evidence concerning the influence of cannabis on road safety. They suggested that, because of its widespread use, cannabis,

may

be particularly dangerous, not only to those actually using it but to others as well. This danger was emphasized by the fact that the victim of the road accident, who had almost certainly just like alcohol,

revealed that

75%

of those

who returned

that this local finding reflected a general trend.

Alcohol. Little progress appeared to have been in tackling the worldwide problem of alcoholism. A World Health Organization report, prepared

made

by who's European regional office in collaboration with Finnish and Canadian researchers, pointed out that in many countries cirrhosis of the liver had become a leading cause of death among middle-aged men. It was also clear that alcohol played a major role in deaths from accidents and in cancers of the upper digestive and respiratory tracts. Governments, and those with an economic interest in alcohol supply, had accepted the desirability of educating people to refrain from harmful drinking and of the need to identify and treat "problem drinkers." However, general restrictions on the availability of alcohol were vigorously opposed. According to the

who

report, it is almost useless to attempt to tackle problem by influencing those who have already acquired the drinking habit. The main aim should be

the

reduce the number of new alcoholics. Scottish Council on' Alcoholism predicted that alcoholism would reach epidemic proportions in Scotto

The

land by the mid-1980s and would affect one-fifth of the population. There had been a sixfold increase in hospital admissions of alcoholics in Scotland since

1957, and drunkenness offenses and crimes of violence related to excessive drinking were steadily rising. The council estimated that each of Scotland's 60,000 alcoemployees cost the economy approximately £600

holic

a year through substandard work.

same problems because the majority of heroin users

ity of

A

report published in August showed that the qualfood eaten in Britain over the four years from

do not drive.

1972 to 1975 had undergone a steady decline, and

Newborn babies may suffer dangerous drug withdrawal symptoms if their mothers have been taken off opiates during pregnancy. This can happen when the

that its energy value

sary to wean addicted mothers from their drugs slowly if

danger to their unborn children is to be avoided. During the year a number of papers were published

on enkephalin, a substance produced naturally in the brain, which appears to act like morphine (although it is chemically dissimilar) and to have some specific pain-dampening function. It was suspected that morphine may work on the brain by taking part in reactions normally involving enkephalin, and it was hoped that further study of this newly discovered and newly synthesized brain chemical would throw light on the mechanisms of morphine addiction, thus leading to an effective treatment for addicts. Researchers in several countries, including Britain, the U.S., and Sweden, were working on the problem. The barbiturates remained under a cloud in the eyes of most doctors. Barbiturate overdosage was responsible for some 10,000 hospital admissions each year in the U.K. and accounted for more than onethird of all drug overdose deaths. A survey carried out among 226 family physicians in two British towns

Drug Abuse

and a further 20% said they seldom prescribed them. According to Eric Wilks of the Department of Community Medicine at the University of Sheffield, who conducted the survey, this meant that "a practice that was, until recently, no more than uncommon has now become an inexcusable eccentricity." It seemed likely

died as a result of smoking pot before driving, was a railway signalman. Narcotic drugs do not pose the

drug to which the mother is addicted is withheld during labour or is withdrawn rapidly during the period immediately preceding birth. A team from London's University College Hospital reported that it is neces-

259

question-

naires had stopped prescribing barbiturates entirely,

had

period,

from

by 3%. By by 30% over

fallen

the consumption of spirits rose

contrast,

the

same

3.4 proof pints per capita in 1972 to 4.5

Mexican agents took to

helicopter

in

their

proof pints in 1975. Wine and beer drinking also rose

war against the narcotics

steadily.

growers.

There was more drinking among young people, and the onset of drinking was occurring at an earlier age.

IVIanero

Alejandro Gertz (left)

examines

marijuana that had been sprayed with herbicide.

260

Earth Sciences

There was also evidence that those who start younger have a higher level of consumption. Most disturbing was the increase in the number of young persons under age 14 who were being diagnosed as having an alcohol problem. Many observers believed that young persons were turning to alcohol because, unlike marijuana and other illegal drugs, it was relatively cheap and easy to obtain and its use did not involve the risk of heavy penalties. At the same time, many adults tended to ignore drinking by their children or even to express relief that the children were not using illegal

amount

of carbon

monoxide yielded by on average,

filter-tipped cigarettes was,

number

28%

The author

than that of untipped brands.

was

a

of

higher

said there

clear epidemiological evidence that the switch to

since the mid-1950s

filter tips

lung cancer mortality

had led

to a reduction

among men aged

less

than

60 years, but his findings suggested that filter because of their higher carbon monoxide yield,

may

in

tips,

carry a greater risk of heart disease.

(donald w. gould) [S22.C.9]

substances.

A

long-smoldering argument on the treatment of

alcoholism surfaced in June, when the Rand Corporation, a U.S. research institution, published a study suggesting that social drinking.

some alcoholics can safely return to The report was vigorously attacked

by many organizations concerned with the treatment of alcoholics, including the National Council on Alcoholism and Alcoholics Anonymous, which stressed

way to prevent relapse. Although the Rand study had stated that there was no way to predict which persons could safely resume drinking in moderation, critics of the report feared that it might encourage many alcoholics to try, with potentially disastrous results. Further fuel was added to the controversy in August, when two studies published in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol, one conducted by the Addiction Research Foundation, Ontario, the other by the Center of Behavioral Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania, appeared to total abstinence as the only

Rand

support the

As with

opiates, a

baby in the its mother

womb may drinks.

be af-

During the

confirmed the existence of a syndrome, which includes a much higher risk of death immediately following birth, lower intelligence, stunted growth, a possible heart defect, and joint defects. Examination of the brains of affected babies who had died showed evidence of extensive developmental defects. An editorial in the Lancet sugyear several studies fetal alcohol

gested that serious consideration should be given to

termination of pregnancy in mothers suffering from

who have continued to drink throughout the first three months of pregnancy. Tobacco. Despite vigorous efforts by some governments, the consumption of tobacco worldwide con-

chronic severe alcoholism

tinued to increase.

More

cigarettes

were smoked

the U.S. in 1975 than ever before. In particular,

in

more

American women and teenage girls were smoking than before, and they were starting at an earlier age. Cigarette sales rose to 602 billion in 1975 from 594 billion in 1974 and 547 billion in 1971, the year cigarette advertising on television was banned. However, the first year of a total ban on tobacco advertising in Norway produced encouraging results. Sales fell 15% in the first half of 1976 as compared with the latter half of 1975. New curbs on the advertising and promotion of cigarettes were introduced in Britain, where tobacco was said to cause at least 50,000 premature

Earth Sciences

GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY Many

achievements in geology and geochemreview took place in 1976, but the year was especially significant for developments in the exploration and interpretation of planetary bodies and the oceanic crust. It was significant also because specific

istry that merit

the Geodynamics Project began formulating a program for the 1980s that might be directed toward the

continents and Earth resource systems.

Mars. The U.S. Viking mission, an unmanned field the greatest geological to Mars, was achievement of 1976. Geologists sat in comfort before their television sets and watched with vicarious pleasure the survey of a really red Martian landscape through the eyes of a remote-controlled electro-optical camera. The titillating hope that evidence would be

found for existing

life

forms, or fossil remains rep-

compounds

in the soil, was at first by the results of one test at both landing sites, but proof was not forthcoming from other tests. The ingredients for life were found. The polar caps are composed dominantly of ice rather than of frozen

resented by organic

raised

carbon dioxide as previously believed. The photographic evidence from the Viking orbiters revealed

beyond dispute that massive flows of water have at one time coursed across the Martian surface. Chemical reactions of the Martian soil in the biology laboratories of the two Vikings corresponded to those anticipated from the activity of microorganisms, but the gas/chromatograph mass spectrometer did not detect any organic compounds. One project scientist was quoted thus: "There is every sign of life except death.

Where are the bodies?" The magnificent new photographs from

the

Mars

and surface, together with the recent peek at the surface of Venus, would certainly be followed by significant developments in extraterrestrial geomor-

orbit

phology.

The

spectacular scenery raises

many

intrigu-

ing questions about tectonic and geomorphic proc-

lung cancer and heart disease

dled the sessions of the 25th International Geological

showed that the death rate from among smokers of lowand low-nicotine cigarettes was 16% lower than

that

see Disasters;

Earth Sciences

leased in September tar

Earthquakes:

Elephant (1976).

esses. (See

Results of an American Cancer Society study re-

Dutch Literature:

Weed (Marijuana) (1971); Acid (LSD) (1971);

;

Space Exploration.) Geological Congress. The Viking landings, on July 20 and September 3, strad-

deaths annually.

see Literature

;

The Drug Problem: What Do You Think? (1972); The Tobacco Problem: What Do You Think? (1972); The Alcohol Problem: What Do You Think? (1973); Alcohol: Pink

expedition

findings.

fected by the alcohol

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Scag (Heroin) Ups/ Downs (Amphetamines and Barbiturates)

(1970) (1971)

among

those using

the

high-tar,

high-nicotine

brands. Nevertheless, smokers of low-tar cigarettes still suffered an appreciably higher death rate than did nonsmokers. A paper published in the Lancet revealed that the

25th

International

Once every four years, geologists from throughout the world convene for approximately ten days of lectures, symposia, and international geopolitical meetings. The 1976 host was Sydney, Australia. The U.S. Geodynamics Committee prepared a report to be available at the congress. This included Congress.

earth studies in the 1980s, based on the findings of an

volved 150 nations. These divided into two groups, the industrialized maritime nations and the less de-

ad hoc Working Group that convened in Washington, D.C., on June 3, 1976. A report of this meeting,

veloped countries. The primary issue was the control of mining projects on the deep ocean floor, well away

"Crustal Dynamics," was also discussed at the con-

from national shorelines. This continuing debate was no longer an academic dispute because the geological exploration of the ocean floor had advanced sufficiently that the time for exploitation had arrived. (See Law: Special Report.) The Oceanic Crust. A December 1975 conference reviewing the results of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (see Oceanography, below) presented a complex picture of crustal magnetism, with an unexpected abundance of reversed polarity samples, shallow inclinations of remanent (residual) magnetism, and low

reference to the development of an approach to solid-

Whatever the outcome of these recent and future discussions, it was already evident that there was likely to be a shift of research emphasis from the ocean basins toward the origin and evolution of

gress.

the continents.

The solution of many geological problems depends on an understanding of the structure of deep continental rocks. The petroleum industry developed a powerful seismic reflection profiling technique for depths of a few kilometres. This technique was successfully tested in 1975 to probe the continental crust to a depth of SO km (30 mi). An extensive project to apply it was being planned by a consortium of scientists as part of the U.S. Geodynamics Program. Earth Resource Systems. The U.S. Geodynamics Committee reports noted that the model of plate tectonics that had been developed during the past decade could now be applied to the evolution of the Earth's crust and the consequential formation of energy resource and ore deposits. The utility of plate tectonics as an exploration tool was a major topic of discussion in connection with oil and geothermal resources at the annual meeting of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. At a Penrose Conference (Geological Society of America) in March on "Function of the Geologist in Society" a group of representatives from government, academia, and industry informally initiated the proGeodynamics Program should be followed by a global program aimed directly at better understanding of solid-Earth resource systems. posal that the current

They maintained

that Earth resource systems must be considered on a global scale, in terms of both ex-

and utilization. The United States, for example, had become increasingly dependent on foreign nations for petroleum and various mineral commodities, while at the same time foreign-assistance programs since 1945 permitted the U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Bureau of Mines to provide geological assistance to less developed countries. Recent modifications eliminated most U.S. geological assistance, ploration

however, thereby terminating the cooperative relations that had been developed with reserve agencies and officials of other nations. This meant that U.S. information about known and potential mineral resources in less developed countries sharply decreased. The U.S. National Committee on Geology recommended a new program of technical cooperation aimed at improvement of the resource institutions and programs of the less developed countries.

During the year the Association of Geoscientists for International Development held its first general assembly, at the International Geological Congress.

The

association was committed to a more effective development of Earth resources, concern for their responsible management, and promotion of activities related to the needs of the less developed countries. A theme common to the association and to the participants of the Penrose Conference, reviewed above, was that geologists have in general failed to educate government and the public on the role of Earth sciences in the orderly development of natural resources. The 1976 UN Conference on the Law of the Sea. the latest in a series begun almost 20 years earlier, in-

The relationships between observed basement rock magnetic complexities and the magnetic anomaly patterns observed at the ocean surface remained problematical. Recent seismic studies have been interpreted in terms of the existence of shallow magma chambers, with 30% melt, beneath ocean ridges. Chemical studies

intensities of magnetization.

of major and trace elements in oceanic basalts suggested that there are at least two mantle chemical sys-

tems beneath spreading ocean ridges, and that each basalt system has undergone extensive crystal frac-

This is consistent with the evidence for chambers.

tionation.

magma

A major topic of discussion was the use of ophiolite complexes and data (an ophiolite complex is a group of igneous and sedimentary rocks including basalt, gabbro, and peridotite, and their metamorphic alteration products such as serpentine) from the ocean crust to develop models of vertical crustal structure. The

ratio

of intrusive to

extrusive

rocks in holes

drilled in the deep-sea project

appears to be higher than expected from comparison with ophiolites. According to ophiolite models, the basaltic crust should exhibit a steep

metamorphic gradient caused by pen-

etrative convection of seawater near the spreading axis.

Unfortunately, the single deep hole available

m

penetrated 600

into

virtually

unmetamorphosed

be considered a typical cross-section until proved otherwise, or is it to be considered atypical because it does not correspond with the ophiolite models? basalts. Is this to

The effect of penetration and convection of seawater into the rocks of the spreading ridge is significant in the geochemical budget of the igneous rockmarine sediment-seawater system. Studies of rare gases in submarine rocks and ocean water indicated that the formation of new crust in the region of the East Pacific Rise is associated with injection of primordial

There

is

3

He

into the crust-seawater system.

a continuing strong trend in marine geo-

chemistry to concentrate on the nature of the fluxes the benthic (ocean bottom) boundary layer. An

in

Bottom Ocean Measurement package designed to study fluxes in connection with the origin and formation of manganese nodules was being deployed in the Pacific Ocean. Magnetostratigraphy. Although continued exearly version of a planned

ploration of the magnetic properties of ocean floor rocks appeared to provide more questions than an-

was a rapid growth in the applications methods to many problems in continental- stratigraphy and paleontology. The Polarity Time Scale Subcommission of the International Union of Geological Sciences' Commission on Stratigraphy set up rules for evaluation of the magnetic data in swers, there

of paleomagnetic

261

Earth Sciences

262

Earth Sciences

magnetostratigraphic studies, and for correlation of stratigraphic zones and magnetic polarities. The ulti-

mate aim

is

stratigraphy.

to

An

correlate

the

magneto-chrono-bio-

adjunct volume for

this task is the

Hedberg Guide, published in 1976 after 20 years of work by another arm of the Commission on Stratigraphy, the Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classification. The publication sets forth recommendations for procedures to be used by geologists on a worldwide basis.

4.4 billion years ago. It

is

now

elaborate models for specific

and

possible to erect more whole-Moon composi-

to test these against the various

geochemical

constraints.

Comparative Planetology. The Apollo tion of the

turned

Moon and

explora-

the photographs and data re-

from Mars, Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter

greatly increased the understanding of planetary proc-

During the year a new phase of extraterrestrial The term "comparative planetology" was applied to studies that examine a process or property on several planets. An international organization was established at the September 1975 General Committee Meeting of the International Council of Scientific Unions. A Coordinating Committee for the Moon and Planets (ccmp) was established with the International Astronomical Union as parent, and with participation of five other unions. Its aims were to facilitate coordination of interdisciplinary research and exchange of information, to stimulate distribution of data, and to coordinate international meetings on planetary topics. The Lunar Science Institute in Houston, Texas, organized and managed a project entitled "Basaltic Vulcanism in the Terrestrial Planets: A Pilot Program in Comparative Planetology." This three-year program, which began in June, involved 50 to 90 scientists organized into ten study teams. One aim was to remove the boundaries that had developed between terrestrial, lunar, and planetary sciences, and to enhance com-

esses.

geology emerged.

How earthquakes are made: a highway cut through a California hill shows slippage scars above the San Andreas Fault,

where two sections

of the Earth's crust are sliding in opposite directions.

process

seen in the perspective of

is

stage on other planetary bodies. This

its

degree and

program could

same kind of stimulus for planetary sciences that the Geodynamics Project provided for the initiate the

Earth sciences. (PETER [133.A.3;

Evolution of the Moon. At the seventh Lunar Science Conference in March, significant progress was reported toward understanding the first 500 million years of the Moon's history. Agreement was reached that the Moon's accretionary phase overlapped with melting and differentiation, and that the Moon melted to a considerable depth very early in its history. The mare basalts produced by remelting of mafic cumulates (minerals rich in iron and magnesium) between 3.9 billion and 3.1 billion years ago caused little disturbance of the closed chemical systems established

tions

munication among participants with expertise in various areas. For example, basaltic volcanism on the Earth should be more clearly understood when the

133.C.l.d;

133.E.S;

212. B.4;

JOHN WYLLIE) 212. F.l;

213.A;

214.C; 231.D]

GEOPHYSICS Although the number of earthquakes, including large ones, occurring during the year was not exceptional, several major shocks centred in populous regions caused great loss of life and extreme damage. Two of these, including the largest to occur since the Alaska earthquake of 1964, occurred in a heavily industrialized area of northeastern China. On July 28, 1976, -at 3:40 am and at 6:50 pm Peking time, earthquakes of magnitudes 8.2 and 7.9, respectively,

struck

Peking-Tientsin-T'ang-shan

the

which has a population of more than 15 million. The epicentres of the shocks were 145-160 km (90100 mi) SE of Peking (pop. 7.5 million) and 65 km (40 mi) N of T'ang-shan (pop. 1 million). Hsinhua, the official news agency in China, reported: "A strong earthquake occurred in the T'ang-shan-Fengnan area on July 28, 1976, and affected the Tientsin and Peking municipalities causing great loss of life and property. T'ang-shan city, in particular, suffered extremely serious damage and losses." Unofficial sources estimated the dead, injured, and missing in the hundreds of area,

thousands.

An

earlier, smaller

on Feb.

shock of magnitude

7.5

occurred

1976, in Guatemala and resulted in the

4,

deaths of 23,000 persons and injury of 75,000. Property damage was estimated at $1.1 billion. This earth-

quake was the subject of an intensive study by seismologists of the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the government of Guatemala with support from the Organization of American States. Engineering studies were also made by the Portland Cement Association. The resulting reports gave a comprehensive picture of the seismicity, tectonic processes, and damage pertaining to the shock.

The earthquake occurred in a relatively inactive Motagua Fault at a depth of 29 km (18

area on the

mi). This fault sharply defines the boundary between

two large crustal

North American and moving westward with

plates, the

Caribbean. The former

is

spect to the latter at an average of 2.1

The

fault

movement accompanying

cm

the re-

per year.

the earthquake

represented a violent continuation of this long-term

motion and was the largest surface displacement recorded in the Americas since the San Francisco earthquake of 1906. The area of damage was 33.000 sq km, and the communities and small towns where 100% damage was incurred covered 1,700 sq km. Many buildings of modern design were severely damaged, but most casualties resulted from the collapse of adobe structures and from massive landslides that completely covered two villages destroyed highways, railways, and communication lines; and dammed a river. A partial count showed 88,404 homes destroyed and 435.000 left homeless. On Aug. 17, 1976, another great earthquake occurred. This shock had a magnitude of 8.0 and took ;

place off the south coast of WIDE WORLD

Mindanao

in the Philippine

IAJOS SOS

major damage due giant waves from 6 to

Islands. In addition to

quake

directly,

surged inland as far as 0.4

km

— INTERFOTO

MTi/eASTFOTO

to the earth7.5

m

high

(0.25 mi). Reports in-

dicated over 8,000 dead and 175,000 left homeless.

A

quake of magnitude 7.9, centred on the northeast shore of Lake Van, devastated a mountainous area of eastern Turkey on November 24. The death toll was estimated at about 4,000 and help for the survivors was delayed by snow and frigid weather. Earthquake prediction research received additional impetus as a result of these disasters. This augmented

by the successful preby Chinese seismologists of the Feb. 4, 1975, earthquake, magnitude 7.3, which destroyed the city of Haicheng and severely damaged several factories in the vicinity. There was little loss of life because authorities were able to evacuate thousands of perthe increased interest generated

diction

sons in anticipation of the shock.

The Chinese were reported to have 10,000 trained earthquake observers operating in 17 centres, receiving data from 250 seismograph stations and 5,000 auxiliary observation points. Their predictions were based not only on recognized instrumentally recorded precursor phenomena such as dilatancy, increased radon content in groundwater, marked changes in the rate of Earth tilt, and changes in the geomagnetic conditions but also on such secondary

phenomena

anomalous animal behaviour and disturbances in water wells and aquifers. The research efforts in the U.S. on earthquake prediction were modest in comparison with those of China. Two events in the U.S. did, however, stimulate interest in the field. On Nov. 27, 1974, data gathered by seismologists of the U.S. Geological Survey from a highly instrumented section of the San Andreas Fault led them to believe that a moderate earthquake was imminent. They did not make a public prediction, but on the following day an earthquake of magnitude 5.3 occurred in the area where it was expected. Later, and possibly more important, the Palmdale uplift was discovered. Centring on Palmdale, Calif., this area, estimated at 12,000 sq km, has risen 0.25 m over the past 15 years. The most rapid rise occurred in 1962 and, on the basis of experience in other regions, should have resulted in an earthquake. Since no shock ocas

curred, seismologists believe

cover

how

this area differs

same precursor

it

is

important to

dis-

from others exhibiting the and also to determine

characteristics

whether the bulge

may

Seismologists at the

still

presage an earthquake.

Weizmann

Institute of Science,

Rehovot, Israel, discovered that in 1943 an earthquake in the Jordan Rift Valley had produced a white material that discoloured the adjacent Dead Sea for about five months. A check of previous earthquakes revealed that another shock, occurring in 1834, had produced similar white material. This suggested a unique geophysical clock. By analyzing sedimentary profiles in samples taken from the Dead Sea floor, seismologists were able to correlate 65% of the layers of white deposits with known earthquakes. The relative depths corresponded to the time of occurrence, and the thickness of each layer was roughly proportional to the earthquake magnitude. The current profiles covered 2,000 years, and the investigators believed that deeper sampling would reveal evidence of earlier events, mentioned in the Bible and elsewhere, that have occurred during the last 4,000 years. The models describing the migration of the Indian subcontinent across the ancient Tethys Sea and its collision with the Asian continent to form the Himalayas

many

leave

factors unexplained. Tibet

is

less seismic

than required and has no history of geologically recent volcanism that should be characteristic. Also, no

previous hypothesis has explained the presence of the well-defined Precambrian crystal core of the

Hima-

and stratigraphic, paleontological, and paleomagnetic data are thought by some to argue against a wide oceanic separation between India and Tibet. To resolve some of these questions, an investigator at the Geological Survey of India in Calcutta suggested that a series of microcontinents lay between India and Tibet and that during the collision these continental structures were tilted and uplifted to form the Hima-

layas,

layas.

One of the fundamental constants that plays an important part in geophysics and geophysical theory is the gravitational constant (G). The usual method of measuring the Moon's orbital time, by determining the Ephemeris Time based on the Earth's orbit around the Sun, cannot demonstrate a change in G because the orbits of both the Sun and the Moon would be affected in the same degree by such a variation. Astronomers at the Astronomical Institute of the University of Utrecht in The Netherlands have, however, analyzed the Moon's orbit from 1955 through 1974 by using an atomic clock as a standard. They found the lengthening of the orbital time to be considerably greater than it was when determined by Ephemeris Time. The external deterrent force that contributes to

—

increase in period tidal friction, solar wind, meteorite impacts, and drag exerted by the interplanetary medium can account for only a portion of the change. It is postulated that the remainder of the this

—

due to a decrease of G by 8 parts in 10 11 per the experiments being undertaken to test this hypothesis were the lunar laser-ranging experiment, which allows a much more precise measurement effect

year.

is

Among

Moon's orbit, and radar ranging measurements, which make more precise determinations of the orbits of Mercury and Venus. of the

Observer's deck of the photographic

telescope at Hungary's new Cosmic Geodetic Observatory near Budapest. use data sent Earth satellites

It will

by to

make geodetic

measurements.

— 264

Earth Sciences

An experiment that produced negative results was an attempt to determine the various rotational and orbital parameters of the Sun and the Moon by studying fossil corals. An estimate of the lengths of the year and day was determined from the annual growth rings and intermediate ridges of corals for various periods extending as far back as 529 million years.

These values were then used to calculate the changes in angular momentum and in the radius of the Earth. A decrease in G would indicate an increase in the

poses. In addition,

many

small areas have been studied

intensively and the available information

is adequate managerial purposes. However, the groundwater resources of many localities would have

for foreseeable

to be studied in greater detail to meet most of the needs of planners and managers in the immediate and more distant future. This is especially so in large

urban areas, and several recent studies showed the adverse effect of urbanization on underlying ground-

radius of the Earth, but the analysis of the coral indi-

water resources. The increase of impermeable areas buildings, streets, and parking lots decreases local

cated that the radius has been essentially constant for

recharge to the underlying aquifers.

the last 500 million years.

particularly in highly industrialized zones, the water

(rutlage

j.

brazee)

HYDROLOGY and most suggestions for conservation, treatment, and reuse carried what seemed to be unacceptably high price tags. One result was increasing attention to groundwater. During the past year, more than ever before, groundwater and the subsurface environment were studied, evaluated, and talked about in terms of water supply, waste disposal, storage and living space, and natural hazards. Withdrawal of groundwater doubled in the U.S. in the past 20 years. By 1976 groundwater provided between one-quarter and one-third of all water used for all purposes, and about half the people in the U.S. depended on it for their domestic supplies. The emphasis of investigations during the year was on the maintenance of groundwater quality. This is particularly a problem where wastes are being or are cated,

planned to be injected into the subsurface either rectly through wells or indirectly

water from sanitary

New

by

infiltration

landfills

studies clearly

di-

of

and wasteshowed that

planning for groundwater use requires consideration of surface-water resources, actual and proposed land

and water

use,

and actual and proposed waste disposal

practices.

of groundwater in the U.S. is known enough for national, regional, and large-area pur-

The occurrence well

critically,

is polluted with organic and inorsome of which are toxic. Widespread concern for the continuing supply of

that

is

recharged

clean fresh water resurrected interest in the use of

In the United States most sources of cheap water by 1976 were either being used or had already been allo-

spreading practices.

More

ganic wastes,

[131.B.S; 213.B; 241.D]

polluted

—

mineralized and saline waters for nonpotable domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes. A joint study by the Colorado Water Institutes and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation indicated that the cost of using low-

quality water for domestic purposes

is

about double

previous estimates, which themselves were not favourable.

Advances

Applications of Research. The use from Landsat 1 and 2 and other satellites demonstrated the practicality of using remote sensing from satellites and high-flying aircraft in

of combinations of data

for preliminary hydrological assessments of the water regimens of large areas. Satellite equipment used for

hydrological studies was

now able to sense, record, and many as 20 different

transmit information from as sensors

for

areas as

launching of Landsat

small 2 in

as

an acre.

With

the

1975, three different proven

systems of satellite data collection became available. These were Landsat 2, which receives bursts of data from collecting platforms and transmits them immediately to receiving stations; the three Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (goes) launched in 1974 and 1975, which interrogate datacollection platforms on command of the receiving stations; and the commercial Telesat satellite, which demonstrated its capabilities of transmitting hydrological

data.

Satellite sensors record several spectra of infrared,

and visible light reflections, and magnetic and microwave emissions. They are able, when related to data gathered on the ground, to monitor some asultraviolet,

pects of water quality, detect sources of fresh water

and the extent of streamflows, measure differences in water temperature, and locate point pollution sources. During the past year, using satellite imagery gathered for other purposes, a study gave the Yemen Arab Republic its first countrywide hydrological assessment; several new and enlarged existing areas for agricultural use were located, and other areas requiring groundbased investigation to determine their water-bearing potentials were identified. Elsewhere, thermal imagery was used both to detect freshwater discharges and losses to the sea and to assist with construction and highway planning, as in Florida where it was used to locate potential sinkholes.

During the year a dramatic

shift

took place, from

regarding liquid wastes from effluents as substances to be treated and disposed of at considerable cost to An

iceberg

calving

considering them as sources of useful materials for many sectors of society. In St. Louis, Mo., the coun-

from the Greenland ice

cap (lower

left)

may appear

try's first

the North Atlantic shipping lanes in two or three years. in

was

waste exchange was organized. Its purpose on the concept that the waste from

to capitalize

one process THE NEW YORK TIMES

is

the

raw material

for another. Several

studies showed that a combination of waste treatment and reuse of salvaged materials lessens the requirements for additional supplies of water and the overall costs of water treatment and pollution control. At the same time, there was no diminution in practical research applied to wastewater. In Puerto Rico scientists found that pollution from effluents from cane-sugar processing, a major contaminant of receiving streams, can be reduced nearly 90% by a combination of treatments with activated sludge, activated charcoal, aeration, trickling filtration, and anaerobic (absence of free oxygen) digestion. Work in the industrially polluted waters of Delaware was providing the basis for a new technology for the removal

of high concentrations of organic substances in in-

The catalytic oxidation process used was shown to be economically competitive with other physical-chemical treatment techniques and to dustrial wastewater.

be particularly useful where the pollution contained high concentrations of organic compounds.

International Developments. Reports of working groups of the U.S. National Committee for the International Hydrological Decade stressed the need in the United States for better coordination of research in snow-and-ice hydrology, increased application of

already proven nuclear techniques in

and programs for drainage-basin research, and additional emphasis on basic hydrology in the university curricula of fuinvestigations,

more

field studies

realistically structured

ture water resources experts.

The

UN called for a worldwide Water Conference to

be held

in

Mar

del Plata, Argentina, in

The conference was

to focus

March

1977.

on better management of

must

the available supplies and the policy issues that

was again studby some scientists. They determined that the immediate situation was not serious, but warned that over the long term man might inflict catastrophic damage on the layer. In simplified summary, ozone in the high atmosphere intercepts most of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun which would be lethal to life on Earth if it penetrated the atmosphere and reached the surface with full intensity. Ozone molecules are disintegrated by certain chemicals being discharged into the air from industrial effluents, commercial and domestic the high stratosphere, the ozone layer

ied with apprehension

aerosols (such as spray can-propellant fluorocarbons),

and other pollutants.

be resolved to avert water crises. (l. a.

heindl)

that

ozone?

[222.A.2.b; 737.A.2]

tional

METEOROLOGY weather and the close linkages between the sciences of the atmosphere and ocean were strikingly shown in a report on the abnormal behaviour of the El Nino Current, a usually minor part of the circulation in the Pacific off the coasts of

Ecuador and Peru. In

1

972—

1965-66, 1957-58, and at similar irregular intervals in the past El Nino brought to the region abnormally large quantities of warm water from the 73,

Equator. The usual areas of upwelling cold water were missing.

Marine

life

was displaced and fish became humans and birds.

scarce, reducing food supplies for

The warmer water

also heated the overlying air.

The

produced cumulonimbus clouds, and the prevailing winds transported rainfall in torresulting convection

rents to the adjacent coastal regions.

The economic

effects of El

dor have been disastrous, and find

Nino on Peru and Ecuait has become urgent to

methods for predicting these emergencies so that

preparations for them can be made.

The reported

search expeditions indicated that prediction

may

re-

de-

pend on the broader overall system of ocean and atmosphere relations over the Pacific. Realizing the great importance of this global air-sea interface, hundreds of research scientists in Canada, China, Japan, the U.K., U.S., U.S.S.R., and several Western European countries reported progress in their studies during 1976, but no major new methods for predicting the changing patterns in the circulations of atmosphere and oceans were found. At the opposite extreme of the Earth's atmosphere,

serious

is

the possibility the

protective

panel of scientists chosen by the U.S. Na-

Academy

of Sciences reported in

had found no evidence of

September

ozone but that the possibility of such a loss occurring in the future is considerable. Further research was considered urgent, and within a period of two years definite conclusions should be drawn on placing restrictions on the use of chemicals destructive to the ozone layer. The Viking spacecraft probes of Mars, the steppedthat

Far-ranging researches into changes in climate and

A

How

chemicals might destroy

these

up

it

critical loss of

to that date

up investigations of core samples of layers of sedifloor, and an impressive variety of research projects between these vertical extremes added greatly to knowledge and hypotheses about solar-atmosphere-ocean relationships and the

mentation on the ocean

probable causes of the changing climate of the Earth. For example, one authentic report showed how an extended period of very intense solar flares millions of years past may have decimated the ozone layer long

enough for the many forms of

why many

from the sun to destroy on the Earth. This would explain species once plentiful became extinct eons lethal rays

life

ago.

Weather Forecasting. During 1976 the World (wmo) achieved a mem-

Meteorological Organization

bership embracing 143 countries (131 sovereign states and 12 recognized territories). These ranged from

among

the largest (China, U.S., and U.S.S.R.) to a few small countries with very few reporting stations. But practically all were under constant urging from economic, social, and scientific bodies to improve the accuracy and extent into the future of their weather forecasts. .Despite considerable effort over the years

and great progress

in technology,

such as space

satel-

Scientists launch a stratosphere balloon to collect samples of gas in

the upper atmosphere.

They were trying to find out whether man-made chemicals have been adversely affecting

the ozone layer.

— 266

Earth Sciences

that provide "eyes" in the sky overlooking atmospheric conditions all over the globe, the accuracy of the regular daily weather forecasts has improved rather slowly. For most practical purposes and by most unbiased standards the 24-hour forecasts during lites

1976 were

in error

about 10-20% of the days.

By

contrast the predictions of certain weather events, in particular the warnings of tropical cyclones (hurri-

canes and typhoons), had improved greatly.

By

1976 the frequent duplication and contradicby private or commercial sources independent of government meteorological centres reflected discredit on the science. Within government, however, duplication between civil and military branches in meteorological facilities was tolerated as a stimulus toward progress in research and optimum utilization of weather services. There were improvements during the year in the worldwide communications facilities for gathering and exchanging weather data, a system that transmits tions in forecasts published

many

day with noteworthy through internationally coup by wmo committees. Such

millions of items every

promptness and

reliability

ordinated scheduling set

global coverage was vital to forecasting.

Technology. The acronym afos was given to the most advanced and comprehensive automation for field operations and services undertaken so far by a large national meteorological body. During 1976 the National Weather Service of the U.S. continued development and installation of afos, a complex of modern electronic equipment that was expected to require several years for ultimate completion. Technological

progress in space satellites for atmospheric sensing

and comparable improvements in other sectors (meteorology) also were impressive. In regard to the year's weather itself, the number and severity of droughts, hurricanes, tornadoes, and other destructive weather events were near or perhaps slightly less than the yearly average.

many

Nevertheless,

and several large regions suffered disasters and heavy losses of life from atmospheric disturbances of one kind or another. (f. w. reichelderfer) localities

[221.A.1; 223. C;

ogy. gists

On the continental shelves, exploration geolomay use the broad knowledge developed by this

work to seek oil and gas reservoirs, ipod was financed by an international consortium including the U.S., U.S.S.R., United Kingdom, France, West Germany, and Japan. It would require the development of new blowout protection technology in case oil or gas is encountered. To date, the dsdp had carefully avoided regions thought to contain

or gas and, at the

oil

first

sign of hydrocarbons, drill holes had been sealed with

blowout probetween the driller and the sea floor. Such pipes have been used to depths of 1,000 ft. ipod would require a similar capability in water 10,000 to 14,000 ft deep. In January the "Glomar Challenger" sailed from San Juan, Puerto Rico, for drilling east of the MidAtlantic Ridge. It continued to the western edge of Africa, there finding evidence of powerful currents that once scoured the ocean floor free of sediments. Proceeding northward through the Bay of Biscay to Rockall Plateau, the voyage discovered that an ancient mountain range existed between Greenland and Europe about 60 million years ago and that western Europe was once bounded by a swampy marginal sea filled with coral reefs. Such previously unknown facts are typical of the results ipod hoped to achieve in its study of ocean boundaries. Just north of the place where the French-American Mid-Ocean Undersea Study (famous) project in 1975 took scientists to the ocean bottom for a firsthand cement. Industrial practice tection

by

is

to provide

installing a steel pipe

look at sea-floor spreading, the "Glomar Challenger" found the youngest crustal material yet retrieved

about one million years old. On September 12 it departed from the Canary Islands with the aim of drilling over two miles into the bottom. This would top by 50% the ship's previous record depth of 5,709 ft. The goal was to obtain information about the Atlantic when it first began to open and to fill with seawater. This happened about 180 million years ago, and the depth of sediment accumulated since then made the record-breaking drill hole necessary. Reconstructions of Climate. Among the divi-

224. C]

OCEANOGRAPHY Since 1968 the specially designed and stabilized deep-

"Glomar Challenger" had been investigating the sediments underlying most of the world's oceans. Approximately 400 holes had been sea drilling vessel

drilled at sites in all parts of the world, excluding

only the Arctic Ocean, in a reconnaissance that had confirmed the hypothesis of sea-floor spreading. According to this hypothesis, hot material upwells for unknown reasons at the crests of the great mid-ocean ridge systems that mark the centres of the major basins.

The deep-sea part of this work would provide knowledge about the development of crustal material that may allow a global approach to local geolrock.

The upwelled material moves laterally away from up to an inch or so per year,

dends of coring the ocean floor are reconstructions of the climate that existed from thousands to millions of years ago. Such reconstructions allow scientists to

study the response of climate to shifts in the distribution of land and water, sea surface temperature, ice cover, and surface reflectivity.

Results from deep-sea cores gathered by project climap were combined in 1976 into a model of global climate at the height of the last ice age, some 18,000 years ago. Sea surface temperatures were then determined by measuring the relative abundance, in the

the ridge crests at speeds

upper sedimentary layers, of the remains of various

slowly subsiding as it cools and becoming covered with sediment as it spreads. The oldest sediments should thus be the deepest ones at the edges of ocean

ganisms.

basins farthest from the ridges.

Project (dsdp)

confirmed

The Deep Sea

Drilling

hypothesis in detail and provided a detailed reconstruction of the evolution of ocean basins over the past 200 million years. this

Late in 1975, the dsdp entered the International Phase of Ocean Drilling (ipod). The main objectives of this program were detailed study of the boundaries the oceans plus systematic drilling through the open ocean sediment layer into the underlying basaltic of

temperature-sensitive, surface-dwelling planktonic or-

From

these data, ice-age sea surface tem-

peratures could be estimated with an accuracy of

about 1.6° C. Many areas of the equatorial oceans and high-latitude waters were found to be some 6° C cooler than at present, but the central regions of mid-ocean current systems were at about present-day temperatures. The Gulf Stream was displaced hundreds of miles south of its present course, and the cold waters north of it correspondingly filled much of the North Atlantic. Ice covered the ocean at very high latitudes in both hemispheres. Ice sheets almost two

AD N

; B /

EASTFOTO

North America and Europe, but little change in Southern Hemisphere land ice occurred. The global response on land was a spread of deserts, steppes, and grasslands with a corresponding reduction in forested areas. Computer experiments using this picture of ice cover and sea surface temperature also suggest that the ice-age climate was dry as well as cool compared with today. miles thick extended into

The

cores indicate that these conditions persisted

from about 24,000

to

14,000 years ago.

The

selec-

sediment age needed to identify samples within this range was obtained by measuring the oxygen isotope composition of the cores. This composition reflects the global amount of water locked up in continental ice at any time. It varies so uniformly throughout the globe that it can be used as a sedimentary tivity

in

clock with an accuracy of about 2,000 years. Material gathered by the dsdp allows somewhat similar reconstruction of climate over the past 100

million years.

The motion

of continents disrupted the

ancient equatorial current that once connected the world's oceans and replaced it with the present-day

Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

As

the climate cooled,

the present polar ice caps formed. This process took

place as a chain of

many

climate fluctuations, the re-

construction of which had just begun. Satellite

Condibe intrigued by

the possibility of studying wide areas of the ocean's

surface simultaneously from Earth-orbiting satellites. using presently orbiting sensors continued dur-

Work

ing the year, and plans were being

made

A harbour dredge

emit precisely timed sound pulses every minute. They

outside the East port of Rostock uses laser beams

are

heavier than seawater at the surface, but the

pressure at great depths compresses seawater more

than

it

does the floats so that, at great depths, they

are lighter than seawater.

Sensing of Ocean Surface

tions. Oceanographers continued to

ing) floats are fitted with acoustic transmitters that

for a satellite

dedicated to oceanographic research. Satellite-borne infrared scanners yield images of

upon which temperature differences appear as different shades of gray. Because the scanner data are telemetered to the Earth, the images may the sea surface

be enhanced with a computer to bring out any desired range of temperatures. Thus, instead of one image of the sea surface there are many, each one displaying a different range of temperature variation. Work during the year concentrated upon the comparison of such images with actual measurements of sea surface tem-

perature by ships at sea. Immediate practical application included tracking the Gulf Stream and locating coastal upwellings. In a related application, satellite images were enhanced to bring out oil slicks, a technique of potential utility in coastal zone management. Satellite-borne radar was used to study ocean sur-

face waves in a variety of ways. Differences in arrival

of about 1,500 is

m

and

Thus they

drift

float at a

German

it in deepening the shipping lane.

to guide

depth

with the water there. This

the local depth of the oceanic

sound channel. Be-

cause sound travels slowest there, sound pulses starting to leave this channel tend to return to

it

with the

be heard for distances of hundreds of miles by microphones submerged in the sound channel. If the times of arrival of the signal at several widely spaced microphones are measured as accurately as present technology allows, the float can be located within about a quarter of a mile. The bulk of the tracking was done continuously result that the floats can

from coastal or island stations (Bermuda, Eleuthera, Puerto Rico, and Grand Turk Island). Float tracks analyzed during the year revealed a wide variety of motions. Many floats migrated in irregular paths,

changing direction and speed appreciably over weeks to months in apparent response to the field of ocean eddies earlier documented in mode. Several others began in this manner but then followed the rim of the Blake Plateau (the continental shelf of the east coast of the U.S.) southward for hundreds of miles, outlining deep currents with unprecedented clarity. Such float measurements reveal where water goes, and they are of particular relevance to the question of

how

time between reflections from wave crests and troughs broaden reflected radar pulses and thus provide an

rapidly the ocean can dispose of concentrated pollu-

wave heights that could be useful in forecasting wave conditions for ocean shipping. Synthetic radar techniques employed com-

See also Disasters; Energy; Life Sciences; Mining and Quarrying; Physics; Space Exploration; Speleology.

tants

by

diluting them.

(myrl

c.

hendershott)

all-weather measure of local

puters to combine

all

receives over several miles of satellite track into a

high-resolution image. The result was that waves a few tens of metres long could be imaged directly under almost all weather conditions. Such images could help in seeing how wave energy shapes coastlines and transports sediments near shore. Tracking Submerged Floats. Satellites are not the only way to monitor ocean conditions continuously. During the International Decade of Ocean Exploration (idoe), a complementary technique of acoustically tracking submerged floats was developed as part of the Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (mode). It continued to be employed in 1976 in the North Atlantic. These sofar (Sound Fixing and Rangsingle

[223.A-C; 224.D.1; 231.D; 231. G; 242.G]

the radar reflections the satellite

—

Encyclop/edia Britannica Films. Erosion Leveling the Land (1964); Rocks that Form on the Earth's Surface (1964); Evidence for the Ice Age (1965); What Makes the Wind Blow? (1965); What Makes Clouds? (1965); Waves on Water (1965); The Beach A River of Sand (1965); Why Do We Still Have Mountains? (1966); Rocks that Originate Underground (1966); How Solid Is Rock? (1968); Reflections on Time (1969); Heartbeat of a Volcano (1970); How Level Is Sea Level? (1970); The Ways of Water (1971); A Time for Rain (1971); A Time for Sun (1971); Earthquakes Lesson of a Disaster (1971); Fog (1971); Geyser Valley (1972); Glacier on the Move (1973); The Atmosphere in Motion (1973); Volcanoes: Exploring the Restless Earth (1973); Monuments to Erosion (1974); Storms: -The Restless Atmosphere (1974); The San Andreas Fault (1974); Energy for the Future (1974); Weather Forecasting (1975); What Makes Rain? ( 1975); Erosion and Weathering-: Looking at the Land (1976); The Moon: A Giant Step in Geology (1976); Volcano: Birth of a Mountain

—

—

(1976).

Eastern Orthodox

Churches: see

Religion

Ecology: see

Environment; Sciences

Life

of the supermarket or the airline or the food packer that

Economics The year 1976 was the bicentennial of that famous work by Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. At the University of Glasgow, where the Scottish professor held the chair of moral philosophy from 1752 to 1763, a conference in his honour drew some 200 economists from Western countries. In four days of papers and discussions they seemed to agree that they were doing more than memorializing a distinguished ancestor. A common theme was that Smith's emphasis on the competitive price system was a contribution to social thought that could stand some reviving in an age of socialism and big government. This view was not restricted to conservative or "free enterprise" delegates, but socialist or

was held by some who had worked for labour governments.

The Glasgow gathering was

a quiet, academic affair, and the world took little notice. It had not always been thus. A hundred years earlier, the centenary of The Wealth of Nations had been celebrated in London at the Political Economy Club, with William Gladstone presiding (between stints as prime minister). At that moment the era of free trade seemed destined to last forever. Smith's book had been the bible of the free trade movement. He had argued

powerfully against the old mercantilist philosophy which held that nations could increase their wealth

by controlling the production and distribution of goods. Such efforts were self-defeating, he said, because government regulations only interfered with the natural working of the market. Perhaps his most famous thesis was that of the invisible hand.

He

wrote that

men

in search of profits

are often led as though "by an invisible

hand"

to ad-

vance the general welfare. The aspiring businessman not only enriches himself but improves the lot of his fellowmen. This comes about because, in a market

economy, goods and services and the means of producing them move to the places where they are needed most, and competition brings prices down. The Wealth of Nations was more than a tract for the times. It was also the first systematic appproach to economics as a science. Previous writers had dealt with economic subjects such as trade and foreign exchange, but Smith set forth a comprehensive picture of the whole economy as a dynamic system. In his book one found an explanation of how prices were determined, how labour was reimbursed, why capital and manpower moved from one industry to another, and why an economy grew. Economists ever since have looked upon Smith as the founder of their science.

he

Some say

Smith wrote at was just getting under way, but there is no evidence in his book that he was even aware of it. His world was one of trade, agriculture, and small-scale industry not of mechanized assembly lines and giant corporations. Even the famous pin factory he described in his account of the division of labour was hardly more than a group of artisans working together. If Smith were writing today he would have to rephrase his famous dictum, "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest," to something like "It isn't from the kindness Is

a time

still

when

we expect our

dinner, but

from

their concern for

their stockholders."

relevant?

no.

the Industrial Revolution

—

:

This is more than a problem of description. The modern economy does not work the way Smith's 18thcentury one did, and much of the concern of 20thcentury economists has been with adding to or revising the theoretical structure they inherited from him. The everyday behaviour of large sectors of the

economy does not conform to Smith's competitive model. Nothing in his work is very helpful in understanding such present-day problems as inflation and unemployment, the setting of prices in heavy industry, or the fiscal and monetary policies of govern-

ments.

Smith remains the

intellectual hero of the competieconomists who strongly oppose socialism and government regulation of business. His appeal for them lies in his moral emphasis on the individual and his hostility to the concentration of power, whether by government or by private monopoly. They point out that Smith began his career as a moral philosopher and that his economics was not separate from his concern with human conduct. According to his famous maxim, "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." About feudal barons and men of power he tive school of

was even more trenchant: "All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of

mankind." This jaundiced view of the human animal in its relation to power linked Smith the moral philosopher with Smith the economist. The market system was the best means of controlling "the mean rapacity, the monopolizing spirit of merchants and manufacturers, who neither are, nor ought to be, the rulers of mankind." If Smith were writing today he would find little reason to change his view of men in power. He could doubtless fill a whole new book with the excesses of modern governments, both totalitarian and other, and with the malfeasances of industrial barons. He might point out how the number of government agencies has tended to grow more rapidly than the population in recent years, and how government programs set up to deal with social ills such as bad housing or lack of medical care often create

new

opportunities for ex-

and cheaters. He would probably be appalled at the way military expenditures have kept pace with increasing national wealth in the last two centuries. He would perhaps say that too much is spent on education, particularly in keeping the young out of the labour market for their first 25 or 30 years. In these observations he would be supported by economists of various schools. But if he wanted to be taken as seriously as he was in the 18th century, Smith would have to add to his economic theory. He would have to find room in it for the behaviour of giant corporations that now employ so much of the labour force and for the torrents of purchasing power that flow in and out of government treasuries and from one country to another. If he did this, he might then be able to offer advice on how to achieve full employment without inflation a task at which contemporary economists seem to have failed. ( FRANCIS S. PIERCE) ploiters

—

See also Nobel Prizes.

[531;

10/36.D]

Economy, World General Overview. The year 1976 began

as one of

rapid recovery from the recession of 1975, which was

by most measures the severest slump since World

War

Among

II.

the 24 countries of the Organization

Economic Cooperation and Development (oecd), industrial production fell 7.7% in 1975 and gross national product fell 1.2%. It was expected that the comparable figures for 1976 would show rises of about for

and 5.5%, respectively, for the group as a whole. (The oecd countries are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, West Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the U.K., and the U.S.) The larger industrial market countries en8.5

tered 1976 with exceptionally rapid rates of growth, but these were not maintained in the second and third quarters.

which accounts for over 45% of oecd countries, started 1976 with an annual rate of growth in gnp of some 8%. This slowed to about 4% in the second and third quarters. But Great Britain's National Institute of Economic and Social Research (niesr) estimated that U.S. gnp would increase by 6.4% for the year as a whole. Similarly, Japan (accounting for 11% of the oecd total) began the year with an 8% growth rate which slowed down in the second quarter but picked up somewhat during the second half. Japan would record a 7% rise in gnp for the year, the niesr estimated. West Germany, while level in the second quarter, was

The United

the output of

States,

all

estimated as having a gnp 6% higher for the year. France, Italy, and Canada also began the year strongly and then faltered. In Italy's case, the rapid expansion continued through midyear, when

newed crisis icies.

it

encountered

re-

form of an external payments following deflationary fiscal and monetary polYet Italy was expected to show an increase in difficulties in the

gnp of 4.5% for the year. The United Kingdom was among

oecd member countries having the lowest rates of growth in 1976, generally estimated at barely more than 1%, compared with the Treasury's forecast of about 2.5% at the the

beginning of the year. In the U.K., too, the year began with tangible growth but there was an absolute

and while consumption recovered in the third (aided by income tax concessions) the effect of this was partly offset by a rather surprising fall in the volume of exports. The case of the U.K. was also somewhat special in that the persistently adverse payments deficit, combined with the government's desire to support the exchange rate, provoked two bouts of measures to reduce the budget defthe second quarter,

fall in

in a recession, due partly to the Swedish economy's typical time lag in the wake of the European economic cycle; Switzerland's recovery was apparently impeded by the rise of its exchange rate; Spain found it necessary to introduce anti-inflationary measures; while Australia was stagnating, partly as a consequence of slashes in public expenditure. But the most singular feature of the behaviour of the industrial market economies in 1976 was the wide movements in exchange rates. In 1974 and through much of 1975 most industrial countries managed to finance their external deficits in a way that supported their exchange rates; and a few had surpluses. But toward the end of 1975, the cohesion of the pattern of exchange rates broke down. First the lira fell, then sterling and the French franc, and subsequently there were two more sharp declines in the weighted exchange rate of sterling. The Canadian dollar, which had been at a premium over the U.S. dollar through much of the year, fell to between 97 and 98 U.S. cents after the victory of the separatists in the Quebec provincial

Sweden was

Among

election. fell

21%

by

the

the depreciating currencies, sterling

months to December 3 (as measured U.K. Treasury's weighted exchange rate index), the lira 22%, and the French franc 13%. The U.S. dollar remained almost stable, the Japanese yen rose a mere 2% (despite a slow domestic recovery and in the 12

a current account external surplus of nearly $3 bil-

1976), while the mark apby 11%. The Swiss franc and the guilder also rose by 10 and 7%, respectively. The mark was easily the strongest currency in the second half, and was revalued within the European Economic Community (eec) "snake" the joint European float in

lion in the first half of

preciated

—

—

—

October.

The payments recovered from

surplus of the oil-exporting countries

its

sharp dip in 1975, though estimates

the first in July after the raising of a $5.3 billion

differed as to the extent of the recovery. Clearly the

central bank credit line; and the second, as the year ended, in the course of negotiations with the Inter-

ganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (opec)

icit:

national

(145%

Monetary Fund

for

a

maximum

drawing

of the U.K. quota in the Fund).

Canada's recovery proved a disappointment, in that the labour force expanded rapidly, making the expected 5% growth in gnp insufficient to prevent unemployment from rising above its mid- 19 75 peak. The smaller oecd countries experienced much more sluggish recovery, in the majority of cases, than the large ones. Leaving aside the seven biggest oecd countries,

gnp

rose

by

a

mere 2.5%

for the others.

surplus would not be as large as in 1974.

The Or-

surplus was in fact the result of varied national situa-

Some oil-exporting countries, such as Iran and Indonesia, were taking steps in 1976 to reduce deficits that had appeared rather earlier than expected, while tions.

Saudi Arabia appeared to be having difficulty in implementing its plans for spending its revenues. The economic situation of the other less developed countrfes was even more varied. Prices of third world commodities rose strongly in the first half of the year, leveling off

somewhat

in the

second half. But

— 270

Economy, World

in

— with —supply problems

some

cases

Brazil's coffee

as

copper

and Zambia's

that aggravated the price

prevented the countries in question from The non-oil-producing third world, taken as a group, increased its external debt by a very large amount once again (over $20 billion for the second year in a row, by an oecd estimate). rises also

gaining any net benefit.

The

Soviet bloc also suffered from trade imbalances.

Indeed, the reduction in industrial output targets in the annual plans of some of these countries was largely due to factors aggravating the balance of payments. This was the first time that member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (cmea, or Comecon) had deliberately reduced their rates of industrial growth because of difficulties with external

payments. These

difficulties, particularly in the

form

of rising prices of imported industrial materials, af-

much more The volume of Soviet imports remarkable 18%. Much of this

fected the Eastern European countries

than the Soviet Union.

1975 increased by a grain, but imports of machinery rose steeply in both 1975 and early 1976. Soviet industrial production was said to have risen at an annual rate of 5% in the in

was

first

half of 1976,

compared with 7.5%

in 1975.

NATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES Developed Market Economies. In 1975

the West-

ern world faced the deepest recession of the postwar period, resulting in a decline in real

However, as

gnp

of over

a result of the various reflationary

1%. mea-

sures taken from the spring of 1975, by the third quarter of that year most of the oecd countries were

on a gentle recovery trend. This gathered strength in the early part of 1976, giving rise to a

gnp

gain for the oecd as a whole during the

6.5%

real

first half.

Although the advance varied from country to country (from 4% in Italy to 9% in France), in general terms the recovery was less pronounced than in comparable phases of past recessions. By and large, this was regarded as a matter for satisfaction and confidence rather than concern, since it was felt that by keeping the upturn to moderate proportions it would be possible to avoid renewed inflationary pressures. By the first quarter of 1976, the annualized increase in oecd consumer prices was down to 9% from about 14% 12 months previously, and since this was still regarded as unduly high it was not surprising that governments everywhere were reluctant to take further reflationary measures. On the contrary, the Federal Reserve Board in the U.S. did not hesitate to apply the monetary brakes as soon as the recovery seemed to be established. Similarly, the Japanese authorities stopped inflating in November 1975 and it took some six months of relatively sluggish growth, as well as the imminence of critical parliamentary elections, to persuade them to provide an extra boost to the economy. At the same time, Great Britain beset by a still unacceptably high rate of inflation and a very large external payments deficit had little choice but to pursue a moderately deflationary policy. Neither West Germany nor France provided any significant boost to the economy in the first half, although largely because of the ambitious expansionary programs introduced in late 1975 both countries started the year on a buoy-

—

—

—

—

ant keynote.

Another reason for the general reluctance to pursue strongly reflationary policies was the rather dif-

on the money markets. As a result of the 1975 many countries were still running large deficits in 1976. This, in turn, gave rise to a growing desire to reverse the trend which in most cases strain

measures,

—

ruled out the injection of large additional funds into the economy.

Up to the middle of 1976, the broad indications were that the relatively cautious fiscal and monetary policies pursued would lead to a moderate but sustained recovery without any significant acceleration in inflation. The second half of the year, however, saw the emergence of some doubts about what had been previously regarded as a fundamentally satisfactory medium-term outlook. On the basis of the evidence most major oecd members saw a deceleration in growth in the second half of the year. In Japan, for example, growth was thought to have come back from an annual rate of about 8% in January-June to 5-6% in the subsequent six months, while in West Germany the first half's available at the end of 1976,

8% appeared to have been followed by an increase of only 3-4% in the second. The growth of the oecd group as a whole was provisionally estimated to have fallen back from 6.5 to 4.5%. This indicated that the strength of the expansionary forces present in the system might have been overestimated and that further stimuli would be deannualized gain of

sirable to ensure that the recovery did not peter out prematurely and that the still excessively high unemployment was brought down to acceptable levels. At the same time, however, the trend of inflation seemed to have taken a turn for the worse. Although this was partly explained by the growing strength of

commodity prices, it seemed to argue for a careful, and even stricter, policy of demand management. Governments therefore faced a difficult dilemma and their response was not uniform. Japan stood firmly against any new boost to demand but finally gave in at the end of the year. The Ford administration in the U.S. stuck to

policy of no further reflation, but

Jimmy

Car-

would adopt a less restrictive approach. At the same time, France reacted with the introduction of ter

strict price controls,

faithful to

its

while

West Germany remained some steps to

original policy but took

provide additional incentives to investment. Britain,

on the other hand, had

little

Great

choice but to

follow a deflationary policy in spite of the prospect that the gain in real

gnp might not even reach

2%

in

1976. Furthermore, faced with a steady deterioration in the external value of sterling, the British govern-

ment was forced to apply to the International Monetary Fund (imf) for a standby facility of $3.9 billion and, just before the conclusion of the negotiations,

it

was widely assumed that the terms would require further curbs on private consumption and government expenditure in 1977.

So as the year drew to a close the major Western economies were characterized by a still high but faltering growth rate, a high level of unemployment, some tentative signs of renewed inflationary pressures, and a lack of clear-cut policies to deal with a difficult situation. The outlook for 1977 was regarded as uncertain, although it was generally expected that fears of a new inflationary spiral would ensure a cautious policy causing a further slowdown in economic growth. Thus an oecd forecast spoke of an increase of only

gnp during the initial six months of by a further cutback to 3.5% in the However, since the world's productive

ficult financial position of

4-4.5%

efforts to get the

1977, followed

most governments. In their recovery going in 1975 most of them incurred very heavy deficits which put considerable

its

the indications were that President-elect

in real

second half.

Table

1.

OECD

Real Gross National Products of Countries

% change, seasonally

but have a strongly adverse effect on investment programs. The result of this was that during the first

1960-73

Canada

5.1

0.6

France

5.9

Germany, West

4.9

Italy

Japan United Kingdom United Stales Total major countries

1975

first

1976 second

1976*

half

half*

5.0 6.2 5.2

6.0 9.2 8.0 4.2

4.5 4.5

5.6

-2.4 -3.4 -3.7

10.9

2.2

1.5 6.5

3.3

-1.6 -2.0

2.2 7.0

4.7

4.2

7.0

5.7 1.2 6.0

5.5

-1.5

6.0

7.2

4.7

7.7

3.7

estimated to have been responsible for less than 0.5 percentage point of the gain in gnp, compared with nearly 2 points attributed to inventory expansion. In

-2.2

4.9

0.8

—2.0 -1.4 -0.8

Greece

5.2 4.9 4.7 5.4 7.8

Ireland

4.1

Netherlands, The

Spain

5.2 3.5 4.9 7.3

-0.5 -1.0 -0.5

Sweden

4.1

Switzerland

4.6

Belgium

Denmark Finland

New

Zealand

Norway

Total

OECD

-1.0 5.0 2.2 4.0

5.5

the U.S., and

1.5 1.0 5.5

Canada did rather well

in

this

field.

Public demand, on the other hand, was relatively

5.5 2.2

-7.0 -1.3

investment

residential

to

benefited from the good availability of housing credit),

-3.5

3.3 0.8 0.5

private

be a source of some strength but, once again, performance varied strongly from country to country. Thus West Germany, France, Great Britain, and Italy saw little if any increase, but Japan (which

3.0 2.7 3.7 5.0

0.2 3.7

however,

contrast,

proved Australia Austria

a strongly

falling in

half year Frorr

Country

gnp was on

rising trend, expenditure

From previous

year

total

on plant and equipment was Great Britain, Canada, Italy, France, and Japan, and it was only because of the relatively strong performance of the U.S. and West Germany that the oecd group recorded a marginal increase. Over the whole oecd area the increase in fixed investment was

adjusted annual rates

Average

when

half of the year,

weak, reflecting the 6.5

efforts of

most governments

to

contain their large deficits. In fact, growth in this area was generally sluggish, representing a deceleration

4.5

•Estimate. Source-. Adapted from OECD, Economic Ouf/oofc, July 1976. The countries belonging to OECD are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, West Germany, Greece, Ice-

from the advance registered in the preceding year in seven most important oecd countries. The odd men out were the U.S., where government spending contributed 0.5 point to the gain in gnp, and France, where its contribution was nearer one perfive of the

land, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

centage point. capacity was estimated to be growing at

4-5%

per

annum, this raised the prospect of no further fall, and perhaps even an increase, in the level of unemployment. In broad terms, gnp growth for the oecd area during 1976 was estimated at around 5.5%, compared with a decline of 1.3% in the preceding year. However, because of the cautious monetary and fiscal policies pursued, the advance was fairly narrowly based. The leading element of the recovery had been private consumption expenditure. This was fairly buoyant in all countries except the U.K. (where there was a conscious policy to shift resources to investment and extaking the oecd area as a ports) and Italy; in fact whole consumption was probably responsible for

—

—

over half of the overall gain in gnp. To a large extent, this was the result of a gradual increase in disposable

—

incomes which benefited from the fiscal policies introduced in 1975 and the cutback in the rate of inflation.

However, the reduction

in the level of savings,

which reflected an improvement in consumer confidence, also played a significant part. Another contributory factor appeared to have been a strong recovery in demand for consumer durables in reaction to the depressed levels seen in 1974 and most of 1975. An even more buoyant area of demand was inventory-building. Following the furious destocking drive seen in 1975, the level of stocks saw a rapid rise in

most oecd countries except Japan, where stocks fell in the first half of the year, and Great Britain, where the second half was thought to have seen some decline. The principal reason for the generally good performance in this sector was the recovery in output and the improvement in the financial situation of the corporate sector which made restocking desirable and possible. Most other areas of economic activity exhibited a comparatively sluggish trend. Despite the recovery in output,

much

of 1976

was characterized by consid-

erable excess capacity in most countries and industries.

This, together with the the strength

still

widely held doubts about

and durability of the recovery, could not

In sharp contrast, export demand picked up strongly

oecd exports went to oecd was accompanied by a similar increase

but, since a large part of countries, this in imports.

As

a result the net foreign trade effect

on the level of demand was largely negligible during 1976. The situation, however, varied from country to country. Japan, for example, saw a very rapid growth in overseas sales without an accompanying rise in purchases in the

thought

to

20%

over

first

half and, although the position

have seen

a sharp

turnaround

was

in the second,

gnp was attributable to this and Great Britain, where the steady

of the rise in

factor. In Italy

deterioration in the external value of the currency boosted exports and provided a disincentive for im-

was some two-thirds ports, there

also a strong positive effect (in Italy

gnp gain came from foreign and Canada the overall economy was adversely affected

of the

trade) but in the U.S., France,

performance of the by the excess of imports over exports. During 1976 the external payments situation of most oecd countries saw a significant deterioration. In 1975 exports fell but this was more than compensated for by a reduction in imports, and the oecd countries as a whole had a positive trade balance of approximately $6 billion, with only Great Britain, Italy, Canada, and a number of smaller countries registering a deficit. However, under the impact of lively stockbuilding activities during the first half of 1976, imports including those from third world countries

— —increased rapidly and the indications were that

the second half

saw a further,

if

somewhat slower,

advance. At the same time, import prices rose faster than those of exports the estimate was for gains of 8 and 6% further inflating the bill for overseas pur-

—

—

However, the trend exhibited significant variafrom country to country. On the one extreme was the U.S., where a trade surplus of around $9 billion in 1975 was estimated to have been turned into a deficit of $6 billion-$7 billion, but in Japan the 1975 surplus of $5 billion was thought to have risen to $10 billion in 1976. An improvement was also seen chases.

tions

271

Economy, World

272

Economy, World

in Canada (where a deficit was turned into a small surP lus ) and Tlie Netherlands (where the surplus of 1975

adverse balance recorded in 1975. West Germany may have seen a reduction in the surplus achieved in 1975,

In formulating his budget strategy for July-September 1976 and the 1976-77 fiscal year, Pres. Gerald Ford and his advisers overestimated the amount of fiscal stimulus that was present in the system from the previous year's budget. Although the budget deficit for the first nine months of the 1975-76 fiscal year was a huge $67.8 billion (as against $31.6 billion the

this was still the largest was estimated toward the end the year that the entire oecd area may have faced

previous year), in the last three months of this period the shortfall ran below forecast and pointed to a falling trend. This was confirmed in the subsequent quar-

was enlarged in the following year). By contrast, France saw the emergence of a deficit after running a positive balance and Italy faced a widening of its

but

—

at

around $16

billion

—

of any oecd country. It of

—

quite a deterioration a deficit of $7 billion in 1976 compared with the positive figure of $6 billion in 1975

ter,

but well below the deficit of $26.5 billion recorded in 1974 as a result of the explosion in oil prices. By and large the trend of output reflected that of demand as outlined earlier in this section. In the first

budget deficit to $44.6 billion. Although this was subsequently voted up by Congress to nearer $50 billion, the broad strategy of reduced fiscal stimulus was still

was

The vigorous economic growth of the first quarter was not expected to continue unabated, but many economists were taken aback by the results of the second quarter, published in the summer. The growth rate was halved to 4;5% and most other economic indicators presented a sluggish picture. However, the

half of 1976 the index of industrial production rising at a satisfactory,

most countries and

it

somewhat

if

is

erratic, rate in

estimated that during this

period the output of the oecd group recorded an an-

12%. As already

nualized gain of about

in

growth of production

back

fell

discussed,

the second half and the

demand became weaker

to

some 7%, giving an

average of 9% for the whole year. The relatively strong growth recorded in the first half of 1976 had a

on unemployment, cutting the number of jobless to about 14 million from the peak of just over 15 million in October 1975. However, in mid-

visible effect

1976 the unemployment rate (the number of jobless expressed as a percentage of the civilian labour force) was still a historically high 5.5% and even at the end of the year

5%. As

it

was not thought

have

to

below

fallen

discussed earlier in this section, 1976 drew to

a close amid growing uncertainty about the prospects

and there were widespread fears that, in the absence of further stimuli to demand which could have an adverse effect on inflation, economic growth might not be rapid enough to produce a further significant for 1977,

^ in unemployment rates. United States. The performance of economy at the end of 1975 aroused doubts

drop

the

U.S.

as to the

However, these by the first quarter's national income statistics which showed that during JanuaryMarch the economy grew at an annual rate of over 9% quality and strength of the recovery. fears were dispelled

in

real

terms. Inventories

fell

and consumer

dence was strong, with sales of durable goods, motorcars, setting the pace. As

ticular

recoveries,

number

May

unemployment began

of jobless

fell

below the

to

in

confiin par-

previous

respond and the

7 million

mark by

(the 1975 peak had been 8.5 million). Industrial

production raced ahead, unused capacity declined, and investment began to pick up.

At the same time, the first quarter's money supply what the chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Arthur Burns, termed "explosive" growth rates. Taking heart from the highly satisfactory rate of economic expansion, but alarmed by the prospects of renewed inflation, the Fed decided to play safe and gave the monetary brakes a gentle touch. figures registered

Accordingly, the long-range target for

money supply

was reduced and the Fed's open-market operations engineered a

By

rise in

short-term interest rates.

tightening the reins on economic expansion at

such an early stage of the recovery, the authorities served notice that inflation was still the number one enemy. However, subsequent developments demonstrated that the dangers of triggering a deceleration

had been underrated and those of ated.

inflation exagger-

but the president and his advisers put forward proposals for 1976-77 which would have cut back the

the order of the day in late 1976.

administration and, to a lesser extent, the Congress were not perturbed by the magnitude of the slowdown. It

was

felt that this

was largely

a transitory phase at-

tributable to the ending of stockbuilding and that a

would be resumed in the next But the monthly economic statistics released through the summer, and the gnp figures for the third quarter, confirmed that there had been no improvement in the rate of growth. The relaxed, steady-as-you-go approach of President Ford's economic advisers, together with Burns's faster rate of expansion

quarter.

concern for inflationary dangers, failed to produce measures that could have checked the slowdown. The political consequences of the policy were not clear, but some observers suggested that the failure to boost growth played into the hands of Jimmy Carter during the election campaign and contributed to the

narrow defeat of President Ford. The growth rates achieved in the second and third quarters (4.5 and 3.8%, respectively) were not high enough to prevent an increase in unemployment levels. From the low point of 7.5% reached in May, unemployment rose to 7.9% in August. This abnormally high level was held with minor fluctuations until November, when it rose to 8.1%. Given the weak keynote of the economy in the second and third quarters it is not surprising that consumer confidence was not very strong, leading to a seesaw in retail sales. Another reason for this was the fall in real disposable incomes; in August, for example, they were 0.6% lower than a year before and, more importantly, they were also lower than

in

July 1976.

which since the spring had been repeatedly singled out as the most potent danger, remained largely unchanged at an annual rate of 4-5% in the six-month period to October, but now there were grounds for believing that this moderate trend might be jeopardized by the higher wholesale prices that were working their way through the economy. So as the year drew to a close, the U.S. economic Inflation,

climate was not dissimilar to that of a year before. There were question marks over the strength of the expansion; unemployment was far too high; and inflation though temporarily under control had not been successfully tamed. However, with a new president taking over in January 1977, the chances of the deceleration gathering pace were practically nil. President-elect Carter was committed to a more ex-

—

—

—

Dependmonths of 1976, an immediate tax cut for the medium-to-low income groups seemed in the cards. Barring unforepansionist policy

at least in the short run.

ing on the pace of expansion in the final

seen events, the U.S. during 1977 could be expected to continue to lead the

world (except the U.K. and economic expansion into

the

first

three quarters of the year

was some 0.5%

corresponding period of 1975, and in December the signs were that 1976 as a whole would see a small decrease for the second successive year. The tempo of investment expenditure was also slug-

lower than

gish.

in the

Although 1976 saw a recovery

in the

corporate

weak demand meant

Italy) along a path of gradual

sector's financial situation,

the final stages of recovery.

most companies worked well below full capacity. This, and the lack of confidence in the future, provided a serious disincentive to spending on new plant and equipment, which was only partially offset by the relatively good supply of funds for investment purposes and the availability of official investment assistance

Great Britain. Unlike most developed U.K. had seen a weakening

countries,

economic activity during 1975, with real gnp falling by 2%. The recession, however, hit bottom around the end of the year, and the country entered 1976 on a note of cautious the

in

recovery. In the event, this turned out to be considerably more sluggish than expected and by early De-

cember the indications were that growth for the whole The main reason for this was the government's decision not to provide any significant boost to domestic demand. This represented a significant change from the policy pursued in year would not exceed 1.5%.

previous recessions, but with a rapid rate of inflation, an unacceptably large balance of payments deficit, and steady pressure on the pound sterling, the option to reflate was simply not available to the authorities. At the end of 1975, Great Britain's inflation rate had been 25%, but as a result of the deflationary policies followed and the introduction of an even stricter incomes policy (providing for a maximum rise in wages of 4.5%) in August, this dropped to 14% by September. However, it was still considerably higher than the government's target and in excess of the rate seen in most other developed countries. Furthermore, during the autumn there were some signs of an acceleration in the underlying trend of inflation, principally as a result of the

the external value of sterling.

December

1976,

the

dropped from $2,025

continuing

fall in

Between January and

dollar/sterling

exchange

rate

to $1,689, the rate of decrease

being particularly sharp in the second half of the

was largely due to the deterioration in the payments situation (after a fairly encouraging performance in the first quarter) as a result of which the current account deficit for 1976 was likely to reach some £1,900 million, compared with £1,573 milyear. This

external

Other contributory factors were anxiety about the growing voice of the extreme left wing, fears of labour troubles, a large government deficit, and the failure of the Bank of England to support sterling on a number of critical occasions. Because of the persistent weakness of sterling, the chancellor of the Exchequer was forced to apply to the imf for a loan of $3.9 billion in October; negotiations with Fund officials continued throughout the fourth quarter, and at the end of the year the indications were that this would be granted only if the government agreed to further curbs on expenditure leading to a reduction in the public sector borrowing requirement. Monetary policy during the year had not been particularly restrictive, mainly because the authorities were anxious to encourage investment. However, because of the attack on sterling, the Bank of England was forced to increase the minimum lending rate to lion the preceding year.

15%

in

With the benefit of three quarwas estimated that the volume of fixed investment would register a decrease of about 2.% for the whole year compared with a fall of just over 1% in 1975. However, toward the end of 1976 there were some signs of a cautious recovery particularly in the manufacturing sector and it was widely felt that 1977 would see a modest increase. in selected industries. ters' statistics, it

—

Inventory movements also exerted a negative infludemand largely because, notwithstanding the reduction in the previous year, most manufacturers took the view that the level of stocks was still too high in relation to the level of output. In contrast, government current expenditure was fairly strong despite attempts to economize; in the first half of the year

4% higher than in the same was widely expected that the statistics for the second half would show a further increase. Exports benefiting from the recovery in the world economy, the existence of much spare capacity in Britain, and the deterioration in sterling's external value were also a positive influence on aggregate demand. In volume terms, exports of goods and services were up 3.5% in the first half and despite some weakening in the second the year as a whole was expected to see a gain of 4-5%. Imports of goods and services showed a broadly comparable increase, with the gain for the whole year estimated at around 4.5% in volume terms. its

volume was nearly

period of 1975, and

it

—

—

—

—

The trend

of industrial output reflected the rather

sluggish and erratic growth of first

two quarters of the year

rising curve, its earlier

demand. During the was on a modestly

it

but in the third quarter

momentum. However,

it

lost

much

of

the underlying trend

appeared to point upward at the end of the year and was thought that the outcome for 1976 was a gain of just over 1%. This, however, was not large enough to cut back the level of unemployment. In fact, the it

the authorities' inability to pro-

vide any significant reflation had an adverse effect

on most major components of domestic demand. Personal consumption was hit by income restraints, unemployment, uncertainty about the future, and a relatively rapid rise in prices. As a result and despite a reduction in the level of savings its volume during

—

—

ence on

October.

Not unexpectedly,

that

—

8 AS

— TACHYDROMOS,

GREECE / ROTH CO

273

Economy, World

— 274

Economy World '

number

of those out of

work continued

to increase;

1975. Private consumption, which

saw

on a seasonally adjusted basis this accounted for 5.1% of the labour force in January 1976 and by October

of gnp,

reached 5.5% (1,306,200). On several occasions during the year, the

the second quarter

official

policy of maintaining a large margin of spare resources and cutting public expenditure came under severe attack from the left wing of the Cabinet and the trade union movement, which advocated high levels of public expenditure and severe import controls as a means of boosting domestic demand and reducing the trade deficit. The differences in approach came into particularly sharp focus at the end of the year in discussing the terms of the imf loan of $3.9 billion asked for by the government. In December the discussions were still going on, although it was expected that agreement would be reached on an accelerated program of reducing public spending and the government's borrowing requirement.

The outlook

for the

economy during

1977 could not be assessed accurately in the absence of a detailed evaluation of the imf terms accepted by the government, although it seemed likely that even these did not impose additional deflation on the economy, the gain in real gnp would not exceed 2.5%. Japan. At the end of 1975, the Japanese economy had evidenced a sluggish tempo of growth, a gradual fall in the rate of inflation, and a rapidly strengthening external payments position. In spite of this, however, the authorities were reluctant to try significant demand-boosting measures since they felt that, as a result of the increases in public spending and relaxation in monetary policy up to November 1975, there was enough reflation in the pipeline to ensure a rapid if

recovery during 1976.

The

of the year

a

the

results for the first quarter

—showing gain of 3.5% previous quarter—provided some

in real

gnp over

justification for

and many forecasters concluded that growth March 1977) would exceed 7%. However, the euphoria did not last long. During the subsequent quarter, growth slowed down to 1.1% and key economic statistics for ensuing months provided further evidence that the recovery was losing momentum. To a large extent this was the result of a cutback in the growth of exports from an unsustainable and clearly abnormal 9% in the January-March period to a still highly satisfactory 4%. However, the tempo of economic activity was also adversely affected by the continuous political infighting within the ruling Liberal-Democrat Party, which apart from damthis view,

for fiscal 1976 (ending in

aging business confidence of the public works

By

— —delayed a

substantial part

program by holding up

legislation.

the second half of 1976, therefore, the govern-

ment came under increasing pressure to provide a further boost to domestic demand. Facing crucial elections in December, the authorities obliged by announcing a $3.4 billion package in November aimed at higher public spending and investment. As a result, a gnp growth of 5-6% seemed likely during fiscal 1976, roughly in line with the government's original forecast

and

achieved in

On

considerably

fiscal

better

than

the

4.1%

1975.

the basis of the economic indicators available

December 1976, most major components of gnp were heading for a satisfactory increase. Exports were particularly buoyant. Thanks to the rapid growth in the world economy in early 1976, these started off on in

it

makes up over

half

a substantially slower rise. Like exports,

started off on a relatively buoyant keynote, but in

it grew at an annual rate of only 4.5%. This was largely the result of the relatively small wage increase (9%) negotiated during the spring wage offensive and a high propensity to save in the face of growing unemployment and general uncertainty about the future. Both of these conditions continued into the second half, and the outcome for 1976-77 was thought to be a real growth of only about 4%, compared with 5% in fiscal 1976. Public investment and current spending started off well in the first few months of 1976, but during the following six months there was a loss of momentum mainly because of the authorities' failure to get the bill authorizing the sale of government bonds enacted in time. Toward the end of 1976 the tempo of public works expenditure speeded up, but in spite of this it was felt that the gain for the fiscal year would not exceed 4%, compared with an increase of over 8% in 1975-76. The stock situation; however, saw a dramatic turnaround; under the impact of cash flow difficulties and weak demand the level of inventories had seen rapid decline in 1975-76, but the first two quarters of the subsequent fiscal year saw a steady increase. Private plant and equipment investments also did well. Despite the easy monetary policy, these were falling up to the end of 1975, but from then on the results

pointed to

a

gradually strengthening recovery.

In

January-March 1976 the gain over the previous quarter was 0.4%, but in the April-June period there was an increase of 1.7%. All in all, it was anticipated that the 1976-77 fiscal year would see a gain of some 4.5%, compared with a fall of nearly 11% in 1975-76. Private housebuilding, stimulated by the good availability of housing credit, was also strong, but its anticipated growth was broadly the same at 12%

—

—

as in the preceding year.

In line with the gentle upward trend of the econ-

omy,

industrial output also

saw an increase and most

of the production limitation schemes, introduced as a

defensive measure during the recession, were aban-

doned or relaxed. Inflation continued to moderate throughout most of the year with the rate falling from 10% in January to 8% in September although in the final quarter there were signs of an acceleration. Along with the rapid growth of exports, the year saw a fast rise in the trade surplus which was expected to total $10 billion for the whole fiscal year. This led to growing criticism from Japan's trading partners, forcing Tokyo to agree to restrictions on some of its exports and to improve access to its own markets. Japan entered 1977 on a note of modestly growing

—

aggregate

gnp

in

demand

(pointing to a

7-8%

gain in real

1977-78), a continuing but probably unsus-

tainable increase in the external

some

—

payments surplus, and

tentative signs of an acceleration in inflation.

major by the authorities. However, as a result of the poor showing of the ruling Liberal-Democrats in the December elections there was widespread uncertainty about the government's likely economic strat-

The

situation did not appear to call for any

initiative

egy. In the main, the doubts concerned the effects of

Prime Minister Takeo Miki's replacement by Takeo Fukuda, widely recognized as a highly experienced but

a strong underlying trend; and although there was a noticeable slowdown in the subsequent six or nine months, the outlook for fiscal 1976 pointed to a vol-

conservative economist, with the consequence that the Liberal-Democrats would have to seek the support of other conservative-oriented politicians to ensure a

ume

workable majority.

gain of about

8%,

twice as large as during fiscal

— ADN-ZB

West Germany. The economic

recovery

dently heralded for early 1975 did not get under until late in the year.

/

EASTFOTO

confi-

way

Consequently, 1975 witnessed a

drop of 3.5% in real gnp instead of the small economic growth officially forecast. The year 1976 opened with high hopes of a strong economic performance, and national accounts statistics for the

first quarter confirmed that such hopes were founded on strong ground.

gnp

rose

by over

production,

6%

after

in real terms,

continually

falling

while industrial for

over

two

years to mid-1975 and recovering only hesitantly after that,

made up nearly

half

its lost

ground. Industrial

capacity utilization began to improve, and encouraging progress was

made on

unemployment

the

front.

The

outlook for industrial investment and exports appeared relatively sanguine. In the early part of the year, the government's

economic

strategy

was

—following successive DM 35 — was that

doses of reflation administered during 1974 and 1975

(amounting to a total of billion) there no need for further expansionary measures. The main aim was to encourage a steady and broadly based recovery underpinned by increased investment and export growth. Since the investment climate is largely conditioned by the level of company profits, the government took steps to improve them. One such measure, aimed at easing liquidity problems, was the

new tax relief with a carryback procompanies that had made a loss in 1975 but a profit in 1974 were allowed to carry back that loss to 1974 and claim tax relief accordingly. Another reason for planning no further general reflationary measures apart from limited action such as the tax relief for companies was the huge publicsector deficit built up during the recession. At a forecast level of 68 billion for 1976 this was nearly introduction of

vision

i.e.,

—

—

DM

as high as the previous year's record shortfall. Al-

though the long-term aim of a balanced budget remained, the government felt that, given high unemployment and the unexpectedly low levels from which the recovery was progressing, a sharp reduction in the public-sector deficit could damage economic recovery. At the same time, however, further stimulus could undo the progress made on the inflation front. The Bundesbank's overall monetary policy was broadly in step with the government's fiscal stance. It favoured a steady-as-you-go approach with a slight accent on tighter control of the money supply lest it rekindle inflationary flames a fear that subsequently proved to be unfounded. From spring onward, the monetary authorities periodically had to ward off flushes of speculative currency flows resulting from the continued weakness of the pound sterling and the franc. In March, and again in August, speculation aimed at breaking up the eec snake and/or forcing a revaluation of the mark was successfully beaten back. In the course of this the money supply was managed too tightly and in consequence the first three quarters of the year saw a growth of less than

—

the target rate of

8%. The

discount rate stayed at the

low level of 3.5% reached in August 1975. However, renewed currency crises in October 1976 precipitated by the sharp and seemingly uncontrollable fall in the value of sterling, mainly against the dollar, succeeded in forcing up the value of the mark by 2.5% within the snake.

As

in the U.S.

the rapid

and the other major oecd countries,

West German growth

rate of the first quarter

could not be maintained for the rest of the year. Statistics published in the

summer showed

that the

growth rate slumped to a mere 2.7%. Inventory A former part of Germany is now in the Soviet growth, which had been the engine of the recovery in sphere. This plant its early stages, leveled out and private consumption in Frankfurt an der Oder became hesitant. Industrial investment, on which the in East Germany produces hopes for a sustained recovery were pinned, had not pig iron. responded sufficiently vigorously and although exports were well up on the previous year, imports encouraged by the rise in the value of the mark also grew

— —

at a fairly fast rate.

autumn

A

further set of figures published

The gnp was and personal incomes were barely ahead of inflation, which was growing at an annual rate of 4%. Furthermore, unemployment was in the

still

rising

did not relieve the gloom.

by only

3%

far too high in relation to the recovery phase;

though

al-

below the critical one million mark in May, the rate of improvement during the summer and autumn was highly disappointing. Not surprisingly, resentment against foreign "guest workers" increased and the government came under greater pressure to do something about reducing their numbers. Even after narrowly winning the general election in October, the government refused to be panicked into stimulating the economy, firmly believing that the "summer pause" was coming to an end. All indications were that the final quarter would indeed show a slight acceleration in the growth rate. But in early December doubts still remained as to whether the underlying currents were strong enough to maintain a steady growth during the next year. In their autumn report Bonn's it

fell

men" (the Council of Economic Advisers) advocated reflationary measures totaling 3 billion to ensure that growth did not peter out in 1977. It was "wise

DM

recommended

that the bulk of the assistance be di-

rected toward industry.

The outlook for 1977 was for a moderate growth of 4%. However, the government's policy would

about

depend on the outcome of the year as a whole, as well developments as the effect on currency markets of the imf loan to Britain and the magnitude of the stimulus President-elect Carter might provide the U.S. economy in 1977. On balance, a guarded relaxation in West German fiscal and monetary policy seemed likely, which could push the growth rate to around 5%. France. The French government entered 1976 riding the crest of a vigorous economic upswing fueled by the ambitious reflationary package introduced in September 1975. Having been criticized for doing too little too late to get the economy moving, the governas such

276

Economy, World

have produced a hat trick. Economic first quarter were encouraging and showed that industrial output had risen by an annual rate of 12% and was well on the way to recovering to prerecession levels. As in other oecd countries, consumer expenditure and stockbuilding led the way, but in France the demand for intermediate products, e.g.,

ment appeared

to

indicators for the

steel,

shared in the early stages of the upswing. De-

mand

for capital goods, thanks to a large

number

10% mark

during the

first

The output

$000,000,000

Current account deficit Financing through transactions that do not affect net debt positions

half of 1976, far

of capital goods, highly sensitive to

government incentives, suffered particularly and showed an actual fall from the corresponding quarter of 1975. In contrast to this general economic slowdown, real hourly wages marched on, adding to the

1972

1973

1974

1975

9.2

9.9

28.4

37.0

5.1

Net borrowing and use of reserves

above the government's target. During the summer, as the effects of the September stimulus wore off and stocks were adjusted to the level of final sales, a slowdown set in. Industrial production leveled out and consumer demand became sluggish.

In

of

government contracts, was strong and there were increasing signs that external demand was picking up. In spite of this buoyant economic scene, unemployment failed to respond accordingly. However, although the number of unemployed remained relatively stable, short-time working, which had been widespread during 1975, came down sharply (French employers, faced with high unemployment benefit costs, had reacted to the 1974-75 recession by introducing much more short-time working than anywhere else in Europe). The inflation rate was another source of disappointment to economic policymakers, for it stayed over the

Table II. Non-Oil Less Developed Countries: Financing of Current Account Deficits, 1972-75

Reduction of reserves Net external borrowing Long-term official loans' Other long-term borrowing*

7.8

4.1

2.1

19.3

10.0 27.0

-6.4

-8.1

-2.5

+0.8

10.5 3.6 4.4

10.2

21.8

5.1

7.6 8.7

26.2 12.6

9.1

4.5

9.3

•Including from private banks abroad and suppliers' credit. Source: Adapted from the International Monetary Fund, Annual Report 19/6, Table 9.

for 1977 deficit

would be balanced

—and

state spending

— that

for 1976

would be kept

the growth of gross domestic product.

To

was

2%

in

with bring about in line

a balanced budget, taxes

on motorcars, gasoline, and alcoholic drinks were raised. However, while squeezing private consumers, the authorities continued to find schemes to encourage investment so as to create a basis for a sustained rate of recovery in the future.

Faster depreciation allowed for equipment delivered

1977 and a state fund set up to encourage small and medium-sized companies were notable examples. France ended 1976 on a distinctly less optimistic note than the one it started with, but the corrective medicine of Premier Barre seemed likely to have the desired effect of controlling inflation and giving the in

economy a chance to recover its strength. Less Developed Countries. During the

last

few

By

years the economic performance of the non-oil-pro-

the third quarter, increases in real wages were running

ducing less developed countries (ldc's) largely mirrored the cyclical fluctuations of the industrial world,

inflationary pressures threatening

the recovery.

almost at the same level as the 1975 average of 3.5%, while inflation appeared set to exceed the previous year's average of 10% by 1.5 points.

Given the delicate nature of the unemployment

sit-

albeit with a time lag.

The

1974-75

inter-

national recession was not fully felt until 1975

when

the

demand

10%

imports

effect of the

—other

—

than oil fell by in volume terms. Furthermore, with a few for

uation earlier in the year, these inflationary pressures

nearly

weakened

exceptions, prices of commodities on which the ldc's

and worsened the problem. By the end of October, the crude unemployment figures exceeded the November 1975 peak of 1,020,000. Seasonally adjusted totals were less frightening, but the underlying trend was unmistakable. The initial strategy of the government in the spring was to encourage a controlled but rapid economic recovery. So in March the bank lending ceilings imposed in the previous year were confirmed while, at the same time, the controls over retail margins were removed. Because of the authorities' desire not to do anything that might discourage private investment, the discount rate was not altered in this period in spite of a currency crisis that pushed the franc out of the eec snake and forced a 5% depreciation within five days. But in the aftermath of the slowdown, with both inflation and the money supply rising faster than targeted and the franc under continual pressure, a more restrictive approach was taken. Once again, fighting inflation became the number one priority. The new premier,

industrial

Raymond

confidence

Barre, took decisive action. Private

sector prices were frozen until the end of the year and public sector charges until the end of March. A new,

lower inflation target of 6.5% by the end of 1977 was set (1976: 11% overall) accompanied by proposals to restrict increases in the money supply to 12.5% (as against 15% in the second quarter and 21% in the

rely for their foreign exchange earnings fell sharply.

But because of the cushioning

effect of agriculture

and

additional heavy external borrowings, the fluctuations in the rate of

in

economic growth were

less violent

the developed world. According to

statistics, the

than

World Bank

annual economic growth of non-oil ldc's

during the three-year period 1973-75 was 5.4%, compared with 6% in the previous five-year period. But these average figures tended to disguise the extremely low pace of economic activity in the poorest countries especially in South Asia and Africa south of the

—

Sahara.

But the most important effects of the world economic crises on the ldc's were seen in the sharply deteriorating trade accounts. These were already overburdened by the oil price increases of 1973-74, but as a result of the slowdown in export volumes and the deterioration in the terms of trade in 1975, the

saw a spectacular increase (see Table II). This put an enormous strain on the import-financing capacity of many of the weaker and poorer countries. deficit

Economic policymakers,

therefore,

had

to take steps

to restrain private consumption,

first).

encourage agricultural production and exports, reduce oil consumption, and adopt other monetary and fiscal measures to reduce inflation and improve social equity. Thanks to favourable weather conditions during

lion

the latter part of 1975 and most of 1976, as well as

Bank liquidity was further reduced by Fr 3 biland the discount rate raised again from 9.5 to

10.5%.

A

stricter fiscal

the relative economic recovery in the developed world,

approach meant that the budget

the fortunes of the ldc's during 1976

improved no-

8

ticeably. The early stages of the upswing, however, were rather slow because of the historically low levels some commodity prices were recovering from, e.g., those of rubber and textile fibres. As the world economic recovery reached a more mature phase, commodity prices more than made up the ground lost during the recession. The Economist Commodity Index (measured in U.S. dollars) showed gains of over 30% in the 12-month period to December 1976, and the trend was still strongly upward. The net result of these developments seemed likely to be a 10-15% reduction in the current account deficits of the ldc's during 1976. In spite of this moderate improvement, the external financial position remained precarious, largely because of heavy borrowings undertaken in 1974 and 1975 to maintain the flow of essential imports and to safeguard living standards.

In some countries, the outstanding external debt

and debt service payments were inevitably

Table

III.

Production of Crude Oil in Selected Countries Average output per month;

r Country

1

969

1

aou unoDl

2 398

Algeria Argentina Austra iq

3^655 1^514 167 4 597

1

Canada

1

Kuwait Libya

Mexico Nigeria

Oman Qatar Romania Saudi Arabia U.S.S.R. United States

Venezuela Source:

UN, Monthly

^669 *707

1

798

1

,227

4,205 4^112 1,844 1,340 6,282 4,480 20,994 5^927

5,500 3,675 18 902

3,525 15 948 6,371 12^553 13,309 1,792 4,517 1,382 1,448 1,115 15,701

4 041 6,707 ll!610 12,490 1,755 2,250 1,348 1,432 1,104 13,296 27,364 37,967 15,660

1972

3,733 3,034

5 239

1

Ta"

6^981

1,704 1,149 19,890 31,423 38,892 15,440

29,420 39,607 16,192

Table IV. Production of Coal Average output per month;

advantageous terms than the traditional development assistance provided by international agencies such as the imf and the World Bank. But the scale of the current account deficits faced by the ldc's in the wake of the oil price crisis was such that these new types of borrowing were essential to avoid serious economic dislocation. Few countries found the problems of servicing their external debts unmanageable, partly because of the mitigating effects of inflation on previously incurred debts. Fluctuations in the currencies of the major counat less

is

France

Germany, West Poland U.S.S.R.

United Kingdom United States

Source:

tied to that

number of counpound sterling or the

dollar during 1976 so as to avoid unnecessary fluctu-

of countries. largely on imports

and partly because of

rapid inflation and reduced demand for oil in the developed countries, the huge current account balance of the

oil

Although

exporters was cut by nearly the

demand

for

oil

50%

in 1975.

remained relatively

strong during 1976, imports of the

oil

exporters rose

rapidly.

The

total flow of resources, including export credits,

by members Committee (dac) of

Development Assistance the oecd rose by 40% during 1975 to reach $37.5 billion. According to dac estimates that figure accounted for 0.99% of dac members' combined gnp. If grants by private agencies to ldc's

of the

000 metric tons

in

1972

1973

1974

1975

3,662 2,825 9,702 12,124 36,785 12,453 41,921

4,548 2,548 8,980 12,558 37,593 10,152 44,716

4,624 2,196 8,583 13,052 38,435

4,831 2,003 8,408

5,591 1,868

3,111

9,695 11,675 36,060 12,260 45,866

42,786

UN, Monthly

1 1

,003

44,180

13,500 39,448 9,190 44,928

Brazil

Dominican Republic

Ghana Guyana

India

Indonesia Italy

Jamaica Malaysia, West Romania Sierra Leone Surinam Turkey United States Yugoslavia Source:

UN, Monthly

i

1969

1970

526.0 29.3 91.9 231.0 20.5 158.0 205.0 359.0 62.3 161.0 90.0 64.0

691.0 42.5 90.5 249.0 28.5 190.0 208.0 342.0

18.0 885.0 89.4 52.7 38.0 520.0 0.2 156.0 177.0

18.8 1,009.0 94.9 64.7 37.0 501.0 4.3 176.0 175.0

56.1

168.0 115.0 102.0

in

Chile Finland

Germany, West India

Japan Mexico

Morocco Namibia

Norway Peru Philippines

Poland Rhodesia South Africa Spain

Turkey United States

Yugoslavia Zaire

Zambia Source:

UN, MonrMy

and brown

in

Selected Countries

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

920.0 47.2 86.0 260.0 27.4 236.0 219.0 353.0 59.6 174.0 126.0 103.0 15.9 1,045.0 81.4 74.9 49.0 560.0 12.8 168.0 163.0

1,144.0 63.8 90.6 273.0 28.3 203.0 221.0 309.0 60.4 196.0 140.0 106.0 7.0 1,082.0 89.7 74.5 58.0 565.0 39.3 153.0 183.0

1,225.0 70.8 90.5

1,545.0 75.0 99.6

1,846.0

275.0

242.0 29.8 234.0 634.0 254.0

210.6

29.1

228.0 305.0 302.0 64.9 215.0 108.0 102.0 4.2 1,124.0 95.3 75.0 55.0

560.0 29.3 159.0 181.0

237.6

66.1

228.0

241*6

93.0 108.0

105.0 83.0

2.7 1,269.0

79.0 68.0 54.0 572.0 55.4 166.0 198.0

2.7

942.0 58.6

52.6 153.0 188.0

bulletin of Statistics.

Average monthly output;

Australia Austria Bulgaria

10,722 47,319

000 metric tons

Table VI. Production of Copper Ore

Country

lignite

7,699 14,302

Bulletin of Statistics.

Country

Canada

Partly as a result of the massive development pro-

gram based

29,347 40,917 34,371 10,228

1971

Hungary

surprisingly,

number

1,420 1,770

3,768

Haiti

currencies.

economic growth among the oilexporting ldc's remained fairly buoyant at around 10-12% on average. This was made possible by increased domestic expenditures in the wake of an increase in oil revenues. (It will be remembered that the price of oil was increased by 10% in September 1975, and that a new revision of 5% for Saudi Arabia and 10% for most other oil producers was decided on in late 1976.) During 1975 and in the early part of 1976 most oil-producing ldc's pursued policies aimed at encouraging rapid development, combating inflation, and curtailing excess government expenditure. These policies had varying degrees of success; the year under review saw the appearance of severe bottlenecks, structural imbalances, and inflationary pressures in a

31,459 35,753 37,849 14,648

7,361

1970

Australia

Greece Guinea

Not

1,191

8760 6,068 3,037

3,318 3 396 9,478 11,251 35.483 12,929

Average monthly output;

severed their links with the

own

8^281

12^650 8,740 1,938 8,480 1,218 2,308

!681

1 ^680 5^825 5^343 22,301 9,1 64

Selected Countries

In

Table V. Production of Bauxite

of a major country. For this reason a

ations in their

1

Note: Figures relate to all grades of anthracite and bituminous coal, but exclude coal except in the U.S.S.R.

France

tries

1762 1^580 6^878 5,b65 25^071 8,078 10^675 6,114 2,463 9,305 1,207 2,088 1,207 35,116 38,246 36,066 12,984

5,614

1969

Country Australia

often tend to trigger undesirable ripples in the

foreign earnings of the ldc's, causing anxiety and their currency

3754

rising to a

was exacerbated by short-term commercial bank loans secured in the last few years. These were often

if

1975

5,637 4,055

Bulletin of Statistics.

tion

uncertainty, especially

1974

5,227 4 j 35 1 ,790 1 1595 7^334 5*51

9,969 1,847 7,577 1,176 1,957 1,177 24,989 33,370 38,913 14,028

1,211

1973

24,403

13787

13,453 11,049 1,784 6,365

high level in relation to export earnings. This situa-

tries

000 metric tons

in

1971

2 774 3^934

3 064

Indonesia

970

in

In

Selected Countries

metric tons of

Cu content

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

10,400

11,900

14,300

16,600

21,400

19,300

200 3,280 43,300 58,300 2,740 120 860 10,090 5,510

190 3,360 50,900 59,200 2,810 110 850 9,960 5,080 270 1,900 1,650 17,200 13,400 6,900 1,920 12,400

14,400 220 3,580 54,500 59,800 2,220 120 1,000 10,090 6,280

200 2,130 1,760 17,500 11,000 4,000 1,760 11,500 880 2,070 117,000 6,810 30,300 71,800

790 1,870 130,000 7,570 32,300 69,700

Bulletin of Statistics.

190 4,000 60,000 60,500 2,720

110 1,220 9,340 6,560

230

240

4,000 68,700 61,900 3,000 120 1,430 7,600 6,710

4,170 68,900 75,400 3,060

140 2,340 6,850 6,890

220 60,100 3,230 160 3,250 7,050

270

320

360

450

4C0

2,160 1,810 17,700 16,500 10,200 1,940 12,700 2,840 1,870 115,000 7,870 33,900 65,400

1,790 2,170 18,100 17,800 11,200 2,650 13,000 3,010 1,840 126,000 8,590 36,300 73,400

2,360 2,500 18,300 18,400 12,900 2,670 14,600 2,410 2,520 130,000 9,320 40,700 73,600

2,180 1,920 17,800 18,800 16,500 2,670 14,900 3,160 3,390 120,000 9,340 41,200 73,700

2,170 2,410 14,700 18,900

2,666 1,780

107,666 9,580

67,200

mitments by opec reached $9 Table

Production of Lead Ore

VII.

Average monthly output;

in

1

9/0

rose

metric tons of Pb content

....

1969

Country

1972

1971

1973

1974

1

620

700

380

410

310

250

400

Australia Austria Bulgaria

34 800

JO ,oU J

34 700

35,100

30,900

34,400

D/U

Canada

25 000

500 8 210 29 800 70 2 400 3 380 210 2 900 5 370 890 14,700

640 8 330 30 700 70 2 480 3 430 250 2,530 5 880

32,100 510 8,750 29,200

Algeria

7 960

70

Chile

2 520 3 280

France

Germany, West

on

India

1

Italy

3 110

Japan

5 '800

Korea, South

14,200 6,700

Mexico Morocco

290

250

260

Poland Spain Thailand

5,400 5,980

5,600 6,060

140

100

Tunisia

1,990

1,830

5,800 5,850 120 1,680

330 38,500

340

400

43,200 10,600

43,700 10,400

9,800

Yugoslavia Source:

UN, Monthly

40

40 2,080 2,870

2*540

610 2,070 4 410

1,770

310 2,710 5 290 '780

'880

480 9,170 24*700

2 220 3 200

13,400 7,900 290 5,700 5,790 130 1,690 380 46,800 10,000

13,100 6,400

7,000

Norway

United Kingdom United States

560 8,500 27,900

26,200 20 1,820 2,700 1 020 2,860 4 170 670

30 1

,920

880 3 690

'790

670 18,200 7,000

14,900 8,600

5,500

260

260

260

5,800 5,380

5,800 5,060

4,820

290

120

1,300

1,040

910

550 45,600

550 50,600 10,000

46,900 10,600

9,900

more rapidly

billion the

975

an

in-

to $5.6 billion

compared with $4.6

year before.

(eiu) Centrally Planned Economies. The 30th plenary session of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (cmea), held in East Berlin July 7-9, found "with satisfaction" that the five-year plans for 197175 had been "successfully fulfilled."

member

The premiers

approved the new five-year plans for 1976-80, laboriously coordinated and dovetailed under the supervision of the cmea general secretariat in Moscow, and also discussed the joint programs for cooperation in key sectors of production for a 10- to 15-year period. These programs, according to the official communique, would decide practical steps to meet the economic requirements of the cmea of the

member

Bulletin of Statistics.

billion in 1975,

7%. Net disbursements, however,

crease of nearly

Selected Countries

in

states

states: first, in the output of basic types of

energy, fuel, and raw materials; second, in the joint Table

VIII.

Production of Passenger Automobiles

development of machine building on the basis of and cooperation in production; third,

Average output per month Country

1969

Argentina*

13,000 28,600

1970

1972

1971

181,000 10,100 286,000 3,590 123,000 218,000 9,500 5,050 4,000

14,100 32,500 100 21,300 76,900 11,900 205,000 10,600 294,000 3,750 143,000 265,000 11,400 5,600 5,4C0

Romania

540

610

750

Spain Sweden*.

31,700 20,400 24,500 143,000 685,000 4,300

37,900 22,700 28,700 137,000 546,000 5,200

38,300 24,300 44,100 145,000 709,000 5,000

Australia* Austria

100 20,200 86,100

Brazil*

Canada Czechoslovakia

,000

1 1

France

Germany, East Germany, West Indiaf Italyt

Japan Mexico* Netherlands, The Poland

U.S.S.R.

United Kingdom United States§ Yugoslavia

16,800 32,800 30 34,800 96,200 12,900 249,000 11,600 293,000 4,330 144,000 335,000 14,200 6,580 7,600

16,300 31,200

50 29,000 91 ,400

12,400 224,000 11,200 308,000 4,160 142,000 310,000 13,300 6,500 7,200

870 51,000 26,800 60,800 160,000 735,000 5,900

specialization 1973

1974

18,300 30,700

17,800 33,200

20 38,800 102,300 13,700 267,000 12,300 304,000 4,580 152,000 373,000 17,300 7,050 9,600 1,080 59,900 28,800 76,400 146,000 805,000 8,200

160 46,800 97,200 14,100 254,000 12,900 237,000

in the satisfaction of the

1975

30,100

20 46,200 87,100 14,500 246,000 13,300 242,000 2,620 112,000 381,000 22,000 4,190 13.700

3,910 136,000 328,000 21 ,600

4,660 11,100 1,150 60,200 27,300 93,200 128,000 611,000 9,600

59,100 26,500 106,666 559,000 10,800

•Including assembly from imported parts. tProduction for the military or by ordnance factories not included. jBeginning 1974; deliveries only.

§Factory sales. Source: UN, Monthly Bulletin of

Table

IX.

and percentages of

total

Value

Total

%* Developed market economies Less developed market economies Centrally planned economies

Value

% Value % Value %

Exports

1960

1965

1970

1975

1960

1965

5,066

7,253 100 1,639 22.6 1,042 14.4 4,571 63.0

10,558 100 2,766 26.2

26,669 100 10,468

5,007

7,357

100 963

1,477

39.3 4,457 16.7 11,744 44.0

19.2

20.1

371

1,348 18.3 4,532 61.6

100 1,052 20.8

575 11.4

3,439 67.9

1,611 15.3

6,182 58.6

7.4

3,674 73.4

100

1970

1975

100 2,448 21.3 2,416

24,030 100 6,912 28.8 4,458

21.0 6,657 57.8

12,660 52.7

1 1

,520

18.6

Selected Countries and Areas U.S.

and Canada

Latin-American countries

Western Europe

Warsaw

Pact countries Africa

Japan Middle East

Value

% Value % Value % Value % Value % Value % Value %

286

221

1,901

27

43

66

164

3.9

2.1

7.1

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.7

126

406

536

2,215

96

383

588

2.5

5.6 1,095

5.1

8.3

1.9

5.1

2.035

26.1

17.3

5.2 1,265 17.2

11,312 42.4

2,806 56.0 90

4,097 55.7

6,083 52.8

1,285 5.3 6,070 25.3 11,866 49.4

296

522

572

885 17.5

15.1

50.1

4,205 58.0

2,155 20.4 5,970 56.5

158

6,957

224

483

864

3.1

3.1

55

160

1.1

2.2

3.2 1,254 4.7

690 2.6

37

60

4.6 311 2.9 121

0.7

0.8

1.1

Stanko Todorov, the Bulgarian premier, seconded He called for "a gradual drawing closer and unification of the mechanisms of management and planning of our national economies." But Gyorgy Lazar, the Hungarian premier, said comprehensive reforms were needed within the cmea to make it more flexible and efficient. For instance, the cmea was not moving fast enough toward its stated goal of making this.

its

63 1.2

2,538

years before. "Attaching particular signif-

of cooperation."

Imports

Area

many

economic integration," said Kosygin, "the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet government believe that the time has come to carry out a number of major measures in improving mutual long-term joint programs

Statistics.

millions of rubles

in

icance to the deepening and expansion of socialist

Foreign Trade of the U.S.S.R. by Areas and Countries of Origin and Destination In

requirements of staple foods

and consumer goods; and finally in the modernization and development of transport links between members. Aleksey Kosygin, the Soviet premier, said at the opening of the session that the main goal of the cmea was "the creation and building of a new society free from exploitation of man by man and from wars and strife between nations." He reminded the session that in April 1969, at a special meeting of the leaders of the Communist and Workers' parties and heads of government of the member countries, a joint plan had been adopted for integrating their national economies. He pointed out that more had been accomplished in the sphere of economic cooperation since then than

865

17.7

1.8

4.0

4.5

2.4

69

167

669

1.4

2.3

341 3.0

60

94

380

472

1.2

1.3

3.3

2.0

2 8

unit of account, the "transferable" ruble, fully

convertible into Western currencies. tions continued to trade largely

by

The cmea

barter.

A

na-

country

that had a surplus in trade with a neighbour could it to buy goods elsewhere. Manea Manescu, Romanian premier, said that the less advanced members of the cmea should be given help to catch up through a new 15-year program to wipe out gaps

not use the

in

development and

living standards.

The proposal to undertake joint economic planning appeared to mark a new departure for the cmea, which thus far had coordinated the national plans of member

•Percentages given may not add to 100 because of rounding. Source: UN, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

time that the target of 1% for all flows had been reached. The oil-exporting countries were equally

had not undertaken to set international economic targets. The final communique, however, avoided the sensitive term "joint planning." The possibility of cooperation between the cmea and the eec was reopened late in the year. With a for-

generous in their aid program to ldc's. Total com-

eign trade deficit with the

states but

are included, the total net flow exceeded

was an encouraging development

in

that

1%. This it was the

first

West estimated

at $33.4

Table X. Rales of Industrial Growth in Eastern

Bulgaria

15.9 10.5

Czechoslovakia

Germany, Hungary

East

9.2 7.5 9.9

Poland

Romania

10.9 10.4

U.S.S.R.

11.7 5.2 5.9

11.2 6.3 6.4

8.1

6.1

8.6 13.0 8.6

8.3 11.8

9.0 6.7 6.3 6.3 10.5 13.1 7.4

8.5

6.0 6.6 4.4

13.0 12.4} 5.0

Bulgaria

3,297 5,912 7,504 4,316 6,432 3,729 21,159

Czechoslovakia

Germany, Hungary

East

Poland

Romania U.S.S.R.

Source: National

1,478.5

2,059.6 2,019.5 2,980.3 1,657.7 2,447.2 702.1

Czechoslovakia

1,511.1

Germany, Hungary

2,164.6 1,134.5 1,838.2 578.5

East

1975

1973

.

-.

j

5

1,648.6 2,275.9 1,297.9 1,984.9 529.8

3.833 6.898 8,729 4,817

4,601 7,808

3,267 5,993 7,836 3.767 7,862

10,065 5,355 10,289 5,329 32,175

3.497"

20,813

In

1975

1976t

1,425.6 1,518.4 2,150.7 1,147.8 1,745.4 612.3

1,931.2 1,891.7 2,643.1 1,616.0 2,406.1 823.7

1,605.0 1,596.2 2,052.4 1,217.7 1.778.3 618.9

in

000 metric tons

1974

1975

Country

1973

1974

1975

4,322 7,360 9,625 5,148 10,489 5,132 25,212

5.309 8,489 11,265

Bulgaria

9,322 14,340 12,985 6,294 12,336

10,855 14,836 14,424 6,729 11,855

11,553 15,965 14,952 7,535 13,271

Czechoslovakia

Germany, Hungary

6,221

12,545 5,330 35,711

East

Poland

Source: Ministry for Foreign Trade of the U.S.S.R.

statistics.

Table XV. Percentage Changes

end of 1975, and a growing burden of cmea countries had expressed interest in preferential access to Western markets for their exports and also in export credits both of which might be obtained from the eec. On November IS

Total OECD Australia

the foreign ministers of the nine

Italy

Average

debt repayments, the

1962-72

—

countries

of the

claimed that in 1974 the

cmea

coun-

had produced 24.1% of the world's energygenerating raw materials, 20.3% of the world's electric power, 26.5% of its steel, 24.6% of its sulfuric acid, and 23.8% of its cement. But their share of world trade was less than 10%. According to a Barclays Bank estimate, between 1970 and 1975 total cmea trade grew at an annual average rate of 17.2%. More than half of cmea trade was among the member tries

countries. The proportion of cmea trade carried on with the industrial countries of the West grew from 23% in 1970 to 30% in 1975, but part of the increase reflected higher price levels in the West. At the same time, there was a shift in the balance

of trade between the Soviet

bers of the cmea, resulting

Union and the other memmainly from higher prices

for Soviet oil exports to those countries. Until 1975

France

Germany, West

3.2 5.7

Netherlands, The

Sweden United Kingdom

5.4 4.7 4.9

United Stoles

3.3

Hard

Brown

Country

coal

coal

Bulgaria

300 28,119

Czechoslovakia East

Poland

Romania U.S.S.R. Total

•1974. Source: National

500 3,000 171,625 7,300 485,000 695,844

statistics.

23,998* 86,272 246,706 21,887 39,865 19,789* 216,000

654317

(000,000 cu

100 900 5,175 5,963 28,900* 289,000 330,038

Prices

8.0 9.5 7.6 7.3 6.9 10.8 11.7 8.0 6.7 9.2

6.2

1974

1975

Nov. 1976

13.6

11.5

15.1

15.1

10.9

10.8 11.7 6.0 17.0 11.8 10.2 9.8

10.0 4.0 20.0 8.5 9.0

24.2

14.5

9.1

5.5

13.7 7.0 19.1

24.5 9.6 9.9

16.0 11.0

8.5 14.0*

55t

9.5t

•To September. fTo October. Sources: OECD. Economic Oulteot, July 1976; OECD, Mai Economic Indicators; The Economist, Key Indicators.

Soviet exports to the Eastern European countries had been more or less equal to imports from them. But in 1975 and the first nine months of 1976 the U.S.S.R. ran surpluses with all except Romania (Table XIII). (k. m. smogorzewski)

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS this section the impact of economic developments on individuals and households is examined. The discussion focuses on wages and prices employment and unemployment; taxation and social benefits; and housing, interest rates, and consumer credit avail-

In

;

ability.

A major feature of the 1974-75 and deepest since World War II, w as the accompanying inflation. Major progress was made in 1976 in cutting it back from the peak levels of Prices and Wages.

recession, the longest r

In

000 metric tons except for natural gas and Natural gas

.

4.3

Japan

Table XII. Output of Basic Industrial Products In

Consumer

to

1973

3.9

3.4 3.3 4.4

Canada

eec approved the general outlines of a cooperation agreement they would be willing to conclude with the seven members of the cmea. They decided to exclude substantive trade questions from the proposed talks on cooperation. The difficulties on the trade front stood in ironic contrast to some of the economic bragging that appeared in the Eastern European press. The Polish Statistical Office

in

12 months

billion at the

Germany, Hungary

1974

1976t

Table XIV. Soviet Crude Petroleum and Products Supplied to Eastern Europe

Imports

1974

4,863 27,768

Bulgaria

Romania

$000,000

8,321

1975

•The average official exchange ra»e, used only in foreign trade, was resoectively, 0.78, 0.75, and 0.755 ruble to U.S. $1. tJanuary-Sep'ember. Source: Ministry for Foreign Trade of the U.S.S.R.

Exports

1973

1974

Poland

Table XI. Foreign Trade of Eastern Europe

Country

Imports

Country 9.1

statistics.

In

000,000 rubles, current prices* Exports

1976!

•Yearly average percentages. fFirst six months. J1975. Source: National

Soviet Trade with Eastern European Countries

XIII.

In

1956-60 1961-65 1966-70 1971-75

Country

Table

Europe*

Eastern Europe, 1975

electric

power

Electric

power

Crude

m)

petroleum

(000,000 kw-hr)

100

2,006

600 14,600 491,000 508,306

.

25.200 59,238 84,500 20,457 97,169 53,700 1,038,000 1,378,264

Sulfuric Steel

2,300 14,323 6,500

acid

Cement

854 1,245

4.400 9,305 10.700 3,759 18,543 11,500 122,000 180,207

1,002

3,671

647

15,004 9,500 141,000 192,298

3,413 1,448 18,642 27,251

1974, 1975, and 1976,

f

an enviable inflation rate of less than 5%, the lowest in Europe except for Switzerland. The most discouraging aspect of inflation during the year under review was that price levels showed signs of resuming their upward march at an early stage of the economic recovery. One factor in this was in-

280 Table XVI. Average Change

Economy, World

in

Real Earnings 12 months average to month

Average 1962-72

Country

latest

1973-74

Australia

Canada

2.7

France Italy

4.4 4.2 5.6

Japan*

7.3

United Kingdom United States

3.1

Germany, West

1.0

10.5 2.3 4.3 3.4 2.5 1.4 0.9 0.6

1975-76

-0.1 1.2

8.1

2.0 3.0

-2.7 -10.8 -0.1

-0.5 2.1

commodity

creases in

June

4.5 1st quarter 1.1 April 10.0 August

5.8

June

2.3 August

•Monthly earnings. Source: OECD, Economic Ouf/oolr, July 1976;

nomic

1976 2.2

OECD, Main

Eco-

Indicators.

commodity

November 1975

prices. Since

had risen by over 30% and the trend was firmly upward (the latest monthly increase expressed as an annual rate was over 50%). Initially, the upswing was concentrated on fibres, forest products, rubber, and tropical beverages, but prices of other industrial materials had been rising rapidly since prices

the spring.

remained at a historically high level (Table XV). In the U.S., for example, the 1976 average increase in consumer prices was likely to be 55.5%, a significant improvement on the 1974 average 1974, but

it

11% but still 2 percentage points higher than the long-term trend (1962-72 average). A similar picture of

seen in Japan where the rate of improvement was more impressive because of the dizzier heights reached by inflation in 1974. Italy, and to a lesser extent the U.K. and Australia, is

had only limited success

in bringing

down

the high

Consequently, inflation in these countries was running at three to four times the historical average. By contrast, West Germany in 1976 enjoyed inflation rates.

CHART

A significant moderation in wage bargaining attitudes prevailed. In the U.S. 1976 was the first substantial bargaining year since the phasing out of price and wage rates

controls,

much above

and did not produce settlement

the average inflation rates. In the

U.K. the extension of the "social contract" that limited pay increases to £6 per week eased the pressure on wage costs. There were, however, signs of a gradual improvement in the real incomes of workers (i.e., money earnings adjusted for changes in the cost of living). In

Canada and in Italy the sharp increases during 1976 were likely to have inflationary effects unless matched by productivity gains, which seemed highly unlikely.

Employment and

Unemployment.

Politicians

looking for a silver lining in the economic picture

1.

could point to the fact that more people were em-

Consumer (1st

quarter

ployed than ever before. In nearly

Prices

1972=100)

employment

190

United States

180

Canada United

all

of the industrial

countries, the second quarter of 1976 witnessed higher

Kingdom

Japan France

170 Italy

West Germany

160

y

levels than in

the preceding year

plausible explanation for this 150

S

S

y

employment

ys s

130

y

is

that the official un-

had underestimated the weakness of the labour market, and when conditions began to improve employers were able to increase output by using workers who had been on reduced hours rather than by hiring from the ranks of the unemployed. Published unemployment figures do not necessarily measure the full extent of unemployment because not

s 140

y

s

figures

t

/

/ '

120

/

/J/'

/

/

t 1.

/

/

/

/

Table XVII. Total Employment in Selected Countries

.

(1970 = 100)

'

/

/s s

Country

110

1975

Source: Notional Institute of Economic and Social Research (United

Kmgd

1976

quarter

108 116 105 98

110 117 99 94 100

110 122 103

101

105

104 106

108

in

101

101

United States

109

108

Germany, West

1974

quarter

103 103

France

1973

Second

1975

Sweden United Kingdom

Canada

100

First

1974

108 118 104 95 102 103 105

Australia

Quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted

(see

Table XVII). The largest increases were in Canada, Australia, and the U.S. Nevertheless, unemployment remained uncomfortably high in most of the countries Throughout the recession the rates of unemployment had been much higher than those seen in previous postwar recessions, and they remained high even when output began to recover after the middle of 1975. In most countries unemployment peaked in the third or fourth quarter of 1975 and began to diminish, but as the recovery slowed down in the summer of 1976 the unemployment rates leveled off. In the U.S., France, and West Germany unemployment began to climb again. One

Italy

101

Japan

Source-.

OECD, Main Economic

Indicators.

ioi

everybody who becomes unemployed during a recession continues to look for work. Many simply drop out. Married women, in particular, "opt out" in this way. Others, particularly those nearing retirement age, may find it extremely difficult to find a job and, grow-

Industrial Production (1st

quarter

1972-100)

ing discouraged, cease to look for one.

— —

The extent

of unemployment also depends on the methods and definitions adopted by government statisticians. Two main methods of counting are used: labour force surveys, as in the U.S., and official registration, as in the U.K. The former method employs interviewers to sample households to determine the numbers out of work and looking for a job. The other method counts those looking for jobs who have registered with the appropriate government department. Often the registration system provides a lower estimate than the sampling system. Caution is therefore needed in interpreting unemployment statistics and in making international comparisons. The figures given in Table XVIII are based on differing national definitions. The final two columns, however, show the unemployment rates for 1975 and the third quarter of 1976 adjusted to conform with U.S. definitions. In Japan and West Germany, the rates in past years were extremely low, reflecting the strong rates of economic growth. In West Germany, however, the 1974-75 recession brought a large shakeout, sending the number of unemployed over the million mark, in spite of the fact that a large number of immigrant workers from southern Europe were encouraged to return home. In Japan the tendency for employers to statistical

France Italy

West Germany

V

105

hold onto labour even during slack periods kept the

unemployment rate well below those elsewhere. Taxation and Social Benefits. One effect of flation is to push up income taxes. This happens rising

From

incomes

in-

as

taxpayers into higher tax brackets. the standpoint of economic policy this may be lift

welcome because A plumber

it

1974

1973

siphons purchasing power out of

1976

1975

Quarterly overages, seasonally adjusted

Source: Notional Institute of Economic

Mexico City waits for customers on a downtown and a blowtorch advertise his trade. More than half of Mexico's workers have less than full-time employment. in

and

Social Reseorch (United

Kingdom)

street. His toolbox

economy and thus helps to reduce inflationary At some point, however, it becomes necessary to make downward adjustments of the income

the

pressures.

tax system. Inflation-prone countries such as Chile, Brazil, and

Iceland have automatic adjustments for taxation. But

even more stable economies have in recent years introduced similar arrangements. For instance, The Netherlands and Canada have provisions for automatic adjustment, and France has a partially auto-

Table XVIII. Unemployment

in

the Developed Economies Standardized annual

Unemployment

rates

(Percent of civilian labour force)*

Number unemployed month 1976

latest

Average Country Australia

Canada France

Germany, West Italy

1962-73 1.6 5.3 1.8 1.3 3.6

1974

1975

2.1

4.7 7.0 3.8 4.9 3.4 1.7

5.4 2.3 2.7

2.9

Japan

1.3

1.4

Netherlands, The Spain

1.3

Sweden

2*1

United Kingdom United States

2.4 4.9

2.8 3.2 2.0 2.5 5.6

month 1976

7.3

320 753 935

4.6

1,042

3.8 2.0

1,120

5.2

780

224

4.1

000)

in

unemployment rate (%) 1976 third

1975

quarter

7.6 4.0 3.6 3.6 2.0

4.3 3.3 4.2 2.0

August

September October October July

August October

7.3

4.0 1.6 3.9 8.5

17

'70

5.5

1,306 7,569

7.9

September October October

4.6 8.3

5.8 7.7

'Seasonally adjusted. Sources: OECD, Economic Outlook, July 1976; OECD, Main Economic Indicators; The Economist, Key Indicators^ Major Economies; NIESR, Economic Review, November 1976.

8

"

i

1

—

1

Table XIX. Economically Active Population Latest census or estimate

% of economica

population Agriculture'

Country

population

in

Indus-

Ser-

tryt

vices:

'

Afars and Issas Algeria

Angola Benin (Dahomey) Botswana Burund

Cameroon Cape Verde

Islands

Central African Empire

50

culture*

63 90 86 95 80

Islands

Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia

Gabon Gambia, The

Ghana Guinea

10§ tug

2

1

10 58 7

Y 4 18.5

O.

33.7 5 15§ 8 9

60§ 1

1

7 0

,'*

1 eft

11.7

30 1 1 7& aH

1

86

* '

86.4 86.5

.9

1 1 .7

Kenya

3.6

9.9

Lesotho

91

1

8

Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast

80.9 32.5

Liberia

Libya

Madagascar Malawi

80

Mali Mauritania

91

1

Morocco Mozambique Niger

91

Nigeria Reunion Rhodesia

55.9 29.5 63

Rwanda Sao Tom6 &

91

Mauritius

8.5

in k u.o

24.3 2

43.2

1

1

13§ OR

Sierra Leone

72.7 28.4 75.2

Somalia

82

South Africa South West Africa

28.0 58.5

Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo

80

Transkei||

Tunisia

Uganda Upper Volta

12.1

7.3

9§ 32.0 63.2

70 29.7

43.7

41 .9

'1

5.0 log

.3

ou./

10.2

31 .3

9.8

V 6.6

Zambia

Poland

31.4 56.8

Portugal

Romania San Marino

8.5

24.8 6.6

Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Yugoslavia

.7 /

9.5

•

•

20.0

1

8.2 14.0

Brunei

11.9

22.1

Burma Cambodia China yprus

nong Kong India

Indonesia 0 Iran

raq

68 80.3 66.5 33.6 4.0 68.6 61.8 54.6 55.3 7.5

t

Japanl Jordan Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait Laos

Lebanon^

13.6 35.3 53.2 50.8 2.5

Canada

Cayman

10.9 36.4 30.0 39.4 44.3 46.6 18.6

Islands

Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Salvador Greenland El

Grenada Guadeloupe Guatemala

71 .6

Haiti

Martinique

28.1

Mexico

39.4 20.4

Honduras

Netherlands Antilles

Nicaragua

0^9

46.4 38.4

Panama Puerto Rico Lucia

7.3 10.5 11.3 15.4 4.0

5.1

6.4

57.8 42.7

Look

7.5 21 .4

6.9 24.8 33.3 10.8 15.2 20.2

22.3

Philippines

baudi Arabia

60

1.2

4.0 13.0 15.6

28.9 10.0 12.7 1 9.3

82.1

67.0

56.3 99.2 42.2

32.3 4.4 13.3 30.8 32.9

Austria

Belgium Bulgaria

Channel Islands 0 Czechoslovakia

Denmark Faeroe Islands

9.5

32.7 30.7

5.8

32^9 16.3 13.8

16.9 5.3 17.5 18.7 30.8 25.5

0.9

24 .8 23§ 47.8 51.5 38.1

73.8 66.2 37.3 47.8 75.8 84.2

71.2 65.9 65.2 73.3

J4.

24.1

41 .8

7.0 22.3 3.8 22.8 31.4 18.3 2.5 34.0

37.8 40.6 30.7 76.5 68.5 47.6 15.0 54.5 88.6 78.0

0.1

Caledonia Hebrides Zealand

Niue Norfolk Island Papua New Guinea Islands

Western Samoa

65.7 63.0 19.7

55.2 37 1 65^5 0.7

Guam

29.2 30.6 80.3

34^1 82.5 11.5 11.4 6.1

56.4 23.2 34.0 67.3

15.9 4.5 12.5

39.1

1.5

64.3 64.5 32.7

14.8

20.6

64.6

Argentina Bolivia Brazil

48

16

36

44.3 21 4

19.2 17 8

36.5 60 8 49'

Paraguay

44

Peru

45.1

Surinam

34.9

Uruguay Venezuela

18.5 20.3

18.2 16.9 14.9 27.8 14.6

34.1 38.0 50.2 53.7 65.1

U.S.S.R.

26.3

45.1

28.6

1

y

63.1

45.5 61.2 29.3 69.2 35.6 57.8 43.1

no prior adjustment

Many

French Guiana

53.1

•Includes forestry and fishing. flncludes mining and construction. ^Includes all other economic activities, including

government employment. ^Includes

all

nonagricultural activities.

flExcfudes Herschel does not

IDetail

may

downward by 20%

The Canadian system

is

is

adjust the cor-

at his discretion.

similar to the Dutch, though

made

for sales tax changes.

countries adjust pensions and other welfare

payments

to take

account of

inflation.

of doing this are given in Table

Their methods

XX. Even

in those

countries, such as the U.K., which do not have auto-

matic adjustment schemes, in recent years the adjust-

ments have not been far short of increases

in

consumer

prices.

people as a proportion of the population has increased considerably in recent years, as shown in Table XX.

and Glen Grey districts. add to 100% because of the

omission of some categories. VJersey only. Slncludes Tuvalu (Ellice) Islands. °ExcIudes East Timor.

is

expected to continue until 1980, followed

by a slight decline between 1980 and 1985. Housing, Interest Rates, and Consumer Credit. Trends in housing conditions are summarized in Table XXI. Although there is some evidence of progress in recent years, care must be taken in interpretation and in making international comparisons. For example, a fall in the number of persons per household (as shown in the first column) may occur because more people are setting up homes a sign of greater prosperity. But it may also reflect a trend toward having smaller families. Again, when a large proportion of households own their own homes this may reflect economic prosperity but not all the figures in the second column of Table XXI support this hypothesis. The comparatively low proportions in such rich countries as Sweden and West Germany show that preferences in home ownership differ from country to country.

—

Other measures of progress in housing conditions, such as the percentage of houses with running (piped) water, flush toilets, and electric lighting, are less

am-

biguous. But the urban-rural composition of a coun-

population affects these figures, since they tend be lower in rural areas. The final column of Table XXI shows the rates of new housing construction in different countries. Again, factors such as urbanization, types of housing built (e.g., high rise or low try's

to

rise),

SOUTH AMERICA

56.0

38§

26.2

14 4 19.4 20.4 22.5

1

41 .9

47.3

O.J

rection factor

This trend

23.1

21

goods is Furthermore, the finance minister

61 .5

44.7 43.8 52.7 45.2 43.0 53.2

Guyana

1

the effect of indirect taxes

government expenditure than welfare benefits (including unemployment benefits). The number of elderly

67.6 39.6 39.4

62

16.4

French Polynesia Gilbert Islandsi

Solomon

consumer prices. But and subsidies on the prices excluded from the correction factor.

factor equal to the increase in

69.4 75.4 64,9 53.3 79.0 82.3 65.5

19*

•

8.3

17.7 13.8 12.8 1 9.4 9.9 28.3 27.6 18.9 26.2 7.9 10.5 10.4 28.2 17.5 25.7 18.0

11.5 28.5

26. 7§

40.7 34.3 26.4 22.5 48.0

23.8 37.4 38.6 59.5 44.1 53.0 38.4

32*

38§

4.5 44.3

37.1

32.5 18.4 29.6 47.7

73.3

2*8*6

27.0

Ecuador

62

8.3 13.8

islands

Fiji

New New New

and tax

the allowances

53.1

Colombia

EUROPE AIL Albania Andorra

37.2 49.8 68.2 78.4 58.6

40§

1

119

United Arab Emirates V ietnom

Yemen (Aden) Yemen (San'a*)

30.7 24.0 37.8 67.7 51.9 53.9 46.8§ 34.0 77.3

22§

45.4 94.4 82.7 56.2 51.5

Thailand

1.2

Christmas Island

31 .4§

The Netherlands

control. In

brackets in the income tax tables are adjusted by a

of 48.1 59.8 41 .3

OCEANIA Australia

25.2 53.3

for 1977 as part of his fight to bring inflation under

31 .4

•••

66.0

American Samoa

11 .8

Syria

& Miquelon

Pierre

Trinidad and Tobago United States Virgin Islands (U.S.)

16.9

46.0

Taiwan

14.8 79.4

33. 5§

Malaysia

3.5

.6

7.8 6.2

32§

* •

78

50 4 47.9 36.6

33.9 1

bntisn Virgin Islands

2.8

•

Macau

Singapore Sri Lanka

21 .3

• • •

23.5 0.4

T°? p Pakistan

20.0

Jama ica

• •

18.3 0.4

Maid ives Mongol ia Nepal

10.6 6.9

73.7 7.3

29. 5§ •

17.7

45.4 77.8 38.6 56.4 78.2 34.7

Old-age pensions account for a larger proportion of

Antigua

St.

77.0 6.6 70.5

19.4 54.1 36.6

i

Services!

matic system whereby the tax schedule is changed whenever the annual rate of inflation exceeds 5%. Premier Barre, however, suspended this arrangement

NORTH AMERICA

St.

Afghanistan Bahra in Bangladesh Bhutan

42.0 56.6 42.7 24 .3 21.5 35.3 35.0 34.4 31.5

43.9

20$

ASIA

.1

33.9 48.3 45.3

32.4 57.2 77 58.8 32.8

25.2 49.5 14§ llf 22§ 36.3

43.2 36 8 27.5

1.7

7.6

14.1

9§

75

Zaire

6.1

11.9 38*6

Cosla Rica

6.9

89 78

Netherlands, The

Bel ize

19.4 91.0 68.2 41.0 86

31

0.1

1A J4. 1

1

9.1

Monaco

44.1

21

.8

6.2 7.5 7.5

Liechtenstein

5.3 2.5

Principe

1

Seychelles

.8

Luxembourg Malta

23.1 1

21

24

10./

Bahamas, Ine Barbados

15§

1

48 .9

40.5 24.5 16 8 24.4

*

87

85 32.8 50.6 73.4

Iceland Ireland Isle ot Man Italy

17.6

7.5

Gibraltar

Greece Hungary

try!

12.6

6.3

Germany, East Germany, West

1

10

40 53.2 95 85 84.1 85 58.0 83

38.2 17S.

*

V 4

40.1 87

63.9

.7

1

1

Indus-

34.3 15.9 48.8

20.3

France

50

T~

50.1

96

Egypl

Senega

Agri-

Country Finland

AFRICA

Chad Comoro Congo

%of economically active

acti

lly

and

policies

difficulties in

toward urban renewal

all

create

making international comparisons.

In the short term, housing is highly sensitive to changes in economic climate. This can be seen in figures for housing starts (Table XXII). Housing starts in 1974 were sharply down in most countries, reflecting the gathering forces of recession.

economy turned upward

As the

housing starts rose in several countries. In 1976 confidence returned to the housing sector. The upswing in the U.S. and Canada was particularly vigorous following one of the sharpest declines in their history. An important factor in

housing construction

is

in 1975,

the availability of financing

at reasonable rates. After reaching record levels in

1974, short-term interest rates fell in 1975 and with the notable exception of Italy, the U.K., and to continued to decline or level a lesser extent France

—

out in 1976.

Currency crises in Italy, the U.K., and France reversed the tendency to falling interest rates, and in the

Table XX. Number of Persons Aged 65 and Over as a Percent of Total Population and Methods of Adjustment of Old-Age Pensions

former two raised them to new highs. Table XXIII shows the decline of consumer credit available for automobile purchases in the U.S. and U.K. during 1974, and the subsequent improvement in 1975 and in the first two quarters of 1976. In the U.K. most of the credit extended by the finance houses is for car

Methods of adjustment of old-age pensions Country

1951

1965

1975

1985

Belgium

11.1

12.5

14.2

13.4

7.6

8.0

in the

Canada

'.

12.0

13.3

11.7

11.9

14.2

12.6

Adjusted annually,

Italy

8.1

9.7

11.7

12.0

6.3

7.9 10.6

10.8

'

volume during the

manufacturing production in the industrialized world. During the second half of the year there were some signs that increased export earnings might allow less developed countries to ease the restrictions on imports they had imposed at the end of 1975, and that a number of oil-exporting countries were increasing their purchases. But these developments were not strong enough to counter a marked slowdown in the pace of recovery in the West. International trade continued to grow in the second half of 1976, but at a slow rate. It was expected that when the final figures became available they would probably show that for the year as a whole trade grew by around 10% in volume and rather less than twice that in value. Industrial countries increased their trade with each other sharply in the first half of 1976, with restocking providing most of the impetus. The greatest part of this expansion, which resulted in a growth rate of around 14% in volume for both imports and exports originating in the oecd countries, consisted of growth in trade between industrial nations. But there was also a continued rise in imports from non-oil-producing less developed countries, and oil imports also rose, though less sharply than in the last half of 1975. For 1976 as a whole, it seemed likely that oil imports by industrialized countries would return to the 1974 level. For the oil-producing nations, the most important

was

9.5

7.8

9.5

Sweden

10.2

12.6

14.7

15.9

Pensions adjusted by decree, when wage index changes by more than 3%. Automatic adjustment based on changes in

U.K.

10.9

12.0

13.5 9.8

13.5 10.2

Automatic cost of

Netherlands, The

price level. 9.3

U.S.

Special legislation, once a year. living adjustment.

"Old Age Pensions' Level, Adjustment and Coverage," in The OECD Observer, No. 77, September-October 1975; OECD, Demographic Trends in Western Europe and the United States; OECD, Demographic Trends 1970-1985 in OECD Member Countries.

Sources:

Table XXI. Trends in Housing Conditions in Selected Countries

Country

Average number of

Percent of

persons per household

owner-

70.8 67.3 49.7 55.9 65.4 60.0 42.7 43.3 34.3 33.5 45.8 50.9 59.5 58.8

Australia

1966

3.5

Belgium

1971 1961 1971

Canada

1967

3.3 3.0 3.0 3.7

occupants

1971

1962 1968 1968 1972

France

Germany, West Italy

1961 1971

Japan

1968 1973 1960 1965 1970 1966

Spain

Sweden U.K. (England and Wales)

3.1

3.1

2.9 2.7 3.6 3.3 3.9 3.6 4.0 2.7 2.6 2.9 2.9 3.3 3.2

1971

1960

U.S.

1971

DwellPercent of dwel lings with Piped Flush Electric

water

96.1

78.3 90.8 99.7 99.2 62.3

31.4

35.5 35.2 47.8

17.1

98.3 45.0 94.3 97.3

9.4

89.3

97.9 98.9 89.7 96.0

92.9 97.5

7.4 8.7 7.2

increase

to

Table XXII. Housing Starts in Selected Countries (Average 1970=100) Percent change from a year earlier

billion,

1970 Country

countries, the Soviet

(000)

138.8 42.7 190.5 481.7 71.5 1,484.6 127.3 106.7

Australia

Belgium

Canada France

production as rapidly.

The cmea

Italy

Union and

1976 First Second

Total

where physical constraints limit the growth of imports. Other oil-producing nations, which had limited imports because of payments constraints, tended not to be able to increase

Japan its allies,

Netherlands, The

increased their trade with each other rapidly in value

Sweden U.K.

331.1

terms during the early part of 1976, a result of the sharp increase in prices in intra-area trade caused by the change in policy within the area. This reinforced

U.S.

1,469.0

Source:

OECD, Main Economic

1973

1974

120

91

137 141

152 117 114

115 102 128 111

75 102 140

77

89 88 76 79 92

1975

quarter quarter

86 178 127 107 80 91

88 48 101

80

total

world commerce during 1975, but there was no

area;

erosion

the Soviet

materials to

its

of

its

concentration

Union increased

its

within

sales

the

creased sales of manufactured goods to the Soviet in

1976 seemed likely to reduce

grain imports from outside the area.

In 1975 the total value of world exports reached

This was an increase of 5% over 1974, was more than accounted for by an increase in prices of 10%. Although higher than the average for the previous decade, this price increase was considerably less than the increases of 25% in 1973 and 40% in 1974. The increase was confined to the first quarter of the year, after which export unit values actually

$880 but

it

billion.

The

97

12

169

'82

111

-7.5

105 86 58 124 120

*27

'l6

6 29 30 45

-10

100

The

90 89

40 103 77

volume of exports throughout by around 5%.

trade recovery that began in the last quarter

new

year,

1

'37

4

81

Indicators.

of 1975 continued forcefully into the

1976 Second quarter

91

physical

the year declined

of raw

partners more rapidly than they in-

Union. Good harvests

declined.

First

quarter

92 160

the trend toward an increase in the cmea's share of significant

8.4 8.6 10.7 8.2 6.7 12.7 18.7 10.0 12.5 13.6

1,000 population. Source: UN, Statistical Yearbook (1974 and 1975).

during 1976, a measure of the rapid increase in production in Saudi Arabia

$35

7.0

90.1

sharply during 1975. It was expected to increase by billion, to

4.3 4.8 7.4

85.3

50.1

61.9 62.9

11.1

97.6 98.8 99.9 99.7 95.9 99.0

86.1

94.9

9.7

98.3 98.4 99.6 100.0

89.5 47.6 62.5 92.5 94.3 37.2 51.8 87.4 94.2

76.9 86.6 95.2

ings

constructed*

lighting

toilet

Per

surplus on current account, which had fallen

some $2

July);

related to increase in salaries. taking account of progress in economic efficiency and productivity, and changes in the national income per employed person. Annual adjustment (by decree), when cost of living rises or more.

2%

Japan

in

their

index. From in national

9.3

half of 1976 under the impulse of a rapid recovery

effect of this increase in oil prices

the price

Germany, West

'

France

in

in

average wages. Semiannual adjustment (January and

INTERNATIONAL TRADE first

larger than the increase

price index.

Based on increases

1976, will increase with changes

purchases.

World trade increased sharply

(as of 1973)

An annual increment

and

one time seemed likely to be as strong as the expansion of 1972. Although inflationary pressures seemed likely to assert themselves, they were expected to be felt less than in 1975. at

Primary Producing Countries. Imports by the members of opec fell slightly in the first quarter of 1976 from the high point reached in 1975, but there appeared to be little change for the year as a whole compared with the previous year. Import constraints on opec members had now assumed two quite separate forms, financial and physical. For the four Arab states

45 15 35

expected, in part because industrialized countries ran much larger deficit than had seemed likely.

284 Table XXIII. New Consumer Credit i n the u.s. and u.k.

Economy, World

a

U.S. ($000,000,000) Total new credit

New

quarter

3.49

15.95

4.20

4.90

1973

1974

1975

11.67

13.35

13.33

13.62

3.36

3.84

3.60

4.01

106

118

123

149

165

163

102

1

00

114

1

1

East Asian countries such as the Philippines and South Korea recovered the export markets they had lost during the recession of early 1974. Average in-

1976 second

first

quarter

1972

20% in export value in the first half of 1976 were not matched by equivalent increases in imports, with a consequent dramatic reduction in paycreases of

credit.

automobiles U.K. (£000.000)

New

credit,

retail

New

shops

ments

credit,

finance houses

Source:

21

OECD, Main Economic

86

1

Indicators-

the south of the Gulf, of which Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are the most important, the problems were largely physical and organizational. Port congestion remained very severe and had an important effect in both raising prices and reducing import volumes. Shortages of labour and administrative difficulties in carrying out ambitious development plans also made Oil

difficult for these countries to increase imports even though they had very large surpluses from their sales of oil. But most of the other countries would probably have found some difficulty in ensuring sufficient revenue in the early part of the year, even if they had not experienced any practical problems in importing. The majority of opec countries were within a few hundred million dollars of balance in their payments, and many found it necessary to borrow. it

The same pattern of

differences

showed

itself

and an easing of the need to borrow in Western Hemisphere the improvement in exports was also considerable, with exports from Brazil rising some 25% in the first half of 1976 from the $8,760,000,000 annual rate in 1975. But there was still pressure on the trade baldeficits

international capital markets. In the

28

in

the exporting experience of the opec countries, the

most remarkable variation being exhibited by Saudi Arabia whose output is to some extent a regulator of total opec output. Having experienced a fall of 20.3% in its rate of exports compared with the first quarter of 197S, far above the opec average of 13.8%, Saudi Arabia returned to its former level of earnings in the half of 1976 and then surpassed them in the second half of the year as demand from industrial nations continued to hold up because of fears of a new round of price increases. During the first six months of 1976, Saudi Arabian exports totaled $17,084,000,000, compared with imfirst

ances of such countries since their long-term trade

was relatively less favourable than that of East Asian countries, which traditionally have lower imports. position the

All of the less developed countries suffered,

ever, during the second half of the year

in the West slowed down remarkably, and with it the imports of the industrialized world. Countries that relied on exports of commodities rather than manufac-

tured products, such as Zaire, also suffered when the expected increase in commodity prices fell short. Industrial Countries. The recession of 1974 and early 1975 originated in the industrialized

$317.4 billion, compared with $294.3 billion in the half of 1975.

imports of

fect, a

than one-third that rate.

The increase in exports of oil during the year was not restricted to these countries, however. Iran's exports of $11,022,000,000 in the first half of 1976 compared favourably with its earnings of $9,856,000,000 in 1975. Imports increased even more sharply, however, and by the middle of the year the Iranian government was having to take actions clearly designed to slow down the flow of goods into the country. In it became clear during the autumn that the Iranians were considering tying future purchases from

addition,

abroad

to barter

arrangements

to

purchase Iranian

The Iranian government had made

it

clear

ber of occasions throughout the year that

oil.

on a numit

felt that

companies had not taken enough oil from Iran as compared with other countries. The less developed countries that did not produce oil had a less testing time during 1976 than had at first seemed possible. Their exports of $94,290,000,000 in 1975 were insufficient by a wide margin to pay their import bill of $139,150,000,000, and at the beginning of 1976 there were fears both about the cuts in consumption that would need to be imposed and the possibility that their credit might cease to be good. But the problems proved somewhat more tractable than the

oil

Western

world and was concentrated most sharply on imports. Manufacturing production declined more than the rest of the economy, and trade in manufactured goods between countries declined more sharply than in internal markets. The 24 oecd nations did not suffer a big drop in exports. The value of exports actually rose under the impact of increased purchases by cmea countries and oil producers. Total exports in 1975 totaled $145.4 billion in each quarter. 4.9% higher in value terms than in 1974, though lower in volume. There was, however, a very sharp drop in the total imports of the oecd area, some of it caused by a fall in oil purchases but mostly accounted for by a decline in imports from within the oecd area itself. In the first half of 1976, imports recovered to reach

ports of $5,027,000,000. Kuwait had earnings in the first half of the year of $3,995,000,000, compared with less

how-

when recovery

The

increase in the

first

first

half of 1976 was, in ef-

continuation of a recovery that had begun

end of 1975 but did not become apparent until The turnaround showed itself in both the value and the volume of trade. Average values in dollar terms, which provide the best means at the

the turn of the year.

of assessing changes in prices, actually declined

10.5%

for both imports

by

and exports of oecd countries

during the second half of 1975. after rises of 14

and 19%, respectively, in the first half. In 1976 this downward trend was reversed; the average unit value of exports rose by 2% in the first half of the year and the unit value of imports went up by 5% during the same period. The result was that the increase in volume was greater than the increase in value for the last half of 1975, but in the

first

half of

1976 value grew more than volume. The total trade balance of the oecd countries was in deficit by around $7 billion during 1976 as a whole, compared with a surplus of $6 billion in 1975. This deficit, sharp in itself, concealed even sharper turnarounds

in the positions of

some

countries.

United States, which had run a surplus of $9 billion in 1975, would show a It

seemed

deficit of

likely that the

$6,750,000,000 in 1976. About half of this

deterioration was due to an increase in

demand

for

'

KEYSTONE

petroleum, and the rest was explained by a sharp increase in other imports. During the first quarter of 1976, U.S. exports were $27,359,000,000 and in the second quarter they were $29,695,000,000. These figures were some 4% higher than in the equivalent period of 1975, when exports for the year as a whole totaled $107,652,000,000. Export unit values rose at

an annual rate of 6% in the first half of 1976, in part reflecting an increase in costs caused by a 10% increase in the price of oil. U.S. imports rose very sharply in value during the first half of the year. In

mm

~~'

L rL

5*

>=

es

r

sasss

.

sob pound

ID0VVN! I DOWN! I DOWN!

T^Z r

™ rwuvi &

si a &2mg 1

'

.

ujILmaiim^

a?

s

ijpljl

MS

H|

the first half of 1976 they totaled $60,989,000,000,

compared with $50,897,000,000 in the first half of 1975. During 1975, total imports were $103,389,000,000. As 1976 proceeded, evidence began to mount that the pace of economic expansion was slackening, but not sufficiently to prevent the U.S. running a cant trade deficit during the year.

The

DON'T PANIC

»l-72oo

signifi-

The toast

.;;;..,„

to $61,418,-

the other hand, may have marginally payments position during 1976. For the first time, U.K. trade figures were significantly affected by the production of North Sea oil, which contributed some $2 billion to the balance of payments through reduced imports. During the year there was a

half of 1976.

rapid depreciation of the exchange rate of the pound.

had had during 1972 and which had been eroded by the higher import cost structure imposed on it by the increase in oil prices. Japanese exports toit

taled $55,817,000,000 in 1975, but rose 000,000 at an annual rate during the first The increase was largely accounted for in volume, since Japanese unit export

by increases prices were

some 5.5% below the average figure for 1975. This would imply a growth in volume of exports of some 23%. Imports, on the other hand, which stood at $30,593,000,000 in the first half of 1976, hardly increased at all in volume terms. Toward the end of the year there were signs that a number of countries

The U.K., on

improved

its

This led to higher prices for imports in the latter part flat domestic demand held

of the year, but generally

down

their

volume except

in certain special sectors

such as motorcars. Total imports in the

first

half of

1976 were $27,654,000,000, up from $27,642,000,000 in the first half of 1975. Their volume for the year as a whole probably increased by around 6%, less than the oecd average. The increase in export volumes was

around 8%, but their much more. This was because ex-

in Europe and certain industries in the United States were concerned by the Japanese penetration of their

also limited, being probably

markets.

porters chose to use the depreciation of the

value increased

pound

to

trade balance had remained firmly

restore profit margins previously eroded. Exports in

duction in

during 1975, though there was a slight reits magnitude. Exports had risen sharply

the first half of 1976 were $23,148,000,000, and it was expected that when final figures became available they

in the last

quarter of 1975 to total $90,166,000,000

would probably show an increase for the year as a whole of 30%, with the unit value of exports rising by over 20%. Italy took a series of measures throughout the year in an effort to restrict imports, which continued to grow quickly. In 1975 imports totaled $38,365,000,000. In the first six months of 1976 they were $20,604,000,000. Three measures were taken. The first, deflation, seemed ineffective and failed to slow down a rapid decline in the parity of the lira. It was supplemented by a scheme requiring deposits to cover the cost of imports and by a tax on the purchase of foreign currency. Both these latter measures met strong international protest and were being phased out at the end of the year. In the cases of both Italy and the U.K., the trade results for 1976 had not yet had time to reflect fully the improvement which might result from the fall in their exchange rates.

West Germany's in surplus

for the year as a whole, slightly higher in value terms

than in the previous year. Imports in 1975 were $74,924,000,000. During the

first half of 1976 imports were $41,718,000,000, up $3,942,000,000 over the equivalent period in 1975, an increase of 10.4% in value terms. The level of German imports, which remained st/ong throughout the year even though the German economy weakened, was a major factor in the rapid expansion in the first half of 1976 in the exports of other oecd countries. German exports also did well,

increasing to $48,037,000,000 in the year, but their growth ports.

of

Texas

deterioration in the U.S. position was counter-

balanced by an improvement in that of Japan. During the year, Japan recovered the competitive advantage that

t

The

was not

revaluation of the

first

half of the

as rapid as that of im-

mark

in

the

autumn

contributed to a further weakening of sales. It was exfinal figures would probably show a surplus on trade for the year as a whole of around $16 billion, compared with $15.2 billion in 1975. France experienced a rapid domestic wage inflation during 1976, which forced the government to introduce austerity plans. During 1975 the country had run

pected that

a small trade deficit, with exports of $52,951,000,000

and imports of $53,964,000,000. During the

first half

of 1976 imports totaled $31,715,000,000, considerably higher than the equivalent period in 1975, and pressure on the franc forced it to leave the snake of European currencies. Exports of $29,041,000,000 pointed the way to a trade deficit for 1976 considerably larger than that seen in 1975, possibly on the order of $3 billion or more.

Centrally Planned Economies. The countries of cmea made progress during 1976 toward the target

the

of bringing their trade deficits with Western coun-

under control. Final figures for 1976 were not it seemed likely that the Soviet Union would succeed in reducing its deficit below the $1,770,000,000 recorded during 1975. At the same time, higher prices charged for raw materials allowed the Soviet Union to record a trade surplus with its other cmea partners. Figures for 1975 show that the cmea area as a whole recorded a deficit of $9.2 billion on its trade with the tries

available at the end of the year, but

The

British

pound

fell

SJTe'US to take

emergency

measures,

West. During the first half of 1976 there was some success in reducing the growth of imports from Western countries, but the fact that many of these were tied to long-term contracts limited the scope for any real cuts. During the first half of 1976, the value of imports probably grew at around 7%. while exports grew at around 10% in value terms. A slight worsening in the terms of trade probably meant that the volume

of exports grew less than

One new development

10%. in the policies of the

cmea

countries was to seek arrangements with oil-producing states in

under which deliveries of

return

projects.

cmea

for

One

assistance

oil

were guaranteed

in

industrialization

factor in this was concern on the part

of borrowers and lenders alike over the rapid increase

cmea debt. However, worries about this were to some extent countered by increased export earnings by cmea countries from sales to the West, and the fact that the good harvest in the Soviet Union reduced in

the need for that country to import grain.

Commodity Trade. The

prospect of a very rapid

Rubber production was below demand during but the consequent

rise in price

the year,

was only gradual.

Grain production was in surplus for 1976 for the time in five years. Even more important as far as world trade was concerned, there were good harvests in every major area, with record crops in the Soviet Union. The International Wheat Council forefirst

cast at the end of 1976 that total wheat production during the year would be 409.5 million tons, the highest ever recorded. The grain market weakened progressively throughout the year as forecasts of total

production were repeatedly revised upward. Early uncertainties about Soviet production receded as it be-

came clear that total production of grain in 1976 was going to reach 223.8 million tons, 1.3 million tons above the level reached in 1973, which was the highest in Soviet history. The Soviet crop was only 165 million tons in 1975, and heavy purchases from the U.S. were necessary to meet Soviet needs. Estimates by the U.S.

Department of Agriculture and by outside experts suggested that Soviet grain purchases totaled roughly 26 million tons during 1976. At the beginning of the

world recovery during the spring led to a sharp spurt in the price of all commodities. During April, May, and June the dollar price of all commodities rose at

year there was some concern about the possibility of renewed pressure on demand if harvests were bad in

a monthly rate of between 6 and

the Soviet

7%,

close to the

had achieved in 1974. The slackening in growth that became apparent later in the year, however, rerate

it

Union or the United States. Stocks at the beginning of the year stood at about 90 million tons,

the

compared with the level of 150 million tons at which they had begun the 1970s.

second half of 1976. Commodities closed the year about 25% up in price over the level at the end of

None of these fears was realized. In addition to a record Soviet performance, which removed the largest

1975.

buyer from the scene, the less developed countries also recorded good harvests. India announced that its grain production had been 116 million tons during 1975-76, allowing it, like other less developed countries, to cut down on imports. During 1976-77, the Interna-

sulted in there being

little

overall increase in

This increase was not, however, uniform. During the early part of the year the increase in metals prices

was particularly sharp, with an 18% rise in April alone. The cause of this increase was belief that 1976 could be similar in form to the boom of 1972, when metals performed very well. But later in the year there were losses which meant that by the end of the year metals prices stood only about 10% above the end- 19 75 level.

The movement of metal exchange

ments

is

the price of copper on the

in metals prices generally.

distorted

London move-

usually the key indicator for

by movements

Although sometimes

in the parity of sterling,

it

tends to set the trend of copper prices throughout the world. This rose to a peak of £895 a ton in the spring,

above the level of end-1975 but well below the nearly £1,400 a ton seen in the early 1970s. As the year proceeded, prices drifted downward. The significantly

realization that substantial levels of stocked copper

existed (estimated at half a million tons at the begin-

ning of the year) was one negative factor. So, too, was lack of consumer demand for final use, as opposed to speculative or

precautionary purchases for stock. Other metals moved in sympathy, with the exception of tin which was unique in breaking through its previous peak and closing the year at around £5,000 a

tional

Wheat Council

estimated, only one-fifth of

all

wheat sales would be made to less developed countries, compared with two-thirds 25 years before. The United States and Canada reasserted their dominance of world trade in wheat, accounting for 67% of the total sales. The United States also had around half of the 57 million tons of stocks with which exporting countries were expected to end the 1976-77 crop year. European production of cereals was reduced by a prolonged drought. According to preliminary estimates, production in the eec countries was around 90 to 91 million tons, down 7% from the previous year.

The price of both coffee and cocoa rose sharply throughout the year, in large part because of continuing shortages. The frosts of the previous year in Brazil, combined with political difficulties in Angola, were the major factors.

Commercial and Trade of international trade little

Policy.

marked time

The

institutions

in 1976.

There was

progress in any of the forums established to help

liberalize trade

between nations or

to find

new forms

ton.

of relationship between industrialized and less devel-

Agricultural products fared slightly better during the year, in part because their production was held down, in part because of the low prices obtained in

oped nations. On the other hand, the year ended with no major recourse to protection to deal with the problems of high unemployment affecting most of the

1975.

As

38% over the year. be down significantly,

a group, fibre prices rose

Wool production appeared possibly by as

much

as

8%

to

for the year, while cotton

output, at just over 60 million bales, was below demand, forcing a rundown in stocks. These shortages pushed prices up sharply in the summer, but prospects of higher production in the next year and the chance of a swing to synthetic fibres, where substantial over-

capacity existed, stabilized values again

by

winter.

world.

The talks under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (gatt) that were aimed at producing a more liberalized framework for world trade, generally known as the Tokyo round, made no apparent progress on any major issue. Procedural difficulties over the extent to which agriculture should be brought into the talks, as the United States wanted and as a number of European countries did not want,

made

it difficult to do detailed studies of the problems in the talks. The major issues, apart from agriculture, were tariff reduction and measures to protect industries that were threatened with severe damage because of competition from abroad. There were also

difficulties in

and

deciding the relationship between indus-

developed nations in the talks. The fear that measures designed to help domestic industries facing severe competition might lead on to trialized

less

generalized protection was shared

by many

at the be-

ginning of the year. In the event, there were far fewer actions in defense of industries than had originally

been expected. The U.S. government was required by law to investigate a number of complaints against alleged dumping by foreign industries. The two most important actions involved special steels, where import limitations were imposed, and motorcars. The imposition of import restraints on special steels provoked a strong reaction from the eec, which accused the U.S. of resorting to protectionism. Partly in response to this feeling, however unjustified, the U.S. did not take similar action against European and Jap-

anese motor manufacturers accused of dumping in a

complaint brought by automobile workers in the U.S. Treasury negotiated a voluntary agreement with the carmakers under which they Instead, the U.S.

pledged themselves to change their pricing policy. A demand for protection by the U.S. shoe industry was not conceded.

In Europe the two countries that were most active in this sphere were the U.K. and Italy. The Italians, as already mentioned, imposed an import deposit

scheme under which it was necessary to deposit in advance with the central bank 50% of the price of imports. The U.K. imposed antidumping duties on imports from Taiwan and Japan in the electronics held and from a number of cmea countries. These covered only a small proportion of the country's total imports. Relations between the industrial world and less de-

veloped countries failed to improve during the year. The Conference on International Economic Cooperation (ciec) had been set up in Paris to provide a

forum for a dialogue between "North" (industrial) and "South" (less developed) countries. Twenty-six countries and the eec. which participated as a unit, took part in talks throughout the year in four commissions designed to deal with energy, raw materials, finance, and development. The goal of these commissions was to prepare detailed proposals for action to be presented to a

much

larger ministerial meeting in

December. During the spring the

less developed counexpressed great dissatisfaction with the progress being made on ways to assist them. At a meeting of tries

287

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE AND PAYMENTS The return trial

economic growth

to

in

countries in 1976 brought with

Economy, World

the it

major indus-

a massive cur-

rent account deficit with the oil-exporting countries.

In addition, the rebuilding of stocks of primary comby this, prob-

modities, and the price rises stimulated

ably worked to reduce the existing surplus with nonoil-producing

less

developed

countries.

The

total

most individual countries were much lower than in 1974, but the problems arising from the deficits were at least as serious because the same countries had the largest deficits. Even more serious were the positions of the non-oil-producing less developed countries and the centrally planned economies, most of which had not had even a partial recovery in 1975. There was some reduction in their deficits in 1976. but the improvement ended after the first half. By the end of the year, it was clear that these countries and the industrial countries in deficit had based their strategy of borrowing heavily in 1974, 1975, and 1976 on a false assumption. They had relied on acceptance by all oil importers of deficits as deficit

and the

deficits of

counterparts to the

sumed an

oil

exporters' surplus.

They

as-

international consensus that "oil deficits"

were not a normal imbalance requiring conventional domestic adjustment policies, but a medium-term

problem justifying unusual financing arrangements. They had expected reflation by the major countries after the cyclical recession in 1974 which would return the international economy to the growth path of the late 1960s and early 1970s and permit them to increase exports and repay the borrowing. In 1976. when they needed more rapid growth of exports than in the past to finance interest and repayments as well as to pay for current imports, they faced instead the prospect

of lower exports as the

major countries began to fall below normal growth rates. As the oil producers' surplus remained high, all countries faced the same choice as in 1974 between accepting deficits or attempting to reduce them by slowing down their economies. Those that had made the first choice in 1974. however, had to carry the burden of three years' debts, while those that had taken the alternative path had fewer, or no, debts and had benefited from the continued expansion in the first group. The first group would not be likely to risk relying a second time on joint international re-

more important,

flation;

now

their financial position

was

far worse, so that their ability to follow an in-

dependent nondeflationary policy was reduced. Current Balances. A more than 10% growth in merchandise trade in 1976 encouraged a rapid rise in

the United Nations Conference

the services associated with

opment (unctad) their belief in the

Because of inefficient ports, the deficit of the oil exporters on services probably continued to grow more

commodity

rapidly than the average.

in Nairobi.

on Trade and DevelKenya, they reasserted

need for agreements to maintain and the importance of international action to relieve the burden of accumulated debt on the less developed countries. A compromise formula worked out at the unctad talks averted a breakdown and stressed the role of the dialogue in improving relations between rich and poor nations. However, the four commissions made no real progress during the summer, and plans for a ministerial meeting in December 1976 had to be abandoned. It was hoped that a ministerial session could be held at- a later date, but strains were evident between the industrial countries and the less developed world and also within the industrial world itself over what attitude to adopt to the negotiations. (eiu) prices

it,

particularly in ship-

ping.

cover from the

fall

Tourism continued to

caused by the

re-

rise in oil prices,

despite higher fares and currency realignments.

The

was the same as payments increased for most of the countries that were in deficit. For the industrial counprincipal change in invisibles

in 1975: interest

group, there may have been little change from 1975 other than a further transfer of indebtedness from the smaller countries to the larger. The main change was in payments from the non-oiltries as a

producing

less

developed countries to the

oil

exporters,

after a 1975 deficit as large as that in 1974 (Table

XXIV).

Their payments rose again by $2 billion or $3 billion to about $18 billion (including all returns

288

Economy World

on

but no repayments), 18% of export earnor e most may ^ ave ^ een near

capital,

n £s *

T ^e

-

rat '°

advanced

*

the

in

^

whose ability to obtain commercial rates as well as

group,

medium-term finance at export credits was highest. The highest ratios of interest to income were therefore found among non-oilproducing Middle Eastern countries, particularly Egypt and Israel, and Latin- American countries, including Mexico, Brazil, Peru, and Uruguay. The rate of rise in these payments at the end of 1976 and in

may have

1977

share of

official

slacked off because of the growing borrowing (generally at lower inter-

pound's devaluation, and the demand for construction

and other services by oil-producing countries

rose.

The devaluation

provement

in the

also helped to explain the imbalance on property income, in spite

of a further rise in interest on financing the deficit;

there was also a rise in the earnings of British com-

The Canadian remained extremely serious as the deficit on invisibles rose sharply, offsetting most of the improvement in the trade balance. This was largely because panies, especially oil companies, abroad. deficit

of high interest

improvement

payments

to finance past deficits.

The

Japanese balance and France's were entirely because of trade

in the

est rates), a fall in interest rates in industrial coun-

return

tries,

and smaller deficits. In spite of the growing burden of existing debt on some countries, there does not appear to have been any general increase in the relative interest rates charged to them; countries that might have been considered greater risks seem instead to have stopped borrowing entirely, although South Africa accepted an unusually high spread on one loan, and higher differentials for Eastern European countries, particularly the Soviet Union, were

changes. There was a deterioration in the Italian in-

discussed.

account because of lower receipts from workers abroad and higher interest payments, but this was minor compared with the trade balance change. Among the smaller oecd countries, changes in the trade and current balances were much smaller. Lower earnings from migrant workers further increased the deficits of the southern European countries, while higher interest payments hurt all but The Netherlands and Switzerland. Probably only these two countries remained in surplus. Belgium's surplus on current account may have been eliminated by the large increase in its trade deficit. Australia's trade balance deteriorated in the first half, but may have improved sufficiently in the second to leave its current deficit unchanged at about $500 million. Finland and Sweden may have reduced their deficits, but for the other countries worse trade balances probably brought

OECD

Countries. The

largest part of the change

in the industrial countries' current balance

was

ac-

counted for by the United States (Table XXIV). An improvement in the invisibles balance offset only a small part of the massive deterioration in the merchandise balance. There was a small reduction in the deficit on travel and in military and other official grants, but the principal change was in net receipts of interest and profits (Table XXV). Lower interest rates reduced the cost of U.S. government interest payments, but the major change was in earnings from direct investment abroad; there may have been recovery of oil company profits because of higher oil production, as well as a return from lending abroad in 1974 and 1975. Although West Germany, with the United States, led the return to growth, there was little

change in

its

current balance.

The reduction

in

was balanced by a lower deficit on services. Although there was a small increase in the deficit on travel, receipts from interest payments doubled. Transfers were unchanged: private payments were lower as the employment of migrant workers the trade surplus

to

deficit

visibles

larger current deficits.

Centrally Planned Economies.

A

reduction in

may have

reduced the planned economies. Howprobably remained higher than in any year ex-

the Soviet Union's trade deficit total deficit of the centrally

ever,

it

cept 1975.

Oil-Producing Countries. The surplus of the opec members rose in spite of still rapid import growth because of the relative rise in the price of oil and the revived demand for it in the developed countries, particularly the United States. Their invisibles deficit probably rose slightly in spite of an increase of perhaps $4 billion to $5 billion in interest receipts because of higher services imports. There was again

continued to decline, but

a large gap between those with large surpluses and

to the

relatively slow import growth, especially in the

official contributions both eec (subsidizing the agricultural policy) and to other international organizations were much higher. There was little change in the United Kingdom balance on invisibles; the current deficit probably fell slightly. Net receipts from travel rose because of the

because of large populations or ambitious development plans such as Algeria, Indonesia, and Nigeria, but the increase in exports saved Iran and possibly Iraq from the end of 1975.

$000,000

1973

Country

+14

Canada

Italy

United Kingdom United Stales

OECO OECD total

Other

countries

1976*

-10,802 -4,721

-4,700 -3,800 +3,400 -3,000 +3,500 -3,200 -2,000 -10,000 -19,800

+4,142 +3,384

+648

-2,461

-3,072

-2,500

-2,000

-5,000

-3,000

+5,000

+60,000

+34,000

+40,000

-9,000

-21,000

-21,000

-15,000

+4,341 -2,510

-133

Japan

1975

-4,885

-1,805

+22

+330 +3,907

-514 -680 -3,727

+ 11,650

Other advanced countries Centrally planned

economies* Oil-exporting countries*

Other

less

developed

countries*

•Estimate. Sources: International Monetary Statistics; national sources.

Fund, International Financial

threatened them at the deficits

of

New

Zealand were higher. South Africa was particularly badly hit by the fall in the

South Africa and

-1,673 -5,943 +9,759 -7,817 -4,650 -7,829 -3,598 -12,202 -33,953

-691

France

Germany, West

1974

deficits that

Other Developed Countries. The

Table XXIV. Current Balances of Payments In

Middle

East, and those with small surpluses or even deficits

But as for primary producers, developed and less developed, their principal problem was the very brief recovery of primary prices, while those of oil and manufactures

price of gold in the first half of the year. all

continued to

rise.

Other Less Developed Countries. Among

the

non-oil-producing less developed countries, the worst

were probably suffered by the more advanced, which benefited less from the increase in commodity prices and continued to face low demand for their manufactures (and import restrictions on them) as well as high oil prices. Increased interest payments were the most important change in the invisibles accounts of Latin-American countries; Mexico also had deficits

a decline in tourism in 1975

and 1976 because of the

overvaluation of the peso against the dollar (until

its

devaluation in September). Kenya, with an increase in tourism, and Jordan, which increased its earnings

from workers employed abroad, were exceptional improving their services balances.

Movements. The demonstration

Capital

in

in

1975

some current balances could be improved even oil prices and net saving by oil exporters remained high, combined with unwillingness on the part of both borrowers and lenders to continue increasing international debts when slow growth meant that the prospect of repayment was becoming more distant, brought by. 1976 a move away from the acceptance that

while

of continuing deficits as the counterpart of a continuing

surplus.

oil

The imf and some

of the major

countries that had achieved temporary surpluses took the view that these deficits should be eliminated, al-

though

was

it

how

difficult to see

all

countries could

eliminate their deficits as long as there were oil producer surpluses to be accommodated. The imf director in his annual report claimed that the more rapid

growth of trade reduce the

in

deficits,

1976 offered the opportunity to apparently in spite of the higher

opec surplus: "The time has come to lay more stress on the adjustment of external positions and less emphasis on the mere financing of deficits." As he recognized, for a change in attitudes to be effective commercial lenders would need to agree, since it had been almost entirely through their lending, rather than that

by

1974-76 deficits were commercial lending would retain two of the advantages that gave it its central role: its volume, because opec members preferred to deposit their surpluses in the commercial banking institutions, and its ready availability as compared with the prolonged negotiations and variety of eligibility limits for official loans. Commercial lending stood to lose its third advantage for borrowers, official

financed.

agencies, that the

Even with

stricter criteria,

that of being outside the traditional official bilateral

20%

share of oecd countries increased (to about

The imf was

able to increase

its

and compensatory financing arrangements made at the end of 1975. In the year ended in June 1976, the World Bank increased its lending by only 12% compared with the preceding year, less than 10% in real terms, because of the slow growth in its income. The bank therefore hardened the terms of its loans, requiring more rapid amortization

and

rate

it

it

raising its interest rate, relating

pays on bond

had begun

issues.

"third

its

By

window" scheme

borrowers.

OECD Countries. Commercial borrowing remained the major source of funds for deficit countries, although Australia, Portugal, and the United Kingdom began borrowing from the imf as well. Direct investment both in and by the United States was reduced in 1976. There was an increase in purchases of foreign securities because of the higher issues by other countries and by the World Bank. There was a large shift in the balance on short-term capital into surplus because of increased private foreign inflows and large

The level of foreign was about twice the

official

in the first half

rate for 1975,

financing an increase in official reserves as well as

There was a United Kingdom surplus on private foreign investment in the first half of the year because of increased flows abroad. This was more than

XXVI) there were large rises in bond compared with the average for 1975, implying a rise of 40% for the year. Almost the whole of these were as usual from advanced countries. There was a sharp fall in the proportion issued in marks in the 1976 (Table

issues

half of the year, perhaps because of expectations

West German revaluation. Eurodollar issues, whose rise was smaller (perhaps 25%), continued to be of

developed countries. There was a

rise,

particularly in

year, in that of the

oil

the

second half of the

exporters. Generally, long-

term capital outflows from the major countries (Table were lower than in 1975, largely because of

XXV)

the inflows to

West Germany

that eliminated

its

inflows

unidentified flows.

arranged finance, including export credits as well as medium-term loans and bond issues, remained the most important source of finance. In the first half of

and a

that pro-

more generous amortization provisions; this lending was about $500 million. The World Bank attempted to increase its capital by 25% to $41 billion. This proposal was blocked, at least temporarily, by the United States which asked that any increase be tied to increased funds for natural resource development in association with private investors and greater control of borrowers' general economic policies. These proposals were opposed by most other lenders and

continue to search for possible borrowers.

less

the

below the normal interest rate and that would continue to have

International Capital Markets. Commercially

the share of the centrally planned economies

to

4%

vided loans to the poorest countries at

the large outflow on long-term capital.

fall in

it

early 1976, however,

slight fall in the

mainly for the

60%).

the increased quotas

independence from both the actions and the policies of the major countries. The poorer medium-term prospects and creditworthiness of the borrowing countries also encouraged commercial lenders to return to more cautious lending policies, although the continuing high surplus of the opec members required lenders

first

Economy, World

lending because of

or multilateral sources of aid, and thus offering greater

to

289

1976, total imf aid was higher than the total for 1975, implying a growth of over 50% for the year as a whole. The the first three quarters of

almost

large

net outflow.

Official Aid. Bilateral aid to oil-importing less developed countries was about $9 billion in 1975. In GEZA SZEBELLEDY — INTERFOTO MTl/ KEYSTONE

Hungary extended economic assistance to Laos. Officials

of the two countries sign the in in

aqreement

the Parliament building Budapest.

balanced by increased medium-term borrowing by public sector industries, which was higher in the Table XXV. Foreign Invettmenl by Major Countries .ong-term capital flows

1976*

1975

1973

1974

Germany, West Japan United Kingdom

+4,846 -9,750

-2,531 -3,881

-6,727

-417

United States*

-1,239 -6,560 -2,239

+5,139 -7,256 -8,529 -181

+2,091 -11,858 -16,766 -1,239

Country

Total

France

Net 1973

+ 1,700

-272

1976*

1975

-67 -451

+415 -273

+3,500

+3,391

-12,000

+5,178 +9,641

+3,256 +10,227 +12,965

+2,108 +6,007 +8,257

+399

+497

-7,700

;

for the year,

it

dividends, profits

1974

+582 +490

-900 -

lion) interest,

first

any previous year ($2.5 bilprobably approximately equaled

three quarters than in

$000,000

In

+850 -300 +2,200 +8,400 +11,150

+400*

Outflows of short-term capital official, were extremely high because of fears of devaluation and the the

current deficit.

from the U.K., both private and

continued efforts by some traditional holders of ster-

These were borrowed from the imf

ling reserves to diversify their reserves.

partly offset

by

the $2 billion

•Estimate.

in the first half of

Source: National sources.

the year;

an application for a

further loan of $3.9 billion was Table XXVI. Official Aid and International Capital Flows $000,000

In

Official international aid

of the year exceeded total issues in International capital markets

Areas and principal borrowers

Total

IMF and IBRD

IMF

lending

credit*

2,743

3,095

21,243 1,249 4,628

103

131

718

OECD

IBRD and IDA loans

Austria

Canada Finland

1975 issues

2,421 1,967

France

Japan New Zealand

179

106

614

75

633 1,119 1,234 1,279

Norway Spain

Sweden United Kingdom United States

854 932

1,950

Eastern Europe

277

Oil exDorters

619 48 332 52

Algeria Indonesia Iran

Other countries

172

239 360 62 318

Israel

Mexico Morocco Philippines

ciesj.

7,021

6,648

5,978

83

20

190

3,320 57

1,982

664 207 373 62

398 105

422 772 39 3C6 39

246

1,701

71

111

into deficit in

181

28

210 185

shift to

1,000

47

535

768 460 740

89 59

498 894

30

11,011 3,137

97

311 77

2,492

1,981

77

257 213

300 777 355

140 10

23

5,933

2,240

2,486

2,067

42,367

24,925

9,230

8,494

10,133 2,342

166

72

315 150 268

741

International agencies

and companies 5,335

10,382

Total

•January-September.

6,632

JFirst half. fJanuary-November (partly estimated). Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics; World Bank Annual Repot

Sources: International /975, 1976; OECD, Fianncial Statistics; IMF, Survey.

from the eec, financed by issues made in the name Community. Italy's application to increase its borrowing from the imf was unsuccessful because it could not meet the policy conditions required. Japan continued to borrow on the international markets in spite of its current surplus; there was probably a of the

small increase in

though

its

outflow of long-term capital,

Indonesia raised slightly

less,

receiving

End o f period

Countries with major changes (in $000,000) Developed countries Australia France

Germany, West Italy

Japan Netherlands, The Portugal South Africa Spain

Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Oil exporters Indonesia

Other

less

1976*

5,697 8,529 33,171 6,436

4,269 8,852 32,398

12,246 6,547 2,839 1,234 6,772 2,529 8,520 6,476

13,519 6,957 2,354 1,159 6,485 1,736 6,939

4,774 12,815 7,109 1,534 1,216 6,090 3.C77 10,428 5,459

574

807

1,492

586

1,202

4,183

6,415 180 1,142 1,355 1,094

5,272

4,034

3,716

6,141

10,015 23,785 6,085 18,365 4,785 2,312 1,290 5,014 1,575 7,557 5,647

6,941

9,011

148 1,180 1,164

Mexico South Korea Distribution

740

3,256 12,593

3,257

31 ,034

35,026 5,080 16,489 6,466

9,371

887 5,650 2,904 10,959 5,217

102

109

410

1,325 1,395 1,056

1,373 1,533 1,550

2,665

29,611

141,001 47,024 32,433

183,660

220,456

139,828 56,560 31,011 227,398

32.0 73.0 37.0 34.2

22.7 138.7 24.8

1,501

2,263

$000,000)

Developed countries Other

less

developed countries

Total in

126.834 10,428 21,340 159,077

139,523 14,526

145,652 60,891

37,218 243,760

relation to imports

percentages)

Developed countries

40.1

Oil-exporting countries

79.2 36.7 40.9

Other

less

developed countries

Total

•Estimate. Source: International

Monetary Fund, International Financial

28.1

Statistics.

22.4 104.0 22.3 27.8

The share

of their surplus

kept in the United States continued to rise (to about 40%), although there was a fall in new direct invest-

ment

there.

Deposits

in

other countries rose more

slowly.

Centrally Planned Economies. The

Soviet

Un-

1,291

by

Oil-exporling countries

in surplus

and private deposits from these countries in the United Kingdom also fell, giving a total fall of $1.4

ion reduced its borrowing on international markets in

1976. Its lower trade deficit explained

change, but there

21.3 95.0 28.2 27.7

may

also

some of

the

have been growing reother centrally planned

it and to economies as the level of their foreign debts increased, as well as greater hesitation on their part in borrowing. Some of these countries expected to have difficulty in increasing their exports to the Western industrial countries in the next few years. Oil-Importing Less Developed Countries. The share of commercial sources in financing the deficits of the oil-importing less developed countries may have fallen slightly in 1976. Their deficits were smaller, imf and World Bank loans were higher, and there was probably some increase in bilateral aid from oecd and opec. Their higher medium-term borrowing indicates that any reduction must have been from direct investment or bilateral credits. Export credits from advanced to less developed countries were estimated by oecd at $6 billion in 1975, an increase of

luctance to lend to

India

{in

1975

developed countries

Brazil

Value

1974

billion in the first half.

Chile

(in

1973

higher aid

continued to reduce their reserve holdings in sterling,

Table XXVII. International Reserves of Market Economies

1972

al-

remained far below the levels of the early 1970s. Short-term inflows were high, probably because interest rates remained high. Oil Exporters. Iran remained a heavy borrower on international markets in spite of the improvement in its balance, and Algeria increased its borrowing, but this

from the World Bank. The opec members

Countries and areas

half

1975, possibly reflecting a long-term investment in other countries because of past and expected revaluations. Italy received two loans

196

3,500

5,390

first

of 1975, and

its expected current deficit. Inwere relatively high in Canada throughout the year. The inflow of long-term capital to Germany was the result of both a large increase in official inflows and a move into surplus on private flows; outflows on portfolio investment and lending were lower and inflows higher, probably reflecting expectations of a revaluation and faster economic growth. Direct investment abroad was higher; this account moved

327

2,950 1,570

all

terest rates

88 1,017

2,043

-352

132 210 179

South Africa

bondsf.

725 150 517

2,068

426 1,050

Foreign

170

245

6,743

Brazil India

foreign curren-

in

Eurodollarsf

in

in the fourth

more than financed

1976 issues

1975,

1976

made

quarter. Canada's issues of bonds in the

$3.5 billion over 1974. Estimates of the total external indebtedness of these countries vary widely, and high levels are not surprising after

many

in sterling terms,

end of 1975

The

years of borrow-

to

from 3.5% of

total reserves at the

about 2%.

fluctuations of

some major

currencies,

and of

ing to finance development projects and of accepting inflows of private investment. It is more useful to

those linked to them, should not obscure the remark-

identify the additional deficits of recent years above

the successive bouts of

the level

which they and their creditors had come normal and tolerable. Their total deficit in 1974-76, using estimates at the low end of the possible range, was $57 billion. If a deficit of $7

against individual currencies

to regard as

economic arguments, but the results by the end of the year were as follows: massive devaluation for the two countries whose inflation rates greatly exceeded the oecd average, the United Kingdom, with about twice the average, and Italy, with lower inflation but greater political and economic uncertainty; a revaluation for the major country with the lowest inflation (West Germany) and little change among the other countries (by the third quarter, France, Iceland, Portugal, Spain, and Turkey had had small devaluations). The magnitude of the changes did not correspond precisely with the inflation differences among the respective countries. The steadiness of the yen and the Swiss franc was, however, probably less the result of market forces than of government intervention; both countries increased their foreign exchange reserves, and Switzerland tightened the already strict controls on the entry of foreign capital. The changes in other countries' effective rates were the result of these changes and changes in non-OECD countries' rates (Chart 4). Much of the speculation around the snake currencies was caused by expectations about an alteration in their relationships with each other, rather than about their rate relative to other currencies. Within the snake, the mark was at the upper end throughout the year, with pressure intensifying,

billion a

year

more than a

is

normal, the additional deficit equaled

third of their exports in 1976. Although

they also received some additional aid from opec, the level of a tolerable deficit may have become lower

because of the slower growth in the industrial countries.

Latin-American countries, particularly Brazil, remained among the heaviest borrowers on the international capital markets. Mexico's borrowing may have been slightly lower than in 1975 it had to obtain additional assistance from the imf to cover capital outflows prompted by fears of devaluation because of its high inflation compared with the United States and its continued high current deficit. The poorer Asian countries used mainly official sources, although some, including India, had much-improved balances and therefore a reduced need for external finance. The Philippines and South Korea increased their commercial borrowing substantially in 1976, but both also received assistance from the imf. Egypt was forced to look to support from the imf because of pressure from the opec members, especially Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which were unwilling to continue financing its deficit. It was no longer able to meet its interest payments and had to arrange renegotiation of its loans by agreement with its creditors. Zaire also had to make a formal rearrangement of its repayments; low and unstable export income made it unable to pay interest on existing loans or obtain new finance. South Africa found it increasingly difficult to expand borrowing during the year; its commercial borrowing was less than originally planned, and it obtained finance from the imf. Official Reserves and Exchange Rates. The change in total reserves was similar to that in 1975; the difference is exaggerated in Table XXVII be;

able stability of the majority of rates.

The timing

of

speculation that developed is

difficult to

explain

by

;

as can be seen in the rise in

German

reserves, until

Belgium and The Netherlands abandoned their narrower band within the snake in the spring, and Belgium devalued further relative to the mark in October. The French franc left the snake in March, and depreciated relative both to the snake currencies and to the dollar during the rest of the year, in spite of government use of reserves to retard the fall. Although the agit

was

finally revalued in October.

gregate ratio of reserves to imports of the developed

was probably adequate, under floating rates, making only temporary interventions the market, the need of some countries that per-

countries

for countries in

attempted

cause of the rise during 1975 in the value of the dol-

sistently

which they are measured. With the exception of South African gold sales, most use of reserves was not to finance deficits on current account. Changes were more closely tied to short-term capital movements, usually unexpected or unwanted, in response to interest rate differentials or expectations about changes in exchange rates; other finance was ar-

tions to arrange standby finance with other central

lar in

ranged for anticipated

deficits.

The

principal differ-

ences from 1974 and 1975 were slower growth in

oil

more medium- and probably balanced their new surplus)

exporters' reserves (a shift into

long-term assets

and the first large rise since 1973 for other less developed countries. Except for a temporary benefit from improved terms of trade, most of this went to India, Malaysia, and South Korea. For the other groups and for most less developed countries, the rises were less than the rise in imports (a rough measure of reserves' adequacy for financing temporary fluctuations in trade

and

capital

movements). The

composition of the increase in reserves was divided about equally between dollar liabilities and other foreign currencies, excluding sterling. Sterling liabilities fell

35%

measured

in dollars

and over

25%

even

to

291

Economy, World

prevent or regulate devalua-

banks indicates that they found existing reserve ratios too low. In March selling of the pound probably began because it appeared that the continuing reduction in interest rates by the Bank of England was intended to bring about a fall in the exchange rate. The resulting devaluation may have encouraged a further reduction in sterling holdings and greater pressure on the rate in the second quarter, although interest rates were raised (Chart 3). In June, a $5.3 billion standby credit was arranged with the United States Federal Reserve and other central banks for six months. This was a change in the normal short-term swap arrangements among central banks that provide mutual support to prevent fluctuations. These are normally on a shorter-term basis and not announced at the time they are made. Although the declaration of apparent formal support for the pound's rate by other governments may have had a temporary effect, and the- standby permitted the Bank of England to continue its intervention in the exchange markets at a time when the reserves were insufficient, the further devaluation of the pound while the standby was still

CHART

3.

the figures in Table Interest Rates

serves.)

XXVII

exaggerate available reits resources with

The government increased

a total of $750 million in swaps

from the United drew $500 million; it also applied for further credit from the imf. Renewed pressure in the second quarter, and the failure to obtain the imf loan, weakened the lira further, but tighter foreign exchange controls and the usual summer improvement from tourism earnings strengthened it sufficiently to permit repayment of the swaps in summer; additional pressures in September and October were allowed to take the rate back to its second-quarter level. The devaluation of the Australian dollar by 17% in November was not the result of an unfavourable trade balance. It appears to have been intended to stimulate the economy by restricting imports. Such a policy had not been used by any of the larger countries in this recession. (The avoidance of revaluation by Japan and Switzerland had probably been directed more at supporting exports.) Fears that the cumulative effect of competing devaluations on trade and output will wipe out any temporary advantage to an States, of

6^

individual

from such

which

it

country are usually the only protection This time, however, exceptionally

policies.

high inflation had accompanied depressed output in

most countries; there may United States

also therefore

have been

-

fear of the effect of higher import prices after a devaluation.

After relatively their

j

FMAMj JASONO JFMAMJJASOND 1976

1975 Source: Inlernotionol Monetary Fund, fnrernahono/ financial Srahsnci

made obvious

the inadequacy of such permit a continuing exchange rate policy. A declaration of international support was not a substitute for intervention, and the standby could not be used against sustained pressure on the rate because of the need to repay it within six months. Excluding the amount used from the standby, the ratio of United Kingdom reserves to imports at the beginning of December was less than 7%. The inter-central bank swap agreements were used more conventionally when the United States gave temporary support to Italy in March. Pressure on the lira began in January after it had been quite stable for several months. In attempting to maintain the rate, almost half of Italy's foreign currency reserves were sold. (As over $3.3 billion of Italian reserves are gold, which is not used for market intervention,

available

little

and high

change in 1975, in spite of inflation,

the

oil-importing

developed countries turned increasingly to large devaluations in 1976. Because of the importance of world prices rather than domestic prices for most primary commodities, most major devaluations were by countries with relatively high dependence on exports of manufactures or of services such as tourism. (Controlling the growth of imports was usually done through direct controls or duties.) Mexico devalued by about 50% after high inflation had hurt its tourism and export earnings from the United States and after expectations of devaluation had led to large outflows of short-term capital. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, and Zaire were among other less developed countries with devaluations of over 20% against the dollar. In attempting to avoid devaluation, which had, at least temporarily, the effect of reducing the foreign

less

West Germany

1

deficits

temporary finance

to

currency value of exports and therefore further increasing the burden of external debt, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay, and Zaire lost large parts of their reserves. Mexico also used its swap arrangement with the U.S., which could only be repaid out of its imf The ability of these countries to finance future

loan.

even temporarily, and therefore their economic independence, was thus greatly reduced. deficits

In most major countries, interest rates were unusually stable during most of the year (Chart 3); this probably reflected the greater emphasis being

given to domestic monetary policy in determining the levels except in the countries with an active exchange

At the middle of the year there were sharp divergences, with the largest rises in the United

rate policy. Table XXVIII. The Price of Gold Averages for year

Measure

1970

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976*

Kingdom and

Italy

whose

Dollars per ounce SDR's per ounce Indices of gold's relative price, 1970 To exports of manufactures

To all primary commodities To other metals

35.96 35.96

58.20

100 100 100

138 129

53.61

97.22 81.55

158.80 132.06

160 87 132.46

125.09 108.39

203 150 208

273 143 252

246 148 225

192 114 166

= 100 151

•Estimate.

Sources: International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics; United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics; Samuel Montagu and Co. Ltd., Annual Bullion Review and Monthly Review.

rates

had been above those

the beginning of the year; there were also small rises among the smaller of the other countries

since

snake countries: Belgium, Denmark. The Netherlands, and Sweden. Swiss rates fell throughout the year.

International Monetary Reform. At the beginning of 1976, after four years of negotiations, the imf introduced new provisions for borrowing and a few administrative changes, but there were no proposals

CHART for controls over international liquidity or exchange

Exchange Rates

Effective

although these had been the original reasons for attempting a reform. The normal provisions for borrowing, determined by countries' quotas in the Fund's capital and thus favouring the richer countries,

135

i

,

•

i

•

j

Tom

Donal McCann; and John Lynch's Love, about life in London and Dublin in the 1960s and 1970s, at the smaller Peacock. Among the 28 attractions at the festival were O'Neill's More Stately Mansions and Henry Montherlant's The City Whose Lord Is a Child, each an Irish premiere; Patrick Galvin's play about a Cork slum, The Devil's Own People (with Ray McAnally) Donal Donnelly's Shavian one-man-show; Kevin O'Connor's Friends, about James Joyce; and Jonas Arnason's wartime drama Operation: Shield Rock, acted by fantasies, starring

You Need

in Basel,

one-night version of Schiller's trilogy of Wallenstein

Kilroy's Tea and Sex and Shakespeare, about a writer's All

outrageous production ,

,

Abbey Theatre, Dublin, were the silver jubilee revival, directed by Tomas Mac Anna, of Sean O'Casey's The Plough and the Stars, starring Siobhan McKenna, Cyril Cusack, and his daughter Sorcha Cusack; the Dublin Festival proby

An

lands.

Hollmann, of Othello, culminating in the rape of a Th * C ™td|? Fran ?.aise celebrated the opening _ \ „ i topless Desdemona (Susanne I remper). inflamed local of its renovated quarters tempers; they were, however, assuaged by his brilliant with a production adaptation of Thomas Mann's novel Buddenbrooks. °| Alfred de ^set's Lorenzaccio, tt T In Zurich Harry r> Buckwitz players in an impressive w t ciaude Rich

victim of the Arts Council axe.

directed

Theatre

:

In Ireland, highlights at the

duction,

661

France. The Comedie Franchise staged Franco sumptuous production of Alfred de Musset's Lorenzaccio, with the splendid Claude Rich in the title role. Other noteworthy events at the Comedie Franchise were the English guest-director Hands's sensual production of Twelfth Night, with the company's manager Pierre Dux as Malvolio and Hands's wife, Ludmila Mikael, as Viola; Jorge Lavelli's brilliant debut there directing Eugene Ionesco's Exit the King; and the return of the veteran Raymond Rouleau to stage Eugene Scribe's The Glass of Water. At the subsidiary stages of the Odeon, the Young National Theatre players staged Frank Wedekind's Spring Awakening, Pinter's The Dumb-W aiter and a first Zeffirelli's

Is

;

Icelandic players in English. KEYSTONE

in

f,

the title role.

KEYSTONE

and Vaclav Havel's autobiographical Kafkaesque oneand Vernissage, prohibited in his native Prague. The Vienna Festival premiere was Bernhard's skit on prominent festival personalities called Famous People. A new version of Tennessee Williams' failed The Red Devil Battery Sign was the key offering at Vienna's English Theatre. The Brussels experimental Pocket Theatre celebrated its 25th birthday with a festival attended by Belgian, French, Italian, and U.S. troupes, the Belgian Mobile Theatre's A Doll's House proving to be acters Audience

outstanding. Pierre Laroche's stage adaptation of the

French philosopher's writings as Blaise Pascal, directed by himself at the Rideau, and the French-language premiere of Trevor Griffiths Comedians at the National were other attractions in Brussels, along with the premiere of

Hugo

Claus's adaptation of Orestes

Royal Flemish Theatre. In The Netherlands, the new Rotterdam-based international group "Kiss" scored a success with a touring show of classical drama in Greek, Latin, and English by turns. Italy and Spain. The Milan Piccolo celebrated its 30th birthday with Strehler's production of Jean Genet's The Balcony (with Anna Proclemer) and Lamberto Pugelli's of Widowers' Houses; Giorgio at the

Prague's "Drawn Theatre"

SfSe. The popular Czechoslovak ensemble toured

West Germany

in

March.

(with

Hans Dieter

Zeidler) vied in popularity with

t0udn S versi0n of Tke Cherr y 0rchard with the masterly Maria Becker as Ranevskaya. In West Berlin Samuel Beckett celebrated his 70th birth day by staging the German premieres of his That Time and Footfalls at the Schiller's Workshop, while Hans Lietzau's amusing production of Ayckbourn's trilogy of The Norman Conquests packed the Schiller's substage, the Schlosspark. Novelties were Elias Canetti's The Wedding, the Austrian playwright Franz Buchrieser's drama of a former jailbird, The Product, and the first visit of an East German troupe to West Berlin, when Rostock brought Hanns Anselm Perten's productions of Rolf Hochhuth's Lysistrata or NATO and Peter Weiss's Holderlin to the autumn Arts Festival. The highlight of the Schaubuhne season was Else Lasker-Schuler's The Wupper, effectively staged by Luc Bondy. In East Berlin Fritz Marquandt staged Heiner Muller's revolutionary The Peasants, a world premiere, about postwar collectivization, at the Peoa

'

Theatre; Peter Kupke presented a new version The Caucasian Chalk Circle, with Ekkehard Schall as Azdak. at the Berliner Ensemble; ple's

of Brecht's

and Friedo Solter staged a new King Lear, with Fred Diiren, at the Deutsches.

Peter Palitzsch came under fire in Frankfurt, where attendances were falling, despite his striking production of

Chekhov's Tke Seagull and the selection of

Peter Loscher's engrossing production of David Rud-

A fore Night Come

kin's

West

to represent the city at the

Berlin Theatre Review. Stuttgart, too, resisted

official calls for

memThomas Bernhard,

cutbacks, and countered with a

orable world premiere, by Austria's of the biographical

drama

of an actor, Minetti, writ-

Bernhard Minetti to play himthe exiled Czechoslovakian director Otomar Krejca, who began his engagement as a full-time staff member with a much-debated adaptation of The Cherry Orchard. Peter Zadek's two provocative versions (some called them perversions) of Othello, in Hamburg, and Spring Awakening, in Bochum, created fiercely partisan arguments in both ten

especially

self.

Diisseldorf

for

welcomed

cities.

Before retiring to hand over the reins to Achim Benning, Vienna Burgtheater manager Gerhard Klingenberg supervised his theatre's 200th anniversary celebrations. Main events there were Krejca's guest production of Faust in 19th-century garb and the world premieres, at the Akademie substage, of Wolf-

gang Bauer's drama of a psychotic, Magnet Kisses,

Albertazzi returned to his old theatre in his tation

of

a

monodrama based on

the

own adap-

writings

of

Dostoyevsky and Nikolay Chernyshevsky. Giorgio De Lullo joined forces with Romolo Valli once more in Pinter's No Man's Land, played in a suitably drear decor by Pier Luigi Pizzi. In Trieste, Massimo De Francovich appeared

in his

own

stage version of Italo

Svevo's short story The Cousins. After producing his own version of the life of Rosa Luxemburg in Genoa,

Squarzina opened

in

Rome

new production

with a

in the

new Teatro

di

Roma

The Braggart. Madrid marked a turn

of Pasolini's

Two important events in toward democracy in the Spanish theatre. The first was Victor Garcia's imaginatively symbolical rendering of Ramon Maria del Valle-Inclan's Divines Paroles with Nuria Espert at the head of her own troupe (which later toured several world festivals), and the second was the first stage appearance in Madrid since her exile in 1936 of Maria Casares, daughter of the former republican premier, in the European premiere of Defiance, written by the exiled Spanish playwright Rafael Alberti. Eastern Europe. Moscow's Yuri Liubimov was given permission to leave the U.S.S.R. for the

first

Na Taganke Theatre company to attend a foreign festival. He presented Hamlet, Ten Days that Shook the World, and Here the Dawns Are Quiet time with his

second itinerant Theatre of the Nations Festival Back home he put on Yuri Trifonov's adaptation of his own novel The Exchange, the study of a failed marriage, with Anna Demidova and Leonid Flatov as the estranged couple. A visually beautiful, though slow-paced, The Cherry Orchard was Galina at the in

Belgrade.

latest production at the Sovremennik (Contemporary), while Olga Yakovleva gave a fine

Volchyok's

rendering of the bride in Anatoli Efros' uproarious of Nikolay Gogol's The Wedding at the

version

Malaya Bronnaya. For his outstanding performance in Andrzej Wajda's production of Buero Vallejo's Goya drama with which Warsaw's newest theatre, the Na Woli. was inaugurated,

Tadeusz Lomnicki won the best actor award

of the journal Theatre.

Two

separate productions of

Slawomir Mrozek's The Emigres were directed by Jerzy Kreczmar in Warsaw and Andrzej Wajda in

Krakow, and also of his absurdist allegory, The Hunchback, by Kazimierz Dejmek in Lodz and Jerzy Jarocki in Krakow. An important novelty was Tadeusz Kantor's terrifying re-creation of Poland's past called The Dead Class, which his Cricot 2 company also took to Edinburgh and London. National Theatre actress

Zona Kucowna had

Iredynski's

a great success in Ireneusz

monodrama Maria. carried

on,

in

the

West City

Theatre in Cheb, where his production of Moliere's School for Wives attracted favourable criticism. At the Cinoherni Klub, Ladislav Smocek staged The Wolf, a Soviet drama about hyprocrisy by Leonid Leonov. Osvald Zahradnik's second play, A Sonatina for a Peacock, about the loneliness of a gregarious miner, was world-premiered in Bratislava. New plays in Hungary included the late Laszlo Nemeth's posthumous Huguenot drama Colbert, with Ferenc Bessenyi; Istvan Csurka's Taken on Location, about an incompetent film director, with Maria Sulyok; and

Endre Illes's Isabella of Spain. Scandinavia. At the Royal Dramatic, Stockholm, the highlights included Kent Andersson's The Hole, adapted from the production in Goteborg; the world premiere of Arnold Wesker's The Merchant, splendidly staged by Staffan Roos (with Ingvar Kjellson as Shylock) and Per Olov Enquist's second drama, about crime in modern Sweden, Chez Nous. The City Theatre, Stockholm, staged Weiss's The Trial (premiered in Goteborg) based on the novel by Franz Kafka, and Staffan Westerberg's imaginative production with a musical score by Lars Johan Werle of The Growing Castle. Sven Wollter took over the People's Theatre, where Etienne Glaser made his ;

,

directing debut with an exciting production of Gerhart

Hauptmann's The Weavers. In Oslo Liv Ullmann gave a touching performance opposite Toralv Maurstad at the latter's New Theatre in O'Neill's A Moon for the Misbegotten, directed by Jose Quintero from New York. Other highlights included Per Aabel as a male Arcati in Coward's Blithe

and a new production of Ibsen's juvenile drama both at the National. At the New Norwegian, there was a revival of The Insect Play staged by a Czechoslovakian team. Wesker's The Merchant in Danish was staged at Arhus. In Copenhagen, Ernst Bruun Olsen's biographical drama about Baron Holberg, called Poetic Ecstasy, with Erik Mork, was the season's success at the Royal Theatre in Preben Neergard's colourful production. At Helsinki's City Theatre Paavo Liski's anachronistic production of Paradise Lost, adapted from Milton by the Hungarian Karoly Kazimir, with Pertti Palo as a benign Satan, had a rock band to provide the stage music. (ossia trilling) U.S. and Canada. A number of large-scale, ambitious ventures that looked promising on paper turned out to be disappointing onstage in 1976, and such excitement as the year afforded came largely from unexpected sources and odd configurations of talent. In honour of the Bicentennial, the annals of U.S. drama were ransacked in search of scripts to revive. The American Bicentennial Theatre, sponsored by the Kennedy Center and financed by the Xerox Corp., Spirit

Catiline,

mounted a

series of such revivals, lavishly produced,

Kennedy Center (Washingand on tour during the 1975-76 season. The most successful of these was The Royal Family by George S. Kaufman and Edna Ferber, which for performances at the ton, D.C.)

late in

fore the

1975 and

new year

moved

to

Broadway

just be-

for a substantial run followed

by

663

Theatre

a tour. Other noncommercial theatres also went in

And on Broadway, under commercial auspices, there was an impressive revival

heavily for U.S. revivals. of

Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? by Edward Albee, Dewhurst and Ben Gazzara, directed

starring Colleen

by the author.

In Czechoslovakia Krejca finally emigrated to

Germany; Jan Grossman

opened

Few

of these revivals proved particularly popular;

revivals of U.S. musicals did distinctly better at the

box

office.

My

Fair

Lady (with Ian Richardson as Roof (with

Professor Higgins) and Fiddler on the

Zero Mostel in his original role) returned to Broadway, as did Pal Joey (in an unhappy revival at the Circle in the Square) and Guys and Dolls (with an all-black cast). Porgy and Bess, George Gershwin's masterpiece, is arguably not a musical at all but a full-

and it seemed particularly so in its Broadway revival, which came from the Houston Grand Opera with recitatives intact. It was fledged opera,

splendid

certainly one of the sensations of 1976, and Clamma Dale as Bess made a personal sensation of her own. Porgy and Bess, though written by whites, is set in a black community, and black modes of song and speech and living are the elements it is made of; it is played, of course, by a nearly all-black cast. It, and the all-black Guys and Dolls along with Bubbling Brown Sugar, a. revue that evoked the great period of Harlem nightlife, and Your Arms Too Short to Box with God, a gospel musical that came from Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. testified to the black presence in the Broadway musical theatre. There was, moreover, a significant black Broadway audience to support plays about the black experience. In general, however, it was not a happy year for Haruki Fujimoto, new Broadway musicals. The most impressive, and playing the role of controversial, of the 1976 crop was Pacific Overtures, Commodore Matthew produced and directed by Harold Prince, with music Perry, does a Kabuki-style Lion Dance to celebrate and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. An audacious at- his success in opening tempt to use the techniques of the Japanese theatre Japan to the West in 1853, to tell the story of the "opening" of Japan to Western in the musical "Pacific Overtures" commerce by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853, it produced and directed won the New York Drama Critics Circle Award, ran by Harold Prince.

—

—

MARTHA SWOPE

Washington, D.C. The Runner Stumbles by Milan Stitt, a sombre, scrupulous account of a doomed love affair between a Roman Catholic priest and a nun, came to Broadway from the Hartman Theatre Company in Stamford, Conn., and, before that, the Manhattan Theatre Club. Knock Knock by Jules Feiffer, a reflective yet zany comedy in which Joan of Arc appears to two elderly Jewish men, opened in a muchadmired production at the Circle Repertory Theatre in Greenwich Village. The production was transferred to Broadway, and when business there proved disappointing it was restaged by a new director with a

new

cast; the

new production

got unenthusiastic no-

and quickly closed. Unquestionably the big disappointment of the fall Broadway season was A Texas Trilogy, three fulllength, interrelated plays by Preston Jones about life in a West Texas town. The trilogy was originally mounted by the Dallas Theatre Center; one play of the three, The Last Meeting of the Knights of the White Magnolia, was produced at regional theatres tices

in

September.

from January

to June,

and closed

at

an estimated loss

The new Richard Rodgers musical, Nicol Williamson as Henry VIII, was a

of $1.3 million.

Rex, starring failure; 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, with book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Leonard Bernstein, was an exceptionally dire failure. In spite of these setbacks, "The Broadway legit season of 1975-76 was by far the biggest in history, at least on a financial basis," according to Variety, the theatrical trade paper. Though the biggest hits were mainly musicals from the previous season, there were high hopes that financial success would continue into the

In

new year and

stimulate artistic success as well.

held up well, but in terms of

fact, business

creativity the fall

Broadway season

of 1976

was

new of a

piece with the rest of the year: undistinguished.

Traditionally

a

source

of

theatrical

creativity,

Broadway had become more a destination for creative work from elsewhere. As usual, there were new plays from abroad, especially Great

Britain.

A Matter

of

work about an indomitable grande dame by the author of The Chalk Garden, Enid Bagnold, had a short but profitable Broadway run as a vehicle for Katharine Hepburn. The original British production of Harold Pinter's No Man's Land, starring Sir John Gielgud and Sir Ralph Richardson, Gravity, a rather feeble

was brought over intact for a successful limited engagement. Comedians by Trevor Griffiths used a class of apprentice comedians on a rainy night in Manchester as a context for discussing the responsibility of the artist to society and to himself.

directed

only

it

for

Mike Nichols

Broadway, and Jonathan Pryce, the

member of the original cast to repeat his role in made a deep impression as the most talented,

throughout the country. Then the entire trilogy, directed by Alan Schneider, was produced by the Kennedy Center in Washington- D.C, with tremendous critical and popular success. This production, the three plays in repertory, was transferred to Broadway with high hopes. But the New York response was merely polite. Few thought they were bad plays, but

few thought they were more than skilled but uninin conventional American realism.

spired exercises

They

closed after a short run, at a considerable loss

of money.

The balance

of

power

in

the U.S. theatre having

noncommercial theatre, one of the major theatrical entrepreneurs in the U.S. was Joseph Papp of the New York Shakespeare Festival. In 1976 Papp had four major successes running simultaneously. A Chorus Line continued its successful Broadway career, and two touring companies were sent out. A thoroughly unlikely success was For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide/When the Rainbow Is Enuf, a suite of poems by Ntozake Shange about being black and female in America, spoken and sometimes sung and danced by a cast of seven black women, including the author. First produced at a bar in Manhattan, it was moved to Papp's Public Theatre as a co-production by Papp and Woodie King, Jr., of the New Federal Theatre; from the Public Theatre it moved to Broadway. Its highlight, a story-poem about a crazy Vietnam veteran who kills his own children, was powerfully performed by Trazana Beverley. Meanwhile, at the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in Linshifted decisively to the

Papp presented the first New York reyears of The Threepenny Opera by Brecht and Kurt Weill. To direct, he engaged Richard Foreman, much admired among the avant-garde as coln Center,

vival in

many

the author-director-designer of such surrealist creaRhoda in Potatoland. Foreman's rigorously

the U.S.,

tions as

and most hostile, of the comedians. As for new U.S. plays on Broadway, they were neither numerous nor distinguished, and few of them began as Broadway productions. California Suite by Neil Simon began its career at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, but was at least clearly intended for Broadway from the beginning; composed of four playlets set in the same suite at the Beverly Hills Hotel, it was a hit on the strength of its resemblance to Simon's previous comedies. Zalmen, or The Madness of God by Elie Wiesel, about the plight of Soviet Jewry, came to Broadway from the Arena Stage in

Threepenny was and popular. To fill his smaller Lincoln Center auditorium, Papp imported from the Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Conn., Mike Nichols' staging of Streamers, David Rabe's new play about sexual, racial, and other tensions at an army camp in Virginia during the war in Vietnam. Streamers won controlled, forbidding, coldly lavish

controversial,

the

New York Drama

Critics Circle

Award

as the

best American play of 1975-76.

Other new U.S. plays were presented off-Broadway, off-off-Broadway, and in the regional theatres. The Folger Theatre Group in Washington,

D.C,

sent

its

production of Medal of Honor Rag by Tom Cole, about a Vietnam veteran with psychic scars, to New York for an off-Broadway engagement. The Virginia Museum Theatre presented Children, a sensitive play

by A. R. Gurney,

Jr.,

Club mounted Every Night When

Togo

New England Manhattan Thea-

about a wealthy

family, in February; in October, the tre

665

its

the

own production of Children. Sun Goes Down, an ominous,

doom-ridden play by the black dramatist Philip Hayes Dean, appeared at the American Place Theatre in New York in February; Vanities by Jack Heifner, about the growing older of three former cheerleaders, opened off-Broadway in March; Serenading Louie by Lanford Wilson, about two prosperous but emotionally fraught couples, was produced by the Circle Repertory Company, Greenwich Village, in April; Suicide in B-Flat by Sam Shepard had its premiere at the Yale Repertory Theatre, New Haven, Conn., in October.

The most promising new U.S. dramatist to emerge was David Mamet, who had three plays produced in New York for brief engagements off-off-Broadway in the

A

fall

Duck

Katharine Hepburn

of 1975, after previous productions in Chicago.

double

bill

played a grande dame in Enid Bagnold's "A Matter of Gravity" on Broadway.

of his Sexual Perversity in Chicago and

Variations opened off-Broadway in June 1976

for a long run. Sexual Perversity

was

a sharply bril-

comic account of how modern young American men and women try to deal with their fear of each liant

Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest, the latter

other.

Lady

The experimental-theatre event

of the year, beyond was Einstein on the Beach, an "opera" devised and staged by Robert Wilson, with music by

question,

Philip Glass.

A

42-hour surrealistic extravaganza, a

sort of huge-scale, meticulously organized happening,

Einstein, though created

by Americans, was

first

pre-

sented in Europe. After gaining favourable reviews

Avignon Festival in Paris and elsewhere, it was presented for two much-discussed performances at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. In Canada theatre felt the effect of the Olympic Games at Montreal. The Arts and Culture Program of the Olympics brought performers and companies from all over Canada to Montreal for a festival of Canadian theatre, music, and dance; the organizers were later at the

severely criticized because audiences for many events were disappointingly small. Two notable FrenchCanadian plays, both produced by Montreal companies, formed part of the festivities. Evangeline Deusse by Antonine Maillet, produced by the Theatre du Rideau Vert, was a gentle little play about an old woman from Acadia, the French-speaking community in New Brunswick, who feels like an exile in busy metropolitan Montreal. Sainte Carmen de la Main by Jean Tremblay, produced by the Compagnie Jean Duceppe, was a harsh, jolting play about a nightclub singer who gets into trouble when her songs take on radical political implications; written in the form of a Greek tragedy, Sainte Carmen had a chorus of prostitutes, male and female, who work "the Main,"

Montreal's nightclub strip. Meanwhile, the Lennonville Festival (located in Quebec, but English-speaking) had a success with Sqrieux-de-Deux by Betty Lambert, a cheerful sex-

Hutt

performance as was not an exciting theatrical year; there was a new play by James Reaney entitled Baldoon, but no new work reached the Toronto stage from most of the other established English-speaking Canadian playwrights. One event in the Canadian theatre had a symbolic importance. On April 1, 1976, the Canadian branch of starring William

in a transvestite

Bracknell. In Toronto

it

Actors Equity, the stage performers' union, separated itself from the U.S. Actors Equity and became an in-

(julius novick)

dependent organization. See also Dance; Literature; Music.

[622]

Encyclopaedia Beitannica Films. Shaw — Part The Character Caesar, Part oj III:

I:

II:

vs.

Shakespeare

The Tragedy

oj

Caesar, Part Caesar and Cleopatra ( 1970); Medieval Theater: The Play oj Abraham and Isaac ( 1974); Art of Silence (1975); The New Tenant (1975); The Well oj the Saints (1975); The Long Christmas Dinner (1976); Tennessee Williams: Theater in Progress (1976).

Julius

Togo A West is

African republic on the Bight of Benin, Togo bordered by Ghana, Upper Volta, and Benin. Area:

21,925 sqmi (56,785 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.) 2,197,900. Cap. and largest city: Lome (pop., 1975 est., :

Language:

214,200).

French

(official).

Religion:

Muslim and Christian minorities. President in 1976, Gen. Gnassingbe Eyadema. After months of bickering, Togo and Benin (formerly Dahomey) normalized their relations in March 1976, thanks to the mediation of Pres. Sekou Toure animist;

of Guinea.

In September, after a major ministerial reorganizaAyi Houenou Hunlede, who had headed Togo's

tion,

foreign ministry since General

Eyadema

seized

power

Theology:

comedy imported from Vancouver. The Stratford

in

(Ont.) Festival had a successful year with ten productions, including Congreve's The Way of the World,

Edem Kodjo, economy.

Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra, and Chekhov's The Three Sisters, all starring Maggie Smith, and two

The only shadow over an otherwise seemingly satis- Tobacco: factory domestic situation was a certain tension in see Drug Abuse;

successful productions carried over from the previous

relations

year, Shakespeare's

Measure for Measure and Oscar

1967, surrendered the foreign affairs portfolio to

previously minister of finance and the

see

Religion

Timber: see Industrial

Industrial

in the

between church and

disturbances at

state,

notably revealed

Lome on May

2 at a bishop's

Review

Review

Tobogganing: see Winter Sports

666

consecration.

Tonga

saw

to

crisis,

it

However, General Eyadema personally

that conflicts of this nature did not lead to

and the steps he took were

effective.

A

return

near future was forecast by the general in a speech at Piya in northern Togo in November, but he did not mention a specific date. In October representatives of Togo, Zaire, Gabon, and the Ivory Coast met in Lome in order to coordito civilian rule in the

(philippe decraene)

nate policies. [978.E.4.b.ii]

Tonga

of 21.85

m

(71

Com-

of the

monwealth of Nations, Tonga is an island group in the Pacific Ocean east of Fiji. Area: 270 sq mi (700 sq km). Pop. (1975 est): 102,000. Cap.: Nukualofa (pop., 1974 est., 25,000). Language: English and Tongan. Religion: Christian. King, Taufa'ahau Tupou IV; prime minister

On Nov.

4,

1975,

in 1976, Prince Tu'ipelehake.

Tonga celebrated

its

centenary as

monarchy. Among the events of 1976 it was understood that the U.S.S.R. had offered to upgrade Tonga's international airport and dockyard a constitutional

in return for the right to establish a fisheries

base

The terms and tone of the New Zealand government's comments on these developments caused a there.

m

in)

m

m

dramatic "discus whirl" technique, reached an even 22 (72 ft 2\ in) in Paris on July 10 just before the Olympic Games opened in Canada. High jumper Dwight Stones (U.S.) achieved a world record on each side of the Games. In winning the National Collegiate Athletic Association (ncaa) title in Philadelphia in June, he scaled 2.31 (7 ft 7 in) and, four days after finishing a bitterly disappointed bronze medalist in Montreal, went over a bar set at 2.32 (7 ft 1\ in), again in Philadelphia. Two U.S. pole vaulters helped push the world mark closer to 5.80 m (19' ft). Earl Bell vaulted 5.67 (18 ft 1\ in) at Wichita, Kan., on May 29, and Dave Roberts won the U.S. Olympic Trials with a magnificent vault of 5.70 (18 ft 8^ in) on June 22 at Eugene, Ore. (Roberts was vaulting on Bell's pole

m

m

m

m

own

shattered on his

after his

world record.)

Pacific islands)

and

to locate and, in

some

many of whom were Tongans. Remittances, from migrant workers were important for cash income in the villages of Tonga and as a means of reducing the nation's chronic balance of payments deficit. There was a revival of Japanese

interest in

Tonga

with offers of aircraft for regional services, hotel development, and a fisheries agreement. With other

Tonga on March 9 accepted Zealand proposals for a weakened version of the stand on a nuclear-free zone in the Pacific taken at the 1975 meeting of the South Pacific Forum and also agreed not to formalize any fisheries agreements until the Law of the Sea Conference (see Law: Special Report) had completed its deliberations on the concept of a 200-mi exclusive economic zone. (barrie macdonald) Pacific island nations,

Australian and

New

in 57 min 24.2 sec. Decathlon competitor Bruce Jenner (U.S.) previewed his Montreal world record by amassing 8,444 points in Eugene in June. Due to faulty electrical timing and some events being windassisted, his score checked out five different ways, the most popular being 8,448 (electrical) and 8,542 (hand

timing).

I.

Earth Sciences

Tourism: see Industrial

Review

Toys: see

Games and Toys

World 1976 Outdoor Records— Men Performance

Competitor, country, date

Event

m

Alberto Juantorena, Cuba, July 25 Edwin Moses, U.S., July 25

400-m hurdles

important (and long overdue) decision emerging from the International Amateur Athletic Federation (iaaf) congress meeting at Montreal in July 1976 concerned timing. Only approved fully automatic electronic timing for sprint events (up to and including 400 m) would be accepted in the future for world record consideration, and hand timings for all events would be released in tenths of a second. Thus, many records would be jettisoned from the world sprint lists, and athletes would know the marks at which to aim. International Competition: Men. Predictably, most of the record breaking took place at the Olympic Games. (See Special Report.) But world records tumbled even as early as February, when Terry Albritton (U.S.) surprised the world with a shot put

attempt at the new

m

800

Track and Field Sports

first

On the track, New Zealander John Walker, in Oslo on June 30, turned in one of the most sensational middle distance exploits of all time, covering the rarely run 2,000 in 4 min 51.4 sec. Michel Jazy's previous record (4 min 56.2 sec) had stood for ten years. In The Netherlands, Jos Hermens churned out his annual long distance chores on the track at the Papendal National Sports Centre, near Arnhem. On May 1 he became the first man ever to run more than 13 mi in an hour after passing 20 km (50 laps)

Table [977.A.3]

see Disasters;

Hawaii. The discus record much in-form

Wilkins (U.S.). He reached 69.16 (226 ft at Walnut, Calif., in April and on May 1 capped a remarkable series of throws with a heave of 70.86 (232 ft 6 in). Steve Williams, Harvey Glance (both U.S.), and Don Quarrie (Jamaica) all during the early ran hand-timed 9.9 sec for 100 part of the season; none of these made the final world record lists because of the iaaf's new ruling. Albritton's shot put mark was destined to have a short life, for Aleksandr Baryshnikov (U.S.S.R.), using the 11

they coincided with an attempt by New Zealand to reduce immigration (especially of temporary workers cases, deport illegal immigrants,

Tornadoes:

in

Mac

deterioration in relations with Tonga, in part because

An

8^ in)

m

An independent monarchy and member

from the

ft

to follow, thanks to a very

was soon

min 43.5 sec 47.64 sec

1

3,000-m steeplechase Anders Garderud, Sweden, July 28 8 min 08.02 sec Dwight Stones, U.S., June 5 2.31 m (7 ft 7 in) High jump Dwight Stones, U.S., August 4 2.32 m (7 ft 7'A in) 5.67 m (18 ft 7V, in) Earl Bell, U.S., May 29 Pole vault 5.70 m (18 ft 8% in) Dave Roberts, U.S., June 22 Terry Albritton, U.S.,

Shot put

February 21 21.85 Aleksandr Baryshnikov, U.S.S.R July 10

Discus

Mac Mac

Javelin

Miklos Nemeth, Hungary, July 26

Wilkins, U.S., April 24 Wilkins, U.S., May 1

m

(71

ft

94.58

m

2,000

One-hour run

m

•Wind-assisted.

fHand

timing.

in)

e* ents

m

20,000

in)

8,448 pt* 8.542 pit 8,618 pt

Bruce Jenner, U.S., July 29-30

Nonstandard

in)

(310 ft 4 in) 8,444 pt

Bruce Jenner, U.S., June 25-26

Decathlon

8'/j in)

22.00 m (72 ft 2% 69.16 m (226 ft 11 70.86 m (232 ft 6

John Walker, June 30

New

Zealand,

4 min

51 .4 sec

Jos Hermens, The Netherlands,

May

1

May

1

20,944 Jos Hermens, The Netherlands,

m

(13

mi 10 yd)

57 min 24.2 sec

ADN-ZB

EASTFOTO

/

667

Men

showing good early season 100-m sprint form included Americans Harvey Glance (10.11 sec) and Steve Riddick (10.18 sec), while over 200 m Millard Hampton led the world with 20.10 sec and Olympic gold medal winner Don Quarrie ranked sixth with a hand-timed 20.30 sec. Alberto Juantorena of Cuba gave a clear indication of his intentions by pacing the world 400-m rankings with 44.70 sec prior to his 44.26 sec victory in the Olympics, and his 1 min 44.9 sec ranked second in the 800-m lists going into the Games. After the Games, Mike Boit of Kenya, sadly missing from Montreal's action because of the African boycott, began to turn in some stirring marks.

He

ran 800

m

in

1

min 43.6

sec in

West

Track and Field Sports

Berlin in

miss Juantorena's world mark by just 0.07 sec (he clocked 1 min 43.57 sec on the electronic timing) and beat bronze medalist Rick Wohlhuter (U.S.) and silver medalist Ivo Van Damme (Bel-

August

gium)

to

in Helsinki,

Nice, and Zurich after the Games.

New

Zealanders John Walker, Dick Quax, and Rod Dixon were prominent in Europe both before and the Games. Quax missed Emile Puttemans' 5,000-m world record by a tenth of a second with a brilliant 13 min 13.1 sec victory in Stockholm in June, leading home Klaus-Peter Hildebrand (West Germany) in 13 min 13.8 sec and Dixon in 13 min

Waldemar Cierpinski of East Germany was

after

Walker ran 22 races most of them, including a mile in 3 min 53.1 sec from Thomas Wessinghage (West Germany), who cut the European record to 3 min 53.2 sec behind him. Lasse Viren (Finland) prefaced his triumphs in Montreal by churning out a fast 27 min 42.9 sec for 10,000 m in June, and after the Games little Carlos Sousa-Lopes of Portugal was

the surprise winner of the Olympic marathon July. The favourite, Frank Shorter of the U.S., was second in the 26-mile in

17.2 sec in their best-ever times.

race.

after Montreal, winning

km in a. race he won narrowly from Quax. Over the hurdles, Guy Drut ran a hand-timed 13.1 sec just before his Olympic win. In the 400-m hurdles, Edwin Moses ran a U.S. (electrical) record of 48.30 sec at Eugene before his world record at the Games. John Akii-Bua (Uganda) ran 48.58 sec in shaping up to defend his title, but suffered an injury while in Europe and did not race at the Games because of the African boycott. Olympic high-jump champion Jacek Wszola of Poland beat the redoubtable Dwight Stones three times after Montreal, setting a European record of 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in) at Koblenz, West Germany, in difficult, dark conditions, to prove that he was no fluke Olympic winner. Pole vaulter Tadeusz Slusarski (Poland) within world record pace for 9

m

(18 ft 5£ in) to share a European countryman Wladyslaw Kozakiewicz prior to his surprise win at Montreal. Hammer-throw champion Yury Sedykh led a Soviet clean sweep at Montreal, and his June 78.86-m (258 ft 9 in) throw cleared 5.62

record

with

with the ball-and-chain topped the world rankings.

Brehmer, an 18-year-old from East Germany, burned around 400 m in 49.77 sec at Dresden in May, but Irena Szewinska of Poland chopped this to 49.75 sec at- Warsaw on June 22 prior to her stunning Olympic triumph in 49.29 sec. Soviet middle distance runners hit top form in 1976. Valentina Gerasimova broke the world 800-m record with 1 min 56.0 sec in Kiev but surprisingly was eliminated in the semifinals at the Olympics. Tatyana Kazankina ran an eye-boggling 3 min 56.0 sec for 1,500 in Moscow on June 28 to break the sideration. Christina

m

Table

II.

World 1976 Oufdoor Records— Women Competitor, country, date

Event

100

m

400

m

800

m

Irena Szewinska, Poland, June 22 Irena Szewinska, Poland, July 29 Valentina Gerasimova, U.S.S.R., June 12

m

1

High jump

Tatyana Kazankina, U.S. S.R., June 28 Rosemarie Ackermann, East

Long jump

Angela Voigt, East Germany,

1,500

Germany, May

May

8

9

Siegrun Siegl, East Germany, May 19

Marianne Adam,

Shot put

May

East

July 3

July 4

Germans

dominated the sprint events during the early part of the season. Inge Helten of West Germany cut 0.03 sec off the world 100-m best with 11.04 sec at Fiirth in June, and Olympic champion-to-be Annegret Richter dashed the distance in a hand-timed 10.8 sec at Gelsenkirchen to equal Renate Stecher's controversial world record. Afterward, as mentioned above, all hand times were rejected for world record con-

(6

ft

(22

ft

8'/2

m

21 .67

(22

m

ft

21.87

21.89

m

(71

4 x 100

4 x 400

m m

5

Vi

1 1

m

ft

(71

(71

ft

Helena Fibingerova, Czechoslovakia, jvakio, Sept. 25 21.99 m (72 ft Faina Melnik, U.S.S.R., April 24 70.50 m (231

Discus Javelin

m

m

m

Germany,

30

Ivonka Khristova, Bulgaria

with a throw of 94.58 (310 ft 4 in). International Competition: Women.

6.99

min 54.94 sec 3 min 56.0 sec

1.96

6.92

showed consistency with several javelin throws of more than 90 m, led by one at 93.54 m (306 ft 11 in). The world record, however, was set by Miklos Nemeth (Hungary) in the opening round at Montreal

the

min 56 0 sec

1

July 26

Ivanka Khristova, Bulgaria

to

11.04 sec 11.01 sec

49.77 sec 49.75 sec 49.29 sec

Tatyana Kazankina, U.S.S.R.,

Games, Seppo Hovinen of Finland

Prior

Performance

West Germany, June 13 Annegret Richter, West Germany, July 25 Christina Brehmer, East Germany, May 9 Inge Helten,

Ruth Fuchs, East Germany, July 10 East German team, May 29 East German team, July 31

69.12

m

(226

ft

%

1

ft

9

9Vt 1

%

ft

3

A

9l

n)

42.50 sec 3 min 19.23 sec

Nonstandard events 1,000 2,000 3,000

m m m

3 mi 4 x 440 yd

800

m

4 x 200

m

4

x

A. Sorokina, U.S.S.R., July 3(?) 2 min 32.8 sec Natalia Marescu, Romania, April 17 5 min 44.0 sec Grete Waitz, Norway, June 21 8 min 45.4 sec Ludmila Bragina, U.S.S.R., August 7 8 min 27.1 sec Peg Neppel, U.S., May 14 15 min 41.8 sec U.S.S.R. team, August 8 3 min 29.1 sec East German team, August 8 7 min 54.2 sec U.S.S.R. team, August 17 7 min 52.3 sec East German team, August 13 1 min 32.4 sec

JEAN-PIERRE LAF FONT— SYGMA

at the

Olympic Games

The Morehouse who won his Olympic had established a new U.S. record at Montreal.

College (Atlanta, Ga.) student,

medal on July 25, by running 48.30

sec in the

Olympic Trials

at

Eu-

gene, Ore., on June 21.

Bruce Jenner also won an Olympic gold medal and a world record in the same competition. But

it

the San Jose Stars athlete two full days of

compe-

tition (July

took

29-30) to score 8,618 points in his event, was his second world record of the

the decathlon. It

season; he totaled 8,542 in the Olympic Trials June 25-26.

Mac

won

Olympic discus throw with a 3j in) on July 25. But the Pacific Coast Club thrower achieved his two world records elsewhere. He threw 226 ft 11 in at Walnut, Calif., on April 24 and 232 ft 6 in at San Jose, Calif.,

mark

Wilkins

of 221

May

on

the

ft 5 in (1

m=

1.

Another athlete

broke the world

twice

record.

Dwight Stones of Long Beach State University set marks before and after the Olympic Games, where he placed third. He leaped 7 ft 7 in in the ncaa championships his

own

August

record.

4,

in

A

Philadelphia on June

he cleared

The world record First to break

University.

world record by 5.4 sec and become the first woman to run the distance in under 4 min; she later collected both 800-m (world record 1 min 54.94 sec) and (5 ft 3f 1,500-m titles at the Games. Only 1.62 in) tall and weighing 47 kg (104 lb), she proved her-

m

self to possess the driving force of a racing car.

The formidable East German female responsible

for

athletes were

several world records prior to

the

Games. Rosemarie Ackermann high-jumped 1.96 m (6 ft 5 in) with her immaculate straddle technique at Dresden in May, while at the same meeting Angela Voigt long-jumped 6.92 m (22 ft 8^ in). Two weeks later Siegrun Siegl bounded 6v99 m (22 ft 11^ in). Javelin queen Ruth Fuchs then threw her spear 69.12 m (226 ft 9^ in) in East Berlin on July 10. The shot put record traded hands through the efforts of three young women; Marianne Adam (East Germany) reached 21.67 m (71 ft 1^ in) at the end of May only to see Ivanka Khristova of Bulgaria reach 21.87 m (71 ft 9 in) and 21.89 m (71 ft 9f in) on successive days at Belmetten, Bulg. Khristova went on to win the Olympic title, but then in September Helena Fibingerova (Czechoslovakia) put the shot 21.99 (72

ft

If in).

Though

m

she lost her discus crown at the

Games and had

a bad time with Canadian officials, Faina Melnik (U.S.S.R.) achieved a mark of 70.50 (231 ft 3 in) at Sochi in April. Of the nonstandard records, Ludmila Bragina's 3,000-m time of 8 min 27.1 sec stood out. She ran it in the U.S. versus

m

U.S.S.R. match in Maryland after the Games, and

averaged out at 67.6 sec per

it

lap.

(david cocksedge) United States Competition. A discus thrower, a hurdler, and a decathlon performer highlighted the U.S. season as each won track and field's two most coveted prizes, the world record and the Olympic championship. Four other Americans achieved new world bests, three more global marks were equaled, and three additional Olympic gold medals were won by U.S. athletes. Edwin Moses won his two prizes in the 47.64 sec it took him to run the 400-m intermediate hurdle race

May

He

it

5,

breaking

few days after the Olympics, on 7 ft

7\

in,

again at Philadelphia.

also fell twice in the pole vault.

was Earl

vaulted 18

ft

Bell of Arkansas

State

1\ in at Wichita, Kan.,

The former champion, Dave Roberts of Track Club, wasted no time in regaining the record. He made 18 ft 8£ in in the Olympic Trials on June 22. Terry Albritton set a short-lived shot put mark of 71 ft 8^ in during February in Hawaii. The 100-m dash also saw two new entries in the international record book. Harvey Glance of Auburn (Alabama) University tied the mark of 9.9 sec at Baton Rouge, La., on May 1, and Don Quarrie repeated the performance at Modesto, Calif., on May 22. The University of Tennessee completed the rewriting of the world record book by breaking the 880-yd relay mark with a time of 1 min 21.7 sec at on

29.

the Florida

Miklos Nemeth of Hungary won the javelin throw at the summer Olympic Games, with a distance of 94.58 metres (310 feet 4 inches).

WIDE WORLD

by equaling

Knoxville, Tenn., on April 10, and

800-m

relay standard of

1

min

21.5

the

sec at Phila-

delphia on April 24.

Long jumper Arnie Robinson was the only other American to win an individual Olympic track and field event. The Maccabi Track Club member leaped 27 ft 4} in on July 29. Both relays were won by U.S. quartets on July 31. Winning the 400-m test in 38.33 sec were Glance; Johnny Jones, a recent graduate of Lampasas, Texas, High School Millard Hampton of San Jose City College; and Steve Riddick of the Philadelphia Pioneer Club. The 1,600-m winners, in 2 min 58.65 sec, were Herman Frazier of Arizona State University, Fred Newhouse of the Baton Rouge Track Club, and Benny Brown and Maxie Parks of the Maccabi club. National records were achieved by Duncan Macdonald, who ran 5.000 m in 13 min 19.4 sec on August 10 in Stockholm, and the University of Pennsylvania 6,000-m relay team, which was timed in 15 min 9.8 sec at Philadelphia on April 24. A world junior record of 3 min 4.8 sec was made by the United States national 1,600-m relay team at Ludenscheid, West Germany, on July 8. In team competition, the U.S. defeated the Soviet Union 115 to 107, at College Park. Md., on August 7, but the U.S. junior team was beaten by the Soviets 123f-109i at Tallinn, U.S.S.R., on July 3. The ju;

West Germany 136-86. The ncaa title was won by the University

niors beat

ern California with 64 points

to

of South-

44 for the Uni-

versity of Texas, El Paso, at Philadelphia on June 5. The University of California at Irvine won the ncaa

Division II meet, and Southern University of

New

Orleans captured the Division III competition. The

National

Association

of

Intercollegiate

Athletics

tournament was won by Eastern New Mexico University, and the Pacific Coast Club won the U.S. Track and Field Federation (tjstff) championships. Indoors, Stones and pole vaulter Dan Ripley of the Pacific Coast Club were the leading performers. Stones bettered the world mark twice, clearing 7 ft 6^ in at New York on February 20 and 7 ft 6? in at San Diego the next night. Ripley set three records. His 18 ft in at College Park, Md., on January 9, 18 ft 2\ in at Inglewood, Calif., on February 6, and 18 ft 3| in at New York on February 20 were ama-

H

teur bests although short of the professional standard.

Three indoor relay marks were achieved. Villanova (Pa.) University ran the four-mile relay in 16

min

Hanover, N.H., on January 16; the University of Michigan performed the sprint medley in 3 min 23.6 sec at East Lansing, Mich., on February 7 and Villanova ran the distance medley in 9 min 38.4 sec at Louisville, Ky., also on February 7. A final U.S. indoor record to fall was in the triple jump, when Tommy Haynes of the U.S. Army leaped 55 ft 5^ in at New York on February 27. The ncaa indoor title went to Texas, El Paso, and the Amateur Athletic Union (aau) meet was won by the New York Athletic Club. The Soviet Union defeated the U.S. at Leningrad on March 7, by a 96-64 19.0 sec at

;

score.

U.S.

women were

counterparts.

They

not as successful as their male scored one world record in a

seldom-contested event and earned medals, none of them gold.

three

Olympic

Peg Neppel of Iowa State University claimed the lone world mark by running three miles in 15 min 41.8 sec at Manhattan, Kan., on May 14. She also

m (16 min 28.6 sec) and 10,000 m (34 min 19 sec). Placing second in the Olympics were Kathy McMillan in the long jump and the 1,600-m relay team, while Kate Schmidt won a bronze medal in the javelin. National records were comparatively commonplace among the women. McMillan improved the achieved U.S. records at 5,000

long-jump standard three times with a best effort of 22 ft 3 in, and Schmidt moved the javelin mark up to 218 ft 3 in. Three members of the 1,600-m relay team took turns breaking the 400-m figure; Rosalyn Bryant ran 51.5 sec, followed by Sheila Ingram at 51.31 sec, Debra Sapenter at 51.23 sec, and Ingram at 50.90 sec before Bryant had the last word with 50.62 sec. The last four marks all were made in Olympic competition. The U.S. 1,500-m record was reduced to 4 min 7.3 sec by Cyndy Poor of the San Jose Cindergals, to 4 min 7.2 sec by Francie Larrieu of the Pacific Coast Club, and then to 4 min 2.6 sec by Jan Merrill (Age

Group

Athletic

Association).

mark

Larrieu also

claimed

min 54.9 sec, while Merrill set a 5,000-m best of 16 min 16.2 sec. Madeline Jackson of the Cleveland Track Club twice lowered the 800-m record. She ran 1 min 59.8 sec and 1 min 57.9 sec. A 400-m hurdle record of 57.24 sec was set by University, Arthurine Gainer of Prairie View A & Texas, while the Los Angeles Track Club A ran the two-mile relay in 8 min 34.4 sec. the 3.000-m

of 8

M

Indoors,

Deby LaPlante

versity equaled the world

of Eastern Michigan Uni-

mark

for the 70-yd hurdles, timed in 8.8 sec, and Lorna Forde of the Atoms Track Club had the fastest time ever for 500 yd. 1

min

3.4 sec.

Martha Watson of Lakewood Interna-

tional tied the national standard of 21 ft

4|

in in the

long jump, and Bryant claimed a U.S. best in the

200-m dash with 23.5 sec. The national team lost to the Soviet Union twice, 104-42 outdoors and 75-53 indoors. The junior team lost to the U.S.S.R. 90-54 but edged West Germany 71-64. Prairie View A & won the outdoor ustff tournament, while the Atoms won the indoor aau meet. (bert d. nelson)

M

[452.B.3.b]

Long jumper Angela Voigt of East

Germany

grimaces as she lands in

the sand. She

the

won

women's long jump

Montreal with a leap 6.72 metres (22 feet Vz inch).

at of

SPECIAL REPORT

MONTREAL: THE XXI OLYMPIAD By

Chris Brasher

vided that they did not use the name "The Republic of China." However, on the day before the opening the Taiwanese decided this condition was unacceptable and withdrew. Meanwhile, the Games were the target of another political threat.

The

representatives of 16 African nations signed a letter

which they threatened to withdraw from the Games Zealanders were banned. The Africans objected to the fact that the New Zealand "All Blacks" rugby team (socalled because the players wear black shirts and shorts) was currently touring South Africa. The Africans referred to a UN resolution condemning all sporting associations with South Africa and said that their athletes could not compete in the Olympic to the ioc in

unless the

Games

New

against the

New

Zealanders.

The ioc

rejected the letter,

saying that as rugby was not an Olympic sport they had no jurisbehalf of the International Olympic Committee I appeal to every sportsman and woman not to come to the Olympic Games if We all they wish to make use of sport for political purposes. have our own beliefs; we all have our friends and enemies; but the aim of the Olympic Movement is to subjugate these in the fellowship which is enshrined in the intertwining Olympic rings representing the five continents of the world, wedded together in sport, peace, and friendship. If this is not accomplished then the Olympic Movement and all sport, whether amateur or professional, is doomed. Instead of progressing toward the common ideals, we shall retreat into barbarism.

On

single

.

.

.

Such was the appeal made by Lord Killanin, president of the Committee (ioc), in 1974. On Aug. 1, 1976, when the XXI Olympiad of the modern era was brought

International Olympic

many of those present betoward common ideals had stopped and

to a close in the city of

lieved that the progress

Montreal,

had begun. Never in the history Olympic Games had there been such conspicuous waste of money and resources; never had the Games been so callously exploited for political purposes; never had the lives of the athletes and coaches been so affected by the authorities' fear of terrorism; never had so many great athletes been missing from the greatest sporting occasion in the world; and never had those who cherished a belief in the Olympic ideal felt so helpless and that the retreat into barbarism of the

disillusioned.

Finance and Politics. When the ioc accepted Montreal's bid Games, it was on the basis that they would be "modest and self-financing." Modesty was stripped away by the grandiose

diction in the matter and that because the New Zealand Olympic Committee was properly affiliated, their athletes were entitled to take part in the Games. Chaos ensued as the African delegations sought orders from their governments (national Olympic committees are supposed, under Olympic rules, to be independent of governmental control). Not until the teams marched into the stadium for the opening ceremony on July 17 was the extent of the defections known. All the major black and North African nations had withdrawn; so, too, had Iraq and Guyana.

Highlights of the Games. When at last the Games got under way, the rancour and turmoil of international politics were soon forgotten in the perfection of the performance by Romania's girl gymnast Nadia Comaneci (see Biography). On the first day of competition this beguiling 14-year-old, less than 5 ft tall and weighing only 86 lb, put the elaborate results computer into turmoil by doing something that nobody had ever done, scoring a maximum possible ten points, on the uneven parallel bars. She did it again on the balance beam and yet again on the bars. In all, Comaneci scored seven perfect "tens" during the first week of competition and emerged from the Games with three gold medals, the balance beam, the uneven bars, and the supreme title, for

ambitions of Montreal's mayor, Jean Drapeau, who determined to use the Olympics as a means of acquiring a stadium designed not for the Olympic Games but for future use for professional

The full cost of the stadium would not be was finally completed in 1977, but the deficit on the entire Games was expected to exceed U.S. $1 billion over three times the original budget for the whole "self-financing" operation. The citizens of Montreal and of the province of Quebec might well be reminded of this extravagance as they paid their taxes over the next 20 years. (See Canada: Special Report.) Throughout the years of argument that preceded the Games, Canada's Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau refused to be drawn into the political and financial infighting. Just eight days before baseball and football.

known

until

it

—

the

Games opened, however, he

strode onto centre stage

when he

and his government refused to allow the Olympic team of the Republic of China (Taiwan) to enter Canada, an action Canada had warned of in May. This was a direct infringement of one of the most precious of all the Olympic ideals free access to the Olympic city for all athletes, officials, and media personnel :

to their national Olympic committees. The problem arose because the Canadian government recognizes only one Chinese nation, the People's Republic of China. Eventually, only 48 hours before the Games opened, a compromise appeared affiliated

to have been reached: the Taiwanese could enter Canada and would be allowed to fly their flag and play their anthem pro-

A

gold medalist (3,000-m steeplechase) in the 1956 Olympics, Christopher Brasher is sports correspondent to The Observer and

a reporter

of

Tokyo

and producer for BBC Television, London. He 1964, Mexico 1968, and Munich 72.

670

is

author

combined

exercises.

In the women's gymnastics team event the U.S.S.R., led by

for the

Ludmila Tourischeva, preserved the superiority that had held since the 1952 Games in Helsinki. The team included the sensation of 1972, Olga Korbut; the smallest competitor of all, Maria Filatova, just 4 ft 3^ in tall and only 66 lb in weight; and Nelli Kim, who won the individual gold medals in the horse vault and the floor exercises. But it was Tourischeva who won the sympathy of the experts. This striking woman had won the combined exercises in the 1972 Games, but then .her sporting skill had been overshadowed by the 17-year-old Korbut. Now in Montreal she was upstaged again by children: Comaneci and her Romanian teammate Teodora Ungureanu, and the impish Filatova. Afterward Tourischeva announced her retirement, but those who had watched her at two Olympic Games would rethe stately it

member

her as a true

Meantime

at the

artist.

swimming

pool, records

were being over-

turned. If the men's results were spectacular, those of the

wom-

Montreal Games no East German woman had ever won a gold medal for swimming, but there they were to win 10 of the 11 individual titles, breaking, indeed smashing, eight world records. Perhaps the advance in women's swimming standards is best represented by one fact. At the Tokyo Olympics in 1964 U.S. Swimmer Don Schollander broke the world and Olympic record in the 400-m freestyle with a time of 4 min 12.2 sec. In Montreal that time would have achieved only third place in the women's 400 m, and Schollander would have had to give way to Petra Thiimer of East Germany and his countrywoman Shirley Babashoff. The 17-year-old Kornelia Ender of East Germany was the heroine of the swimming pool. She won four gold medals and one silver and on one evening gained two of her titles in the space of half an hour, equaling her own world record in the 100-m butterfly and then winning the 200-m freestyle in a new en's

events verged on

the

unbelievable.

Until

the

Zealand's team marches around the track at the opening of the Summer Games. International politics led to the withdrawal most of the black and North African delegations when their governments opposed the New Zealanders' participation.

New of

world record time. Such dominance by the sportswomen of one nation caused speculation as to how it was achieved. The explanation was simple. The East German sports medicine authorities decided that women can work just as hard in training as men. Indeed, they set work loads for their women that exceeded those of many male swimmers, totaling two hours of weight training and three hours in the water every day. This schedule was later adjusted to one hour of weights to every four in the water. Whatever the balance between weights and water, there was no doubt that five hours of hard training every day

time even after falling in the race, dominated both the 5,000and 10,000-m fields in Montreal. Undoubtedly, his task was made easier by the absence of the great African runners whose ex-

amounted

which also produces world records. Only Juantorena in the 800 m, Edwin Moses (U.S.) in the 400-m hurdles, and Anders Garderud (Sweden) in the 3,000-m steeplechase were able to break world records on the track. The U.S. trackmen had an uncharacteristically bad Olympics, winning only four individual titles the 400-m hurdles (Moses), the long jump (Arnie Robinson), the discus (Mac Wilkins), and the decathlon (Bruce

to a full-time occupation.

East German domination of the women's events was equaled, if not surpassed, by the U.S. swimmers in the men's events. They won all the Olympic titles (11 of them with new world records) except for the 200-m breaststroke, which went to the British

swimmer David Wilkie. Wilkie confessed, however, that won this gold medal (plus a silver medal

he would never have in the

land.

100-m breaststroke)

He was

he had stayed

if

only able to get the

facilities

in his native Scot-

he needed for train-

by attending the University of Miami (Florida). At the end of the first week, the excitement produced by such outstanding performances was transferred to the Olympic Stadium itself, where a huge Cuban, Alberto Juantorena, was proving to be the sensation of the track and field events. In the heats of the 800 m he looked untutored in tactics and ungainly in stride, but his massive strength and quick brain soon overcame any lack of experience and by the third day he had won his first gold medal with a new world and Olympic 800-m record of 1 min ing

43.5 sec. Juantorena's tactics were simple: an electrifying first

lap of 50.85 sec followed the second lap.

He went

by

on

to

a display of massive

win the 400

power around

m as well

in the fastest

time ever achieved at sea level. (The world record of 43.81 sec

by Lee Evans

of the U.S.

was

set in the rarefied air of

Mexico

City in 1968.)

Equally unexpected was the dual victory of Finland's Lasse

m

Viren in the 5,000 and 10,000 m, unexpected because of the improbability that a man who had won those two punishing distance events in one Olympic meeting would be able to repeat such an achievement four years later in the next Games; it was something that had never been done before in Olympic history.

But Viren, who had won the 10,000

m

in 1972 in

world record

uberance had made these events so exciting to watch on other occasions, but few people doubted that Viren would have won the two finals even if the Africans had been competing. Unquestionably, the absence of the Africans affected the atmosphere, for it is the high excitement of knowing that all the best athletes in the world are assembled on the track that not only makes Olympic titles so satisfying for the few who win but

—

Jenner).

What was of the

expected to be the most keenly contested track event Games, the men's 1,500 m, proved a great disappoint-

ment. The world record holder, Filbert Bayi, stayed at home in Tanzania because of the African boycott, and in his absence John Walker of New Zealand seemed to terrify his opponents by the simple fact of being the only

man in the world to have run And so the 1,500-m final, on

mile in less than 3 min 50 sec. last

day of track racing, was a

the the

dawdle with Walker winsec (or some 50 yd) slower

pitiful

ning in 3 min 39.17 sec, nearly 7

than Bayi's world record.

Perhaps the disappointment of that race symbolized the Montreal Games: born in a time of comparative political peace (1970), they became dominated by the fear of a repetition of the terrorist attack on the 1972 Munich Games and were then disrupted by the African boycott. Certainly there were many problems, most of them political, which the ioc must try to resolve before the next Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980. (For additional commentaries on events in the Montreal Olympics see also Basketball; Combat Sports; Court Games; Cycling; Equestrian Sports Field Hockey and Lacrosse Football Gymnastics and Weight Lifting; Rowing; Sailing; Target Sports; Water Sports. Several of the leading athletes are pro;

filed in a special illustrated section of the

;

Biography

;

article.)

671

OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS, 1976 SUMMER GAMES, MONTREAL Swimming and Diving Men

Archery

Women's round

Men's round D. Pace (U.S.) 2,571 pt»

Ryon

L.

#

(U.S.) 2,499 pt

Basketball

Winning women's team U.S.S.R. (won all five final matches)

Winning men's team Urited Stales (beat Yugoslavia 95-74

in final)

Boxing Welterweight

Hernandez (Cuba) Randolph (U.S.)

Light flyweight

J.

Flyweight

L.

Bantamweight

Yong Jo Gu

Featherweight Lightweight

A. Herrera (Cuba) H. Davis (U.S.)

Light welter-

weight

Leonard

R.

Bachfeld

J.

(E.

Ger.)

Light middle-

(N. Kor.)

(U.S.)

weight Middleweight Light heavyweight

L.

Spinks (U.S.)

Heavyweight

T.

Stevenson (Cuba)

Rybicki (Pol.) M. Spinks (U.S.) J.

Canoeing Canadian singles Canadian oairs kayak singles kayak pairs 1,000-m Canadian singles 1,000-m Canadian pairs 1,000-m kayak singles 1,000-m kayak pairs 1,000-m kayak fours

A. Rogov (U.S.S.R.)

1

U.S.S.R.

1

V. Diba (Romania) East Germany M. Ljubek (Yugoslavia) U.S.S.R.

1

Helm

R.

(East

1

4 3

Germany)

3 3

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

3

min min min min min min min min min

59.23 45.81 46.41 35.87 09.51 52.76 48.20 29.01 08.69

sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec

sec

Women C. Zirzow (East

500-m kayak singles 500-m kayak pairs

2 min 01.05 sec 1 min 51.15 sec

Germany)

U.S.S.R.

Cycling 10.78 sec (best 200 m) 1 min 05.927 sec 4 min 47.61 sec 4 min 21.06 sec 2 hr 08 min 53.0 sec 4 hr 46 min 52.0 sec

A. Tkac (Czechoslovakia) Griinke (E. Ger.) G. Braun (West Germany)

Sprint

1,000-m time trial 4,000-m individual pursuit 4,000-m team pursuit 100-km team time trial Road race

K.-J.

West Germany U.S.S.R.

Johansson (Sweden)

B.

Equestrian Sports

Team West Germany

Individual C. Stuckelberger (Switz.) on Granat E. Coffin (U.S.) on Bally-Cor A. Schockemohle (W. Ger.) on Warwick Rex

Dressage 3-day event Show jumping

United States France

Fencing Individual F. Dal Zotto fltoly) A. Pusch (West Germany) V. Krovopouskov (U.S.S.R.)

Foil

Epe"e

Sabre

Women's

foil

Schwarczenberger (Hungary)

1.

Winning team East Germany (beat Poland

N. Andrianov (U.S.S.R.) Japan S. Kato (Japan)

N. Comaneci (Romania)

team

Horse vaults

M. Tsukahara (Japan) N. Andrianov (U.S.S.R.)

Pommeled horse

Z.

Rings

N. Andrianov

Balance

N. Kim

(U.S.S.R.)

Magyar (Hungary) (U.S.S.R.)

beam N. Andrianov (U.S.S.R.)

Floor exercises

N. Comaneci (Romania) N. Kim (U.S.S.R.)

Hockey Winning team

New

Germany

14-11

in final)

m

m

8

m in

1

m in

2

m

n 13.43 sec*

H. Anke (East

Germany) Germany) Germany) Germany)

1

m

n 11.16 sec

M. Koshevaia

(U.S.S.R.)

2

m in

Richter (East Richter (East

Germany) A. Pollack (East Germany) U. Tauber (East Germany) K. Ender (East

H. Rodriguez (Cuba) V. I.

m

dash 200-m dash 400-m dash 800-m run 1, 500-m run 5,000-m run 10,000-m run

Individual

in final)

heavywt.

K.

Heavyweight

S.

Open

H.

class

J. L.

L.

Moses (U.S.) A. Gorderud (Sweden)

United States United States D. Baulista (Mexico) J. Wszola (Poland) A. Robinson (U.S.) T. Slusarski (Poland)

1,600-m relay

Javelin

V. Saneyev (U.S.S.R.) U. Beyer (East Germany) M. Wilkins (U.S.) Y. Sedykh (U.S.S.R.) M. Nemeth (Hungary)

Decathlon

B.

jump

throw

100-m dash 200-m dash 400-m dash 800-m run 1, 500-m run 100-m hurdles 400-m relay

T.

Szewinska (Poland) Kazankina (U.S.S.R.) Kazankina (U.S.S.R.)

J.

Scholler (East

I.

T.

East East R.

m

P.

7

Pairs with coxswain Pairs without coxswain

Norway East Germany East Germany East Germany

Fours with coxswain Fours without coxswain Eights with coxswain

U.S.S.R. East Germany East Germany

6

m n 23.31 m n 40.22

6

m

5

m

4

m

7

n 29.03 sec n 13.20 sec 18.65 sec

6

m n

7 7

m

58.99 sec

(1,000-m course) C. Scheiblich (E.Ger.) Bulgaria

Germany Germany

s»c

sec

m

n 05.56 sec n 44.36 sec n 29.99 sec

m

01.22 sec

m

3 m n 45.08 sec 3 min 33.32 sec

Shooting rifle

(prone)

U. Potteck (East Germany) K. Smieszek (West Germany)

rifle

(3-position)

L.

Bassham (U.S.) N. Klaar (East Germany) D.

J.

Moving target

A.

Haldeman

(U.S.)

Panacek (Czechoslovakia)

Gazov

(U.S.S.R.)

•Olympic record. fWorld record. ^Equals Olympic record. {Equals World record. Best Olympic performance. ||

672

Germany)

Ackermann

(East

Germany)

S. Siegl (East

Germany)

sec sect sect sec sec sec|]

sec sec*

4,745 pt

Winning men

s

Winning women's team Japan

team Poland

(beat U.S.S.R. 3-2

(beat U.S.S.R. 3-0

in final)

573 pit 599 pt§

Weight

tied

1

of the final matches)

Lifting

242.5 kg§ 262.5 kgt 285.0 kg*

A. Voronin (U.S.S.R.) N. Nourikian (Bulgaria) N. Kolesnikov (U.S.S.R.)

Featherweight Lightweight

Middleweight Light heavyweight Middle heavyweight

Heavyweight Superheavy weight

disqualification Y. Mitkov (Bulgaria) V. Shary (U.S.S.R.) D. Rigert (U.S.S.R.) disqualification V. Alekseyev (U.S.S.R.)

335.0 kg* 365.0 kg* 382.5 kg*

440.0 kg*

Wrestling

Greco-Roman

Paperweight

K. Issaev (Bulgaria)

A. Shumakov (U.S.S.R.)

Flyweight

Takada (Japan) V. Umin (U.S.S.R.) Jung-Mo Yang (S. Kor.

V. Konstantinov (U.S.S.R.) P. Ukkola IFinlond) K. Lipien (Poland)

P. Pinigin (U.S.S.R.)

S.

Y.

Bantamweight Featherweight Lightweight

Welterweight Middleweight Light heavyweight

Heavyweight Superheavy weight

J.

Date (Japan)

J.

Peterson (U.S.) Tediashvili (U.S.S.R.]

L. I.

S.

Nalbandyan

Yachting Finn class Flying Dutchman class Tempest class Soling class Tornado class 470 class

J. J. J.

P.

R. F.

Shumann

(U.S.S.R.)

A. Bykov (U.S.S.R.) M. Petkovic (Yugoslavia) V. Rezantsev (U.S.S.R.) N. Bolboshin (U.S.S.R.) A. Kolchinski (U.S.S.R.)

Yorygin (U.S.S.R.) Andiev (U.S.S.R.)

1,162 pt

597 pt* 190 pt 198 pit 579 ptf

in final)

Water Polo

Freestyle

3 3 4

Germany

Bulgaria

Rapid-fire pistol

sec)|

sect sect sec sec sec* sect 1.93 m* 6.72 m 21.16 m* 69.00 m* 65.94 m*

Germany Germany

37.42 sec n 58.29 sec

Women

Trapshooting Skeet shooting

11.08 22.37 49.29 1 min 54.94 4 min 05.48 12.77 42.55 3 min 19.23

A. Voigt (East Germany) I. Christova (Bulgaria) E. Schlaak (East Germany) R. Fuchs (East Germany)

Bantamweight

Single sculls

Small-bore Small-bore

Germany) Germany)

A. Richter (West 8. Eckert (East

Flyweight

Double sculls Quadruple sculls

Free pistol

sec sec sec sect sec sec sec

2.25 m* 8.35 m 5.50 mt 17.29 m 21.05 m 67.50 m 77.52 m* 94.58 mt 8,618 ptf

Jenner (U.S.)

Winning team Hungary (won 4 and

Rowing (2,000-m course) Karppinen (Finland)

East East

Viren (Finland) Cierpinski (E. Ger.)

E.

5,520 pt* 15,559 pt

Men

East

10.06 20.23 44.26 1 min 43.50 3 min 39.1 7 13 min 24.76 27 min 40.38 2 hr 09 min 55.0 13.30 47.64 8 min 08.02 38.33 2 min 58.65 1 hr 24 min 40.6

Juantorena (Cubo) Juantorena (Cuba) Walker (New Zealand) Viren (Finland)

G. Drut (France)

Uemura (Japan)

Pyciak-Peciak (Poland) United Kingdom

Double sculls Quadruple sculls Pairs without coxswain Fours with coxswain Eights with coxswain

•Men Crawford (Trinidad and Tobago) Quarrie (Jamaica)

W.

400-m relay

Ninomiya (Japan) Novikov (U.S.S.R.)

J.

Single sculls

m in m in m in

Chandler (U.S.) Vaytsekhovskaia (U.S.S.R.)

H. D. A. A.

Marathon 1 1 0-m hurdles 4C0-m hurdles

Modern Pentathlon Team

4 3 4

33.35 sect 00.13 sec§ 11.41 sec* 42.77 sect 44.82 sect 07.95 sect 506.19 pt 406.59 pt

Volleyball

Light

Nevzorov (U.S.S.R.) Sonoda (Japan)

Germany

37.14 sect 01.83 sec*

Track and Field 100

Judo Lightweight

2

m in m In

1

United States East

Shot put Discus Javelin Pentathlon

(Field)

Zealand (beat Australia 1-0

Light middlewt. Middleweight

55.65 sect n 59.26 sect n 09.89 sect

1

4

Thijmer (East

High jump Long jump

Winning women's team U.S.S.R. (beat East

600.51 pt

Ender (East Germany) Ender (East Germany) Thiimer (East Germany)

1,600-m relay

Handball Winning men's team U.S.S.R. (beat Romania 19-15 in final)

619.05 pt

(U.S.)

Women N Comoneci (Romania)

Uneven parallel bars Horizontal bar

Boggs

P.

E.

Hammer

U.S.S.R.

(U.S.)

Strachan (U.S.) United Stoles United States

Shot put Discus

Women

(U.S.)

R.

J.

Triple

Men

Hencken

(U.S.)

(U.S.)

D. Wilkie (U.K.)

Platform diving

20-km walk High jump Long jump

in final)

J.

(U.S.)

M. Vogel (U.S.) M. Bruner (U.S.)

Pole vault

3-'

Naber Naber

J.

100-m freestyle 200-m freestyle 400-m freestyle 800-m freestyle 100-m backstroke 200-m backstroke 100-m breaststroke 200-m breaststroke 100-m butterfly 2C0-m butterfly 400-m individual medley 400-m freestyle relay 400-m medley relay Springboard diving

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

Combined

Parallel bars

B.

J.

49.99 sect 1 min 50.29 sect 3 min 51.93 sect 15 min 02.40 sect 55.49 sect 1 min 59.19 sect 1 min 03.11 sect 2 min 15 11 sect 54.35 sec 1 min 59.23 sect 4 min 23.68 sect 7 min 23.22 sect 3 min 42.22 sect

(U.S.)

Furniss (U.S.)

Goodell Goodell

Women

3,000-m steeplechase

Gymnastics

Montgomery

B.

B.

K. Di Blosi (Italy)

Team West Germany Sweden

Football (Soccer)

exercises individual

J.

Platform diving

Men 500-m 500-m 500-m 500-m

100-m freestyle 200-m freestyle 400-m freestyle 1, 500-m freestyle 100-m backstroke 200-m backstroke 100-m breaststroke 200-m breaststroke ICO-m butterfly 200-m butterfly 400-m individual medley 8CC-m freestyle relay 400-m medley relay Springboard diving

(East

Germany)

Diesch (West Germany) Albrechtson (Sweden) Jensen (Denmark)

White (U.K.) Hubner (West Germany)

VICTOR DC LA PORTE:— gamma/ liaison

Transkei A republic and

in

southern Africa

Bantu

homeland, Transkei borders the Indian Ocean and is surrounded on land by South Africa. Area: a

14,176 sq mi (36,716 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.) 1.9 million :

permanent, with 1,050,000 resident permanently outside Transkei (in South Africa) and 350.000 migrant workers temporarily outside; whites (1970 census) 9,556; Coloureds 7,645. Cap.: Umtata (pop., 1975 est., 29,100). Language: Xhosa, Sesotho, and English. Religion: largely Christian. President in 1976, Paramount Chief Botha Sigcau; prime minister, Paramount Chief Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima. Established as an independent republic on Oct. 26, 1976, by South Africa under the Status of the Transkei Act, Transkei has a single-chamber Parliament of 150 members, with a president and a Cabinet headed by the prime minister. At independence^ the Transkei National Independence Party held 145 seats and was led by Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima {see Biography), as prime minister. Transkei established diplomatic relations with South Africa at the ambassadorial level. On October 26 the UN General Assembly decided unanimously, with one abstention (the U.S.), not to recognize Transkeian independence. An agricultural and pastoral region, Transkei continued to depend on financial aid from South Africa and on the earnings of Transkeians outside the territory. Under the Transkeian Development Corporation, sponsored by South Africa, secondary industries were encouraged, mainly at Umtata and Butterworth. Among the first acts of the new republic were acceptance of the principle of multiracial schools and the planning of a university. Transkei joined the South African customs union in October. It had rail and air communications with South Africa and a small natural harbour, Port St. Johns. Transkei possessed a South African trained and (louis hotz) officered defense force.

in

consultation document on transport Farmers in the Transkei following their oxen by Anthony Crosland, then secretary home from the fields. the environment. The document's tough About a third

April of a

policy written of state for

attitude toward railways and to road transport excited

its

moderate approach

much angry comment.

of the "citizens"

new state elsewhere.

of the live

Railway finances came under discussion in the U.S., Britain, West Germany, Japan, and Canada. In West Germany the Deutsche Bundesbahn published a plan to halve both the 18,000-mi rail system and the number of stations. The truncated network would' still carry 90% of the freight and 95% of the passengers moved by the larger system. The plan also proposed that the work force be reduced from 360,000 employees to 250,000.

In Japan the railways promised greater efficiency and a tougher line with the unions, who would be sued for damages suffered during strike action. The Japan Economic Research Council opposed higher fares, arguing that increased prosperity had not resulted in more rail travel. Nonetheless, the Japanese government approved fare increases of 50%. In Canada it was proposed that some services be cut and subsidies increased on the remainder. Duplication of services between Canadian National and Canadian Pacific on 2,000 mi of line was discussed. The prestigious transcontinental services attracted a large share

[978.E.8.b.i]

of subsidy but a small share of passengers.

ConRail, a federally aided U.S. company estabembarked on the task of rejuvenating the seven bankrupt northeast railway companies that it had taken over. The Department of Transportation issued a study showing that 30% of the country's rail system (60.000 mi) moved only 1% of the rail freight. The British government's annual review of public expenditure forecast that rail freight subsidies would be phased out gradually, that there would be no increase in the passenger subsidy, and that investment was to be 30% less than British Rail's original plan. In his document, Crosland argued that car ownership would continue to grow despite the oil crisis that road users, including trucks, paid far more than the direct cost of providing the roads, although the heaviest trucks were an exception to this; that, although railways received higher subsidies than buses, they were used largely by the rich while buses were more heavily used by the less affluent; and that even if British Rail could increase its freight by 50%, road traffic would only be cut by 2% and truck traffic by 8%. These conclusions raised a storm of protest, and Crosland's calculations, notably the road traffic forelished in 1975,

TRANSKEI Education.

Primary, secondary, and vo-

(1972)

cational, pupils 453,381, teachers 8,024; teacher training, students

1,624.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

South African

rand, with (Sept. 20, 1976) an official rate of R 0.87 to U.S. $1 (free rate of 1.49 £1 sterling). Most trade is with South Africa. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): wool 2; mohair 0.03. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle 1,306; sheep 2,200; goats 1,014; pigs 515; horses 76.

=

R

;

Transportation Two major tinued

themes ran through 1976. The first, a confor economies in trans-

demand by governments

port budgets, led to proposals in several countries to cut the railways' losses, even at the expense of elimi-

nating routes, and to a critical approach toward large

investments

major debate

in

mass

transit.

in Britain,

was

The second theme,

set off

a

by the publication

Trade, see

International:

Economy, World

Trade Unions: see Industrial

Relations

Traffic Accidents: see Disasters

.

DAVID POTTS NEWS (MIDLANDS) LTD

km. With capacity up 8.7%,

to 369,714,200,000 avail-

improved from 54.2 to 57.1%. The Association of European Airlines (aea) reported that for the 12 months to June 1976 its members' intra-European passenger traffic totaled seat-km, load

able

factor

36,004,800,000 passenger-km, an 11% increase over the previous 12 months. Load factor was 56.2%, compared with 53.4%. On intercontinental flights passenger

totaled 81,727,000,000 passenger-km, an

traffic

7%, and load

increase of

factor

was 56.8%, compared

with 56.1%. aea members' freight

7%

riod rose

European

to

flights

the pe-

traffic for

619,227,000 metric ton-km on intraand 4,524,315,000 metric ton-km on

intercontinental flights.

On

North Atlantic routes there were

the

renewed

traffic

growth. In the

first

signs of

half of 1976 the

number

of passengers carried by iata airlines on scheduled and charter flights rose by 13% compared

with the

half of 1975, representing a distinct im-

first

be held on the construction of major roads. Eventually, they won their point that

provement. In 1975 there had been a 4.2% decline in passengers compared with 1974; increases in scheduled traffic in 1975 had been the lowest recorded for ten years, and growth in freight was only 0.2%. Data on scheduled airline traffic in 1975 released by the International Civil Aviation Organization (icao) put the U.S. in first place with 38% of traffic and the U.S.S.R. in second with 16%. The U.K., France, and Japan were third, fourth, and fifth with around 4% each. International nonscheduled traffic in 1975 was down 0.8% from 1974 following a significant decrease in that year. The 1975 figures showed that 25.9% of the world's passenger traffic had been on nonscheduled flights, compared with 27% in 1974. Nonscheduled carriers had increased their share of nonscheduled

such inquiries should consider the government's national transport forecasts and not merely the local

situation remained poor. For iata scheduled services,

Ancient Welshmen paddled around in coracles

casts, were questioned. Later in the year a more leftwing politician, Peter Shore, took over Crosland's job, like this one, made and it appeared that the strategy might be scrapped. by covering a hoop with tarpaulin. Eustace However, transport was then removed from the DeRogers of Ironbridge, partment of the Environment altogether and given to England, commutes to work a new secretary of state, William Rodgers, with in it across the River Severn. Rodgers and Shore having joint responsibility for big

road-building projects. British action groups took the controversy into their

own hands and shouted down had

quiries that

several of the public in-

to

proposal in isolation. (See

Environment.)

Figures were released showing that road the U.S. had increased

growth

pre-oil-crisis

restraint in

some

parking

rate.

Pilot

2%

lots,

in 1975, half the

schemes for

London Council planned

while in Asia, Kuala

traffic

to tax

Lumpur

pro-

posed to follow Singapore's successful use of road tolls to

A

discourage commuters from using their cars.

showed that two-thirds of car owners used their cars to get to work. Special lanes for cyclists were provided in a number of European cities. British survey

(

RICHARD CASEMENT)

in

1974 to 65%. The financial

year, at

$110

million,

revenue

operating

—a

amounted

1975-76

fiscal

1%

to less than

marginal

somewhat improved growth was more encour-

airline industry experienced

conditions in 1976; traffic aging than in 1975, and financial results were better. Nonetheless, considerable doubt was expressed about

1974-75, when there was a slight operating loss, iata quoted a $1,650,000,000 shortfall on its target of a 12.4% return on investment. The North Atlantic, the

main route areas, showed the greatest more than $600 million. Results for the 1976-77 fiscal year looked more encouraging. An operating result of $430 million, or 3.4% of revenue, was predicted toward the close of largest of iata's

shortfall in 1975-76,

1976. Nonetheless, lata reported that the industry faced "a massive shortfall from required earn-

still

the airlines' ability to finance

new

fleets.

The

kilometre for lata scheduled international operations by more than 7% in 1975-76. In the current financial year a cost increase of less than 2% was

rose

thanks to comparatively small rises and tighter control of other cost items.

anticipated, fuel costs

Inter-

national Air Transport Association (iata) estimated

more than $45 billion would be needed for acnew aircraft within the next decade. Traffic growth in the first half of 1976 was described as "encouraging" by iata's director general, Knut Hammarskjold, in his annual report in November, lata that

quiring

forecast an average growth rate of

8%

per year in

World Total International and Domestic Air Passengers

411

first

nine months of 1976, the 11 U.S. trunk

which carried more than one-third of world

(U.S.S.R. included), reported a 14.6% increase in passenger traffic over the corresponding period of traffic

1975, a total of 211,027,700,000 revenue passenger-

7.5 9.6 8.7 5.1

4.2

494,000 560,000 619,000 654,000 691,000

Traffic Total

(metric ton-km)

Annual

Annual

in-

in-

in-

in-

In crease 000,000 000,000 (%)

450 489 514 536

Freight (metric ton-km)

Annua!

In

in-

In the

Posseng er-km

Annual

ternational scheduled passenger traffic for 1975-81.

airlines,

of

improvement over

ings." Unit operating costs per available metric ton-

AVIATION The

62%

from

excess of revenue over costs in the traffic in

of the large cities were considered.

In Britain the Greater office

by nearly

traffic

crease

In

crease

In

crease

(%)

000,000

(%)

000,000

(%)

7.4 13.4 10.4 5.8 5.6

13,220 15,020 17,540 19,010 19,110

13.6 16.8 8.4 0.5

60.470 68.160 75,810 80,550 83,930

6.7 12.7 11.2 6.3 4.2

9.6

Note: Includes U.S.S.R.; excludes China and some small states not affiliated with the ICAO. Source: International Civil Avialion Organization.

in

For the U.S. airlines, a spokesman for the Air Transport Association of America (ata) predicted in September that net profit for 1976 would amount to between $250 million and $350 million. In the first half of the year, U.S. trunk carriers reported a net profit of almost $140 million, a considerable improvement over 1975 when, according to the U.S. Civil Aeronautics Board (cab), the trunks suffered a net loss of $104,026,000.

had a

The

loss of $1,772,000,

eight local-service airlines

but the supplemental or non-

scheduled airlines showed a net income of $17.7 million in 1975.

Perhaps the most newsworthy event of 1976 was the inauguration of Concorde supersonic services by Air

France and British Airways to Rio de Janeiro and Bahrain, respectively, on January 21. In the U.S., where environmentalists had voiced considerable concern over possible noise pollution, the authorities allowed both airlines to fly to Washington's Dulles International Airport for a 16-month trial period. Equally significant but attracting less public attention

was the notice given by the U.K. in June that it would renounce the 1946 Bermuda Agreement the bilateral agreement governing air services between Britain and 12 months later unless a new agreement the U.S. could be negotiated. The U.K. was concerned to re-

—

—

dress a large alleged imbalance of earnings in favour

by

of U.S. carriers on routes governed

Observers believed that the British

the agreement.

move might

herald

attempts by other countries to renegotiate bilateral agreements with the U.S. In the U.S., 1976 closed with many important aviation issues clouded

by doubts

that

Jimmy

solved until President-elect

would not be reCarter took office

early in 1977. These included the international situa-

with regard to the British action. Control of aircraft noise and financing of noise reduction measures were also left pending, as was "de-

tion, particularly

regulation"—liberalization of the system of economic regulation of the U.S. airline industry.

(david woolley)

SHIPPING AND PORTS

boom and

bust cycle that

had characterized shipping since the late 1960s. Seaborne trade for 1976 was below the 1975 level, which in turn had been 6.5% below 1974. The greatest drop was in the movement of oil, down nearly 10%, while iron ore, coal, and grain were down by nearly 8%. Although cargo movements fell, tonnage rose to a total of 560 million tons deadweight (dw). There was little improvement in tankers and only a slight rise in freight rates.

dw

44%

of the capacity in the

were

in service,

and these provided nearly oil trade. This section was

threatened, however, by the large

—-54 — under

vessels

number

of

With tanker tonnage

in

surplus and a further 428 vessels on order, special efforts were made to reduce the excess. Several orders were canceled or converted to other vessel types, and the rate of scrapping was increased. Some 45 million tons dw of tankers were laid up, along with approximately 6 million tons dw of combined carriers. The Soviet tanker fleet, consisting almost entirely of vessels below 80,000 tons dw, continued to grow, however, reaching 481 vessels, an aggregate of 3.7 million gross tons, with a further 45 tankers on order. As overage vessels were withdrawn from service and as oil-producing states took steps to develop their own home-based refining facilities and marketing structures, interest in product carriers increased. By 1976, 403 combined carriers (oil/ore) totaling 44.7 million

675

Transportation

new

construction.

Caution was the watchword in the dry cargo market, but several orders were placed for multipurpose, highclass cargo liners. More roll-on/roll-off vessels were needed to overcome port congestion, particularly in the Middle East. The use of very large seagoing barges

pushed or pulled by high-powered tugs also increased. Worldwide grain movements fell by more than 15% compared with 1975, but general cargo business began to expand. It was estimated that by the end of 1976 all the 1975 losses would have been made good. Port development was concentrated in the Middle

Red Sea area. A large harbour complex was being built at Port Rashid near Dubai. At Dammam $1 billion was committed to the doubling of the port's capacity by 1980, and at Jubail $944 million was to be spent on a new harbour with an annual capacity for 10 million tons of cargo. It was hoped to raise the capacity of Jizan from 100,000 tons per year to 500,000 tons at a cost of $118 million. In Europe container facilities were increased at Bremerhaven and Hamburg, West Germany. The giant new port at Marseilles-Fosse in France neared completion. In the first full year after the Suez Canal was reopened in June 1975, average daily net tonnage through the canal was about 180,000. In July nearly 1,500 vessels had used the canal in both directions. The canal was to be deepened to increase the permissible draft from 38 to 53 ft, and maximum loaded deadweight of ships using it would eventually rise from 60,000 to 130,000 tons. A 2 50,000- ton-dw tanker could use the canal in ballast, but there would be no rush back to the canal until tanker freight rates rose and the current slow-steaming policy ended. East, particularly in the

(w.

d.

ewart)

FREIGHT MOVEMENTS Freight

movements picked up

The passengers

response to the slow economic recovery, though there was still plenty of in

The Swiss railways were among the The West German railways revived a

spare capacity.

World movement of nonliquid cargoes rose in 1976, but the increase was not significant, and experts feared a return to the traditional

tons

beneficiaries.

piggyback service (trucks on trains) because of shortages of road permits on routes to the prosperous Middle East. European road and rail freight was also helped by the European drought, since low river levels meant that much traffic normally carried by barges

on this ship sailing

from Australia in April were 51,000 sheep bound for Iran. The former oil tanker was refitted with pens and a conveyor system for feeding the sheep

twice a day. Iran does not import killed sheep because of religious laws.

U

World Transportation Merchant shipping

Motor transport

Railways Route

Passenger

Freight

000,000

000,000 net ton-km

Country

EUROPE Austria

Belgium

6.5 4.0 4.3

6,790 8.257 7,569

11,237

—

17,286

13 5

18,190

69,271

3,1 90f 3,132 50,980 21,304 37,759

2,040t 6,438 64,033

—

Bulgaria

Cyprus Czechoslovakia

2.0} 5.9

Denmark Finland

34.4 14.3

France

Germany, East Germany, West

32.1

2.5 8.4

Greece Hungary

Portugal

2.2 16.lt 2.8 4.2 23.8 3.6

Romania

11.1

Spain

16.0*

Sweden

12.1

Ireland Italy

Netherlands, The

Norway Poland

5.0* 263.8* 18.25

Switzerland U.S.S.R.

United Kingdom

10.3

Yugoslavia

ard over

Road Vehicles

length

length pass. -km

6,731

—

49,681

55,062 931

1,594 13,686

22,961

475

824

14,962 2,722 2,886 129,230 867 61,618 11,887 19,598

36,387 8,502 1,884 42,918 4.552 22,406 16,079 5,332 7,984 306,298 36,1 30§ 10,243

5,141

3,233,000 24,168§ 21,606

102.7 92.8 31.2 9.5

145.5 65.7 73.3 794.1 126.9 462.2 36.4 100.6 87.2* 288.4* 82.9 76.1

299.6 46.0 95.2 142.6 112.8 61.3 1,421.6 c.366.0 110.3

in

use

Commercial

Passenger in 000

in

1,636.0 2,474.0 c. 160.0* 67.0 1,234.4 1,256.3 936.7 15,180.0 1,703.0 17,356.0 379.9

490.8 487.5 14,295.0 3,440.0 890.4 920.3 989.7 c. 125.0* 4,309.5 2,638.9 1,728.1 c.3,000.0

cl 3,980.0 1,333.0

2.9 4.3* 0.6*

Bangladesh

Burma

c.48.0 6C.1*

China India

c.7.8

Indonesia

4.6 2.0 0.9 27.5*

Iran Iraq Israel

Japan Korea, South

5.5*

Malaysia

1.8

Pakistan Philippines

8.8 1.1*

Saudi Arabia Syria

0.6 0.9*

Taiwan

4.3 3.8

Thailand Turkey

8.1

639 395

3,331 3,121

10* 301,000* 143,098 1,068* 4,432* 1,707

54* 45,670* 134,747 2,726* 2,144*

633 323 323,192 12,703

464 47,911 9,107 989||

986U c.1 1,600 899 61* 145 8,345 5,484 5,753

c.7,344

70 62* 152 2,853 2,296 6,418

0C0

31.7* 36.3 27.2*

24.8*

c.700.0 1,232.3 84.9*

c.30.0* 771 .9

c.650.0*

307.6* 393.9* 83.4 267.4 15,854.0 76.5 430.4 177.3* 362.5 134.2 37.3 126.0 316.9

174.2* 87.6* 59.0 94.8 10,825.0 96.9 140.3 79.1* 247.3 114.9

11.1 10.7

1,058.9 44.2 23.9* 62.8* 92.8 34.4 V6.7* 16.2 27.5*

reg. tons

39.3 11 .1*

413.0

1,371 361

1,393

437 1

,964

2,743 16 93 1,732 1,348 2.706

75

13.7

677

48.4

3,886

937

9.3

3,221

2.9 24.6

385 115

116 4,478 2,002 10,746 1,389 8,517 22,527

48 210

122

777

13.7

2,667

5,433 7,486 194 19,236 33,157 1,873

129.4

775 29 7,652 3,622

414

120 39 3* 466 471

724 135 56 65 9,932

828 129 84 413 55

859 480 311 451 39,740 1,624

359 479 879 180 1,450 183

78 5

246

— —

— — 2 301

95.0

c.9.1

c.3.9

60.

80.0

340.6 24.9

6.8 1.0

2*

2,828 3,869

428 84 387

48.4J 21.2 55.4

133 55

101.0 188.7 c.230.8

180.0 14.0

19.6 146.3 94.2

440

8

78.4

31 .0t

29.2 239.6 24.3 170.4 32.3 11.4

10,137 5,679 26,154 2,817 1,210

696

in

000,000 net ion-km

,358

in

57.6 47.2 18.7 6.6 29.8 263.2 32.4 24.8 25.1

38.5 21.8 6.4 18.0* 27.4 19.2

995

Freight

in

000,000

1

14

c.303.8

km

flown O0O,0C0

000

23.1

59.5

Total

in

55

252 179 735 13

265.0

c.24.0* 21.7 15.0*

43.4*

Gross

of vessels

152.0 249.0

211 .1 124.9 2,075.0 225.7 1,244.0 170.7 107.2 52.9 1,080.9 320.0 145.0 386.0 48.0 c.50.0* 950.5 153.8 165.4 c. 4,000.0 c. 1,811.0 136.1

Passenger

Number

c.38.0* 15.4

ASIA

Cambodia

Air traffic

Ships of 100 tons

Traffic

pass. -km

1,366 2,185} 1,259 23,272 1,315 13,635 3,430 558 1,487

8.2 289.1 7.0 1.4

17.5 97. 8}

31.6 1,086.1

42.8 993.4 36.5 6.2

,377

71.0 461.0

10.132

615.1

1 1

2.964*.

1,309 3,135

574 10,694 3,629} 7,564 108,577 27,766 1,967

180 48 64* 4,926 2,204 1,390 533 3,107 17,544 2,753 1,633 2,623 2,050 1,268

322 954* 2,845 1,471

105.8} 13.9 7C.7 8.2

237.9 152.4} 308.5 2,475.3 852.5 14.6

2.5

0.5

2.0* 182.0 44.9 20.6 7.5 135.1

842.0 204.7 29.9 130.0 51.3 37.4 2.2 25.2*

63.3 11.4

AFRICA 4.0

Algeria Benin

0.6

Central African Empire

Chad Congo

— —

0.8 4.5

Egypt

—

Gabon Ghana

1.0

0.7* 2.1*

Ivory Coast

Kenya Malawi Mali

0.6 0.6*

Morocco

2.1

Nigeria Rhodesia Senegal

3.5*

1,058 101

1,901

129

— —

—

— 461 2,561*

223 7,258*

—

—

305*

520* 918 4,529*9 89 95* 792 890

IX*

South Africa

19.9 3.5 1.9*

Tanzania Tunisia

Uganda

1.2

Zaire

5.3 c.2.2

Zambia

529

c.31.0* 36.1*

3,9989

49.7

275.

12.1

152*

14.7 25.4* 89.0* 78.9 13 3*

2,843 1,343 6,436°

3.4

392 63,850° 3,9989

220 4,529*9 588 4,529*9

447* 320*

6.9 21.5 30.7 c.11.0 c.26.0* 6.8*

1,283

c.320.0* c.18.0 18.8*

3,9989 3,017* 897*

27.5 c.140.0* 35.0*

8.6

6.3*

5.8* 19.0

10.5

8

184.5

40.2

143

9.4*

7.5*

40.4*

31 .0*

c.90.5* 122.4 1C.6 4.5*

c.57.4* 18.2 9.5 5.7* 91.4*

258.2* c. 150.0* c.180.0 44.8 1,950.3

c.82.0* c.70.0 25.0 719.1

15 82

49 19

107 180 119 17

53 84

80 142

56 286

1.8

c.39.1

c.42.3

17

23 566 33

115.1

76.2 8.9 76.4 62.0

28

41

27.0 84.8 86.0

19.2 1.51 2.01 2.61 2.41 19.3 3.11 3.6 2.01 10. IS 2.6

1

1

6

28

85

1

6

10.9 9.4 5.8 2.21 55.0

4.24 8.1

2.36 14.4

997 1011 1061 1191 1111 1,285

1281 149 1091 715s 80 77

693 355 259 1121 5,946

1546 898 1506

6.4

11.31 11.31 12.21 11.61 17.7 11.4*

4.0

11.41 21.48 1.1

1.9 7.8 8.3 2.2

11.31 155.1

3.6S 6.5

57s

7.1

655 362

35.4 20.8

NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA Canada

70.1* 0.6 14.9 0.6

Costa Rica

Cuba El

Salvador

Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua

202,433

3,023 c.97*

c.20* 1,504*

946*

106* 3*

c.0.9 c.1.0

24.6* 0.4 0.3 332.7

Panama United States

174* 4,614* 28*

31,094* 14*

8,472.0 52.1*

3,033.0 cl 8.0*

18.9 10.7* 13.4* 5.9* 172.1 13.1*

1,246,652*

6,126.6*

1,257 14

2,566

291.7

23,111

580.7

6

c.33.0* 19.0* 36.9*

272

476

6.3 7.8

306 528

12.1

2 7 60

2 10 68

575 33

2.8 5.7 87.8 2.2

100 226

274 26

78

2.0

23,699.2

2,418 4,346

13,667 14,587

3,633.9

262,137

8,555.9

966.0

374

1,447

57.5 4.7

4,080

482 138 53 44 26 677 38 152

2,691

419 109

1,205

c.70.0* 38.5* 54.1*

22.9 709.9

c.14.7 1,943.2 c.32.0* 69.8

7.1

16,629*

2,390.0 34.4*

104,269.7

c.20.0* 16.1

5,957

9.1

4.8 2.7 76.4

SOUTH AMERICA Argentina

40.2* 3.6 30.4

13,177

Chile

9.0*

2,101

Colombia

3.4 1.1* 0.5* 3.2*

483

Bolivia Brazil

Ecuador Paraguay Peru

Uruguay

3.0 0.2

Venezuela

12,324

270* 10,603*

15*

50.7 49.6* 65.7

2,160.0 29.6 3,679.0 197.8 377.0 33.0* 10.0* 256.4* c.151.6 820.0*

29,000t 3,272

863.9* 92.0*

4,769.2 1,167.3

365* 42,698* 1,926 1,329 43* 30* 735*

63* 26*

270* 353 42*

239

309.1 37.1

1,312.7 63.7 48.8* 18.3* 16.0*

1

33.0 ,002.0 151.4 87.0 51.5* 19.0*

136.1* c.85.7

295.0*

•

386 209 142 22 518 131

516

106.5 2.8

21.9 48.4

331 9,600 1,159 2,567

9.7

189

8.4

12.9 2.7 36.5

700

20.4

80 2,269

73.1

207.3 48.3

17,770 3,779

362.6 116.8

•• 1

63.1

469.7 57.0 121.5

0.1

OCEANIA Australia

New

40.4f

Zealand

4.8

537

Note: Data are for 1974 or 1975 unless otherwise indicated (

—

)

Indicates

nil

or negligible; (...) indicates not known;

(

I

indicates provisional or estimated.

•Data given are the most recent available. fState system only. Jlncluding apportionment of traffic of Scandinavian Airlines System §Excludtng Northern Ireland.

1,130.8

212.6 ^Including 9Total for ^Including a lncluding

163

apportionment of traffic of Air Afrique. Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda (East African Railways Corp.). apportionment of traffic of East African Airways Corp. and Caspair traffic in Botswana,

Ltd.

including Namibia (South West Africa). ^Principal railways.

||lncluding Singapore.

Sources:

UN,

Yearbook 1975, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, Annual International Road Federation, World Road Statistics 1975. Statistical

Bulletin of Transport Statistics for

Europe 1974; Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Statistical Tables 1975; (M. C. MacDONALD)

COURTESY, CON RAIL

had

to

switch to other modes. Piggyback was generally

a strong sector, and Britain had growing success with a concept called scids

(small container intermodal

which suited many road freight customers and required less investment in heavy container cranes. In France a rail freight service carrying produce from farms in the south to Paris averaged 87 mph and was said to be the world's fastest. The British government announced a 3, 100- mi network for heavy trucks. However, much of it could not be implemented because the roads had yet to be built, and they were unlikely to be built for many years to come. Britain was in trouble with the European Economic Community (eec) for failing to introduce distribution system),

tachographs

—devices

monitoring

for

the

hours

worked by truck drivers. The drivers vehemently opposed what they considered to be "spies in the cab." In the U.S. the long-distance truck driver became something of a folk hero, and pop songs were even composed about him. The mystique was part of the fad for citizens band radios, long used by truckers to communicate among themselves. The government insisted that for safety the wheels of big trucks should

be monitored by a microcomputer that would prevent skidding. Unfortunately, the computers were liable to interference from radios, and they sometimes put on the brakes at the wrong time. The 1,857-km Tanzam railway, built by the Chinese to link Zambia's copper belt with the Indian Ocean, was completed in July. Afghanistan planned to build

The U.S.S.R., however, decided to opt for gas turbines on its new transSiberian railway. The gas turbines were said to be

suitable gas-turbine engine.

lighter

and

to

work

better at cold temperatures.

Italy began a £1.3 million investment program, in-

cluding a high-speed line from

Rome

to

Florence.

30%

Lightly used lines continued to be a problem; the network carried only

2%

of the

traffic.

of

The eec

suggested there should be more coordination of international investment for both roads and rail, notably

a l,10O-mi railway system.

PIPELINES The 800-mi trans-Alaska oil pipeline burst on July 9 when the operator of a pressure gauge allowed the water pressure to build up too much during a test. The

The West German railways planned to invest £1,600 million a year, and the government approved a new line from Stuttgart to Mannheim to relieve congestion. It was announced

incident highlighted controversy over faulty welds on

that the almost legendary Paris-Istanbul Orient Ex-

Both a government report and an audit

were perhaps 4,000 problem welds, and the 1977 opening

would be discontinued in May 1977. In Britain a book called The Rail Problem, written by two academics, attracted considerable attention,

date for the $7.7 billion pipeline seemed threatened.

since

the pipeline.

by the

at bottlenecks like the Alps.

pipeline's builders suggested that there

much argument

press

it

showed how,

in the authors' opinion, British

to repair all the

Rail could break even. However, neither British Rail's

dubious welds. Eastern European countries were active in the building of gas pipelines. Those under construction included one from the western tip of the U.S.S.R. to Orenburg, via Kharkov, and another from Czechoslovakia to Italy, via Austria. Negotiations were conducted on exploiting Siberian natural gas and carrying

then chairman, Sir Richard Marsh, nor his successor, Peter Parker, agreed.

After

it

by

it

was decided

Sumed

pipeline

from the

Gulf of Suez to the Mediterranean was completed. However, Tipline, the trans-Israel pipeline, lost business to the newly reopened Suez Canal. In Kenya a 300-mi pipeline from Mombasa to Nairobi was under construction. Canada was studying a 2,200-mi gas pipeline from Alaska and the Mackenzie Delta to southern Canada and the U.S., while Britain was considering a £2,000 million pipeline to take gas from the North Sea oil fields to the Scottish coast.

INTERCITY RAILWAYS In

West Germany an experimental

train suspended above the rails by magnetic repulsion and propelled by magnets achieved a speed of 401 kph. British Rail's 125-mph High Speed Train, which used conventional technology, was introduced on the Western Region, but the chances of the more sophisticated Advanced Passenger Train reaching its design speed of 155 mph were reduced by the failure to develop a

just

The continuing problems U.S.

—

mass

transit

the

of the two showpieces of

Bay Area Rapid Transit

(bart) in San Francisco and the Washington, D.C., encouraged proposals for light rail systems as a cheaper alternative. Buffalo, N.Y., was the first

subway

pipeline for transshipment to the U.S.

In the Middle East the

URBAN MASS TRANSIT

—

U.S. city to gain approval for such a system, with the

government undertaking

to contribute

$269

million,

80%

of the cost of a 6.4-mi route. Miami, Fla., also obtained federal approval for rail transit, but in Denver, Colo., the government refused to finance a

$733 million light rail system and offered $31 million for bus improvements instead. The first 4.6 mi of the Washington, D.C., subway opened in March. One estimate put running costs at $80,000 a day and receipts at $10,000. The rolling stock was air-conditioned and carpeted and the seats were padded. The cost of the full 98-mi system had been estimated earlier at $2.5 billion, but it was now expected to be nearly twice that figure. In San Francisco bart's financial problems reached a crisis as the expiration date for the sales tax that

subsidized

it

approached.

A

study by Melvin

Webber

of the University of California (Berkeley) suggested that the real cost of a trip

on bart was

62%

higher

Six major U.S. railroads were combined in

the federally financed Consolidated Rail Corporation (ConRail), serving

16

states.

678

Trinidad

and Tobago

than an equivalent trip by private car. Fare revenue was about what had been estimated in 1962, whereas costs were nearly five times higher. The system, meant to carry 28,000 passengers across the bay in an hour, carried barely that number in a day. Rather than placing stations close together, and therefore near people's homes, bart had given priority to high operating speed on the trains themselves. This was proving to be a

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 222,928, teachers 6,704; secondary, pupils 49,225, teachers 2,151; vocational, pupils 2,909, teachers 112; higher, students 2,159, teaching staff 278.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Trinidad and Tobago dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a par value of TT$2.40 to U.S. $1 (free rate of TT$4.14 =£1 sterling). Budget (1975 est.): revenue TT$1,2 1 2,000,000; expenditure TT$1,294,000,000. Foreign trade ( 1975): imports TT$3,243,900,000; exports TT$3,878, 500,000. Import sources: Saudi Arabia 26%; U.S. 22%; Indonesia 17%; U.K. 9%; Iran 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 68%; ship and aircraft bunkers 5%. Main exports: petroleum products 50%; crude oil 37%.

poor decision. Half of those who should have been using bart but did not stated that it was too far from their homes or offices and required time-consuming walks, waits, and transfers. Rome was 12 years behind schedule on building its subway; most of the delays were caused by unexpected discoveries of archaeological sites. Brussels opened a new subway. London Transport reported a 4.2% fall in ridership in 1975; fares had risen 30% in March and another 26% in November, and costs had increased

47%

during the year.

The

Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 4,230 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 88,800; commercial (including buses) 22,900. There are no railways in operation. Air traffic (1975): 992 million passenger-km; freight 20,402,000 net ton-km. Ships entered ( 1972) vessels totaling 24,244,000 net registered tons; goods loaded 20,624,000 metric tons, unloaded 14,808,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 66,400. Radio receivers (Dec. 1971) 296,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 93,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): sugar, raw value 186; rice c. 12; tomatoes c. 9; oranges c. 13; grapefruit c. 19; copra 7; coffee 2. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle c. 71; pigs c. 54; goats c. 40; poultry c. 6,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): crude oil 11,124; natural gas (cu m; 1974) 1,418,000; petroleum products (1974) 17,792; cement 259; nitrogenous fertilizers (nutrient content; 1974-75) c. 91; electricity (kw-hr) 1,124,000.

British govern-

ment put the brake on mass transit subsidies, but the Greater London Council decided to defy it. system under cona clash over British Rail's insistence on running the new trains. The estimated cost of construction had risen from £65 million to £160 million. West Germany proposed a dual-mode bus that would be automated. Initially, only steering would be automatic, but eventually the bus would be entirely controlled by means of a cable under the road, and the "driver" would merely collect fares. Interest in new demand-responsive forms of public Also in Britain, the light struction on Tyneside

rail

was threatened by

transport continued to grow.

The number

of dial-a-

ride services in the the U.S. increased to over 100. In

Turkey an analysis conducted in cities that encouraged shared taxi services showed that the taxis attracted three times as many passengers as buses in Ankara and twice as many as buses in Istanbul. (RICHARD CASEMENT) See also Energy; Engineering Projects; Industrial Review: Aerospace; Automobiles.

with

its

current membership of 36 and a Senate en-

larged from 24 to 31

members); and retention

of

judicial links with Britain, with appeals to the Privy

Council.

In the September 13 elections Eric Williams' PeoNational Movement was returned for a fifth term, with 24 seats to 12. Two seats were won by A.

ple's

N. R. Robinson's Democratic Action Congress and ten by the left-wing United Labour Front, an interracial coalition of trade-union interests.

Trinidad continued to enjoy the benefits of the

Environment;

oil

Encyclopedia Britannica Films. The Mississippi System: Waterways of Commerce (1970); Rotterdam-Europort: Gateway to Europe (1971); The Great Lakes: North America's Inland Seas (2nd ed., 1972); Airplane Trip (4th ed., 1973); All the Wonderful Things that Fly (1974).

boom, with reserves of TT$1, 728,000,000 at the end of 1975, some months before the government revalued the TT dollar by 12% and tied it to the U.S. dollar in the ratio of TT$2.40 to $1. Inflation eased somewhat to an anticipated 11% for 1976, but problems of declining production, retrenchment, and unemployment (officially 16%) continued. (SHEILA PATTERSON)

Trinidad and Tobago

[974.B.2.d]

[72S.C.3; 734; 737.A.3]

A

republic and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Trinidad and Tobago consists of two islands off the coast of Venezuela, north of the Orinoco River

Area: 1,980 sq mi (5,128 sq km). Pop. (1973 est.): 1,061,900, including (1970) Negro 43%; East Indian 40%; mixed 14%. Cap. and largest city: Portof-Spain (pop., 1973 est., 60,400). Language: English (official); Hindi, French, Spanish. Religion (1960): delta.

Christian

Aug.

1,

gust

1

66%; Hindu 23%; Muslim 6%. Queen

to

1976, Elizabeth II; governor-general to Auand, from that date, transitional president

(sworn in as president on December 30), Sir Ellis Clarke prime minister, Eric Williams. On Aug. 1, 1976, Trinidad and Tobago declared ;

itself

Commonwealth. The new was a moderate document, enshrining basic rights and adding certain safeguards.

a republic within the

constitution existing

Other features included Trapshooting: see Target Sports

:

reduction of the voting age

machines; the retention of a bicameral Parliament (the House of Representatives to 18; abolition of voting

Tunisia A

republic of

North Africa

lying on the Mediterranean is bounded by and Libya. Area: 63,379 sq mi (164,150 sq km). Pop. (1975 census): 5,588,200. Cap. and largest city: Tunis (pop., governor-

Sea, Tunisia

Algeria

1975 census, 944,100). Language: Arabic (offiReligion: Muslim; Jewish and Christian minorities. President in 1976, Habib Bourguiba; prime minister, Hedi Nouira. ate,

cial).

In

November 1976

the state of President Bour-

guiba's health gave rise to renewed anxiety, and he

went to Switzerland again for medical treatment. At home, student opposition to the government continued throughout the year. In January dozens of students

demarcate their respective zones of the oilcontinental shelf in the Mediterranean. In the meantime they would work out a temporary understanding for jointly exploiting the disputed area. The surprising move to end this longstanding dispute was understood to have come from the Libyan leader, Col. Muammar al-Qaddafi. It benefited Tunisia, which was especially anxious to work the offshore petroleum deposits. (PHILIPPE DECRAENE) tice to

bearing African

TUNISIA Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 910,532, teachers 22,225; secondary, pupils 158,643; vocational, pupils 34,977; secondary and vocational, teachers 9,231; teacher training, students 3,02 7, teachers 133; higher (1972-73), students 9,246, teaching staff 884. Finance. Monetary unit: Tunisian dinar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 0.42 dinar to U.S. $1 (0.72 dinar =£1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $343 million. Budget (1976 est.) balanced at 641 million dinars. Gross domestic product (1975) 1,773,700,000 dinars. Money supply (May 1976) 462.2 million dinars. Cost of living (Tunis; 1970 100; May 1976) 134. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports 572,820,000 dinars; exports 345,580,000 dinars. Import sources: France 35%; Italy 9%; West Germany 8%; U.S. 7%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: France 19%; Italy 17%; Greece 14%; U.S. 10%; West Germany 8%; Libya 6%. Main exports: crude oil 42%; phosphates 20%;

679

Turkey

[978.D.2.b]

=

olive oil c. 9%. Tourism (1974): gross receipts U.S. $201 million.

visitors

Turkey A

Sea, Greece, and Bulgaria. Area: 300,948 sq mi (779,452 sq km), including 9,150 sq mi in Europe. Pop. (1975 prelim.) 40,197,700. Cap.: Ankara (pop., 1974 est., 1,522,400). Largest city: Istanbul (pop., 1974 est., 2,487,100). Language: Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic. :

passenger-km, freight 1,283,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1975): 898 million passenger-km; freight 6,491,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 114,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1973) 277,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1973) 147,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): wheat c. 890; barley 210; potatoes (1974) c. 80; tomatoes c. 267; watermelons (1974) c. 175; wine (1974) c. 95; dates (1974) c. 53; figs (1974) c. 21; olives c. 850; oranges (1974) c. 72. Livestock (in 000; 1974): sheep c. 3,300; cattle c. 690; goats c. 660; camels c. 180; poultry c. 13,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): crude oil 4,611; natural gas (cu m) 210,000; cement 615; iron ore (55% metal content) 650; phosphate rock (1974) 3,826; lead 24; petroleum products (1974) 1,080; sulfuric acid (1974) 731; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr) 1,204,-

Religion: predominantly Muslim. President in 1976,

Fahri Koruturk; prime minister, Suleyman Demirel. Although the four-party rightist coalition govern-

ment headed by Suleyman Demirel, leader tice

May

during disturbances at the Uni-

some 30 people were wounded, and in the same month the challenge was taken up by other sections of society, even magistrates going on strike. Cabinet changes took place after the death of Hedi Khefacha, minister of defense, in Paris on May 25,

versity of Tunis

and after the dismissal of Driss Guiga, minister of education who was held responsible for the persistence of student unrest, on May 31. Relations with Libya deteriorated sharply in March; Tunisia recalled its ambassador at Tripoli after the Tunisian government had announced the arrest of a Libyan commando unit allegedly sent to kill Bourguiba. After a public trial on April 19-23 the three members of the unit were convicted and one was executed. In connection with the affair and in circumstances that were not made clear, Mohammed Masmoudi, former Tunisian minister of foreign affairs and former ambassador in Paris, was questioned in Cairo in March and briefly held by the Egyptian police. Some 15,000 Tunisian workers were said to have been expelled from Libya since the beginning of the year.

Relations

March

with

France

remained

excellent.

On

20, the 20th anniversary of the proclamation

Tunisia's independence, Michel Poniatowski, French minister of the interior, himself headed the French delegation to Tunis. A few days earlier Jean Sauvagnargues, French minister of foreign affairs, had been received in the Tunisian capital. Their earlier conflict notwithstanding, Tunisia and Libya announced in a joint communique in August their decision to ask the International Court of Jus-

of

of the Jus-

Party, secured parliamentary approval for

its first

budget on February 29 by 231 votes to 205, the year 1976 was one of tension. The feud between rightist

000.

in

is

the U.S.S.R., Iran, Iraq, Syria, the Mediterranean

Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 18,774 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 115,100; commercial (including buses) 76,200. Railways: (1973) 1,928 km; traffic ( 1975) 588 million

were arrested;

Europe and Asia Minor, bounded by the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea,

republic of southeastern

Turkey

716,000;

and leftist student radicals disrupted the universities and claimed more than 40 dead by the end of the academic year in June. When universities reopened in November, the violence and killings resumed. Security forces were involved in bloody clashes with leftist guerrillas in eastern Turkey, at Malatya in January and at Gaziantep in June, while in September there were riots in another eastern town, Elazig. Also in September, the smaller of the two labour confederations, the Confederation of Revolutionary Trade Unions (disk), organized strikes against a government bill

that provided for the continued existence of the

state security courts, originally set

law was

lifted in

up when martial

1973. Several union leaders were

was closed down; and the mayor of Ankara was removed from office for having supported a strike. However, all these actions were disallowed by the courts, which also canceled the appointment of a new Air Force commander. The government bill lost, as a result of tactics by the opposition Republican People's Party, and the arrested; a radical association of teachers

state security courts ceased to exist in October.

Foreign relations were dominated by the dispute with Greece over rights in the Aegean seabed and the control of air traffic over the Aegean. In July the

seabed dispute came to a head, when Turkey sent the seismic research ship "mta Sismik I" to prospect in disputed waters, and it was not until November that the two countries agreed to negotiate (see Greece). A proposal made on October 29 by Turkish Foreign Minister Ihsan Sabri Caglayangil that a "temporary government" be established in Cyprus was unfavourably received both in Cyprus and in Greece. Apart from this and from supporting the continuation of talks between the two Cypriot communities, Turkey Trucking Industry: see Transportation made no move on the Cyprus problem. On March 26 Turkey and the U.S. signed a defense Trust Territories: see Dependent States cooperation agreement providing for the disbursement Tunnels: of $1 billion of U.S. military aid to Turkey over four see Engineering years (plus other aid put at more than $200 million). Projects

680

Uganda

In return, 25 U.S. defense installations in Turkey

were to be reopened, but under Turkish control instead of dual control as in the past. The agreement awaited U.S. congressional approval at year's end. Friendly relations with the U.S.S.R. continued to develop, and two agreements were signed, in April on the construction of a large dam on the border river

Arpa Cayi and in November on the provision of electric energy by the U.S.S.R. On July 18, Turkey allowed the Soviet aircraft carrier "Kiev" to negotiate the Dardanelles Straits on its way from the Black Sea

of

favour the relevant provision of the Montreux Convention. Turkey was host to the annual conference of Isto the

Aegean, thus interpreting

in the Soviets'

lamic foreign ministers in Istanbul in

May. The con-

ference communique supported Turkish policy on Cyprus, and Turkey announced that the Palestine Liberation Organization would be allowed to open an office in

Ankara.

and $1.2 billion in the first half of 1976). But growth in production was estimated at 7 and 8% in 1974 and 1975, respectively during a period of world

—

with the European Economic Community (eec), with which Turkey had an association agreement, were difficult. Meetings of the CounRelations

recession.

cil

in

of Association were postponed twice (in July and October), the European Commission having failed

to satisfy

workers.

cember

Turkey on

issues of trade, aid,

An agreement was

and migrant

eventually signed on De-

though with Turkish reservations on the

20,

concessions offered.

A

violent earthquake shook eastern Anatolia east

Lake Van on November 24 and

killed approximately 4,000 people. To support the rescue operation, other countries contributed medical supplies and equipment.

of

(

ANDREW MANGO)

See also Cyprus.

[978.A.1-3]

The Demirel government pursued economic growth, in spite of inflation

(21%

in

of 1976) and a trade deficit

19%

in

most

($3.3 billion in

1975

1975 and

Uganda A

member of Commonwealth of Nations, Uganda is bounded by republic and a

the

TURKEY Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 5,324,707, teachers 156,476; secondary, pupils 1,231,433, teachers 40,351; vocational, pupils 22 1,627, teachers 13,913; teacher training, students 63,820, teachers 2,935; higher (including 11 universities), students 185,285, teaching staff 1 1,773. Finance. Monetary unit: Turkish lira, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 16 liras to U.S. $1 (27.60 liras £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $913 million. Budget (197677 est.) balanced at 153.1 billion liras. Gross domestic

=

product (1974) 403 billion liras. Money supply (Feb. 1976) 120,310,000,000 liras. Cost of living (Ankara; 1970 = 100; March 1976) 244. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports 66,309,000,000 liras; exports 20,075,000,000 liras. Import sources: West Germany 22%; Iraq 11%; U.S. 9%; Italy 8%; U.K. 7%; Switzerland 6%; France 6%; Japan 5%. Export destinations: West Germany 22%; U.S. 11%; Switzerland 7%; Italy 6%; U.S.S.R. 5%; U.K. 5%; Lebanon 5%. Main exports: cotton 17%; tobacco 13%; hazelnuts 11%. Tourism (1974): visitors 1,110,000; gross receipts U.S. $194 million.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 59,532 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger c. 303,800; commercial c. 230,800. Railways (1974):

km; traffic 5,753,000,000 passenger-km, freight 6,418,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1975): 1,471,000,000 passenger-km; freight 11,42 7,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 387; gross tonnage 994,668. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 900,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1974) 4,091,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1974) 456,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1975) wheat c. 14,750; barley 4,300; corn c. 1,100; rye 700; oats 400; potatoes 2,400; tomatoes c. 2,2 50; onions c. 666; sugar, raw value c. 986; sunflower seed c. 380; chick-peas 165; dry beans 130; cabbages (1974) 545; pumpkins (1974) 314; cucumbers (1974) 360; oranges (1974) 578; lemons (1974) 125; apples (1974) 860; pears (1974) 200; peaches (1974) 125; plums (1974) c. 125; grapes (1974) 3,120; raisins (1974) c. 330; figs (1974) 200; olives 62S; tea c. 47; tobacco c. 120; cotton, lint c. 450. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1974): cattle c. 13,387; sheep 40,539; buffalo (1973) 1,023; goats (1973) 18.007; horses (1973) 936; asses (1973) 1,616; chickens (1973) 38,329. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1975): crude oil 3,094; coal 4,760: lignite (1974) c. 5,240; electricity (kw-hr) 15,561,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): cement 10,748: iron ore (55-60% metal content) 1,907: pig iron 1,197; crude steel 1,464; sulfur (1974) 10; petroleum products (1974) c. 12,520: sulfuric acid 20 fertilizers (nutrient content; 1974-75) nitrogenous 108, phosphate 161; chrome ore (oxide content; 1974) 270; manganese ore (metal content; 1974) 1.2: cotton yarn (factory only; 1970) 189; wool yarn (1971) 26; man-made fibres' (1974) 50. 8,141

:

;

Unemployment: see Economy, World; Social and Welfare

Services

Sudan, Zaire, Rwanda, Tanand Kenya. Area:

zania,

93,104 sq mi (241,139 sq km), including 15,235 sq mi of inland water. Pop. (1976 est.):

11,942,700,

virtually

can.

Cap. and largest city:

UN

est.,

of

all

whom

Kampala

are Afri-

(pop.,

1975

542,000). Language: English (official), Bantu, Nilotic, Nilo-Hamitic, and Sudanic. Religion: Christian,

Muslim, traditional

beliefs.

President in

1976, Gen. Idi Amin.

On Dec. 18, 1975, Ugandan relations with the U.K. were restored to normal when James Hennessey was

UGANDA Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 940,920, teachers 27,597; secondary, pupils 75,582, teachers 2,812; vocational, pupils 2,862, teachers 236; teacher training, students 8,330, teachers 288; higher, students 5,635, teaching staff 604.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

Uganda

shil-

with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of UShs 8.40 to U.S. $1 (UShs 14.48 = £1 sterling). Budget (197576 est.): revenue UShs 2,050,000,000; expenditure UShs 2,018,000,000. Foreign trade (1975): imports UShs 1,470,000,000; exports UShs 1,912,000,000. ling,

Import sources: Kenya 34%; U.K. 17%; Japan 8%; West Germany 6%; Italy 6%. Export destinations: U.S. 24%; U.K. 20%; Japan 8%; West Germany 5%. Main exports: coffee 75%; cotton 10%; tea 6%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 27,536 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 8,900. Railways (1974) 1,240 Kenya). Air traffic (apportionment East African Airways Corporation: 1974): 150 million passenger-km; freight 5.7 million net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 43,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) c. 250,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1972) 15,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): millet 720: sorghum 490; corn (1974) c. 350; sweet potatoes (1974) c. 720; cassava (1974) c. 1,100; peanuts c. 215; dry beans e. 170; coffee c. 180; tea 18; sugar, raw value (1974) c. 62: cotton, lint c. 31: timber (cu m: 1974) 14,675: fish catch (1974) 167. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1973): cattle c. 3,840; sheep c. 750; goats c. 1,700; pigs c. 75;

27,000;

km

commercial

(for traffic see

of traffic of

chickens c. 11,010. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1974): cement 153: copper, smelter (1975) 9; tungsten concentrates (oxide content) 0.12; phosphate rock 19; electricity (kw-hr) c. 836,000.

:

appointed high commissioner, and on Jan. 24, 1976, President Amin paid over $1.6 million as compensation for Indian citizens expelled

from Uganda

in 1972,

thus improving relations with India.

When, in February, Amin declared part of western Kenya to have been, historically, Ugandan territory, port workers in Mombasa, Kenya, boycotted goods traveling to and from Uganda, and Pres. Jomo Kenyatta

affirmed

Kenya's intention

President

boundaries.

Amin

to

then

safeguard

its

announced that

Uganda had no desire to take any land belonging to Kenya. However, after the

Israeli

commando

raid to

rescue 103 hostages being held at Entebbe airport (see

Defense: Middle East), Amin learned had landed

that the

Nairobi after the raid to refuel and became convinced of Kenya's complicity. Troops were massed on both sides of the KenyaIsraeli planes

Uganda

border.

On

July 8

in

Kenya

called

upon Uganda

goods and passengers in transit through Kenya in Kenyan currency because of Uganda's indebtedness, a request that Amin regarded as a threat of an economic blockade; further, by July 16 Kenyan truck and train drivers were refusing to- enter Uganda. Faced with a cut of its petroleum supply, Uganda became more conciliatory, and on August 6 delegates from Uganda and Kenya, meeting in Nairobi, reached an agreement. But relations with Britain deteriorated after charges that one of the Entebbe hostages, Mrs. Dora Bloch, a British subject, had been murdered by agents of the Uganda government, and on July 28 Britain severed diplomatic relations with Uganda. On June 10 there had been an attempt to assassinate Amin, but on June 25 he was appointed president for life. Behind these political issues concern for the (kenneth ingham) economy remained. to

pay for

all

of Soviet

—

hammer and sickle emblem embossed in gold. This new distinction bore some resemblance to the swords of honour the tsars used

to

bestow on their arms of

victorious generals and to the revolutionary

honour awarded to Bolshevik heroes of the civil war up to 1930. In May the traditional celebrations of the anniversary of the victory in World War II included the unveiling of a bronze bust of Brezhnev in Dneprodzerzhinsk, his birthplace. At the same time he was

rank of marshal in recognition of his achievements as a strategist and organizer of his country's military power. His sword of honour later in the year was perhaps intended to emphasize his new "military" role and to underline the party's supremacy over the military. The promotion of two very senior policemen Yury Andropov, the head of the kgb (the political police), and Nikolay Shchelokov, the minister in charge of the civilian police to the rank of general of the army seemed to be part of the same process. The most significant development in this context was the appointment of Dmitry F. Ustinov (see Biography) to succeed Marshal Andrey Grechko (see Obituaries) as minister of defense. Ustinov, though immediately promoted to general of the army, was essentially a civilian of Brezhnev's generation who, since he became minister of defense industry in 1953, had been prominently associated with the Soviet military-industrial complex. Grechko, who died in April, was one of the great

given the

—

—

field

commanders

of

World War

II; nine years earlier

chief of staff, in the ministry of defense.

of Soviet Social-

Republics is a federal state covering parts of eastern Europe and northern and central Asia. Area: 8,600,340 sq mi (22,274,900 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.) 255. 5 million, including (1970) Russians 53%; Ukrainians 17%; Belorussians 4%; Uzbeks 4%; Tatars 2%. Cap. and largest city: Moscow (pop.,

1976 est., 7,734,000). Language: officially Russian, but many others are spoken. Religion: about 40 religions are represented in the U.S.S.R., the major ones being Christian denominations. General secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1976, the

Ilich

Brezhnev; chairman of the Presidium of

Supreme Soviet (president), Nikolay V. Pod-

gorny; chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier), Aleksey N. Kosygin. The year 1976 was Leonid Brezhnev's year. The personal position of the general secretary of the

Com-

munist Party of the Soviet Union reflected the relative stability of the regime he led, and the celebration of his 70th birthday at the end of the year (on December 19) served to underline his primacy. Although Brezhnev could not dominate the Soviet scene as absolutely as Stalin did

—

—and doubtless had

never desired to the praise and tributes he received 'on his birthday recalled the "personality cult" of the late

of Soviet

ing the

ist

Leonid

Union

Socialist Republics

for the second time and given his fifth Order of Lenin, but received a completely new honour a sword bear-

Socialist Republics The Union

681

he had succeeded Marshal Rodion Y. Malinovsky, an Gymnasts and children old comrade-in-arms, and it is more than likely that march past the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow the generals would have preferred to see another proon May Day 1976. fessional soldier, such as Gen. Viktor Kulikov, the Beyond the wall are

[978.E.6.b.iv]

Union

U.S.S.R., along with Finland, bestowed their highest decorations on the aging general secretary. He was not only made a Hero of the Soviet Union allies of the

1940s and early 1950s. All the Eastern European

,1

buildings of the Kremlin.

Brezhnev's birthday coincided with a decision to

682

release Vladimir

Union of Soviet

Bukovsky, a leading dissident who

had spent many years in various penal institutions, and to exchange him for Luis Corvalan, the Communist leader imprisoned by the military junta in Chile. The arrival of Corvalan in Moscow, widely publicized in the Soviet press, was in no way linked to the de-

Socialist Republics

Bukovsky as far as the ordinary Soviet was able to find out. But the international effect of this de facto exchange was considerable. As Bukovsky pointed out on his arrival in Switzerland, it was the first time that the Soviet government had adparture of citizen

kept political prisoners. His statement that conditions in Soviet prisons had improved before the negotiations in Helsinki in 1975 mitted publicly that

still

it

but worsened after the Helsinki declaration had been signed did not come as a surprise in view of the Soviet

government's attitude toward detente. Indeed, the authorities in Moscow had always insisted that the issue of human rights in the Soviet Union was a purely in-

May 1976 the committee calling

ternal matter. Thus, for example, in

down on Public Group

police cracked

a dissidents'

to Promote the Fulfillment of and tass, the official news agency, issued a warning that similar activities would be regarded as anti-Soviet acts. When some European Communist parties were critical of the Soviet performance in human rights, their views were firmly rejected. In June the writer Andrey Amalrik (see Biography) was expelled from the Soviet Union. At the end of the year the authorities broke up attempts to organize a conference on Jewish culture in the Soviet Union; several of the organizers were subjected to harassment and arrest. On the other hand, some 13,750 Jews were allowed to emigrate an increase of 500 compared with 1975 but well below the itself the

the Helsinki Accord,

—

1974 total of 16,900. Jews were not the only religious group to suffer from the attentions of the political police. According to information received by the World Council of

Churches, young people in the U.S.S.R. were being subjected to "cures" in mental hospitals to rid them of the Christian faith.

Thus

there had been no change in

the treatment of believing Christians since the Hel-

perhaps for the worse. Another discontented minority that tried to attract

sinki conference, except

world attention in 1976 were the Soviet Germans, of there were two million (compared with three

whom

million Jews) in the U.S.S.R. Most of them were the descendants of peasant farmers invited to Russia by Catherine the Great after 1764, and who settled on the Central Volga. During World War II they were deported to Siberia and thousands perished. After the war they were not repatriated to their former homes, since they provided much-needed labour in the east.

Some 25,000 1971, and

of these

more wanted

Germans had emigrated to go; early in

since

1976 there were

demonstrations outside the West German embassy in Moscow by groups of people wanting to be allowed

West Germany. The Crimean Tatars, another national minority that was moved from its homeland to Siberia during World War II, had been trying to obtain permission to leave for

to return to the

Crimea. In April a Crimean Tatar

named Mustafa Djemilev was put on berian city of

Omsk, accused

trial in

the Si-

of "slandering the Soviet

Union." The case received attention in the world press because Andrey Sakharov, the Soviet physicist and a

prominent figure

in the

human

rights

movement, was

refused entry to the courtroom by police. Sakharov described Djemilev's trial as "an unbearable mockery."

The Tatar

leader was sentenced to 2\ years in

camp. Yet the record was not entirely negative. The release of Bukovsky and a few other prominent dissidents such as Leonid I. Plyushch and Amalrik showed perhaps that the Soviet government was not as ina strict-regime labour

sensitive to world public opinion as it pretended to be. At the beginning of the year the government simplified

procedures for those seeking to emigrate. In February Pravda published an article setting out

view on human rights in reply to critics West: that "the system of Soviet democracy far surpasses any bourgeois-democratic system," and that slander of Soviet society, based on "deliberately false fabrications," was punishable in law. The party newspaper denied that dissidents were imprisoned in psychiatric hospitals, and also emphasized that penalties for anti-Soviet slander had been made lighter, the

official

in the

but concluded that "the Soviet people are categorically against granting freedom of action to those who damage socialist society and national security."

U.S.S.R.

Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 39,040,000; secondary, pupils 15.4 million; primary and secondary, teachers 2,415,000; vocational, pupils 4,477,000, teachers (1973-74) 208,600; teacher training (1973-74), students 363,600, teachers 209,000; higher (including 121 universities), students 4,751,000, teaching staff (197374) 302,000. Finance. Monetary unit: ruble, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 0.77 ruble to U.S. $1 (1.33 ruble £1 sterling). Budget (1976 est.): revenue 2 23.7 billion rubles; expenditure 223.5

=

billion rubles.

Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports 26,699,000,000 rubles; exports 24,030,000,000 rubles. Import sources: East Germany 10%; Poland 9%;

7%: Czechoslovakia 7%; West Germany 7%; Hungary 6%; U.S. 5%; Cuba 5%; Japan 5%. Export destinations: East Germany 12%; Poland 10%; Bulgaria 9%; Czechoslovakia 8%; Hungary 7%; Cuba 5%. Main exports: machinery and transport equipment 19%; crude oil 16%; petroleum products 9%; iron and steel 8%: timber 6%. Bulgaria

Transport and (1974) 1,421,600 surfaced).

Motor

Communications.

km

Roads

(including 628,300 km in use (1974): pas-

vehicles

million; commercial c. 4 million. c. 3 Railways: (1973) 263,800 km (including 136,800 km public and 127,000 km industrial); traffic (1974) 306,298,000,000 passenger-km, freight (1975) 3,233,000,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1974): 108,577,000,000 passengerkm; freight 2,475,300,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways (1974) 146,300 km; traffic 212,300,000,000 ton-km. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 7,652; gross tonnage 19,235,973. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 15,782,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1973) 110.3 million. Television licenses (Dec. 1973)

senger

49.2 million.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975) wheat c. 65,000; barley c. 35,000; oats :

11,000; rye c. 9.000; corn c. 8,000; rice c. 2,000; millet c. 3,000; potatoes 88,480; sugar, raw value c. 7,532: tomatoes c. 3,590; watermelons (1974) c. 3,500; sunflower seed c. 5,000; linseed c. 350; dry peas c. 3,700; soybeans c, 600; wine (1974) 2,710; tea c. 83; tobacco c. 315; cotton, lint c. 2,500; flax fibres (1974) c. 450; wool 278; hen's eggs c. 3,175; milk c. 90,300; butter 1,320; cheese 1,362; meat c. 15,200; timber (cu m; 1974) c. 383,000; fish catch (1974) 9,236. Livestock (in 000; Jan. 1975): c.

109,122; pigs 72,272; sheep 145,305; goats (1974) horses 5,900; (1974) 6,848; chickens 754,000. Industry. Index of production (1970 100; 1975) 143. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1975): coal and lignite 696,100; crude oil 490,614; natural gas (cu m; 1974) 260,553,000; manufactured gas (cu m; 1974) 35,963,000; electricity (kw-hr) 1,015,000,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): cement 121,887; iron ore (60% metal content) 232.800; pig iron (1974) 99,868; steel 141,161; aluminum (1974) c. 1,430; copper (1974) c. 1,350; lead (1974) c. 475; zinc (1974) c. 680; magnesite (1974) c. 1,570; manganese ore (metal content; 1974) 2,847; tungsten concentrates (oxide content; 1974) 9.6: gold (troy oz) c. 7,500; silver (troy oz) c. 42,000: sulfuric acid 18,643; caustic soda (1974) 2,200; plastics and resins 2,840; fer(nutrient content; 1974) nitrogenous tilizers 7,856, phosphate 3,868, potash 6,586: newsprint (1974) 1,334; other paper (1974) 6.862; cotton fabrics (sq m) 6,567,000; woolen fabrics (sq m) 738,000; rayon and acetate fabrics (sq m; 1974) 980,000: passenger cars (units: 1974) 1,119; commercial vehicles (units: 1974) 729. New dwelling units completed (1974) 2,231,000. cattle

=

— UPI COMPIX

Foreign Policy. The problems confronting the Soviet Union reminded some observers of those that the tsar had to face a century ago an outwardly monolithic regime, rejected by a small stratum of illorganized dissident intellectuals and unable to cope :

with the nationalistic aspirations of various minority groups. Yet the analogy must not be pressed too far: the external power of Russia in the 19th century was

more apparent than real, and the tsarist autocracy was ultimately brought down by the failure of its foreign policies and by military defeat. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, had become firmly established as one of the two most powerful states in the world, and its government was able to rely on a highly integrated military and industrial structure. There was no doubt that the power gap between the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. had continued to narrow more rapidly than had been expected. The U.S.S.R. had more intercontinental missiles

than the U.S., although fewer warheads.

The

Soviet naval buildup had been dramatic, and although the Soviets could not

match the Americans

in the air,

they continued to be superior in conventional ground forces which had been undergoing extensive modernization.

The Soviet the

attitude to detente

context of this

capability,

and also

was

to

be viewed in

continually increasing military in relation to the refusal of the

make any major concessions on To many observers, Moscow seemed to

Soviet government to

human

rights.

tion that quarrels on "questions of principle" should Shoppers crowded the counters of Moscow's not affect relations at the intergovernmental level, but GUM department store a few days later the Chinese representative in the when more consumer goods United Nations denounced the U.S.S.R. as "the most became available during the Communist dangerous source of war" in the world and the Chinese Party congress held in News Agency dismissed Moscow's claim that the East- February-March.

ern European bloc was a voluntary association of sov-

statement to the 25th congress of the Soviet CommuParty in February, Brezhnev felt able to propose a reduction of American and Soviet forces in Central

humbug mouthed by the new Tsars." The Soviet Union certainly did not neglect its Eastern European relations in 1976. The usual rounds of official visits included a journey to Moscow by Polish party leader Edward Gierek in November and, more important, an extended visit by Brezhnev to Romania later that month. The Romanian leaders had for some

Europe while the

years pursued a relatively independent foreign policy;

be trying to maintain

its

advantages while relying on

improve its economic position and to erode the military power of the nato countries, particularly in Western Europe where disarmament by inflation was proceeding apace. In his policy the spirit of detente to

nist

level of forces of the other nations

ereign states as "another piece of

a joint declaration issued after Brezhnev's talks

involved would be frozen, thus preserving the numer-

in

ical

advantage of the Warsaw Pact armies. Brezhnev had no qualms about calling for a worldwide agreement against resorting to force at a time when he could

with Pres. Nicolae Ceausescu, they obtained an endorsement of the "principles of equality and indepen-

claim that the global revolutionary process was de-

U.S.S.R.

veloping on the lines foretold by as evidence for

which he cited the "deep economic

crisis" of capitalism, the fall

Marx and Lenin

Portuguese revolution, the

of the military dictatorship in Greece, the changes

and the progress of decolonization in Africa. success in establishing a Marxist regime in Angola by using Cuban troops was particularly significant in view of the deteriorating situation in southern Africa. This was marked by the signing of a 20year Treaty of Friendship with Angola when Pres. Agostinho Neto visited Moscow in October. In August Sam Nujomo, the leader of swapo (the South West Africa People's Organization), which was trying to win independence for Namibia, was welcomed in

dence," but had to agree to consult regularly with the

Pravda comwould "give serious food for thought to those who seize any pretext for their dirty purpose of sowing mistrust between the two countries." Before going to Romania, Brezhnev on

mented that

international

questions.

the declaration

Yugoslavia to reassure President Tito

in Spain,

stopped

The Soviet

of the Soviet Union's peaceful intentions toward his

Moscow.

country.

In the Middle East, Soviet diplomacy did not sucits fences. In March the Egyptians broke off the Soviet-Egyptian friendship treaty, and soon afterward signed a military cooperation agreement with China. Pres. Anwar as-Sadat had been exasperated by the Soviets' refusal to supply spares for

ceed in mending

his

MiG-21

the

aircraft;

U.S.S.R. reacted by ac-

cusing him of anti-Soviet policies.

Relations with China did not improve, and the succrisis in Peking following Mao Tse-tung's death only added to the uncertainty. In his speech to the 2 5th party congress Brezhnev compared the rulers

cession

of China to the Western enemies of detente, and

argued that China's policies were openly directed against the socialist camp. In April Pravda carried an important article describing Mao Tse-tung as "the

mastermind of

new Chinese

off in

his country's anti-Soviet policy."

leadership under

Soviet Union in

November

Hua Kuo-feng

in a

The

told the

message on the occa-

sion of the 59th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolu-

One

of the conse-

quences of the abrogation of the treaty was the loss of

major Soviet port

facilities in

Alexandria.

How-

between the Soviet Union and Egypt continued, and in November the Egyptian foreign minister met with his Soviet counterpart, Andrey Gromyko, in Bulgaria in an effort to normalize relations between their countries. In summary, Soviet foreign policy in 1976 continued to enjoy the fruits of detente while waiting for the outcome of the presidential election in the United States. In Europe perhaps the major problem was the increasing independence of the Western European ever, trade negotiations

LONDON DAILY EXPRESS/ PICTORIAL PARADE

684

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Communists, which had to be acknowledged at the meeting of the European Communist parties held in East Berlin in June. The most marked setback was experienced in the Middle East, where the breach with Egypt was followed by worsening relations with Syria as a result of Syrian intervention in the Lebanese civil

war against the Soviet-backed Palestine Liberation Organization. By contrast, Moscow's prestige in Africa rose after the victory of the Popular

Movement

for

Angola (mpla) in Angola, and there was some evidence of expanding Soviet influence in Mozambique and Tanzania at the expense of the Chi-' nese position there. Moscow's most serious problem continued to be its poor relationship with Peking. Apart from economic and ideological considerations, the Liberation of

the garrisoning of the vast Sino-Soviet frontier imposed a strain on the U.S.S.R.'s military capabilities.

Domestic

Politics.

The

year's

main

political event,

Communist Party,

the 25th congress of the Soviet

took place in Moscow at the end of February. Aside from confirming Brezhnev's leading position, the major speeches merely restated established policies.

The

most interesting change in the composition of the party leadership was the removal of Dmitry Polyansky from the Politburo, the relative failure of Soviet farming over the last five years having

untenable.

He was

made

his position

later replaced as minister of agri-

A

tall bronze statue of Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya was unveiled in Moscow in June. The sculptors were A. M. Belashov and F. Belashova.

by Valentin Mesyats, a party official from Two candidate members were advanced to full membership in the Politburo: Dmitry Ustinov, who was soon to succeed Marshal Grechko as minister of defense; and Grigory Romanov, the head of the

the five-year plan for 1976-80, which

The spaceship carried two cosmonauts

party organization in Leningrad. Geidar Aliyev, party

viet agriculture in

on an eight-day trip

Two

culture

Kazakhstan. Soyuz 22 blasts off from its launching pad at

Tyuratam Asia

in

into orbit.

was a

in

Soviet Central

September.

The mission

joint venture

U.S.S.R. and East Germany.

of the

secretary in Azerbaijan,

became

member. Central Committee

a candidate

additional secretaries to the

were also appointed: Mikhail Zemyanin, chief editor of Pravda, and Konstantin Chernenko, the head of the Central Committee's administration. In October the Central Committee appointed another member of

problem was the massive 1975.

The

be the qualities needed for success and survival in The leadership probably saw no need for change. Apart from the perennial difficulties of agriculture, the Soviet economy was doing reasonably

and the foreign policy record was not unsatisWhether this continued investment in conformity would serve as well for the future remained to be seen. Possible problems to come were foreshadowed in the address to the party congress by

well,

factory.

Enrico Berlinguer, the Italian Communist leader, who advocated heretical views on sharing power with parties of different ideological persuasion

and made

an eloquent defense of civil liberty and the principles of parliamentary democracy. The Economy. The party congress received the customary report on the state of the Soviet economy from Premier Kosygin, who reported that national income had risen by 34%, real wages by 20%, and retail trade by 36% in the last five years. Although targets were not fulfilled in agriculture and consumer goods, overall economic growth was declared to be satisfactory. Kosygin attacked "the excessive time taken to draw up plans, which undermines control over economic organs," and also criticized the uneven rhythm of technical progress. The congress approved

failure of So-

grain harvest of

140

million tons had been 75 million tons below target the poorest in ten years.

The

effect

and

on livestock pro-

duction was disastrous. In consequence, the planned

growth

in the

food industry for 1976-80 had to be cut

The final plan also indicated that an would be made to increase the consumption of

back.

by the Japanese

to

had already

1975.

thus underlining the static character of the Soviet

Soviet politics.

— TASS/SOVFOTO

chief

December

a major source of protein. This

system. Obedience, stability, and orthodoxy seemed

PUSH KAREV

The

in

Yakov Ryabov, party secretary of the Sverdlovsk region, chosen to take over responsibility for defense industries from Marshal Ustinov. The 25th party congress produced little change, the Secretariat:

A.

been published

was

effort fish as

closely linked to

the international issue of fishing limits and offshore zones.

Toward

the end of 1976 the U.S.S.R. imposed

a 200-mi limit in the Pacific, a

move much

resented

Recent changes in the international law of the sea compelled the U.S.S.R. to negotiate fishery agreements with Canada and Norway in 1976, and a treaty would have to be discussed with the European Economic Community, which had extended its members' limits to 200 mi in some traditional Soviet fishing areas in the North Atlantic and the North Sea. The problem was important for the U.S.S.R., which had the world's largest fishing fleet and earned significant foreign exchange from fish.

A

possible

fishing industry.

reason for the failure of agriculture in the relatively low standard of liv-

might be found

ing in the Soviet countryside, which continued to drive

young people from the

villages to the towns. In

June

the party issued directives emphasizing the need to raise productivity and make good the shortage of labour by introducing factory farm methods. The creaa project begun and abandoned by tion of agrotowns Nikita Khrushchev many years earlier was to be resumed in an effort to make rural life more attractive to young people and to lay a foundation for the new farm policy. The program called for closing down 114,000 small villages in the central and northern parts of the country and moving the inhabitants into 29.000

—

population centres by 1990. were to be moved by 1980.

—

Some 170,000

families

In the short term the Soviet leaders could take com-

SVEN SIMON — (CATHERINE YOUNG

from the successful 1976 harvest. The grain yield the end of the year was reported to have been

fort at

the largest in Soviet history. The disaster of the previous year was reflected in the trade statistics.

Heavy purchases

of grain, meat,

and

agricultural

chinery in the West, coupled with a slackening

ma-

demand

for Soviet exports, brought about a foreign trade deficit of $3.6 billion in 197S, which had to be covered by borrowing from Western banks and by selling gold. (See Agriculture and Food Supplies Special Re:

(otto pick)

port.) [972. B.l]

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. The Soviet Union: Epic Land (1972); The Soviet Union: A Student's Life (1972); The Soviet Union: Faces of Today (1972).

United Arab Emirates Consisting

of

Abu Dhabi,

Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Qaiwain, the United Arab Emirates is located on the eastern Arabian Peninsula. Area: 32,300 sq mi (83,600 sq km). Pop. (1975): 656,000, of whom (1968) 68% were Arab, 15% Iranian, and 15% Indian and Pakistani. Cap.: Abu Dhabi town (pop., 1975, 95,000). Language: Arabic. Religion: Muslim. President

Nahayan

Sheikh Zaid ibn Sultan anprime minister, Sheikh Maktum ibn Rashid in

;

the emirates during 1976 were the exploitation of on-

shore natural gas in refinery to

oil

add

to

Abu Dhabi; Abu Dhabi's

the building of an

which Port Rashid

first refinery,

opened during the year; an extension to and the dry dock in Dubai; and an aluminum smelter, also in Dubai. The U.A.E. followed Saudi Arabia in deciding to limit

its oil

price increase for 1977 to

At the oasis in

of

Al

Ain

Abu Dhabi,

the visitor can choose between a tent and the Hilton Hotel.

5%.

(PETER MANSFIELD)

1976,

[978.B.4.b]

al-Maktum.

The United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.)

in 1976 con-

economic development though there were some internal political disagreements. At a meeting in

United Kingdom

July the rulers of the emirates decided to extend the

A

interim constitution for another five years from Dec.

and member

tinued

2,

its

1976. In August President Sheikh Zaid intimated

constitutional

ain

pute by refusing to contribute to the federal budget, 50% of the revenues of which Abu Dhabi had under-

est.):

taken

in

November 1975

to

provide. In

May

the

seven emirates agreed to merge their armed forces and a parade of arms marked the U.A.E. 's fifth anniversary on December 12; later in the month, 1,500

U.A.E. troops were reportedly moved to Lebanon's frontier with Israel. Egypt looked to the U.A.E. for aid, and Egyptian Pres. Anwar as-Sadat visited the U.A.E. in February and June. Among development projects launched in

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Education. ( 1975-76) Primary, pupils 53,066, teachers 3,191; secondary, pupils 12,289, teachers 1,389; vocational, pupils 296, teachers 90; teacher training, students 118, teachers 8. Finance. Monetary unit: dirham, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a par value of 3.95 dirhams to U.S. $1 (free rate of 6.80 dirhams £1 sterling). Budget (federal;

=

1975-76 est.) balanced at 2,778,000,000 dirhams. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports c. 10,540,000,000 dirhams; exports c. 26,930,000,000 dirhams. Import sources (1974): Japan c. 18%; Qatar c. 14%; U.S. c. 14%; U.K. c. 14%; West Germany c. 5%; Kuwait c. 5%. Export destinations (1974): Japan c. 14%; West Germany c. 11%; U.K. c. 7%; U.S. c. 6%. Main export (1974) crude oil 98%. Industry. Crude oil production (1975) 81,825,000 metric tons.

in

Commonwealth

United Kingdom (England, Scotland, and Wales) and Northern Ireland, together with many small islands. Area:

run for a second term because of unsettled border disputes and lack of cooperation between member states. On October 12, however, an extraordinary session of the National Federal Council (Parliament) urged him to stay. Dubai caused a dishis unwillingness to

northwestern Europe of Nations, the comprises the island of Great Brit-

monarchy

of the

94,222 sq mi (244,035 sq km), including 1,174 sq mi crown dependencies

of inland water but excluding the

of the Channel Islands and Isle of

Man. Pop. (1975

and largest city: London (Greater London pop., 1975 est., 7,111,500). Language: English; some Welsh and Gaelic also are used. Religion: mainly Protestant with Catholic, Muslim, and Jewish minorities, in that order. Queen, Elizabeth II; prime ministers in 1976, Harold Wilson and, from 56,042,300.

Cap.

James Callaghan. Halfway through the prospective life of the Labour government elected in 1974 there was a change of prime minister when Harold Wilson (see Biography) decided to retire after reaching the age of 60 and was succeeded by James Callaghan (see Biography). The statement Wilson made to the CabApril

5,

Politics.

on March 16 set out his reasons for retiring, emphasizing that he had been prime minister for nearly eight years, that the burden of office was heavy, that there was a risk of going stale, and that it was right to make a change in good time. The Labour Party constitution provided for the inet

election of a

the votes of

House of Commons by Labour MP's and by the elimination of

new

leader in the

minority candidates in a succession of votes until one a clear majority. Six candidates for the leadership lined up for the first round with the following result:

had

Unions: see Industrial

Relations

Unitarian Churches: see Religion

United Church of

Canada: Religion

James Callaghan (centre) 84, see Roy Jenkins (right) 56, Anthony Benn (left) 37, United Church Christ: Denis Healey (centre) 30, Anthony Crosland (right) see Religion Michael Foot

(left) 90,

of

;

686

Healey (see Biography) chose to run again in which put Callaghan ahead with 141, leading Foot 133 and Healey 38 but without a clear majority. In a final third round, on April 5, Callaghan was elected leader by 176 votes to 137. In his reconstruction of the government Callaghan dropped some of the older stalwarts from the Cabinet, including Barbara Castle, Edward Short, William 17.

United Kingdom

the second round,

Ross, and

Bob Mellish

(at his

own

request). In the

new Cabinet Michael Foot became leader of the House of Commons, Anthony Crosland (see Biography) foreign secretary, Peter Shore secretary of state for environment, and Shirley Williams (see Biography) paymaster general (in addition to secretary for prices and consumer protection). An add tional small Cabinet reshuffle followed the announce;

in September that Roy Jenkins, home secretary Biography), was to become president of the Commission of the European Economic Community (eec). Merlyn Rees became home secretary, and Roy Mason, formerly defense secretary, took over from Rees as secretary of state for Northern Ireland; Shirley Williams became secretary for education and science, taking over from Fred Mulley, who became defense secretary; Fred Peart went to the House of Lords as its leader and was replaced by John Silkin as minister of agriculture, fisheries, and food. Reg

ment (see

Monty's last parade. The funeral cortege of Field Marshal Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, hero of North Africa in

World War

II,

heads toward Windsor

Prentice, minister for overseas development, resigned

on December 21 and was replaced by Frank Judd. Callaghan quickly imposed his own style on affairs. Whereas Wilson had been rather reticent and even self-effacing in later years, Callaghan was readier to

Castle for his state funeral in April.

initiate

a change of policy line, either

by

a

major

speech or on television. For example, he took the lead in opening up a wide-ranging debate on the quality of education, arguing at Oxford on October 18 that

it

had

to

be more purposefully directed toward

the training of basic skills.

He

startled

many

in the

government by detaching transport from the giant Department of the Environment and restoring it as an independent ministry. The Conservative opposition led by Margaret Thatcher continued to move further to the right of the political spectrum, incorporating monetarist doctrines into its financial and economic policy and adopting a hawkish stance on foreign affairs and

A

defense.

reconstruction of the so-called shadow

November confirmed

cabinet in

this

move

to

the

Reginald Maudling, a former Cabinet minister in the governments of Edward Heath, was dropped, and a number of aggressive younger men brought in. William Whitelaw, known as a moderate, remained deputy leader. John Davies, a strong pro-European, took over foreign affairs from Maudling. Some of the other leading figures included Sir Keith Joseph, right.

and a monetarist (policy and Howe (Treasury affairs) James Prior (employment) Francis Pym (devolution) Michael Heseltine (environment) and John the

party's

research)

theorist

Sir

;

Geoffrey

;

;

;

Biff en (industry).

The Liberal Party elected David Steel (see Biography) as its leader after the resignation on May 10 of Jeremy Thorpe, who had been leader since 1967. Thorpe had been at the centre of a controversy that had grown after allegations had been made in January during a court case (in which Thorpe was not involved) that he had had homosexual relations with a former male model

named Norman

Scott.

Thorpe

denied these allegations, and the Liberal parliamentary

party reaffirmed

its

support for him. However, a num-

ber of newspapers continued to investigate the allegations. Also in January, the report of an official inquiry into the collapse of the investment bank

and County

Securities, of

London

which Thorpe was a non-

executive director, was severely critical of the directors. While continuing to deny the Scott allegations,

Thorpe decided he must resign

for the sake of

his party.

Jo Grimond, Thorpe's predecessor as Liberal leader, was called back as a caretaker leader while arrangements were made to elect a successor, but refused to stay for more than a minimum interim period. The Liberals introduced a novel system of election by constituencies, with each constituency vote of Liberal

Party members weighted to take account of the number of Liberal votes cast in that constituency at the general election. There were two candidates, John

Pardoe and David Steel. The result announced on July 7 showed Steel elected by 12,541 votes to 7,032 for Pardoe.

Parliament. Labour found

House

of

two seats

Commons

its

majority in the

increasingly insecure after losing

on November 4. Earlier, in March and June, Labour had held

in by-elections

by-elections in

safe seats but with greatly reduced majorities. In November it lost two safe seats in the industrial areas

Workington and Walsall North with massive swings 22%. (The Walsall North seat had been vacated in August by of

of votes to the Conservatives of 13 and

—

John Stonehouse the MP who disappeared in 1974 and was later arrested in Australia after he was sentenced to seven years in prison on charges of theft, forgery, and fraud.) In a Parliament of 635 members, fox photos/ pictorial parade

—

and discounting the speaker and his three deputies who do not vote, this left Labour with 312 against 278 Conservative MP's, and the government could not always be sure which way the 41 members of smaller parties would vote. It could generally rely on the support of two Scottish Nationalists and two from Northern Ireland, while ten Ulster Unionists were likely to vote with the Conservatives. This left 13 Liberals, 11 Scottish Nationalists, and 3 Welsh Nationalists sometimes holding the balance. On issues of confidence the government could expect to survive (except, perhaps, on issues of devolution, which might concentrate the nationalists against it), but it could not guarantee to win every vote, particularly when it was liable to occasional defections. Though the so-called "Tribune group" on the left was the most numerous and therefore seemed to be the most threatening, it was the abstention of two right-wingers that wrecked a bill to give the dockers' union (Transport and General Workers) a monopoly of

all

side.

freight handling within five miles of the dockThis was one episode during November in a

flurry of

amendments made

to

government bills by House of Lords

the Conservative opposition in the

from Aug. 1, 1975, together with price controls, had reduced the annual rate of inflation by more than half, from a peak figure of 36% in June 1975 to 13.6% in December. In January 1976 the Price Commission issued its most optimistic report in 2^ years, and the prices minister, Shirley Williams, said that inflation should be down to single figures by the end of the year. For the first time in six months Britain's gold and currency reserves increased in January. Consumer spending was depressed, but personal savings were high. The minimum lending rate, at 9^% was at its lowest in more than two years. The stock market responded cheerfully, and on one day in January the Financial Times industrial index registered the largest one-day and one-week increases in its history, rising to over 400 early in January (as compared with 146 at the bottom of the stock market collapse a year earlier). The trade deficit had been improving steadily over the previous six months. The question early in the year seemed to be how the government could stimulate economic activity while inflation was still high, for the world trade recession plus stagnant demand at home had pushed up unemployment, to effect

1,372,000 in January.

At that stage

(where there was a permanent majority of Conservative peers).

Labour

rejecting the Lords' bills

Commons

little

was being

said about

two fac-

retaliated

by

amendments and returning

the

turned out, were about to go out of control. The Price Commission in its January report

endemic constibetween the two houses in

had noted that the main threat to a continuing reduction of the inflation rate would be a further decline

the

in

to the Lords. This raised

tutional issue of conflict

sharper terms than for

many

the

tors which, as

in the

years.

Constitution. In November 1975 the government postponed for another 12 months a decision on devolution of political power to Scotland and Wales in order to provide further time for discussion. Legislation was promised for the 1976-77 session opening in November, and the devolution bill was introduced

on November 30. It proposed elected assemblies and an executive for Scotland and Wales, but would not give them revenue-raising powers. Meanwhile, as devolution debate continued, doubts began to deepen on the one hand among those who were skeptical about the concept and its likely consequences for the future of the United Kingdom, while at the other extreme some of the nationalists were talking in terms the

of separatism.

The Economy. At the opening of 1976 the U.K. seemed to be climbing out of the nightmarish economic troubles of 1975. The pay ceilings that took

it

value of sterling. Through

November 1975

to

February the sterling exchange rate remained steady at about $2.02 to the pound. Then early in March sterling began to slide, and was in a state of continuing crisis for the remainder of the year. It was not clear what set off the flight from sterling in March, though a fortnight earlier a routine document, the White Paper "Public Expenditure to 1979-80," had been published. This showed that public expenditure (by the central government, local government, and public enterprise) had grown by 20% in volume in the previous three years, at a time when output had increased by only 2%, and was now accounting for 60% of the gross domestic product (gdp), as compared with 50% in 1972 and 42% in 1961. Government expenditure targets were then revised downward by £2,900 million but these cuts were to take effect only by 1978-79. At this point a group of Cambridge continued on page 690

UNITED KINGDOM Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 6,012,655, teachers 552, teachers 530, teachers teaching staff

247,127; secondary, pupils 4,491,262,791; vocational, pupils 381,67,692; higher, students 397,621, 52,947.

Finance. Monetary unit: pound sterling, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of £0.58 to U.S. $1 (U.S. $1.72 = £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $5,302,000,000. Budget ( 1976-77 est.): revenue £33,197 million; expenditure £39,915 million. Gross national product (1975) £103,190 million. Money supply (June 1976) £17,405 million. Cost of living (1970 = 100; June 1976) 213. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports £24,163 million; exports £19.929 million. Import sources: eec 37% (West Germany 8%, The Netherlands 8%, France 7%); U.S. 10%. Export destinations: eec 32% (West Germany 6%, France 6%, The Netherlands 6%, Belgium-Luxembourg

5%,

Ireland

5%);

U.S.

9%. Main

exports: non-

machinery 22%; chemicals 11%; motor 9%; electrical machinery and equipment 8%. Tourism (1974): visitors 7,935,000.

electric

vehicles

Transport and (1974) c. 366,000

Communications.

Roads

(including 1,879 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger c. 13,980,000; commercial c. 1,811,000. Railways (excluding Northern Ireland; 1974): 18,168 km; traffic 36,130,000,000 passenger-km, freight 24,168,000.000 net ton-km. Air traffic

km

(1975) 27,766,000,000 passenger-km; freight 852,514,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 3,622; gross tonnage 33,157,422. Ships entered (1970) vessels totaling 137,888,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1973) 56,157,000 metric tons, unloaded 221,043,000 metric tons. Telephones (March 1975) 20,342,500. Radio receivers (Dec. 1974) c. 38 million. Television licenses (Dec. 1975) 17,675,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): wheat 4,435; barley 8,436; oats 802; :

sugar, raw value c. 62 7; cabbages (1974) c. 772; cauliflowers (1974) c. 346; green peas (1974) c. 706; carrots (1974) 506; apples (1974) 365: dry peas 88; dry broad beans (1974) c. 215; tomatoes 114; onions c. 243;

potatoes 4,515:

hen's eggs 799; cow's milk c. 14,000; butter 40; cheese 228; beef and veal 1,216; mutton and lamb 260; pork 816; wool 32; fish catch 802.

Livestock (in 000; June 1975): cattle 14,641; sheep 28,125; pigs 7,471; poultry 136,249. Industry. Index of production (1970= 100; 1975) 101. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1975): coal 128,660; crude oil 1,600; natural gas (cu m) 34,216,000; manufactured gas (cu m; 1974) 7,806,000; electricity (kw-hr) 272,229,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): cement 16.891; iron ore (28% metal content) 4,490; pig iron 12,134; crude steel 20,157; petroleum products 86,640; sulfuric acid 3,166; fertilizers

(nutrient

content;

1974-75)

nitrog-

phosphate 429, potash 12; cotton fabrics (m) 405,000; woolen fabrics (sq m) 151,000; rayon and acetate fabrics (m) 503,000; passenger cars (units) 1,268; commercial vehicles (units) 378. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1975) 1,294.000 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1975) 310,enous

000.

885,

SPECIAL REPORT

THE

IRISH

QUESTION

was a growing conviction that British policy was now substantially influenced by the belief in a military solution to terrorism. This view was reinforced by the replacement, in September, of Merlyn Rees as secretary of state for Northern Ireland by the former U.K. defense minister, Roy Mason. The strong reaction to this appointment from the Social Democratic and Labour Party leader, Gerard Fitt, indicated that he felt it offered no a view shared by many possibility for new political solutions others. There was a third strand in the military argument, namely, that overall defense policies for Britain and Europe would be gravely threatened by political instability in Northern Ireland resulting from initiatives such as a British undertaking to withdraw, which might have disastrous results. Military containment, combined with the British Army's hope for an eventual victory over terrorism, thus became a major element in the Brit-

—

by Bruce Arnold i hp Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention came to an end on March 3, 1976. It had been elected ten months earlier, in May 1975, with "Loyalists" of the United Ulster Unionist Coali-

ish

government's thinking after the failure of the Northern Ire-

tion gaining 46 of the 78 seats. Predictably, the report it made to the British government was a demand for a return to majority

land convention to produce a power-sharing solution.

The report was not supported by minority representatives in Northern Ireland, and was therefore unacceptable to Britain. The last and weakest of Northern Ireland political assemblies

litical

rule.

was disbanded, and the 12

MP's

with a total populawith a representation of

six Ulster counties,

tion of just over 1.5 million,

were

left

in the British Parliament. Direct rule

was once again the only

from Westminster

The

strong military content of British policy called for po-

by the Northern Ireland secretary. This led no policy at all. But this was an unjust view of what was attempted in Northern Ireland dovetailing

to charges that there was, in effect,

during the period of political

The ending

Ireland.

independence of any type in Northern Ireland, little or no pressure for it within Britain, and only limited and uncertain pressure within the Republic of Ireland. What was most alarming for the Northern Ireland politicians, however, was the fact that within the province itself there was growing acceptance of direct rule from Britain as the most satisfactory option in the

that went

political

face of continuing violence. Since this was also the basis of the Republic's Northern Ireland policy, and since it was supported by the majority of people in Britain now that violence in British

had ceased to be part of the Irish Republican Army's terrorist program, there was little or no prospect for the rekindling of Northern Ireland political initiatives. Yet violence continued. The Protestant and Roman Catholic communities remained bitterly divided. The terrorist organizations showed no sign of abating their control over the communities and continued to use them as bases for launching further cities

terrorist attacks.

British Policy. In the wake of the convention's failure to produce a report offering any realistic prospect for workable political devolution in the North, British policy hardened against

The

government was increasingly influenced by pressures for devolution coming from Scotland and Wales and by the knowledge that a Northern Ireland solution, in terms of a devolved parliament, would establish precedents that could be embarrassing. But this was only one of many factors affecting the overall Northern Ireland policy. Militarily, the situation in the North had improved. Violence had been concentrated in the area of sectarian killings, which, to put it bluntly, had a local rather than a United Kingdom impact. The deaths of British Army personnel were at a militarily acceptable level. Numerically, they compared quite fainitiatives.

British

vourably with the general accident rate of the British training either in Britain or in

Army

in

West Germany, and Northern

Ireland offered valuable training experience in combating urban terrorism and civil disturbances.

The military aspects of the Northern Ireland problem should not be underestimated. In addition to the theory that an acceptable level of violence, in military terms, had been achieved, there Bruce Arnold

is

pendent, Dublin. 688

that followed the conven-

Rees's policy was to reestablish the Britishness of Northern

rule for the North.

This return to direct rule came about in an atmosphere of substantial change in political attitudes in Britain, in the Republic of Ireland, and among Northern Ireland politicians of all opinions. There was now no expectation of an early return to

any new

vacuum

Disappointing as it might be to politicians of widely differing views in both parts of Ireland, the. main direction of Merlyn tion.

parliamentary correspondent of the Irish Inde-

of internment, the restoration of law and

order, the effort to obtain convictions in courts, the treatment of terrorists as criminals, the

phasing out of special category status

for political prisoners were all aspects of a normalizing process

hand

in

hand with the

essential political reality of

went hand in hand with government commitment to devolved government for Northern Ireland, but the onus now was on the Northern politicians to come up with an acceptable formula. And if there was little prospect of Merlyn Rees helping in this, there was even less chance that his successor, Roy Mason, would play a positive role or that the U.K. prime minister, James Callaghan, would direct rule. In theory, the process also

a British

propose wider British Irish Policy.

The

initiatives.

national coalition government in the Re-

public of Ireland played a significant part in making this low-

key British policy possible. Foreign Minister Garret FitzGerald, who was primarily responsible for Northern Ireland policy, worked on the assumption that Northern Ireland Loyalist intransigence, while basically an attitude that had been necessary if the Loyalists were to retain power within the six Ulster counties, had fed on the fears of ordinary people at the threatening Republican noises coming from all the political parties in the South over the past half century. If the grounds for such fears could be reduced, in his opinion, the unity of Loyalist political feeling would begin to break up. New alignments would emerge, leading to the possibility of a form of political partnership that

would make devolved government

in

Northern Ireland once

again acceptable.

The Republic's

went no further than offering conand cooperation to people in the North, both Protestant and Catholic, combined with increased vigilance against terrorists and terrorist organizations south of the border. It was an approach fraught with difficulties, the most obvious being that it laid the coalition government open to the charge of doing nothing at all. The first major political action taken by the coalition after it came to power in March 1973 had been the Sunningdale initiative that led to the only Northern Ireland policy, then,

cern, understanding,

power-sharing administration. After so positive a start, to revert to a low-key and necessarily negative role in British-Irish relations was to invite criticism. The foreign minister and the min-

and telegraphs. Conor Cruise O'Brien, worked attitudes toward Northern Ireland, but they were relatively isolated within the Cabinet. The coalition government as a whole, partly through lack of confidence in what it was doing, partly because of old political

ister for posts

genuinely for a

new approach and new

ALAIN DEJEAN

— SYGMA

and by far the most important prerequisite for a workable Northern Ireland policy: true bipartisanship between itself and the previous government party, Fianna Fail, now in opposition. This would have been difficult but possible in 1973 and into 1974; by the fall of 1976 the possibility was no longer there. Without the general endorsement of Fianna Fail on all major issues affecting the relationship between the Republic and Northern Ireland, the coalition government was in no position to give practical expression to its concern, to extend the framework of understanding by consultation at political or official levels, or bitterness, failed to establish the first

to

engage in joint cooperative activities across the border. Worse the sequence of security moves undertaken by the coalition,

still,

with the object of strengthening

hand against subversives,

its

They were seen as a replacemeasures as a form of connivance

led to bitter political encounters.

ment

for

more

positive policy

;

with the military approach dominant in British policy; and as an attempt to discredit Fianna Fail on law-and-order grounds.

While privately dismayed at the direction policy was taking and aware of the damage it was doing both in the North and in

was powerless to prevent government and opposition. The making of it was too firmly in the hands of Prime Minister Liam Cosgrave and Defense Minister Patrick Donegan, both of them strong law-and-order men and both opposed to any sharing of Britain. Foreign Minister FitzGerald

the growing rift between

policy or responsibility with the opposition. Inevitably, the death of the British ambassador at the hands of terrorists in July

was

used as an excuse to bring in a state of emergency, special emergency powers of detention, and greatly increased sentences for terrorist offenses.

And

the rift

became

still

wider.

This introduction of an emergency package had the further effect of driving the Republic of Ireland toward much more

draconian and selective pressures on terrorists just when the whole trend of British policy in the North was toward the normal use of the police and the courts and the elimination of political status for extremists. It suggested less than adequate liaison

between the Republic and Britain.

It also suggested

an over-

reaction, for political reasons, to a situation in the Republic that, in spite

of certain specific events, could not be said to

emergency and seven-day detention. Conclusions. The main emphasis in this article has been on British policy and policy in the Republic of Ireland. It might appear that this is because, over the past six years, undue emphasis has been placed on the Northern Ireland politicians. But the reality was that in 1976, for the first time since the period of troubles began, the politicians of the North with the exception of the 12 who still had their seats at Westminster were reduced to the status of public representatives whose mandate belonged to the past and who had no place to exercise it. Although some people expressed relief at this, particularly in British political circles, it was an extremely dangerous development. It threw back on the terrorist organizations the onus of action and the assertion of power and control. A military campaign fought out within a virtual political vacuum still leaves that vacuum if and when the campaign ends. Even the most sanguine of militarists can find few examples of military campaigns against terrorism that succeeded without political concessions. In the Irish context, even if there should be justify a state of

—

—

further success in containing extremism, the political initiatives

would still have to be taken, and the belief that this could or would be done in the unlikely event that terrorism ended grew ever more faint. The simple restoration of the belief in a better political future in Northern Ireland in all of Ireland was the basic priority for those who still retained power: the British government and the government of the Republic.

—

A

—

There were growing doubts whether British policy in Northern Ireland had anything more to offer than a military solution. Politically, the British seemed to have run out of ideas, and the Irish themselves had nothing new to propose.

British soldier crouches in a Belfast doorway.

689

PETER

M»RLOW— SYGM*

and adding another £910 million to the national insurance payments made by employers from April 1977. The run on sterling was renewed in mid-September. This time the Bank of England decided to let the rate without support, but the

slide

minimum

lending rate

was raised to 13%. With Healey and others saying that the pound was undervalued it slipped back to $1.70 and below. Then on September 28, the day when Healey was setting out for the Commonwealth finance ministers' conference in Hong Kong and the annual meeting of the International Monetary Fund (imf) in Manila, the pound fell by 4.40 cents, at that time the biggest one-day decline ever recorded. Healey broke off his journey at London airport to return to the Treasury. The following day Britain applied for an imf loan of £2,300 million to stabilize sterling.

Yet worse was rising

money

Irish

women march

Ireland. Thirty thousand

Catholics and Protestants

took part

in this

Belfast

demonstration in August calling for an end to the slaughter.

continued from page 687

newspaper report,

was likely to be £3,250 million more than had been planned. This set the stage

hours

ture

in

1976-77

for the rest

of the year: an intermittent public debate about the actual level of public expenditure,

collapse

to cover the gap,

runaway governand a consequent

confidence in sterling, interacting in a

in

It

was

difficult to

partly

follow the course of events ex-

because

the

figures

by

inflation.

were however,

themselves

The general became reasonably clear. The fall in distorted

drift,

the sterling ex-

change rate increased the cost of imports and widened the balance of payments deficit. To shore up sterling, interest rates were increased, which in turn increased

government debt and the size of the govborrowing requirement. Higher interest rates and curbs on government spending held back economic recovery, which caused high levels of unemployment and thereby increased the cost of social security and the budget deficit. Higher import costs and interest rates added to domestic inflation, which led to a further decline in the exchange rate. Some of the key stages in this process could be the cost of

ernment's

noted. Sterling declined from $2.02 to $1.85 in the

weeks before the April budget. Healey introduced one novel feature in his budget; some small reductions in the income tax were made conditional on the labour unions agreeing to a 4\% limit up to a £4 per week ceiling on any pay increases. At the same time,

six

Healey increased the consumer taxes on gasoline, alcoholic beverages, and tobacco. His budget was designed to hold back inflation and also to provide for 4% annual growth that would rise to 5^% in following years. The Trades Union Congress agreed to pay limits of £4 a

Yet

week up

that time reports of still

to a ceiling of

5%

early in

sterling continued to fall, to $1.71

by

May.

the be-

ginning of June. At that time six months of standby credit from the Group of Ten (leading industrialized

was negotiated, and the level of sterling between $1.80 and $1.75 until mid-September. Meanwhile, on June 17 a White Paper, "The Attack on Inflation the Second Year," claimed that the

nations) settled

—

halving of the inflation rate since July 1975 "has set Britain on the road to recovery," but acknowledged that single-figure inflation could not be reached, as

intended, by the end of the year. A month later Healey submitted the July mini-budget, making additional expenditure cuts of about £1,000 million for 1977-78

sterling

dropped

7

cents in a few

touch $1.57. Later that week it drifted down to $1.56. This for the time being proved the low point. With the minimum lending rate raised to an unprecedented 15% on October 7 and with an imf team in London negotiating terms for the loan, confidence

began

now

financial chain reaction.

actly,

By

so unstable that on October 25, on the strength of a

University economists calculated that public expendi-

ment borrowing

come.

weakened confidence. The market had become

further for peace in Northern

to

supply, liable to refuel inflation, had

to

to recover, for

it

was plain that

sterling

was

undervalued. Sterling's role as a reserve currency,

with £6,000 million of sterling balances overhanging reserves that in October had fallen to a five-year low of around £3,000 million (at a $1.60 exchange rate),

was now a manifest embarrassment, and the prime minister said so. Discussions began for an international arrangement to fund the sterling balances. On December 15 Healey introduced an interim budget to meet the terms of the imf loan, with cuts of £2,500 million over the next two years in public spending, affecting defense, foreign aid, housing, food, and education, as well as increases in the price of tobacco, beer, spirits,

Labour

and

gas.

The budget was attacked by

the

left for its cuts in the area of social service.

On October 7 it was announced that Wilson would head a committee to inquire into -"the role and functioning, at home and abroad, of financial institutions in the United Kingdom and their value to the economy." This reflected widespread disquiet with the recent financial performance of the City of London. Severely critical reports appeared. In July the Department of Trade attacked Lonrho, the overseas trading conglomerate, criticizing the chief executive

Roland ("Tiny") Rowland, former chairman Lord Duncan-Sandys (an ex-Cabinet minister), and directors including Angus Ogilvy (married to Princess Alexandra, a cousin of the queen). In September a team of accountants reported on the collapses of Slater Walker Securities, whose chairman, Jim Slater (see Biography), had been replaced in October 1975 by the multimillionaire financier James Goldsmith (see Biography), and in November there was a Stock Exchange inquiry into stock dealings by Sir Hugh Fraser, chairman of the House of Fraser (the department store chain that owned Harrods) and of Scottish and Universal Investments (suits). From the latter probe it emerged that Fraser had sold 1.5 million shares to pay gambling debts. Industry and Trade. The sterling crisis became such an obsession that it diverted attention from more hopeful developments. Callaghan told the House of

Commons

in October, "the

pessimism

is

overdone."

He was

able to point to the fact that pay agreements were working in the second year of the social contract, and in 1976 the number of work stoppages in industry was the lowest since the 1950s. Exports were rising. At the lord mayor of London's banquet on November 15, a traditional occasion for a prime minister's keynote speech, Callaghan said that the industrial strategy (worked out during the year between government, trade unions, and industry on a new tripartite basis) was aimed at giving absolute priority to industrial needs even ahead of social objectives. He drew attention to the solid ground for confidence in the near future: North Sea oil, which would make Britain self-sufficient in energy by the early 1980s. Britain's biggest North Sea oil find, the Brent field, started production in November. Five other fields were already in production, yielding about 400,000 bbl a day, equivalent to a quarter of Britain's oil consumption. Exploration suggested that North Sea resources would be greater than earlier thought, putting Britain among the top ten oil producers in the world in the 1980s. North Sea gas was also being brought ashore in increasing quantities and earlier

than expected.

Climate. Parts of Britain

1976 suffered the

in

worst drought since weather records began in 1727,

and in some areas in the later part of the summer water supplies were severely restricted to both industrial and domestic users. Moreover, the parched, brown landscape was made desolate in the south and many other parts of Britain by leafless elms succumbing to the progress of Dutch elm disease. There was rationing of water in southwest England, south Wales, and parts of Yorkshire, and there were extensive heath and forest fires in August and September. The drought, which extended over Western Europe from the Scottish border to northern Italy, came as the climax to the driest five years in Britain since 1850. When it finally broke in September, nine weeks of exceptionally heavy rainfall followed, with October in

some places

in Britain the wettest on record. Foreign Affairs and Defense. Foreign policy and defense policy were increasingly centred on Europe. The withdrawal of British defense forces from bases east of Suez continued. Almost the whole of the Brit-

ish defense effort (costing £5,632 million in

1976-77, 5.5% of gross national product) was devoted to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (nato). The U.K. found that its membership in the eec was attracting greater benefits (especially in the cost of food) than the cost of its contributions. The government agreed to direct elections to a in

1978,

European Parliament

Britain having 81

seats

to

be held

out of 410.

The

former U.K. Cabinet minister Roy Jenkins was appointed president of the European Commission as of 1, 1977, and it was the turn of the British foreign secretary (Anthony Crosland) to be chairman of the

Jan.

Community Council

of Ministers for the first half of

1977.

The dispute with Iceland over

fishing limits led to

the breaking off of diplomatic relations.

Navy put

The Royal

was reluctantly involved in the gathering between Rhodesia and its African neighbours.

Britain conflict

On March

22 Callaghan (then foreign secretary) on Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith to accept the principle of majority rule, with elections to take place within two years. Smith rejected the British initiative, and U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (see Biography) then took on the role of intermediary. This led to the opening in Geneva on October 28 of a conference to agree on a settlement, with Britain's permanent representative at the UN, Ivor Richard, as chairman. (See African Affairs.) Northern Ireland. The so-called cease-fire of 1975 broke down in an escalation of sectarian violence, and the 1976 death toll of 296 was the highest since 1972. Among many violent incidents, two stood out: the assassination of Britain's newly appointed ambassador to Dublin, Christopher Ewart-Biggs (see Obituaries), when a land mine blew up his car near his Dublin residence on July 21; and the killing of Mrs. Maire Drumm (see Obituaries), a well-known leader of the Provisional Irish Republican Army, who was shot dead by Protestant gunmen in the Belfast hospital where she was being treated. The death of three small children who were run down by a gunman's car in Belfast prompted a wave of public protest, with a series of mass demonstrations by a women's peace movement set up in August by two Belfast women, Mrs. Betty Williams (a Protestant) and Miss Mairead Corrigan (a Roman Catholic). Prime Minister Callaghan, visiting Belfast in July, said that Northern Ireland would not cease to be part of the U.K. unless it was the clear wish of a majority, and he promised that the Army would remain as long as needed. The Royal Family. Arrangements were under way for silver jubilee celebrations on June 7, 1977, to called

mark

the 25th anniversary of the accession of

Elizabeth

II.

The queen and Prince

Queen

Philip visited the

U.S. on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. On March 19 it was announced that Princess Margaret and the earl of

Snowdon had "mutually agreed to live apart." There were no plans for divorce proceedings. (

See also Ireland.

Commonwealth

HARFORD THOMAS )

of Nations;

Dependent States;

[972.A.l.a]

United Nations Reporting in September to the General Assembly on United Nations activities during the previous year, Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim (whom the General Assembly on December 8 reelected by acclamation for a second five-year term) said that he was more than ever convinced that the was necessary, but also more worried than ever before at states' re-

UN

luctance or halfheartedness in using or developing the organization. The UN, he said, should not be just "a last resort in critical situations" or

"a repository for

and there

insoluble problems." Rather, the world needed an in-

were a number of incidents with Icelandic patrol boats involving 45 cases of collision. After Iceland had threatened to withdraw from nato, an agreement was reached on June 1 which restricted the number of British trawlers fishing in the Icelandic 200-mi limit to an average of 24 a day. Diplomatic relations were resumed, but a final settlement remained to be adjusted to the eec's own declaration of a 200-mi limit.

strument of cooperation "with sufficient international solidarity and prestige not to be ignored in dangerous times or thrown off balance by sudden controversies and confrontations."

in escorts

for British trawlers,

Southern Africa. Waldheim

issued several warn-

and possible bloodshed in southern Africa because South Africa had refused to give independence to Namibia (South West

ings in 1976 of escalating crises

692

Africa) and white Rhodesians had refused to grant

and the U.S.

United Nations

majority rule to indigenous blacks, who outnumbered them by a ratio of 20 to 1. The secretary-general's

action;

point was illustrated in January,

when

Zaire com-

fighting in plained that "Soviet-Cuban forces Angola" threatened its sovereignty, territorial integrity, and security, and again, on March 31, when the Security Council voted 9-0, with five abstentions (France, Italy. Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and China not participating, to condemn South Africa for aggression against Angola and demanded that the republic desist from using the "in.

.

.

Namibia to mount provocative or aggressive acts" against Angola or any other African state. The abstaining council members cha r ternational Territory of

acterized the resolution as unbalanced in not calling for

all

states to refrain

from interfering

in

Angola,

especially since, at the time, no South African troops

—

were on Angolan territory they had all been withdrawn by March 27 but Cuban soldiers were. Indeed, on June 23 the U.S. vetoed Angola's application for UN membership, arguing that Angola did not yet meet UN Charter requirements because of the continuing "massive" presence and "apparent influence"

—

of

Cuban troops

in the country. In deference to Afri-

can desires to see Angola in the

UN,

resolutions directed against South Africa:

reaffirm-

ing the right of the people of South Africa to struggle

by

all

means

for "the seizure of

power" and the exercondemning

cise of their right to self-determination; call

it

agencies of the United Nations, including the International Atomic

Energy Agency and the

UN

Industrial

Development Organization.

measures

governments,

that

specialized

agencies,

churches, trade unions, and other organizations might take against South Africa

;

establishing a drafting

com-

mittee to prepare an international convention against apartheid in sports; excoriating South Africa for "ruthless repression ... of the oppressed people of South Africa and other opponents of apartheid"; reaffirming solidarity with South African political prisoners and demanding their immediate and unconditional release; and asking states to contribute more generously to the UN trust fund for Africa, which provides humanitarian assistance to victims of dis-

criminatory legislation.

Votes opposing or abstaining on these resolutions were cast mainly by Western states, but also by some Latin-American and African countries. These UN members generally condemned apartheid, but argued that ending all contacts with South Africa was not an effective way to oppose racial separation, that apartencouraging violence was wrong, and that condemning particular countries was unwarranted. During 1976 related Security Council actions directed against South Africa were sometimes frustrated by permanent council members with the right of veto. Thus, on October 19, the council did not adopt a resolution calling for a mandatory arms embargo against South Africa for having rejected council initiatives to transfer power to the people of Namibia. Ten members of the 15-member body wished to adopt the resolution, but France, the U.K., and the U.S. did not and Japan and Italy abstained. The three states voting no told the council that although they were in fact denying arms to South Africa, they regarded the

came to a climax on November 9, when the 31st annual assembly, by large majorities, adopted various

These new buildings on the north bank of the Danube in Vienna will house

Africa in 1977 on the problem and suggesting interim

heid could not properly be treated as a colonial situa-

heid

City.

against apartheid to organize a world conference in

however, the

ated agencies against South African policies of apart-

UN

bringing to an end further foreign investments in South Africa; authorizing its special committee

when the Security Council reconsidered Angolan membership on November 22, and Angola became the 146th member of the UN when the assembly admitted it on December 1. Year-long protests by many UN organs and affili-

U.S. abstained

Austrians

to reconsider their opposition to such requesting the council to consider ways of

any collaboration with the republic as "a hostile act against the oppressed people of South Africa" and as "contemptuous defiance" of the UN and especially singling out France, West Germany, Israel, the U.K., and the U.S. as offenders; scoring Israel for "continuing and increasing collaboration with the South

tion, that

when U.S. Secretary of Henry A. Kissinger had. in private talks with

resolution as inappropriate

State

South African

officials,

pects for achieving

UN

opened up diplomatic prosgoals for Namibia. Supporters

African racist regime"; urging the Security Council

of the draft resolution generally argued that, far from

impose a mandatory arms embargo against South Africa and specifically requesting France, the U.K.,

meeting

to

UN

tensifying

demands, South Africa was actually inand repressive grip" on Namibia

its "illegal

and had used the territory gression

against

as a springboard for ag-

neighbours;

they

insisted

that

stronger pressure on South Africa was needed.

Early in the year border incidents were reported between Mozambique and Rhodesia, but on the weekend of August 7-8 Rhodesian forces attacked deep in-

Mozambique, an action Waldheim condemned and admitted violation by force of the sovereign territory of a member state." The secretaryside

as a "clear

general also deplored the fate of hundreds of persons

wounded. Middle East. Like the problems

killed or

of "Africa, prob-

lems of the Middle East commanded the attention of groups during the year and culminated in many council and assembly debates. On July 14 the council concluded a four-day debate on Israel's raid of July 3-4 on Entebbe airport, Uganda, where Israeli troops rescued 103 passengers and crew of a hijacked French

UN

airbus tage.

whom

The

Palestinian terrorists were holding hos-

council turned aside without vote an African

draft resolution which

would have condemned the Ugandan sovintegrity and would have de-

Israeli action as a flagrant violation of

ereignty and territorial WIDE WORLD

manded compensation

for

damage and

destruction.

A

U.K.-U.S. draft condemning aerial hijacking and calling for measures to prevent and punish all such terrorist acts, while reaffirming the need to respect territorial integrity and sovereignty of all states, received only six of the nine votes required for approval. On November 29 the assembly endorsed recom-

mendations of its committee on Palestinian rights that Israel withdraw completely by June 1, 1977, from areas it had occupied in 1967. Under the resolution, the UN would take over evacuated territories and, in cooperation with the Arab League, hand them over to the Palestine Liberation Organization

(plo) as the

representative of the Palestinian people. As soon as an independent Palestinian entity had been established, the UN would arrange to give effect to the rights of the Palestinian people. The assembly urged the council to consider these recommendations and to put them into effect as soon as possible. In the assembly voting, the permanent council members took divergent positions: China and the U.S.S.R. voted in favour, the U.K. and U.S. against, and France abstained. Chaim Herzog of Israel denounced the resolutions as reflecting the plo position and as conflicting with council decisions. Israel, he said, would not be dictated to and insisted on direct negotiations among the parties concerned. The assembly also adopted resolutions on Palestinian refugees that emphasized the serious financial problems of the UN Relief and Works Agency, called on all governments to contribute generously to the agency, and also urged continuing assistance to the refugees.

The assembly,

:

;

distribute funds for projects designed to assist states

most seriously affected by economic crises. Other Matters. Two international covenants on human rights, adopted in 1966, came into force during 1976, the economic and social covenant on January 3 and the political and civil on March 23. UN membership rose to 147 during the year with the admission of the Seychelles (September 21), Angola (December 1), and Western Samoa (December 17). The U.S. vetoed the admission of Vietnam on November IS. (richard n. swift) [S22.B.2]

United States

in

addition, reaffirmed the right of the displaced inhabi-

homes or to camps in occupied and called on Israel to facilitate the return. responded by saying that the existing security

tants to return to their territory Israel

emergency food needs of people affected by calamUN Conference on Trade and Development ended its fourth session in Nairobi, Kenya, on May 31, after approving an integrated commodity program seeking both to stabilize and increase the earnings of less developed countries and also to promote their exports of manufactured products to industrial ones; the two-week-long UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat) in Vancouver, B.C., approved on June 11 a blueprint for national and international action to improve the living places of peoples (see Environment Special Report) a working group on corrupt practices began work in November in an effort to elaborate a treaty to prevent and eliminate all illicit payments in international commercial transactions; and the UN Special Fund continued to solicit and ities; the

situation did not permit large-scale returns of dis-

placed persons, and, in the case of the Gaza Strip,

The United States of America is a federal republic composed of 50 states, 49 of which are in North America and one of which consists of the Hawaiian Islands. Area: 3,615,122 sq mi (9,363,123 sq km), including 78,267 sq mi of inland water but excluding the 60,306 sq mi of the Great Lakes that lie within

charged that the assembly was asking it to return refugees from decent housing provided by Israel to the "wretched" conditions of Gaza Strip camps. In a statement adopted by consensus on November

U.S. boundaries. Pop. (1976 est.): 215,135,000, including 87% white and 11.5% Negro. Language:

Council "strongly deplored" measures had taken altering the demographic composition

thodox 3.7 million. Cap.: Washington, D.C. (pop., 1975 est., 716,000). Largest city: New York (pop., 1975 est., 7,567,900). President in 1976, Gerald

11, the Security

Israel

or geographic nature of the Israeli-occupied tories, particularly

by

terri-

establishing settlements. Such

measures, the council stated, had "no legal validity"

and constituted "an obstacle to peace." The council once again asked Israel to ensure the safety, welfare, and security of the inhabitants of the territories and to help those who had fled since the outbreak of hostilities to return. It also asked Israel to comply with the Geneva Convention on the Protection of Civilians in Wartime and to rescind all measures tending to change the legal status of Jerusalem. The statement followed public debate and private consultations on Egypt's complaint earlier in the month that Israel was creating an explosive situation in the occupied territories.

ment

Ambassador Herzog

cited the consensus state-

example of the "biased selectivity, onesidedness, and political expediency" that, he said, characterized the council's approach to the issues. It was unacceptable, he continued, because it ignored the root of the problem the unwillingness of the Arab states to negotiate peace with Israel. Economic Affairs. Among major economic and social actions in 1976, UN observers noted that the World Food Program, meeting in Rome in April, committed $600 million to support projects of economic and social development and $40 million to help meet as an

—

English. Religion (1974 est.)

Roman

:

Protestant 72.5 million;

Catholic 48.7 million; Jewish 6 million; Or-

Rudolph Ford. Domestic Affairs. After an absence the Democratic Party

won

of eight years,

control of the

White House

Jimmy

Carter (see Biography) defeated Republican incumbent Gerald Ford (see Biography) in the

as

November

2

presidential election.

The Democrats,

in

addition, retained their grip on Congress with sizable

House of Representaand the Senate. Republicans suffered a net loss of one governorship to the Democrats, reducing their total to 12. But the gop did come up with some prommajorities of seats in both the tives

ising

new

winner

faces, led

by James Thompson, a runaway

in the Illinois gubernatorial election.

Carter's margin of victory over Ford was relatively narrow in terms of both popular and electoral votes. The Democratic nominee polled 40.8 million votes nationwide, while Ford received 39.1 million. Carter carried 23 states and the District of Columbia, with a combined total of 297 electoral votes, while Ford

took 27 states with 241 electoral votes. (Ford's total in the Electoral College fell to 240 when one elector

from Washington State voted for former California governor Ronald Reagan.) As expected, Carter scored an almost complete sweep of his native South, and he also

won

the populous states of

New

York, Ohio, and

OWEN FRANKEN — SYGMA I

Massachusetts received considerable publicity for its rejection of a proposed statewide ban on handguns. California's Proposition 14, another nationally pub-

694

United States

ballot

licized

lost by 62 to 38%. The by Cesar Chavez and the United

initiative,

proposition, favoured

Farm Workers, would have

established an independent farm labour relations board. Federal Legislation. Taxes, jobs, and congressional spending goals emerged as the key election-year issues. Congress approved the most sweeping taxstate

bill in seven years, an important feature of which extended personal and business income-tax cuts passed in 1975. Congress also left its mark on federal spending plans. In a surprisingly smooth exercise of its new budget powers, it set a spending limit of $413.1 billion in the fiscal year that began October 1, about $19 billion more than Ford had proposed in January. A $10 billion reduction in the president's $28 billion package of tax cuts offset part of the budget

revision

increase.

While leaving proposed defense spending virtually Congress decided to spend more than the president wanted on domestic programs and new jobcreation efforts. Despite two presidential vetoes, it successfully insisted on a new public-works job program. A state and local public-service jobs program intact,

won

a one-year extension.

Ford continued

his free use of the veto power.

He

issued IS vetoes during the 1976 session, and only 4

were overridden. The president claimed that his vetoes since taking office in August 1974 had saved taxpayers $9 billion. The Ford-Congress deadlock had practical effects on legislative proposals. Given Ford's opposition, Congress decided not to consider national health insurance proposals. lation creating a federal

even though the

The Two weeks after his defeat in the November election, Pres. Ford received Jimmy Carter at the White House. While the men talked, Mrs. Carter looked over the living quarters upstairs.

bill

A

veto threat stalled legis-

consumer protection agency

had passed both houses.

president's proposals to trim federal costs and

red tape fared no better. Congress ignored Ford's proposals to set

up

state "block grant"

programs and

fields of health, education, child nutrition,

in the

social

His proposed increases in Social Security payroll taxes and payments by elderly patients under Medicare proved immediately unpopular in Congress. Several administration-backed energy bills never made services.

Pennsylvania. Ford's strength was concentrated

in the

Far West. Political analysts generally credited Carter's close victory to traditionally heavy pro-Democratic margins among blacks and members of organized labour. {See Special Report: The 1976 Presidential

it

to the president's desk.

As always, though, there were some compromises. veto, for instance, congressional sponsors

Election.)

After a

While Ford's defeat was deeply disappointing to Republicans, the gop failure to make significant gains in the House stunned party strategists who had expected a substantial comeback from the Democratic landslide in the Watergate year of 1974. Instead, the gop carried only 143 districts, two fewer than in 1974. The Republicans fared better in the Senate races, but only by virtue of holding their own. The composition of the Senate was unchanged, with 62 Democrats and 38 Republicans, but 18 were freshmen, the largest number of newcomers in any Congress in the past 18 years. Nine of the new senators defeated incumbents, and eight took the seats of senators who declined to run for reelection. Gov. Wendell Anderson (Dem., Minn.) was appointed to replace Sen. Walter Mondale {see Biography), who was elected vice-president. A number of issues on state ballots attracted nationwide attention. One of the most publicized votes was New Jersey's approval of a constitutional amendment to establish and regulate gambling casinos in

more than $2 billion from the public works jobs bill. The more traditional pressures of time, lobby-

Atlantic City.

was

The

state's

share of casino revenues

to be used to help disabled

and elderly persons.

first

cut

ing, fear of

campaign repercussions, and internal

dis-

putes laid other proposals to rest for the year. They included an ambitious plan to overhaul the nation's

banking industry, strip-mining legislation, and a reworking of the food stamp program. Highly controversial oil company divestiture, gun control, and criminal code revision bills never made it to the floor. Congress did complete work on a number of longpending measures in such fields as health and moved to strengthen legislative oversight of foreign arms sales and U.S. intelligence operations. Other legislation winning final approval included a "government in the sunshine" bill requiring federal agencies to open their proceedings to the public.

The

federal revenue-

sharing program got a last-minute lease on

life,

but

amendments to the 1970 Clean Air Act were killed. Congressional Scandals. A number of scandals concerning ethics, several involving sex, proved embarrassing to Congress in 1976. The most sensational disclosures led to the downfall of Rep. Wayne L. Hays

695

(Dem., Ohio), chairman of the powerful House Ad-

House he had had a

ministration Committee. In a speech on the floor

on

May

25,

Hays admitted

that

"personal relationship" with Elizabeth

raphy),

member

a

Ray

United States

(see Biog-

of the committee's staff.

Hays

however, that he had hired Ray for the $14,000-a-year job solely so that she could be his denied,

mistress.

The Washington Post had carried the first report of Hays's affair with Ray in its editions of May 23. Ray was quoted as saying that Hays had hired her to be his mistress. She denied having the secretarial skills required for the job, saying, "I can't type, I can't

file,

even answer the phone." When the story first broke, Hays denied having any intimate relationship with Ray, but in his House speech, he said he had "committed a grievous error in not presenting all the facts" of the matter. The relationship, he said, occurred after he had been separated from his first wife and before he married his second wife. Ray had not been hired, Hays said, on condition that she sleep with him; the sexual relationship, he insisted, had been "voluntary on her part and on mine." By admitting to his affair with Ray, Hays apparI

can't

ently hoped to deflect any

move by

other

Queen Elizabeth II was made an honorary citizen of New York by Mayor Abe Beame during her bicentennial tour of the U.S. in July.

Photo shows them in

Prince Philip stands to the left of the queen.

But the stratagem failed. Under pressure from senior House Democrats, Hays resigned his chairmanships of the Administration Committee and the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee. On August 13 he

Waggonner was

released without formal charges be-

cause of a District of Columbia police practice, since

announced that he would not seek reelection. Finally, on September 1, two days after the House Select Committee on Standards of Official Conduct voted unanimously to hold public hearings on the allegations against him, he resigned from the House "effective

revised,

that prohibited

the

arrest

of

members

of

Congress on misdemeanour charges while Congress was in session. No official House action was taken against Waggonner or Young or against Rep. Allan Howe (Dem., Utah), who was convicted on July 23 of soliciting sex for hire from two undercover Salt Lake City policewomen. A Department of Justice spokesman announced on August 16 that an investigation had uncovered no evidence to support Gardner's al-

immediately."

The Hays scandal

Washington

at Federal Hall.

bers to censure or take disciplinary action against him.

number of House members.

directed attention to a

other sex-related accusations against

front of the statue

of George

House mem-

Former House aide Colleen Gardner charged that her employer, Rep. John Young (Dem., Texas), had kept her on the House payroll primarily to have sex with

Young. Howe was defeated in his campaign, while Waggonner and Young

legations regarding reelection

New York Post reported that Rep. Joe D. Waggonner, Jr. (Dem., La.), had been arrested in Washington, D.C., on a charge of soliciting a police decoy for purposes of prostitution. him, and the

were reelected. The most pervasive congressional scandal of the year centred on money rather than sex. It began in December 1975, when a special committee of the Gulf

UNITED STATES Education. Primary

(1975-76), pupils

25,-

405,249, teachers 1,171,695; secondary and vocational (1974-75), pupils 15,447,000, teachers c. 1,083,000; higher (including teacher training colleges; 1974-75), students 9,023,446, teaching staff c. 633,000. Finance. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of U.S. $1.72 to £1 sterling. Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) $14.7 billion. Federal budget (1976-77 est.): revenue $351 billion; expenditure $394 billion. Gross national product ( 1975) $1,516,300,000,000. Money supply (June 1976) $295.4 billion. Cost of living: (1970 = 100; June 1976) 146.

Foreign Trade. ( 1975) Imports $103,414,000,000; exports (excluding military aid exports of $461 million) $107,191,000,000. Import sources:

Canada 23%; Japan 12%: West Germany 6%. Export destinations: Canada 20%; Japan 9%; West Germany 5%; Mexico 5%. Main exports: machinery

nonelectrical

(wheat

5%) motor ;

20%;

vehicles

9%

cereals :

chemicals

11%

8%

;

machinery and equipment 7%; aircraft 6%. Tourism (1974): visitors 14,123,000; gross

electrical

receipts $4,034,000,000.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 6,126,564 km (including 61,936 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger commercial (including 104,269,700;

buses)

km;

23,699,200.

Railways

(1974):

332,746

(class I only; 1974) 16,629,000 passenger-km, freight 1,246,652,000,000 net ton-km. traffic

Air traffic (1975): 262,137,000,000 passenger-km (including domestic services 218,835,000,000 pasfreight 8,555,942,000 net ton-km (including domestic services 5,670,396,000 net ton-km). Inland waterways freight traffic (1974) 523,000,000,000 ton-km (including 184,000,000,000 ton-km on Great Lakes system). Shipping ( 1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 4,346; gross tonnage 14,586,616. Ships entered (including Great Lakes international service;

senger-km)

;

1973) vessels totaling 253,931,000 net registered goods loaded (1975) 245,735,000 metric unloaded 399,2 53,000 metric tons. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 143,430,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) 368.6 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 1 10 million. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): corn 146,487; wheat 58,074; oats 9,535; barley 8,340; rye 454; rice 5,789; sorghum 19,265; soybeans 41,406; dry beans 780: dry peas c. 166; peanuts 1,750; potatoes 14,323; sweet potatoes (1974) 606; onions 1,425; tomatoes 8.620; sugar, raw value 6.058; apples (1974) 2,900: pears (1974) 645; oranges (1974) 8,740; grapefruit (1974) 2,428; lemons (1974) 641; peaches (1974) 1,415; grapes (1974) 3,805;

tons; tons,

sunflower seed c. 400; linseed 3 70; tobacco 990; cotton, lint 1,813; butter 443; cheese 1,588; hen's c. 3,769; beef and veal (1974) 10,601; pork (1974) 6,203; timber (cu m; 1974) c. 336,866; fish catch (1974) 2,744. Livestock (in 000; Jan. 1975): cattle 131,826; sheep 14,538; pigs 55,062; horses (1974) 8,984; chickens 383,579. Industry. Index of production (1970 100; 1975) 107; mining 97; manufacturing 107; electricity, gas, and water 120; construction 87. Unemployment (1975) 8.5%. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1975): coal 568,158; lignite 18,174; crude oil 412,019; natural gas (cu m) 567,415,000; manufactured gas (cu m) 25,460,000; electricity (kw-hr) 1,999,676,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): iron ore (5560% metal content) 81,351; pig iron (1974) 89,281; crude steel 105,911; cement (shipments) 58,348; newsprint 3,110; other paper (1974) 49,215; petroleum products ( 1974) 591,561; sulfuric acid 27,750; caustic soda 8,422; plastics and resins c. 8,160: synthetic rubber 1,941: fertilizers (including Puerto Rico; nutrient content; 1974-75) nitrogenous 8,621, phosphate 6,049, potash 2,090: passenger cars (units) 6.713: commercial vehicles (units) 2,2 72. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1975) 1,006,000 gross tons. New dwelling units started (1975) 1,166,000.

eggs

=

696

Oil Corp.

United States

reported to the Securities and Exchange

Commission

that Gulf over the previous decade had

contributed more than $5 million in corporate funds to the campaign efforts of members of Congress. Those named included some of the most influential legislators, among them Senate Minority Leader Hugh illegally

Scott (Rep., Pa.). At least two House members, James Jones (Dem., Okla.) and H. John Heinz III (Rep., Pa.), publicly admitted having received illegal Gulf contributions, although both denied knowing the nature of the

money

at the

time

it

was received. Conany other

gress took no action against those three or

members implicated in the case. The House did, however, vote on July 29

mand Rep. Robert

to repri-

(Dem., Fla.) for financial misconduct. Sikes was accused of failing to disclose ownership of 1,000 shares of stock in Fairchild Industries, a major defense contractor, and of using his position for personal gain in a matter of more than $2,500 worth of stock in the First Navy Bank in Florida. It was further alleged that Sikes, chairman of the

L. F. Sikes

House Military Construction Appropriations

Subcommittee, had used his office on three occasions to advance the interest of companies in which he held stock. Sikes

A

federal

was reelected to office. grand jury began hearing testimony dur-

ing the year concerning the operations of the South

Korean Central

Intelligence

U.S. Allegations had been

Agency (kcia)

made

in

the

that officers of the

kcia and affiliated South Koreans had offered bribes and favours to congressmen in exchange for continued U.S. support of the regime of South Korean Pres. Park Chung Hee. A major subject of the investigation was Park Tong Sun, also known as Tongsun Park, a wealthy businessman who lived in Washington, D.C., and became known for entertaining government officials at lavish parties. Other figures in the investigation were Pak Bo Hi, head of the Korean Cultural and Freedom Foundation, and Suzy Park Thomson, Korean-born aide to House speaker Carl Albert; Thomson was granted immunity by the grand jury. The kcia denied that it had attempted to influence U.S. policy illegally. In November the agency ordered Park Tong Sun to stay out of the U.S. indefinitely and A

flotilla

of sailing

ships from

many

countries

later asked a

number

Seoul. Maj. Gen.

of its U.S. officers to return to

Kim Yung Hwan,

the Washington,

gathered in New York Harbor to help the U.S.

D.C., station chief, agreed to return, but another

celebrate

cial,

its

Bicentennial.

Kim Sang Keun,

Here one of them greeted by a salvo

his defection to the U.S.

from a

of the 70,000-member

is

fireboat.

offi-

refused the order and announced

Meanwhile, several leaders in Los An-

Korean community

geles charged that the

timidating" those in the

kcia was "systematically incommunity who were critical

of President Park.

One

was concerned with the officials were questioned about alleged attempts by two U.S. representatives, Otto Passman (Dem., La.) and Robert Leggett (Dem., Calif.), to influence departmental decisions involving rice and other export programs. Both Passman and Leggett denied the allegations. Lockheed Bribes. U.S. government officials were by no means the only recipients of illegal or improper donations. Exxon, Northrop, and Gulf Oil corporations and the United Brands Co. were among those that admitted funneling large amounts of cash to officials of foreign governments and then hiding the transactions from their shareholders and directors. But the clandestine overseas payments of Lockheed Aircraft Corp. attracted the most attention, because of the amount of money and the prominence of the perline of the investigation

U.S. Department of Agriculture, usda

sons involved.

The Lockheed

scandal began to unfold in August

1975 when the company admitted, after months of denials, that ticians

and

it

had paid

officials of

at least $22 million to poli-

foreign governments since 1970

to win lucrative aerospace contracts. Even then, Lockheed fought hard to protect the identities of those who got the money, saying that disclosure could have a serious adverse effect on the company's present backlog and "could result in a material adverse impact with respect to the company's future operations." Lockheed's apprehensions were well founded. Sub-

poenaed company documents, made public in February 1976 by the Senate Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, showed that Lockheed had secretly paid $7.1 million in cash to Yoshio Kodama (see Biography), a Japanese businessman who had served three years

The

in

prison following

ostensible purpose of the payoff

the sale of Lockheed's L-1011

World War II. was to promote

commercial

jetliner

to Japan.

Sensational as the Kodama disclosures were, greater shocks were yet to come. Former Japanese prime minister Kakuei

Tanaka

(see

Biography) was

ar-

rested on July 27 and charged with having accepted Lockheed money that had been brought illegally into

Japan during his term of office. Other Japanese who were indicted on charges of having accepted Lockheed bribes included a former transportation minister, a former vice-minister of transportation, and 13 businessmen. Justice Minister Osamu Inaba said on October 15 that 14 members of the Diet also had received cash payments from Lockheed in amounts ranging from $3,300 to $50,000, but he declined to name them. As the months passed, the Lockheed payoff scandal came to be known as "Japan's Watergate." It was the central issue in the national elections on December 5, in which the ruling Liberal-Democratic Party suffered a net loss of 16 seats. Testimony before the Senate Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations also indicated that a "high official" in The Netherlands was the re-

government

cipient of a $1.1 million gift to aid sales.

that

Lockheed Aircraft

The Dutch Cabinet soon afterward confirmed Prince Bernhard (see Biography), Queen Ju-

husband, was the person suspected of having taken the money. Prime Minister Joop den Uyl, in a television appearance soon after the government announcement was released, said that the Cabinet would

liana's

set

up an independent commission to investigate the

HENRI BUREAU — SYGMA

The commission's

August 26, sharply chastised Bernhard for being "extremely imprudent and unwise" in his dealings with Lockheed. Although it found no firm evidence that the prince had taken the money, the commission stated that he had "allowed himself to be tempted to take initiatives which were completely unacceptable." Bernhard resigned virtually all of his many military and business posts the day the report was released. In all, Lockheed was accused of having paid bribes in at least IS countries, including Italy, Sweden, Turkey, West Germany, and Australia. Not all of the allegations withstood scrutiny, and in some countries the bribe reports stirred only moderate interest. But the whole tangled episode raised disturbing questions about the manner in which U.S.-based multinational companies do business abroad. Because the distinction between a sales commission and a bribe is not always easy to draw, attempts to outlaw payoffs by legislation probably would have only limited effectiveness. Disallegations.

report, issued

couraging corporate bribery of foreign

officials

none-

by the spontaneous A parade cf covered and patriotic comments of the wagons assembles

celebrations on July 4 were struck

was clearly in the national interest, for the improper activity by a powerful U.S. firm could im-

singing, flag-waving,

with friendly governments. Death Penalty Revival. For more than a decade, the death penalty had been under attack in state and federal courts as being in violation of the Constitution's ban on "cruel and unusual" punishment. Largely

U.S. was experiencing a "resurgence of spirit" after

as a result of the litigation,

no one had been executed In a group of decisions handed down on July 2, the Supreme Court upheld the death penalty as a legitimate punishment for murder. The

Elizabeth

in the U.S. since 1967.

She presented a

theless

peril U.S. relations

court stated that capital punishment

permissable so

is

long as the jury or judge

who

receives enough guidance

and information

gives out the sentence to

be able

make a sound, nonarbitrary decision. (See Law.) The court's opinion was seen as opening the way for to

execution of at least some of the prisoners on the nadeath rows. By far the most publicized such

tion's

prisoner was

Utah,

Gary Gilmore, convicted

who became

murder in by insisting

of

a celebrity of sorts

that his execution be carried out as scheduled. (See

Crime and Law Enforcement.) Space Achievements. Although the glamorous days of manned landings on the Moon were over, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (nasa) again scored a triumph in 1976 by successfully placing two unmanned spacecraft on Mars. The first craft, Viking 1, touched down July 20 and the second, Viking 2, touched down on September 3. Both sent

back spectacular colour photographs, nasa also provided a glimpse of space feats to come when it unveiled the first space shuttle orbiter at Palmdale, Calif., on September 17. The shuttle was designed to ferry

men and equipment between

the Earth and

space. Suborbital test nights were to begin in 1977.

(See Space Exploration.)

of Independence, and the nation celebrated the occasion with a year-long series of parades, concerts, fire-

tive events.

art exhibitions,

The most

and other commemora-

spectacular was Operation Sail,

during which 53 warships from 22 countries and 16 tall ships square-rigged sailing vessels more than

—

100

ft in

length from

all

parts of the world

—passed

in

in New York Harbor and the Hudson crowd estimated at six million persons watched from the shore or from pleasure boats. Many who observed Operation Sail and other bicentennial

review July 4 River.

A

more than a decade of war and political turmoil. In honour of the Bicentennial, a number of foreign heads of state and of government visited the U.S. in 1976. The most eagerly awaited was Britain's Queen II,

who

Liberty Bell, as

arrived in Philadelphia on July

6.

same foundry as the a bicentennial gift from the British

bell, cast in the

to the American people. She, said in a speech that the Fourth of July had "taught Britain a very valuable lesson: 'To know the right time, and the manner of " yielding what is impossible to keep.' Foreign Affairs. Keeping the peace in the Middle East was, as usual, a major concern of U.S. foreign policy officials in 1976. The country's principal aim in that troubled area was to bring an end to the bitter civil war in Lebanon and to discourage outside intervention in the conflict. After a meeting at the White House on March 30, President Ford and King Hussein of Jordan issued a joint appeal for a truce in Lebanon and stressed the need for "a basic political solution." U.S. ambassador to Lebanon Francis E. Meloy, Jr. (see Obituaries), and his economic counselor, Robert 0. Waring, were shot to death in Beirut on June 16. Two days later, the U.S. embassy in Beirut "strongly urged" all remaining U.S. citizens in Lebanon to leave the country. The U.S. Navy evacuated 110 Americans and 166 persons of 25 other nationalities from Beirut on June 20. Al-Fatah, the Palestinian guerrilla group, provided escorts for the civilians assembling on the Beirut beach. The U.S. sent a message through a third

party thanking the Palestinian leadership, the State Department confirmed on June 21. U.S. diplomats also were active in southern Africa.

Bicentennial Celebration. The year 1976 marked the 200th anniversary of the U.S. Declaration

works displays,

at Valley Forge, Pa.,

onlookers. This was interpreted as evidence that the

members of Congress on February 10 for having "lost their guts" in voting to ban further aid to the forces in the Angolan civil war that were opposing the faction supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba. In a major policy statement delivered in Lusaka, Zambia, on April 27, Secretary of State Henry Kis-

President Ford castigated

Biography) pledged concrete steps "to usher in a new era in American policy" toward southern Africa and declared U.S. support for black majority rule in Rhodesia, an independent Namibia (South singer (see

West

Africa), and the termination of apartheid (racial

separation) in South Africa. Throughout his speech,

on July 4.

Squaring off for their first TV debate in September, Pres. Gerald Ford and challenger Jimmy Carter faced an audience estimated at around 75 million Americans.

Kissinger stressed the urgency of these goals.

He

re-

iterated U.S. warnings against foreign intervention in

southern Africa and proposed broad economic de-

velopment programs

in the region.

Later, Kissinger offered the good offices of the U.S. in negotiations for a peaceful transfer of

power. En-

dorsing British proposals for a two-year transition to

majority rule in Rhodesia, Kissinger pledged U.S.

vowed Zimbabwe"

way for U.S. and Soviet companion treaty limiting the size of underground nuclear weapons tests. The weapons treaty, which had been signed by Pres. Richard Nixon and Brezhnev in 1974, was to have gone into effect March 31, 1976. Its formal implementation was depact was expected to pave the ratification of a

layed to await the accord limiting peaceful

nations for economic summit Puerto Rico June 27-28. In a declaration is-

assistance to the people of Rhodesia and

con-

six other industrialized

tinued aid to "a newly independent

(the

talks in

nationalists'

name

for Rhodesia) under black rule.

Kissinger met with South African Prime Minister B.

J.

Vorster (see Biography)

in

West Germany

June 23-24, soon after several days of rioting had occurred in black South African townships. Their discussions were described as "worthwhile" and "sensitive," but they produced no agreement. "The problem," Kissinger said at a news conference in Munich on June 24, "is whether it is possible to start an evolution in southern Africa in which sufficient guarantees are given to the minority so a system can evolve that the majority of the people want and [that] is

sued at the conclusion of the meeting, the participants said:

is

to

manage

effectively a

which

will be suswhich will reduce the high level of unemployment which persists in many countries and won't jeopardize our common aim of avoiding a new wave of inflation." In agreeing to adopt a go-slow policy, the

tainable,

participants declared "this will involve acceptance, in

accordance with our individual needs and circumstances, of a restoration of better balance in public finance as well as of disciplined measures in the fiscal areas and in the field of monetary policy, and in cases,

U.S. diplomatic efforts in southern Africa bore fruit on September 24, when Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith (see Biography) accepted Kissinger's proposal for the transfer of power to Rhodesia's black majority. The proposal provided for the establishment of majority rule within two years, immediate formation of an interim government, cessation of economic sanctions and guerrilla attacks against Rhodesia, and a program of foreign economic support to ensure continued Rhodesian economic growth. Representatives of the British and Rhodesian governments and of Rhodesian black nationalist groups met in Geneva on October 28 to consider ways of implementing the Kissinger plan, but no agreement had been reached by year's end. President Ford and Soviet Communist Party General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev signed on May 28 a joint treaty placing limits on the size of underground nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes and provid-

icy."

The

"Our objective now

transition to [economic] expansion

bearable for the minority."

ing for U.S. on-site inspection of Soviet tests.

tests.

President Ford joined the heads of government of

supplementary

policies, including

(RICHARD

See also

some

incomes polL.

WORSNOP)

Dependent States.

[973.A]

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. The Rise of Labor (1968) Heritage in Black (1969); The Pacific West (1969); The South Roots of the Urban Crisis (1969); The Industrial Worker (1969); The Presidency: Search for a Candidate (1969) The Rise of Big Business (1969); The Rise of the American City (1969); Chicano from the Southwest (1970); Linda and Billy Ray from Appalachia (1970); The MisJesse sissippi System: Waterways of Commerce (1970); from Mississippi (1971); Johnny from Fort Apache (1971); The Progressive Era (1971); An Essay on War (1971); The Great Lakes: North America's Inland Seas (2nd ed., 1972); Valley Forge (1972); The Shot Heard Round the World (1972); The Boston Tea Party (1972); The United States Congress: Of, By and For the People (2nd ed., 1972); President of the United Stales: Too Much Power? (1972); The United States Supreme Court: Guardian of the Constitution (2nd ed., 1973); The Amish: A People of Preservation (1975); Prelude to Revolution (1975 ); Thomas Paine City Government: Closest to the People (1976); (1975) Political Parties in the United States: Getting the People Together (1976); State Government: Resurgence of Power (1976) ;

;

;

.

—

— SPECIAL REPORT

THE

assuage fears about his fundamentalist, born-again Christian, Southern Baptist faith. (See Religion.) But these did not ap-

pear to be insurmountable obstacles. Carter's plan called for him to enter all of the 31 presidential primaries that were held in 1976 (actually, he entered 30, having

1976

failed to qualify a slate of delegates in

PRESIDENTIAL

ELECTION

former governor of Georgia named James Earl was elected the 39th president of the United States in November 1976, his victory climaxed one of the most dramatic political success stories in U.S. history. Jimmy Carter as he preferred to be called—had risen in only two years from a position of relative obscurity to one of immense power. In so doing, he had defied the odds and the predictions of many political experts. If his margin of victory over his Republican opponent, Gerald R. Ford (see Biography), was narrower than he and and his fellow Democrats might have wished, it was nonetheless considerably wider than those achieved by either John F. Kennedy in 1960 or Richard M. Nixon in 1968 the only other nonincumbents elected to the presidency since Dwight D. Eisenhower's landslide in 1952. Noting that fact, Carter said during his first formal press conference after the election "I don't feel timid or cautious or reticent about moving aggressively to carry out my campaign commitments." The Outsider. One of the many things the public learned about Carter in the course of his remarkable 22-month campaign was a

Carter, Jr. (see Biography),

—

:

not to underestimate the effects of his self-confidence. With a political career that included only four years as an unheralded state senator and a single term as Georgia's governor (he was prohibited by state law from seeking a second term) Carter did ,

many people when, on

Dec. 12, 1974, in Washington, D.C, he added his name to the list of Democrats soon to grow to more than a dozen who were seeking their party's nomination. Political observers pointed out that he would be stepping down as governor in January 1975, that he had no apparent political base in the nation, no organization, no standing in the polls,

—

—

and

little

or no

money with which

to finance his

bition, they said in effect, should be

But Carter had been planning

his

made

campaign.

of sterner

Am-

stuff.

campaign carefully for two

years prior to his announcement. His executive secretary, Hamilton Jordan (who would become his campaign manager), had drafted the

first

installment of the Carter campaign plan before

it and subsequent installments, Carter's manifest political weaknesses were duly noted, but he and his aides preferred to dwell on his strengths. His background as a naval officer, peanut farmer, agribusinessman, and late-blooming state politician, as well as his extraordinary ability to campaign on such "fuzzy" issues as "love" and "trust," were

the presidential election of 1972. In

mood of a public that, thanks to Watergate and Vietnam, had grown weary and cynical toward officials in Washington and politics in general. Moreover, recent presidential elections had indicated that it is difficult, perhaps impossible, for a Democrat to win the presidency without the support of the old "Solid South" that had played such an important role in the Roosevelt coalition of the 1930s and 1940s. Carter, a nonracist "New Southerner" who could appeal to both whites and blacks, North and South, might well bring the South back into the Democratic fold. He would have to overcome the bias of many Northern liberals against Southerners, of course, and he would have to ideally suited to the

Stanley

W. Cloud

is political

Virginia).

He

cor-

—

—

By Stanley W. Cloud

not impress

West

assumed that the record number of primaries plus the limitations on campaign spending and fund raising imposed by the federal campaign finance law of 1974 would lead his betterknown Democratic opponents to pick and choose among the state primaries in order to husband their resources. Carter's decision to "run everywhere" reflected his knowledge that, as a relative unknown, he needed as much exposure as possible and that the Democratic Party's new rules would give him a proportionate share of delegates even in states where he did not finish first. Fighting for the Nominations. The plan served Carter well. Early victories in January's Iowa caucuses and February's New Hampshire primary, the results of his effective one-to-one campaigning techniques and his penchant for meticulous organization, put him on the covers of Time and Newsweek and established him as an early front runner. He went on to defeat Alabama Gov. George Wallace, an "Old Southerner" making what many felt was his last try for national office, in Florida and North Carolina rectly

correspondent for Time magazine.

every other Southern primary, except in Wallace's home an unexpectedly strong victory in Illinois and narrowly defeated his main liberal opponent. Rep. Morris K. Udall of Arizona, in Wisconsin. By the time of the Pennsylvania primary, April 27, only two other serious candidates remained in the race, Udall and Sen. Henry M. Jackson of Washington. Carter

(and

in

state). Carter scored

whipped both of them in Pennsylvania, forcing Jackson out of the race and causing Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey of

decisively

Minnesota, who had been waiting in the wings in the hope that the active candidates would eliminate each other, to decide against an active candidacy for himself.

was certainly not without badly to Jackson in Massachusetts and New York and was embarrassed several times in May by two quixotic latecomers to the race, Gov. Edmund G. Brown, Jr., of California and Sen. Frank Church of Idaho. Still, Carter continued to pile Carter's drive for the nomination

setbacks.

He

up delegates

By

the final

come

lost

in state after state even when he did not finish first. day of the primaries, June 8, his nomination had be-

a foregone conclusion.

Meanwhile, Ford, the "accidental president" who had been appointed vice-president in 1973 after Spiro Agnew's resignation and succeeded to the presidency the next year when Richard Nixon resigned because of the Watergate scandal, was having a much harder time of it in the Republican primaries. Despite victories in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Florida, Ford was, unable to force his right-wing challenger, former California governor Ronald Reagan (see Biography), out of the race. Reagan went on to beat Ford in North Carolina and to trounce him in Texas, Indiana, and California, as well as in Georgia and several other Southern states. Ford countered with victories in Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Suddenly the Republican Party, which prides itself on its decorum, had a civil war on its hands, while the normally fractious Democrats were headed for their most peaceful convention in at least 12 years. Convening in New York City in July, the Democratic delegates to the convention managed to suppress any nervousness they felt about Carter's "outsider" status and nominated him on the first ballot. They approved a platform in keeping with his generally moderate-to-liberal views and cheered his choice of a bona fide liberal, Sen. Walter Mondale of Minnesota (see Biography), as his vice-presidential running mate. Most delegates appeared to be impressed with Carter's basically liberal acceptance speech, which he would later describe as "populist" in tone. The harmony that prevailed in Madison Square Garden evidently had its effect on popular opinion; by the time the convention adjourned, Carter had a massive lead of more than 30 percentage points over Ford in the Gallup and Harris polls.

699

The election of 1976 split the states on roughly an east-west basis. Carter's victory was based on a sweep of the South and the border states, plus some industrial states in the northeast. In the West, Carter won only Hawaii. Altogether, Ford won 27 states while Carter won 23 states and the District of Columbia. But Carter's states were more populous, giving him a total of 297 electoral votes to Ford's 240. The total number of votes cast was 81,518,720, of which Carter got 40,827,292 or 50% and Ford 39,146,157 or 48%. About 55.8% of the

Hawaii "Z>

eligible voters participated.

Electoral vote, 1976 presidential election

WHEN

THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE MET ON DECEMBER 13, ONE ELECTOR, FROM THE STATE OF WASHINGTON, CAST HIS VOTE FOR RONALD REAGAN, MAKING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF ELECTORAL VOTES FOR FORD 240

The Democratic nominee himself predicted

Carter 297

that the lead

would

not hold, and he was correct. Despite the Ford-Reagan fight during the primaries

and immediately afterward, the gop gave Ford

a first-ballot nomination at its convention in August. In an effort to strengthen his

shaky base

the president surprised

many

in the

Midwest and the farm belt, by choosing Sen. Robert

delegates

Dole of Kansas {see Biography), known as a tough, hard-hitting campaigner, to be his running mate. Ford's acceptance speech, in which he challenged Carter to a series of televised debates, was probably the best of his career.

The Campaign. Ford's strategy w ould be to remain as much as possible during the first month T

White House

in the

of the

campaign, projecting a "presidential image" by signing bills Rose Garden and holding televised press conferences. Dole would do most of the active campaigning at first, and Ford would blitz the country in person and on TV during the final weeks. There was reason for Ford strategists to think the plan might fall

in the

work Carter's ;

peripatetic campaigning

was causing him

to

make

mistakes and, by early September, his lead in thev polls had dropped to ten points. It would continue to decline until, by

would pronounce the race too close to call. The economy, the character of the two candidates, and the desirability of change emerged as the basic issues of the camelection eve, pollsters

paign, although the antiabortion crusade of the Right to Life

movement (which

neither candidate fully satisfied) and the gaffes

which both men seemed prone usurped much of the headline Both committed serious errors. Having run in the primaries as an unorthodox politician who stressed personal integrity above all else ("I'll never tell you a lie"), Carter came out after the to

space.

convention as a more traditional Democrat, calling for new fedemployment and for other measures to revive the lagging economy. He wavered, however, when the pitch did not seem to be going over well. While Ford castigated eral initiatives to increase

him

as "the biggest flip-flopper I

know," Carter proclaimed that posed as great a problem as unemployment and reverted to his preconvention stance favouring a balanced federal budget. He renewed his pledge to reorganize the federal government and to seek tax and welfare reform. His desire to touch as many inflation

political bases as possible, and his occasionally harsh attacks on Ford, tended to confuse the voters as did a remarkably revealing interview he granted to Playboy magazine, in which, among other things, he admitted to having "committed adultery

—

in

my

heart

many

times."

Ford had even greater problems, not all of them of his own making. He had inherited an administration plagued by the Watergate scandal, the inglorious end to the war in Vietnam, the worst recession since the Great Depression of the '30s and the worst inflation in U.S. history. He was the nominee of a 700

party that could claim the loyalty of only about

20%

of the

and he had no regional base of support. He was an uninspiring leader whose constant battles with the Democratic Congress suggested to many voters that he had an essentially negative approach to the presidency. In his efforts to deal with inflation, unemployment, and the energy crisis, he had switched policies several times. Republican liberals thought he was too conservative, while the gop"s conservatives thought he was too liberal. Though he was still haunted by his hasty pardon of Nixon, Ford had, as he claimed, restored a measure of "trust and confidence in the White House." That did not seem sufficient to impress the Democrats and independents whose votes he needed, however. Verified reports that, as a congressman, he had accepted free golfing trips from corporate lobbyists and apparently unfounded charges that he had illegally diverted Maritime Union campaign donations to his personal use further weakened his electorate,

position.

Debates and Ballots. During

the three Ford-Carter debates

(a fourth featured the vice-presidential nominees), the presi-

dent did little to dispel the doubts about him. Nor was he able to avoid the malapropisms that had led some critics to question his intellectual capacity. During the second debate, for example, he insisted, inexplicably, that Eastern Europe was free of domination by the Soviet Union. By the end of the third debate. Carter had shown himself to be at least as "presidential" as the president, in the opinion of most observers. W hen the returns were in, it was clear that Carter's "Southern strategy" had won the election for him. The Solid South (except Virginia) had returned to the Democratic column for the first time since 1960, along with the border states (except Oklahoma) and most of the northeastern half of the country. Although higher than had been predicted, the relatively low turnout of 55. 8% of eligible voters probably worked against Carter. Any disadvantage he might have suffered as a result, however, was offset by impressive support from blacks and labour union members. Except for Hawaii, the western half of the U.S. went for Ford, but he still fell short. The final tally showed Carter with about a two millionvote edge (50% to 48%) and an electoral vote victory of 297 to 240. (One elector from the state of Washington voted for Reagan.) In essence, most pollsters agreed, the voters had resolved any doubts they had about Carter in favour of their desire to see a change in Washington. Returning to his home in the tiny southwest Georgia hamlet of Plains the morning after the election, Carter told the several hundred people who had gathered to greet him that "the only reason it was so close was that the candidate wasn't good enough as a campaigner." He paused, then added: "But I'll make up for

that as president."

SPECIAL REPORT

signatures and an editorial and press campaign to mobilize public

opinion in favour of such debates.

Early in August the League formed a steering committee for

HOW THE

DEBATES

the debates comprised of distinguished Americans and headed

three co-chairpersons

CAME TO BE By

:

Rita Hauser,

by

Newton Minow, and Charles

Walker. In late August in his acceptance speech at the Republican convention, Pres. Gerald Ford issued a challenge to his Democratic rival Jimmy Carter to engage in debates during the campaign. Ford had learned that Carter was going to issue a similar challenge the next day and, at the last minute, decided to seize

Charles Benton

the initiative. Carter immediately accepted.

Heated discussions ensued among representatives of the League, the U.S. television networks, and other interested parties as to who would sponsor the debates, and about their framework

J-he

first

television debates

in U.S. political history

between major-party candidates

occurred during the 1960 presidential

campaign, when John F. Kennedy and Richard four highly publicized confrontations that,

ably helped

made

it

M. Nixon met in was later felt, probThose debates were

Kennedy to win the election. by a suspension by Congress of

the so-called equal time provision, sec. 315 of the Federal Communications Act. A new ruling by the Federal Communications Commission in the

possible

fall

of 1975 once again opened the

The

way

to presidential debates

broadened the interpretation of "bona fide news events," which were not subject to the equal time provision, by excluding from coverage under sec. 315 all events that were sponsored by organizations independent of the broadon

television.

ruling

casting media.

Six months earlier three citizen activists. Marjorie and Charles Benton and Gene Pokorny, had developed a proposal for a series of "presidential forums" to be held during the presidential primaries in the winter and spring of 1976. The idea was to hold a number of televised "town meetings" during the U.S. Bicentennial to which the presidential candidates of both parties would be invited to speak concerning the major issues confronting the nation. In July 1975 the William Benton Foundation made a grant of $50,000 to develop the idea. Jim Karayn, former head of National Public Affairs Center for Television, was named staff director, and discussions began with several major organizations

involved in public television.

Immediately following the fcc ruling contact was made with League of Women Voters, a leading voter education organization that had just announced its theme for the 1976 election as "Issues Not Images." When the League agreed to adopt the project, the Benton Foundation increased its grant to $200,000, and a further $100,000 was obtained by the Public Broadcasting System from the Ford Foundation to help fund public television the

coverage of the forums.

Four forums took place, although five were planned. The first occurred in Boston on Feb. 23, 1976, just before the Massachusetts primary. Seven Democratic hopefuls participated: Jimmy Carter,

Morris Udall, Henry Jackson, Fred Harris, Sargent

Shriver, Birch Bayh, and Milton Shapp. Participation

—

fell off in

Miami, Fla., on March 1, in New York on in Chicago on May 3 as the list of Democratic candidates contracted. No Republican joined any of the forums, although all were repeatedly invited by the nonpartisan steering forums March 29, and

later

in

—

committee. The last forum, scheduled to be held before the California primary, was canceled owing to a lack of candidate participation, but the earlier ones had attracted a solid audience on public television

With hind

it,

—between

1.5 million

and

2

million viewers.

the experience, staff, and credentials of the forums bethe

League of

Women

vention, announced through

its

Voters, at president,

its

annual spring con-

Ruth Clusen,

League would invite the major party nominees

to

engage

that the in tele-

vision debates during the fall campaign. Along with this an-

nouncement the League launched Charles Benton

a petition drive for four million

is president of Films Incorporated and a member of the board of Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corp.

and format. The League was finally chosen and proposed four debates, three between the presidential candidates, with the first on domestic affairs and the second on foreign affairs, and one between the vice-presidential candidates. The Ford entourage wanted to begin with foreign affairs and to have longer debates; both Carter and Ford wanted less informality than the League did, preferring a more structured exchange with representatives of the print and electronic media acting as intermediaries. The first presidential debate was held at the Walnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, the second in San Francisco, and the third at William and Mary College in Virginia; the vice-presidential debate was held in Houston, Texas. Unlike 1960, when the viewing audience fell sharply as the debates followed one another, the television audience in 1976 stayed fairly constant, at least for the three

Carter-Ford debates: the average audience

was over 70 million people, or roughly one in every three Americans. While much ground was covered, certain specifics stand out, such as Ford's assertion that the Eastern European countries were essentially in control of their own destiny and free of Soviet domination. The debate between the vice-presidential candidates also seemed to accentuate the differences in the style and character of Senators Walter Mondale and Robert Dole. Though commentators were uncertain of the overall impact on voter attitudes, there seemed to be a consensus that the debates helped to shape the 1976 presidential campaign. In a country of continental size, with its vast regional differences, the images of national candidates become blurred as they tailor their speeches to the special interests of different audiences and surroundings. In nationally televised debates, the candidates have to

speak to

all

Americans.

There is also general agreement that the debates have raised some important questions for the future. Among them are these: 1. The year 1976 was the first in which the public directly, through the Campaign Reform Act of 1976, funded the primary and general election campaigns. Assuming that will continue, do candidates have a special obligation to be accountable to the public on the major issues through televised debates? 2. Television has become the most pervasive news medium. Assuming that, too, will continue, what is the proper balance between commercial time (bought by the candidates), news reporting (provided by the networks), and debates or forums organized independently of both candidates and networks? 3. In 1977 Congress will begin hearings on the revision of the Communications Act of 1934. How should sec. 315 and other provisions of this old law be changed to accommodate the needs of U.S. society now and in the future? 4. Finally, how can the issue of minor party participation in media debates be resolved, in fairness to such candidates but also keeping in mind the size of the constituencies often relatively tiny

—

—

that they represent?

In American society today, how can mass communications technology play a role that supports, rather than erodes, the basic foundations of political democracy public education, public understanding, and enlightened public choice? Since the technology itself is neutral, what is done with and through it re-

—

mains the central

issue.

701

United States

Developments in the

states in

when Republicans Dissatisfaction with governmental bureaucracy, as typified by the federal government, plus cooperation between the states toward common goals made 1976 a significant year in the evolution of U.S. state governments. With a national economic upturn

pumping increased revenues

as

lawmaking

the

in every state except Colorado, Idaho, South Dakota, and Wyoming (where

process

Republicans controlled both houses)

;

zona, Indiana, Kansas, Maine, North

Ari-

Da-

image of state governments there was

Hampshire (where the upper chamber was

legislatures again

tax increases.

To

avoided major

polish further the

marked reduction in corruption charges compared with recent years. The new mood, which seemed to favour

;

decline in the quantity of

New

laws

women,

concerning

new

legislation.

equal

rights

for

no-fault insurance, environmental

protection, and open public meetings were enacted at the lowest rate in five years. Led by Colorado, states began decreeing "sunset laws" requiring periodic review for state agencies and death for those whose usefulness was deemed to be ended. The cooperation between states, espe-

combating encroachment by the government, led to some notable victories, especially in modifying federal assistance programs for state and local governments. Serious cooperation between states was not universal, however. After the Iowa legislature declared the wild sunflower, official Kansas state flower, to be "a noxious weed" that "harms crops and should be eradicated," a Kansas legislative leader in

cially

federal

introduced a resolution labeling the

Iowa

state bird,

official

the eastern goldfinch, as

"an unattractive, bothersome, obscene and raucously noisy creature which serves no useful purpose on God's green earth." But before a vote could be taken on the antigoldfinch measure, the legislature adjourned. Thirty-seven states held regular legislative sessions, and 12 staged special sessions during .

.

.

Strengths.

slightly to their

Democrats

added already decisive advantage

governorships during 1976. In November elections, Republicans wrested control of Delaware, Illinois, and Vermont, previously held by Democrats. But Democrats ousted Republican gubernatorial control in Washin

West Virginia, North Carolina, and Missouri, leaving the prospective lineup for

ington,

1977 at 37 Democrats, 12 Republicans, and 1 independent. In state legislative balloting Democrats retained their marked dominance, though Republicans scored minor gains. The

also

prospective

partisan

breakdown

for

1977

remained virtually identical to that of 1976,

Republicans controlled the

and Nebraska (which had a non-

;

partisan, unicameral legislature).

Women

continued to

make

progress in

former Atomic Energy Commission chairman Dixy Lee Ray, a Democrat, won the governorship in Washington. She joined Connecticut's incumbent, Ella Grasso, as the only female governors in U.S. history who had not been preceded by their husbands. Finances and Taxes. With a nationwide economic recovery boosting revenue collections, legislative action on state taxes in 1976 was relatively light. A survey by the Tax Foundation revealed that IS states moved to increase major tax levies during the year to yield an additional $975 million. More than half of that increase was to come gaining top state

offices, as

1976

excises continued to be considered a rela-

method

painless

tively

nue. Hawaii

of increasing reve-

and South Dakota

failed

to

allow the scheduled expiration of special gasoline taxes during the year. Levies on various alcoholic beverages were raised in

Colorado, Virginia, South Carolina, and Vermont. As inflation continued to erode the value of the dollar, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, South Dakota, West Virginia, and Vermont took steps to reduce their inheritance or estate taxes, and Ohio voters authorized the legislature to do so.

Most new laws

amount

raised the

exempted from inheritance

that

is

taxes.

State tax collections in the 197S fiscal year totaled $80.2 billion, up 8% from the 1974 figure. Of the new total, general sales and gross receipts taxes accounted for $24.8 billion;

$18.6

billion

came from

selective

from individual income taxes, $6.6 billion from corporate income taxes, and $6.3 billion from motor vehicle and miscellaneous licenses. Figures accumulated in 1976 showed that state revenue from all sources totaled $154.6 $18.8

taxes,

sales

billion

billion

during the 1975

crease

of

9.8%

from

fiscal

the

year, an in-

preceding

12

tax.

months. General revenue (excluding state liquor and state insurance trust revenue) was $134.6 billion, up 10%. Total state expenditures rose 18.2% to $156.2 billion,

The New Jersey action came as the state supreme court pressured lawmakers to en-

creating a deficit of $1.6 billion for the year. General expenditures, not including outlays

New

in

Jersey,

which became the

since 1971 to enact a

act a

new

first state

personal income

new school finance plan to equalize among school districts throughout

spending

the state. It left only nine U.S. states without a comprehensive personal income tax.

During the year, Maine and Nebraska increased their income tax rates; Utah lowered them slightly; and both Kentucky and Hawaii provided some tax relief by raising allowable credits.

Nebraska increased corporate income tax and Washington imposed a surtax on

the year.

Party

while the

tied

House)

smaller government, also resulted in a sharp

702

They dominated

latures.

kota, New York, Utah, and Vermont (where each party controlled one chamber) New

new a

controlled both houses of

only five legislatures. For 1977, Democrats had a majority in both houses of 36 legis-

pub-

most

suries,

lic

into state trea-

Supplement

Statistical

rates, its

business-occupation tax.

Incentives

to

business were extended by a dozen legislatures (often in the

form

of investment in-

including Connecticut, Kansas, Hawaii, Indiana, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. Sales and use taxes were raised in Massachusetts, Nebraska, Rhode Island, Tennes-

centives)

,

and Washington Vermont and Wisconexpanded the list of items subject to sales tax. But new exemptions to sales tax levies were enacted in South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Kentucky, and New York. Connecticut, Idaho, Kansas, and Wyoming increased motor fuel taxes, as special

see,

sin

;

of the liquor stores

and insurance

trust sys-

up 15.4% for the year. Of general revenue, some 59.5% came from state taxes and licenses; 12.4% from charges and miscellaneous revenue, including educational tuition; and 28.1% from intergovernmental revenue (most from the federal government). The largest state outlay was $54 biltems,

amounted

to $138.3 billion,

which $17.7 billion and universities and to other schools. Other major

lion for education,

went

of

to state colleges

$36.3 billion

outlays were $25.6 billion for public welfare, $17.5 billion for highways, and $10.2 billion for health

and

hospitals.

Federal-State Relations. By banding together, state governments achieved major breakthroughs during 1976 toward protecting themselves against federal government encroachment. As a result, states ended the year with a promising vitality, retaining many advantages of federal aid funding while loosening strings and controls tradi-

imposed by Washington. and local governments scored a landmark victory on June 24 when the U.S. tionally

State

Supreme Court ruled

S to

4 that principles

of federalism forbade extension of

manda-

tory federal wage and hour laws to other layers. Political conservatives,

governmental

who

feared that a distant federal govern-

ment was moving toward control tually all proprietary

of vir-

and service functions,

hailed the verdict as a badly needed reaf-

firmation of federalism.

Two

important federal programs to aid

states, the

Law Enforcement

Assistance Ad-

and federal revenue renewed during the year but only after the aided governments obtained a louder voice in fund disbursement, leaa, which had failed to stop a nationwide crime (leaa)

ministration

sharing, were

rate increase despite expenditures of $3 bil-

was extended for three courts and legislatures

lion in five years,

more years;

state

were given new consulting

roles in the ex-

the year's end, Louisiana and had approved separate sunset laws; an Ohio commission to detect obsolete state agencies had been formed; and the Iowa governor had vetoed a sunset law as

over the future of an injured New Jersey woman, Karen Quinlan. The New Jersey Supreme Court ruled that Quinlan's parents and physicians could legally terminate ar-

unconstitutional.

even though medical experts testified the action would mean almost certain death. But after the equipment was removed in late May, Quinlan continued to live and, in fact, showed improvement through the end of the year. A Massachusetts court similarly decreed a right to die, and California be-

new them. By Florida

Arkansas, Hawaii, and Texas scheduled

new constitutional conventions And Alaska voters chose Willow,

for

1977.

a site

more

than 100 mi from Anchorage and other major population areas, to replace Juneau (reachable only by sea and air) as the state

dals during 1976.

No

statewide elected

offi-

was indicted on new charges, although legislators impeached and convicted Texas judge O. P. Carillo for malfeasance and cial

eral jury of corruption charges.

showed that flict

A

damages.

21 states

survey

at

midyear

had 137 "dispute congovernment

situations" with the federal

over a range of problems. Signs of disenchantment with the strings attached to federal funding were revealed when Texas began refusing leaa prison grants during the year, and both Pennsylvania and Oklahoma required a special review procedure before state officials could apply for federal funds. Two nationwide public opinion polls showed apparently conflicting results. A Harris survey indicated that a majority of

had more confidence in their state government than in the federal government, but a poll a month later showed a plurality favouring the federal government as the most effective spender of a tax dollar. citizens

Other examples of state cooperation during the year included Maryland's court battle, supported by 34 other states, against a Health, Education, and Welfare education fund cutoff attempt. New York, Massachusetts, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Washington,

and New Jersey enlisted combat federal Medicaid

California, Georgia, in joint efforts to

to enact the right into

first state

ment with the written consent of the patient. The 1974-75 furor over medical malprac-

Gov. Arch Moore was acquitted by a fed-

money

New York

earning more than $30,000 to file complete financial and income statements, and Gov. Dan Walker of Illinois fired 19 top state officials who failed to comply with officials

Nowould require complete financial disclosure by candidates and holders of state and county a similar 1973 order. Florida voters in initiative

that

offices.

by

of utility rate commissions, criti-

Common

Cause

31

in

states

for

secrecy and ethical conflicts,

item of concern. Voters in

was a major Colorado, Massa-

and Ohio rejected utility reform But Missouri voters approved a similar measure, and the New Hampshire legislature pushed through utility rate reform over a gubernatorial veto. Education. Many states moved to increase state funding for public schools in an chusetts,

initiatives.

effort

among

to

equalize tax receipt potentialities

rich

and poor school

districts.

After

New

Jersey complied with a state supreme court order to increase educational funding by approving a considerable

new

resistance,

income tax. The U.S. Supreme Court on June 21 approved Maryland's plan of providing aid for

new laws

to ease financial

awards

for "pain

Ten states filed a petition with Consumer Product Safety Commission seeking a ban on aerosol products the U.S.

using fluorocarbons; one of the ten, Oregon,

had previously prohibited

state personal

nonsectarian purposes to private colincluding religious ones. Previous

U.S.

Supreme Court decisions inspired to modify their health and

several states

public

New

welfare practices.

Jersey

moved

from using zoning regulations

consin allowed involuntary

A

proposal to require citizen approval of any new taxes received widespread backing in Colorado, though voters turned it down in November. The most important innovation was a "sunset law" approved by Colorado legislators in May. It provided that each of the state's 43 agencies be reviewed every six years and that they automatically expire unless the legislature specifically votes to restate court systems.

to

custody.

Law and

A

Justice.

U.S. Su-

historic

preme Court decision on July 2 declared capital punishment to be a constitutional sentence for convicted murderers. Modifying a

1972 decision that labeled death as

"cruel

and unusual punishment" been imposed in the

as

historically

court

stated

laws

that

had

it

U.S.,

specifying

the

capital

punishment

for specific crimes, with opportunity for examination of special circumstances, met constitutional requirements. The last imposition of capital punishment in the U.S. had occurred in 1967.

The

mandatory death penand North Carolina

but

budget every year. Structures and Powers. Citizen dissatisfaction with the size of government was reflected by a variety of events during 1976. California and Nebraska created paperwork commissions in an effort to cut down on bureaucracy and red tape. New Mexico, Louisiana, and Oklahoma attempted government organizational streamlining, and Georgia, Kansas, and Missouri reorganized

commitment

mental hospitals only for dangerous patients, and a New Jersey court declared that a mental patient has a right to beneficial treatment and must not merely be held in

an unconstitutional link between church and and the Maryland formula promised to provide a model for state assistance to hard-pressed private schools. Many legislatures continued to look for ways around court decisions banning organized prayer in public schools. Arkansas, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Delaware, Kentucky, and Maine provided for either silent meditation or recital of the Lord's Prayer in classrooms, though the New Hampshire effort was voided by a federal state,

to ex-

clude low-income housing. Hawaii and Wis-

alty laws in Louisiana

amend-

Connecticut and

to prohibit municipal-

plans in several states had been rejected as

a balanced federal

their sale in that

state.

Nebraska joined seven other

ment that would require

amount

and suffering." Ohio, Michigan, and Hawaii joined Minnesota in banning smoking from certain of possible

leges,

tures in seeking a U.S. constitutional

burdens on phy-

sicians and, occasionally, to limit the

ities

Reform cized

insurance rate increases abated during

the year, with another 18 states enacting

public places.

Gov. Hugh Carey ordered state

vember approved an

tice

fraud, estimated at $750 million annually. state legisla-

case,

high incidence of corruption, state governments managed to avoid major ethics scan-

creased citizen participation, and a strength-

the right to sue the federal government for

her

in

law, providing for removal of vital equip-

level of recent

ened antidiscrimination clause. Typifying new state activism, 30 states joined Pennsylvania in a court test seeking

efforts

Ethics. After four consecutive years of

years, but with tighter state auditing, in-

renewed at the approximate

life-sustaining

came the

capital.

censured Georgia state senator Roscoe Dean for falsifying travel vouchers. West Virginia

penditure process. Revenue sharing was also

tificial

decision voided

upheld

versions

different

in

Florida,

Georgia, and Texas. By the end of 1976, approximately 450 prisoners in 19 states with apparently valid death laws were awaiting individual

review and

The execution Gilmore of Utah, by

ings.

clemency proceedone convict, Gary firing squad was set for of

after he rejected efforts by various groups to assist him. Thirty-five states had enacted new death penalty laws designed to meet objections

January 1977

by the high

raised

court's 1972 ruling. In its

judge.

new

consecutive year)

Governors of Pennsylvania (for the third and New York vetoed antibusing bills during 1976. And Wisconsin joined Minnesota and Iowa in requiring

legislative action as proof that the death did not violate contemporary penalty standards of decency. (See Law.)

periodic continuing legal education for prac-

prison

ticing attorneys.

tinued, with Michigan, Hawaii, Mississippi,

Health and Welfare. A hot debate over dominated medical news during the year, highlighted by court action

upon

the "right to die"

A

opinion, the court cited the widespread

trend

mandatory

toward

sentences

for

certain

minimum

crimes

con-

Kansas, and Missouri requiring prison time conviction

for

specified

Studies released during 1976

offenses.

showed

that

703

and

similar laws in Massachusetts

had been

ineffective

and had

New York

led to reduc-

tion of charges and imposition of fewer jail terms than under previous, more lenient laws. Virginia, Michigan, Ohio, Colorado, and Pennsylvania enacted laws providing com-

pensation for victims of crime, joining IS other states with similar plans. Eight states

funded their plans by fining offenders. Massachusetts voters turned down an initiative that would have banned private possession of handguns. Following the death of a Phoenix investigative reporter looking into land fraud allegations, attorneys general in

New

Mexico and Arizona

filed

major

lawsuits charging deception in land sales. And although the state attorney general insisted

that organized crime had not

infil-

was awarded a speS400,000 federal grant to combat it. A federal court ruled that New Hampshire's attempts to prevent citizens from

Kepone occurred in Virginia. (See Environment.) Use of polychlorinated biphenyls (pcb"s) was sedisaster involving the chemical

and Wisconsin. Voters in Michigan and Maine approved a statewide ban on nonreturnable verely restricted in Indiana, Michigan,

beverage containers, but similar measures Colorado and Massachusetts were turned down in hotly contested elections. Environmentalists charged that a similar nonreturnable ban in South Dakota was rendered ineffective by overly generous exemptions in

recyclable

California,

containers.

Minnesota,

Legislatures

in

and Virginia out-

lawed pull-tab cans.

New

Jersey became the

first

state to en-

taping over the "Live Free or Die" state

able farmland open space to be preserved

were an

through state subsidy. Under a pilot project

June that Massachusetts and other states could legally force uniformed state patrol-

men to retire manded it. Drugs.

A

at age 50 if public policy de-

nationwide trend toward dras-

reduction in penalties for possession of

tic

marijuana continued during 1976. Minnesota and South Dakota decriminalized possession of small amounts, bringing to eight the

number

of

making possession

states

subject only to a civil penalty, usually a fine. Georgia also enacted a sharp reduction in criminal penalties for marijuana

small

possession.

Gambling.

Forces backing state-controlled wagering enjoyed a run of good luck during the year. Vermont and Colorado voters approved new sweepstakes-lottery proposals in

other

states

November in

elections, joining 13

holding

revenue-raising

games of chance. In a major breakthrough,

New

Jersey-

authorized introduction of casino gambling, previously legal only in Nevada, for the decaying resort of Atlantic City. Bingo games under limited circumstances were approved by legislatures in Georgia and Ohio, but a bill authorizing pari-mutuel horse-race betting was vetoed by the Indiana governor. Voters also turned down proposals for legalization of slot machines in Delaware and of dog-race betting in Calivoters

fornia.

to begin in 1977, the state

Washington

measures were foolproof, were decisively turned down by voters in Arizona, Colorado, Montana, Ohio, Oregon, and Wash-

November

plished

most of that

mentalists were able to

make

progress in

combating individual threats to water resources, however.

The California

legislature enacted a

prehensive protection coastline, a

bill

for its

com-

1,072 -mi

measure that preserved seaside

oil

the need for development of alternative energy sources outweighed possible health and safety risks. By a 2-1 margin, California voters June 8 defeated an initiative that would have placed stringent limits on development and operation of nuclear power plants. Similar initiatives, some authorizing a ban on nuclear construction until safety-

the

a preoccupation of state legislatures during the early 1970s, slowed markedly during 1976, with only a half-dozen states enacting new measures to counter threats to air, water, and the landscape. Environ-

an

state officials, fearing

continued to enforce a ban on supertankers in Puget Sound despite a federal court decision labeling the law illegal. New Jersey and New York officials, on noise and pollution grounds, succeeded, at least temporarily, in keeping the Anglo-French supersonic transport plane, the Concorde, from landing at state airports, but Virginia officials were unsuccessful in a similar attempt invoh-ing Dulles International Airport near Washington, D.C. Energy. A drive by environmentalists to limit the growth of nuclear plants was resoundingly defeated in seven states during the year as voters apparently decided that

before

tion,

buy de-

spill,

gambling; betting on horse races was legal in 30 states, on dog races in 9, lotteries in

numbers games in 4. Environment. Protection against pollu-

to

of 40,000 ac there.

ington in

and

was

velopment rights (easements) to an expected 5,000-10.000 ac of farmland and prohibit construction on that land. Maine voters decided to prevent a ski-condominium development on Mt. Bigelow, second highest in the state, by authorizing state purchase

At the end of the year, 31 states had sanctioned some form of state-supervised

IS, jai alai in 4, offtrack betting in 3,

state ratified the

Equal

throwing the future of the proposed antisex discrimination clause into grave doubt. Only 34 of 38 states needed to ratify the amendment had done so, and proponents were not able to mount a serious effort in the eight states where it was introduced dur-

for

license plates

No

Amendment

of land next to the water. Florida voters ap-

proved a special tax to be used for water resource management, and Minnesota joined New York and Indiana in banning phosphates in detergents. A major environmental

cial

unconstitutional interference with free expression. The U.S. Supreme Court stated in

Equal Rights. Rights

trated the state, Alaska

motto on automobile

704

open space, established a coastal commisand regulated local governmental use

sion,

Three

bills

prohibited

that

2

balloting.

became law only

California

a

week

referendum accom-

initiative's goals:

nuclear construction

until

they safe

procedures for fuel-rod reprocessing and waste disposal were developed, and they required studies of underground or shielded construction techniques. California, Georgia, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, and Minnesota granted tax breaks to persons installing solar energy units. Pennsylvania and Wisconsin authorities, following deaths by freezing of elderly citizens, forbade disconnection procedures by utility companies for unpaid bills whenever human life was endangered by the process.

to the U.S. Constitution,

ing 1976.

Advocates of equal rights for women were not without successes, however. Massachusetts voters approved a state equal rights constitutional amendment; Colorado turned down an initiative to rescind its state amendment and Idaho and Kentucky legis;

latures refused efforts to retract their national era ratification.

Prisons. Overcrowding increased markedly in state correctional institutions during the year. A nationwide survey released in

June revealed that a record 225,000 prisoners were housed in state prisons on a typiday. a population increase in 49 states over the previous year. State prisons were occupied at an average 125% of listed capacity,- the survey showed. Colorado, Florida, North Carolina, and Wyoming authorized major expenditures for building new prison facilities. Arkansas and Virginia began housing inmates in house trailers. Several states turned to furlough or early release programs to relieve crowding, but violent incidents involving those released caused temporary suspension of the furlough experiment in New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Maryland during the year. The year's worst state prison riots occurred in Carson City, Nev., where 2 inmates were killed and more than 60 wounded in fighting on September 28 and October 11, and cal

where 3 prisoners died were wounded on November 18. Consumer Protection. For the first time in recent years, no state enacted new no-fault automobile insurance laws. Nonetheless, a survey by the National Conference Reedsville, Ga.,

in

and

17

of State Legislatures of 16 states with such

laws revealed that all expressed satisfaction with the measure. Massachusetts, in 1971 the first state to enact a no-fault law, substantially modified its program; changes included eliminating property damage remuneration for the at-fault driver's

own

car.

Consumer groups scored a major victory when the U.S. Supreme Court, acting on a from Virginia, declared state laws banning drug price advertising to be illegal. The Federal Trade Commission, which had previously outlawed so-called fair trade measures in about half of the states, threatened to overturn state bans against advertising in the eyeglass, pharmacy, and mortutest case

ary businesses.

New

York, California, and Michigan en-

acted measures to require disclosures of bank lending practices, a move designed to discourage "redlining,"' or blockage of mort-

gage

No

funds

for

marginal neighbourhoods.

which in 1975 beoutlaw the practice, how-

state joined Illinois,

came the

first to

ever.

Washington and Indiana enacted utility to protect consumers against arbitrary billing and deposit practices. Iowa approved a "plain language" law requiring regulations

usually intricate insurance policies to be written on the seventh-grade-English level. (DAVID C. BECKWITH)

—

—

—

6

6

6r 5

1

Area and Population Largest metropolitan areas*

Area and population of the states

Density

Population

POPULATION

AREA

[000]

Name

sq.mi.

in

Percent

land orea in sq mi

sq mi

7.6 0.2

5,072 1,384 1,218 1,008

3,322 6,913 2,258 2,045

0.1

627

—1.1

47 312 476 34,007

change 1975 estimate 1 970-75

1970 census

per

1975

Percent To'al

Alabama

51 ,609

549

Alaska Arizona Arkansas

15,335

California

586,^00 11 3,909 53,1 04 158,693

Colorado

104,2-17

Delaware Dis*. of Columbia Florida

Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois

Indiana

36,291

Iowa Kansas

56,290 82,264 40,395 48,523 33,215 10,577 8,257

Kentucky Louisiana

Maine Maryland Massachusetts

Michigan Minnesota

Mon+ana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire

New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina

Nonh Dakota

602

532

703 390 1 ,1 97 4,059 493 548 1

8,357 4,926

774 717

865 820 ,1 45

45,333 1,214 77,047 42,244 267,338 84,916 9,609 40,815 68,192 24,181 56,154 97,914 3,615,210

1,421,233 1,141,307 378,497 7,610,978 6,977,611 633.367 5,627,719 4,824,110

4.1

6.6

5.8 .8

592 818

21 .1 10.9

7 316 1.147 18.120 5.451

2 0

503

334

374

66,237

203,805

Detroit

3.1

Akron Lorain-Elyria Dallas-Fort Worth

Houston-Galveston SCSA Houston Galveston-Texas City

12> -0.7 7.2 2.7 1.0 6.0 9.4 0.2

Miami-Fort Lauderdale

SCSA

Miami Fort

Lauderdale-Hollywood

Baltimore Minneapolis-St. Paul Seattle-Tacoma SCSA

-2.4 8.8

2.6

Seattle-Everett

6.7 9.3 13.8 5.9 6.8 3.8 3.4 4.3 12.5 4.8

213.121 {

*

Louis Pittsburgh

St.

Tacoma Atlanta Cincinnati-Hamilton Cincinnati

SCSA

50C

San Diego Denver-Boulder Tampa-St. Petersburg Buffalo

Kansas City Indianapolis

MM

473,000 10,316,600 6,944,900 1,710,200 1,223,4C0 438,100 7,623,300 6,982,900 640,400

2.9 2.4 3.3

—1.4 20.3 7.2 15.7 0.2 1.1

2.4 2.3

4,933,400 515,300 315,800

3.2 3.8 0.7 0.2 9.5

4,701 ,100

4,444700 256,400

33

4379,800 3,128,800 1.173.4C0 277,600 3,914,600 3,029,600

2,912300 1,975,400 668,200

0.7 10.1

10.5 1.7 4.1

-2.9 —4.3 —1.6

268700

1,708 2,1 87

7.1

399

2392300

—0.7 —3.6

4,935 3,049

8,360 7,193 6,794

3,261

2,042 1,219 2,259 4,647 5,902 4,226 1,676 4,326 2,620 2,149 471 1,793 1,456 337

3.2 3.2

1,424,605 412,344 1,595,517 1,613.414

1,411,700 409,800 1,793,800 1 ,628,600

,387 ,207

1,384300

-0.2

244,100

7.9

—0.8 -0.9 —0.6 12.4 0.9

1,602,300 1,426,400 175,900

1.8

1.6

1,404 300 1,365,400

2.9 16.9 13.3 25.4

1327,200

-1.6

1,295,000 1,147,400

1.6

3341

3.2

3,072

1387,500

4,261 4,651

2,045

1390

Marriage and divorce rates

Population change

12 "

[

I

I

#

('"

1

| '

1

T

1

-4 1

1

1

1

— —"1

i

I

"T""i

,

,

»

—

1

"

'

I

i

1

T

,

—

T

^fj^y ——— j,

4

U-

4

|

— 3 *n

-

1 .

>

I

*

I

—— —

f

t~\

j

f"

1

1

,

,

j,

.-4—

p _ 1

fi

t

rote

growth rote rate of natural

increase i

0

M H

1950

'1

!'>

1955

!

I'M 1960

I

1

'

I

1965

'

i

in 1970

i

(

;

i

1975

•includes annulments.

Current Population Report!

903 172 1,257 1,077

998

•Stardard Metropolitan Statistical Area, SMSA, unless otherwise indicated; SCSA is a S'andard Consolidated Statistical Area, which may be comprised of SMS As. tNew England Sources: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, CurCounty Metropolitan Area. rent Population Reports; U.S. Dept. of Justice, FBI, Uniform Crime Reports for the United States, 197S.

8

850 1,262

740 543 303 339 332 456 485 760 706 705 708 946 436 307 334 245 415 622 644 518 894 980 522 373 302 668 835 388 374

0.7

2,027300 1,821300

442 1,385 1,016 1,135 361

1300

4.6

2,136,900

683 1,166 1,388

903 495

12.4 12.8

21 .9 13.5 39.1

45 235 1,637 1,878

1319

2335300

862300

.266

782

2,438,100 2,256,300 181,800 2,315,900 2,301 ,100 1,438,600

1

12,796 1,925 994 303

4,069

27,293 1,863 4,657 3,719 938 4,946 3,553 1,165 228 4,627 3,916 711 5,390 2,480 1,300 1,610 3,114 2,812 2,917

0.1

5,764300

226,207 1,574,722 1,403,884 170,838 1,357,854 1,239,477 1,088,549 1,349,211 1,273,926 1,111,352

Racine

—1.1 —4.1

1,965,391 1,836,949

1

Homilton-Middletown Milwaukee-Racine SCSA Milwaukee

•Excludes the Great Lakes and coastal waters. fFreliminary. jState figures do not add to total given because of rounding. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports.

9^67,000

499,493 304,116 4,669,154 4,435,051 234,103 4,423,797 3,107.355 1,065,313 251,129 3,848,593 2,909,355 2,999,811 2,063,729 679,239 256.843 2,378,353 2,169,128 1,999,316 169,812 2,410,492 2,401 .362 1,887,892 1,267,792 620,100 2,071,016

SCSA

Ann Arbor San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose SCSA San Francisco-Oakland San Jose Va lie jo-Fa irfield-Na pa Boston-Lawrence-Lowell SCSAt Washington, D.C. Cleveland-Akron-Lorain SCSA Cleveland

3.1

1

SCSA

Wilmington Trenton Detroit-Ann Arbor

4.4 2.4

493 742

4,653 3,414 1,746 4,433

Gary-Hammond-East Chicago Philadelphia- Wilmington-Trenton Philadelphia

2.2 1.6 0.8 5.4

1,059 4,098 5,828 9,1 57 3,926 2,346 4,763

1,483 102 1,449

Chicago-Gary SCSA Chicago

4.9

7 1 95 1.018 18,260

447

333 977

Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario Oxnord-Simi Valley- Ventura

4.1

666

SCSA

Anaheim-Santa Ana-Garden Grove

7.7

3,932 11,254 1,069

Amboy

5.7 5.4

748

951 2,596

2,057,468 792.814 607,839 583,813 461 ,849 9,983,017

Long Branch-Asbury Park Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim

0.3

635

Newark

2,750,800 2,061,300 793,900 601,400

7,041 ,980

,5*6

618 10,688 2,572 2,102 11,817

16,848,000

2355,868

Los Angeles-Long Beach

3,791

1

5,091

2,577

1

17,033,367 9,973,716

City

4.7 2.1

23-0 7.4 12.3

5,31

10.759 2,712 2.288 11,827 927 2,818 683 4,188 12,237 1,206 471 4,967 3,544 1,803 4,607

31 ,055

—

2,870 2,267 3,396

4,693 697 1 ,490

1,637 3,645 1,208

Pennsylvania

1 1

8,901

156

733 326 156 783 669 482 4,499

Wyoming TOTAL U.S.

6,845 4,602

1

SCSA

Nassau-Suffolk

Bridgeportf Jersey City New Brunswick-Perth

6.1

2,534 3,095

2,21

31

250

Wisconsin

579 716

752 290

1.032

Virginia

550 753

New York-Newark-Jersey New York City

4.9 16.3 25.3 10.0

2,1 16

3,822

61

96,981

Washington West Virginia

21 ,185

3,937 5,699

,402

69,919

Vermont

19,994 2,225 3,039

37 5,208 2,830 2,248 3,224 3,644 995

3,417 2,203

41 ,222

Texas Utah

2,224

1 1 ,1

21

Oklahoma Oregon Rhode Island

,792 ,926

9

849 470 106 258

Ohio

Sou'h Carolina Sou*h Dakota Tennessee

352

1

change 1970-75

3,614

305

8

58,21

Missouri

1975T

1

4,308

84,068 47,716 69,686 1-47,1 38 77,227 110,540 9,304 7 836 12l!o66 49,576 52,712 70,665

Mississippi

July 1,

1970

3,451

334 605 2,1 20 363 110 79

5,009 2,057 69 58,560 58,876 6,424 83,557 56,400

Connecticut

July 1,

Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. PubJic Health Service, Monthly Vital Statisttcs Report.

81

Church membership

Total Relicjious

body

c

Advenfist, Seventh-day Baptist bodies American Baptist Association

American

Baptist Churches

in

the U.S.A.

Baptist General Conference Baptist Missionary Association of America Conservative Baptist Association of America

Free Will Baptists

General Baptists (General Association of) National Baptist Conveniion of America National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc. Natl. Bap. Evang. Life and Soul Saving Assembly National Primitive Baptist Convention

ergy 3,606

479,79?

4,070 8,564 1,055 2,650

1,071,000 1,579,029 1 1 ,093 211,000 300,000 215,000 70,000 2,668,799 5,500,000 57,674 1,645,000 72^000 521,692

3,700 1,125

28,754 27,500 137 601

Primitive Baptists

Progressive National Baptist Convention, InCi Regular Baptist Churches, General Assn. of Southern Baptist Convention United Free Will Baptist Church Brethren (German Baptists): Church of the Brethren Buddhist Churches of America Christian and Missionary Alliance Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Christian Churches and Churches of Christ Christian Congregation

Church of God (Anderson, Ind.) Church of the Nazarene Churches of Christ Congregational Christian Churches, Natl. Assn. of

Inclusive

membersh ip

863 54,150

784 1,948 101

1,196 6,567 6,272

506 2,905 7,130 6,200

475

1

25o!oOO 12,513,378 100,000 179,387 100,000 144,245 1,312,326 1,034,047 59,600 161,401 430,128 2,400,000 90,000

Eastern churches

American Carpatho-Russian Orth. Greek Catholic Ch. Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of N. Am. Armenian Apostolic Church of America Armenian Church of America, Diocese of the (Including Diocese of California) Bulgarian Eastern Orthodox Church Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of N. and

68

124 34 67 11

S.

America

Orthodox Church in America Romanian Orthodox Episcopate of America Russian Orth. Ch. in the U.S.A., Patriarchal Parishes of Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia Serbian Eastern Orth. Ch. for the U.S.A. and Canada Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch Ukrainian Orthodox Church in the U.S.A. Episcopal Church Evangelical Covenant Church of America Evangelical Free Church of America Friends United Meeting

675 558 52 60 168 64 14 131

11,573

683 611

100,000 130,000 125^000

372,000 86,000 1,950,000 1,000,000 40,000 51,500 55^000 65^000 50,000 87,745 2,907,293 69,960 70,490 67,431

Religious

Total clergy

body

Independent Fundamental Churches of America Jehovah s Witnesses

1,252

87,582

Jewish congregations

6,400

6 115 000

18,096 15,179

2,683 573 1 56*687

6,483 7^579

2,437,862 2,986,970 2,769,594 388,865 92^390

Latter

Doy

1

Lutherans

American Lutheran Church Lutheran Church in America Lutheran Church— Missouri Synod Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod

7*337 1,041

Mennonite Church

2,370

Method ists African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Free Methodist Church of North America United Methodist Church

7,089 6,873 2,259

1760 35 J 06

Moravian Church in America North American Old Roman Catholic Church Pentecosta Is Apostolic Overcoming Holy Church of Assemblies of God

Church Church Church Church Church

of

God

God God God God God

(Cleveland, Tenn.) of in Christ of in Christ, international of of Prophecy International Church of the Foursquare Gospel Pentecostal Church of God of America, Inc. Pentecostal Holiness Church, Inc. United Pentecostal Church, International Polish National Catholic Church of America Pre 5 bytenans of

Cumberland Presbyterian Church

Christian Reformed Church

Reformed Church in America Catholic Church

Roman

Army

General Assembly of Triumph the Church and Kingdom of God in Christ

$

Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

of dollars

Colorado

V

1970*

1975

1976t

Connecticut

Delaware Columbia

District of

688.1

By type of expenditure Personal consumption expenditures Durable goods

Nondurable goods Services

Gross private domestic investment Fixed investment Changes in business inventories Net exports of goods and services Exports Imports Government purchases cf goods and services Federal State and local By major type of product Goods output

Durable goods Nondurable goods Services Structures

NATIONAL INCOME

430.2 62.8 188.6 178.7 112.0 102.5 9.5 7.6

39.5 32.0 138.4 67.3 71.1

982.4 618.8 84.9 264.7 269.1

140.8 137.0 3.8 3.9 62.5 58.5

218.9 95.6 123.2

1,516.3

1,675.2 1,064.7 155.0

409.1

434.8 474.9 239.2 223.2

Illinois

16.0 9.3 160.3 151.0

Kentucky Louisiana

Maine Maryland

362.0 131.2 230.9

Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota

432.4 183.7 198.3

-14.6 20.5 148.1 127.6 339.0 124.4

214.5

758.4 301.2

1,605

893 1,242 994 1,349

6C9.2

1,017.2 100.3

North Carolina North Dakota

17.1

18.6 67.9 37.5

928.8 90.2 22.4 91.6 74.6

44.4 79.2 309.9 126.7 183.2 44.8

48.6 83.8 360.0 146.8 213.2

22.9 84.7 64.0

Services

64.1

enterprises

1,541

Rhode Island

396.5 £6.7

Communications and public utilities Wholesale and retail trade Finance, insurance, and real estate

Other

Pennsylvania

New New New

23.1

75.4 4.7

88.1

127.3 30.3 32.5 122.2 92.6 103.3 127.4 4.6

49.3 195.6 137.6 165.1

199.7 10.6

51.0 53.2

216.5 148.6 183.0 215.4 12.4

Jersey

Mexico York

Ohio

Tennessee Texas Utah

1,309

Vermont

1,121

Virginia

1,228 1,674 1,065 1,477 1,668 1,496

Washington West Virginia Wisconsin

Wyoming United States

tSecond quarter, seasonally adjusted at annual rates. jWithout capital consumption adjustment. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Survey of Current Business.

755

South Carolina South Dakota

1,337.4

24.5 51.6 215.4

1,410

Oklahoma Oregon

142.1

20.4 35.9 170.4 65.4 105.0

1,701

1,622 1,490 2,018 1,323 1,834 1,177 1,873 1,037 1,263 1,620 1,143 1,620

1,207.6

23.1

1,386 1,295 1,825 1,512 1,485 1,443 981 1,120 1,186 1,602 1,633

1,431

798.4

116.4 80.3

2,221 1,281 1,034

Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire

566.0

65.1

880 2,384 1,330 825 1,852 1,487 1,875 2,132

Missouri

457.1 759.6 157.3

Transportation

Government and government

Iowa Kansas

203.1 272.7 78.8

By industry division^

Nondurable goods Durable goods

Indiana

681.7 254.4 427.3 692.5

77.1

Manufacturing

Idaho

456.2 170.8 285.4 424.6 101.6

18.5

Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries Mining and construction

Georgia Hawaii

973.2 131.7

By type of income

Compensation of employees Proprietors' income Rental income of persons Corporate profits Net interest

Florida

Mississippi

336.6 133.6

425^000

1,502 5,475 2^690 1 1

501 ]000

62743 89^215 135^000 74^108 270,000 282^41

,900 ^878

5^555 144

13736

93,948 896^203 2,723^565

1,065 2,742 59,287 5,178

48,701 ^835 366,471

5,092

206,000 354,004

164,072 54,307 192,510 1,841,312 94,215

1,375 9,526 2,489

(CONSTANT

1950

State

Gross national product and national income

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT

75,000 1,239,197 75^890 328,892

864

Wesleyan Church

Alabama

Item

350 12,810 2,737 8,650 6'000

Spiritualists, International

Unitarian Universalis) Association United Church of Christ

024 974

466,71 65 210 10,063,046 54^892 60^098

713

Presbyterian Church in the U.S. United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. Reformed bodies

Salvation

203 109

1,166,301 1

H.

JACQUET)

Personal income per capita

The Economy 1965*

539 262

Saints

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Soints Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of .D.S.

Table includes churches reporting a membership of 50,000 or more and represents the latest information available. Source: National Council of Churches, Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, 1976.

in billions

Inclusive

membership

I960*

1970*

1975

$1,519 2,809 2,012 1,390 2,706 2,252 2,838 2,785 2,983 1,947

$2,948 4,644 3,665 2,878 4,493 3,855 4,917 4,524 5,079 3,738 3,354 4,623 3,290 4,507 3,772

$4,643 9,448 5,355 4,620 6,593 5,985 6,973 6,748 7,742 5,638 5,086 6,658 5,159 6,789 5,653 6,077 6,023

1,651

2,368 1,850 2,646 2,178 1,983 2,160 1,586 1,668 1,862 2,341 2,461 2,357

2,075 1,222 2,112 2,035 2,110 2,799 2,135 2,727 1,843 2,740 1,590 1,704 2,345 1,876 2,220 2,269 2,217 1,397 1,784 1,576 1,936 1,979 1,847 1,864 2,360

3,'51

3,853 3,112 3,090 3,302 4,309 4,340 4,180 3,859 2,626 3,781

3,500 3,789 4,563 3,737 4,701 3,077

4,712 3,252 3,086 4,020 3,387 3,719 3,971

3,959 2,990 3,123 3,119 3,606 3,227 3,468 3,712 4,053

1,621

3,061

2,188 2,247 2,222

3,812 3,815 3,966

•Revised.

706

•Revised. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Survey of Current Business.

4,871 4,904

4,786 6,474 6,114 6,173 5,807 4,052 5,510 5,422 6,087 6,647 5,315 6,722 4,775 6,564 4,952 5,737 5,810 5,250 5,769 5,943 5,841 4,618 4,924 4,895 5,631 4,923 4,960 5,785 6,247 4,918 5,669 6,131 5,902

Income by

industrial source, 1975 SOURCES OF LABOUR AND PROPRIETORS' INCOME

SOURCES OF PERSONAL INCOME

Total

State

region

United States

New

Farm

personal

and

England

Maine New Hampshire Vermont Rhode Island Connecticut

Mideast

New New

York Jersey

income

Federal

$33,878

$62,648 $110,676 2,387 5,960 323 412 167 323 78 220 1,100 3,040

Delaware Maryland Columbia

Great Lakes Michigan

Ohio Indiana Illinois

Wisconsin Plains

Minnesota Iowa Missouri

North Dakota South Dakota Nebra ska

Kansas Southeast Virginia

West Virginia Kentucky Tennessee North Carolina South Carolina

Georgia Florida

Alabama Mississippi

Louisiana

70 66 9 80 1,460

49,181

94

Southwest

Texas New Mexico Arizona Rocky Mountain

Montana Idaho

Wyoming Colorado Utah Far West Washington

Oregon Nevada

*

4,108 6,204 1,054 1,826 777 2,087

6,113

585 1,011

1,265 2,376

876 8,452 1,476

148 2,716

459 3,754

536 323

local

1,490 25,716 13,080 3,987 5,254 308 2,328 758 20,605 5,378 4,603 2,115 6,125 2,384 7,993 2,193 1,374 2,006 275

1,314

850 552

272 226

1,421

401

975 7,648 367 27

682

801 1,056

16,004 3,829 241

20,044 2,338 700

979

1,213 1,685 2,200 1,113 2,180 4,115 1,383

326 833 1,287

495 469 526 1,090 2,848

482 1,815

244 307 1,681

507 470 58 550 95

1,049 1,679 1,158 1,700 2,250 1,287

608 812 413 6,646 1,067 4,187

580 812 2,427 257 226 144 1,216 585

289

830 1,607 681 8,268 1,082 5,282 651 1,253 2,969

396 369 219 1,432

553

9,898 1,482

18,197

1,329

41

468 238

3,725

7,710

14,363

3

556 973

417 507

5,158

979 413

155

Whole-

insur-

Private

Con-

sale,

ance,

commu-

nonfarm income

struc-

retail

real

nications,

$743,635 44,594

470

2,397 781

1,228

3,935 139,337 3,324 5,674

California

Alaska Hawaii

13,799 3,056 1,480 2,291

26,995 13,014 25,052 47,055 16,779 9,504

13,201

226 494

622 104 235

660 340

100,523 14,237 68,903 5,476 11,908 31,686 4,054 4,234 2,294 15,168 5,937 178,632 22,158

Oklahoma

405

16,541 20,501

18,591 9,775

Arkansas

360 114 22

4,346 2,336 35,568 5,413 21,584 274,420 118,958 70,296 3,908 26,533 5,544 250,838 56,526 62,514 30,023 75,666 26,109 96,533 22,793 17,440 26,244 3,652 3,365 9,384 13,655 241,406 28,732 8,867

Pennsylvania

District of

income

5,071

Massachusetts

State,

$1,257,354 74,319

%

OF TOTAL

Finance, Transpor-

Govt, income disbursements

2,131

373

tation,

Total

Farms

Mining

tion

Mfg.

trade

$950,837

%3.6

%1-4

%5.7

%25.5

%16.8

%5.3

%7.2

%16.0

%18.2

%0.4

53,301 3,641

0.7

0.1

3.1

0.1

5.2 6.6

0.7

0.2 0.6

6.1

0.2 0.2

0.1

4.9 4.6

18.8 15.7 17.2 18.4 20.9 17.5 16.8 18.4 20.6 16.8 15.8

15.7 20.2 16.9 17.6 15.9 18.8 13.0

0.4 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.4

0.1

16.4 17.0 17.3 16.0 17.0 16.4 14.9 16.2 16.7 17.5 15.7 13.9 17.5 7.2 16.0 14.9 15.9 14.9 17.3 16.0 17.9 18.4 16.7 18.3 17.3 18.7 17.6 17.6 16.9 15.2 14.4 15.5 17.9 15.9 14.2 19.3 19.5 15.7 15.6 17.5

6.3 4.2 5.0 4.4 6.4

0.5 0.7 0.4 0.3

30.6 25.7 30.5 26.7 27.8 31.4 36.7 25.7 22.5 30.9 33.7 38.5

5.8 6.5

2,939 1,697 26,092 3,703 15,229 206,579 89,720 34,041

19.1

0.3 0.3

2,791 2,421 1,330

21,886 3,000 13,165 165,604 73,180 28,480 44,635 2,501

12,928 3,880 161,424 36,716 41,623 19,558 47,762 15,765 53,397 13,450 8,860 16,532 1,498 1,422 4,585 7,050 135,826 14,299 5,750 9,636 12,922 16,130 7,434 14,874 23,843 9,510 5,171

11,252 5,006 58,517 7,823 41,575 2,688 6,432 17,530 1,915 2,226 1,364 8,639 3,387 101,221 11,919 7,779 2,483 79,039 2,680 2,843

52,801

3,062 18,208 8,746 194,345 43,733 49,063 23,715 58,349 19,485 73,596 17,655 12,954 20,633 2,894 2,489 7,207 9,764 179,522 20,833 6,719 12,488 15,996 21,237 10,031 19,586 31,493 12,674 7,078 14,198 7,190 76,280 10,453 52,859 4,1 64 8,804 24,607 3,074 3,291 1,785

11,837 4,620

134,474 16,511

9,989 3,136 104,838 3,656 4,477

4.1

0.1

0.1

5.3 4.7 3.8 5.0

1.8

5.5

0.2 0.2

6.3 6.9 3.4 5.0

0.6

0.2

1.2 3.4 1.3 t 3.1

t

0.7 0.5 1.0 0.6 0.8

1.3 2.1

5.3 4.1

4.5 11.5

0.2 1.0 1.3 0.4 0.6 1.3

8.4 18.5 3.8

29.4 22.2 19.7 10.0 4.3

5.4

17.3 2.8 36.3 41.3 38.0 39.5 29.9 35.6 21.6 23.5 23.7 25.5

4.3 5.1

5.4 5.4 5.1 t

5.7 5.4 5.4 t

6.3

1.3 0.4

5.4 5.7

8.1

2.1

5.7

2.3 1.8

13.9 20.7 22.7

1.8 0.4

16.9

6.4 6.2 6.4

5.3

7.2

5.7

25.1

2.1

0.9 0.2

5.8 5.3 6.3

29.9 30.5 31.8 22.3 12.2 26.8 26.5 17.0 23.3 18.0 16.9 19.7 6.5 14.9 14.5 9.4 16.5 6.3 15.5 16.9 21.4 21.9

5.8 3.2

0.2 0.4 0.4

4.2 4.1

3.9 6.6 3.7 15.2

1.7 1.3 6.7 1.0

5.0 7.0

3.7

4.6 3.4 5.9 3.5

4.6

6.8 16.5 14.3 3.2 4.6

4.1

2.1

7.2 4.2 3.6 1.5

16.9 2.9 4.5

3.8 5.9

0.5 0.2 0.2

4.1

1.3 3.5

1.9

0.1

0.6 3.0

3.5

t

Percentages may not add to 100.0 because of rounding. Dollar figures in millions. •Less than $500,000. JFigures not shown to avoid disclosure of confidential information. tLess than 0.05%. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Survey of Current Business.

19.1

24.3

5.3 7.7 6.6 5.7 8.8 5.5 7.1

'

5.7 7.2 7.4 8.1

7.4 6.4 7.9

14.3 6.6 7.1 t

6.0 6.0 6.2 29.8

24.5 4.9 21.5 4.3

9.7

6.0

t

estate

16.0 18.4

14.1

18.0 17.9 17.2 17.3 19.3 14.9 17.0 10.2 15.3

Data are included

in

5.0 7.6 8.3 7.9 7.2 5.2

4.9 4.6 4.2 4.9 4.2 4.4

17.8 20.2 13.9 13.8 14.0 11.5 15.0 13.5

5.2 6.6 6.3 7.6

4.1

5.5 4.2 4.7 4.9 4.2

Service

13.1

5.9 5.9 6.5

3.6 4.0

5.8 7.8 7.5

t

14.5 11.5 15.6

6.1

5.1

9.3

3.2 3.9

6.1

t

6.3

5.2

8.1

4.4 4.9 4.5 2.9 3.6 4.8 4.3 4.0

8.2

12.7 12.5 13.0 14.8

6.1

14.7 12.2 12.8 15.0 13.3

5.1

12.1

5.6 7.0 4.2

8.6 8.2 6.5

14.0 19.9 13.3

7.2 6.8 8.3 6.9 6.2

4.1

6.1

4.6 4.0

9.5 6.9 7.5 7.9 7.6 7.3 6.3 7.9 8.7 6.6 10.2 7.6 8.4

5.2

18.9 15.8 16.9 17.5 16.7 17.3

util.

5.6 6.5 6.4 4.9

5.5 7.2 6.7 9.2

4.8 5.3 4.0

18.1

public

5.6 4.8 3.6 3.8 2.9 5.8 4.4 5.2 4.6

14.7

15.0 14.1

14.9 15.9 16.5 14.7 13.5 13.4

13.8 14.7 13.1

12.2 14.1

14.6 16.0 15.5 16.1

18.9 20.6 16.7 17.8 29.6 14.0 17.5

0.1

0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.3

17.1

18.3 22.6 19.8

20.2 21.1

20.3 17.0 15.2 19.5 20.5 17.9 29.6 23.4 21.9 21.2 18.1

8.4

17.5

33.1

t

i

0.7 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3

20.1

11.1

14.6 14.9

7.6 7.9

t

0.3 0.5 0.3

13.1

18.2

t

6.9

0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3

14.3 14.9 27.7 55.6

7.1

7.1

0.5 0.3

16.1

11.1

11.1

16.3 13.9

Other

18.0

20.3 22.4 24.6 20.9 21.9 18.0 19.5 21.0 26.6

4.6 4.0 5.4 2.5 6.0

13.1

12.3

Govt.

t

0.7 0.6 i

0.5 1.3

0.6

totals.

Farms and farm income CASH Number of farms State

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

Colorado Connecticut

Delaware Florida

Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois

Indiana

towa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana

Maine Maryland Massachusetts

Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri

Montana

1976* 77,000

300 5,700 69,000 63,000 29,500 4,400 3,500 32,000 73,000 4,300 26,500 122,000 105,000 135,000 79,000 124,000 47,000 7,600 17,600 5,800 80,000 118,000 84,000 139,000 22,500

Land in farms 1976 in 000 acres* 14,700 1 ,71 Of 37,500 17,400 36,000 39,900

540 696 14,000 17,000 2,300 15,600 29,100 17,500 34,200 49,900 16,000 11,900 1,710 2,925

710 12,400 30,600 17,100 32,700 62,400

CASH

RECEIPTS, 1975, IN $000*

Farm marketings

Number

Livestock

and Total 1,384,731 7,802 1,052,384 2,218,033 8,485,095 1,947,868

214,676 269,337 2,433,269 2,218,929 372,271 1,314,757 5,404,907 2,996,251 6,614,245 3,365,306 1,467,636 1,083,592

370,492 666,343 202,232 1,656,218 3,855,294 1,374,702 2,657,463 1,078,329

Crops 545,223 4,079 564,110 1,226,305 5,696,870 608,202 96,455 101,550 1,809,078 1,102,527 314.5A5 819,327 3,513,362 1,774,250 2,711,698 1,857,063

798,220 769,784 124,402 260,853 95,497 943,417 1,812,357 707,749 1,070,797 657,649

products

839,508 3,723 488,274 991 ,728

2,788,225 1,339,666 118,221 167,787 624,191 1,116,402 57,706 495,430 1,891,545 1,222,001

3,902,547 1,508,243 669,416 313,808 246,090 405,490 106,735 712,801 2,042,937 666,953 1,586,666 420,680

of farms

1976*

State

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

Rhode Island South Carolina South Dckota

Tennessee Texas Utah

Vermont Virginia

Washington West Virginia Wisconsin

Wyoming TOTAL

U.S.

Land in farms 1976 in 000 acres*

RECEIPTS, 1975, IN $000* Fa rm marketings Livestock

and Total

68,000 2,000 2,600 7,900 11,700 58,000 125,000 40,000 116,000 86,000 32,500 73,000 680 47,000 43,000 124,000 205,000 12,600 6,600 72,000 40,000 26,500 103,000 8,000

48,000 9,000 560

3,875,931

1,025 47,100 11,400 13,200 41,600 17,300 36,800 19,500 10,220 65 7,800 45,500 15,300 141,800 13,000 1,860 11,000 16,500 4,750 19,400 35,500

318,733 729,154 1,546,147 2,673,305 1,983,705 2,758,613 1,900,458 1,031,263 1,622,172 27,345 829,031 1,815,769 1,095,202 5,846,591 328,818 219,861 1,008,206 1,891,915 144,571 2,651,655

2,785,780

1,084,671

•Preliminary. tExclusive of grazing land leased from the U.S. Government, Alaska farmland totals about 70,000 acres. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service and Economic Research Service.

132,070 74,051

Crops 1,717,717 37,102 19,921

216,899

products

2,158,214 94,968 54,130 101,834

184,201

544,953

494,259

1,051,888 996,316 452,808 1,125,965 1,074,896

346,463

1,676,989 1,530,897 1,632,648 825,562 705,805 475,866 15,559 558,451 559,461 514,093 2,785,683 95,877 16,953 483,481 1,449,733 43,868 538,860 96,206

89,563,191

46,661,480

325,458 1,146,306 11,786 270,580 1,256,308 581,109 3,060,908 232,941 202,908 524,725

442,182 100,703 2,112,795 250,257 42,901,711

0

Value

Principal order of value, 1973

State

Principal minerals,

produced

Alabama

Coal, cement, petroleum, s'one Petroleum, sand and gravel, natural gas, stone

Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

Colorado Connecticut

Delaware Florida

Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois

Indiana

Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana

Maine Maryland Massachusetts

Michigan Minnesota Mississippi

Missouri

Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire

New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota

Tennessee Texas Utah

Vermont Virginia

Washington

West

Virginia

Wisconsin

Wyoming TOTAL U.S.

in

in

1973

$371,241 286,138

Copper, molybdenum, sand and gravel, cement Petroleum, bromine, natural gos, cement Petroleum, cement, sand and gravel, natural gas Petroleum, molybdenum, coal, sand and gravel Stone, sand and gravel, feldspar, lime Sand and gravel, magnesium compounds, clays Phosphate rock, petroleum, stone, cement Clays, sione, cement, sand and gravel Stone, cement, sand and gravel, pumice Silver, phosphate rock, lead, zinc Coal, petroleum, stone, sand and gravel Coal, cement, stone, sand and gravel Cement, stone, sand and gravel, gypsum Petroleum, natural gas, natural gas liquids, cement Coal, stone, petroleum, natural gas Petroleum, natural gos, natural gas liquids, sulfur Sand and gravel, cement, zinc, stone Stone, cement, sand and grovel, coal Stone, sand and gravel, lime, clays Iron ore, cement, copper, sand and gravel Iron ore, sand and gravel, stone, cement Petroleum, natural gas, sand and gravel, cement Lead, cement, stone, iron ore Copper, petroleum, coal, sand and gravel Petroleum, cement, sand and gravel, stone Copper, gold, sand and gravel, diatomite Sand and gravel, stone, cloys, gem stones Stone, sand and gravel, zinc, titanium concentrate Petroleum, natural gos, copper, natural gas liquids Cement, stone, salt, sand and gravel Stone, sand and gravel, cement, feldspar Petroleum, coal, sand and gravel, noturol gas

$413,056 328,789 1,304,988 273,705 2,041,686 532.776 36,804 3.8?9 601,100 305,47? 35,147 136,081 825,608 351.405 158,800 646.299 1,164,762 5,819,610 33,493 131,907 59,682 789,022 852,785 281,738 512 634 385,285

1,091 004

241,179 1,851,365 425,841 33,123 2,871

424,287 258,041 28,074 106,206 769,737 322,608

134,496 584,537 976,910 5,411,543 22,922 115,501 52,428 694,767 659,669 260,681 451,817 307,676 73,675 181,702

724,748

542,809 34,868 489,791 109,806 1,430,632 89,353

746,743 $32,217,000

1.15

0 89 3 39 0.75 5 75 1

88,361

81,139 275,690 8,442,494 674,210 29,366 540,595 114,329 1,503,045 114,339 928,105 $36,788,000

.32

0.10 0.01 1

.32

0.80 0.09 0.33 2.39 1

.00

0.42 1

.81

3.03 16.80 0.07 0.36 0.16 2.16 2.05 0.81 1

.40

0.96 0.23 0.56 0.O3 0.35

201,813 14,119 114,016 1,305,644 375,866 146.930 111,853 806,979 1,323,626 81,466 1,401,900 4,340

10,111

1,210,728 76,516 1,231,485 4,291 82,313 65,200 269,814 7,211,551

1972

80,821

113,760 1,097,292 320,453 116,323 98,086

Coal, stone, cement, lime Petroleum, natural gas, natural gas liquids, stone Sand and gravel, stone, cement, nickel Coal, cement, stone, sand and gravel Sand and gravel, stone, gem stones Cement, stone, clays, sand and gravel Gold, sand and gravel, cement, stone Stone, coal, cement, zinc Petroleum, natural gas, natural gas liquids, cement Copper, petroleum, coal, gold Stone, asbestos, sand and gravel, talc Coal, stone, sand and gravel, cement Sand and gravel, cement, coal, stone Coal, natural gas, stone, cement Sand and gravel, stone, iron ore, cement Petroleum, sodium compounds, uranium, natural gas

% of U.S.

$000

1972

minerals

3.41

0.99 0.36 0.30 2.25 3.76 0.24 3.82

total 1

973

1.12 0.89 3.55 0.75 5.55 1^45 0 10 0.01 1.63

0.83 0.1

0.37 2.24 0.96 0.43 1 76 3.17 15.82 0.09 0.36 0.16 2.14 2 32 0.77 1.39

1.05

0.22 0.55 0.04 0.31 3.55

1.02 0.40 0.30 2.19 3.60 0 22

0.01

3.81 0.01

0.26 0.20 0.84 22.38

0.24 C.22 0.75 22.95

1

.68

0.11

1.52 0.34 4.44 0.28 2.32 100.00

1

.83

C.08 1.47 0.31

4.09 0.31

2.52 100.00

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook.

Principal crops, 1975, production Corn, grain (bu)

Hay

and value* Soybeans

(tons)

Stale

Production

Value

Production

Ala.

34,980

$96,195

1,134

$47,061

1,267 5,035

1,593 1,452 7,642 2,793

91,598 67,518 456,520 150.822 14,625 2,350 22,220 49,938

Value

(bu)

Production

Value

31,440

$146,196

112,800

513,240

Wheat Production

(bu)

Value

3,240

$9,558

22,720 15,600 62,227 50,950

71,568 44,460 202,740 165,588

1,156

3,295 1,612 10,571

Tobacco Production 1,260

(lb)

Value $1,153

Cottont

lint

(boles)

Sorghum

(bu)

Pototoes (cwt)

'roduction

Value

Production

Value

315

$78,019

1,360

$3,509

560 700

138,432 169,680 480,499

11,220 9,800 14,904 7,540

33,323 21,364

1,519

41,731 17,945

20,740 10,485 552 941 5,344

127,344 41,625 3,312 5,458 24,796

1,692

4,073 75,090

311,624

4,080 1,152 1,612 144,060 1,365

8,568 2,615 3,563 327,016 2,976 2,486

380

1,558 11,870 3,038

Production

2,728

Value $22,888

Alaska Ariz.

Ark. Calif.

Colo.

396 1,900 27,666 49,290

87,211

133,083

Conn. Del. Flo.

Ga. Hawaii Idaho

17,290 17,730 103,400

47,871

195 47 404

274,010

1,175 4,441 3,555 2,258 6,897 4,743 2,890

44,954

Ind.

2,075 1,242,360 551,740

Iowa

1,091 ,700

Kan. Ky.

137,760 87,780 3,120

5,810 3,105,900 1.351,763 2,620,080 351 ,288 223,839 9,360

Maine Md.

50,050

130,130

Mass. Mich. Minn.

152,800 407,400

359,080 998,130 16,943 433,755 2,044 1,258,000

III.

La.

Miss.

Mo. Mont.

Neb.

5,945 170,100

730 503,200

Nev. N.H. N.J.

N.M. N.Y. N.C.

N.D.

Ohio Oklo. Ore. Pa.

6,723 7,000 39,610 103,180 6,732 321,080 6,800

935 88,560

16.8C8 17,150 99,025 278,586 16,830 786,646 18,360 2,852 221,400

R.I.

S.C. S.D.

Tenn.

Texas Utah

34,650 83,250 36,900 113,300 1,650

91,823 203,963 97,785 305,910 5,115

48,590 3,264 5,525 198,370 1,440

128,764 9,629 14,918 505,844 4,536 $14,381,692

Vt.

Va.

Wash. W.Va. Wis.

Wyo. TOTAL In

777 354 617 245 3,290 8,005 1,172 5,683 4,409 6,643 885

177 305 963

5,766,991

291 ,810

119,790 236,980 22,140 31,800 43,680

36,131 25,134 30,542 19,600 143,115 412,258 51,568 261,418 187,383 305,578 50,888 13,983 18.148

17

1,326

495

25,245 251,636 78,346 241,270 87,675 60,996 84,123 136,287 45,090 498,294 95,576 $6,512,842

782

thousands.

161 ,753

124,190 348,299 227,664 112,710

5,114 533 5,025 3,620 3,730 2,398 4,399

1,771 2,391 1,002

10,602 1,838 132,917

24,225 31,152 143,325

202,066

52,484 265,928 28,249 183,413 195,480 169,715 141,482 233,147

5,719 1,822 5,245 1,670

5,100 7,080 31,500

tExcludes pima cotton (55,800 bates).

1,371,507 563,013 1,090,108 99,630

149,460 205,296

520 3,645

400

202,972 209,157 206,400 8,798 1,175,515 35,306 1,180

60,050 67,470 64,500 2,550 350,900 11,968

8,904

41,849

5,304

15,116

15,555 92,820 68,640 113,985

69,998 436,254 319,176 524,331

38,760 87,839 4,440 48,510 155,925 98,240

120,156 340,833

33,210

151,106

1,175

2,054

240

9,243

12,210 145,530 541,655 324,192 3,995

1,944 10,062 7,410 9,300 264,392 74,340 160,800 56,370 11,385

5,638 35,217 21,489 26,040 1,118,446

1,940

6,430

28,616

29,865 150,978

33,853 153,193

16,500

660 34,675

"6

"6

17,160

465,706 60

492,386 87

24,150 2,048

23,087 10,786

6,210

6,086

5,451

1,020 151,869 13,077 468.488 23,439

1,204

5,358

30,360 8,425 45,325 9,065

138,138 37,913 206,229 38,526

4,185 63,294 9,610 131,100 7,164

11,509 250,591 27,389 432,630 24,358

189,666

188,055

124,678

125,687

10,825

48,713

9,052 145,140

26,251

143,030

142,065

551,532 2,970 21,190

15,921

2,184,075

$2,229,735

32,660 2,906 100,750

2.5

140

953,125

950,817

241 ,605

25,666

25,051

530,640 211,388 33,017

21,875

12,688

350

97 85,008

1,050 195

252,504 46,800

0.4

924

1,330

26,460

3,059 59,270

103,400

237,820

17,002

15,500

38.130

46

10,908

4,080

9,710

185

43,867

25,080

59,690

Y.4

370

70

'95

22,572

595

220 2,400

53,434 495,360

374,400

1,434 14,173 2,870 891,072

6.5

132

490

931

$1 ,930,019

758,454

$1,787,333

6,162 1,248

1,644

620

182 26,840 306 718 8,076 11,796 171

1,748 1,527 4,125 92 1,365

700 11,818 2,400 17,600 2,393

544 21,920

1,521,370

$7,043,799

2,820 6,802 2,133,803

1,686 9,136 24,203 $7,435,212

3,044

8,271

14

819 163,724 1,805 4,308 48,698 51,077 1,454 11,362 6,749 12,788

552 8,149 1,995 71,972 20,784 75,680 14,358

22,779 6,815 987

92,711

598 425

1.854 3,188 21,337 5,580 1,272 14,880 178,710 1,875 87,615 5,549 $1,519,837

2,975 1.5C8

212

4,871

9,1

2,400 48,300 266 14,850 1,632 315.647

41,572 4,293

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service, Crop Reporting Board, Crop Production and Crop Values.

9

Livestock and products, with fisheries, 1975 Milk Cattle

and calves

(lb)

o ba ma Alaska Arizona Arkansas

A

I

Ca ifornia Colorado I

Connecticut

Delaware Florida

Georgia

Ha wa

ii

Illinois

Indiana

Kansas Kentucky Louisiana

Ma ine Maryland Massachusetts

Michigan Minnesota Mississippi

Missouri

Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire

New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

Rhode Island Soulh Carolina South Dakota

Tennessee Texas Utah

Vermont Virginia

Washington West Virginia Wisconsin

Wyoming TOTAL U.S.

Value in $000

744,395

164,571

811

283 207,759 169,492 664,838 732,548 4,785 2,736 174,421

567,775 665,770 1,853,800 1,838,830 21,235 9,835 709,520 505,570 50,610 661,275 979,925 656,075 2,652,480 2,384,015 848,100 484,970 29,420 118,065 27,430 455,860 1,469,865 715,400 2,079,535 963,050 2,696,990 190,220 18,050 31,240 562,460 379,780 257,020 904,680 708,430 2,085,120 471,715 423,730 2,353 263,340 1,248,710 968,035 5,076,150 267,720 71,030 455,630 416,780 140,150 1,032,050 515,070 40,680,069

Sheep and ambs

pigs (lb)

1

Amount

Amount produced in 000

Stale

Hogs and

117,241 17,579 230,747 374,822 232,041 973,223 711,906 231,653 113,672 6,664

33,406 6,251

152,396 455,978 162,340 640,416 287, 421

960,911 57,993 3,999 7,856

213,274 86,867 61,248 272,304 250,485 621,314 144,765 134,579 532 58,444 428,217 230,395 1,527,162 72,597 15,513 118,614 131,585 32,407 266,954 160,917 12,728,121

(!b)

Amount •

produced in 000 258,164

59 18,019 40,083 18,080 48,022

3,931 ,873

527,907 329,820 50,094 2,481 54,315 18,957 214,704 1,079,944 101,891 1,134,709 60,773 998,325 2,922 3,024 19,472 30,055 31,185 572,743 96,896 624,815 99,249 36,486 178,669 2,423 170,944 531,467 280,495 275,827 14,655 2,205 176,982 23,152 20,634 436,139 9,002 16,823,753

of milk

produced

in

produced in $000

rnn non

000,000

686

45 t

17

6,816

252

59 24,455 31,976 175 34 37 29

840 707

339 107 167 104

19,439 4,321

3,576 10,359 4,726 1,193

3,111 371

129

10,853

870 613 133

619

396 225

1,555 601

3,940 9,056 58 4,165 8,366 6,274 4,322 174

4,434 8^946 876

103,058 502,174 46,666 528,774 27,044 470,211 1,394

9,225 21,524

240 10,429 23,955 14,184 10,666 341

1,361

^054

37?

395

131

20,014 3,247

7,978 1,141

284 1,431

67

343 527 368 9,904 1^602

530

163

16,290 27,953 4,360 23,690 5,598

6,168 10,769 1,694 9,218 2,302

72 37 55,857 148,645

22 12 22,347 293 50,972

33,201

14,161

919

180

2,009 1,752 2,322

784

383 11,386 3,772

4,577 1,767 3,021

8,148 5,914 41,053 771,752

2,221

15,430 299,287

473 798 115 2,779 5,284

209 184 1,483 2,609 2,006

599 518 658 1,650

60,848 147^570 59,980 379,550 687^053 83,570 242,586 24,538 113,335 14,846 32,859 49,380 38]860 870,562 167,249 65,604

3,021

1

8,467

192,941 109,616

2^31

785

159 3,594

61 ,300

1,535 2,560 2,210 3^916 1,403

1,147

2,951 5

12,648 223^408 117^370 20,878 125,563 212,480 192^712 309^364 122^622

1,958 1,194

1

in

72,990 2,817 78,876 62,570 1,006^073 80^040

146 47,365 12,444 10,441 24,691 12,063

412

200,624 3,907 7,762,737

produced in

t

8,531

9,368

Amount

•

924 4,254

331 541 1,303 2,209 1,707 1,241

197

782 4

283 620 234 1,984 2,802

132

381 ^584

1,999

^060

96^778

990 7,140 63 510

91 ,872

430 519

1

1,370 ,875 3,221 1

347 18,900 110 115,458

Chicken

Eggs (no)*

(lb)

Farm value

22,245 59,816 73,876

928 8,655 25,852 178,930 6,520 8,288 1,052,128 627,493 1,816,525 237,558 155,675 21,490 1,116 25,474

7,516 14,366 14,033 265,753 42,344 291,789 46,151 16,419 82,366 1,090 76,925 247,132 128,747 120,536 6,346 992 80,527 10,557

1

$000

123

115,141

141

36,550 89,873 40,357 102,612 2,062 18,455 57,834 407,586 11,183 18,542 2,297,222 1,337,938

Va ue

produced in 000

Value in $000

Amount

672,588 6,073 54,927 103,846 165,188 307^283 79,861 184^426 166,615 212,695 32,375 1,540,350 9,636 10,148,755

3,299 70 1,385

702 949

Gross income $000

34,245 13,359 11,820 12,075 42,040

,329

84,485 145,470 3,938 75,795 19,243 22,187 140,757 3,898 59,671

256

3,511

300

160 112 1,317 2,298 1,610 1,088 1,075 4,288

6,685

728 3,588

31,551

946

43,192 36,353 3,480 7,344 49 7,390 9,714 3,338 37,795 85,000 3,056 29,815 7,440 5,496 46,998 1,255 19.228 12,395 9,825 45,700 3,194 1,624 20,018 16,170 4,318 17,504

5,485

1,094,253

landings in

000

Val e ^uuu

in

17,087$ 36,962t 456,864 141,120 13,067§ 2,872§ 745,047 130,381 6,530 8,576 171,394 18,157 10,463 1,310 5,317$

334$ 5,774

49

668

9,623 24,746

332

(lb)

522 1,350

66,031 19,667

1 1

5,144 26 96 8,748

2,211 9,130

1,391

21,195 29,390 87,587 18,950 29,845 49,188 73,081 85,066 49,123 9,095 24,307 164 15,848 29,966

Gross income in $000

38,119 82,250 2,230 19,663 38,309

1974

Commer-

13,501 2,773

7,743 63,399 107,404

1,368 2,813,412

1,068

57,800 136 1,785 96,132 70,228 5,799

261 ,998 11,234

30 64,362

105

sumption in 000

132,303 417 6,148 182,096 351,381 19,668 46,883 6,584 102,128

1,194

321

765

sold -|-farm con-

in

20,124 43,654 117,214 11,422 6,536 40,354 41,207 12,096 44,775

2,360

Fisheries,

(lb)*

Amount

991

2,728§ 1,228,906$ 147,822 63,004 268,659 15,454 10,399$ 304,794}

1,897 1,618 66,367 7,094 5,458 47 955$ 121$ 856 14 659§ 86,694$ 41,410 20,439 61,784 3,926 1,065$ 16,355$

929 793 158

152

2,488 166,962

1,057 16,607

35,189 206,683 212 8,573 740§ 95,542

25,379 17,544 23 1,746 169§ 34,450 155 15,695

4,071

192

309

117 16

3

754 641

250 1,777 17,766

306 1,729

684 275 9,682

442

125

96,066 18,402

2,576

619 1,356 3,930

3,151 6,054§ 97,203$

6,861

276 1,187$ 72,455$

128 165 2,362 841

507,293 115,973

565

2

2,188 19 108,705

55,135$ 4,939,600

33,836 59,031 1

3,524$

898,500

*Dec. 1, 1974-Nov. 30, 1975. "[Decrease in inventory and dealh loss of sheep resulted in deficit in number of pounds produced. §Estimate. JCafch in interior waters estimated. Sources: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service, Crop Reporting Board, Chickens, Eggs, n 1 ^ qo 251 ,753 1 1 3,387 1,014,617 1,041 ,717

8

6

41

114

43U,U6z 000 4,10 Jo ,7 7J 1 10,812

13 *

*

"

139 165

101 ,304 131 ,743

0 7nc 001

647 ,101 736,371 491 ,710 540,732 486,519 163,989 592,535

132 95

40 1

67 38

483,293 1,229,717 82,595 60,655,431

2 2 34 15 2

1,072,614 2,1 56,057 985,700 196,347

10

713,556 596,673

24l

8

666,398 39,458 429,572 388,838 4,894,314 749.756 673,903

4 13

*

151 ,228

5

151 ,361

20

2,542,523 1,126,735 788,436

17 9 14 12 14

448,799 586,456 751,254 108,694 676,009

1

4

2

1,450,280 2,262,862 1 ,001 ,994 282,414 1,404,017 189,792 362,370 154,532 69,745 1,363,065 212,609 6,647,900 1 ,015,583 102,145 2,338,383 843,771 533,228 2,976,364 217,024

253,456

7

446,973

86,827 471 ,746 1 17/ OOO ,11 6,007 168,640 61 ,383 546,684 1,130,929 252,873

4

8 1

262 327

1

A OO £ £Q ,402, 660

14 9 10

mi 700,7

onr>

I

95

1

269,685 860,607 1 10 » on 1 07,480 456,390

254 70 205

1

8

4 4 2

43,881

1

20

p 0

17 il

if&.lf J 700 701

1

1

29

61 i.DJi 327,726 5,940,617

3

190,610 a a

a a

55 119 450

60 549 198 335

1

1

1

ZUO.YCO

1

~z

21 ,665

1

/ IU,o6o

651 ,850 768,731

(j

n

563 07 no c 3

i

1

7

S

37 4 16

2 \

5/, 607

1

1

j 1

1

i

51

1

17

57

3 2

i

17 it

Aa

14

*l

09

458,010

1

2 1

it

18

33 38 92

51

323,300

786,700 288,600 3,120,100 2,384,100 893,400 2,857,900 252,000 143,971,500

194 173 25

2,384,000 305,400 5,364,900 1,331,700 1,084,300 6,433,800 454,000

g

6

7

161

*j

_

24 7

21

7

8,971 ,3C0

*|

o

30 208 25 396 134 87 256 198

202,873 ,625,356 1 36,969 1 noo i C7

1

1

12 24 22 2 23 42 5

552,848 168,765 1

,637,960 070 CIA

1

,462,672 101 ,243

548,895

91

226 14 72 148 118 517 54

1

1

87

1

19 99 133 77 237 28 7,486

121 ,656

961 ,842 3,309,308 250,382 6,742 699,041 1,001,201 395,100 835,275 56,273 51,096,323

1

4 1

13 13 9 6

742,656 74,547 35,176,130

3 639

•Excluding District of Columbia. Sources: U.S. Postal Service; Federal Communications Commission; American Telephone and Telegraph Co.; The Editor & Publisher Co., Inc., International Year Book, 1976 (Copyright 1 976. All rights reserved. Used by permission); National Newspaper Association, 1976 National Directory of Weekly Newspapers; Corporation for Public Broadcasting.

Major trading partners, by value in

Major commodities traded, 1975

millions of dollars

in millions of

EXPORTS Country North America

Canada Mexico South America Argentina Brazil

Chile

Colombia Peru

Venezuela Europe Belgium and Luxembourg France

Germany, West Italy

Netherlands, The Spain

Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom U.S.S.R.

Asia

Hong Kong India

Indonesia Iran Israel

Japan Korea, South

Malaysia Philippines

Saudi Arabia Singapore

12,367 9,079* 1,704 3,244 441

840 300 395 214 759 14,817 1,195 1,483

30,058 21,759 5,144 8,814

13,970 11,092 1,218 2,958

30.577 21,747 3,059 7,220

628

172 670 157 269 340

215

3,056

533 643 904 2,243 32,726

406 574 266 326 592

590 399

2,194

72

254

9,644

27,083 1,575

696 942 3,127 1,316

528 353 399 459

925 1,153 4,525 1,836 28,942 808 1,290 810 3,242

1,464 138

3,624 21.466 1,190 2,137 5.382 2,397 1,083 831 877 867 3,784

3,031

2,161

1975

1,082 11,395

2,427

712 543 700

944 298 182 67

150

313

5,875

1,761

11,268 1,416

67

373

395 832

141

1302

370 270 472 20

Australia Africa

1,502

986 62 129 563 43,224*

81

549 871 611 1,090

632 536

71

1,302 107,652*

•Includes shipments to or from unidentified countries. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Domestic and Administration, Overseas Business Reports.

10

290 39,952

766 754 2,625

532 1,938 1,508 1,147 8.277 1,359 3,282 841 96,140*

tlndudes South West Africa. International

Business

Canada 21 ,759{

Republics

Western Europe

Far Eostf

15,670

29,939

19,660 3,545

Agricultural commodities

Grains and preparations

Soybeans

11.643 2,865

148 85

1,307 28

3,098 1,654

1,011

40

6

121

722

1,355 3,343 8,705 29,101

157

178 239 2,135 5,052

555 924

436

869

Cotton, including

wastes Nonagricultural commodities Ores and scrap metals Coal, coke, and briquettes Chemicals linters,

Machinery Agricultural machines. tractors, parts Electrical

apparatus

Transport equipment Civilian aircraft

and parts

Paper manufactures Metal manufactures Iron and steel mill products Yarn, fabrics, and clothing Other exports

TOTAL IMPORTS

2,832 7,587 15,005 4,864 1,448 1,891

|J

2,382 1,464 27,439 96,140

711 1,223 6,140

989 1,330 6,220

370 390 575 553

611 1.349 2,011

475 292

2,699 8,085

465 2.211

2,364 1,725

412 348 258 526

1,435 1,579 3,936

128 1,482 1,310

934 99 224 228

315 563 307 3,237 11,840

8,895 20,735

209 370

291

4

291

246

1

1,095

7

257 60 423

291 5,226 21,747

98 5,179 21,492

Agricultural commodities Fish, including shellfish

9,565

994

107,652

Meat and preparations

1,551

1,660 2,339 1,816 4,267

TOTAL EXPORTS

548

643

240 527

Total*

Item

2,221 1,400

4,652

1,189

Total

1970

5,194 2,867 4,183

2,536 119 10,105

American

1975

2,741 1,353 1,651

Taiwan Oceania

Algeria Nigeria South Africaf

/22

1970

dollars

IMPORTS

Coffee

Sugar Nonagricultural commodities Ores and scrap metal Petroleum, crude Petroleum products

Chemicals Machinery Transport equipment Automobiles, new Iron and steel mill products Nonferrous metals Textiles other than clothing Other Imports

1,141 1,356 1,561 1,870

1,977 1 9,293 5,521 3,696 11,970 11,495 7,130 4,037 2,063 1,219 28,941

47

14

982

1

720

599

50

54

3,067

2,741 1.391

101

1,851

335

235 429

346 870 2,244 4,988 2,809 351 866

27 7,916

144 900 127 *,

38 177 125 2,942

1,710 4,540 3.373 2,560 1,484

4,156 2,978 1,761

2,107

405 388

364 603

7,805

7,971

tlndudes Japan, East and South Asia. •Includes areas not shown separately. ^Excludes grains and oilseeds valued at $505 million transshipped through Canada to §Excludes parts for tractors. unidentified overseas countries. Source: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, ^Less than $500,000. ||Excludes pig iron. Domestic and International Business Administration, Overseas Business Reports.

PAUL HARRISON

Upper Volfa A

republic of

West

Africa,

bordered by Mali, Niger, Benin, Togo, Ghana, and Ivory Coast.

Upper Volta

is

Area: 105,869 sq mi (274,200 sqkm). Pop. (1975 census): 6,144,000. Cap. and largest

Ouagadougou

city:

(pop., 1970 est., 110,000). norities. President

Language: French

(offi-

Muslim and Christian mi-

Religion: animist;

cial).

and premier

in

1976, Gen. San-

goule Lamizana.

On

Jan. 29, 1976, after several weeks of tension from a crisis in the relations between the

resulting

labour unions and the military government, President

Lamizana dissolved his ministry and on February 9 formed a new Cabinet comprising a civilian majority. On July 23 there was another reshuffle, as a result of which the finance minister was changed for the second time in less than six months.

A

special

32-member

constitutional

commission,

announced by the president in January and set up in April, completed its work on October 5. Among its recommendations for constitutional civilian government, it proposed the holding of a referendum in March 1977, a maximum of three political parties, and presidential elections in

May.

Speaking on the 16th anniversary of Upper Volta's independence, President Lamizana said that pessi-

mism about

was unwarranted and was well able to honour its commitcondemned tendencies toward regional-

national finances

Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1976, Juan Maria Bordaberry, Alberto Demicheli (interim) from June 12, and, from September 1, Aparicio Mendez. The chief political event of 1976 was the removal of President Bordaberry from office on June 12 by the mainly

Army

following disagreements on future policy between the president and the generals. A joint civilianmilitary National Council was established on June 27 to draft a new constitution. A new permanent president, Aparicio Mendez, took office for a five-year term

man from Upper Volta one of thousands of migrants who labour This is

on the plantations of neighbouring Ivory Coast. The migration has caused a dispute between impoverished Volta and its more prosperous neighbour. Volta wants a greater share of the wealth created by its migrants.

that the country

ments.

He

also

ism and sectarianism within the nation. (PHILIPPE DECRAENE)

URUGUAY Education. (1975) Primary, pupils 355,328, teachers

[978.E.4.a.i]

Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 124,966, teachers 2,775; secondary, pupils 11,953, teachers 445; vocational, pupils 2,101, teachers c. 140; teacher training, students 362, teachers c. 30; higher, students 436, teaching staff 40. Finance. Monetary unit: cfa franc, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a parity of cfa Fr 50 to the French franc (free rate of cfa Fr 245.90 U.S. $1; cfa Fr. 423.62 £1 sterling). Budget (1973 actual) balanced at cfa Fr 11,726,000,000 (includes capital expenditure of cfa Fr 961 million).

=

=

Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports cfa Fr 34,660,000,000; exports cfa Fr 8.7 billion. Import sources (1973): France 49%; Ivory Coast 17%; West Germany 5%. Export destinations (1973): Ivory Coast 41%; France 26%; Italy 7%; Ghana 7%. Main exports ( 1972): livestock 41%; cotton 20%; peanuts 7%; sesame seed 5%.

Uruguay AmerUruguay is on the Atlantic Ocean and is bounded by Brazil and Argentina. republic of South

ica,

Area: 68,536 sq mi (177,508 sq km). Pop. (1975 census):

2,764,000,

including

(1961) white 89%; mestizo 10%. Cap. and largest city: Montevideo (pop., 1975 census,

secondary,

pupils

143,852,

teachers

2,545.

UPPER VOLTA

A

13,935;

(1969) 9,668; vocational, pupils 38,343, teachers (1973) 3,953; teacher training, students 3,997, teachers (1973) 341; higher, students 33,664, teaching staff

1,229,700).

Language:

Spanish.

Religion:

Finance. Monetary unit: new peso, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free commercial rate of 3.62 new pesos to U.S. $1

(6.23

new pesos

= £1

sterling). Gold,

sde's,

and foreign exchange (May 1976) U.S. $235 million. Budget (1974 actual): revenue 587.9 billion pesos; expenditure 786.9 billion pesos. Gross national product (1974) 4,443,300,000 new pesos. Cost of living (Montevideo: 1970 = 100; June 1976) 1,933. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports U.S. $546.5 million; exports U.S. $383.8 million. Import sources:

Kuwait 16%; Brazil 13%; U.S. 10%; Argentina 9%; West Germany 8%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: West Germany 22%; The Netherlands 13%; U.S. 12%; Italy 10%; U.K. 8%; Greece 6%; Spain 5%. Main exports: wool 23%; meat 19%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 49,634 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 151,600; commercial (including buses) c. 85,700. Railways (1974): 2,975 km; traffic 353 million passenger-km; freight 239 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1974): 80 million passenger-km; freight 100,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 38; gross tonnage 130,998. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 247,900. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) 1.5 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 305,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): wheat 497; oats 58; corn 157; rice 189; potatoes (1974) 129; sweet potatoes (1974) c. 88; sorghum 77; linseed 39; sunflower seed 51; sugar, raw value (1974) 105; oranges (1974) c. 56; wine (1974) c. 92; wool 37; beef and veal (1974) c. 353. Livestock (in 000; May 1975): sheep c. 16,000; pigs c. 450; cattle c. 11,200; horses (1974) c. 410; chickens (1974) c. 7,200. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): crude steel 14; cement (1973) 526; petroleum products c. 1,570; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr) c. 2,458,000.

c.

Universities: see

Education

Urban Mass Transit: see

Transportation

U.S.S.R.:

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

see

724

Vatican City State

on September 1. Among the first acts of the new government was the withdrawal of political rights from many Uruguayans previously active in politics. The government stated that it would continue current economic policies, which had brought about some improvement in the economic situation. In 197S gross domestic product grew by 3.6%, compared with 1.6% in 1974, and inflation was 66.8%, compared with

April

107.3%.

Vatican's excellent relations with Egypt.

Uniate Catholics, who had been forcibly

1.7 million

incorporated into the Orthodox Church in 1948. The establishment of diplomatic relations with Greece was

under negotiation. Relations with Spain became more normal, progressing to revision of the 1953 concordat,

and agreement on major revisions of the 1929 concordat was reached with the Italian government. In Pres.

Anwar

as-Sadat's

visit

confirmed

the

prisoners, a diplomatic dispute with Venezuela,

In May the pope conferred the scarlet hat on the archbishop of Hanoi among 21 new cardinals, but he reserved one hat in petto (in his breast, secretly), probably for the archbishop of Prague, since relations

the withdrawal of political rights

with Czechoslovakia were strained.

With

its

new regime Uruguay was more

Amnesty International over

in

tune with

However, revelations by

military-ruled neighbours.

its

the treatment of political

and from some Uru-

(max bergerre)

guayans damaged the country's reputation. Indeed, the U.S. Congress deprived Uruguay of U.S. military

See also Religion.

(john hale)

aid.

[974.F.2]

Venezuela A

Vatican City State This eignty is

soverindependent surrounded by but

is

Brazil, Guyana, and the Caribbean Sea. Area: 352,144 sq mi (912,050 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 12,493,-

is

not part of Rome. As a

state with territorial limits, it

is

properly distinguished

from the Holy See, which worldwide constitutes the administrative and legislative body for the Roman Catholic Church.

The area

ac (44 ha). Pop. (1976 est.)

northern of America, Venezuela bounded by Colombia, republic

South

of Vatican City :

700.

is

108.7

As sovereign pon-

Paul VI is the chief of state. Vatican City is administered by a pontifical commission of five cardinals, of which the secretary of state, Jean Cardinal

69%; 20%; Negro 9%; Indian 2%. Cap. and

000, including mestizo

white

largest

Caracas (metro, area pop., 1976 est., 2,576,000). Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman city:

Catholic. President in 1976, Carlos Andres Perez.

tiff,

Villot,

is

president.

In October 1976 the Vatican approved the statute of the East

German episcopal conference, under which West Germany were separated from

the dioceses of

Germany. Thereby, the Vatican acknowledged the existence of two" German states, which it had never recognized de jure. In November, Msgr. those of East

Egypt's President Anwar as-Sadat presents a 2,000-year-old alabaster bowl to Pope Paul VI. Sadat called on the pope at the end of his three-day official visit to Italy in April. is

At

left

Sadat's wife, Jehan.

Agostino Casaroli, Vatican "foreign minister," held

Todor Zhivkov. November, Msgr. Luigi Poggi, the State Secretariat, visited Ro-

talks in Bulgaria with Pres.

In October and itinerant nuncio of

mania but could not

settle the

question of Romania's

VENEZUELA Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 1,924,040, teachers 58,457; secondary, pupils 543,104; vocational, pupils 31,617; teacher training, students 9,490; secondary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers 30,913; higher, students 161,054, teaching staff 11,228. Finance. Monetary unit: bolivar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a par value of 4.29 bolivares to U.S. $1 (free £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and rate of 7.35 bolivares foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $6,72 7,000,000. Budget (1975 est.): revenue 40,542,000,000 bolivares; expenditure 31,629,000,000 bolivares. Gross national

=

108,450,000,000 bolivares. Money 24,158,000,000 bolivares. Cost 1970 100; May 1976) 141. Foreign Trade. ( 1975) Imports 20,662,000,000 bolivares; exports 43,426,000,000 bolivares. Import sources (1974): U.S. c. 47%; Japan c. 11%; West Germany c. 9%; Italy c. 6%. Export destinations (1974): U.S. c. 43%; Canada c. 12%; Netherlands Antilles 12%. Main exports: crude oil 58%; petroleum products 3 7%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 65,718 km. Motor vehicles in use (1973): passenger 820,000; commercial 295,000. Railways: (1974) 175 km; traffic (1971) 42 million passenger-km, freight 15 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1975): 2,269,000,000 passenger-km; freight 73,061,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 152; gross tonnage 515,661. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 554,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) 2 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 995,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975) corn 686; rice c. 369; potatoes (1974) 125; cassava (1974) 325; sesame seed c. 60; sugar, raw value 515; cocoa c. 21; bananas c. 1,000; oranges (1974) c. 220; coffee c. 64; tobacco c. 16; cotton, lint c. 43; beef and veal (1974) c. 251. Livestock (in 000; 1975): cattle 9,089; pigs 1,795; sheep 101; goats (1974) 1,419; horses (1974) 450; asses (1974) c. 528; poultry 28.217. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): crude oil 122,736; natural gas (cu m; 1974) 11,633,000; petroleum products (1974) 61,283: iron ore (64% metal content) 24,104; cement (1972) 2,765; gold (troy oz; 1974) 17; diamonds (metric carats; 1974) 819; electricity (kw-hr; 1974) 18,396,000. product supply

(1974)

(May 1976)

of living (Caracas;

:

=

The oil industry was nationalized on Jan. 1, 1976. Production decreased toward the 2.2 million-bbl-aday target. The iron-ore industry (taken over in 1975) dropped production

to

about 18 million tons

in 1976,

as against the 22 million tons planned, because of

reduced world demand. Lack of qualified manpower to run these newly nationalized industries, except in the oil industry, was a brake on long-term development plans. Many of the nonskilled workers were illegal

immigrants from Colombia, Peru, and Chile. President Perez was halfway through his five-year term in office, and his Accion Democratica party had a majority in both houses of the Congress. The principal mandate of the party was the attainment of a

more equitable society; the administration chose to do this by taking a more active role in the economy, as well as by fiscal and social means. The five-year development plan (1976-80) called for public sector investments of $27.6 billion, or 53.1% of the total investment under the plan. Annual gross domestic product growth rates were expected to average 8.3% over the duration of the plan. Major investments

would be channeled billion),

to the

agricultural

petroleum and mining ($5.5

($1.9 billion), electrical

($4.1

and manufacturing ($5.3 billion) sectors. Agricultural production was projected to rise at 9.2% a year, so that by 1980 only 8% of the nation's food would have to be imported. Petroleum exploration and drilling offshore and on the Orinoco tar belt were provided for, and local refining patterns were restructured toward the export of more expensive oil products; $700 million was to be invested in the petrobillion),

chemicals industry. Large-scale hydroelectric projects

on the Guri, Uribante-Doradas, and Caroni rivers would be developed, while projects in education, housing, and communications were to receive $5.9 billion. The Sider steel plant at Ciudad Guayana, with an annual capacity of 1.2 million tons, was being enlarged with the aim of quadrupling production. Other projects included shipbuilding and a restructuring of the automobile industry. Over 10% of expenditure was to be financed through the normal budget between 1976 and 1980 with 38.8% from state agencies and 11.2% from local government; the investment fund was to lend $2,960,000,000, and the remainder, $5.5 billion, was to be raised from abroad. The government recognized the inflationary consequences of such heavy expenditure, and through monetary and food subsidies restrained the rate of inflation; in 1974 and 1975, the Caracas cost-of-living index increased respectively by 11.6 and 8%; however, restrictions in the

rate to a

3.9%

money supply

increase in the

restrained the

eight

first

months of

1976, representing an annual rate of increase of 5.9%.

To

aid countries affected

by the

rise in oil prices

Venezuela contributed 600 million Special Drawing Rights to the World Bank's petrodollar-recycling facility, and also set up a $500 million fund within the Inter-American Development Bank to promote regional integration and industrial and energy projects. Venezuela was active, as a leading member, in the Andean Group and the Sistema Economico Latino Americano, or sela. (See Latin-American Affairs.) Guerrillas kidnapped William Niehous, vice-presi-

dent of a U.S. company, from his

home near Caracas

on February 27, and he had not been released by the end of the year. The alleged murder by police agents of Jorge Rodriguez, leader of the (Trotskyist) Socialist

League, on July 25, supposedly

in

connection with

the kidnapping, caused a public outcry,

and steps were

taken to bring the agents to justice. Two parliamentary deputies were brought to trial for alleged involvement in the Niehous kidnapping. In June, Occidental Petroleum was named in connection with bribery, denied by the company. Venezuela broke

diplo-

off

woman

matic relations with Uruguay on July 6, after a seeking asylum in the Venezuelan embassy in Montevideo was seized by Uruguayan police.

Veterinary Science There were about 29,000 active veterinarians in the United States in 1976. The Senate Committee on

Government Operations recommended

that this

num-

ber be increased to 40,075 by 1980. Twenty-one colleges in the United States were offering the doctor of veterinary medicine degree. Student enrollment for the 1975-76 academic year was 6,274, an increase of 269 over the previous year. Females of the entering classes in 1975 and

made up 29%

16%

of the gradu-

ating classes. Because of the limited capacity of U.S.

some U.S.

citizens applied for

foreign colleges of veterinary medicine. ates of foreign veterinary in the U.S.

Most

colleges

admission to

Many

gradusought employ-

state licensing boards

and the

U.S. Civil Service Commission required that an ap-

by the American Veterinary Medical Association (avma) or have a certificate from the avma. The steps required for certification of foreign graduates were (1) proof of graduation from a college of veterinary medicine; (2) proof of comprehension and ability to communicate in English; (3) a passing score on the avma's examination in veterinary medicine; and (4) proof plicant be a graduate of a college accredited

of successful completion of a year of evaluated clinical experience at a site

approved by the avma.

In 1976 the United States continued to be

among

the few countries in the world where cloven-hoofed

animals were free of foot-and-mouth disease. The last case was in 1929. Veterinarians administered con-

programs to prevent entry of the dreaded virus. Completion of the Pan-American Highway was dependent on the development of adequate controls to prevent the spread of the virus from Colombia. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture had a data bank on 13 exotic animal diseases containing over trol

industry on

New

Day. Venezuela

is

oil

Year's the

world's third largest

exporter of oil. The government took control including

subsidiaries of Exxon, Shell,

[974. C.l]

ment

of the country's

38 companies,

(MICHAEL WOOLLER)

colleges,

Venezuelan Pres. Carlos Andres Perez (arm raised) led ceremonies marking the nationalization

Gulf,

and

Mobil.

of

AOIP/ PICTORIAL PARADE

726

Vietnam

13,000 articles. Using a combination of computer and microfilm, 1,000 articles per minute could be reviewed. Its Emergency Programs Information Center (epic) could now respond almost immediately should a disease strike. It had more than 30,000 geologic survey maps of various parts of the United

maps on 35-mm aperture maps of other parts of the

States and 3,600 county cards.

There were

world.

The maps could be

also

printed from the aperture

cards and sent via telecopier to wherever they were

Biologists at the Ames, Iowa, National Animal Disease Center are studying adenoviruses that produce

weak

calf syndrome newborn calves. Microphoto below shows

in

adenovirus growing in

a

cell

nucleus.

At bottom, researcher takes a blood sample from a heifer that has been injected with adenoviruses.

needed in the field. The production and release of sterile screwworms in the southwestern states and in Mexico continued to hold down screwworm infestation of livestock and wildlife west of the Mississippi River. The sterile screwworms mate with fertile ones, but produce no offspring. A new screwworm production plant, the largest in the world, was opened on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, in 1976 and the first sterile flies were released in Baja California in September. The plan was to push the barrier zone south to the Isthmus of Panama. Screwworms had already been eradicated from Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Swine vesicular disease (svd) was found to be spreading throughout Europe and Asia. This disease cannot be distinguished from other vesicular diseases without laboratory confirmation. The U.S. established veterinary controls over the importation of meat and animals to guard against entry of the virus. The rapid, indirect enzyme-labeled antibody (ela) microplate test was developed as a diagnostic and surveillance tool to aid in the control of animal disease.

The ela

test

showed great promise

in the rapid

and accurate diagnosis of such diseases as hog cholera, trichinosis, and brucellosis. The Animal Welfare Act was amended by the U.S. Congress "(1) in research

to

assure

medical research. This meant an added responsibility for veterinarians.

The incidence of animal rabies in the United States continued to decline in 1976. Worldwide, however,

humane care and treathumane treatment of animals

the number of cases was increasing. The animals most commonly found positive for rabies were dogs and

animals intended for use

for use as pets are provided

ment; (2)

in.

or for exhibition purposes or

to insure that

facilities

French veterinarians remove an ovary from a zebra using the u Ysop bubble," a kind of inflatable balloon with gloves built

during transportation in commerce; and (3) to protect the owners of animals from the theft of their animals by preventing the sale or use of animals

which have been stolen." The act required that dogs, cats, and other animals shipped by common carrier have a health certificate signed by a veterinarian and that care and treatment of laboratory animals be under the supervision of a doctor of veterinary medicine at all facilities where animals are used for bio-

vampire bats dogs

in

Latin America, foxes in Europe, stray

and mongooses in Africa, Canada. (See Health and (clarence h. pals)

in Asia, dogs, jackals,

and foxes and skunks Disease.)

in

[353. C]

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Country Vet (1972).

Vietnam The

Socialist

Vietnam

named

Republic

(S.R.V.N.)

of

was

after reunification of

North and South Vietnam under Communist rule. It is bordered in the north by China, in the west by Laos and Cambodia, and in the south and east by the South China Sea. Area: 130,654 sq mi (338,392 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): over SO million. Capital: Hanoi (pop., 1976 est., 1,443,500). Largest city: Saigon, former capital of South Vietnam, renamed Ho Chi Minh City (pop., 1976 est., 3,460,500). Languages: Vietnamese, French, English. Religion: Buddhist, animist, Confucian, Christian (Roman Catholic), Hoa Hao and Cao Dai religious sects. Secretary of the Vietnamese Workers' (Communist) Party in 1976, Le

Duan; president, Ton Due Thang; premier, Pham Van Dong. The conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnamese troops on April 30, 1975, after a long, frus-

TERZ

I

A

NO

T ER Z A N

II

— SYGMA

ended 21 years of partition and resulted in one Vietnam. The new nation emerged as Southeast Asia's paramount military power. Its economic and political potential was also considerable, but a long and painful period of consolidation and assimilation lay ahead. While Vietnam had considerable success in winning international acceptance, its Southeast Asian neighbours remained suspicious of its intentions. A major foreign policy goal, diplomatic relations with the U.S., continued to elude Hanoi. Rebuilding and modernizing the country's economy, in a low state of development and devastated by nearly 30 years of war, was and would continue to be the country's primary task for many years, but harsh economic realities were not allowed to dim the hard-won glory of unification. Formal reunification was declared July 2, 1976, when a newly elected National Assembly met in Hanoi. The Assembly's 492 members were chosen on April 25 in an all-Vietnam election in which opposition candidates were not trating war,

allowed.

Some observers had difficulty distinguishing the new government from that of the old Democratic Republic of (North) Vietnam. The hardened leaders who had steered North Vietnam through nearly three decades of war remained in place. Only six South Vietnamese were absorbed into the new government, and they were given honorary or technical positions. Pres. Ton Due Thang, who had succeeded the late Ho Chi Minh in 1969 and who, at 88, might have been expected to retire, stayed on for the sake of continuity. The new nation adopted the North Vietnamese flag, national anthem, and national emblem. Hanoi remained the capital. The new constitution was little different from that of North Vietnam. Not everyone liked the new regime. In South Vietnam, in both the Mekong Delta and the Central Highlands, armed bands of former South Vietnamese sol-

VIETNAM Education. (1974-75

est.)

Primary, secondary, and c. 2 50,000;

vocational, pupils c. 9.6 million, teachers higher, students c. 130,000, teaching staff

c.

7,000.

Finance. Monetary units: dong (North Vietnam), with (Sept. 20, 1976) an official rate of 2.93 dong to U.S. $1 (nominal rate of 5.05 dong = £1 sterling); new piastre (South Vietnam), with (Sept. 20, 1976) a nominal rate of 1.85 new piastre to U.S. $1 (3.20 new piastres =£1 sterling). Budgets: (North; 1975) balanced at c. 6.5 billion dong; (South; 1974) revenue 908 million new piastres, expenditure 1.1 billion

new

piastres.

Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports c. U.S. $2 billion; exports U.S. $400 million. Import sources: U.S. c. 35%; U.S.S.R. 13%; China c. 12%; Singapore c. 12%; Japan c. 6%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. C 14%; China c. 12%; East Germany c. 10%; Japan c. 7%. Main exports: clothing c. 10%; fish c.

10%; rubber c.

c.

10%;

coal

c.

5%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 34,400 km. Railways ( 1973): c. 1,500 km; traffic

(South only) 170 million passenger-km, freight 1.3 net ton-km. Air traffic (South only; 1974): 377.5 million passenger-km; freight 3,570,000 net ton-km. Navigable waterways (1973) c. 4,500 km. Telephones (South only; Dec. 1973) 47,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) c. 2,075,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 500,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 19 74): rice c. 11,400; sweet potatoes c. 1,200; cassava c. 1,080; rubber c. 28; tea c. 8; coffee c. 7; pork c. 440; timber (cu m) 18,400; fish catch c. 1,010. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle c. 1,800buffalo c. 1,800; pigs c. 12,300; chickens c. 55,000; ducks c. 39,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): coal c. 2,000; cement c. 800; salt c. 300; electricity (kw-hr) c. 2,300,000. million

Hanoi billboard shows the distribution of seats

the new Assembly

in

National

and lists the leaders of the government of unified

diers continued to hold out against the Communists, but this resistance had no long-term significance. More than 3,000 refugees escaped from South Vietnam by boat in 1976. Most would eventually join the

140,000 Vietnamese

who had been granted

refuge in

the U.S. before the fall of South Vietnam.

other hand, the

Communist regime and

the

On the Roman

Catholic Church, once considered irreconcilable enemies, appeared to have come to terms. The archbishop

Hanoi was made a cardinal by Pope Paul VI. With the shooting war won, the economy became the new battlefield. In Hanoi a high-ranking party official told a visitor: "It [the economy] is our third of

We

one against the French, now we have to fight a new war against our own underdevelopment." As if to act out the military metaphor, the North Vietnamese Army was thrown into the economic campaign. According to Defense Minister Vo Nguyen Giap, "We can only have a solid defense if the country is prosperous." resistance.

fought the

first

the second against the Americans,

A

new

merge the agricultural remore industrialized North was approved at the (Communist) Vietnamese Workers' Party's fourth congress, the first to be held in 16 years, in mid-December. North Vietnam was far better prepared to fight the economic war than the South. After so many years of war and sacrifice, the North was no stranger to austerity or adversity. By contrast, under the stimulus of a false prosperity generated by billions of U.S. dollars, the South was accustomed to luxuries it could no longer afford. The North also had another advantage in that it had a two-year head start. Made safe from U.S. bombers by the January 1973 cease-fire, North Vietnam had immediately begun the reconstruction of its economy. The South, by contrast, had been totally unprepared five-year plan to

sources of the South with the

for

its final collapse.

Hoang Tung, editor of the official party newspaper Nhan Dan, summed up the problems of the South in terms of three "armies." First, there was the problem of finding jobs for South Vietnam's vanquished mil-

Vietnam.

728

Water Sports

lion-man army; South Vietnam had an estimated five million unemployed at the time of surrender. The second "army" was the "army of beauty," a reference to the Saigon prostitutes who, in Tung's words, were

with

"attacking our People's army." The third was the of intellectuals" who could be useful in science

national

"army

—

and technology but were poor at farming the skill Vietnam now needed most. Moving South Vietnam's army of unemployed from the war-swollen urban areas to gainful employment in the countryside was a continuing process. According to one estimate, 600,000 people from Saigon alone were transferred to "new economic zones." Hanoi again failed to win admission to the UN. On November 15 its application was vetoed in the Security Council by the U.S. because of Hanoi's refusal to account for about 800 Americans missing in action in Vietnam. Earlier, Hanoi had supplied the names of 12 Americans all had died but the U.S. dismissed this as "tokenism." For their part, the Vietnamese insisted that the U.S. pay the $3.2 billion to "heal the wounds of war" that had been promised by former president Richard Nixon. The stalemate was evident when, on November 12, representatives of the U.S. and Vietnam met in the Parisian suburb of Neuilly. It was indicated that the talks, the first formal contact between the two countries since the fall of Saigon, were aimed at determining whether conditions were ripe for full-scale negotiations. The U.S. State Department announced that nothing in the talks warranted any change in the U.S. intention to veto Vietnam's UN membership, and no date for renewed talks was set. No further developments in U.S.-Vietnam relations were expected until after President-elect Jimmy Carter took office in January 1977. Vietnam managed to gain admission to three international financial bodies: the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development

—

Bank

—

all

—

over U.S. objections. This

made Vietnam

by by U.S.

three

eligible for indirect U.S. aid, since loans

all

organizations were in part financed

funds.

After branding the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (asean) as a "neocolonialist" tool of "American imperialism," Hanoi underwent a change of mind and dispatched a goodwill mission to all five member countries the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand. This conciliatory approach was apparently more a change of tactics than of heart, however, because Vietnam subsequently re-

—

newed all

its

propaganda attacks on the asean countries,

of which were plagued

by Communist insurgencies

of varying importance. Matters were further compli-

when Thailand's placatory democratic government was replaced by a strongly anti-Communist cated

military junta that took a hard line toward Hanoi.

Contrary Virgin Islands:

Dependent States

see

Vital Statistics:

Demography

see

Volleyball:

Court

see

Games

to earlier fears, there

from Hanoi

to

Communist

was no

insurgents in other South-

east Asian countries. Nevertheless, its

support for "the

flood of arms

common

Hanoi made

plain

revolutionary cause of

the peoples of Southeast Asia."

(keyes beech)

[976.B.4.a-d]

Wages and Hours: Economy, World;

see

Industrial Relations

Wales: see United Kingdom

Water Sports

Warsaw Treaty

Motorboating. The Bicentennial Gold Cup race, highlight of the unlimited hydroplane circuit and worth more than $76,000 in prize money, was appropriately won by "Miss U.S." driven by Tom D'Eath. But while

Organization:

Defense

see

Water Resources: see

Earth Sciences;

Environment

the Detroit thunderboat delighted the local audience

its

winning performance on the Detroit River, was dominated by another

the rest of the circuit driver.

Muncey, the long-time veteran

Bill

limited racing,

won

of un-

five of nine regattas to earn the

championship. It was Muncey's

fifth

title

tories

championship in 1960. His five race vicboosted his career total to 38, more than any

other

man

since his first

A

in the sport.

major factor

in his

triumph was Muncey's pre-

season acquisition of the most successful boat in the history of unlimited competition. It was "Pay 'N

Pak," owned by Dave Heerensperger. Built of honeycomb aluminum and fitted with a novel tail wing, it had won 16 regattas and 3 national championships in 1973-75. Muncey renamed it the "Atlas Van Lines" (he was a vice-president of the moving firm) and ended a three-year dry spell by winning the season opener at Miami, Fla., in May. Demonstrating the blazing speed of the boat, he drove it at a record qualifying speed of 128.023 mph at San Diego, Calif., the fastest single lap ever recorded in the sport, even in competition. Along with his Miami victory Muncey won at Madison, Ind., Owensboro, Ky., Dayton, Ohio, and the Tri-Cities event in Washington. As mentioned above, D'Eath won in Detroit, while Mickey Remund in "Miss Budweiser" was victorious at Seattle. The 1975 unlimited national champion, Billy Schumacher, won at Washington, D.C., and San Diego to rank second in the standings. He drove "Olympia Beer." In ocean racing, Honolulu contractor Tom Gentry won the world Union of International Motorboating (uim) championship after an arduous and expensive campaign. He began the year by winning in Brazil and Uruguay and placing second in Argentina. In two South African races he earned nothing, because he failed to finish one and because the other was not recognized by the uim. He went on, however, to win in Italy and Sweden, and to finish third at Poole and Cowes-Torquay, both in the U.K. He also won the Bahamas 500. Gentry drove a 35-ft Cigarette with Kiekhaefer Aeromarine engines. Joel Halpern of New York won the U.S. national offshore championship. He won at Key West, Fla., and Marina del Rey, Calif.; finished second in the

Bacardi Trophy Race at Miami; placed third in the Grand Prix del Rey and Bushmills races, both in California; fourth in the Benihana race in

sey; fifth in the

Bahamas 500; out

of the

New

Jer-

money

in

Ohio; and blew an engine at the final race of the year in San Francisco. Halpern decided to go after the world title halfway through the year and began commuting to Europe. Despite a late start with his 38-ft Cobra and dual MerCruiser power, he won at Poole, England, and finished third in Sweden's Gettingloppet and in the French Dauphin d'Or. He in Naples, and with the points earned in

was fourth the

Bahamas

500, Bacardi, and Benihana races in the

U.S. finished the year second to Gentry.

(james e. martenhoff) Canoeing. The big news of the year in 1976 was, of course, the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal. East Germany and the Soviet Union were the most successful teams. Although the U.S. competitors were outstroked by their opponents, they improved some of their personal best times

by

as

much

as six seconds.

White-water canoeing was not represented at the 1976 Olympics as it had been in Munich in 1972. To include it

or not

is

left

up

and Field Sports

to the host country. :

(See

Track

Special Report.)

White-water canoeing and kayaking continued

to en-

joy a surge of popularity in the U.S. Increasing effort was being made to save the nation's free-flowing rivers in order to

accommodate

the growing

number

of river

the distinctive

mode

of surfing

flowing with the waves to attacking them.

the sport closer to home.

ing

remarkable record was set in white-water kayaking in the U.S. by Eric Evans. At the 1976 national championships in California, he retained his title as the national Kl (singles) men's champion for the seventh consecutive year. During this time Evans also ranked among the top ten slalom paddlers of the world. With the continued growth of canoeing and of the number of persons actively involved in it, safety con-

became more and more important. The American Canoe Association, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the American Red Cross continued to work closely together to put out the most helpful information to siderations

keep the sport as safe as possi(joan l. mason) short, wiry Venezuelan with the

the public in order to ble,

Water Skiing. A

muscle control of a ballet artist strengthened his hold on his title as the men's world water -ski champion during 1976. In the off-year for the official biennial world water ski championships, 17-year-old Carlos Suarez of Maracay, Venezuela, won overall titles in the major international invitational tournaments and proved even to the most skeptical that his narrow 1975 victory over the world's best was only the beginning of his reign as king of water skiing. Establishing new trick records in nearly every appearance, Suarez won the Moomba Masters in Australia in March, took the Western Hemisphere title in Mexico a month later, and captured the Masters Trophy at Callaway Gardens, Ga., in July. In women's competition, Cindy Fla.,

moved

Todd

of Pierson,

out front in the chase to determine the

Surfing continued to suffer from a shortage of surfareas and more participants. The consequent crowds led to short tempers and resistance to or-

ganized activities. (j. c.

Water Polo. The

flanagan)

world's top 12 teams competed

premier water polo event of 1976, the Olympic Games. After preliminary contests the Hungarians won their first four final-round games to take the in the

gold medal. Italy took

home

the silver, finishing with

two wins, one loss, and two ties; The Netherlands, with an identical record, placed third. Close behind, in order, were Romania, Yugoslavia, and West Germany. The competition among these teams was extremely close, as 6 of their final 15 games were ties and the margin of victory never exceeded two a record of

goals.

One

of the major Olympic surprises

was the

fail-

ure of the Soviet team, winner of the world championships in 1975 and the Olympic gold medal in 1972, -

advance out of the preliminary round; there they were tied by Romania and beaten by The Netherlands. Cuba gained seventh place after being awarded a 5-0 forfeit victory over the Soviet team when the latter failed to attend a scheduled game. The U.S.S.R. played its remaining games to finish eighth. Canada finished ninth, followed by Mexico, Australia, and Iran. Absent from the Olympics after a third-place finish in 1972 was the United States, which failed to qualify to

at the

Pan American Games.

In competition within the U.S., coach Pete Cutino led his University of California Bears to the 1975

Na-

tional Collegiate Athletic Association championships.

successor to the perennial world champion, Liz Allan

The University

who decided Todd won the overall

and the University of California at Los Angeles third. In the 1976 Amateur Athletic Union championships Cutino's Concord (Calif.) squad took home the honours, followed by Stanford and the Southern Cali-

Shetter,

to retire after the title in

the

1975 season.

Western Hemisphere

competition, took the measure of the women's field in the Masters,

and wrapped up a successful season

with an overall victory in the U.S. National Championships at Miami, Fla., in August. Chris Redmond of Canton, Ohio, won the men's U.S. open overall

title,

while individual event honours

went to Bob LaPoint of Castro Valley, Calif., who became the national open champion in both slalom and jumping, and Tony Krupa of Jackson, Mich., who won tricks. In women's jumping Linda Giddens of Eastman, Ga., set a new world record with a leap of 129 ft, two feet better than the mark established by Shetter in 1975.

(thomas

c.

hardman)

Surfing. Professionals, with the Australians and South Africans in the forefront, continued to dominate competitive surfing. The north shore of Oahu, Hawaii, was the scene of five major professional contests during the year. Mark Richards of Australia projected his slashing, aggressive style from his customary 4-ft Australian waves to the 20-ft Hawaiian

giants.

He

so impressed the judges that he

won both

the Smirnoff and the

Men's Cup, taking home an impressive $10,000. His teammate Ian Cairns captured the Duke Classic, with South Africa's Shaun Tomson taking first in the Pipeline Masters. Smoothsurfing Hawaiian Rory Russell saved the occasion for the Islands by winning The Bolt, the only professional contest that used the objective scoring system of awarding fixed points for each maneuver. Back in his

Water Sports

was changing, from

running enthusiasts. Restoring urban rivers was becoming more widespread so that people could enjoy

A

729

homeland, Richards won the Australian Coke Contest. It became evident during these tournaments that

of California at Irvine finished second

fornia All Stars. ( WILLIAM ENSIGN FRADY) and Field Sports: Special Report.) Skin and Scuba Diving. One of the world's finest

See also Track

undersea phenomena opened during the year in Miami. Planet Ocean Museum, the facilities related to

brainchild of F. G. Walton-Smith and the International

Oceanographic Foundation, was expected

to cost

The Embassy- Daily Express International

Offshore

Powerboat Race at Cowes-Torquay in August was won by Englishman Charles

Gill.

Photo shows start of the race along Britain's south coast, with third-place winner

Tom in

Gentry of Honolulu

foreground.

adn-zb/ eastfoto

WESTERN SAMOA Education. (1975) Primary, pupils 32,642, teach968; secondary, pupils 15,098, teachers 773; vocational, pupils 131, teachers 10; teacher training, students 490, teachers 30; higher, students 249, teaching staff 9. ers

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit: tala (dollar),

with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 0.87 tala to U.S. $1 (1.50 tala=£l sterling). Budget ( 1973 actual): revenue 9,174,000 tala; expenditure 10,569,000 tala. Foreign trade (1975): imports 20,482,000 tala; exports 4,541,000 tala. Import sources: New Zealand

27%; Australia 24%; U.S. 13%; Japan 11%; U.K. 7%; Singapore 5%. Export destinations: The Nether33%; New Zealand 20%; West Germany 20%; Sweden 9%. Main exports: copra 58%; cocoa 26%.

lands

Taisi

Tufuga

Tupua Tamanon-Tama Aiga

replaced his cousin,

Efi,

sese Lealofi IV,

and was the

("royal son") to hold the

first

office.

In 1975 the Tamasese government had recognized China and reached preliminary agreement on diplo-

Bernd Olbricht (left) and Joachim Mattern

Germany won the 500-metre of East

kayak pairs at the Olympic Games in July.

$7 million when finally completed. Half-finished in 1976, it contained such exhibits as the original deepdiving craft, designed by Ed Link and built by John Perry; a replica of the submersible craft "Alvin," donated by the U.S. Navy; an 11-ton oil rig; a real, if small, iceberg; and an immense array of films, slide shows, ship models, diving equipment, and demonstrations.

Planet Ocean, the motion picture that intro-

duced the exhibit, was nominated for an Academy Award in 1975. When complete, Planet Ocean was expected to become a mecca for divers everywhere. In other developments, a major step was taken to enhance safety under the sea. Authorities have known that about one-third of all scuba-diving fatalities are related to exhausting the air supply in the tank.

Therefore, the leading associations of instructors in

matic links with the U.S.S.R. In 1976 this latter decision was confirmed and followed by discussions on "mutual cooperation'-' with particular reference to took place with Chinese diplomats, and during a visit to Peking by Malietoa

fisheries. Similar discussions

Tanumafili II an agreement under which China would provide technical assistance was signed. During the year Western Samoa and the other South Pacific

Forum

countries agreed not to make any fisheries agreements final until after the conclusion of the Law of the Sea Conference. (See Law: Special Report.)

On December 15 Western Samoa became the 147th member of the UN. (barrie macdonald) [977.A.3]

Winter Sports

1976 began requiring the use of submersible pressure gauges in training classes. Employment of such gauges,

The worldwide coverage

which provide an accurate and constant means of checking on the remaining air supply, should reduce the number of fatalities caused by running out of

lic

air.

(

james

e.

martenhoff)

Swimming.

See also Rowing; Sailing;

the

of sports on snow and ice in Winter Olympics did much in 1976 to further pubawareness of these recreations. (See Special Re-

port.)

Ice Skating.

A

survey of recreational skating

in

Canada estimated that at least two million people participated on some 2,000 rinks of all kinds. It was believed that the sport attracted nearly ten million in

[452.B.4.a]

the U.S. and approximately half that number in Western Europe. By the end of May, the Canadian

Figure Skating Association, the largest organization of

Western Samoa A

its

monarchy and member monwealth of Nations, Western Samoa constitutional

of the

Com-

is an island South Pacific Ocean, about 1,600 mi. E of New Zealand and 2,200 mi. S of Hawaii. Area: 1,075 sq mi (2,784 sq km), with two major islands, Savai'i (662 sq mi) and Upolu (435 sq mi), and seven smaller islands. Pop. (1976 est.): 152,200. Cap. and largest city: Apia (pop., 1971, 30,300). Language: Samoan and English. Religion (1971) Congregational 51%, Roman Catholic 22%, Methodist 16%, others

group

in the

:

11%. Head of Malietoa

state

Tanumafili

(O

le

II;

Ao

o le

prime

Malo)

in

Tupua

ministers,

Tamasese Lealofi IV and, from March Taisi Tufuga Efi.

24,

1976,

Tupuola

In elections held in March 1976 about half of the 36 members who sought reelection for the Legislative Assembly were successful; there were 28 new members,

An

was the minor The new prime minister, Tupuola

younger and well educated.

issue

deterioration of living standards caused

economic recession.

by

a

kind in the world, had increased

its

membership

to

152,475 in 1,015 clubs. Following a period of marking time in Australia, a national resurgence of ice skating

was sparked by government grants, enabling improvements to be made at the main Sydney rink. Singles events provided new titleholders in the world ice figure and dance championships, held in Gbteborg, Sweden, on March 2-6; 22 nations were represented by 110 skaters, including the first entry

from New Zealand. Figure Skating. John Curry

(see

Biography) en-

advanced artistic grace to become Britain's first men's world champion in 37 years, after winning the Olympic and European titles during the preceding 50 days. This third leg of the rarely achieved triple crown was an exacting trial of character and temperament as well as technique. Curry owed his world title to a well-nigh perfect performance in the final free skating. It enabled him to turn a deficit into victory by the narrowest of margins. Two earlier errors by Curry had enabled Vladimir terprisingly blended athleticism with

Kovalev of the Soviet Union to begin the last round ahead on points, and Kovalev almost made it, the judges ultimately splitting 5-4 in the Englishman's favour. Curry included his usual three triple jumps,

—

and it proved one too many. The Moscow skater fell from an almost desperate triple toe loop jump, and this undoubtedly cost him the title. Third was Jan Hoffmann, the 1974 champion from East Germany. An unprecedented back somersault by Terry Kubicka of the U.S., who placed sixth, was cheered by but Kovalev attempted four

the crowd, but at the annual meeting of the Interna-

Union (isu) council, in Rome, Italy, on May 21-24, it was decided that somersault-type jumps as elements of free skating in competitions henceforth would be forbidden and penalized by the tional Skating

judges.

Dorothy Hamill (see Biography) of the U.S. enhanced her Olympic victory by dethroning The Netherlands' U.S. -based Dianne de Leeuw to become the women's champion. Hamill paced her free skating shrewdly, taking no undue risks and attempting no triple jumps. Her highlights were two good double axels and her own special spin, the "Hamill camel." The victory was clear-cut, but there was a mighty duel for the silver medal between de Leeuw and Christine Errath, the East German gaining second place by a hairline decision. Rodnina won the pairs

Irina

title

for a record-

shattering eighth successive time, and the fourth with Aleksandr Zaitsev as partner. With powerful overhead lifts and neatly matched jumps and spins, the Soviet duo once more outclassed their East German "shadows," Rolf Osterreich and Romy Kermer. Third place was taken by another Soviet partnership, Aleksandr Vlasov and Irina Vorobieva. Ice Dancing. Aleksandr Gorshkov and his wife, Ludmila Pakhomova, recaptured the ice dance title.

Watched by

a capacity crowd of 11,500, the elegant Soviet couple scored seven sixes for artistic impres-

—

sion and three more for technical merit the highest marks in any world championship to gain their sixth win in seven years. They were never seriously challenged by their compatriots, Andrey Minenkov and Irina Moiseyeva, who had won the previous year when Gorshkov was unable to compete because of illness. But "Min and Mo" did manage to resist constant pressure from the third-place Americans, Jim Millns and Colleen O'Connor. The number of international figure and dance competitions increased at all levels. Augmenting the suc-

—

Geneva, Switz., of the senior European championships, which date from 1891, the first isu junior championships were held at Megeve, cessful continuance in

France, as an experiment likely to lead to junior

championships.

A

third

official

international

world Skate

Canada senior tournament was well supported at Edmonton, Alta.; the Richmond Trophy women's senior international had its 28th event in London, England; and 18 other international meets were staged in Austria,

Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France,

East Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Switzerland,

West Germany and Yugoslavia. Speed Skating. Piet Kleine maintained Dutch suwhen he became the new overall winner in the men's world ice speed championship on his home track at Heerenveen on February 28-29. Sten Stensen of Norway was runner-up without winning any of the four races, and another Dutchman, Hans van Helden, finished third. The versatile Kleine was first in both periority

m and the 10,000 m; van Helden won the m; and Eric Heiden of the U.S. took the 500 m. The women's world speed championship at Gj0vik, Norway, on February 21-22, produced the first Cathe 1,500

5,000

nadian overall winner, Sylvia Burka, since the tution of the

title in

insti-

1936. For the second straight year

Galina Stepanskaya of the Soviet Union

skates to victory in the women's 1,500-metre speed skating event at the Winter Olympics in Innsbruck

February.

in

Tatyana Averina (U.S.S.R.) and Sheila Young (U.S.) finished runner-up and third, respectively. Young won both the shorter distances, 500 m and 1,000 m. Burka,

first

in the

1,500 m,- recorded the

first

vic-

tory in any event for Canada.

Karin Kessow, the deposed East German overall champion, won the 3,000 m. Separate world sprint titles for men and women, in West Berlin on March 6-7, were won, respectively, by Johan Granath (the first victory for a Swede) and Sheila Young (her third triumph in four seasons). World records were broken over four men's and two women's distances. At Medeo, U.S.S.R., Stensen lowered the 10,000 m to 14 min 38.08 sec and Yevgeni Kulikov of the Soviet Union reduced the 1,000 to min 15.70 sec. At Inzell, West Germany, van 1 Helden clocked the 1,500 m in 1 min 55.61 sec, and Kleine covered the 5,000 m in 7 min 2.38 sec.

m

Young closed a personally gratifying season with a new time of 40.68 sec for the 500-m sprint at Inzell, and the Soviet long-distance racer, Galina Stepanskaya, brought the 3,000-m figures down to 4 min 31.00 sec at Medeo. Eighty-two nonchampionship international speed meets were held during the season in Austria, East Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, West Germany, and the U.S.S.R.

The

was raised sigby the appointment of a new isu technical Weather: see Earth Sciences committee for short-track racing. The sequel was status of indoor speed skating

nificantly

expected to be the institution of indoor world ice speed championships, probably starting in 1978, to satisfy a

demand from many

nations without outdoor

Welfare: see Social

circuits.

Skiing.

Weight Lifting: Gymnastics and Weight Lifting

see

The continuing spread and advancing

dards of skiing throughout the world were underlined

from 33 of the 48 member nations of the International Ski Federation (fis). Both governmental and private investments to develop new skiing areas were supported by the manufacturers of a growing variety of improved, more sophisticated equipment. A new era of South American skiing was by Olympic

entries

and Welfare

Services stan-

West Indies: see Bahamas, The; Barbados; Cuba;

Dependent States; Dominican Republic; Grenada; Haiti; Jamaica; Latin-American Affairs; Trinidad

Tobago

and

732

Winter Sports

apparent, particularly in the Argentine and Chilean Ancles, respectively spearheaded by increased invest-

ment and participation at Bariloche and Portillo. The Soviet Skiing Federation exceeded the four million-membership mark and had 51,519 paid trainers at 9,088 centres. Sigge Bergman, the fis secretarygeneral, made an official visit to the Far East and reported considerable expansion in Asia, notably at Ho-huan in Taiwan, which claimed to have 30,000 skiers.

In Japan the number of skiers exceeded six more than 300 clubs in Tokyo alone. The

which were exported. Japan's newest alpine

was preparing

to rival Sap-

European strongholds, and the U.S. Dual or paralslaloming, previously well supported in North

outside their traditional north especially in Switzerland lel

America, attracted more interest

in

Europe. Free-

style skiing, stressing spectacular acrobatic

movements, ing, while tice,

and

ballet

also gained a firmer foothold. Grass ski-

providing wider

facilities for

thrived also as a sport in

Alpine Skiing. In

its

own

off-snow pracright.

alpine racing, the biennial world

championships were, as usual in an Olympic year, decided concurrently with the Winter Games results, from which alpine combination titles were calculated on an overall points basis. The men's world champion was Gustav Thoni of Italy, repeating his 1972 combination success. The runner-up was Willy Frommelt of Liechtenstein, with Greg Jones of the U.S. third. Rosi Mittermaier (see Biography) of West Germany, the season's outstanding racer, was an easy women's winner, with Daniele Debernard of France trailing in second. Another Liechtenstein skier, Hanny Wenzel,

Innsbruck.

Proell-Moser, who did not compete. After struggling through nine seasons with only modest achievements, Mittermaier owed her eventual triumph to all-round consistency, finishing

Nordic disciplines gained more active following

in

Stenmark was first in both slalom and giant slalom, but failed to take a point in downhill, which was once more gained decisively by the Austrian specialist, Franz Klammer (see Biography). Mittermaier, a convincing winner of the women's World Cup, proved a rightful successor to Annemarie

slalom, and ninth in downhill. Overall second

poro as host to international events. An impressive new resort opened at Gulmarg in Kashmir, India.

Olympics

defender, with a great record of four wins in

country had 34 ski manufacturers with an annual output of more than one million pairs of skis, 140,000 racing centre, Kitanomine,

won the 90-metre ski jump at the Winter

title

million, with

pairs of

Karl Schnabl of Austria

the

five years halted.

was third in a memorable season for the principality, whose competitors also secured fifth place in both the men's and women's overall ratings. Despite the glamour of the Olympics the tenth annual World Cup series was generally regarded as the season's major test, and it produced new winners. Ingemar Stenmark of Sweden, the previous year's runner-up, went one better in 1976 to become the first victor from a non-Alpine nation. Second was Piero Gros of Italy, the 1974 winner, and third was Thoni,

first

in

slalom, third in giant

was LiseMarie Morerod of Switzerland, who won the giant slalom. In third place was Monika Kaserer of Austria. Although another Austrian, Brigitte Totschnig, led in the downhill, she only finished sixth because of rela-

weak performances in the slalom races. The World Cup series was contested over 26 men's and 27 women's events spread through four months of tively

meetings in Austria, Canada, France, Italy, SwitzerWest Germany, and Yugoslavia. For the second year, dual slaloms provided crowd-pulling final events, although less hinged on these than in 1975 because the trophy winners had scored enough points earlier to ensure their victories. The Nations' Cup was won by Austria for the fourth consecutive year, with Switzerland and Italy second and third. Italians topped the men's standings, but Austria emerged ahead because of its women's superiority.

land, the U.S.,

The sixth Can- Am Trophy series, at ten North American venues, was won by Eric Wilson and Viki Fleckenstein, both of the U.S.

Ten nations contested

the third international parallel slalom tournament for citadin racers, won by the Swiss at Val d'Isere, France, on April 10-11. The idea of citadin racing had been inspired a decade earlier by the winter sports pioneer Sir Arnold Lunn to establish an intermediate "league" barring full-time racers and thereby to encourage the part-timers. The objective remained sensible, but the definition of a citadin racer (one not domiciled in a

mountain resort) seemed outmoded. Changing conditions appeared to justify a revised definition, perhaps to restrict eligibility to racers having earned fewer than a stipulated number of fis points.

Henri Duvillard of France won 15 of 21 races, inbecome world professional champion on the North American circuit, comfortably ahead of the Swiss runner-up, Josef Odermatt. Third place was shared by two Americans, Tyler Palmer and Bobby Cochran. The professional world was jolted by the shooting death on March 21 of the flamboyant U.S. alpine racer Vladimir "Spider" Sabich, 31, world professional champion in 1971 and 1972 and probably the biggest reason, through his cluding seven in succession, to

inspiring performances, for the professional circuit's

rapid success after a tentative start in 1970.

Nordic Skiing. In Nordic skiing the giant Finn Juha Mieto, after a disappointing effort at the Innsbruck Olympics, had a string of successes late in the season and won the unofficial cross-country World Cup, decided over 14 selected races. His teammate Arto Koivisto was a close second, with Ivar Formo of Norway third. The prestigious Holmenkollen 50 km in Norway was taken by Sven-Ake Lundback of Sweden, followed by Mieto and Koivisto. As usual, the Norwegian Birkebeiner Ski Race, covering the 55-km distance from Rena to Lillehammer, 3,500 attracted one of the largest fields in any race entrants. The grueling contest was won on March 21 by Audun Kolstad, a Norwegian army lieutenant.

—

GERRY CRANHAM

Reidar Hjermstad, also of Norway, was second, followed by John Downey, the first U.S. skier ever to gain a place. For the first time a women's section was included, and the winner among the 75 competitors was Berit M0rdre Lammedal of Norway. A new world record ski jump was achieved by Toni Innauer of Austria when he cleared 176 m (577.42 ft) at Oberstdorf, West Germany, on March 7. The most successful jumper during the season was Karl Schnabl, an Austrian Olympic gold medalist, who was ranked a series of selected tournaments, followed by Innauer and Jochen Danneberg of East Germany. The fis council, meeting at Innsbruck in February, decided to establish a commission to standardize equipment. first in

Other Skiing Events. In the most lucrative North American professional freestyle season so far, the men's and women's World Trophy titles were won by Scott Brooksbank and Marion Post, both of the U.S. John Eaves, a Canadian, was second to Brooksbank, and Manfred Kastner of Austria finished third. Joannie Teorey was runner-up in the overall standings for women, followed by fellow American Sandra Poulson.

year before. The season's fastest times were 54.80 sec from Top by Ulie Burgerstein and 43.30 sec from

Burgerstein the runner-up and Franco Gansser com-

ganizations from the U.S., Canada, and Europe

pleting a Swiss grand slam.

The 53rd Curzon Cup Race

from Junction

to

Heavenly Valley, Calif., on April 19 to form a joint committee to develop international safety guidelines ant! standards for this daring branch of the sport. There was a trend toward the use of lighter weight machines by skibobbers of all grades. The men's and women's combination titles in the European skibob championships, at Spindleruv Mlyn, Czech., from February 29 to March 6, were won by Moulis Jirf of the host nation and Gudrun Miiller of West Germany. Bobsledding. Senior bobsled racing during the season was limited to six tracks: at Konigssee, West Germany; Igls, Austria (used in the Winter Olympics); at

St.-Moritz,

Switz.;

Cervinia,

Italy;

Oberhof, East

Germany; and Lake Placid, N.Y. Early training was hampered by rain at Konigssee during January and the restricted use of the Igls track, which handicapped the Japanese, whose course at Sapporo had not opened. Plans were agreed to begin the full refrigeration of the Lake Placid run, which would make it the world's first wholly artificially frozen course designed exclusively

for bobsledding.

Next to the Winter Olympics, the major internameet was the European championships, at SaintMoritz from February 17 to March 1. The Swiss course was regarded as more challenging than the shorter one at Igls, and so many enthusiasts took the European contests more seriously than the Olympics. The East Germans, who had won both Olympic events tional

after simulating the conditions at Igls during training at Oberhof, this time

were unplaced. Erich Scharer

drove his Swiss sled to victory in the two-man event, more than two seconds ahead of Stefan Gaisreiter's West German entry. Gaisreiter, who had not been in the Olympics, won the four-man event, outpacing his more experienced compatriot, Wolfgang Zimmerer, by 0.18 sec. Scharer finished third. Zimmerer, one of the sport's most successful drivers, afterward announced his retirement. Tobogganing. Favourable weather enabled an ex-

ceptionally successful season of skeleton tobogganing on the Cresta Run at Saint-Moritz. (A skeleton tobog-

gan is a sled consisting of steel runners fastened to a platform chassis with a sliding seat; it is ridden in a headfirst, prone position.) A record number of 7,832 descents beat by 83 the previous best figure set the

competition at the Olympics.

Junction by Reto Gansser. The track's major event, Winter the 67th Grand National, was won by Gansser, with

Officials of leading professional freestyle skiers' or-

met

East Germany's team won the four-man bobsled

also

went

new aggregate record

Reto Gansser,

setting a

of 260.72 sec for the six de-

by his brother Franco and yet another Swiss rider, Bruno Bischofberger. The Italian veteran Nino Bibbia, 53, remained remarkably sharp and comscents, followed

winning the Johannes Badrutt Trophy and

petitive,

finishing respectably high in

The number

most other events.

of serious participants, worldwide, in

luge tobogganing rose above 40,000, the majority in interest evident in North America. Seventeen nations took part in the 22nd world championships, decided concurrently with the Winter Olympics. (See Special Report.)

Europe but with increased

The 18th world championship for the Air Broom was won by the U.S., defeating Scotland 6-5 in the final, at Duluth, Minn., on March Curling.

Canada

Silver

22-28. This was the third victory for the Americans

had previously 1965 and 1974. The winning rink, from Hibbing, Minn., was skipped by Bruce Roberts and included his younger brother Joe Roberts, Gary Kleffman, and Jerry Scott. Scotland was represented by a rink from Perth, comprising Bill Muirhead since the event began in 1959; they

held the

in

title

Derek

(skip),

Scott,

Len Dudman, and Roy

Sinclair.

In the semifinals Switzerland, the title defender, lost 5-3 to Scotland, and the U.S. beat Sweden 9-3. The other

nations competing were Italy, Norway, West Germany, Canada, and Denmark.

six

France,

In the European championships, held in January at Megeve, Norway and Scotland won the men's and women's contests, respectively, with Sweden the runner-up in each. An indication of the game's growth was the sponsoring by the British firm Uniroyal Ltd. of a second annual world junior championship. At the meet the title defended by the first winner, Sweden, was captured by Canada at Aviemore, Scotland. Ice Boating. Speeds of 80 kph were achieved by ice boats on a frozen lake at La Valle, Switz. The main activity, however, was in North America, near the Wood Products: New Jersey and New Hampshire coasts and in the see Industrial Review Great Lakes Basin, where the most popular craft re- World Bank: see Economy, World mained the bow-steered Skeeter class, limited to 75 sq

ft

See

of

(howard bass)

sail.

also.

Ice

[4S2.B.4.g-h]

Hockey.

Wrestling: see

Combat Sports

Yachting: see Sailing

SPECIAL REPORT

INNSBRUCK:

THE

XII

By Howard Bass

—

than in 1972 were held on seven sites compactly within a 15-mi radius of Innsbruck, the Austrian Alpine resort which, because of its successful staging of the 1964 Games, was entrusted sooner than expected with its second presentation.

Denver, Colo., the venue originally selected, withdrew owing to financial and environmental difficulties. Thirty-seven nations were represented by 1,036 competitors (788 men and 248 women). Because the majority of the 1964 sites could be adapted for use again and most facilities could be put to subsequent community use, the budget was markedly modest compared with the two previous meets (Sapporo, Japan, and Grenoble, France). Administration ran smoothly, with only minor sensations when a Soviet Nordic skier was deprived of a bronze medal and the Czechoslovak ice-hockey team was penalized, in both cases for dope-taking infringements. Favourable

and when

weather conditions enabled every event to be held as it had been scheduled. Contestants from 12 nations shared the gold medals, the U.S.S.R. gaining 13; East Germany 7; Norway

and the U.S. 3 each; Austria, Finland, and West Germany 2 each; and Canada, Great Britain, Italy, The Netherlands, and Switzer1

apiece.

alpine skiing event brought local glory in the

men's downhill for Austria's Franz Klammer (see Biography). On a hard, icy course down the lofty Patscherkofel Mountain, he resisted the pressure of being the favourite to outpace Bernhard Russi, the veteran Swiss runner-up, at a speed averaging 66.5 mph. The other five alpine events were held at Axamer-Lizum, where there was a double Swiss success on a difficult giant slalom course when Heini Hemmi beat his compatriot Ernst Good, both surprisingly ahead of Sweden's Ingemar Stenmark and the World Cup holder, Gustav Thoni of Italy. In the slalom, Thoni was narrowly defeated by his teammate Piero Gros, who rallied magnificently in his second descent after having previously placed only

first

and second for the U.S.S.R.

storm, 0.83

I he Olympic future for sports on snow and ice was largely reassured by the experienced organization of the XII Winter Olympic Games, declared open on Feb. 4, 1976, by Pres. Rudolf Kirchschlager of Austria. The 37 events on skis, skates, or sleds

The opening

sec

faster than

the

is winter sports correspondent for the Daily Telegraph, London, end other newspapers and periodicals, and for the BBC. His publications include This Skating Age, The Magic of Skiing, International Encyclopaedia of Winter Sports, and Let's

734

German

veteran East

Gert-

at the final firing range.

OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS, 1976 WINTER GAMES, INNSBRUCK Alpine Skiing

Men Downhill Slalom Giant slalom

F.

Klammer

P.

Gros

H.

Hemmi

Downhill Slalom Giant slalom

R.

Mittermaier (West Germany) Mittermaier (West Germany)

1 min 45.73 sec 2 min 03.29 sec 3 min 26.97 sec

(Austria)

(Italy)

(Switz.)

Women R.

K. Kreiner

1 1

(Canada)

1

min 46.1 6 sec min 30.54 sec min 29.13 sec

Nordic Skiing

Men 43 1 hr 30 2 hr 37

m m m m

15-km cross-country 30-km cross-country 50-km cross-country 40-km ski relay 70-m ski jump 90-m ski jump Nordic combined

N. Bajukov (U.S.S.R.)

5-km cross-country 10-km cross-country 20-km ski relay

H. Takalo (Finland)

Individual

N. Kruglov (U.S.S.R.)

1

hr 14 min 12.26 sec

Relay

U.S.S.R.

1

hr 57 min 55.64 sec

S. I.

Saveliev (U.S.S.R.)

Formo (Norway)

Finland H.-G. Aschenbach (East Germany) K. Schnabl (Austria) U.

Wehling

(East

2 hr

7

n 58.47 sec n 29.38 sec n 30.05 sec n 59.72 sec

252.0 pt 234.8 pt 423.39 pt

Germany)

Women R.

15 min 48.69 sec 30 min 13.41 sec hr 7 min 49.75 sec

Smetanina (U.S.S.R.)

U.S.S.R.

1

Biathlon

Figure Skating

Men

J.

Women ice

192.74 193.80 140.54 209.92

Curry (U.K.)

D. Hamill (U S.) 1. Rodnina and A. Zaitsev (U.S.S.R.) L. Pakhomova and A. Gorshkov (U.S.S.R.)

Pairs

dancing

pt pt pt pt

Speed Skating

Men 500

m

Y. Kulikov (U.S.S.R.) P. Mueller (U.S.)

1,000 m 1,500 m 5,000 m 10,000 m

S.

(Norway) Stensen (Norway)

P.

Kleine (Neth.)

S.

Young

J.

Storholt

min min 7 min 14 min 1

1

39.17 19.32 59.38 24.48 50.59

sec' sec sec* sec sec*

Women 500

m

1,000 1,500 3,000

m m m

(U.S.)

Averina (U.S.S.R.) G. Stepanskaya (U.S.S.R.) T. Averina (U.S.S.R.) T.

Ice

Winning team

42.76 sec* min 28.43 sec* 16.58 sec* min 2 4 min 45.19 sec* 1

Hockey

U.S.S.R. (beat Czechoslovakia 4-3

in final)

Bobtledding 3 min 44.42 sec 3 min 40.43 sec

Germany Germany

Two man Four man

East East

Single (men)

D. Gunther (East East Germany

Howard Bass

Skating.

fin-

in the 15

Dietmar Klause. Raisa Smetanina (U.S.S.R.) was the most successful woman racer, achieving two golds and a silver. She won the 10 km and was in the victorious Soviet relay team, but in the 5 km was unexpectedly defeated by Helena Takalo of Finland. Galina Kulakova, also in the Soviet relay team, became the first woman to win a fourth Olympic gold medal in Nordic skiing, having earned the others at Sapporo in 1972. The Soviets took both team and individual biathlon honours. In the latter, Nikolay Kruglov outpointed Heikki Ikola of Finland, after the favourite, three-time world champion Aleksandr Tikhonov, ruined an early lead with six faults in a tricky wind

fifth.

Rosi Mittermaier (see Biography), a West German who reached her career peak at exactly the right moment, became the first woman to gain two golds and a silver in alpine skiing. Amazingly, the downhill victory was her first senior international triumph, more than half a second ahead of Austria's Brigitte Totschnig. Mittermaier's slalom win was helped when the favoured Swiss racer, Lise-Marie Morerod, fell during her second run. In the giant slalom, Mittermaier was denied a grand slam by Kathy Kreiner of Canada, only 0.12 sec separating them. The alpine skiing was also notable for the only two medals gained

Go

over well-devised

km. Their fellow countryman, Sergey Saveliev, won the 30 km, in which second-place William Koch became the first U.S. skier ever to gain a Nordic event medal. In the supreme test of stamina, the 50 km, Ivar Formo gained Norway's third successive victory with a strategically brilliant performance in a blinding snowished

GAMES

land

skiing. In the cross-country racing, contested

courses at Seefeld, Nikolay Bajukov and Yevgeni Beliaev

WINTER OLYMPIC

—two more

by Liechtenstein competitors in any Olympic winter or summer event: bronzes for Willy Frommelt in the men's slalom and Hanny Wenzel in the women's. Skiers from five nations took the 12 gold medals in Nordic

Two man

Tobogganing (Luge) Germany)

M. Schumann Single (women) •Olympic record.

(East

Germany)

3 min 27.69 sec 1 min 25.60 sec 2 min 50.62 sec

LEFT,

UPI COHPIX;

RIGHT,

CAMERA PRESS

f Lighting the twin flames to open the XII Winter Olympics in February. Thirty-seven nations were represented. Ski jumpers on the 90-metre slope had a breathtaking view of the main streets of Innsbruck, nestled in the Austrian Alps.

In the ski jumping on the 70-m hill at Seefeld, Hans-Georg Aschenbach and Jochen Danneberg, both East Germans, finished first and second with Austria's Karl Schnabl in third place. But

Schnabl took his revenge in the spectacular final event of the Games, winning the 90-m jump on Bergisel Hill, which towered majestically above and in sight of Innsbruck's main streets. Another Austrian, Toni Innauer, at 17 a great prospect, placed second after recording the best single leap. An East German, Ulrich Wehling, defeated his West German rival, Urban Hettich, in the Nordic combined event. The figure skating will be best remembered for a new dimension of stylish technique by the men's victor, John Curry (see Biography), the first Briton to win the title. He followed meticulously executed figures with all-round

in

to

the newly introduced 1,000 m, Yevgeni Kulikov (U.S.S.R.). The victories of Kulikov, Storholt, and Kleine were all achieved in new Olympic record times. Conditions were calmer and sunnier for the four women's events, in which "previous Olympic records were bettered no fewer than 36 times. The most prominent racer, Tatyana Averina of the U.S.S.R., won the 1,000 m and 3,000 m on consecutive days and finished third in each of the other two events. Next best was Sheila Young of the U.S., who gained three medals, one of each colour, her gold for the 500 m confirming her world sprinting superiority. The middle-distance 1,500 m was won by the

Soviet racer Galina Stepanskaya.

Ice-hockey enthusiasts were not disappointed with a

free

fitting

climax, the destiny of gold and silver medals resting on the final

a masterly combination of great jumps, including three

game between the Soviet title defenders and the Czechoslovak challengers. The latter led 3-2 with only five minutes left, but

was unprecedented. His

brilliantly

and artistic linking steps, all smoothly molded with admirably timed continuity. Among the vanquished were the 1975 and 1974 world champions. Although not including a triple jump in her always graceful repertoire, Dorothy Hamill (see Biography) became the fourth American to take the women's figure-skating title, avenging her defeat in the world games during the previous season by Dianne triples, versatile

spins,

de Leeuw of The Netherlands, this time a close runner-up. The Italian coach Carlo Fassi gained the distinction of being the

same year. by Aleksandr Zaitsev, retained the pairs title she had won at Sapporo with Aleksey Ulanov. The Soviet pair was outstanding in overhead lifts and well-synchronized jumps, despite a faulty double axel by Zaitsev. Ice dancing was included for the first time in an Olympic program and the victors, Aleksandr Gorshkov and Ludmila Pakho-

first to

won

and the 500-m sprint went

prepared pro-

skating that

gram was

competence

Peter Mueller of the U.S.

train both singles winners the

Irina Rodnina, this time partnered

mova

of the U.S.S.R., endorsed previous general assessments of world superiority and contributed appreciably by their elegant performance toward justification of the event's inclusion. their

Norwegian supporters equipped with bells, horns, flags, and even kites added colourfully to the atmosphere at the speed skating, held in the heart of Innsbruck on a renovated 400-m outdoor circuit, adjacent to the architecturally impressive indoor stadium used for the figure skating and ice hockey events. The Norwegian fans did not cheer in vain. Their idol, Sten Stensen, defeated the Dutch racer Piet Kleine in the 5,000 m, though Kleine reversed the order in the arduous 10,000 m. Another Norwegian, Jan Egil Storholt,

won

the 1,500

m on his

27th birthday.

two

late Soviet goals

denied Czechoslovakia

looked more vulnerable than in

its

first

Olympic

The U.S.S.R. previous years yet still managed

victory in the event and clinched the Soviets'

fifth.

through. The U.S., fielding the youngest team in the tournament, lost 4-1 to West Germany in its final match, a defeat that cost it what had earlier looked like a likely bronze medal. In the 15-match series Vladimir Shadrin of the U.S.S.R. was highest scorer, with six, and Jiri Holecek of Czechoslovakia was a persistently safe netminder. For the first time, mainly for reasons of economy, the bobto pull

sledding and luge tobogganing were held on the same course, the

world's largest artificially frozen track

—

4,000 ft long with 14 bends and 50 mi of cooling pipes built at Igls, the mini-resort 1,000 ft above Innsbruck. Meinhard Nehmer, the East German driver, mastered the winding, steeply banked ice chute to gain his country both the two-man and four-man bobsled titles. Practice seemed more important than experience on a track shorter, slower, and simpler than most bobsledders would have wished. East Germans also won all three luge titles, Detlef Gunther and Margit Schumann taking the men's and women's singles. The winning men's double-seater sled was ridden by Hans Rinn and Norbert Hahn.

—

a

The new

politically trouble-free meet closed on February 15 with confidence that the Winter Olympics could be maintained

as a viable undertaking .ful of the world's

—but perhaps only

most suitably equipped

if

restricted to a hand-

which might

locations,

include Lake Placid, N.Y., the chosen site for 1980.

735

Yemen Arab

Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of

Republic

A

A

people's republic in the southern coastal region of

Yemen (Aden)

bordered by Yemen (San'a"), Saudi Arabia, and Oman. Area: 111,074 sq mi (287,680 sq km). Pop. (1975 est.) 1,690,the Arabian Peninsula,

is

:

000. Cap. and largest city:

Aden

(pop., 1973, 132,500).

Language: Arabic. Religion: Muslim. Chairman of the Presidential Council in 1976, Salem Ali Rubayyi; prime minister, Ali Nasir Muhammad Husani. For the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen) 1976 was marked by the establishment on March 9 of diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia, which had boycotted its Marxist-oriented regime. Saudi Arabia provided South Yemen with a reported $100 million in aid. The government attempted to improve its relations with other Arab states, and the foreign minister toured most of them during the spring. The rapprochement with the Saudis led on March 11 to a cease-fire with Oman, whose Dhofari rebels South Yemen had been supporting, but there were additional border incidents later in the year. South Yemen criticized Iraq for ratifying its agreement with Iran that effectively ended Iraq's support for the Dhofari rebels. The new relationship with Saudi Arabia raised doubts about South Yemen's close ties with the U.S.S.R. However, the U.S.S.R. continued to supply economic aid, on which South Yemen remained dependent. Reports that the government had closed the office of the Eritrean Liberation Front in Aden at the request of Ethiopia were denied, but South Yemen clearly reduced its support for the Eritrean rebels. The country relied on outside aid for development.

Hopes

for a

500%

increase in shipping calling at

after the Suez Canal's reopening in 1975 filled;

the increase

was

still Tess

than

Aden

were not

50%

ful-

early in

(peter mansfield)

1976. [978.B.4.b]

YEMEN, PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 183,744, teachers 6,355; secondary, pupils 30,808, teachers 1,445; vocational (1970-71), pupils 952, teachers 142; teacher training, students 408, teachers 35; higher, students 383, teaching staff 75. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Yemen dinar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a par value of 0.345 dinar to £1 sterling). Budget U.S. $1 (free rate of 0.62 dinar (1974-75 actual): revenue 18,130,000 dinars; expenditure 2 7,450,000 dinars. Foreign trade: imports (1974) 64.7 million dinars; exports (1973) 39,490,000 dinars. Import sources (1973): Japan c. 8%; Kuwait c. 8%; Iraq c. 8%; U.K. c. 7%. Export destinations (1973): Canada c. 21%; Yemen (San'a') U.K. c. 7%; Australia c. 6%; Angola c. c. 7%; 6%; United Arab Emirates 5%. Main export petro-

=

leum products 72%. Transport. Roads

(1972)

c.

4,500

km

(mainly

tracks; including c. 1,000 km with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1973): passenger 10,600; commercial (including buses) 7,900. There are no railways. Ships entered (1974): vessels totaling 5,160,000 net registered tons; goods loaded 2,308,000 metric tons, unloaded 3,780,000 metric tons. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): millet and sorghum c, 76; wheat c. 15; watermelons c. 30; dates c. 8; cotton, lint c. 5; fish catch 133. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle c. 99; sheep c. 230; goats c. 915; camels c. 40; chickens c. 1,3 50. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): petroleum products c. 2,600; salt c. 75; electricity (kw-hr) c. 174,000.

republic

situated in

the

southwestern coastal region of the Arabian Peninsula,

Yemen (San'a') is bounded by Yemen (Aden), Saudi Arabia, and

the

Rea

Sea.

Area: 77,200 sq mi (200,000 sq km). Pop. (1975): 5,237,900. Cap. and largest city: San'a' (pop., 1975, 134.600). Language: Arabic. Religion: Muslim. Chairof the Command Council in 1976, Col. Ibrahim

man

al-Hamdi; premier, Abdel-Aziz Abdel-Ghani. In 1976 the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) continued to move closer to Saudi Arabia, which supplied it with budgetary and development aid, and the possibility of a full union between the two countries was raised. In April there were reports that North Yemen would buy $139 million worth of U.S. arms to reduce dependence on Soviet arms and to establish a triangular U.S.-Saudi-Nprth Yemen defense relationship, but Colonel Hamdi said that the country wished to maintain friendly relations with the U.S.S.R. After

armed forces chief of staff in was reported that North Yemen would buy arms from France. Premier Abdel-Ghani said he hoped Shell Oil would succeed in discovering offshore oil. There were a few reports of border incidents with the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen), but the two governments continued to declare that their objective was unification. Relations were helped by the establishment of diplomatic ties between Saudi Arabia and South Yemen in March, and North Yemen offered to help mediate in the dispute between South Yemen and Oman. a visit to Paris of the

June,

it

Internally, Colonel Hamdi maintained a firm hold on the country, although there were reports early in the year of disagreement with the leader of the most powerful tribal confederation and former head of the Consultative Council, suspended by Hamdi when he took power in 1974. On the second anniversary of his "corrective revolution" on June 13, Hamdi said that elections would be held and representative institutions (peter mansfield) introduced. [978.B.4.b]

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 178,755, teachers (1972-73) 4,053; secondary, pupils 12,460, teachers (1972-73) 544; vocational, pupils 466, teachers (1972-73) 50; teacher training, students 1,349; higher, students 950, teaching staff 42.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: riyal. with (Sept. 20, 1976) a par value of 4.56 rivals to U.S. $1 £1 sterling). Budget (1974(free rate of 7.86 riyals 75 est.): revenue 380.5 million riyals: expenditure 541.3 million riyals. Foreign trade ( 1975): imports 1,341,400,000 riyals; exports 49.7 million riyals. Import sources (1974): Japan 15%; China 7%; West Germany 6%; Saudi Arabia 5%; Australia 5%;

=

5%; France 5%; Ethiopia 5%; 5%; The Netherlands 5%. Export destinations (1974): Japan 42%; China 20%; Yemen (Aden) 10%; Somalia 8%; Italy 6%. Main exports (1973): cotton 49%; coffee 17%; hides and skins 15%: cottonseed 6%. Yemen

(Aden)

U.S.S.R.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; 1974): barley 230; corn 84; wheat (1975) c. 1,570; dates c. 60; coffee c. 5; cotton, lint c. 5. Livestock (in 000: c. 1,250; sheep c. 3,500; goats c. 8,100; asses

c.

706.

metric 71;

tons;

sorghum

tobacco c. 1974): cattle camels c. 61; 5:

Yugoslavia A

federal socialist republic,

Yugoslavia

is

Italy, Austria,

bordered by Hungary, Ro-

mania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania,

and the Adriatic Sea.

Area: 98,766 sq mi (255,804 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.): 21,520,000. Cap. and largest city: Belgrade (pop., 1975 UN est., 870,000). Language: SerboSlovenian, and Macedonian. Religion (1953): Orthodox 41%; Roman Catholic 32%; Muslim 12%. President of the republic for life and president of the League of Communists in 1976, Marshal

Croatian,

Tito (Josip Broz) president of the Federal Executive Council (premier), Dzemal Bijedic. ;

Defense preparations and the clampdown on dissent were intensified in 1976. Relations with the U.S.S.R. improved late in the year, while those with Austria deteriorated, but the main thrust of Yugoslavia's diplomatic activity was in the third world. In January Yugoslavia and 26 other nonaligned nations agreed to pool their newsgathering agencies into a central information unit. Yugoslavia played a key role in the preparation of the conference of nonaligned nations in Colombo, Sri Lanka, in August, which President Tito attended personally. Tito paid visits, many concerned with the conference, to Mexico, Panama, Venezuela, Sweden, and Portugal in March, to Greece in May, and to Turkey in June. In March and April nonaligned leaders visiting Yugoslavia included the presidents of Somalia, Uganda, and Egypt and the prime ministers of Sri Lanka and Cuba. Yugoslavia took part in the Balkan economic ministers' conference, held in Athens from January 26 to February 5. When Austria decided to hold a language census on November 14 to implement a new law for the protection of national minorities, Yugoslavia attacked the plan as a capitulation to

speaking nationalists seeking

to

German-

destroy Austria's Slav

ful intentions

who had

By

toward Yugoslavia.

this

time Tito,

suffered a severe liver ailment in September,

fully recovered. The Soviet Navy commander, Adm. Sergey G. Gorshkov, visited Yugoslavia in Au-

had

more facilities for the Soviet Yugoslav ports. The question of whether the U.S. would defend Yugoslavia from a Soviet attack became a topic in the U.S. presidential election gust, reportedly to seek

Navy

in

Every year the town of Arandjelovac, near

Belgrade, Yugoslavia, holds a sculpture festival.

Guest artists are supplied with white marble from the local quarries, and their productions are exhibited in the town park.

campaign. In March the U.S. company Dow Chemical signed an agreement with Yugoslavia's largest oil company

and operation of a $700

for the joint construction

million petrochemical complex on the Adriatic coastal

November Community announced that island of Krk. In

the it

European Economic was seeking a closer

institutional link with Yugoslavia.

Late in 1975 the federal minister of the interior, Gen. Franjo Herljevic, stated that the security organs had broken up 13 illegal organizations and arrested

237 of their members

in the past

two years. In Feb-

ruary, 31 Albanians were given prison sentences for

minorities.

Tito represented Yugoslavia at the conference of Communist parties held in East Berlin

29 European

on June 29 and 30, and met the Soviet party leader, Leonid I. Brezhnev, on the eve of the conference. Brezhnev visited Yugoslavia from November 15 to 17 and used the visit to proclaim the U.S.S.R.'s peace-

and in June, 11 Croatian and convicted in Zagreb on charges of planning sabotage and assassination. About Yiddish Literature: 30 pro-Moscow conservatives, mainly Serbs, were see Literature tried and sentenced in the first three months of the Yugoslavian Literature: year. On September 10 four Croatian-born men and see Literature alleged irredentist activity, nationalists were tried

YUGOSLAVIA Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 2,869,344, teachers 126,327; secondary, pupils 203,296, teachers vocational, pupils 10,164; 545,629, teachers 33,458; teacher training, students 9,096, teachers 624; higher (including 15 universities), students 328,536, teaching staff 19,197. Finance. Monetary unit: dinar, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 18.74 dinars to U.S. $1 (32.29 dinars = £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $1,650,000,000. Budget (1974 actual): revenue 63,394,000,000 dinars: expenditure 62,584,000,000 dinars. Gross material product (1974) 407 billion dinars. Money supply (May 1976) 160.3 billion dinars. Cost of living (1970 100; June 1976) 279. Foreign Trade. (1975) Imports 134,510,000,000 dinars; exports 70,870,000,000 dinars. Import sources: West Germany 19%; Italy 11%; U.S.S.R. 10%; U.S. 5%: Iraq 5%; France 5%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 25%; Italy 9%; West Germany 8%; Czechoslovakia 6%; East

=

Germany 5%. Main transport equipment

exports:

13%;

machinery 15%;

chemicals

9%;

food

9%;

nonferrous metals

9%;

iron

and

steel

clothing 5%. Tourism (1974): visitors 000; gross receipts U.S. $701 million.

5%;

5,458,-

Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 110,290 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 1,332,972; commercial 136,110. Railways: (1974) 10,319 km; traffic (1975) 10,243,000,000 passenger-km, freight 21,606,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1975): 1,697,000,000 passenger-km; freight 14,569,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 414; gross tonnage 1,873,482. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 1,142,880. Radio licenses (Dec. 1974) 4,081,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1974) 2,784,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975) wheat 4,396; barley 703; oats 368; rye :

98; c.

2

corn 9,390; potatoes 2,394; sunflower seed 73; sugar, raw value c. 482; dry beans 166;

onions c. 305; tomatoes c. 418; cabbages (1974) 673; watermelons (1974) c. 491; plums (1974) c. 900; apples (1974) 370; pears (1974) 93; wine (1974) 588; tobacco c. 59; beef and veal

295; pork (1974) c. 323; timber (cu fish catch (1974) 54. Livestock (in 000; Jan. 1975): cattle 5,872; sheep c. 8,000; pigs 7,683; horses (1974) 945; chickens 50,785. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1975): coal 599; lignite 34,939; crude oil 3,691; natural gas (cu m) 1,554,000; manufactured gas (cu m) 145,000; electricity (kw-hr) 39,880,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): cement 7,065; iron ore (35% metal content) 5,237; pig iron 2,197; crude steel 2,858; bauxite 2,252 antimony ore (metal content; 1974) 2.2; chrome ore (oxide content; 1974) 0.3; magnesite (1974) 463; manganese ore (metal content) 4.2; aluminum 168; copper 138; zinc 98; gold (troy oz; 1974) 170; silver (troy oz; 1974) 4,690; petroleum products (1974) 9,813; sulfuric acid 936; cotton yarn 107; wool yarn 42; rayon, etc., filament yarns and fibres (1974) 71; nylon, etc., filament yarns and fibres (1974) 19; wood pulp (1974) 595; newsprint 85; other paper (1974)

(1974)

c.

m; 1974) 13,915;

;

660.

an American-born woman hijacked a twa Boeing 727 on a New York-Chicago flight and forced it to fly to Europe; the hijackers, who demanded that leaflets containing Croatian nationalist propaganda be dropped over major U.S. and European cities and

French; Bantu dialects. Religion: animist approximately 50%; Christian 43%. President in 1976,

Mobutu Sese The defeat

in the Angolan civil war of the forces of the National Front for the Liberation of Angola, led by Holden Roberto, President Mobutu's brother-

that similar material be published in selected U.S. newspapers, eventually surrendered in Paris. (See

Crime and Law Enforcement.) The grain harvest of 5.9 million in

many

was a setback to Zaire, which had to recognize (Feb. 28, 1976) the victorious Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola, which it had previously opposed. Zaire had relied upon railways passing through Angola for the export of Katanga's copper. The Benguela Railway, however, was temporarily closed bein-law,

tons was the best

years. Exports in the first nine

1976 were

22%

months of higher than in the corresponding

period of 1975, while imports were

down 9%.

Infla-

dropped to below 12% in March. Prices of bread, oil, and some other basic foods went up by an average of 15-30% on October 16. By September Yugoslavia had wiped out its balance of payments deficit with the West. On September 10 the worst midair collision to that time occurred over Zagreb. (See Disasters.) tion

cause of war damage. Tanzania offered to transport some of the copper to Dar es Salaam, but that port was said to be operating to the limit of its capacity.

South Africa provided another outlet, via East London, but Zaire was still threatened with strangulation. Moreover, prices offered for copper on the world market were low, and production of palm oil had fallen because the government's policy of keeping as much as possible for domestic consumption at a low price

(k. f. cviic) [973.B.3]

Zaire A republic

discouraged producers. Relations with Belgium improved when an agreement in March provided for compensation for Belgians dispossessed by Mobutu's nationalization policy

bounded by Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, Angola, Congo, and the of equatorial Africa, Zaire

is

the Central African Empire, Sudan, Uganda,

Atlantic Ocean. Area: 905,365 sq

km). Pop. (1975 city:

est.): 24,902,000.

Seko.

1974. In return Belgium offered assistance and trained personnel in education, public health, and agri-

of

mi (2,344,885 sq

The government also decided to restore to former owners more than half the foreign-owned companies nationalized during the previous two years. culture.

Cap. and largest

their

Kinshasa (pop., 1974, 1,733,800). Language:

(

Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 3,292,020, teachers 80,481; secondary, pupils 229,473, teachers 13,792; vocational, pupils 34,687, teachers (196970) 3,515; teacher training, students 52,687, teachers (1969-70) 2,643; higher (1973-74), students 19,294, teaching staff 2,550. Finance. Monetary unit: zaire, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 0.88 zaire to U.S. $1 (1.51 zaire £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and foreign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $111,690,000. Budget (1974 est.): revenue 539 million zaires; expenditure 545 million zaires. Gross national product (1974) 1,663,800,000 zaires. Money supply (April 1976) 545,040,000 zaires. Cost of living (Kinshasa; 1970 100; April 1976) 422. Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports 494.7 million zaires; exports 686.7 million zaires. Import sources: Belgium-Luxembourg c. 18%; U.S. c. 14%; West Germany c. 14%; France c. 10%; Italy c. 7%; Japan c. 7%; U.K. c. 5%. Export destinations: BelgiumLuxembourg c. 45%; Italy c. 14%; France c. 7%;

=

=

6%

6% U.K. c. 5%. Main 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) t.

Japan

c.

KENNETH INGHAM )

[978.E.7.a.i]

ZAIRE

;

West Germany

exports: copper

63%;

c.

;

cobalt

140,000 km (including 69,347 km main regional roads). Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 84,800; commercial (including buses) 76,400. Railways: (1974) 5,280 km; traffic (1973) 447 million passenger-km, freight 3.017,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1974): 655 million passenger-km; freight 35.4 million net ton-km. Shipping (1975): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 28; gross tonnage 85,232. Inland waterways (including Zaire River; 1974) c. 16,000 km. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 26,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) 100,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 7,000.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975) rice c. 250; corn c. 577; sweet potatoes (1974) 294; cassava (1974) c. 12,000; peanuts 268; dry peas c. 219; palm kernels c. 75; palm oil c. 165; sugar, raw value (1974) c. 67; bananas (1974) c. 76; oranges (1974) c. 95; coffee c. 61; rubber c. 39; cotton, lint c. 27; timber (cu m; 1974) c. 14,680; fish catch (1974) c. 124. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1973): cattle 1,111; sheep 730; goats 2,237; pigs 606; poultry :

10,474.

Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): coal 88; copper 255; tin 0.6; zinc 66; manganese ore (metal content) 118; gold (troy oz) 129; silver (troy oz) 1,700; diamonds (metric carats) 13,611; petroleum products c. 640; electricity (kw-hr) 4,000,000.

Zambia A

member of Commonwealth of Na-

republic and a

the

tions,

Zambia

is

bounded by

Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Rhodesia, South West Africa, Angola, and Zaire. Area: 290,586 sq mi (752,614 sq km). Pop. (1976 est.) 5,138,000, about 99% of whom are Africans. Cap. and largest city: Lusaka (pop., 1976 est., 483,000). Language: English and Bantu. Religion: predominantly animist. President in 1976, Kenneth Kaunda; prime minister, Elijah Mudenda. On Jan. 28, 1976, President Kaunda invoked full emergency powers to deal with the deterioration in security arising mainly from the economic crisis the country was facing. Twelve days later the University :

of

Zambia was closed

in response to action

by

stu-

dents demonstrating for and against the government,

was reopened in May. Zambia had supported the government of national unity in Angola and had looked askance at the dependence of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola mpla) upon Cuban troops. In April, however, Zambia recognized the mpla government, but damage to the Benguela Railway through Angola still blocked an important outlet for Zambia's copper. With the railway through Rhodesia to Beira also closed for but

it

idea of a

i

political reasons, the port of

for the

Tanzam

railway

Dar

—handed

es Salaam, outlet over to Tanzania

—

and Zambia by the Chinese on July 14 was inadequate by itself to handle Zambia's exports. Added to these difficulties was that of the low price offered for copper, while Zambia's observance of sanctions

glass;

it

739

incorporated a bedroom with cots, a kitchen

and a solarium located outside the building. Most countries now had legislation restricting the import and export of animals, designed to protect indigenous cattle from disease and also to preserve endangered species in their natural environment. (See Environment: Wildlife.) It was very rare and, in most cases, virtually impossible for zoos to import any of the larger animals. These were bred in captivity and used as exchange specimens. Chester Zoo, England, exported chimpanzees and zebras to Australia, receiving in return various kangaroos, wallabies, and cockatoos. Another English zoo, Blackpool, sent a pair of lions to Kano, Nigeria. Import restrictions had helped to reduce the pressure on some endangered species, but the major threat was from habitat destruction in the wild. It was hoped that current legislation would lead to a reduction in the number of animals imported from the wild to be sold as pets and area,

ZAMBIA Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 810,234, teachers 16,916; secondary, pupils 61,354, teachers 2,880; vocational, pupils 4,609; teacher training, students 2,588, teachers 210; higher, students 2,324, teaching staff (1970) 189. Finance. Monetary unit: kwacha, with (Sept. 20, 1976) a free rate of 0.80 kwacha to U.S. $1 (free rate £1 sterling). Gold, sdr's, and forof 1.38 kwacha eign exchange (June 1976) U.S. $81.3 million. Budget (1975 est.): revenue 644 million kwachas; expenditure 755 million kwachas. Gross national product

=

=

(1974) 1,764,000,000 kwachas. Cost of living (1970 100; Aug. 1975) 146. Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports 585.7 million kwachas; exports 905.1 million kwachas. Import sources: U.K. 17%; Japan 8%; Iran c. 8%; West Germany 7%; U.S. 7%; South Africa 7%; Italy c.

6%. Export destinations: U.K. 22%; Japan 19%; Italy 14%; West Germany 13%; France c. 12%. Main export copper 93%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 34,963 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger commercial (including buses) 62,000. Railc. 2,197 km (including c. 900 km of the 1,870-km Tanzam railway linking Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia with Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, completed in 1975). Air traffic (1974): 362 million passengerkm; freight 20. S million net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1975) 68,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1973) c. 100,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) c. 21,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): corn 450; cassava (1974) c. 146; millet c. 63; sorghum c. 188; peanuts c. 100; sugar, raw value (1974) c. 97; tobacco c. 7; cotton, lint c. 4. Livestock (in 000; 1974): cattle c. 1,748; sheep c. 29; goats c. 86,000;

ways (1975)

194; pigs c. 121; chickens c. 7,950. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1975): copper 619; coal 813; lead 19; zinc 47; electricity (kw-hr) 6,2 58,000.

for research purposes, practices that for

many

Zoos and Botanical

Gardens

years

had caused a greater drain on natural resources than had the requirements of zoological collections. The extermination of yet another animal had to be recorded. The Lesser Swan Island hutia had almost certainly been exterminated by domestic cats abandoned on the island when a radar station was closed on an adjoining island.

In the past zoos had saved several species from extinction.

much

Tigers had become very rare throughout

of their range, and zoos had concentrated on

captive breeding. This had led to a surplus of tigers in captivity,

against Rhodesia still

more

made

the country's economic plight

serious.

Kaunda played an important September onward,

in

from discussions about African mapart, particularly

He attempted to induce the African Rhodesian leaders to reach agreement among themselves, but he allowed guerrillas to establish

and Marwell Zoo, Winchester, England,

of-

fered breeding pairs of the rare Siberian tiger on per-

manent loan to accredited zoos. The World Wildlife Fund suggested that zoos should concentrate on breeding rare subspecies such as the Sumatran tiger,

jority rule in Rhodesia.

(kenneth ingham)

bases in Zambia.

Audrey and her baby Drop arrived at the San Diego Zoo

Gum in

[978.E.8.b.iii]

July, along with

five

other

koalas.

Zoos and Botanical Gardens ZOOS. Because of the economic situation prevailing in the Western world through much of 1976, zoos in general succeeded only in maintaining their attendance figures and some experienced considerable declines. In some ways this proved advantageous, as many of the smaller sideshow-type zoos, where animals were possibly less well cared for, were forced out of business because of lack of visitors and escalating food costs. Many of the larger zoos were forced to cut back on expansion and to concentrate on improvements to existing facilities. Latest trends, however, indicated an upsurge in zoo visitors, and most large zoos were concentrating on providing improved educational facilities.

In the U.K., London Zoo celebrated its 150th anniversary and opened a completely new Big Cat exhibit.

The new

building made use of modern construction techniques; fewer species were exhibited than in the old house, but they were kept in breeding groups. Krefeld Zoo, West Germany, opened a new ape house after receiving a gift of

DM

2 million. This spacious building provided artificial sunlight and rain for the inmates, and there were facilities for 700 people to sit

while observing the animals. Barcelona

Zoo

Zanzibar: see

in

Spain

opened a new ape nursery isolated from the public by

Tanzania

Zoology: see Life

Sciences

which had a total population of 800, approximately 100 of which were killed illegally each year. Notable first breedings in captivity included a platebilled mountain toucan at Los Angeles Zoo and a manatee, the first to be actually conceived in captivity, at the Miami Seaquarium in Florida. An interesting experiment was being undertaken at Rabat, Morocco. The wild Barbary lion had been extinct for SO years, but specimens at Rabat Zoo showed features found only in this subspecies. By selecting various characteristics and cross-breeding certain individuals, an at-

tempt was being made to breed the true Barbary lion. Zoo animals were enjoying increased longevity. The Philadelphia Zoo lost a female orangutan which had reached the age of 56 years. Smokey Bear, for years the symbol of the U.S. Forest Service's anti-forest fire campaign, died at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., at the age of 26. He had been found as a cub by forest rangers after a fire in a national forest in

The great drought that hit Britain in the summer of

1976

endangered many rare plants in the Royal

Botanic Gardens near London. Visitors were excluded from some areas because of falling branches.

New

Mexico and sent to Washington, where he became one of the National Zoo's most popular attractions. Smokey the symbol, wearing a forest ranger's hat and with the slogan "Only You Can Prevent Forest Fires," appeared widely in posters and ads. The actual bear, suffering from arthritis, was retired in 1975 and replaced by a new official "Smokey," also an orphaned cub from New Mexico. Throughout the world many zoological meetings were held

in order to disseminate

personnel.

An

information to zoo

exhibition entitled "Animals and

Man"

took place at the Swiss Industries Fair in Basel; the Association of British Wild Animal Keepers held a

symposium on general management; at Paignton Zoo, England, a second International Symposium of Zoo Design and Construction was attended by delegates from many leading zoos; over 300 delegates from 67 attended a meeting of the International

countries

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in Switzerland; and the fourth international congress of the World Wildlife Fund was held in San Francisco. International Zoo^ News, an invaluable journal for zoo administrations, celebrated 25 years of publication in 1976. (g. s.

mottershead)

Botanical Gardens. During much of 1976 Western Europe suffered severe drought and exceptionally high temperatures, resulting in the loss of shallowrooted trees in many botanical gardens. At the Royal

air

Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, birches died and old trees were found to be seasoning on the roots, causing stresses

that led to

dangerous

fissures.

Dutch elm

disease coupled with drought accounted for further losses,

but at

Kew

wild-collected elm cuttings were

being stocked as a genetic resource in the interests of conservation. Subsequent to the 1975 International Association of Botanical Gardens conference on plant conservation, moves were being made to integrate European gardens with a view to propagating all threatened European plant species. Continuing inflation restricted development of some gardens, and many were concentrating their resources on certain aspects of research, such as the potato relatives at Birmingham University Botanical Gardens,

England.

A

step toward the rationalization of collec-

Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, was taken with the transfer to Kew of their Aeonium plants. In Copenhagen the University Botanic Garden was devoting new greenhouses to experimental work tions at the

and

to the cultivation of alpine species, while the hot-

houses were used for succulent asclepiads and plants

from Madagascar and

for

a

taxonomic study of

aquatic Cryptocoryne.

Despite the economic

difficulties, restoration of the

19th-century palm house in Belfast Botanic Garden, Northern Ireland, was being undertaken at a cost of more than £200,000; the first stage of sandblasting the

metalwork, spraying, and reglazing was completed in August. At Kew construction was begun on a remarkable pyramidal alpine house surrounded by a moat over which cool, moist air would be drawn. Work was also proceeding on science-support greenhouses and tropical and micropropagation units, as well as on the landscaping of parts of the palm house and ferneries. At the University Botanic Garden, Cambridge, England, the educational value of the garden was improved by the addition of several demonstrations. Although some of these were temporary exhibits in the greenhouses, others were more permanent displays on a number of themes, including a European collection of Saxifraga, ecotypes of native British Juniperus communis, and a taxonomic demonstration collection of Geranium. A special section for the documentation and propagation of all nationally rare species occur-

England was financed by the Nature Conservancy Council. Only a few years after its foundation, the Ventnor Botanic Garden, Isle of Wight, reported it probably had the largest outdoor ring in the eastern region of

collection of tender species in Britain.

Reconstruction of the Khorogsk Botanical Garden Pamirs area of southern U.S.S.R. was scheduled for the period 1976-80. At this high-altitude (over 2.000 m) garden, conditions were being created for

in the

plants of the

Hindu Kush and Himalayan

regions,

as well as for the introduction of foreign plants. Ir-

was made possible by lifting Dhakhder River m by an electric pump. A new botanical garden was being prepared at Kuala Lumpur for the University of Malaya. The 100-ac site, with outcrops of limestone and granite, a permanent stream, and some altitudinal diversity, was being laid out with examples of vegetation types and

rigation

water 140

demonstrations of plant families. One of the objectives was to gather and preserve many of the spices and medicinal plants, as well as the wild progenitors of tropical plants, occurring in the Malaysian region.

At the Singapore Botanic Gardens public interest was encouraged by a new aviary and a bandstand. In October the Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust of New Zealand celebrated its silver jubilee. Its first 25 years had seen the realization, to a large extent, of its founding concept: the gathering together of a collection of rhododendrons and their cultivation in a natural environment. The 900-ac garden, clothed in a forest of indigenous evergreen vegetation, was supporting over 850 species, varieties, and hybrids of rhododendron. The dedication of Totten Center, the first permanent building in the North Carolina Botanical Garden,

took place on April

—"The

11.

The

start of the U.S. bicenten-

—

Thirteen Colonies Trail" coinceremony, which took place dedication the with cided ten years after the opening of the first nature trail in

nial project

the garden. geles, the

At South Coast Botanic Garden, Los Ancentre was dedicated on

new administration

effort. The Education 7, climaxing years of Center at the Chicago Botanic Garden was opened

May

on June

26.

(frank

n.

hepper)

[3SS.C.6]

Encyclopedia Britannica Films. A Zoo's-Eye View: China (1974). to Dark (1973); Pandas: A Gift from

Dawn

;

;

)

;

CONTRIBUTORS Names

of contributors to the Britannica

The arrangement

AARSDAL, STENER. Economic

Editor,

B&rsen, Copenhagen.

Denmark

ADAMS, ANDREW M. Correspondent, CBS Radio Daily Mail, London San ;

;

Francisco Chronicle ; Black Belt magazine. Editor and Publisher, Sumo World.

Combat

Judo; Karate; Kendo;

Sports:

Sumo

AGRELLA, JOSEPH

C. Turf Editor, Chicago Sun-Times. Co-author of Ten

Commandments

for Professional

Book

HOWARD. Journalist and Broadcaster. Editor, Winter Sports, 1948-69. Winter Sports Correspondent, Daily Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph, London Christian Science Monitor, Boston Canadian Skater, Ottawa Skate, London Skating, Boston Ski Racing, Denver Sports Review, London. Author of The Sense in Sport ; This Skating Age; The Magic of Skiing ; International Encyclopaedia of Winter Sports; Let's Go Skating. Ice Hockey (in part) Winter Sports; Winter Sports: Special Report ;

;

;

;

;

ALEXIOU, CHRISTOS. Lecturer in Modern Greek, School of Hellenic and Roman Studies, University of Birmingham,

BEALL, JOHN

Army

Director, Salvation International Information Services,

London. Religion:

Greek

Salvation

A

Blueprint for Survival. Editor of

The Survival Handbook.

Engineer, Fluor Utah, Inc. Author of sections 1 and 34, Mining Engineering Handbook. Frequent Contributor to Mining Engineering, New York.

BEATTY,

J.

B. F. Goodrich Research and Development Center, Brecksville, Ohio. Co-author of

Concepts in Compounding. Industrial Review:

ALLAN, J. A. Lecturer in Geography, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

BECKWITH, DAVID

ALSTON, REX. Broadcaster

and Journalist retired BBC Commentator. Author of Taking the Air; Over to Rex Alston; Test Commentary ; Watching ;

Cricket. Cricket

Rubber C.

Correspondent,

Time magazine, Washington, D.C.

BEECH, KEYES. Far East Correspondent, Chicago Daily News. Author of Tokyo and Points East; Not Without the Americans. Vietnam

BICKELHAUPT, DAVID

ARNOLD, BRUCE.

;

Correspondent, Irish Independent. Ireland; United Kingdom: Special Report

ARRINGTON, LEONARD JAMES.

Church Historian, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Author of Great Basin Kingdom : An Economic History of the Latter-day Saints; Charles C. Rich: Mormon General and Western Frontiersman. Religion:

Church

United States: Special Report

BERGERRE, MAX.

Correspondent

ANSA

Rome.

of Jesus Christ of

Latter-day Saints

BILEFIELD, LIONEL.

to

and Varnishes

ARTHUR

H. William H. Danforth Professor of Religion, Princeton University. Author of Modern Trends in Hinduism; The Conflict of Religions. Religion:

Hinduism

AYTON, CYRIL

J.

Editor, Motorcycle

Sport, London.

The Times, Assistant Editor, Opera; Critic,

Broadcaster. Biography (in part); Music: Introduction;

BALLARD, MARTIN.

BODDY, WILLIAM

C. Editor,

Motor Sport. Full Member, Guild of Motoring Writers. Author of The 200 Mile Race; The World's Land Speed Record; Continental Sports Cars; The Bugatti Story; History of Montlhery

Vintage Years of the Morgan Threewheeler. Biography (in part) Motor Sports: Grand Prix Racing; International Rallying ;

Motor Sports: Motorcycles Director,

Development Council, London. Publishing: Books (in part)

Book

B6DVARSSON, HAUKUR

B.

Co-editor

and Text Supervisor, Iceland Review, Reykjavik. Literature: Icelandic

C.

Asian Affairs

of Indonesian

Malay Archipelago ; The Communist Collapse in Indonesia ; The Last Emperor. Indonesia

BRADSHER, HENRY

S.

Foreign Affairs

Writer, Washington (D.C.) Star.

Author of Prehistoric Men (8th ed. ) Archaeology of the Plain of Antioch. Archaeology (in part)

;

Lecturer

Folk Poetry. Literature: Finnish

BRASHER, CHRISTOPHER. Sports Correspondent, The Observer ; Reporter and Producer, BBC Television. Past Olympic Gold Medalist. Author of Tokyo 196J,; Mexico 196$; Munich

72.

BRAZEE, RUTLAGE J. Geophysicist, EDS/NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Boulder, Colo.

BLYTH, ALAN. Music Opera; Symphonic

ASHBY, PHILIP

Author

Track and Field Sports: Special Report

in part

;

BRACKMAN, ARNOLD

University of London. Author of A. J. Sjogren: Studies of the North. Co-editor of An Anthology of Finnish

T. E. Chairman, British Bottlers' Institute, London. Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages

London

;

in Finnish,

Technical

Journalist. Industrial Review: Paints

(

C. L. Lieutenant Colonel, ). Chairman, Survival Service Commission, International Union for' Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1958-63 Secretary, Fauna Preservation Society, London. 1950-63.

R.A. (retd.

BRANCH, MICHAEL ARTHUR. L.

Professor of Insurance and Finance, College of Administrative Science, Ohio State University. Author of Transition Multiple-Line Insurance Companies General Insurance (9th ed. ). Industrial Review: Insurance

BINSTED,

BOSWALL, JEFFERY. Producer of Sound and Television Programs, British Broadcasting Corporation Natural History Unit, Bristol, Eng. Life Sciences: Ornithology

J. Professor of Old World Prehistory, the Oriental Institute, and Professor of Anthropology, the University of Chicago.

Free-lance Journalist

and Writer, Dublin. Parliamentary

;

BR AID WOOD, ROBERT

Educational Corp.

ARCHIBALD, JOHN

Bowling for Boys and Girls. Bowling: Tenpin Bowling (in part) Duckpins

;

President,

for Vatican Affairs, Vatican City State

Louis Post-Dispatch. Author of

Lecturer and Writer Co-founder, Japan Free Religious Association Senior Pastor of a number of U.S. churches. Author of The Quest for Preaching Power; Introducing Unitarian Universalism. Religion: Unitarian Churches

Philippines

Associate Professor, Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida. Author of Population and Energy: A Systems Analysis of Resource Utilization in the Dominican Republic. Dominican Republic

St.

BOOTH, JOHN NICHOLLS.

Communism: A History; Southeast Asia's Second Front: The Power Struggle in the

;

Feature Writer,

Assistant Professor, of Political Science, Free University, Amsterdam. Netherlands, The; Surinam

Department

Specialist.

United States Statistical Supplement: Developments in the states in 1976

BENTON, CHARLES.

J.

BOONSTRA, DICK.

Environment (in part)

Films Incorporated Member of the Board of Encyclopaedia Britannica

ANTONINI, GUSTAVO. Research

H. Secretary, World Methodist A Way of Loving. Religion: Methodist Churches

BOYLE,

R. Senior Research Associate,

Environment (in part)

Libya

PETER

BOLT,

British Committee, Council. Author of

Army

V. Business Development

Mining and Quarrying (in part)

ALLABY, MICHAEL. Free-lance Writer and Lecturer. Author of The Eco-Activists Who Will Eat? ; Robots Behind the Plow;

by them.

articles written

;

;

BATE, JOHN M.

Literature:

Year with the

BASS,

Handicapping ; American Race Horses. Equestrian Sports: Thoroughbred Racing and Steeplechasing (in part)

England.

of the

alphabetical by last name.

is

Earth Sciences: Geophysics

BRECHER, KENNETH.

Assistant Professor of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Co-author and Co-editor of High Energy Astrophysics and Its Relation to Elementary Particle Physics. Astronomy

BRIERRE, ANNIE.

Literary Critic, Croix; Histoire Pour Tous ; FranceCulture ; France-U.S.A. Author of Ninon de Lenclos. Literature: French (in part)

BRUNO, HAL.

Chief Political Correspondent, Newsweek magazine. Biography (in part)

La

742

Contributors

BURDIN, JOEL

L. Associate Director, of Colleges for

American Association

Teacher Education Executive Secretary, Associated Organizations for Teacher Education Editor, Journal of Teacher Education, Washington, D.C. Author of A Reader's Guide to the Comprehensive Models {or Preparing Elementary Teachers. Co-author of Elementary School Curriculum and Instruction. ;

CHAPMAN, ROBIN. Research

Officer,

Senior Economic

Lloyds Bank

International, Ltd., London.

Cuba;

;

Haiti

;

Education (in part)

BURKE, DONALD

P.

Executive Editor,

Chemical Week.

Chemicals

Industrial Review:

BURKS, ARDATH W.

Professor of Political Science and Associate Vice-President for Academic Affairs,

Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. Author of The Government of Japan; East Asia: China, Korea, Japan. Japan

BURNETT, LEE.

Director, Department of Hematology, National Institute of Cardiology, Mexico City Bullfight Columnist, El Redondel. Translator into English of El Toreo by Rafael Vilar. Arena Sports: Bullfighting (in part) ;

BUTLER, DAVID RICHARD.

Information Manager, British Gas Corporation, London. Energy:

Gas

Sports Editor, News of the World, London. Author of A History

BUTLER, FRANK.

Boxing in Britain. Combat Sports: Boxing

of

CHAPPELL, DUNCAN. Director, Law and Justice Study Center, Battelle Memorial Institute, Seattle, Washington. Co-author of The Police and the Public in Australia and New Zealand. Co-editor of The Australian Criminal Justice System; Violence and Criminal Justice. Crime and Law Enforcement

CHOATE, ROGER NYE. Stockholm Correspondent, The Times, London. Biography (in part) Sweden

R. Editor,

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks. Gambling Biography (in part) ;

H. C. Chief Librarian, Toronto Public Library, Toronto. Author of Public Libraries in the Urban Metropolitan Setting. Literature: English (in part)

CAMPOS DE ESPANA, RAFAEL.

Affairs

;

Former International

Civil

CLARKE, R. O. Principal Administrator, Social Affairs and Industrial Relations Division, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris. Co-author of Workers' Participation in Management in Britain. Industrial Relations CLEGG, JERRY

S. Professor of Philosophy, Mills College, Oakla.nd, Calif. Author of The Structure of Plato's Philosophy. Philosophy

CLEVELAND, WILLIAM

A.

Geography

Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Mining and Quarrying (in part) F. Professor of Metallurgy, University of Idaho. Materials Sciences: Metallurgy

CLOUD, STANLEY W.

COCKSEDGE, DAVID.

Traffic: Policies in

Features

Writer, Athletics Weekly. Track and Field Sports (in part)

COGLE,

T. C. J. Editor, Electrical

COPELAND, JAMES

Transport

Industrial Review: Electrical

COLLINS,

L. J. D. Lecturer in Bulgarian History, University of London. Cyprus

Education (in part

Historian and Writer on African affairs. Author of Africa in History: Themes and Outlines; The African Genius; In the Eye of the Storm: Angola's People. Feature Article: The Aftermath of Angola

DAVIS,

DONALD

DAVIS,

J.

Wyndham

Lewis. Biography (in part)

Assistant Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks. Biography (in part)

CHALMEY, LUCIEN. Honorary Secretary-General, Union Internationale Producteurs et Distributeurs d'Energie

d^es

Electrique, Paris. Energy: Electricity

President, Science Interface, Monmouth Junction, N.J. Behavioural Sciences

CHAPMAN, KENNETH Collecting

;

to

STANLEY H. British Correspondent, Australian Tailor and COSTIN,

Menswear and Herrenjournal International. Former President, Men's Fashion Writers International. Fashion and Dress (in part)

CRATER, RUFUS W.

Chief Correspondent, Broadcasting,

New York

CROSSLAND, NORMAN. Bonn Correspondent, The Guardian and The Economist, London. German Democratic Republic; Germany, Federal Republic of

F. Editor, Philatelic

Correspondent, The Times, London. Author

Good Stamp Collecting ; Commonwealth Stamp Collecting. of

Philately

President, English Lacrosse Union. Author of "Men's Lacrosse" in The Oxford

City. Television and Radio (in part)

CHANCE, PAUL.

Stamp

COPPOCK, CHARLES DENNIS. Sports and Games. Field Hockey and Lacrosse (in part)

CEGIELSKI, CHARLES M.

and Numismatics (in part)

E.

London

Editor,

Britannica Book of the Year. Biography (in part)

RUTH

DAVIS, M. Director, Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology, U.S. National Bureau of Standards. Computers Textile consultant In aspects of textile production. Specialized writer on textile, engineering,

all

and

electrical subjects. Industrial Review: Textiles (in part)

RAUL. Retired from foreign service with U.S. Information Service. Corresponding member of the Brazilian Historical and Geographical Institute. Co-author of Latin American History. d'ECA,

Brazil

DECRAENE, PHILIPPE. Member

of editorial staff, Le Monde, Paris. Editor in Chief, Revue francaise d'Etudes politiques africaines. Author of Le Panafricanisme ;

Tableau des Partis Politiques Africains; Lettres de I'Afrique Atlantique. Benin; Cameroon; Central African Empire; Chad; Comoro Islands; Congo; Dahomey; Dependent States (in part) Gabon; Guinea; Ivory Coast; Madagascar; Mali; Mauritania; Niger; Senegal; Togo; Tunisia;

Bulletin. Life Sciences: Genetics

Companion

Drug d

A. Editor,

Cosmetic Industry, New York. Contributor to The Science and Technology of Aerosol Packaging. Industrial Review: Pharmaceuticals

de la

CASSIDY, VICTOR M. Writer and Editor, currently at work on a biography of

Editor,

)

;

C. Associate Professor of Microbiology, Ohio State University Editor, Microbial Genetics ;

Congestion. Transportation (in part)

DAVID, TUDOR. Managing Education, London.

Political

United States: Special Report

CASEMENT, RICHARD.

Correspondent, The Economist, London.

Historic Preservation

DAWBER, ALFRED.

DONALD

Review, London.

Author of Urban

Far Eastern

Servant and University Professor. China; Taiwan

Journalist Chief, Bullfighting Division, Radiotelevisi6n Espanola. Director, International Press Club, Madrid. Author of Joselito ; Filosofia del toreo; Los toros y la radio. Arena Sports: Bullfighting (in part) ;

DAIFUKU, HIROSHI. Chief, Sites and Division, UNESCO, Paris.

Monuments

DAVIDSON, BASIL. in

Correspondent, Time magazine.

CAMPBELL,

Slavic Cultural Center, Inc. Author of The Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia ; The Polish Theatre of the Absurd. Literature: Polish

;

CHU, HUNG-TI. Expert

CLIFTON,

CALHOUN, DAVID

CZERWINSKI, EDWARD J. Professor of Slavic Literature, State University of New York, Stony Brook Artistic Director,

Upper Volta

BARRE, KENNETH.

Director,

Montreal Office, Arctic Institute of North America. Arctic Regions

NORMAN

DE PUY, R. Executive Minister, First Baptist Church of Dearborn, Mich. Author of The Bible Alive. Religion: Baptist

Churches

DESAUTELS, PAUL ERNEST. Curator, Department of Mineral Sciences, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Author of The Mineral Kingdom ; The Gem Kingdom. Industrial Review:

Gemstones

DIRNBACHER, ELFRIEDE.

Austrian

Civil Servant, Austria

DUHART, JAIME R. Research Officer, Economics Department, Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London. Argentina; Latin-American Affairs; Peru

CVIIC, K. F. Leader Writer and East European Specialist, The Economist, London.

DUNICAN, PETER.

Yugoslavia

Engineering Projects: Buildings

Senior Partner,

Ove Arup Partnership, London.

;

;

)

Contributors

EAGLE, HERBERT

FRANCO, JEAN.

Slavic

Department

J. Chairman for Languages and Literatures, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.

L. Publications Officer, Forestry Commission of Great Britain. Author of Wayside and Woodland Trees; What Wood Is That?; Guide to

Tree Planting and Cultivation ; Observer's Book of Trees. Co-author of Atlas of Plant Life. Environment (in part)

EISENBERG,

WARREN

Staff Writer,

FRANKLIN, HAROLD.

Biography (in part) R. Editor, Vooruitgang

(Quarterly of the Belgian Party for Freedom and Progress), Brussels. Belgium; Biography (in part)

Drug Abuse; Health and Disease: General Overview (in part) Medical-Social Policy (in part) Mental Health (in part

Bridge Quarterly. Bridge Correspondent, Yorkshire Post ; Yorkshire Evening Post. Broadcaster. Author of Best of Bridge on

;

;

the Air. Contract Bridge

GREEN, BENNY.

Jazz Critic, Observer, Record Reviewer, British Broadcasting Corporation. Author of The Reluctant Art; Blame It on My Youth; 58 Minutes to London; Jazz Decade; Drums in My Ears. Contributor to Encyclopedia of Jazz. Music: Jazz

FRAWLEY, MARGARET-LOUISE. Press Officer, All-England Women's Lacrosse Association. Field Hockey and Lacrosse (in part)

Oxygen Activation. Life Sciences:

EWART, W.

D. Editor and Director, Fairplay International Shipping Weekly, London. Author of Marine Engines ; Atomic Submarines ; Hydrofoils and Hovercraft ; Building a Ship. Editor of World Atlas of Shipping. Industrial Review: Shipbuilding (in part)

Biochemistry

FRIEDLY, ROBERT

D. M. L. Professor of History, Carleton University, Ottawa. Author of

Two Democracies ; The Canadian Experience.

Man

GREENE, FREDERICK

D. Professor of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Editor, Journal of Organic Chemistry. Chemistry: Organic

GROSSBERG, ROBERT H. Executive Director, U.S. Jai Alai Players Association, Miami, Fla. Vice-President, Shearson Hayden Stone Inc. Court Games: Jai Alai

Rugby

;

GROVE, ROBERT

D.

Former

Director,

Division of Vital Statistics, U.S. Public Health Service. Co-author of Vital Statistics Rates in the United States, 1900-1940; Vital Statistics Rates in the United States, 1940-1960.

—

Industrial

;

Papua New Guinea

GADDUM, PETER W. Chairman, H. T. Gaddum and Company Ltd., Silk Merchants, Macclesfield, Cheshire, Eng. President, International Silk Association, Lyons. Author of How and Where It Is Produced. Silk

Canada

Review: Textiles (in part)

Demography

GALVANO, FABIO.

FENDELL, ROBERT J. New York Editor, Automotive News. Author of The New Era Car Book and

Stampa Sera,

Foreign Editor,

GUNDLACH, RICHARD GERARD.

Turin, Italy. Author of Carter. Biography (in part) Italy

Jimmy

Auto Survival Guide. Co-author of Encyclopedia of Motor Racing Greats. Motor Sports: U.S. Racing

Communications Editor, Electronics magazine.

;

Industrial

GANADO, ALBERT.

Lawyer, Malta.

FIDDICK, PETER.

Specialist Writer,

Publishing: ;

GEORGE, T. J. S. Editor, Asiaweek, Hong Kong. Author of Krishna Menon: Biography ; Lee Kuan Yew's Singapore.

A

(in

Magazines

GIBBS, JERRY. Angling Correspondent, The Guardian, London. Finland

London formerly ;

Editor, Editor,

The Friend, Quaker Monthly,

London. Religion: Religious Society of

Editor,

Friends

FISHER, DAVID. Civil Engineer, Freeman Fox & Partners, London

Life. Contributor to Experts' of Freshwater Fishing ; American Fisherman's Fresh and Salt Water Guide. Hunting and Fishing: Angling (in part)

Book

GJESTER, FAY.

Oslo Correspondent, Financial Times, London.

Norway

GOLDSMITH, ARTHUR. ;

formerly Executive Editor, Engineering, London. Engineering Projects: Bridges

Editorial Director, Popular Photography, New York City. Author of The Photography Game; The Nude in Photography. Co-author of The Eye of Eisenstaedt.

Photography

FLANAGAN,

J.

C.

HADY,

EDMUND

CARL. Executive

Secretary, American Dart Association. Author and Publisher of American and English Dart Game Including Tournament Rules. Target Sports: Darts

Outdoor

FIELDS, DONALD. Helsinki

FIRTH, DAVID.

Architect and

Biography (in part)

;

Introduction; Newspapers (in part)

Communications

Journalist, Bateaux, Paris.

Biography (in part) Cambodia; Korea; Laos; Southeast Asian Affairs; Thailand

The Guardian, London.

Review:

GUTELLE, PIERRE. Naval

Malta

FERRIER, R. W. Group Historian, British Petroleum Company Ltd., London. Energy: Petroleum

Newspaper Columnist.

Water Sports: Surfing

FOWELL,

R. J. Lecturer, Department Mining Engineering, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. of

Energy: Coal

FRADY, WILLIAM ENSIGN,

III.

Water Polo Scoreboard, Newport Beach, Calif. Water Sports: Water Polo Editor,

Professor and Past Chairman, Department of Mathematics, University of Denver. Feature Article: The Coming of Metricated

FROST, DAVID. Rugby Union

ANDREW.

FARR,

GREENBERG, HERBERT.

GRIFFITHS, A. R. G. Senior Lecturer in History, Flinders University of South Australia. Australia; Biography (in part) Nauru;

Correspondent, The Guardian, London.

Director, Press, Australia. Publishing: Books (in part)

;

L. Executive Director, Office of Communication, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Indianapolis, Ind. Religion: Disciples of Christ

Football:

part)

Games

GOULD, DONALD W. Medical Correspondent, New Statesman, London.

Editor, English

FRIDOVICH, IRWIN. James B. Duke Professor of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, N.C. Contributor to Oxidase and Redox Systems; Molecular Mechanisms of

Yomiuri Shimbun, Tokyo.

FABINTI, Pergamon

Billiard

Spanish (in part)

A. Professor of Anthropology, California State College, Sonoma, Rohnert Park. Archaeology (in part)

Economy, World (in part)

EMOTO, YOSHINOBU.

Literature:

FREDRICKSON, DAVID

EIU. The Economist Intelligence Unit, London.

Transportation

magazines.

London

W.

Administrative Assistant to Rep. H. John Heinz III, Washington, D.C. Populations and Areas

ENGELS, JAN

E. Managing Director, Billiard Congress of America, Chicago. Publisher-Editor of various trade

Literature.

HERBERT

EDLIN,

GOODWIN, ROBERT

Chairperson, of Spanish and Portuguese, Stanford University. Author of The Modern Culture of Latin America An Introduction to Spanish-American

Literature: Czechoslovakia-)!

743

GOLOMBEK, HARRY.

British Chess Champion, 1947, 1949, and 1955. Chess Correspondent, The Times and Observer, London. Author of Penguin Handbook on the Game of Chess; Modern Opening Chess Strategy. Board Games: Chess

GOODWIN,

R. M. Free-lance Writer,

London.

Thoroughbred Racing and Steeplechasing (in part)

Equestrian Sports:

HALE, JOHN. Research

Officer, Economics Department, Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London. Bolivia; Guatemala; Uruguay

HARDMAN, THOMAS

C. Editor and Publisher, The Water Skier, American Water Ski Association. Co-author of Let's Go Water Skiing. Water Sports: Water Skiing

HARRIES, DAVID

A. Director, Kinnear Ltd., Peterborough, Eng. ( 1973) Engineering Projects: Tunnels

Moodie

HARTER, DONALD

H. Charles L. Mix

Professor of Neurology and Chairman, Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago. Member of Editorial Board, Neurology. Contributor to Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine; Merritt's Textbook of Neurology. Health and Disease: Neurological Diseases

HASEGAWA, RYUSAKU. TBS-Britannica Baseball

Co., Ltd., (in part)

Editor,

Tokyo.

;

744

Contributors

HAWKLAND, WILLIAM

D. Professor

Law, University of Illinois. Author of Sales Under Uniform Commercial Code; Cases on Bills and Notes; Commercial Paper; Transactional Guide of the Uniform Commercial Code; Cases on Sales and Security. of

Law: Court Decisions

HAWLET,

H. B. Specialist,

Human

HEBBLETHWAITE, PETER. Lecturer, Wadham College, Oxford, England. Author

Bernanos ; The Council Fathers and Atheism; Understanding the Synod; The Runaway Church. of

Biography (in part) Catholic Church

Religion:

;

HUNNINGS, NEVILLE MARCH. General Editor, Common Law Reports Ltd., London. Editor of Common Market Law Reports, European Law Digest, and Eurolaw Commercial Intelligence. Author of Film Censors and the Law. Co-editor of Legal Problems of an Enlarged European Community. Law: International

Nutrition and Food Science, Switzerland. Food Processing

Roman

Law

INGHAM, KENNETH. Professor of History, University of Bristol, Eng. Author of Reformers in India; A History of East Africa. Angola; Cape Verde Islands; Guinea-Bissau; Kenya; Malawi; Mozambique; Rhodesia; Sao Tome and Principe; Tanzania; Uganda; Zaire; Zambia

IRF. International Road Federation, Geneva.

Roads

Engineering Projects:

HEINDL,

L. A. Executive Secretary, U.S. National Committee on Scientific Hydrology, U.S. Geological Survey National Center, Reston, Va. Author of The Water We Live By. Earth Sciences (in part)

HENDERSHOTT, MYRL C. Associate Professor of Oceanography, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La

;

ISSA. International Social Security Association, Geneva. Social and Welfare Services (in part)

M. Agricultural Economist, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture and Food Supplies

KERRIGAN, ANTHONY.

Visiting Professor, State University of New York, Buffalo. Editor and Translator of Selected Works of Miguel de Unamuno (10 vol.) and of works of Jorge Luis Borges. Author of At the Front Door of the Atlantic. Literature: Spanish (in part)

KIDD, BRUCE. Championship Runner and Assistant Professor

of Physical Education, University of Toronto.

Co-author of The Death of Hockey. Canada: Special Report

MICHAEL D. Columnist and Editorial Writer, Chicago Tribune; News Commentator, Television KILIAN, and

WBBM

Director and Public Relations Consultant. Member, Guild of Yachting Writers.

KIMCHE, JON.

Sailing

JASPERT, W. PINCUS.

Physician Director, World Health Organization's Smallpox Eradication Program. Health and Disease: Special Report ;

Technical

Editorial Consultant. European Editor, North American Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Member, Comprint International Planning Committee. Editor of Encyclopaedia of Type Faces. Industrial Review:

Printing

N. Principal Scientific

Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. Author of West African Herbaria of Isert and Thonning. Co-author of Plant Collectors in West Africa. Editor of Flora of West Tropical Africa (vol. ii and iii). Zoos and Botanical Gardens (in part) Officer,

JOHNSON,

D.

of

Why We

Reporter,

Moore Distinguished Service Professor Economics and Provost, University of Chicago. Author of World Agriculture in Disarray ; World Food Problems and

of

Prospects. Agriculture and Food Supplies: Special

Report

New York Times. Hockey (in part)

HESS,

MARVIN

Lawn

Sports:

HOLLANDS,

M. Editor, World Bowls;

C.

Tennis.

Member, British Association Author of Winning to Become a Champion

KIND, JOSHUA

G. Executive

;

Pillars.

Israel

B. Associate Professor

Northern

Illinois

De Kalb. Author

Rouault

of

Naive Art

Museums

in Illinois 1830-1976. (in part)

KITAGAWA, JOSEPH

M. Professor of History of Religions and Dean of the Divinity School, the University of Chicago. Author of Religions of the East; Religion in Japanese History.

KLARE,

Buddhism

HUGH

Chairman,

J.

Bowls; How numerous books on tennis. Co-author of Tackle Bowls My Way; Bryant on Bowls Bowling: Lawn Bowls

Gloucestershire Probation Training Committee, England. Secretary, Howard League for Penal Reform 1950—71. Author of People in Prison. Regular Contributor to Justice of the Peace. Prisons and Penology

JONES,

KNECHT, JEAN.

of National Coaches.

Vice-President, National Wrestling Coaches Association, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Combat

JONES,

Failed with Palestine and

Biography (in part)

Religion:

HERMAN, ROBIN CATHY. Ice

Editor, Afro-Asian Author of There Could

Again with Israel; Seven Fallen

of Art History,

GALE. Eliakim Hastings

Arab Report

Have Been Peace: The Untold Story

University,

HEPPER, FRANK

Editor,

and Record, London. Sudan

Algeria; Morocco;

Affairs, London.

Oceanography

HENDERSON, DONALD.

The

WTTW

Radio, Chicago.

Aerial Sports

KILNER, PETER. JARDINE, ADRIAN. Company

Jolla, Calif.

Earth Sciences:

KENNEDY, RICHARD

Wrestling

Hockey Correspondent, Daily Telegraph, London Chairman, Hockey Writers Club. Co-author of R. L.

;

Hockey. Field Hockey and Lacrosse (in part)

HOPE, THOMAS W.