Britannica Book of the Year 1976 0852293119

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BRITANNICA 1976 BOOK OF THE YEAR

ENCYCLOREDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Chicago, Toronto, London, Geneva, Sydney, Tokyo, Manila, Johannesburg, Seoul

©

1976

BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Copyright Under International Copyright Union Under Pan American and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopcedia Britannica, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-311-9

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BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR {Trademark Reg.

U.S. Pat. Off.)

Printed in U.S.A.

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Britannica Book of

the Year

is

published with the editorial advice

of the faculties of the University of Chicago.

Managing Editor Editors

Editorial Staff

Advisers

Lawrence K. Lustig

Daphne Daume, Chicago J. E. Davis, London David Calhoun, Charles Cegielski, Vanessa Clarke, Judy Fagelston, R. M. Goodwin, Arthur Latham, Barbara Hurd Majesty Richard H. Kessler, M.D., Martin E. Marty, Francis S. Pierce

Correspondents

Joan Harris, Toronto H. VV. DeVVeese, Sydney Yukio Sasaguchi, Tokyo Cesar A. Ramos, Mexico City Pinchas Geiger, Rio de Janeiro

Art Director Picture Editors

Cynthia Peterson Jeannine Deubel; Barbara Hilborne, London

Assistant Editors

Layout

Artist

Cartographer Art Staff

R. J.

Homan,

Julie A.

Kunkler

Richard Batchelor Gerzilla Leszczynski John L. Draves,

Miguel Rodriguez

Geography Editor Geography Research Editorial Production

Manager

Production Coordinator Production Staff

Copy Control

Index Supervisor Assistant Supervisor

Index Staff

Librarian Library Aide Secretarial Staff

William A. Cleveland Sujata Banerjee J.

Thomas Beatty

Ruth Passin Clover Carroll, Elizabeth Chastain, Claire S. Chow, Barbara \V. Cleary, Susan Goodfellow, Marilyn Klein, Lawrence Kowalski, Ivory E. Moss, Nancy Pask, Julian Ronning, Harry Sharp, Cheryl M. Trobiani, Colecn Withgott, Jovce P. Walker, Anita K. Wolff Mary C. Srodon, Supervisor Mary K. Finley

Frances E. Latham Rosa E. Casas Judith Anderson, Mary Neumann, Helen Peterson

Terry Miller Naomi Gralnek

Karen

Justin, Chicago

Elizabeth Rimmer,

Manuscript Typing

London

A. L. Cooper, Eunice L. Mitchell

Editorial Administration

Managing

Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Margaret Sutton Director of Budgets

Verne Pore

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, Chairman

of the

Board

President Vice President, Editorial

INC.

Robert P. Gwinn Charles E. Swanson Charles Van Doren

Contents Feature Articles 6

The Bicentennial The supreme

Constitution, by

14

of the United States

obligation of every

Sam

J.

American

to vigilantly

is

defend the

Ervin, Jr.

Free Enterprise in America effects of governmental intervention are examined, by Robert

The

Nozick 17

The Meiji Restoration: American Democracy

in

Japan

between the American Colonies in 1776 and the Meiji Restoration in 1868 are striking, by Frank Gibney Parallels

People of the Year 24

Biography

61

Nobel Prizes

64

Obituaries

Chronology of Events 84

A

month-by-month summary account of

have occurred

Book 104-738

significant

happenings that

in 197S.

of the Year

An alphabetically organized treatment of the people, places, and developments of significance during 1975, including the following general areas:

Economic Developments Environment and Natural Resources

Food and Agriculture Health and Disease

Human

Affairs

Industrial

Review

Literature and the Arts

National and International Affairs Science and Technology Social Sciences

Sports and

739

Contributors

747

Index

Games

Special Reports 144

Art and Art Exhibitions: Quincentenary of Michelangelo

Buonarroti (1475-1564)

An

appraisal of the

work of the great master by Alexander Perrig

of Renaissance art, 500

years after his birth,

155

Defense Reappraised is a matter of renewed concern in light of British and American withdrawal from Asian involvements, by

Australia: Australia's

Military preparedness

Thomas B. Millar 184

Canada: The State of Canadian Publishing Confronted with financial difficulties, foreign takeovers, and the desire to retain a separate identity and culture, the industry is in disarray, by Richard Heath Romer

219

Crime and Law Enforcement: Political Crime and Terrorism The advent of terrorism for political motives presents a grave lemma for free societies, by Brian Crozicr

241

di-

Defense: Foreign Intelligence in a Free Society examination of the intelligence gathering system of the United

An

States,

by John A. McCone

255

Dependent States: Proliferation and Peace The end of colonialism and the resulting emergence of nearly 100 new nations pose significant problems for world peace, by Lord Caradon

270

Earth Sciences: Science and Superstition: An Age of Unreason We live in an age of scientific miracles but are confronted at every turn by superstitious beliefs, by Lawrence K. Lustig

381

Health and Disease: Abortion and Fetal Research: A Reconsideration Moral, ethical, legal, and medical considerations are involved, by

Marc Lappe 394

European Architectural Heritage Year on the Council of Europe effort to create awareness of the need for preservation, by Barbara Hilborne

Historic Preservation:

A 409

pictorial essay

Industrial Relations:

The

Unemployment and

Inflation

coincidence of high unemployment and high rates of inflation

in marked conflict with some long cherished economic Harford Thomas

443

is

by

Italy: Italy's Political Crisis: Transition or Disruption?

Economic

dislocation, civic disorders,

gest that the Italian political system

584

theories,

is

and recent voting patterns sugripe for change, by P. A. Allum

Refugees: Flight in Vietnam Closing of the Communist ring in Southeast Asia produced enormous refugee travail, by Richard West

623

Southeast Asian Affairs: The End of a War After 30 years of bitter warfare the Communists gained a decisive victory,

687

by Robert Shaplen

United Kingdom:

The

New Nationalisms in Britain

rise of separatist

sentiment

in

Scotland, Wales, and Northern

Ireland has psychological as well as economic roots, by Martin Walker

691

United Nations: International Women's Year expectations and achievements engendered by the UN-sponsored

The

IWY 699

are discussed,

by Abigail McCarthy

United States: New York City's Fiscal Crisis The sequence of events leading to the very brink of reviewed, by Richard L. Worsnop

fiscal default is

The Bicentennial of the United States by Sam J. Ervin,

Jr.

celebrate the bicentennial of the independence of As we both retrospecindulge our country, we ought in

to

•

The Uses

of History.

We

cannot overmagnify the value

bunk or

a dust heap, they lend credence to

been much harassed by war and religious persecution and

German

philosopher Hegel

and governments never learn anything from

history or act on principles deduced from

who

that those

is

doomed

of colonists

were Germans from the Rhineland-Palatinate, who had

the disconsolate assertion of the that people

The second most numerous group

of Britain.

deem

of surveying with frequency things past. If a people history to be

the Colonies the

a pride in what they conceived to be their rights as subjects

and consecration.

tion

and those of them who were of English ancestry gave common law of England and the colonists

land,

it.

The

truth

ignore the lessons history teaches are

to repeat the mistakes of the past.

who

located in Pennsylvania before spreading to other

They were preceded,

areas.

or accompanied, or followed

numbers of French Huguenots, Dutch, Highland Scots, Swiss, Swedes, and Welsh. All of these people had one motive in common for com-

by

lesser

gather out of history a policy no less wise than eternal."

They desired to better their economic Moreover, a substantial proportion of the original settlers had two additional motives for migrating to the

In commenting on this concept, the British historian James

Colonies.

Anthony Froude observed:

churches established by law in the lands of their origins,

History has the capacity to teach wisdom and patriotism.

As

Walter Raleigh noted 350 years ago,

Sir

"We may

History is a voice forever sounding across the centuries the laws of right and wrong. Opinions alter, manners change, creeds rise and fall, but the moral law is written on the tablets of eternity.

Surely nothing has greater potency to inspire love of our

country as we celebrate

its

the historic truth that on

its

lives,

their

America

When

from

the

doctrines

of

the

and for that reason were disabled by their laws from holding civil office. Hence, they

hoped

to find in the

liberties

came

New World

to

America because they

the political and religious

denied them in the old.

make

grave injustices which king and Parliament visited on the

and their sacred honour and independent.

one reviews

dissented

day 200 years ago the Independence pledged their

natal

fortunes,

free

They

The population of the Southern Colonies was augmented by black Africans involuntarily imported as slaves. Causes of the Revolution. Let us enumerate briefly the

bicentennial than recurring to

signers of the Declaration of

ing to America. lot.

to

Colonies.

in detail the unjust actions of the

By

a series of Navigation Acts, which were adopted in

king and the Parliament of Great Britain which provoked

1660 and subsequent years and which were designed to

American Colonies, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, New Hampshire, New Jersey,

secure a monopoly of colonial trade to English merchants

the

Maryland, Massachusetts,

New

York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,

and shippers, Parliament decreed that goods of any bound to England or to English colonies had to be

origin trans-

British

ported in English ships; that the chief products of the

rule and become free and independent states, he is reminded that history is reputed to be prophecy in reverse, and that coming events are said to cast their shadows be-

Colonies, including cotton, sugar, and tobacco, could be

South Carolina, and Virginia,

to

revolt against

exported only to England, where they were subjected to English customs duties; that

European manufacture

fore them.

Settlement of the Colonies. Before detailing the unjust acts of king and Parliament, it is essential to describe the origins and characteristics of the men and women who established their homes in the 13 Colonies. The predominating majority of them were English, Scots-Irish, and Lowland Scots. They made their mother tongue, the English language, the vernacular of their

new

was a U.S. senator from North Carolina for nearly 21 years and became a familiar figure in 1973 as chairman of the Senate Watergate committee. ReJ.

Ervin,

nowned

Jr.,

for his

command of constitutional law, Ervin is a Law School. He served for 15 years

graduate of Harvard

on the North Carolina bench,

six of

them

as associate jus-

ships carrying goods of

had

to pass

through

English ports and pay English customs duties on their cargoes; and that prosecutions for violations of the Navi-

gation Acts were triable without juries in admiralty courts.

By 1760 colonies,

the Colonies were divisible into five chartered

which enjoyed limited powers of self-government

under charters previously issued to them by the king with tacit

parliamentary assent, and eight crown colonies, which

were subject

Sam

all

to the Colonies

to all practical intents

rule of the king acting through the

Council.

To be

sure, each colony

usually called the assembly, whose

by

and purposes

had a

to the

his

Privy

legislative

body,

agency of

members were

elected

But the acts of these assemblies had England for approval or disapproval by

their freeholders.

to be forwarded to

the king-in-council before they could be operative.

The

of the state Supreme Court. In this article he provides

repeated abuse by the king of his royal power to approve

a retrospective account of the meaning and promise of America, which is most appropriate in this bicentennial

or disapprove the acts of colonial assemblies rightly gen-

year.

sent to laws

tice

erated complaints by the colonists that he refused his as-

demanded by "the

public good" and neglected

THE BICENTENNIAL OF THE UNITED STATES

8

any action whatever

to take

in respect to other

"Laws

of

immediate and pressing importance."

The king delegated

crown colonies

to the governors of

the royal authority to

adjourn, and dissolve the as-

call,

semblies chosen by the freeholders and to veto the legislation they adopted. Since the assemblies

were the only rep-

resentatives the colonists were permitted to choose, their

members were

the champions of the people,

cise of their drastic delegated

and the exer-

powers by the governors kept

them and the assemblies at constant loggerheads. As a consequence, the inhabitants of crown colonies complained that royal governors vetoed acts

justifiably

adopted by assemblies for "the accommodation of large districts of people";

that they called the assemblies to

The second act, which was known as the Townshend Revenue Act, imposed customs duties on paper, glass, paint, lead, and the East India Company's tea, which the The

Townshend Act reorganized the British customs system in America by increasing the number of its officers, requiring them to make every effort to collect ail customs duties imposed on the Colonies by the Navigation Acts and the Townshend Revenue Act, and by authorizing them to employ in all Colonies in their efforts third

perform their assignment hated writs of assistance, to search homes, buildings, ships,

to

which empowered them and

all

other places for supposedly smuggled goods with-

out obtaining specific warrants.

Rising Discontent. The Townshend Acts and the ac-

meet "at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from

they sanctioned aroused indignation and opposition

the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose

tivities

of fatiguing them into compliance with" their wishes

in all the Colonies.

;

that

from England.

colonists imported

The

reaction to

them was particularly

they dissolved assemblies "repeatedly, for opposing with

adverse in Massachusetts and Virginia. Since the king and

manly firmness" their "invasions on the rights of the people"; and that they refused for long periods of time

his ministers

"after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected."

mitted treason against the crown, they induced Parliament

Taxation Without Representation. The colonists en-

had reached the conclusion that the popular

leaders of the people in Massachusetts had already com-

Henry VIII, which authorized

to revive the Statute of 35

tertained an abiding conviction that the unwritten English

transportation to England for

any legislative body in which they were not represented from levying taxes on English sub-

persons charged with treason against the crown in areas

constitution prohibited

jects.

As

when

liament

it

were flagrantly violated by Par-

enacted the Sugar Act of 1764, which im-

posed customs duties on molasses imported by

New

En-

in

English courts of

outside England.

Parliament amended the Townshend Revenue Act in

a consequence, they were sure that their basic

rights as English subjects

trial

1770 by eliminating that

on

the

colonists.

customs duties

all

it

imposed except

This event did not abate the dissatisfaction of

tea.

They

Committees of Corre-

established

ban the importation of them a symbol of British tyr-

gland Colonies from the non-British West Indies for the

spondence

manufacture of rum, and the Stamp Act of 176S, which

tea,

required that revenue stamps be affixed to

anny, and to consult with each other concerning other mat-

ments and printed matter

all official

docu-

in the Colonies.

because triable

it

provided that prosecutions for

which had become

ters of

The Sugar Act was never really enforced. The colonists were deeply incensed by the Stamp Act its

violation were

without juries in admiralty courts. They deemed

in the various colonies to

mutual

to

known

interest. Besides, other groups,

as

the Sons of Liberty, were organized in the cities to engage, if

need be, In

May

more

in

drastic action.

1773 Parliament passed the Tea Act to aid the

financially ailing East India

Company. By this act. Parliacompany in respect

by jury and their right to be taxed only by a legislative body in which they had representation. Opposition to the Stamp Act was characterized by an intensity of emotion among the colonists

ment granted

and widespread boycotting of English goods. Fearing loss of their American markets, English merchants persuaded

reached the chief ports of the Colonies in December, the Sons of Liberty managed to exclude it from commercial

it

offended both their right to

trial

Parliament to repeal the act a year after

The ameliorating

its

enactment.

effect that the repeal of the

Stamp Act

to the tea sell

it

Dutch

When

special concessions to the

shipped to the Colonies to enable

tea,

to under-

it

which was being smuggled into the Colonies.

ships

carrying the East India

channels. At Charleston they had

house, and at Philadelphia and

it

Company's

impounded

New York

in a

tea

ware-

they induced

At Boston members of the Sons of

would otherwise have had on the passions of the colonists

the ships to turn back.

was substantially diminished because Parliament simultaneously passed the Declaratory Act of 1766, which pro-

Liberty wearing disguises cast 342 chests of the tea into

claimed that

it

possessed plenary power to legislate for

the Colonies in respect to

delay in exerting

Upon

its

all

matters. Parliament did not

Townshend, the

British chancellor of the Exchequer, Parliament enacted

during 1767 the acts which bear his name.

The

first

Townshend Act was its

directed against

assembly had refused

to

certain free supplies, such as beer

The

act suspended the

New York

obey the Mutiny

Act of 176S, which required the Colonies racks for British troops stationed in

The

last episode,

to furnish bar-

them and

to provide

and rum, for such troops. assembly until it per-

New York

formed the obligations imposed by that

act.

which

is

known

as the

Boston Tea

Party, goaded the king and his ministers into retaliatory

measures.

asserted power.

the recommendation of Charles

alone because

the harbour.

They

increased the British garrison in Boston

and induced Parliament

to pass four acts

which the colo-

dubbed the Intolerable Acts of 1774. The first act, the Boston Port Act, closed the port of Boston to commerce until Boston recompensed the owners of the tea that had been cast into its harbour and the king

nists

to law prevailed. The second, Government Act, deprived that colony

adjudged that obedience the Massachusetts

of substantial powers of self-rule

out

its

history.

The

third, the

Act, authorized the removal

it

had enjoyed through-

Administration of Justice

from Massachusetts

to neigh-

bouring colonies or even to Britain of the

trials

of persons

charged with capital offenses allegedly committed in behalf of the government.

The

fourth, the Quartering Act, legal-

ized the quartering of British soldiers in private

homes

known

encounter,

to history as the Battle of

Bunker

Hill,

ensued. After hard fighting, the British drove the Americans from their position

but they suffered 1,000 casual-

ties in so doing.

Since they were so manifestly tyrannous, the Intolerable

Two days previously the Second Continental Congress, which had convened at Philadelphia on May 10, had is-

Acts raised the anger of the colonists to unprecedented

sued a commission as commanding general of American

without the consent of their owners.

The

heights.

First Continental

Philadelphia Sept.

5,

Congress, which met at

1774, denounced the Intolerable Acts

and other recent parliamentary enactments as inimical to the rights of the colonists as British subjects, and proposed that colonial imports from Britain should cease after Dec. 1,

1774, and colonial exports to Britain should end after

Sept. 10, 1775, unless the Intolerable Acts

The terms

repealed.

forces to George Washington,

Boston

July and served in

who assumed command this post

tion throughout the Revolution.

On

Dec. 22, 1775, Parlia-

intercourse with them.

The Declaration

of Independence. As hostilities ex-

panded, the majority of Americans were reluctantly driven

independence from Britain offered

desire to effect a peaceful reconciliation with Britain.

to the conclusion that

The Beginning of the Revolution. But this was not to be. On April 19, 1775, British soldiers, who were pro-

the only solution to their problems.

ceeding from Boston to Concord, 17 mi. distant, to seize

of the 13 Colonies to

colonial military stores, encountered Massachusetts min-

tinental Congress to vote for independence,

utemen

at

Lexington and Concord and engaged

in

bloody

skirmishes with them.

News

marked

the beginning

of the American Revolution, spread like wildfire through-

out the Colonies, which prepared to resist military subjugation by

armed

force.

As

numbers and powerful Brit-

the days passed, large

of colonial militia assembled at Boston,

and naval forces converged nearby. On June 17, 1775, the British attacked American militia entrenched on Breed's Hill overlooking Charlestown, and a furious ish military

"The Battle

On

of Bunker's Hill," June 17, 1775. Painting by

John Trumbull.

April

12,

1776,

North Carolina became the

empower

its

first

delegates in the Con-

and on

May

15,

became the first of the Colonies to instruct delegates in that body to take affirmative action to ac-

1776, Virginia its

of these skirmishes, which

at

with great distinc-

ment undertook to prevent the colonists from obtaining any outside aid by enacting a statute that prohibited all

were sooner

of this proposal plainly indicated a

in

complish that end.

On June

7,

1776, Richard

Henry Lee,

a delegate

from

Virginia, offered a resolution to the Congress declaring

"that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Congress forthwith

named

John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman as a committee to prepare a declaration conforming to Lee's resolution. The

:

THE BICENTENNIAL OF THE UNITED STATES

10

Other committeemen delegated the actual drafting of the declaration to

ernment and him for the

On July

July

Thomas

Jefferson,

whose philosophy of gov-

facility of written expression ideally

equipped

task.

2,

1776, Congress passed Lee's resolution; on

1776, Congress adopted with slight modifications

4,

Jefferson's final draft of the Declaration of

and made

Independence

public; on July 19, 1776, Congress "resolved,

it

That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved;^ and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other .Acts and Things which Independent States may of right And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm redo. liance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred all .Allegiance to

—

Honor.

Most

of the hard fighting of the Revolution occurred in

on the 4th be fairly engrossed on parchment with the title and stile of 'The unanimous

the North and the South and on the seas during the years

Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,' and

following the Declaration of Independence.

that the Declaration passed

that the same,

when engrossed, be signed by every member

of Congress";

and on Aug.

2,

1776, most of the 56 signers

of the engrossed copy of the Declaration of Independence,

now on

ceased Oct. 19, 1781,

commander

in chief,

The when Lord Cornwallis, the

fighting

British

surrendered to Washington at York-

town, and the Revolution legally ended Sept.

1783, with

3,

which

is

Na-

the formal signing of the Treaty of Paris, whereby Great

tional

Archives in Washington, D.C., affixed their signa-

Britain recognized the independence of the United States

display in the exhibition hall of the

tures to that instrument, although a

number

of

them did

and ceded

to

them

its

claim to the territory lying north of

and south of Canada which the French and Indian War.

had won from

so subsequent to that day.

the Ohio

Of these four significant days, July 4, 1776, is universally accepted and celebrated as the birthday of the United

France

States of America.

adopted constitutions for themselves during the early days

The Declaration

of Independence, which

is

America's

The

in

Articles of Confederation. Although the 13 states

of the Revolution, efforts to unite

ment

it

them

in a

formal govern-

most eloquent and stirring political document, is divisible into a preamble and a resolution, and the preamble is, in

which the Continental Congress submitted

turn, divisible into four sections.

Nov.

The

first

section of the preamble asserts that

when one

people "dissolve the political bands which have connected

suffered delays,

15, 1777,

and the Articles of Confederation,

March 1, more than a modicum of truth

of the last state, Maryland, until

There

is

to the states

were not made effective by the

ratification

1781. in the observa-

them with another" and "assume among the powers of the earth" the station of a separate and independent nation, "a. decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the

James Madison that the Articles of Confederation were "nothing more than a treaty of amity and of alliance between independent and sovereign states."

separation."

Congress of the Confederation; gave each

The second

The

Articles converted the Continental Congress into the state, regardless

section expounds these views

of population, one vote in that body; and provided that

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.

amendments to them had to be approved by all states. They vested in Congress the power to maintain an army and navy and to make war, to conduct foreign relations

—

—

After charging in general terms that king and Parlia-

ment had subjected the Colonies juries,

and usurpations

to repeated abuses, in-

to establish

an absolute tyranny

over them, the third section of the preamble undertakes to

tion of

prove the truth of the charges

to "a

candid world" by

and negotiate

treaties, to coin

and borrow money,

to es-

and standards of weights and measures, regulate dealings with the Indians. While they gave

tablish a post office

and

to

Congress the authority to create executive departments, they did not set up a federal judiciary.

Under

the Articles, Congress

was denied the power

to

among was forbidden to make

levy taxes of any nature or to regulate commerce the states or with foreign nations. It

any commercial treaty abridging the collect

right of a state to

customs duties, even on imports from other

states.

specifying in vivid words the unjust acts of the king and

Moreover, Congress had no coercive powers and was

Parliament.

compelled to depend for the payment of expenses and debts on moneys voluntarily supplied to it by the states in con-

The fourth

section of the preamble recites that "In

every stage of these Oppressions" the Colonies petitioned

formity with requisitions made by

king and Parliament "for Redress in the most humble

section further states that

With the coming of peace, the new nation was confronted by problems that demonstrated the insufficiency of the existing Articles of Confederation. The states failed to

the Colonies appealed from time to time to their "British

honour adequately congressional requisitions for money,

terms"; that their repeated petitions were "answered only

by repeated

injury."

brethren" in the

The fourth

name

of justice and kinship to disavow

ments on the principal and

jurisdiction" over them;

incurred by borrowing.

were likewise "deaf

their "British brethren"

on them.

and for that reason Congress became unable to make pay-

the attempts of Parliament, "to extend an unwarrantable

and that

it

interest of the debts

The enormous amounts

it

had

of paper

and of con-

currency Congress and the states had issued to finance the

sanguinity." In the resolution, which concludes the Decla-

Revolution became practically worthless and caused a high

to the voice of justice

ration, "the Representatives of the united States of

ica" declare:

Amer-

degree of inflation. Besides, some of the states

made com-

mercial war on others by imposing customs duties on im-

Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence. Painting by John Trumbull.

by

ports and

At

this

by nonresident owners.

sad juncture, Congress adopted a resolution in-

called to

meet

at Philadelphia in

May

which

1787, for the pur-

pose of proposing revisions of the Articles of Confederation. All of the states

the invitation

except

Rhode

by sending SS

Island responded to

delegates,

who were much

experienced in politics and government and deeply versed in history

met

and

political philosophy, to the

in secret sessions in the

Independence Hall, from

convention which

Pennsylvania Statehouse,

May

The Constitution. Instead

now

Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty" to

Articles of Confederation, the convention,

which

is

The

Constitution

characteristics are

ment,

its

known

Convention, prepared and

well adapted to these ends. Its chief

is

its

diffusion of the

power of govern-

adoption of the principle that the just powers of

government are derived from the people,

system of

its

checks by which each of the departments resists the en-

croachments and excesses of the others, and

its

balancing

which government must have in order rule and the liberty which the individual must enjoy of the authority

to in

order to pursue happiness.

The Constitution

25 to Sept. 17, 1787.

of proposing revisions of the

to history as the Constitutional

eral

themselves and their posterity.

viting the 13 states to send delegates to a convention, it

by

restricting the use of navigable waters

ships operated

utilizes the doctrine of the separation

makes by delegating to it

of powers in a twofold way. First, the Constitution the United States a federal republic

the powers which enable

it

to function as a national gov-

and the people, and

reported to the Congress a plan in writing for a complete

ernment

national government for the United States. Congress sub-

by reserving

mitted the plan to the states for ratification or rejection

regulate their internal and local affairs. Second, the Con-

by

the people in specially called state conventions.

Under

for the states, the territories,

stitution divides the

powers

effective as

among

the Constitution of the United States on June 21, 1788,

power

when the ninth state. New Hampshire, ratified it. The Constitution consisted originally of seven articles. Since its adoption, 26 amendments have been added to it.

inferior federal courts.

the terms of the submission, the plan

Since the

first

ten

became

amendments, which constitute the

became effective Dec. deemed to be a part of the

Bill

1791, they are gen-

of Rights,

15,

erally

original Constitution.

As

its

preamble

recites, the

people of the United States

ordained and established the Constitution "to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility,

provide for the

common

defence, promote the gen-

its

powers which enable them

to the states the

it

to

delegates to the United States

by assigning the legislative power to the presipower to the Supreme Court and the

three departments

to the Congress, the executive

dent, and the judicial

Congress consists of the Senate, where each state represented by two senators irrespective of

its

is

population,

and the House of Representatives, where each state

is

represented by representatives whose numbers are proportional to its popidation.

Senators and representatives are chosen by the people

whose

qualifications for voting in each state

to those prescribed

by

state

must conform

law for electors of the most

THE BICENTENNIAL OF THE UNITED STATES numerous branch of no state

tion that

its legislature,

may

in a federal or state election

respect to any persons

subject to the limita-

base any qualification for voting

on

who

on age in

race, or sex, or

are

18 years or older,

may

subject to the further hmitation that no state

The

Amendment. More

First

taken, however, of the First

The wise men who added

losophers, they believed that a full and free flow of infor-

mation and ideas

are equal in in

number

directs.

electors in each state

and representatives manner its legislature universally provide nowadays

to its senators

Congress and are appointed State legislatures

that electors are to be elected

in the

by the president subject constitutional provision

nominated

this article to

analyze in

powers the Constitution confers on the United powers the Constitution reserves

to the states,

the limitations the Constitution imposes on the states, and the limitations which the Constitution in general and the

operate with efficiency and without corruption.

The

so doing,

freedom

whatever he pleases and freedom

present danger that First

speak

it

will incite others to

commit

crimes.

Amendment condemns any governmental

ac-

... the right of the people peaceably

tion "abridging

to

assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress

By

of grievances."

so doing,

it

secures to every person

within our borders freedom to associate with others of

governmental

state, to operate in like

to deprive

any person of

property without due process of law.

life,

like

the free exercise thereof."

By

so doing,

it

Jefferson, third U.S. president and principal framer of the Declaration of Independence. Sl.830,000 1,012.945

480,264 231,311 544,411

406,040 1,176,280 34,303 666,755

44,306 173,433§

18,881

159,599 24,032 248,107 1,293,000 13,436 54,387 65,984 126,327 80,481 16,916

40,383 2,937 28,451

1,263,802

53,887 4,061,002

138,422} 564,167 908,326§ 203,296 37,116 61,354

13,661 5,924

2,654 secondary.

,631 ,363

647,992 211,772 317,397 74,412 324,508 7,488 148,520 59,236 174,177 560,659

17,802 17,388 3,765 3,649 15,175} 2,003

164,615 6,970 4,440 4,836 6,452 2,354 4,705 30,933 1,199

14,517

492

1,532

788,662 532 292,779 8,735 5,409 21,547

720 7,530 25,461 2,266} 2,719

616} 1,060

15,099 44,197 3,531§ 993 17,536 173,934}

134,970 14,935 5,934 2,516 11,143§ 6,700 538,684§ 102,781 27,085 16,862

}P.

late. ^Exclude:

55,435 108,646 85,284 19,336 43,743 241,690

289,812 27,437

9,615 1,031 67,881

1,895 111,776 1,212,424 431,963 2,246,315 123,081 15,810

t

124,360 6,666 2,425 1,133

9,904 6,344

612,933 82,803 29,572 3,939 72,641

245,628

1,831

3,2846

4,478 1,035 6,061

773,669 145,717 729,207 91,309 21,715 9,204 18,200 60,059 2,540,000 136,467 115,311 70,247 29,642

65,719 3,452 1,814 216 5,434 249,031

81 ,079 802,603 4,699 1,926,108 9,302 8,177 286,142 3,339

1306

1,561,580 5,494 3,525* 451,032 3,034 5,977 7,836}

625 50,803

553 1,511

22,429 9,631

1,146

1,812 22,466 4,937

28,575 290

1,212 419,251 2,5676 2,754

1,921

71,057 23,701 1,150 3,334 41,738 10,980

3656 448,735 2,035 6,945 64,286 57,215 59,958 43,355 9,149

1,587 17,215 17,799

79,024 3,572 1,226 6,829

848 168,407 159,813 1,866,062 164,393 2,7491 5,088 495,682 3,047 16,508

45,594 26,166 10,307 11,843 3,771 t

1,487§ 7,831

40,600°

2,050

3,233 5,405 2,969 2,208

74,067* 11,897

1771

2,198 7,601 21,401

1,448,000

t

56,379 98.925 8.651

58.277 19.127 47.552 2.199 28.064 1.111

6.549§ 33.619

3,011 1,673 1,075

278,027 12,936 12,077 20,449

2,657 209,000 20,238

23,901

257,475 6,017 178,866 4,695 §

242,436

186,225 6,242 330,629

,003,000§ 8,154} 15,665 27,639§ 10,164 13,792

519,957 87,374

2.341

7,197

40 77,951

178,761 2,098 17,366

7,679 83,095 560,572 112,159 7,544

2,131

4,041

274 38,964 12,026* 10,607* 1,532} 3,026

124,662 54,502 11,570 3,559 543,250 76,979 820,000

948 21,475 7,829 54,318

664,739 247,551

267,426 7,373} 8,114

142,654

137,832 174,767

873

240

t

8,083

!,674,972

1,691

1,609 4,095 7,260 9,173 2,554 2,115 14,502 3,395 48,507 2,105 1,744 2,709

t

80,500 4,116

423,824 144,557 84,349 27,940} 37,692 238 772,800

290,408

2,530

46,010

1,720 2,265

1,205 1,316 1,154 88,962

3,520,000 1,003,492

24,424 10,524 57,378 6,614 5,568 182,454 37,585 6,607 11,490 56,745 20,086 8,154 136,142 19,109 111,408

11,695 25,500 35,887 2,942

9,331

50,072 23,454 15,845 703,063

1,885,100

940

59,967 5,042 18,561 9,736 5,902 4,245 1,078 4,736 404,418 61,916 28,357 6,194 3,899 1,877 35,080 2,377 24,592 1,132 6,932 6,367 162 2,125 2,319 1,087

7,317 7,157 15,340 3,060 59,521 65,211

607,033 1,955,200

1,021

3,450 16,000 8,478

32,230

99,351

160,895 32,867 406,565 59,209 422,652

186,563 134 3,567 18,299

115,310 4,373 12,109

1,890,081

554,578 820,215 1,117,569 3,873,297 509,985 133,890 393,242 5,662,089 2,608,074 6,499,824 913,972 585,015 415,851 677,421 1,039,586 78,000,000 11,907,979 3,445,528 1,523,955 545,439 552,338 4,968,900 556,689 9,816,536 371,631

3,226 1,374 7,794 5,585 20,648 8,133 5,920 36,165}

[full-lime|

11,688 501

63,787

10,540

1,475

16,697 6,045 1,038

4,940 38,000} 17,015 68,286

1,863 11,305 119,000

4,i28 2,440 1,455

% of pop-

Ov.

306

Education

It

was

in the

Arab countries that higher education

problems were perhaps the most acute. Saudi Arabia was investing in an enormous university expansion without having the numbers of Saudi students to fill the places. On the other hand, the Egyptians were unable to provide jobs for their own graduates, though some 40,000 of Egypt's 250,000 university students were from other Arab countries. It was reported in 197S that some 20,000 Egyptian-trained teachers were at work in other Arab countries. In Morocco still

French teachers known as cooperants. The Moroccans were planning 13 regional teacher-training colleges with the intention of replacing the French as soon as Moroccan nationals there were as

many

as 6,000

concept be applied to recruiting female and minority group students to increase their numbers in college. Reverse discrimination charges were leveled by academically qualified white males who claimed that minority quotas were keeping some strong students out of professional schools.

Integration to improve learning was questioned by some very influential people. James S. Coleman, whose massive 1966 study provided the rationale for

many

federal

desegregation efforts, concluded that

forced busing speeds up resegregation as whites leave areas that reach a high black concentration.

A

related

study by the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia questioned how much integration improves post-ele-

would use

mentary performance of minority students as measured by standardized tests. A study by the California-based Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching showed that blacks and Chicanos (Mexican-Americans) have high images of their achievement and efforts. Other studies showed that minority group students are dis-

cal structure. Protests

ciplined to a greater degree than are white students

could be trained. In the U.S. college students became more conservative. The ninth annual survey of U.S. college freshmen to be more middle-of-the-road politically than in previous years and less interested in social

showed them

such as environmental quality. Only 12.5% their influence to change the nation's polition campus were few in number and tended to deal with personal concerns such as rising costs and poor instruction. The economic value of attending college had dropped sharply in the last five years, and job prospects continued to be gloomy, according to a study by Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute issues

of Technology professors.

The

picture was brighter

many school systems, leading some civil rights groups to charge that there was harassment. In a ruling unrelated to race, the U.S. Supreme Court said that students must be given some sort of hearing and explanation before disciplinary action. The president of the NEA told a congressional committee that violence in the schools showed an alarming increase, in

for black graduates, particularly males.

against both students and teachers.

The Handicapped. Among the reforms proposed by The Netherlands Ministry of Education over the

U.S. Constitution, which would abolish

next two decades was the reform of special education;

i.e.,

the education of the handicapped. It

was

proposed that the 20 different school types for the handicapped would be reduced to 4 therapeutic, motoral, corrective, and compensatory. This was but one example of the changes taking place in thinking about teaching the handicapped. A conference held in Canterbury, England, in August 1975 brought together

—

some 28 countries. It seemed most countries the categorizing of the handicapped was undergoing a change. The process would need to start from the listing of the needs of children. There had been progress too in dealing with the severely mentally handicapped including the autistic. It was now clear that they had to be taught, not merely placed in a stimulating environment. Judging from data gathered in England, the numbers who should be classified as handicapped had been seriously underestimated. Research carried out in one English rural county showed that one primary-school child in six had a chronic handicap, and it was estimated that in London the incidence would be double. In the U.S. advocates of "mainstreaming" became more insistent that handicapped students could get effective education in regular classrooms. They would have handicapped students receive much of their instruction with peers, but they did point up the need

While the proposed Equal Rights Amendment all

to the

laws and

discrimination based on sex, still had not been ratified by the requisite number of states, other efforts to promote women's rights and dignity continued. Textbook publishers

moving

created and

followed

guidelines

sex-role stereotyping in textbooks.

The

on

re-

Inter-

Women's Year was used as a stimulus to some school studies of sexism around the world. The Supreme Court acted on two potentially impornational

down Penn-

experts in this field from

tant education-related matters. It struck

that in

sylvania provisions for using tax monies for parochial health services, crossing guards, and some kinds of remedial, visiting, diagnostic, and other special personnel. The court did let stand some student-

school

centred services such as textbook loans and bus transThe justices deadlocked on a challenge to

portation.

the legality of massive photocopying of copyrighted materials by the National Institutes of Health and by

the National Library of Medicine.

The

ruling left in

vague statute (written in 1909); Congress continued its ten-year study on how to rethe legislation to reflect the advanced state of write photocopying and computer retrieval systems. effect the presently

Illiteracy. In its 1975 annual report the World Bank estimated that there were 750 million illiterates over the age of 15 in the world. It went on to add the frustrating estimate that over the next decade the

number would grow by about 100

million

— more

or

with population increase. Illiteracy re-

for special training for regular classroom teachers,

less

special education personnel to assist classroom teach-

mained one of the major concerns of the world's edu-

and special materials. Advocates of mainstreaming recognized the necessity of having some separate special education facilities and programs.

ects

ers,

in

line

cators in 1975. In a frank appraisal of

1 1

literacy proj-

sponsored by UNESCO's Experimental World Literacy Program (EWLP), it was suggested that part

and Discrimination. The U.S. Departwas down to 20 suits to secure deseg-

of the problem lay in a lack of will on the part of the countries concerned. In some cases the countries did

regation, largely to complete Southern desegregation

not appear to want to have literacy extended. It was clear, however, that in those countries wholeheartedly committed to literacy programs the results could be

iVIinorities

ment

of Justice

actions undertaken in the mid-19SOs. In another civil

development, the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education proposed that the affirmative action rights

dramatic. According to

official

figures the illiteracy

rate in

but

Cuba was

this

involved

cut

from 23

radical

to

4%

measures,

in

1961 alone,

including

the

temporary closing of schools in order to use the pupils as literacy teachers. The two main objectives set by the EWLP, which involved about one million learners with a production of 100,000 separate sets of learning materials, were to demonstrate the economic and social returns of literacy and to pave the way for an eventual world literacy campaign. Only Tanzania was stimulated to launch a mass campaign; otherwise the latter objective was little nearer achievement than it was in 196S when the program was initiated. National literacy, the report said, could not be drafted or transplanted from the outside. The EWLP showed, however, that the price of literacy was not unsinkably high between $8 and $110 per head, depending on the type of project. It was found, moreover, that functhat is, literacy which formed an intional literacy tegral part of the learner's life as a worker could not simply be thought of as having a vocational purpose. It carried over to political, cultural, and social aspects of development. Efforts were made in September 19 75 to bring to-

—

—

—

gether senior officials of the ministries of education of

developed countries; they met at UNESCO headquarters in Paris to pool information on educational development. The 25 countries were identified, using 1971 figures, on the basis of three criteria: per capita gross domestic product of $100 or less, an industrial production of 10% or less of this latter figure, and a literacy rate of 20% or less. Counthe

25

least

tries in this category were: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Botswana, Burundi, Chad, Dahomey, Ethiopia, Haiti, Laos, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Upper Volta, Western Samoa, Yemen (San'a'), and three not represented at the meeting the Maldives, Guinea, and Sikkim (which was incorporated into India during the year). The conclusions reached were thought to be influential. It was first accepted that elitist systems of

—

education inherited from the colonial past must give way to systems designed for all sectors of the population; second, that emphasis should shift away from academic learning and training for white-collar jobs; and third, that mass education had to take place in the national language, despite the difficulties of producing

teaching material, and that the national printing of textbooks should therefore be given priority. ( TUDOR DAVID; JOEL L. BURDIN) See also Libraries; [562; 563]

Motion Pictures; Museums.

Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. Learning with Today's Media (1974).

agreement with I,sr:u'l over Sinai. This bruuRht sub- Reconstruction of the war-damaged stantial advantages but also strong criticism from community in Suez, Egypt,

some Arab countries. Domestic Affairs. January opened with

which was touched off when 100-man workers' delegation from Helwan was prevented by police from approaching the People's As-

rioting in central Cairo,

a

sembly. Students joined

in

being aided by the Kuwait Fund is

serious

support of the workers,

for

Arab Economic

Development, which increased its worl the worker's outfit, with clothes designed for wear and tear in reliable materials and shapes that allowed much

freedom of movement. The French miller's blouse its polo neck, full back, and wrist-length puffed sleeves was deemed ideal for relaxation. Originally in gray cotton, it was preferred in lighter, more flattering shades or striped like a man's shirt. Along much the same line was the "settler's look" from Denmark, with a striped or plain cotton farmer's blouse or dress.

with legs rolled up and a knotted strap belt in khaki, the season's other fashionable colour. The popularity of overalls and jumpsuits continued

Economy, World.

971. D. 7]

into the

International:

Economy, World

Exhibitions: see Art and Art Exhibitions;

Museums; Photography Expeditions, Scientific: see Antarctica; Arctic

Regions; Earth Sciences; iVlountaineering;

Speleology

Faeroe Islands: Dependent States

see

Falkland Islands: Dependent States

see

Farming: Agriculture and Food Supplies

see

Rarely had all the capitals of the fashion world offered such similarity. There was a reckless atmosphere of swirling capes worn over crushed riding boots with extra high heels. Other popular styles were simple, unlined shepherd-style coats with huge, back-dipping hoods and buttoned-up Invernesses worn with long, winding wool scarves. Back-flaring chemise coats with high yokes and gathers at back and front were seen in soft, plain cashmere or velvet rather than the classical broadcloth or rough-looking baize. The capes, all descending well over the calf, covered a variety of day clothes: full-blown chemise dresses, later worn belted; wide-flaring sectioned skirts in plain woolens or printed velvet, and the inevitable shirt, pullover, and long knitted jacket. The use of heavy wools and giant-size needles gave the essential handmade look. Early spring saw a rage for pea-soup coloured loden coats, worn by men, women, and children alike cheap material and a cheap-looking cut, full backed with deep inverted centre pleat and raglan sleeves.

—

Raincoats,

in

extra-light

autumn and

winter.

In early spring, having decided that blue jeans had

Fullness was the watchword in the early part of 1975.

sec

A

favourite sailing outfit consisted of white cotton painters' overalls

Fashion and Dress

Exchange and Payments,

offered slight ease with a

agreement with Canada. Greece applied for full membership in the Community and was given a favourable reply, though without a timetable Portugal requested closer links; the Community on May 11 signed a preferential trade agreement with Israel the first trade agreement under its new Mediterranean policy and in December the Council agreed to the opening of negotiations with Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon. A commercial cooperation agreement with Mexico came into force on November 1. Limited trade agreements were signed with Pakistan, Laos, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and in December talks were for a cooperation

Evangelical Churches: see Religion

still

at the front or

front side-wrap effect, the latter being

water-repellent

material,

were worn beltless and featured the same back flare. Eager followers of fashion rapidly abandoned this fullness, however, when the Paris couturiers replied with the "tube" line. Sheath dresses came in for the summer, and skirts rose to calf top a hard blow for

—

had a long enough run, fashion promoters and magazines attempted to oust the ubiquitous Levi's by launching khaki as the "in" colour, with every article from umbrella to shoes made available in this shade. In Saint-Tropez the military look borrowed from

pink and blue pastels or bright colours on a dark background. The pinafore worn with blouses or pullovers remained popular as a winter style, further developing the layered look. In summer dresses the romantic trend was seen in

every possible source U.S. "fatigues," British shorts as worn in the Indian Army, and even scouts' shirts.

high-waisted, long-sleeved

—

At the end of the day, however, blue jeans continued to hold their own, finding a new appeal in the original indigo blue, cigarette slim and turned up anywhere between ankle and thigh. When not turned up they were tucked into high-heeled boots or torn oif in a ragged line anywhere along the thigh to make boxer shorts or briefs. The latest embroidery theme for hip pockets was a pound or dollar sign in red thread. To accompany this outfit there were loose T-shirts featuring a the newest with short kimono sleeves diversity of front decorations, from portraits of film stars or even oneself to the U.S. university names popular in France and the "Snoopy" themes, adapted from the comic strip "Peanuts," popular in the U.S. The newest inspiration to be found on U.S. beaches in the summer of 1975, however, was derived from the film Jaws, based on the best-selling book by Peter Benchley: a gruesome pair of shark's jaws across the front of the T-shirt. Perhaps the last word in T-shirts was the U.S. -produced "scratch and smell" version.

—

—

The printed

front contained microscopic capsules that

exhaled the appropriate smell thing

from

lilac

when scratched

— any-

bushes, chocolate bars, pizza, or apple

most sophisticated perfumes. Depending on the amount of scratching, the smell would resist up pie to

the

to IS wa.shings.

Liberty's in London had opened an Eastern Bazaar, and a new wave of Liberty prints spread through the fashion world. Pinafore dresses with wide shoulder straps were revived, and the many examples of the Early American period, inspired by the approach of

styles

with

frills

at

341

Fashion and Dress

the

neck and single or double flounces at the hem, while in Saint-Tropez romance turned to ghost-like transparency with all kinds of sheer white togas and other

some in hospital gauze to give an even more evanescent effect. A transparent effect was also provided by hem-length fringed scarves in light, silky knits with tone-on-tone embroidery, in bright colours or plain white, worn over long cotton skirts in the evening. Other prominent summer accessories were the floppy-brimmed straw hat to accompany the romantic dress, and the colonial pith hat in plaited straw with narrow leather headband, worn with jeans and T-shirt. In the footwear section, wooden or leather clogs remained popular with the teenage set, but the 20-to-30 age group turned to more elegant open-toed leather sandals, mounted on high wedge soles in string, or T-strapped sandals with thin leather soles and high heels for day and evening wear in town. The onset of autumn brought a return of the layered Women's fashions in 1975 or "piled on" look. The waistcoat was the newest Included the tube dress (opposite page, left) item, worn over a loose shirt that was itself worn over

loose-flowing robes,

—

by Pierre Cardin

a turtleneck pullover all in varied lengths, the waistcoat shorter than the shirt, and in varied colours com-

and the "batman look" (opposite page, right)

London by Royal bined for harmonious effect: dark blue, plum, and shown in dressmaker Hardy Amies. gray for one range; rust, tomato, and faded rose for The "khaki look," complete another. The usual headgear was a close-fitting bon- with berets (left). net in wool knit or crochet or a classic beret just Illustrates the military

theme of many designers

skimming the eyebrows.

When

pants or overalls were discarded in favour of

the bicentennial of the Declaration of Indep)endence,

and dresses, the look was definitely slim. Many displayed high-slit side seams, frequently rounded, while slim tunics a few inches shorter than the skirts

included prim, high-necked, fitted bodices and gath-

emphasized the pencil

ered skirts ending just above the ankle. Colour com-

dresses, could also be

binations for the Liberty prints were either romantic

boots.

skirts

To

line.

Slim tunics,

like

worn over pants tucked

slim into

balance the slim silhouette, huge fringed

in 1975. This provides marked contrast with the elegant evening dress

of silk

mousse (centre)

by the Paris house of

Guy LaRoche, which

again stands out against the layered casual air of a LaRoche design at far right.

Estee Lauder's new line, "Countrywoods," with rich red lipstick shades ranging from "Red Maple" to

"Redwood" and a new bois de rose shade called "Laurel Wood." With fashions immersed in the Far Eastern mood, makeup bases followed the trend. Pale shades

left all the

emphasis for the eyes, with dark

eyeliner along the lower

Lancome named

it

the

"Letchi" look, adding a strong "Baccara" red for

lips

and

lid.

nail polish.

The

—

were short cropped or bobbed neck for the huge shawls and oversize turtlenecks. For a softer effect, hair could still be fluffy as mohair, with a soft fringe over the eyes rather in the manner of a Yorkshire terrier.

—

latest hairstyles

to free the

(thelma sweetinburgh) Men's Fashions. During 197S the classic twopiece suit, single-breasted and either three- or two-

buttoned, continued to consolidate

its

position as the

almost universal style for business wear. In the three major suit-wearing areas of the world Western

—

—

Europe, the U.S., and Japan sales of suits rose 2% over the previous year to around 80 million units. The European Economic Community accounted for half of the total.

In a year of worldwide economic uncertainty, there was a certain constancy of gray as the colour choice for the businessman's suit; gray suits accounted for

80%

over

of sales in

most countries. Blues came secenlivened by silver-

Men's evening wear

scarves in very sheer wool or stoles in heavy rib knit

ond

assumed whereas a casual air was lent to daytime wear

were worn knotted at the shoulder. From China came the vogue for quilted jackets in plain cotton or fine wool jersey, box-shaped and often

gray stripes or by pin or spot

a tailored look,

by the wide lapels,

open scarf, and flaring coat and slacks at left.

displaying a lining of contrasting colour.

Whether

on the streets of Paris or those of Milan, all had the same dropped shoulder seam, small, stand-up collar, and braid fastening. This type of jacket was worn

suits

developed a wrapover top and wide sleeves that ended below the elbow to show the wrist-length sleeve of the turtleneck pullover worn underneath. Mandarin collars, off-centre fastenings on coats and dresses, deep armholes, braid trimming, and split side

weight camel- and biscuit-coloured fabrics or in denim maintained their position on the holiday beaches and in the country. The layered look, consisting of one

all

very

fluid

often with attached hood, as supple as a cape but with a few more slits and plenty of buttoned tabs for

trimming. Soft mohair was the favourite medium for long shapeless jackets with shawl collars or pullovers with high, ribbed turtlenecks. Red and fuchsia made a pretty combination, with Chinese lacquer red on its

way in for the spring of 1976. Cosmetics and Hairstyles. Transparency was the keynote for spring makeup, a "fresh air" makeup base with foundations tinted beige, honey, or sand. In tune with the times, Helena Rubinstein launched a "Percheeks reflecting a joyful rose with sian Roses" look "Glowstick Amber" and lips a new blushing pink with "Shiraz." A new wrinkle remover, "Bye Lines Replenishing Treatment," produced by Elizabeth Arden,

—

Food Supplies Fencing: see

Combat Sports

greens remained consistent favourites for sports suits and jackets. There was a slight increase in the sales

the season's Oriental look, the worker's-overall style

and graceful, contributed further Coats were either slim as a column or soft and casual as a chemise gathers. Highwith high back and front yokes above sht side seams and standing mandarin collars conferred the Oriental touch on the latter style. Capes had a look of being left over from the previous winter. The garment of the season was the poncho,

Agriculture and

usually in a

indifferently over slacks or dresses. In keeping with

to the Oriental look in winter fashion.

see

effects,

contrasting colour or colours. Diagonal weaves re-

gained some of their former popularity. Browns and

they were worn mainly by the younger age groups. There was further consolidation of "put together"

seams,

Feed Grains:

in popularity, either plain or

have almost magical properties. Warmer tones appeared in the autumn with pink turning to amber and red reflecting a brownish or copper tint. Nature was again the inspiration for

was claimed

to

of green suits, notably in Europe;

for leisure wear. Safari jacket styles in light-

or more knitted styles worn over a knitted sports shirt, became a popular fashion. Patterns for woven shirts were neater, with stripes of varying widths predominating. The beginning of a white shirt revival was noticed, but the white shirting was enlivened by satin stripe or cord effects. "Safe" and "salable" were keywords often used to describe men's fashions at the major European trade exhibitions in London, Cologne, Paris, Turin, Flor-

Amsterdam, and Copenhagen, no less than at Canada and the U.S. However, one new fashion did emerge in custom tailoring in 1975. Called the delta line, it was shown first in London and later at the International Tailoring Congress in Rome. The delta line was based on the triangular form of the Greek capital letter D, Robert Bright, president of the British Federation of Merchant Tailors, referred to

ence,

those in

it

as "a natural progression of the classic cut of men's

jackets over the last SO years. It develops and extends the line of the jacket, the collar

duces the panel theme."

A

and

and introsomewhat un-

lapels

fitting if

fashionable label to hang on most items of the male in 1975 was ironically the one used for this

wardrobe

new

delta line

—-"economic with an absence of extrane(Stanley h. costin)

ous detail."

See also Industrial Review; Clothing; Furs. [4Sl.B.2.b and

d.i;

629.C.1]

ENCYCLOP.T.DIA Britannica Films. Culture and Costumes: The Great Clothes Put-On (1974).

Field

Hockey and Lacrosse

Field Hockey. Highlights of 1975 in field hockey

World Cup in Malaysia in March and the women's world championship, organized by the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA), at Edinburgh, Scotland, in September. Within a week of the World Cup, Poland traveled to Great Britain for international contests against England and Wales, both won by the home countries. Soon afterward the United Kingdom countries and Ireland played a four-match international competition in Dublin. In May six nations met in a tournament organized by the Royal Belgian Hockey included the third

Association in Brussels, and in July at Montreal Can-

ada welcomed the teams of eight nations to the first international tournament ever held on artificial turf. For the World Cup, held at Kuala Lumpur, the facilities, setting,

and organization were of high stan-

The only adverse factor was the weather, which compelled abandonment or postponement of a numdard.

ber of games and caused others to be played in hot and humid conditions. India won the coveted title of

world champion, defeating Pakistan in the final 2-1. The winning goal was much disputed, but India's rating as the no. 1 team in the tournament was The final ranking was: (1) India; (2) Pakistan; West Germany; (4) Malaysia; (S) Australia;

England;

(7)

Netherlands; Ghana.

New (10)

The next most

not.

(3) (6)

Zealand; (8) Spain; (9) The Poland; (11) Argentina; (12)

was probably (West Germany, Pakistan, The Netherlands, Argentina, Great Britain, Canada, Kenya, and Mexico, in order of finishing) at Montreal in July. It was significant because it was played on the artificial turf that was to be used for the Olympic Games in 1976. The verdict of the players on the new surface was generally favourable with significant competition

the meeting of eight nations

one qualification:

it

reflected heat to a degree that

FIH in forming a Supreme Council to deal with matters of common policy and interest. In effect, the Supreme Council was a consultative body, its resowith the

endorsement by the IFWHA and FIH. The formation of the council would, it was hoped, heal the breach that opened in 1973 between IFWHA and FIH. On August 1 a common code of rules for men and women approved by the International Hockey Rules Board (IHRB) and the Women's IHRB was introduced. (r. l. Hollands)

the international field

hockey action

West Germany won

a junior international tourna-

tember, England's ship

from a strong

women won field,

the world championwhich included The Nether-

lands, winners of a rival event, the

Cup organized by

Women's World

the men's international federation.

Hockey (FIH), based The women's ranking at Edinburgh was: England; (2) Wales; (3) New Zealand; (4) The

Federation Internationale de in Brussels.

(1)

Netherlands; (5) Australia; (6) Argentina; (7) Ireland; (8) India; (9) Scotland; (10) United States. The IFWHA conference, held in conjunction with the world championship at Edinburgh, agreed to join

Montreal.

[452.B.4.h.xvi]

Lacrosse. For the World

Series, held every four

tralia

played host in Melbourne during June-July

1974, with the U.S., Canada, and England also participating.

The

U.S. was the overall winner, with three

victories over the other teams,

who each won once

and

ment organized by the European Hockey Federation at Barcelona, Spain, as well as the European club championship which went to Sports Club 1880 of Frankfurt for the fifth year in succession. West Germany also held the European indoor championship. In the IFWHA tournament at Edinburgh in Sep-

in

years in each of the lacrosse-playing countries, Aus-

against one another. Later the U.S. visited England

and Ireland, England won the "triple crown," defeating Ireland 3-2, Scotland 2-0, and Wales S-1. At Brussels in May, Great Britain finished first of the six nations taking part (Great Britain, Poland, France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Scotland). England also won the women's U.K. internationals.

British players during

the

caused discomfort. This could be counteracted by

In the internationals between the U.K. countries

De Giacomi

after bout with three

lutions requiring

watering the turf, the only difficulty being the need to ensure an even distribution of water.

Flavio

of Argentina grimaces

England in an international game. In the U.S. teams from the eastern states continued to dominate. The University of Maryland won the lost

17-15

to

1975 National Collegiate Athletic Association tournament, defeating the U.S. Naval Academy 20^13. The

Maryland's Terrapins (dark jerseys) upset Navy's

Midshipmen 20-13

in

May

to become the first team ever to win two NCAA university division

lacrosse championships. Their total goals and margin of victory set

tournament records.

344 Fiji

20 goals scored by the winners were a record for an tournament game. Lacrosse has its greatest following in Canada with over 500,000 registered players. The 1975 championship of the National Lacrosse League, comprising teams from Canada and the U.S., was won by the Quebec Caribous. They defeated the Montreal Quebecois four games to two in the best-of-seven play-off series. In England in 1974 the dominant North beat the South 22-4, and Urmston defeated Lee for the English club championship, the Iroquois Cup. (CHARLES DENNIS COPPOCK)

NCAA

[452.B.4.h.xx]

Fiji independent parliamentary state and member of of Nations, Fiji is an island group in the South Pacific Ocean, about 2,000 mi. E of Australia and 3,200 mi. S of Hawaii. Area: 7,055 sq.mi.

An

the

Commonwealth

(18,274 sq.km.), with two major islands, Viti Levu (4,011 sq.mi.) and

Vanua Levu (2,137

sq.mi.),

and

several hundred smaller islands. Pop.

(1974 est.): 563,800. Cap. and largest city: Suva (pop., 1974 est, 71,600). Language: English, Fijian, and Hindi. Religion: Christian and Hindu. Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1975, Ratu Sir George Cakobau; prime minister, Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. In February 1975 Fiji signed a sugar marketing

agreement with the European Economic Community under which half of the 1975 production could be sold at top prices. Unlimited access to the U.S. market was also obtained. Record prices in 1974 dropped in 1975, and production targets were not met because of unfavourable weather conditions and industrial disturbances. Fiji also took over the marketing of its sugar from the Colonial Sugar Refining Company of

There was

18%. Copra prices fell, together with earnings from tourism. The government bor-

an annual invisible

rate of

rowed overseas

to cushion its reserves and also imposed exchange and import controls. On April 1 the government lifted wage and price controls except for those on rent, freight charges, and certain essential household commodities. In July, at the South Pacific Forum meeting in Tonga, Prime Minister Mara attacked the inhibiting effect of Australasian maritime unions on the development of regional shipping. Fiji continued to oppose nuclear testing and in April was host to a conference on a "nuclear-free" Pacific, attended by regional delegates. The royal commission on the electoral system, which was agreed upon at pre-independence talks, be(barrie macdonald) gan its hearings. [977.A.3]

Finland The

republic of Finland is bordered on the north by Norway, on the west by Sweden and the Gulf of Bothnia, on the south by the Gulf of Finland, and on the east by the U.S.S.R. Area: 130,129 sq.mi. (337,032 sq.km.). Pop. (1975 est.) 4,697,900. Cap. and largest city: Helsinki (pop., 1975 est., 504,300). Language: Finnish, Swedish. Religion (1974): Lutheran 91.7%. President in 1975, Urho Kaleva Kekkonen; prime

0%

:

ministers, Kalevi Sorsa, Keijo

and, from

November

Liinamaa from June

4,

30, Martti J. Miettunen.

The rapidly increasing foreign markkaa in 1974) grew even

lion

government forecast

Australia.

import costs, leading to a deficit and inflation reached

a rise in

for visible trade of $94 million,

trade deficit (5 bilfaster in 1975.

a record 8 billion

markkaa

The

deficit

for the year on the basis of trade figures for the first six

FIJI Education. (1973) Primary, pupils 133,890, teachers 4,147; secondary, pupils 23,780, teachers 993; vo1.445, teachers 141; teacher training, students 450, teachers 42; higher (University of the South Pacific; 1974), students 1,031, teaching staff 145. cational, pupils

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

Fiji

dollar,

with (Sept. 22, 1975) an official rate of F$0.80 to U.S. £1 sterling). Budget (1973 $1 (free rate of F$1.77 est.) revenue F$68.4 million; expenditure F$72.3 million. Foreign trade (1973): imports F$175 million; exports F$74 million. Import sources: Australia 3i%; Japan 16%; U.K. 14%; New Zealand 13%; U.S. 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 29%; U.S. 17%; Australia 12%; Canada 8%; New Zealand 6%. Main exports (1973): sugar 67%; coconut products 12%; gold 12%. Tourism: visitors (1971) 152,000; gross re-

=

(1973) U.S. $49 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973)

ceipts

Finance, International: see

Economy, World

Fires: see

Disasters

Fiscal Policy: see

Economy, World

2,366 km. (including 2,000 km. all-weather). Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger 16,300; commercial (including buses) 6,300. Railways (1972) c. 700 km. (for sugar estates). Shipping (1974): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 25; gross tonnage 7,048. Ships entered (1973) vessels totaling 2,789,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1973) 457.000 metric tons, unloaded 764,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 23,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1972) 53,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974; 1973 in parentheses): sugar, raw value c. 280 (319); rice (1973) 16, (1972) 17; sweet potatoes c. 16 (c. 16); cassava (1973) c. 89, (1972) c. 88; copra c. 30 (c. 28); bananas (exports; 1973) c. 5, (1972) c. 5. Livestock (in 000; Sept. 1974): cattle c. 130; pigs c. 30; goats (1973) c. 31; horses (1973) c. 31. Industry. Production (in 000; 1973): cement (metric tons) 92; gold (troy 02.) 80; electricity (kw-hr) 217,000.

months of 1975. To combat

this

it

introduced

tough economic measures, including an immediate price freeze and a 15% import surcharge (later changed to a 30% import deposit, repaid after six months). In June the International Monetary Fund granted Finland a 735 million markkaa loan in Special Drawing Rights on condition that it phase out the import deposit scheme by March 1976 and maintain the current levels of the markka and the bank rate. The Soviet Union remained Finland's largest trading partner, and the annual trade agreement between the two countries set the total value of trade for 1975 at 8 billion markkaa. Though the Soviets cut their crude oil exports to Finland, three-quarters of the imports from the Soviet Union were still in the energy sector. Continuing its normalization of trade relations with Eastern Europe, Finland on March 4 signed an agreement that removed trade barriers with East Germany. This was similar to agreements signed earlier with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary and settled in principle with Poland.

Foreign policy was largely dominated by the 35nation Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe whose summit meeting was held at Finlandia

House in Helsinki on July 30-August 1, after many months of disagreement between negotiators at Geneva on the timing of the summit. The Helsinki meeting largely put an end to speculation at

home and

abroad about Soviet intentions with regard to Finland, the conference being widely regarded by Finns as an

were held on September 21-22, four months brought only minor shifts in

tions

FINLAND

earlier than usual, but

Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 393,242, teachers 21.24S; secondary, pupils 405,203, teachers 17,536; vocational, pupils 110,355, teachers 10,823; teacher training, students 1,421, teachers 389; higher (including 11 universities), students 67,881, teaching staff 4,940, Finance. Monetary unit: markka, with (Sept. 22, 1975) a free rate of 3.89 markkaa to U.S. $1 (8.05 markkaa £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1975) U.S. $540.9 million; (June 1974) U.S. $623.3 million. Budget (1975

support for the four leading parties

=

revenue 20,901,000,000 markkaa; expenditure 21,234,000,000 markkaa. Gross national product: (1973) 65,250.000,000 markkaa; (1972) 54,340,000,000 markkaa. Money supply: (Dec. 1974) 7,263,000,000 markkaa; (Dec. 1973) 6,111,000,000 markkaa. Cost of living (1970 = 100): (JVIay 1975) 171; (May 1974) 147. Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports 25,676,000,000 markkaa; exports 20,687,000,000 markkaa. Import sources: Sweden 18%; U.S.S.R. 18%; West Germany 15%; U.K. 9%; U.S. 7%. Export destinations: U.K. 19%,; Sweden 16%; U.S.S.R. 14%; West Germany 9%. Main exports: paper 31%; timber 11%; machinery 10%; wood pulp 6%; ships 6%; clothing 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 73.210 km. (including 161 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1973): passenger 894,104; commercial 119,898. Railways (1973): 5,965 km.; traffic 2,773,000,000 passenger-km., freight (1974) 7,485,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1974): 1,155,800,000 passenger-km.; freight 32,605,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways (1973) 6,674 km. Shipping (1974): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 362; gross tonnage 1,507,582. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 1,535,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1973) 1,944,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1973) 1,224,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974; 1973 in parentheses): wheat 536 (462); barley 963 (992); oats 1,216 (1,169); rye 175 (124); potatoes 525 (669); sugar, raw value 82 (81); butter c. 78 ic. 80); timber (cu.m.; 1973) 43,000, (1972) 43,000; fish catch (1972) 67, (1971) 70. Livestock (in 000; June 1974): cattle c. 1,884; sheep c. 145; pigs c. 1,177; horses (1973) 48; chickens (1973) 10,117. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): iron ore (66% metal content) 805; pig iron 1,363; crude steel 1,657; copper (1973) 43; cement 2,201; sulfuric acid 984; petroleum-basfd products (1973) 8,212; plywood (cu.m.; 1973) 685; cellulose (1973) 4,157; wood pulp (1973) mechanical 2,159, chemical 4,519; newsprint 1,493; other paper and board (1973) 4,060; electricity (kw-hr.) 29,058,000; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 27,700. est.):

—

the Social

345

Fisheries

Demo-

Communists, Centrists, and Conservatives. The biggest gains were made by the tiny Christian Party, which won nine seats as compared with its previous four. Ten parties gained seats in the 200-seat Eduskunta (Parliament). Attempts to form a Cabinet started early in October, but nothing was achieved until November 27, when Kekkonen, in a nationally crats,

televised address, demanded formation of a "government of national emergency" within five days. The result, on November 30, was a five-party coalition headed by Martti Miettunen of the Centre Party and including four Communists, participating in a Finnish Cabinet for the second time since World War I. The remainder of the 18 places went to 5 Social Democrats, 4 Centrists (including Miettunen), 2 members

of the Swedish People's Party, 1 Liberal, and 2 nonaligned ministers. In April the Social Democrats announced that they would run Kekkonen as their can-

didate in the 1978 presidential election, ending the

inflamed debate about the succession to the presi-

(COLIN NARBOROUGH)

dency. [972.A.6.d.i]

Fisheries The

troubles of the world's fisheries

—high

fuel costs,

and the threat of a 200-mi. limit for territorial waters worsened in 1975. Wages, materials, and operating costs all rose steadily, while prices remained low and market demand poor. Some of the trouble stemmed from an earlier change in U.S. import policy, when a switch from low

fish prices,

—

Scandinavian frozen cod to Japanese pollack threw many thousands of tons of quality frozen fillets onto the European market at uncomfortably low prices. Furthermore, this came at a time when the fleets of Norway, Britain, France, and Spain were striving

meet steeply rising costs in the face of falling consumption on home markets. Fortunately for the staof world markets, U.S. preference began to swing back to North Atlantic cod late in 1975. to

assurance of the country's independence and sovereignty. President Kekkonen, head of state for 19 years and a leading advocate of close ties with the Soviet Union, celebrated his 7Sth birthday on Septem3. Kekkonen's proposal for the creation of a nuclear-free zone in Scandinavia, and similar zones in

ber

other parts of the world, became a major foreign pol-

and won strong Soviet approval. (In October 1974 Kekkonen had launched a radical reappraisal of World War II at the 30th anniversary celebrations in Helsinki of the Finnish-Soviet armistice agreement, attended by Soviet Pres. Nikolay V. Podgorny. Kekkonen accused his country's wartime icy goal

Finland's role in

leaders of starting hostilities against the Soviets in

1941,

contradicting the generally accepted

that Finland declared

war only

after Soviet

version

bombing

raids on Finnish cities.)

In January 1975 Hans-Dietrich Genscher became the first

West German

land. In

June Juan Carlos, king-designate of Spain,

also visited Finland

foreign minister to visit Fin-

—the

first visit to

a Scandinavian

country by a Spanish leader.

On June Social

4 the left-centre coalition government of

Democrat Prime Minister Sorsa resigned be-

cause of internal differences after 1,004 days in office (the second-longest-lived Cabinet in Finnish history).

A

by former state labour was appointed. General

caretaker Cabinet, led

trator Keijo Liinamaa,

arbielec-

bility

"The Vulgar Boatman.'

346

Fisheries

In Spain total operating costs of freezer trawlers

were calculated by the fleet owners' federation as having risen by over 70% in five years, while fish prices had risen by only 2.36%. Fuel costs increased 248%. For the Spanish cod fishery, working the Newfoundland grounds, demand fell at home and prices were down by 40%. Internationally agreed quotas cut so drastically into Spanish squid catches off Boston that fishing became virtually uneconomic. In France, Britain, and Canada, as well as in Spain, pressure grew throughout the year for government intervention to stave off impending bankruptcies. An increasing number of relatively modern vessels were tied up and idle, and many older vessels were taken out of service sold or scrapped before their time in order to reduce fleet size and remove ships that were

—

now

too expensive to run.

fected were a

number

Among

the

first to

be af-

of fish-processing factories in

Norway, Canada, and Scotland which were forced to close down as a result of lack of demand. Shipyards had few new orders for fleet renewals a situation fortunately cushioned by orders from the oil industry.

—

Smaller shipyards were hardest hit; with little capital reserve, they faced a rush of canceled orders as vessel

beyond the reach of the fishermen. For those nations operating long-distance trawlers,

prices soared

the threat of an international 200-mi. limit did to

encourage investment

in the future.

The

little

greater

part of the world's fish were concentrated on and above the continental shelf, and under the proposed

200-mi.

"exclusive economic zone" most of them

would be forbidden to foreign vessels. The prospect was especially bleak for those nations having little coastline of their

own

or, as in the case of Spain, a

continental

that

was very narrow. The only

shelf

practical solution appeared to be "joint projects" with

the fish-owning nations,

whereby the

latter obtained

financial or other benefits in return for shore bases

and

fishing

rights.

Among

the

Communist

nations,

particularly the U.S.S.R., such deals usually took the

form

of aid to the partner nation in developing its

UN

Conference on the Law of the Sea at Caracas, Venezuela, in 1974 had achieved little, beyond disclosing that an overwhelming majority of nations favoured the 200-mi. limit. A second meeting of the conference in Geneva in 1975 achieved little more, and those nations with the most to gain from the wider limit became impatient. Iceland and Canada third

do the same. In July Iceland's prime minister was the first to announce a firm date October for the new limit. There was considerable disappointment among Canadian fishermen when Ottawa rejected an

—

—

equally precipitate course and chose to proceed, possible,

within

the

confines

of

international

if

law.

Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau indicated that this was the wisest course unless nations were prepared to risk war to enforce their revised limits. Nevertheless, Canada began to take a tougher line with Soviet and other vessels fishing its coasts. Obvious signs of overfishing had led to agreement on quotas among the members of the International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF). When Soviet vessels grossly exceeded their off Newfoundland, Canada quickly imposed a ban on the use of Canadian ports by Soviet vessels for repairs and revictualing. While capital investment dried to a trickle in Europe, the oil-rich nations of the Middle East and the South American countries of Brazil, Argentina, and Peru were building up their fleets of tuna seiners and their shrimp and fish trawlers. But the biggest order to flow from Spanish yards during 1975 was for

quotas

26 giant factory trawlers, each 286

ft.

in length, for

Cuba, which was rapidly emerging as a major fishing power under the tutelage and perhaps the economic umbrella of the Soviet Union. The year saw the continued depression of the hitherto profitable shrimp fishery, affecting such producing areas as the Gulf of Mexico, India, and northern Australia. The downturn was attributed to the fact that shrimp, a semi-luxury item, was among the first to be eliminated by the housewife during a period of recession. When the previously insatiable shrimp markets of Japan and the U.S. cut back, the repercussions were worldwide, highlighting the inherent risk

—

—

involved in building specialized fishing vessels to serve export markets that could disappear almost before the vessels were completed.

resources.

The

hinted at early unilateral action, and British, U.S., and Norwegian fishermen petitioned their governments to

An angry armada

of fishermen protest low-priced fish imports by blocl(ading the Channel at Newhaven, England, in April.

In 1974 Peru, normally the world's top fishing nawas still recovering from the failure of the anchoveta harvest. The 1974 catch of tion in terms of weight,

2.4 million metric tons

— compared with a normal —had

vest of approximately 9 million metric tons

harleft

a large gap in international fish-meal supplies. The resulting rise in world prices had encouraged "indus-

trial fishing" by more European nations. However, the blow to Peru may have been' the spur that prompted that nation to switch its policy to emphasis on the catching of food fish for people rather than the processing of fish meal for export. Peru ordered two large tuna purse seiners during the year, from a British shipyard. One of the features of 1974 had been the search for new species of fish to supplement shrinking stocks of those that had proved all too popular, such as cod, herring, and hake. In 1975, with demand for even common species falling, the need /or such exploratory exercises became less important. Attention swung from the grenadier as a substitute for cod to blue whiting as an alternative to herring, especially for the

financial

—

fish-meal plant.

Sole and herring appeared to be disappearing rap-

from the North Sea, and

idly

scientists discovered

that their estimates of herring stocks in the Irish Sea

and

off

the northwest coast of Scotland had been over-

optimistic. Drastic cuts were made in quotas by the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission, much to the alarm of Denmark, The Netherlands, and Scotland. By October even worse fears were being expressed over North Sea herring stocks, and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea recom-

mended a complete cessation of fishing for that stock, which was said to be threatened with extinction. Warnings that ever more powerful "cutters," towing heavy twin trawls, were overfishing sole in the North Sea had been ignored by most Dutch fishing interests. Finally, the situation had to be met by the introduction of quotas by the European nations, and the size of those quotas, in conjunction with continu-

Dutch fishby 100 vessels,

ally escalating costs, created a crisis in the ery.

Plans were

made

to cut the fleet

with government compensation for the unlucky ones who might, at best, be diverted to other fisheries.

Measures were also taken ple, the

examDutch where stock and catching power were to ensure that, for

displaced vessels did not turn to the

shrimp fishery,

already in delicate balance. In

North America, where the had everything

fish

trawlermen, at

and nothing to lose, the prospect of territorial limits that would remove or at least reduce foreign competition brought a new spirit of optimism. In New England, for example, the least,

—

to gain

—

TabI

348 Table

Food Processing

Fishing: see

Hunting and

Fishing Floods: see Disasters; Earth Sciences;

Engineering Projects

Folk see

IVIusic:

Music

II

ment of new enzyme preparations for use

in the

man-

ufacture of high-fructose corn syrups.

Products. U.S.

scientists

breed of chickens, but the higher fuel bills for the broiler houses more than offset the money saved by

A

eliminating defeathering. consistent texture, free

flake-cut

from

gristle

with improved "bite," introduced in

meat patty of and bone, and the U.S., was

possible by the development of a new type of meat-cutting head. Several French dairy companies

made

new method

cess.

Many

algae,

new

countries reported

tracting edible protein

developed a featherless

lichens,

oilseeds,

cereal

lupin

grains,

fungi,

seeds,

and other plant materials including sugar-

foliage,

water weeds, and grasses.

The

technological effort was in

marked contrast to Even full

the progress toward exploitation, however. utilization of the

made

more conventional

oilseed proteins

relatively slow progress, largely because of con-

flooded land could be

Food and Agriculture Organimethods whereby one hectare of made to yield some 2,000 kg.

of fish annually; used for grazing, a hectare could pro-

protein could be given a nutritional value equivalent

duce only 11 kg. of beef. Chinese workers, using processed cattle and pig manure as feed, raised ducks

to that of meat.

and carp together for a yearly yield of 2,500 kg. per ha., and in Japan a new technique for the culture of algae and mollusks achieved yields of 26,000 kg. per

man

of cheese manufacture de-

veloped by French scientists; trated final

by

milk was preconcen-

ultrafiltration to the solids content of the

product, eliminating the separation of

whey and

by retention of the whey protein. company commissioned the most highly

increasing yield

An

Italian

automated ice-cream plant in Europe. All the blending, product routing, and in-place cleaning were computer controlled. A process was developed in the U.S. for the manufacture of soft margarine from the tallow of cattle and sheep that had been fed polyunsaturated oil supplements. U.S. scientists found that the storage life of fruit could be extended by storage at subatmospheric pressure.

A new

variety of grapefruit,

derived from a mutant obtained by nuclear irradiation, was introduced;

section,

to

and

it

was

squirt-free.

said to be firmer, easier

A new method

for

the

preservation of Indian mangoes by osmotic dehydration,

using a

veloped,

concentrated sugar solution, was de-

thereby

effecting

economies

in

fuel

and

packaging.

Seafoods. The

UN

zation reported on

ha.

A new

laboratory was established in Britain for

phytoplankton needed in the breed.ing of oysters and of clams for the French market. A research laboratory for shrimp breeding was the production of

established

Bahrain. Artificial

in

reefs

Food Processing

beet tops, the stems and tops of pea and potato plants,

sumer resistance to the flavour and texture. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) succeeded in eliminating the beany flavour of soybeans by suitable pretreatment, and improvements in the preparation of cottonseed protein were reported from Colombia. A U.S. company claimed to have produced a bland soy protein isolate by treatment with fungal amylase. Traditional methods for the fermentation of soybeans, rice, and cassava have long been known to remove off flavours, and the USDA began an extensive investigation of traditional fermented foods from India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Tibet. It reported the successful development of a commercial process for the manufacture of tempeh, an Indonesian food prepared from soybeans, and its use in snack foods. The most progress made was in the manufacture and utilization of textured vegetable protein products as meat extenders. Japanese scientists reported a new development whereby proteins were restructured enzymatically. The products, called plasteins, have a lower molecular weight than the original protein and a bland flavour. During restructuring it was possible to introduce amino acids such as methionine to make up for deficiencies, so that a plastein derived from soy

introduced a

349

processes for ex-

from bacteria, yeasts,

U.S. scientists investigating the diet of primitive reported that, in terms of variety, man achieved

the pinnacle of success 5,000 years ago, a hunter

and gatherer consuming many

of grass seeds, nuts, leaves,

when he was

different types

berries, shoots,

fruits,

flowers, barks, roots, bulbs, tubers, saps, resins, in-

constructed

shown to faciliNorwegian company was harvest-

;from discarded automobile tires were tate fish culture.

A

manufacture of fish soups smoking and drying plant in Zambia

ing plankton for use in the

land sauces.

A

could process 5,000-10,000

lb.

of fresh fish daily.

Speakers at a conference in London alluded to the substantial resources of deepwater species, but many felt that housewives were still too traditional to accept

Others considered the problem to be largely it was reported that new deboning and mincing machines were under develsuch

fish.

a matter of engineering;

opment with a view to converting many of the unsavoury-looking deepsea fish into tasty products. Protein-Rich Foods. While a million tons of

skimmed milk powder deteriorated

in

EEC

stores, the

development of novel proteins continued unabated. The prospects of petroleum-derived protein faded with the dramatic rise in the price of oil, and attention was directed to alternative feedstocks such as carbohydrate-derived methanol and ethanol. Since cellulose in the form of vegetable fibre and timber is the most abundant polymer of glucose, the search continued for a means of breaking down these difficult materials 'to fermentable substrates for single-cell protein production; a U.S.

Army

laboratory reported some suc-

A

mechanical chewing machine developed

at the

Meat Research

Institute at Langford,

England, can determine the precise toughness of a steak.

— ical

additives;

the stability of these beverages de-

pended on the method of preparation. A new line of modified dairy products was introduced in South Africa to meet the demand for food products with enhanced polyunsaturated fatty acid content. The Canadian authorities also recognized the demand for such products and modified the labeling regulations to

make

(h.

their sale possible.

b.

hawley)

See also Agriculture and Food Supplies; Fisheries; Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages. [4SI.B.l.c.ii;

731.E-H]

Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. The Community Bakery (1967); Milk:

From Farm

to

You (3rd

ed.,

1972).

Football Association Football (Soccer). The story of violence surrounding soccer continued in 1975, and England seemed to be spawning the worst offenders, the followers of Leeds United (see below). But England had no monopoly on this modem disease. In Santiago, Chile, on June 2S, after no fewer than 19 players had been sent off in the second leg of the Pinto Duran Cup between Chile and Uruguay following a brawl on the field, the players could not leave the playing area for another quarter of an hour because of a hail of

stones

from the spectators. The Chilean

referee,

Sergio Vasquez, was later fined by his national referees' association for letting things "get out of hand."

"Two breakthroughs imitation eggs made of soybeans and imitation

soybeans made of eggs."

game animals, eggs, and fish. As man became more and more dependent upon cultisects, rodents, reptiles,

vation, the variety of food resources diminished.

desserts in diaphragm-sealed containers ready for immediate use. A British-developed whole-meal pasta appeared on the Italian market. Other new products

than three a game.

corn sticks, and a line of heat-and-eat seafood entrees.

The development tritive

of novel products with

good nu-

value based on blends of indigenous raw ma-

terials was accelerated in view of the world food situThe government of Saskatchewan reported the development of pea protein chips. U.S. scientists announced the successful development of bread fortified with defatted corn-germ (which greatly enhanced its nutritional value), a line of soy-wheat macaroni preparations, and lysine-fortified cornmeal tortillas. In Mexico a new high-protein, low-lactose infant food derived from cheese whey was developed, and an

ation.

Indian dairy research institute introduced a line of snacks based on curd and rice meal. In Japan a line of cheese-like products was developed from soy-milk curd.

A

research institute in South Korea introduced

made from squid prepared a number of new products based on bananas, including a baby food made from banana meal and soy. A novel line of vegetable paste concentrates prepared from fresh potatoes, onions, carrots, cabbage, parsley, and marrow was introduced in the U.S.S.R. A Swedish company successfully developed a new line of soft drinks with a reduced sugar content and a range of palatable, low-cost snacks

and pork. Jamaican

Agriculture and

Food Supplies

Argentina, whose ability to stage the 1978

Cup

included frozen potato cakes, onion-flavoured potato-

see

also reported.

Foods. The USDA established a new market development service to inform foreign countries of new foods and developments in the U.S. market. In both the U.S. and Europe there was a proliferation of new and refashioned convenience foods. A line of canned Chinese meals and canned sauces was introduced in Britain, as well as a line of fresh cream fruit

New

Food Supplies:

Riots elsewhere in South America and in Italy were

no

scientists

artificial colours, stabilizing agents, or

other chem-

finals

had been questioned

in 197S,

World

experienced

was would

a referees' strike. This "withdrawal of labour"

resolved, and the Argentines insisted that

be ready for the World

On

Cup

all

finals.

was a slight tendency toward more goals, and the three major European club competitions produced 739 goals in 238 matches, an average of more the field there

European Champions' Cup. The final between the champions, Bayem Munich, and Leeds United in the Pare des Princes Stadium, Paris, on May 28, was ruined by the conduct of the English club's fans who ran riot after a shot by Peter Loriraer had scythed into the net but was ruled out ("offside") by the French referee, Michel Kitabdjian, in the 66th minute. The fans of Leeds United started a riot in which they fought, tore out seats and hurled them and other objects onto the playing field, and battled with riot police and stewards. Afterward the scufiiing and defending

vandalism extended into Paris itself. Even before they left Britain the hooligan element among the "fanimals," as they were dubbed, damaged trains taking them to Dover and property in the port itself. The reaction to this from the controlling body.

Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), was to slap a ban on Leeds from competing in any European competition for four years. This was later reduced on appeal by the Yorkshire club to one season upon qualification for a European competition. Regrettably, this 20th anniversary final of the founding of the competition for national club champions did not live up to its billing. The Germans were pegged back on defense for most of the first hour by the overanxious English team, which kept pumping long passes deep into the Bayern half for the strikers Joe Jordan and Allan Clarke to head or shoot at goal-

keeper Sepp Maier. Along with the Lorimer offside

"goal," the referee's refusal to grant Leeds a penalty

when Clarke was brought down by Franz Beckenbauer foul that the Bayern captain afterward admitted was such helped stir up the fans. The vital first goal came after 70 minutes from Franz Roth, who collected a pass from Conny Torstensson and curled a left-foot shot into the far corner; a second goal by the indomitable Gerd Miiller, who fastened onto a pass by Jupp Kapellmann and thumped home the ball wide of David Stewart ten minutes before the end of the con-

—a

—

test, settled

the match, 2-0.

European Cup-Winners' Cup. Dynamo Kiev became the first club from the U.S.S.R. to win one of the major European trophies by easily defeating Ferencvaros, of Hungary, in Basel, Switz., on May 14. The Soviets were in command of the game from the early phases and coasted through the final as if it were more a friendly training match than the apex of the competition. Only rarely did the Hungarians flutter into the picture, and they had little answer to the darting runs of Oleg Blochin.

The

two goals, by Vladimir Onishenko, came minutes and 40 minutes. The first was from a pass by Leonid Burjak, and the left-foot shot gave the Ferencvaros goalkeeper, Istvan Geczi, who seemed a little slow to move, no real chance. The second was a long-range effort in which the ball swung to deceive the Hungarian goalkeeper and finished in the top corner of the net. Blochin, who had troubled the shaky defense earlier, rounded off the scoring after 67 minutes when he beat a defender and thundered the ball first

after 18

home

for the third goal.

UEFA

Cup. National champions Borussia Monchengladbach completed the first half of a West German double triumph by winning the UEFA Cup over two legs against Dutch club Twente Enschede with a 5-1 aggregate. All the goals came in the second leg.

Table

1.

Association Football Mojor Tournaments

352

Football

ment among

was no public London to Wembley

the Scottish fans, there

transport from the centre of

— some

Stadium

eight miles

—but

did not stop a

it

Cup. Traditionally played between the winners of the South American Cup and the victors in the European Cup, the Inter-Continental Cup again experienced a deviation because Bayern Munich declined the invitation. Atletico Madrid, secInter-Continental

in

Europe, represented the Old World and

defeated Independiente of Argentina. Although there was some rough play in the of the tournament in Buenos Aires, Arg., on

first leg

March

12,

the playing field did not resemble a battlefield as had

been the case tition.

lands,

The was

in

in this compeCorver of The Nether-

some other matches

referee, Charles

fairly lenient, especially

when

Atletico

was

on the defensive before Agustin Balbuena scored for Independiente from a pass by Ricardo Bertoni after 34 minutes. After that goal the Spanish team moved up players in a search for goals, but the score stood at 1-0 after the first leg. In the return leg, in Madrid on April 1 1 Atletico made sure of the trophy by scoring twice, the winning goal coming only four minutes before the end of the match. It was made by Argentine ,

World Cup player Ruben Ayala. The first Atletico goal was registered by Javier Irureta after 21 minutes. (TREVOR WILLIAMSON)

Scotland was beaten in

New

in

New

Zealand All

its

only test on

tour of

its

Zealand.

The All Blacks were not defeated on their eightmatch tour of Ireland, Wales, and England in November 1974, a tour conceived as part of the celebrations for Ireland's centenary and including six games in that country. They won seven matches and jjg^j jj^e last, 13-13, against the Barbarians at Twick,

January.

misplaced violence. This reached a climax early in the second test when Mike Burton, the England prop forward, was sent off the field for a late and dangerous tackle. He was the first man ever sent off while playing for England

and the

first

sent off in

any

test in-

France played 1 1 games in South Africa in May and June 1975, winning six, drawing one, and losing four. It was during this tour that a multiracial team of South Africans was fielded for the first time ever in that country. The team was known as the "South African Invitation XV," and it included two Africans and two Coloureds. The French lost this game, played on June 7 on the test ground at Newlands, Cape Town, by 18-3. The scores in the two tests were 38-25 to the Springboks at Bloemfontein and 33-18 to the

Australia; France lost both tests in South Africa; and

m Pans durmg

test defeats against

Sydney and Brisbane in May 1975, were 16-9 and 30-21. This was the first time the Wallabies had won a test series at home for ten years, but the tour would also be remembered for Australia's Wallabies, at

Rugby. Rugby Union. The 1974-75 period was one which the balance of power in world rugby swung away from European countries to those of the SouthBlacks triumphed in Ireland and Wales and the South African Springboks won their two test matches in France. Then in 1975 England lost both its tests in

the five-nation rugby

favour of South Africa. 'The scores in England's two

volving Australia.

ern Hemisphere. Late in 1974 the

tournament

the

[4S2.B.4.h.ii]

in

Wales's rugby team proved the victor in a brutal match against France

New Zealanders were in the British Isles, Springboks were touring France, where they played two tests. After South Africa's defeats by the Lions (British Isles) earlier the same year, the Springboks gave renewed hof>e to their supporters by returning to winning ways against the French. In the first test, played at Toulouse, the Springbok forwards gained a measure of control and South Africa won 13-4. The French forward play was more effective in the second test, at the Pare des Princes Stadium in Paris, and France scored two tries to the South Africans' one. But the French failed to take their opportunities of kicking goals, whereas Gerald Bosch kicked well for the Springboks. The final score was 10-8 in While the

capacity crowd from attending.

ond place

15-6 in Dublin and "a Welsh XV" 12-3 at Cardiff before traveling on to Twickenham. The All Blacks scored 12 7 points and had SO scored against them.

„,

.

,_

i-

r

i-

•

•

j

enham. This game was the climax oi a hectic period of eight days in which the All Blacks beat Ireland

Springboks at Pretoria. Scotland played seven games in New Zealand in May and June 1975, winning four and losing three. The only test was won by the All Blacks by 24-0 at Eden Park, Auckland, in probably the wettest conditions ever known for a rugby international.

The

home international chamway Wales, with a largely untried

chief feature of the

pionships was the

up confidence and technique so an uncertain start to their campaign, they eventually thrashed Ireland i2^ at Cardiff and so won the title. Ireland, Scotland, and France finished side,

steadily built

that, after

in a

three-way

tie

for second.

Rugby League. The 1974-75 triangular tournament in the

period involved the

European area and the

first stages of the new world championship. The first, held early in 1975 between England, Wales, and France, was won by England, which beat France 11-9 at Perpignan and Wales 12-8 at Salford. Wales finished second by beating France 21-8 at Swansea. The world championship, involving England, Wales, France, Australia, and New Zealand, was begun in Europe in March 1975 with France beating Wales 14-7 at Toulouse and England beating France 20-2 at Headingley, but the rest of the matches were played in Australia and New Zealand. Each country played four games in this stage of the championship, Australia finishing first with 7 points. New Zealand gaining 5, England 4, and Wales and France 2 each. (david frost)

[4S2.B.4.h.xxiv]

U.S. Football.

The

Pittsburgh Steelers

won

the

championship of U.S. professional football for the second straight year by defeating the Dallas Cowboys 21-17 in the SupSr Bowl on Jan. 18, 1975, in Miami. Oklahoma was voted the nation's top college team. College. All but one of the challengers for the 197S national championship lost a game somewhere along

and when the season ended the only undefeated school from a major conference was Ohio the way,

But the Buckeyes were then upset by UCLA Rose Bowl. Alabama was the first Goliath to fall, losing its opening game to Missouri before winning its next ten. Oklahoma, the preseason choice as the nation's best, had its 37-game unbeaten streak interrupted by a 23-3 loss against unranked Kansas, but the Sooners salvaged a tie for the Big Eight title by spoiling Nebraska's unbeaten record in the season's final game. also went into the last game undefeated, Texas A & but lost to Arkansas. And Michigan's record was blemished by only two ties before Ohio State defeated it in the season's final game. The Wolverines then fell to Oklahoma 14-6 in the Orange Bowl. Arizona State was the only undefeated major school, beating NeState.

23-10

in the

M

braska 17-14 in the Fiesta Bowl, but top ranking because

it

it

failed to gain

plays in the lightly regarded

Western Athletic Conference. In the season's final poll, the top five teams in order were Oklahoma, Arizona State, Alabama, Ohio State, and UCLA. Ohio State ranked first in scoring during the regular season with 34 points a game and was second to Alabama's 6-point average in defense. But Archie Griffin's unprecedented second Heisman Trophy, the annual award for the top U.S. college football player, was more spectacular than anything that the Ohio State team did. Griffin, a senior, had a record streak of 31 consecutive regular-season games with 100 yd. or more rushing before Michigan stopped it. Two of Griffin's teammates were national leaders, Pete Johnson in scoring with 13.6 points a game and Tom Skladany in punting with 46.7 yd. a kick. Alabama's season was overshadowed somewhat by the off-field attention its coach, Paul ("Bear") Bryant, attracted. Bryant first made news by suing the National

teams

home teams,

NCAA

a

move

the

to

a

it

Professional. Five weeks into the National Football League season, the Baltimore Colts had a 1-4 record and appeared to be on their way to repeating their

1974 record of 2-12. Then they did not lose another game in the regular season. Their final 10-4 record

was the same as Miami, but the Colts became champions of the American Conference East because their nine-game winning streak included two over Miami. The Colts had a new coach, Ted Marchibroda, and a young team that general manager Joe Thomas began assembling when he drafted quarterback Bert Jones in 1973. Jones was one of the league's best passers,

new

completing 59%, and his favourite receiver, halfback Lydell Mitchell, led the conference with 60 catches.

made

in the

its

name

of

economy. Later, Bryant was accused of arranging major Bowl match-ups so that third-ranked Alabama would play eighth-ranked Penn State in the Sugar Bowl. Bryant won both the lawsuit and the Sugar Bowl, 13-6, Alabama's first Bowl victory in its last nine

time since 1972, while Navy's 7-4 finish gave winning record for the first time since 1967.

first

fewer players than

Collegiate Athletic Association over

rule that limited visiting

In the most traditional Eastern games. Harvard beat Yale 10-7 to win the Ivy League title and Navy beat Army 30-6. Army scored against Navy for the

tries.

The two Orange Bowl opponents, Oklahoma and Michigan, had been among the nation's best in the previous two years, but neither had played in a Bowl it was on NCAA probation and Michigan because the Big Ten had a rule prohibiting more than one team from appearing in a Bowl game. Michigan became the second NCAA team ever to have two men run for 1,000 yd. with Gordon Bell and Rob Lytle, and Oklahoma's defensive tackle Leroy Salmon won the

game, Oklahoma because for recruiting violations

Outland Trophy as the nation's top lineman. Texas A & M, loser to Southern California 20-0 in the Liberty Bowl, scored its first win over Texas since 1967 and led the nation in total defense (183.8 yd. a game) and rushing defense (80.3 yd.). California missed the Bowl season altogether despite leading the nation in total offense with 458. 5 yd. a game.

Miami missed

the play-offs for the first time since an injury-dominated season. Safety Dick Anderson and linebacker Nick Buoniconti left hardto-fill holes in the defense with season-long injuries, and the Dolphins finished the season with third-string quarterback Don Strock after Bob Griese and Earl Morrall were hurt. Besides the injuries, the Dolphins

1969

in

lost offensive stars

Jim Kiick

to the

Larry Csonka, Paul Warfield, and

World Football League

at the begin-

ning of the season.

The

three ex-Dolphins

had nowhere

continuing financial troubles forced the in the

John

middle of

its

NFL

play after

WFL

to fold

second season. Their employer,

Bassett, honoured their contracts

enter the

to

with his

and hoped

Memphis team, but

to

NFL

owners did not share that desire. The National Conference East provided the NFL's other big race, featuring three overtime games among its contenders in which Dallas beat St. Louis, Washington beat Dallas, and St. Louis beat Washington. The St. Louis victory was tied at the end of regulation time when Mel Gray caught a pass in the end zone and was immediately separated from the ball. The officials huddled before making their decision in

Air Force kicker Dave

Lawson breaks the NCAA career scoring record of 212 points with 15 points against Army.

Table

III

354

Football

favour of

many

of

St.

Louis, but that call touched

strong suggestions that

NFL

off the first

officials

take

advantage of instant-replay cameras. Gray, along with Terry Metcalf, Jim Otis, and quarterback Jim Hart, made St. Louis the league's most explosive team as well as the National Conference East champions with an 11-3 record. Gray led the league with

11

touchdown catches and

led the

conference with 926 yd. on his 48 receptions. Metcalf

broke a league record with 2,462 yd. on runs, receptions, and kick returns, and the offensive line tied another record by allowing only eight sacks of the quarterback. Otis led National Conference rushers with 1,076 yd., a mark far behind the league-leading total of 1,817 yd.

by 0.

J.

Simpson (see Biography).

Dallas became the National Conference's wild-card

team (the best second-place record) by beatWashington in the next-to-last game, and also led the conference in total offense. Cincinnati was the American Conference wild-card team, finishing 11-3 in the same conference with defending league champion Pittsburgh, which was 12-2. Quarterback Ken Anderson, the only player to pass for more than 3,000 play-off

ing

yd., led Cincinnati's offense, while Pittsburgh relied

heavily on fullback Franco Harris, whose 1,246-yd.

rushing

made him

yd. in his

touchdown

play, Pittsburgh

wide receiver Lynn Swann runs past fallen Dallas

defender Mark Washington in the Super Bowl. Swann caught four passes from quarterback Terry

Bradshaw for 161 yards and was named the game's most valuable player.

the first player ever to gain 4,000

four seasons.

Minnesota, Los Angeles, and Oakland won the championships of their respective divisions by at least games. Oakland and Minnesota were their conference defensive leaders in yardage allowed, and Los Angeles allowed the fewest points in the league. Minnesota quarterback Fran Tarkenton set career records for touchdown passes and completions and led the league with a completion percentage of 64.2. His favourite target. Chuck Foreman, led the league with 73 catches. Washington's Charley Taylor became the all-time reception leader, and Oakland's field-goal and extra-point kicker Gi.'orge Blanda scored his 2,000th point, over 600 more than anyone else. In the play-offs Los Angeles defeated St. Louis 35-23, and Dallas beat Minnesota 17-14 on a lastminute touchdown pass. Pittsburgh defeated Baltimore 23-10, and Oakland edged Cincinnati 31-28. five

Completing a 64-yard

first

Michigan tailback Gordon Bell (5) is hit high and low by Oklahoma's Selmon brothers, Dewey (91) and Leroy (93), in the Orange Bowl game.

Dallas then became the

first wild-card team ever to advance to the Super Bowl by routing Los Angeles 37-7 for the National Conference championship be-

hind the outstanding passing of quarterback Roger Staubach. Pittsburgh repeated as the American Conference winner with a 16-10 triumph over Oakland caused many fumbles. second consecutive Super Bowl contest by defeating Dallas 21-17. Voted as the game's outstanding player was Pittsburgh receiver

under

frigid conditions that

Pittsburgh

won

its

Lynn Swann, who made

several spectacular catches of

passes from quarterback Terry Bradshaw, including a 64-yd. touchdown play. Both Dallas touchdowns were scored on passes from Staubach. An unusual feature was the inclusion in the game program of the six finalists in

Slogans

a

USA

contest to choose a

bicentennial slogan for the U.S.

On December

NFL

against the

30 a U.S. district court judge ruled and in favour of 15 players by de-

claring the "Rozelle rule" a violation of antitrust laws.

Named

for

NFL

states that a self a free

commissioner Pete Rozelle, the rule team signing a player who has made him-

agent by playing out the option year in his

contract must compensate that player's former team by means of players and/or draft selections; if the two teams cannot agree, Rozelle decides on the compensation. The NFL appealed the decision, claiming that it would result in a bidding war in which the richest teams would get the best players, and the

judge stayed his decision pending the appeal. Canadian Football. All of the points in the Grey

Cup game

championship of Canadian profeswere scored on kicks, with Dave Cutler

for the

sional football

providing the difference for the

Edmonton Eskimos

9-8 victory over the Montreal Alouettes. Cutler, who set league records with 40 regular-season field goals and 169 points, kicked three field goals of 41, 25, and 52 yd. His last one broke a Grey Cup record for distance that Don Sweet of Montreal had in

their

set with a 47-yd. kick in the first quarter.

Montreal, which outgained Edmonton by 299 yd. to had a 6-0 lead in the first quarter and a 7-3 lead

193,

before Cutler kicked two fields goals in the third quarter. Sweet, who set a record in the 1974 Grey Cup

game with four •

field goals,

made two

Edmon-

against

ton but missed two others that

went

rouges (the term for a kick that

is

for one-point

not returned out

of the end zone).

Sweet had a chance

to

win the game for Montreal

when he tried an 18-yd. field goal with 45 seconds left and the Alouettes trailing 9-7. But the holder had trouble placing the ball and Montreal had to settle for one point, and a defeat. (kevin m. lamb)

'

j'

[4S2.B.4.h.xiii] I

I

'

France A

republic of Western Eu-

rope and head of the French ,

1

Community, bounded by Channel,

West

bourg, ;

I'

France

is

English

the

-W5(jg>^yjp

LuxemGermany,

Belgium,

Switzerland,

Italy,

'

the

Mediterranean

Sea, Monaco, Spain, Andorra, and Ocean. Area: 210,039 sq.mi. (543,998 sq.km.), including Corsica. Pop. (1975 census): 52,544,000. Cap. and largest city: Paris (pop., 1975 the Atlantic

I

i

I.

census, 2,290,900). Language: French. Religion; predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1975, Valery Giscard d'Estaing; premier, Jacques Chirac.

During 1975 President Giscard determined to pursue reforms intended to change French society, to refloat the economy, and to conduct a foreign policy

j

!

based on

global cooperation. According to an opinion which the public was asked its views on the president's conduct of affairs, 47% considered that he

lipoll, (1

I

in

had

fulfilled his promises, changes in certain areas, and

64% 40%

that he

had made

that the presidential

form of government had been accentuated. Domestic Affairs. The year opened with a minor Cabinet reshuffle. Yvon Bourges of the Union des Democrates pour la Republique (UDR, or Gaullists) replaced Jacques Soufflet at defense, and Gen. Marcel

i

,

Bigeard became secretary of state for the armed servwith the aim of resolving conscripts' discontent.

ices,

Norbert Segard was promoted from secretary of state :

I

to

minister of foreign trade.

Aymar

Achille Fould,

vice-president of the Centre Democratie et Progres

(CDP~) and an upper-class progressive, took over from :

Pierre Lelong in the post office. Jean-Franqois Deniau,

former

member

of the

European Commission, became

secretary of state for agriculture. Otherwise there was

no change in the team formed by Giscard on his election to the presidency in

May

1974.

This did not mean, however, that the political situawas static. Premier Chirac and Michel Poniatowski, the minister of state and a member of the Indetion

pendent Republicans (IR), Giscard's party, who was believed to be the influence behind Giscard, made no secret of their ambition to control the governing coalition.

This explained Chirac's surprising surrender

of his post of general secretary of the

UDR

at the

annual party convention in June, a post that he had obtained six months earlier after a hard struggle.

Andre Bord, secretary of state for war veterans, succeeded him, but Chirac remained in charge and made it clear that he meant to lead the governing coalition, ind not merely his own party in it, while upholding the principles of Gaullism. Almost at the same time, the setting up of a coalition of Independents was con-

356

As usual, the was mainly devoted to discussion of the 1976 budget, designed on the assumption of a 4.6% growth rate and a forecast that prices would rise by around 8%. The part dealing with revenue

tions, and the consequent undercutting of French wine prices, remained unresolved at year's end. In Corsica an autonomist movement was banned after the occupation of a vineyard and the killing of two French policemen.

passed quickly. Earlier, the Mazeaud bill for development of sport went through, as did the draft on property reforms; Giscard took personal responsibility

contain inflation

raise the

France

autumn

country's educational level.

session

,

concerned a basic structural rebill was set aside, however. In June Bernard Lafay (Centrist Union, allied to the UDR) was elected president of the Council of Paris by 35 votes, against Communist (29 votes) and Paris-Avenir (20) candidates. A few days later the Council of Ministers accepted the reform in the status for the latter since

it

form. The property tax

The Economy. After making determined

efforts to

(a satisfactory third quarter had helped to lower the annual rate to less than 10%) and strengthening the franc on the exchange market, the government decided that the time had come to return to the

European

joint currency float or "snake"

also to inject fresh finance into the country's

system, even at the risk of creating a situation.

new

and economic

inflationary

Jean-Pierre Fourcade, the minister of

fi-

nance, informed his colleagues in the European Eco-

of Paris, to become effective from July 1, 1976. The Council of Paris, with a membership increased to 100, was made responsible for administering both the city

nomic Community (EEC) in Brussels on July 10 that France was returning to the "snake." By so doing, France made a concrete gesture toward the stabiliza-

and the departement, the boundaries of which coincided. The prefect of Paris and the prefect of police would become the representatives of the state. The former district was replaced by a public regional administration. The Parisian region would have the same legal powers as the provincial regions. The Parisian press was affected by a dispute between the director of the Parisien Libiri, Emilien Amaury, and the Communist-led Syndicat du Livre, which had called repeated strikes. Le Monde wrote:

tion of exchange rates.

"Strike action should only be the last dustrial dispute." In

fact,

attack on free expression. editorial staff

had

the issue

On Le

weapon in an inwas one of an

Figaro, after the

tried unsuccessfully to

prevent the

transfer of Jean Prouvost's shares to Robert Hersant,

some 50

staff

members resigned from

the paper.

Early in November the Confederation Generale du Travail and the Confederation Franqaise Democratique du Travail ordered strikes that affected extensive

sectors of the public services,

and the ground

staff

One of the principal mands was retirement at age 60, and in December National Assembly passed a bill that provided of Air France stopped work.

de-

the for

under certain circumstances, for persons engaged on heavy shift work or otherwise working under trying conditions. A dispute with Italy over the entry of cheap Italian wine, as permitted by EEC regulathis,

The exchange

rate of France's

January 1974, could not vary by more than 2.25% against other European currency, returning to

its

level of

currencies.

Giscard himself told the country on television on September 4 of the plan to develop the economy which had been agreed to by the Council of Ministers. A total of about Fr. 30 billion was to be reinjected into the economy. In line with Keynesian theory, Giscard would use growth in the budgetary deficit as a motor to restart the economy. What he said, in essence, was that nations were undergoing the most serious upheaval that the world economy had felt in peacetime during the past 45 years. No EEC country had been spared its effects. In France unemployment was causing concern (it was estimated that there were already more than a million unemployed by September). The situation had to be put right through the creation of jobs, and economic activity must be stimulated. There were four elements in the government plan. First, the measures being taken were for one time only. All the proposed credits would be granted in 1975, and from 1976 onward the budget would have to be balanced. Second, aid for social consumption (Fr. 700 for pensioners and Fr. 250 for each child for all families receiving family allowances) would

amount

to Fr. 5 billion. Third, state

investment

in-

FRANCE Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 6,367,S23, leacliers 255,919; secondary, pupils 2,945,192, teacliers 173,934; vocational, pupils 953,235, teachers 66,549; teacher training, students 2 7,823, teachers 2,952; higher (including 36 universities), students 763,980, teaching staff 38,000. Finance. Monetary unit: franc, with (Sept. 22, 1975) a free rate of Fr. 4.55 to U.S. $1 (Fr. 9.43 £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange: (June 1975) U.S. $9,909,000,000; (June 1974) U.S. $7,707,000,000. Budget (1976 est.) balanced at Fr. 294 billion. Gross national prod-

=

uct:

(1973) Fr. 1.135,800,000,000;

(1972) Fr. (Feb. 1975) Fr.

997.5 billion. Money supply: 340,980.000,000; (Feb. 1974) Fr. 307,380,000,000. Cost of living (1970 100): (June 1975) 152: (June 1974) 136. Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports Fr. 254.2 billion; exports Fr. 223,120,000,000. Import

=

EEC 48% (West Germany 19%, Belgium-Luxembourg 10%, Italy 7%, The Nethersources:

lands 6%); U.S. 8%: Saudi Arabia 6%. Export destinations: EEC 53% (West Germany 17%, Italy 12%, Belgium-Luxembourg 11%, U.K. 7%, The Netherlands 5%); Switzerland 6%; U.S. 5%. Main exports: machinery 18%,; chemicals

12%; motor vehicles 9%; iron and steel 9%. Tourism (1973): visitors (at classified hotels) 10,138,000;

gross receipts U.S. $2,478,000,000.

Transport

and

Communications.

Roads

(1973) 793,826 km. (including 2,426 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1973): passenger 14,620,000; commercial 1,980,000. Railtraffic ways: 34,435 km.; (1973) (1974) 46,880,000,000 passenger-km., freight 76,999,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1974): 21,738,000.000 passenger-km.; freight 942,419,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways in regular use (1973) 7,209 km.; freight traffic 13,792,000,000 ton-km. Shipping (1974): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 1,341; gross tonnage 8,834,519. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 11,337,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1972) 17,034,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1972) 12,279,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974; 1973 in parentheses): wheat 18,910 (17,828); rye 308 (327); barley 10,030 (10,844); oats 2,038 (2,203); corn c. 8,900 (10,625); potatoes 7,592 (7,459); rice (1973) 71, (1972) 52; sorghum 290 (298); rapeseed 684 (661); sunflower seed 75 (91); tomatoes (1973) c. 490, (1972) 490: onions 132 (136); carrots (1973) c. 530, (1972) 530: apples (1973) 3,428, (1972) 2,818: pears (1973) 514, (1972) 462; peaches (1973) 627, (1972) 584; flax fibres (1973) 47, (1972) 45; sugar, raw value 2,944 (3,171); wine (1973) 7,993, (1972) 5,850; tobacco 49 (50);

(1973) c. 1,500, (1972) 1,560; pork (1973) c. 1,580, (1972) 1,476; milk c. 29,528 (29,291); butter 540 (550); cheese 870 (840); fish catch (1973) 797, (1972) 783. Livestock (in 000; Oct. 1973): cattle 22,864; sheep 10,324; pigs 11,369; horses (1973) 480; chickens (1973) c. 150,000. Industry. Index of production (1970 = 100): (1974) 123; (1973) 120. Fuel and power (in 000; 1974); coal (metric tons) 22,897; elec-

beef and veal

(kw-hr.) 180,249,000; natural gas (cu.m.) 7.526.000; manufactured gas (cu.m.; 1973) 5,888,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): bauxite 2,910; iron ore (32% metal content) 54,265; pig iron 22,518; crude steel 27.023; aluminum 520; lead 146; zinc 283; cement 32,468; cotton yarn 268; cotton fabrics (1973) 208; wool yarn 143; wool fabrics (1973) 72; rayon, etc., filament yarn 40; rayon, etc., staple fibre 81; nylon, etc., filament yarn 91; nylon, etc., staple fibre 129; sulfuric acid 4,663; petroleum products (1973) 123,781; fertilizers (nutrient content; 1973-74) nitrogenous 1,694, phosphate 1,640; potash 2,082; passenger cars (units) 3.046; commercial vehicles (units) 418. Merchant shipping launched (100 gross tons and over; 1974) 1,342,700 gross tons. tricity

volving major public works projects and the raising and of the social environment

of living standards

through improvement of such features as hospitals, resources devoted to education, and funds granted to local

communities would amount

to

Fourth, aid for investment and for

Fr.

13 billion.

company funds

would amount to an additional Fr. 2.8 billion, and the postponement of tax payments for private industry to April 15, 1976, would represent Fr. 9.6 billion. The opposition and the trade unions immediately rejected the plan as inadequate.

The government's plan was accepted by the NaAssembly (300 votes to 182) and by the Senate

tional

(176 to 85) at an extraordinary session of Parliament called

to

examine the

financial

amendment

act re-

Chirac and Giscard each saw the 22 regional prefects to urge them to carry out the plan energetically. quired to initiate

it.

Unemployment, nevertheless, got worse. In spring, the longest industrial conflict experienced

the state-owned Renault

company ended on

the

by

April 15

weeks of cumulative strikes and a production loss of 80,000 cars. However, the Salon de FAuto (motor show) in the autumn demonstrated that the motor industry was picking up slightly. Foreign Policy. Giscard was active in foreign policy during the year. His style differed from that of Gen. Charles de Gaulle, but most of his policies followed the path laid down by the founder of the Fifth Republic. However, one of France's priorities was the construction of a united Europe. The British referendum in June, which produced a vote of 67.2% in favor of the EEC and only 32.8% against, was welcomed in France as removing the question mark that had hung over the continent. France and West Germany shared similar attitudes, particularly on the subject of European political unity. This was revealed in February in a first discussion between Giscard and Chancellor Helmut Schmidt, at the meeting with West German Pres. Walter Scheel in April, and in Giscard's visit to Bonn with a large French delegation at the end of July, when a joint timetable for steps toward economic recovery was drawn up. The visit to France in April of Konstantinos Karamanlis, prime minister of Greece, and that of Giscard to Athens in September opened the way for Greece's integration into democratic Europe. At the same time, visits by Gen. Francisco da Costa Gomes, the Portuguese head of state, and Pedro Cortina y after nine

Mauri, the Spanish foreign minister, allowed Giscard might eventually be played Europe by new regimes in Spain

to consider the role that

independence of the Comoro Islands, (5ee Comoro Demonstration at the Place de I'Opei-a for improved Islands,) At the end of July, Giscard took part in the Con- ^^".tVZ-T^"^ ^ , in the publishing industry, •, r „ o ^ ference on security and Cooperation m Europe in Helsinki, Fin. He also visited Poland and was host ,

in Paris to the

.

.

.

Hungarian foreign minister, Frygyes

Puja, and to the federal premier of Czechoslovakia,

Lubomir

Strougal. Chirac and Foreign Minister Jean Sauvagnargues visited Yugoslavia and Romania, respectively. During a five-day visit to the U.S.S.R. by Chirac and the minister for industry, Michel d'Ornano, in March, major economic agreements were

signed covering the next five years. In October, Giscard himself went to Moscow for talks with Soviet

party leader Leonid Brezhnev. In May France had given an exceptionally cordial welcome to Deputy

Prime Minister TengHsiao-p'ing, generally recognized as the "Number Three" man in China. Relations with the Arab countries had received considerable attention after the oil crisis. In January Pres. Anwar as-Sadat of Egypt visited Paris. France promised Egypt an unspecified number of Mirage jet fighter aircraft and other military supplies. At the end of April, Yigal Allon, the Israeli foreign minister, came to Paris for an official three-day visit immediately after King Hussein of Jordan had been wel-

in the building of

comed

and Portugal.

of Franco-Israeli relations after the Six-Day War,

at the Elysee Palace. Since the deterioration

On

France's pro-Arab policy did not exclude recognition

Pres.

of the existence of both "an Israeli reality" and "a

10-12 the French president visited April Houari Boumedienne in Algiers, three weeks later he held talks in Rabat with King Hassan H, and at the beginning of November he went to Tunis for a meeting with Pres. Habib Bourguiba; in all these cases, these were the first official visits by a French head of state since the North African countries had gained independence. The meetings were intended to revitalize the "grand Mediterranean design," which had a part to play in the dialogue between Europe and the Arab world. These successes in Africa were clouded by the deterioration of relations with the government of Chad during the year and by the protracted and inconclusive negotiations with rebels there for the release of a kidnapped French ethnologist, Fran(;oise Claustre, as well as by disturbances in the Territory of the Afars and Issas and the unilateral declaration of

Palestinian reality," However, a second visit

by Sadat end of October, on his way to Washington and London, acquired symbolic significance for both Paris and Cairo, as did Giscard's return visit to Cairo in December, confirming France's pro-Arab outlook and marking Eg>'pt's return to the Western fold after a 25-year absence. Earlier, the French government was successively host to Emir Sabah asSalim as-Sabah of Kuwait; to the president of the United Arab Emirates, Sheikh Zaid ibn Sultan anNahayan to Crown Prince Fahd of Saudi Arabia and his brother; to Iraqi Vice-President Saddam Hussein (after Saudi Arabia, Iraq was France's main oil supplier) and to Sheikh Khalifah ibn Hamad athThani, the emir of Qatar. to Paris at the

;

;

From November

358

Gabon

IS to 17, a monetary and economic Rambouillet brouglit together the heads of

summit

at

state or

government of the

trial

major Western indus-

six

countries, the U.S., Japan, Britain,

West Ger-

and France. However, Giscard's outstanding success was in getting delegates from 8 industrial and 19 less developed countries to Paris on December 16 for the Conference on International Economic Cooperation. The preparatory meeting for a conference of energy producing and consuming nations had collapsed in April, but the same delegations quickly reached agreement at a French-sponsored meeting in Paris in October. A year after the idea had been put forward by Giscard, the conference was intended to demonstrate the growing willingness among nations for mutual discussion and understanding. (See Chronol(jean knecht) ogy OF Events.)

many,

Italy,

See also

to

have twin preoccupations:

mer Portuguese African colonies. For President Bongo paid several visits to

August holiday in Gabon. The leaders of Gabon attempted to mediate between France and Chad in the Claustre affair (see Chad) but in the end blamed the French government for not having sent Premier Jacques Chirac to negotiate personally in Chad. (PHILIPPE decraene) his

[978.E.7.a.iv]

Gambia, The A

from

the

along

Gabon

and

rica

republic of western equatorial Africa,

Gabon

is

bounded by Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, the Congo, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 103,347 sq.mi. (267,667 sq.km.). Pop. (1975 est.): 1,155,800. Cap. and (pop.,

Language: French and Bantu

1975

est.,

169,200).

dialects. Religion:

tra-

Christian minority. President

Omar Bongo; premier, from April 16, Leon Mebiame. Leon Mebiame, previously vice-president of the republic, was nominated premier on April 16, 1975, by President Bongo. In the economic field the specin 1975,

tacular growth of the production of petroleum resulted in Gabon's admission to full membership in the Or-

ganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries at its June conference in Libreville. In foreign relations the leaders of Gabon appeared

Atlantic

lower

the

West Afsurrounded by

Gambia River

Libreville

Q

Commonwealth Nations, The Gambia ex-

Ocean

ditional tribal beliefs;

mem-

small republic and

of

city:

these reasons

Paris and saw

Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing, while the latter spent

tends

largest

ties

ber of the

Dependent States.

[972.A.2]

A

maintain close

to

with France and to develop connections with the for-

is

in

Senegal. Area: 4,467 sq.mi.

(11,569 sq.km.). Pop. (1975 est.): 524,000, including (1973) Malinke42.3%; Fulani 18.2%; Wolof 15.7%; Dyola 9.5%; Soninke 8.7%; others 5.6%. Cap, and largest city: Banjul (pop., 1975 est., 42,400). Language: English (official). Religion: predominantly Muslim. President in 1975, Sir Dawda Jawara. The Gambia celebrated ten years of independence

February 1975 in an atmosphere of political stabiland economic confidence. Relations with Senegal improved following visits to Banjul by Premier Abdou Diouf in April and Pres. Leopold Senghor in June. Land and sea boundaries important for fishing and potential offshore oil were finally agreed upon. In March President Jawara visited Moscow, where he obtained a fishing aid agreement in return for granting in

ity

—

—

U.S.S.R. long-term

the

China made The Gambia

rights

Gambian

in

waters.

a five-year, interest-free loan

of 28 million dalasis, largely for irrigation. Britain re-

mained The Gambia's

GABON pupils 110,472, teachers 2,436; secondary, pupils 11.734, teachers 373; vocational, pupils 2,419, teachers 212; teacher train25; higher, ing, students 301, teachers (1971-72) students (1972-73) 533. Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Sept. 22, 1975) a parity of CFA Fr. 50 to the French franc U.S. $1; CFA Fr. (free rate of CFA Fr. 227.70 471.75 £1 sterling). Budget (1974 est.): revenue

Education.

French-Canadian Literature:

French Community: see Dependent States; articles on the varioii member states

French Guiana;

Dependent States

French Literature: Literature

see

Friends, Religious Society of: see Religion

Frozen Foods: Food Processing

see

Fruit:

Agriculture and Food Supplies

see

Fuel and see

Power:

Energy

Furniture Industry: see Industrial

Review

Furs: see Industrial

Review

Primary,

=

=

CFA Fr. 48,714,000,000; 885,000.000.

see Literature

see

(1972-73)

expenditure

CFA

Fr.

39,-

Foreign Trade. Imports (1973) CFA Fr. 35,540,000.000; exports (1974) CFA Fr. 206,220,000,000. Import sources: France 59%; West Germany 9%; U.S. 9%. Export destinations (1973): France 37%; West Germany 10%; The Netherlands 7%; U.S. 7%; U.K.

6%. Main

exports:

crude

oil

87%;

timber

c.

chief

economic partner, howdevelopment

ever, providing £2.8 million for fishery

and

a river

A tons

communications vessel

in 1975.

record peanut (groundnut) crop of over 140,000

obviated

belts."

The

President

Jawara's

president also urged

call

to

Gambians

to

"tighten

become

development-oriented, since national projects were falling behind their targets. Nevertheless, the value of

30%, and the economic posiwas healthy, even though peanuts still constituted

external trade had risen tion

95%

(molly Mortimer)

of export earnings.

[978.E.4.b.ii]

8%;

manganese c. 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 6,848 km. Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger c, 10,000; commercial c. 4,600. Railways (1973) 372 km. Construction of a Trans-Gabon railway (330 l;m.), to be completed in 1978, was begun in 1974. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 11,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1971) c. 65,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1971) c. 1,300. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): sweet potatoes c. 3 (c. 3); cassava c. 170 (c. 169); peanuts c. 2 (c. 2): corn c. 2 (c. 2); coffee c. 1 [c. 1); cocoa c. 5 (c. 5); bananas c. 10 (c. 10); palm oil c. 2.5 (c. 2.5); timber (cu.m.; 1973) 3,500, (1972) 3.400. Livestock (in 000; 1973): cattle c. 5; pigs c. 5: sheep c. 56; goats c. 61. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): crude oil 10,202; manganese ore (metal content; 1973) 979; uranium 0.4; petroleum products (1973) 702; electricity (kw-hr.) 170,000.

GAMBIA, THE Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 22,629, teachers S54; secondary, pupils 5,791, teachers 314; teacher training, students 99, teachers 16; higher, students 272, teaching staff 29.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

dalasi,

with

(Sept. 22, 1975) a free rate of 1.93 dalasi to U.S. £1 sterling). Budget $1 (par value of 4 dalasis (1974-75 est.): revenue 23.689,000 dalasis; expenditure 23,953.000 dalasis. Foreign trade (1974): imports 79,520,000 dalasis; exports 72,190,000 dalasis. Import sources (1973-74): U.K. 24%; China 10%; The Netherlands 6%; France 5%; Poland 5%; U.S. 5%; Senegal 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 37%; France

=

23%; The Netherlands 17%; Germany 7%; Italy 6%. Main 94%.

products

Portugal S%; West exports peanuts and

359

Gambling

Gambling For the majority of proprietors of both legal and illegal gambling operations, there was no economic recession in 1975. The "handle," or wagered money, taken on U.S. pari-mutuel harness races and in Las Vegas casinos had already reached record highs in 1974 and gave strong indications that the trend would continue. As both local and national governments considered plans to move into increased competition with organized crime and the small operator, they justified the legalization of

gambling

less as a deter-

bookmaking and more as revenue. The Soviet Union, Italy,

major source and 13

rent to illegal

a

of

Israel,

U.S.

states,

the year,

and

among others, offered lotteries during New York and at least six other states

expressed interest in team-sport betting.

The average bettor, however, was not the only loser A number of U.S. state lotteries experienced sagging profits and financial mismanagement; consequently, some games were dropped and others tempo-

in 1975.

rarily

suspended.

And

The first ticket from the drum is drawn by a nurse

which according were unnecessarily harsh yet unenforceable, dozens of individuals were indicted during the year for running highly lucrative, illegal bet-taking

some

Sweepstakes

Horse Racing. A longtime money-maker for all but the wagerer, the sport of kings remained attractive as a source of revenue.

In the U.S. about ten

cents of each $2 bet placed legally went to taxes. North American Thoroughbred tracks handled about $5.4 billion in 1974, and 1975 estimates were running slightly ahead. According to the United States Trotting Association, harness racing's pari-mutuel handle

for 1974 soared to a record $2.4 billion, with state tax revenue increasing

4.7% over 1973; total wagers 1975 were expected to reach $2.6 billion, Canada's

in

Department of Agriculture, which supervised

the

country's horse-racing operations, reported a total of .$871.5 million in pari-mutuel betting during 1974, a

I

i

I

I

I

I

gain of

$840,000

critics

operations,

18%

over the 1973 figure.

Recent years had seen a trend toward what was for example, picking the first two or three finishers in a single race or the winners of several races. Because of the enormous odds called exotic betting;

shops, and other locations to be included in the pari-

mutuel system and, thus, to help determine the odds. Until recently, however, the U.S. citizen who wanted the convenience of not needing to travel to the track had to deal with illegal bookmakers. With promises of a financial windfall and the demise of the illegal bookie parlour. New York City opened the Offtrack Betting Corporation (0TB) in 1971. During its first three fiscal years, 0TB lived up to expectations, increasing its handle from an annual $292 million to almost $800 million. But in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1975, despite more than 3,000 employees and an expanded network of 0TB betting parlours, its handle dropped to $758 million. 0TB president Paul R. Screvane predicted that for the next fiscal year the handle would slip again to $700 million. Though citing as causes the economic recession and widespread unemployment, he placed most of the blame on the New York state legislature, which had imposed a 5% surcharge effective July 1974 on all 0TB winning tickets, thus making them than those at the track. expansion into greyhound

less profitable for the bettor

0TB

against success, payoffs often ran as high as $100,000

Screvane suggested

on a $2

racing and jai alai to bolster revenues.

For some, such rewards provided an motivation to cheat. In 1975 courts took

bet.

irresistible

action on the two biggest scandals in racing history,

both of which had involved exotic betting. In Maryland four jockeys were found guilty of fixing a "triple" race (picking the St.

Valentine's

first

three finishers in order) at a

Day program. They became

athletes to be convicted in a U.S.

the first

federal court of

fix a sporting event. A 1974 French steeplechase event in which the bettors also attempted to pick the first three finishers ended in suspicious fashion; the favourites trailed the rest of the field by many lengths and a score of jockeys and trainers were subsequently jailed. In the U.K., where it had been legal for many years to make off-track bets, most of the handle was not registered with the official pari-mutuel machines but with the bookmakers, who decided the odds on each

conspiracy to

for themselves. On the other hand, France, which had pioneered off-track pari-mutuel betting, allowed each bet placed in thousands of cafes, tobacco

horse

Dublin.

of the Irish Hospitals

doxical nature of U.S. gambling laws, to

in

The lucky winner

despite the apparently para-

Casinos. In Nevada, the only U.S. state where gambling was not only legal but a major industry, casinos continued to demonstrate their imperviousness to economic crises. Nevada gambling establishments in 1974 took in a record $1 billion-plus, and

months of 1975 showed a over the corresponding period of the One Las Vegas official noted that, de-

figures for the first nine

gain of

17%

previous year.

spite the record handles, gasoline

down 3.1%, an

consumption was

fewer people were arriving by car. On the other hand, he noted that plane travel was up 7.9%, a sign that the "high rollers" indication

that

were still affluent. Las Vegas casinos along The Strip but outside the city proper were given permission by the county liquor and gaming board to award prizes ranging from $20 to $15,000 for winning bets in lieu of cash; "downtown" casinos had already been operating for some time under such authority. Some concern was voiced, however, about the possible appearance of outlandish

in

1975 was

richer.

360

Gambling

and cheapening advertisements for jackpot prizes outside casinos competing for patrons. In August, after wagering $3, a 2S-year-oId Las Vegas resident collected the world's largest slotmachine payoff $152,683. The pot had been building up in the machine in a Las Vegas hotel since December 1973. Casino-type gambling became increasingly popular outside Nevada as churches, veterans' posts, and other charitable organizations pursued the monetary benefits of "Las Vegas nights." A number of states and cities lent their support by considering or approving constitutional amendments and legislation that permitted such games of chance to be operated by nonprofit groups, though not by private entrepreneurs.

—

Two New York

state legislators took a large step

toward Nevada-style gambling by calling for public hearings on a bill that would set the stage for the establishment of state-operated casinos by 1978. If passed, the legislation would let voters decide in a

1977 referendum if the state constitution should be amended. Of the net profits from the casinos, half would belong to the state, one-fourth to the local government in which the casino was located, and the remainder to other local governments within the state. Mere passage of the bill, however, was considered a gamble in itself; the odds against its adoption ranged from 2-1 to 75-1. so

Lotteries.

Most

lotteries

owed

their success to the

lure of easy fortunes for only a small investment.

Many

countries sponsored national lotteries, which

gave people a chance

to

become

instant millionaires

Olympic Lottery Canada, a reve-

prizes highlighted

nue-raising

plan

for the 1976

help

finance

site

construction

summer Olympic Games

at Montreal.

to

Though by 1975

the original construction-cost esti-

mates of about $220 million had more than doubled, the lottery's success already had far exceeded all predictions and was expected to provide revenues of up to $200 million. In the U.S. lottery proponents sought and gained increased legal approval

January

Pres. Gerald

2

for

game

Ford signed a

On

operations.

exempting

bill

from federal antigambling regulations and broadcasting of advertisements and information concerning the state lotteries

to permit the transportation, mailing,

games. The legislation followed threatened legal action in 1974 by the attorney general's ofiice, which would have sought permanent injunctions against the lotteries of 13 states. In the wake of this new law, the National Association of Broadcasters amended its television code to permit advertising of legally conducted state lotteries; the change in the NAB code

also allowed the advertising of legalized betting on

sports events.

For some U.S. states, the lottery proved itself a panacea for ailing budgets. Prospering well in September at the end of its first year, the Illinois lottery showed a gross income from ticket sales of more than $144 million, of which $64.9 million was paid back in prizes. Subtracting sellers' commissions, handling fees, and operating expenses, the state's take amounted to

$64.6 million. Connecticut, whose three-year-old was earning an anhual $16 million for the gen-

lottery

while financing their governments. In Australia the

eral fund, instituted a

Sydney Opera House, whose escalating construction costs ultimately reached $140 million, finally emerged from debt in August, with great assistance from a lottery operated by the state of New South Wales.

signed to raise funds for public schools in the poorer

also took a considerable beating in 1975, both

Nationally televised drawings with million-dollar first

critics and, in

second game specifically de-

towns of the state. Yet, what often was called the

some

cases,

legal

numbers racket

from an uninterested

In April, Delaware was forced to halt a lottery based on the

weekly to

new

from

public.

SO-cent

outcome of horse races when its from an initial high of 172,000

ticket sales fell

fewer than 50,000 in the fourth week. Sales orighad been expected to produce a first prize

inally

of

up

$20,000 each week, but after four weeks

to

the accumulated total of the first-prize pool

amounted

than $12,000. All of New York's state lotteries were suspended in October when a programming error was discovered to have caused the printing of hundreds of duplicate tickets for a special $1.4 million jackpot drawing. to less

Ironically,

the

special

game had been devised

to

counteract the low popularity of the state's weekly lottery,

which had been described by some

systematic cheating because of

its

same chance of have helped disprizes from the regular game. Further investigation by an independent management consulting firm uncovered opportunities for fraud, lax security, and other problems, and in November Gov. Hugh Carey dismissed the entire staff of the Lottery Commission and ordered a sweeping reorganization of the lottery operation. Sports Betting. In the U.K., where bookmaking was legal, bets continued to be accepted on almost anything sporting events, the Miss Universe contest, the space race, and even the probability of a white Christmas (in 1974, for example, the odds were 4-1 against snow falling on the Ministry of Air building in London). For the fiscal year ended in 1975, the ing both sold and unsold tickets the

winning.

The

special jackpot

was

tribute the accumulated surplus of

—

The elegant Monte Carlo casino in IVIonaco.

critics as

practice of allow-

to

unwon

;

British government's receipts from gambling and gaming totaled $480 million, up 29% from a year

By

earlier.

contrast, in the U.S., except

horse-race betting

operated

the

at

for state-

track,

licensed

Nevada, and New York's unique 0TB, almost all such gambling was illegal. It was not known how much money was bet with illegal bookmakers, but estimates placed the figure at a colossal $50 billion bookmakers

in

annually for sports events alone.

In February the U.S. Commission on the Review

Toward Gambling, created by Crime Control Act of 1970, opened

of the National Policy the Organized

hearings to consider the legalization of sports-events betting.

The

eight

members of Congress and seven who comprised the panel heard

presidential appointees

testimony from the commissioners of professional football, baseball, basketball, and ice hockey, as well from representatives of the Amateur Athletic Union and the National Collegiate Athletic Associ-

as

argued against legalized betting, asserting

ation. All

would undermine the public's perception of integrity in team sports and raise suspicions of game fixing with every controversial play. Charles Morin, chairman of the gambling commission, called the arguments unconvincing because heavy betting, albeit that

it

in illegal

form, already existed without apparent adteam sports. Later in the year, George

verse effects on

Schwartz, president of the Philadelphia City Council, expressed his support before the panel for the legalization

sports

of

betting,

and

Screvane predicted that a future constitutional

0TB president New York state

amendment would permit

his corpora-

tion to book sports events within three years. A new U.S. law, effective Jan. 1, 1975, reduced from 10 to 2% the federal excise tax that sports bettors were required to pay with every wager placed with Nevada's licensed bookmakers. The old 10% tax had made it virtually impossible for legal bookmaking firms to compete with illegal bet takers. (MICHAEL KATZ) See also Equestrian Sports. [452. C.2]

Games and Toys By comparison with

previous years the atmosphere

was somewhat sober. At Brighton, England, the first of the major fairs, the mood reflected the prevailing economic gloom. The well-established product lines from the major toy manufacturers were most favoured by buyers. At Harrogate, Britain's smaller toy fair, there was an increase in attendance of nearly 8%, and business was much better than had been expected. The fair at Niirnberg, West Germany, premier showcase of the industry, was much quieter than usual, and many West German manufacturers found at 1975's international toy fairs

down. The Milan, Italy, toy fair from 26 countries; business was somewhat slow, with buyers showing preference for medium-priced products. The Salon International du Jouet in Paris had 560 exhibitors from 22 countries, and attendance, at 16,000, showed a 7% increase from the previous year. At the American Toy Fair in New York City, Merlin Birk, president of Toy Manufacturers of levels of orders well

attracted 900 exhibitors there, too,

America, predicted that U.S. wholesale toy sales in 1975 would rise about 10% above 1974's $3 billion level.

This would be a return to the average level of

growth achieved by the U.S. industry from the mid1960s through 1973, as against 6% in 1974. As the year progressed it became apparent that the toy industry had been less affected than others by the world recession, and confidence returned. In June,

Child

programmer Richard new

Scriver tries out a

miniature computer. Designed for use by a 12-year-old, it can play games and solve simple problems.

Arthur Katz, deputy chairman of Mettoy Co. Ltd., one of the biggest British toymakers, and president of the British Toy Manufacturers Association (BTMA), forecast a minimum 5% growth rate for the year. Two particular sectors, indoor games and craft and hobby items, were in fact growing rapidly as people tended to spend more time in their homes. Toymakers had come to realize that indoor games and

enjoyed by a very wide age range. craft and hobby items could be enjoyed by adults as much as by children. This was an important consideration for two reasons: the age up to which children would accept toys was falling (and crafts could be

Similarly,

many

was currently estimated and birthrates were also

to

be as low as nine years)

falling.

With a rotation of her arm, this new doll by Mattel approaches

Monopoly (boosted by the first European and womanhood as she becomes world championships, held in Iceland and Washingof an inch taller, ton, D.C.), Scrabble, and Risk continued to be slims at the waist, and develops a modest among the most popular games, while Master Mind, bust line. a codebreaking game from the U.K., enjoyed good sales. Several action games also found sizable markets.

%

These included Celebrity Tennis, which could be played in small lawn and driveway areas; Paddle Puff Tennis, an indoor version; and Auto-Score Basketball, featuring pushbuttons that allowed each player to shoot the ball from different angles. A traditional toy that made one of its periodic returns to favour in 1975 was the yo-yo, now most often made of plastic rather than wood. Dolls accounted for about 11% of U.S. toy sales in 1975 with baby dolls the most popular. Innovations included a walking doll whose right and left legs move when its right and left hands are squeezed, and a "growing up" doll that increases in height and develops breasts. A popular action figure was the Six Million Dollar Man, based on the "bionic man" in the television series of the same name. Kites found considerable favour, including a hand-painted model from China made of silk paper and bamboo. One of the year's major fads in the U.S. was the "Pet Rock," an egg-shaped stone

m

362

handsomely packaged and offered

Gardening

as

an "easily train-

able" pet that required "little care."

Hong Kong remained

the largest producer of toys,

with annual export sales approaching $380 million, approximately two-thirds higher than either Japan or

Great Britain. However, costs, particularly wages, were rising rapidly, and countries such as Taiwan, Brazil, South Korea, and Spain, which could still manufacture toys relatively cheaply, were expanding their business at Hong Kong's expense. Apart from market prospects, a constant concern of toy manufacturers was product safety. In 1960 the BTMA had collaborated with the British Standards Institution in publishing a code of safety requirements for toys and playthings. Manufacturers' membership in the BTM.\ was made conditional upon observance of the code, which was eventually used as the basis for British

government

legislation covering the

facture of toys and also as the model on which

other national efforts

many

standards were based. Considerable

were being made

various

manu-

197S to harmonize the adopted throughout the

in

standards

safety

In the European Economic Community, for example, all member countries would have to comply with a common safety code, which was being prepared in 197S. In the U.S. the Food and Drug Administration decided to discontinue its annual list of unsafe toys because manufacturers had greatly improved the safety of their (GORDON A. webb) products.

world so as

to achieve uniformity.

See also Board [452. B. 6 and

Games.

C-D]

The new white marigold became the

costliest flower in the world

as David Burpee ended his 56-year search and awarded Mrs. Alice Vonk $10,000 for the treasured seed.

After a long, wet winter, the summer of 1975 in Europe was in direct contrast to 1974, being long, hot, and dry. Difficult soil conditions hampered sowing and planting, and as a result there was a great increase in the area of land sown and planted without cultivation the weeds having been burnt off with paraquat.

—

in homegrown food continued, encouraged by rising unemployment and financial stringency, especially in the U.K. The season favoured the spread of Dutch elm disease, and the virulent strain in the U.K. continued to spread, killing elms of all ages. A rare and priceless collection of SO bonsai plants was presented to the American people by the Nippon

The upsurge

Gardening There was a tremendous increase Towering 21 for

IVIr.

and

SVz inches, won £1,400

ft.

this sunflower

IVlrs.

Frank

Kellard of Exeter, England, in a national competition.

house plants

in the sales of foliage

in the U.S. during the

year (in 1973 they

totaled $111.3 million, an increase of $43 million over

This was accompanied by greater concern about the quality of plants being sold. Most were grown in Florida, California, and Texas under a light intensity of 2,000 or more foot-candles. In the average 1972).

home, however, away from a window facing south, the light intensity usually dles. all

This

is

is

less

than 100 foot-can-

too great a change in environment, and

too often the plants lose most of their leaves or

die within a

few weeks.

It

was hoped that

light ac-

climatization, the gradual adjustment of a plant to

lower light intensity, could be improved for most plants, thus providing the consumer with a plant better adapted to indoor survival. According to Charles A. Conover, director. University of Florida Agricul-

Bonsai Association of Japan to commemorate the U.S. The plants were to be housed at the U.S. National Arboretum, Washington. D.C., where a viewing pavilion was being designed to permit visitors to see them to best advantage. The full collection was expected to be available for public viewing in July 1976, when formal ceremonies were planned. In 1945 David Burpee, head of W. Atlee Burpee Co., one of the largest mail-order seed houses in the U.S., offered to pay $10,000 to the first person to come up with a white marigold. The search ended in 1975. Burpee made payment to Mrs. Alice Vonk, a gardener from Sully, Iowa, after the three judges decided her bicentennial.

the requirements. In recent years the

Research and Educational Center, Apopka, this accomplished by subjecting the plant to gradually decreased light intensities over several weeks. In Europe the trend toward growing house plants, especially those with ornamental foliage, in hydroponic systems was increasing. Garden rock wool blocks or Argex expanded clay granules were used as

entry met

medium. Plants grouped together in gravel and equipped with subirrigation and added nutrients grew well and required a minimum of maintenance. Cyclamen, a popular flowering plant, was improved by the introduction of Fj hybrid cultivars raised in West Germany. Called Rosamund, Salmon Red, Swan Lake, and Merry Widow, they proved popular because of their uni-

breeding of

formity, shorter growing period (five-eight months),

California, Davis, and would be available soon to California commercial growers. The fruit has a tan-

tural is

a growing

beds in

offices or public buildings

free flowering,

and long-lasting

attributes.

all

marigold had become a favourite of many vegetable gardeners because it was thought to repel rabbits and rid the soil of

nematode worms.

Work

continued on development of methods for the mechanical picking of all fruit crops. This involved the use of prototype harvesting machines and the

new cultivars suited to this method of The Romanian Fruit Institute established a museum-type collection of fruit of 3.500 types to facilitate the breeding of new cultivars, especially

picking.

by the exchange of pollen with plant breeders working in other countries.

A new

pear,

named

the department of

California,

pomology

at

was developed by the

University of

aroma and delicious flavour and was expected be used as a fresh fruit dessert and shipped through-

Gro," also aids research,

important publication, recently released by the Association of American Geographers (AAG), The Underdevelopment and Modernization of the Third World by Anthony R. de Souza and Philip W. Porter, examined the theories, literature, and models of underdevelopment and suggested that, despite important research efforts, much is still obscure about important aspects of underdevelopment. The AAG completed a three-year project on comparative metropolitan analysis. A comprehensive atlas of the 20 largest standard metropolitan statistical

appear to

areas in the U.S., Comparative Atlas of America's

talizing to

out the country.

Michigan State University discovered needed to produce plantable trees and shrubs could be reduced considerably by growing them Scientists at

that the time

in large nursery houses using special lighting to supplement the daylight hours. Both conifer and deciduous species could be grown year-round until the

was reached. The system, called ".^ccel-Oit was claimed, since the trees reach sexual maturity much more rapidly.

desired size

Four new roses won 1976 All-America awards. They were America, a pink climber; Cathedral, an apricot floribunda; Seashell, a peach hybrid tea; and Yankee Doodle, a pink-yellow hybrid tea.

Three new flowers won awards in the 1975 AllAmerica Selections: a dahlia mixture with bronze fohage called Redskin; a hybrid giant-flowered, heat resistant blue pansy called Imperial Blue; and a hybrid

dwarf-flowered,

fragrant

red

carnation

called

There were three new hybrid vegetables attaining All-America winner status for 1975, namely, broccoli. Premium Crop; cauliflower, Snow Crown; and a yellow fleshed watermelon called Yellow Baby. The U.K. Royal National Rose Society awarded the 1975 Henry Edland Memorial Medal for the most fragrant rose to Harry Edland, raised by R. Harkness & Co. Ltd. The gold medal and Uladh award at the City of Belfast International Rose Trials went to Fragrant Hour, a hybrid tea rose raised by Sam McGredy Roses International, New Zealand, and the Golden Thorn was won by Scherzo, a florabunda raised by Meilland of France. The Golden Rose of The Hague was awarded to Satchmo, raised by Sam McGredy Roses International. Owners of Chinese chestnut trees were warned by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to check them for gall wasp, an oriental pest recently discovered for the first time in the U.S. The wasp is very small, about Juliet.

mm.)

with clear wings. Sus5 pected findings should be reported to state or federal in.

("3

black,

long,

plant protection officials. sible

for significant

yields in

The

gall

wasps were respon-

reductions in Chinese chestnut

Korea and Japan, and may even kill trees. G. SCOTT MARSHALL; TOM STEVENSON)

(j.

See also Agriculture [355. C. 2-3:

and Food Supplies;

Life Sciences.

Great Cities: Twenty Metropolitan Regions, was scheduled to be published in 1976. Two companion volumes were also forthcoming: Contemporary Metropolitan America: Twenty Geographical Vignettes,

and Urban Policy Making and Metropolitan Dynamics: A Comparative Geographical Analysis. Seventeen U.S. geographers participated in two joint seminars with their Soviet and Hungarian counterparts to foster scientific cooperation between U.S. geographers and those of Eastern Europe. Both seminars focused on the urban environment. The Hungarian seminar, held in Budapest, considered "Geographical Characteristics of Urban Development"; the Soviet seminar, in Moscow, developed the theme of "Environment of Present and Future Cities." A group of social and behavioural scientists, including

many

natural hazards. Their recently released publication,

Assessmettt of Research on Natural Hazards by GilJ. Eugene Haas, and others, provides a

bert F. White,

balanced and comprehensive basis for judging the social utility of allocating funds and personnel for various types of research on geophysical hazards. The authors hoped that the analysis would appraise the research needs systematically for policymakers.

The growth and health of the discipline of geography was exemplified by the assembly of more than 2,000 geographers in Milwaukee, Wis., in April for the largest annual meeting in the history of the AAG. In an address at the meeting, Julian Wolpert exhorted geographers to engage in social action and research on the problems of the "hidden minorities" of the population and to serve as volunteers to assist in their reintegration into

disciplinary applied research continued to increase in

employment

possibilities in institutions of

\'arious subfields within geography, such as medical

brary in the U.S. and repository of one of the most comprehensive map collections in the world, was in serious financial trouble. Massive efforts were under way in an attempt to save this unique and important national resource. During 1975 the

produced two

sites

contemporary problem areas. In addition, U.S. geographers began renewing their foreign area studies, especially in noncountries.

A

small

but

Society, the world's larg-

continued to support research on a broad range of

the year according to

natural and social science research projects at field scattered throughout the world.

more than 100 research

During 1975

scientists received financial

support from the society. In September the society a new children's magazine in geography.

initiated

Review

Industrial

The National Geographic est,

world

AGS

major publications, a new map of the Arctic region and Folio 19 of the Antarctic map folio series. The latter presents concepts of Antarctica from a.d. 43 to the 20th century and summarizes the objectives and Garment Industry: accomplishments of Antarctic expeditions from 1772 see Fashion and Dress;

geography, transportation geography, and spatial analysis and modeling, continued to be redefined during

third

life.

to 1975.

higher education decreased.

Western and

community

year-old American Geographical Society of New York (AGS), home of the major geographical research li-

For geography, the 1960s may have been characterized as a period of rapprochement with modern science and increasing contact with other disciplines. The geographers' responses to the 1970s appeared to move from this self-conscious scientism toward humanistic and applied approaches to current educational, social, and environmental problems. In practical terms, opportunities for nonacademic employment and for multi-

interests in

geographers, collaborated at the University

of Colorado on a three-year assessment of research on

In October more than 100 women attended the 50th anniversary meeting of the Society of Woman Geographers, in New York. Meanwhile, however, the 124-

731. B.l]

Geography

1975, while

363

Geography

Gas Industry: see Energy Gemstones: see

Industrial

Review

Genetics: see Life

Sciences

Geochemistry: Earth Sciences

see

secretary of the Socialist Unity

(SED)

(Communist) Party

1975, Erich Honecker;

in

chairman of the

Council of State, Willi Stoph; president of the Council of Ministers (premier), Horst Sindermann. In August the government announced that the

and electricity, cement, and several other commodities would rise substanprices of gasoline, gas, coal

tially at the

beginning of 1976, largely because of the

more raw material exports. Assurances by leaders

U.S.S.R.'s decision early in the year to charge for its

of the Socialist Unity Party that these increases would

on the nation were undercut by warneverybody would have to work harder if East Germany was to maintain its rising standard of

have

little effect

ings that

living.

By any

standards East Germans had prospered

in

the past few years. Approximately 500,000 housing

Real wages had risen had pensions and maternity benefits, while prices for most consumer goods and basic foodstuffs remained stable as a result of huge government subsidies. Erich Honecker, first secretary of the SED, thus delivered on the promise of a better, more relaxed life that he had made when he took over as East Germany's leader from Walter Ulbricht in 1971. Party

had been by nearly 25% units

Resurveying the 312-mile Mason-Dixon Line are of the National

members

Geodetic Survey

who are

replacing missing

monuments along the boundary.

World. The November issue of National Geographic featured some new insights into the voyages of Co-

built after 1971.

as

lumbus, and in the December issue a major definitive coverage of the Mayan civilization appeared. The journal also featured illustrated articles on explora-

leaders confirmed that the nation's capital investment

and Iran,

continue. Prices of basic foodstuffs and rents were expected to remain low, but observers believed that other prices would have to go up. Speaking at the 14th session of the Central Com-

tion,

environmental hazards,

ice

age man,

oil

the impact of modernization on primitive cultures, the

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and the world's food supply. (SALVATORE J. NATOLl)

mittee of the

See also Earth Sciences.

that, in

[10/33.B.1]

Encyclopaedia

Home

Britannica Films.

The Earth:

Man's

German Democratic Republic country of central Europe, Germany was partiWorld War II into the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland; West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik; East Germany), with a special provisional regime for Berlin. East Germany is bordered by the Baltic Sea, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and West Germany. Area: 41,768 tioned after

(108,178 sq.km.). Pop. (1975 est.): 16,890,800. Cap. and largest city: East Berlin (pop., 1975 est., 1,094,100). Language: German. Religion (1969 sq.mi.

Protestant

80%; Roman Cathohc 10%.

First

SED

Honecker said Germans could say they

in Berlin in June,

looking back. East

had achieved great

things. Great strides had been an advanced socialist society. The growing stability and authority of the workers' and farmers' state, the efficiency of its national economy, and the marked progress in raising the people's living standard reflected the success of the policies of the party and the government. The growth of production was higher than in past five-year periods. In October East Germany signed another treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union, the third since the formation of the German Democratic Republic. In contrast to the treaties of 1955 and 1964, the new

made

(1970).

A

est.):

program, including the ambitious plan to build or modernize three million housing units by 1990, would

in building

treaty contained no reference to

German

the possibility of tion of Berlin

it

German unity On the

reunification.

or to

ques-

stated that both sides, in accordance

with the 1972 four-power agreement, wished to develop their relations with West Berlin on the understanding that the Western sector of the city was not

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 2,608,074; secondary, pupils 51,609; primary and secondary, teachers 151,989; vocational, pupils 431,931, teachers 14,692; teacher training, students 25,443; higher (including 7 universities), students 308.064. Finance. Monetary unit: Mark of Deutsche Demokratische Republik, with (Sept. 22, 1975) a nominal exchange rate of M. 2.60 to t.'.S. $1 (M. 6 = £1 sterling). Budget (1973 est.): revenue M. 94,926,000,000; expenditure M. 93,260,000,000. Net material product (at 1967 prices): (1973) M. 126.7 billion; (1972) M. 120.1 billion. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports M. 27,330,000,000; exports M. 26,171,000,000. Import sources: U.S.S.R. 32%; Czechoslovakia 9%; West Germany 8%; Poland 8%; Hungary 6%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 38%; Czechoslovakia 10%; Poland 9%; West Germany 7%. Main exports (1970): machinery 38%; transport

equipment

11%

(ships and boats

cals; lignite; textiles;

5%);

chemi-

furniture.

Roads Transport and Communications. (1973) 129,900 km. (45,645 km. main roads, including 1,495 km. autobahns). Motor vehicles (1973): passenger 1,539,000; commercial 216,250. Railways: (1973) 14,317 km. (including 1,383 km. electrified); traffic (1974) 19,737,000,000 passenger-km., freight 49,167,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1973): 1,120,000,000 passenger-km.; freight 30.8 million net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways in regular use (1973) 2,546 km.: freight traffic 1,884,000.000 ton-km. Shipping (1974): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 431; gross tonnage 1,2 2 3,859. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 2,326,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1973) 6,082,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1973) 4,966,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974; 1973 in parentheses): wheat c. 3,250 (c. in use

2,861): rye c. 1,900 (1,699); barley c. 3,250 (2,848); oats c. 840 (805); potatoes c. 13,404 (11,401); sugar, raw value c. 577 (c. 584); cabbages (1973) c. 426, (1972) 426; rapeseed c. 280 (246); apples (1973) c. 261, (1972) 261; fish catch (1973) 366, (1972) 333. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1973): cattle '5,482; sheep 1,742; pigs 10,849; goats 78; horses used in agriculture 82; poultry 45.667. 100): Industry. Index of production (1970 (1974) 129; (1973) 120. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1974): lignite 243,439; coal 592; electricity (kw-hr.) 80,286,000; iron ore (25% metal content) 53; pig iron 2,280; crude steel 6,164; cement 10,100; potash (oxide content; 1973) 2,556; sulfuric acid 1,005; synthetic rubber 139; cotton yarn (1973) 59; rayon, etc., filaments and fibres (1973) 169; passenger cars (units) 155; commercial vehicles (units) 34.

=

than 3,000 Egyptian antiquities, and, as the East German Communist Party organ, Neues Deutschland, put it, "much more property belonging to our people." The East Germans based their claim on The Hague convention of 1954, which stated that art treasures

Germany, Federal Republic of

transferred during a war should be handed back to their owners after hostilities ceased. The West Ger-

mans countered by pointing out

that the

owner of

this

property was the state of Prussia, which ceased to exist in 1947 under a law passed by the Allied Control Council.

They

also argued that

The Hague convention

applied to countries that had been at war with each other, whereas, when the disputed art objects were

moved, the nations now known as the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany comprised the single country of Germany. This issue continued to delay the conclusion of a cultural agree-

ment between

the two

German

states.

(norman crossland) [972.A.3.b.iii]

Germany, Federal Republic A

tioned after The original manuscripts of composer Johann Sebastian Bach were displayed at the International Bach Festival in Leipzig. At left is Bach's first cantata, written in 1708.

part of the Federal Republic of

Germany

or governed

by it. Western sources felt the new treaty made it clear that the Brezhnev Doctrine (that a Communist bloc state would not be allowed to break free) applied to East Germany.

It

stated "that the protection of so-

achievements was a

cialist

common

international duty

of the socialist countries."

Further, the treaty described the inviolability of state borders as "the most

important prerequisite of European security." The treaty was signed in Moscow by Honecker and Leonid

Brezhnev, and the ceremony was shown live on television in all the Eastern European countries. The I.

official

reaction in

Bonn was

World War

parti-

II into the Federal Republic

Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland; West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic

of

(Deutsche Demokratische Republik; East Germany), with a special provisional regime for Berlin. West Germany is bordered by Denmark, The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and the North Sea. Area: 95,985 sq.mi. (248,601 sq.km.). Pop. (1975 est.): 61,991,000. Provisional cap.: Bonn (pop., 1974 est., 283,300). Largest city: Hamburg (pop., 1974 est., 1,751,600). (West Berlin, which is an enclave within East Germany, had a population of 2,024,000 in 1975.) Language: German. Religion (1970): Prot-

49%; Roman Catholic 44.6%; Jewish 0.05%. President in 1975, Walter Scheel; chancellor, Helmut Schmidt.

estant

Economic

that the treaty did not

dominated the federal govern-

affairs

much

change the aim of the West

ment's activities for

create conditions in

rose to well over a million;

German government to which the German people would

of

Germany was

country of central Europe,

of

1975.

Unemployment

many workers were on

be able to attain reunification by peaceful self-determination. Nor did the treaty alter the rights and duties of the four powers and their responsibility for Ger-

short time; and prices continued to rise, though not

many

recession with calm. Political extremism dwindled to

as a whole.

In a declaration in October by the Politburo of the Committee of the SED and the Council of

Central

Ministers, the Conference

on Security and Coopera-

Europe was described as having reinforced the turn from the cold war to detente. In his speech at the conference in Helsinki, Fin., Honecker said that, for the first time, agreement had been reached on tion in

a code for the application of the principles of peaceful

coexistence between states with different social

systems.

The East Germans issued

a

demand during

for the return of art treasures that

from museums

the year

had been removed

in the eastern part of Berlin

during

World War II for safekeeping in the western areas of Germany. Among the notable works were the bust of Queen Nefertiti, excavated at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt in 1912, 21 Rembrandt paintings, among them his "Man with the Golden Helmet," 118 drawings by Rembrandt and US by DUrer, 558 pictures from the former Prussian national gallery, a collection of more

as

much as in most other Western countries. Domestic Affairs. The West Germans took

their

insignificance;

the discipline of the labour unions played a major role in keeping the rate of inflation

enviably lower than in other countries

average creased

rise

—

too

(

the average

was some 6%, about the same as in wages) and personal savings

inflation rate

;

much

the in-

for the government's liking.

The previous year's trend against the Social DemoParty (SPD) was checked in several state elections. In March 1974 the party had lost 10.4% of its cratic

former electoral support in the election of the Hamburg Parhament. In the state election in SchleswigHolstein in April 1975 the SPD lost only 0.9%, while the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) vote fell by 1.5%. In the election in North-Rhine Westphalia in

May

the

SPD

lost

1%

and

its

coalition partner, the

Free Democratic Party (FDP), increased its poll by 1.2%. This was the most populous and industrialized state

of the republic, the

home

of about half

The extreme right-wing NaDemocratic Party (NPD) was no longer represented in any state parliament. Justifiably or not, most country's unemployed. tional

Geology:

the

^f^Ear^th'sciences

Qorman

Literature-

see Literature

GERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF (1973): visitors 7,474,000; gross receipts U.S.

Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 6,499,824, teachers 217,839; secondary, pupils 2,872,195, teachers 134,970; vocational, pupils 2,246,higher (including 43 315, teachers 54,372; universities), students 729,207, teaching staff 68,286.

$2,085,000,000.

Communications. Roads Transport and (1973) 459,452 km. (including 5,481 km. autobahns). Motor vehicles in use (1973): passenger 17,036,000; commercial 1,246,000. Railways: (1973) 32,360 km. (including 9,834 km. electrified); traffic (1974) 38,616,000,000 passcnger-

Finance. Monetary unit: Deutsche Mark, with (Sept. 22, 1975) a free rate of DM. 2.66 to U.S. $1 (DM. 5.50 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange: (June 1975) U.S. $30,926,000,000; (June 1974) U.S. $32,674,000,000. Budget (federal; 1974 actual): revenue DM. 128.1 billion; expenditure DM. 138.2 billion. Gross national product: (1974) DM. 995.3 billion; (1973) DM. 930.3 billion. Money supply: (M^rch 1975) DM. 142.3 billion; (March 1974) DM. 126.7 billion. Cost of living (1970 = 100): (June 1975) 135; (June 1974) 127. Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports DM. 177,970,000,000; exports DM. 230,070,000.000. Import sources: EEC 48% (The Netherlands 14%, France 12%. Belgium-Luxembourg 9%, Italy 8%); U.S. 8%. Export destinations: EEC 45% (France 12%,, The Netherlands 10%, Italy 8%, Belgium-Luxembourg 8%, U.K. 5%); U.S. 8%; Switzerland 6%. Main exports: machinery 28%; motor vehicles 12%; iron and steel 12%; chemicals 10%; textile yarns and fabrics 6%. Tourism

km., freight 70,178,000,000 net ton-km. Air trafpa£3cngci-km.; 12,472,000,000 fic (1974): freight 991,332,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways in regular use (1973) 4,393 km.; freight traffic 48,480,000,000 ton-km. Shipping (1974): merchant \cs5els 100 gross tons and over 2,088; gross tonnage 7,980,453. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 17,803,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1973) 20,586,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1973) 18,486,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; wheat parentheses): 7,722 1973 in 1974; (7,134); rye 2.543 (2,576), barley 7,074 (6,622); oats 3,448 (3,045); potatoes 14,547 (13,676); apples (1973) 2,016, (1972) 1,239; sugar, raw value 2,423 (2,453); wine (1973) 979, (1972) 723; milk 21,563 (21,266); butter 510 (512); cheese 593 (570); beef and \eal (1973) 1,070, (1972) 1,153; pork (1973) 2,162, (1972)

people appeared to believe that the federal govern-

ment had got the economy under control and that the situation would improve. The government had hoped that foreign workers, among whom the unemployment rate was particularly

palaces are also for sale, but the maintenance cost Is a major deterrent to purchasers.

Bundesrat,

it

could

term plans for reducing the government's debts. This theorizing did not upset the chancellor.

increase,

during the year.

to

did not do so. Indeed,

own

the higher

free will.

foreign workers

In August federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt pre-

Another 100 West German castles and country

the

prompted many to send West Germany. The total number of foreigners in the country grew to some 4.1 million

in 1975 of their

of the year,

by the duke of Mecklenburg.

of the federal Parliament,

children's

would go home

their families to

price of $1.6 million

would seek then to increase the value-added tax (VAT) by 2%, a proposal attacked by the unions and by the parliamentary opposition. If the opposition were to retain its slight majority in the upper house

allowances, which were introduced at the beginning

They

for $120,000, in contrast to the original asking

=

block the passage of legislation raising the VAT and thereby cause a drastic revision of Schmidt's long-

high,

Rheinstein Castle near Bingen is being offered

2,239; fish catch (1973) 475, (1972) 419. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1973): cattle 14,364; pigs 20,452; sheep c. 908; horses used in agriculture (1973) 283; chickens (1973) 99,712. Industry. Index of production (1970 100): 113. Unemployment: 112; (1973) (1974) (1974) 2.6%; (1973) 1.2%. Fuel and power coal (in 000; metric tons; 1974): 94,878; lignite 126,043; crude oil 6,192; coke (1973) 33,997; electricity (kw-hr.) 311,681,000; natural gas (cu.m.; 1973) 18,659,000; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 17,228,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974): iron ore (28% metal content) 4,442; pig iron 40,505; crude steel 53,226; aluminum 1,013; copper 424; lead 321; zinc 563; cement 35,366; sulfuric acid 5,165; cotton yarn 214; woven cotton fabrics 182; wool yarn 55; rayon, etc., filament yarn 74; rayon, etc., staple fibres 99; nylon, etc., filament yarn 377; nylon, etc., fibres 390: petroleum products (1973) 115,130; fertilizers (1973-74) nitrogenous 1,473, phosphate 962, potash 2,539; synthetic rubber 335; plastics and resins 6,255; passenger cars (units) 2,839; commercial vehicles (units) 264. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1974) 2,109,000 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1974) 604,000.

vailed on a rather tense Cabinet to pass measures, including hefty cuts in public spending, to reduce the

government's budget deficit in 1976 by DM. 7.9 billion. Cuts were made across the board, but this was no austerity program. From the beginning of 1976 unemployment insurance contributions were to be

most painful part of the government's strategy would not come into effect until the beginning of 1977, a few months after the 1976 federal elections. If Schmidt were reelected, he increased by

1%, but

the

the opposition to maintain

He

expected

resistance to the

its

was

VAT

up won, to forget about it (if only because the state governments, which were represented in the Bundesrat, would not be able on the grounds that

the election, but

if

his

it

inflationary,

coalition

to resist the chance to increase their tax revenues).

The long-awaited government program the

some

DM.

to bolster

February, caused abroad. It totaled disappointment 5.5 billion and was principally designed to help

economy,

also

announced at

in

home and

the enfeebled construction industry through a difficult winter. (see Biography), chairman of the and minister president of the Rhineland Palatwas chosen in June as the candidate to contest

Helmut Kohl

CDU inate,

the chancellorship at the 1976 federal election.

The Ba-

varian Christian Social Union (CSU), which formed a joint parliamentary party with the CDU, had insisted that the candidate should be selected only after the two parties had agreed on a common platform.

CDU jumped the gun when its general secretary and chief strategist, Kurt Biedenkopf, declared that Kohl was the party's best chancellor candidate. On May 12, while the CSU was still working out a policy program, Kohl was officially nominated by the CDU executive committee. This angered the chairman of the CSU, Franz-Josef Strauss, and his colleagues. The" CDU was hoping that Kohl would be given the approval of the CSU at the first round of negotiations on June 10, but he was made to wait. The CSU had

The

even considered making a break with the Christian

Democrats and

fighting the next federal election as an

independent party of the right, not just in Bavaria but throughout the country. Eventually, the CSU accepted Kohl, but reluctantly.

Nearly three years after their arrest, the ringleaders of the Baader-Meinhof group of alleged terrorists went on trial in Stuttgart on May 21. Four people who

had openly declared war on West German society were in the dock: Ulrike Meinhof, aged 40, former editor of the political magazine Konkret; Andreas Baader, 32, who was widely described as the chief of the group; Gudrun Ensslin, a clergyman's daughter and former teacher; and Jan-Carl Raspe, a sociologist. Their activities and those of their supporters outside prison placed the entire country on the alert and caused new laws to be passed, some of which restricted freedom. They were charged with involvement in 5 murders and 71 cases of attempted murder as well as in several bomb attacks and bank raids. Several defense counsel were excluded from the trial on suspicion of having a conspiratorial relationship with the accused under a law specifically enacted to suit this case. In September the court decided to carry on the trial in the absence of the accused. Under another law, drafted with the Baader-Meinhof case in mind, a prisoner who made himself unfit to stand trial might be tried in his absence. The court seized the chance to invoke the new law after psychiatrists and other physicians on September 23 pronounced the four accused to be capable of standing trial "only to a limited extent" and to be in need of treatment. One physician suggested that the proceedings of the court, which

German government for not being careful enough over the drafting of the West German-Polish treaty signed in 1970. At that time the Germans thought that the

met on three days a week, should be limited to three hours a day interspersed with short breaks. The bench calculated that if this course were followed the trial

was given by the newspapers to an opinion poll in the U.S. which showed that only 39% of Americans would favour military action by the U.S. should the Soviet Union occupy West Berlin. Schmidt paid a five-day visit to China at the end of October and met Chairman Mao Tse-tung. Although the chancellor and the Chinese government did not see eye to eye on the question of the West's relations with the Soviet Union and its satellites, Schmidt was a much more welcome guest in Peking than his predecessor, Willy Brandt, who had been slow to establish diplomatic relations with China, would have been. Schmidt was credited by the Chinese with having a more realistic and less nervous attitude toward the Soviet Union than had Brandt. Nonetheless, Schmidt gave several assurances to the Soviet government that Bonn would not allow its relations with China to hamper East-West detente. Consequently, the chancellor was careful in Peking not to identify himself with the Chinese view of Soviet policy. He told the Chinese that West Germany had adopted a clear policy toward Moscow at a time when the Chinese re-

would be likely to last ten years. The court decided on September 30 to exclude the accused from the trial.

The defense appealed

to

the Federal Constitutional

Court, which ruled that the prisoners could not be excluded from the trial against their will, although they

could stay

away

if

they wished.

Giinter Guillaume, whose alleged spying activities

had brought about former chancellor Willy Brandt's resignation in 1974, was convicted of treason in Diisseldorf on December 15 and sentenced to 13 years' imprisonment. The chairman of the West

Berlin

CDU,

Peter

Lorenz, was kidnapped by terrorists on February 27.

March 5 after the West German government agreed to the demands of the kidnappers to free five terrorists and fly them out of the country.

He was

released on

Another condition was that they should be accompanied on their flight by a former mayor of West Berlin, Heinrich Albertz. As the kidnappers demanded, each of the released prisoners was provided with DM. 20,000. The aircraft finally landed at Aden. After its return with Albertz to Berlin, Lorenz was set free. Chancellor Schmidt said that all the political parties accepted responsibility for the decision. The state, however, took a tougher line in April when some half-dozen terrorists seized the West Ger-

man embassy wounded

in

Stockholm. They shot and fatally

the military attache

and held the ambassador

and several other members of the

staff

hostage while

demanding the release of 26 prisoners in West Germany, including the leaders of the Baader-Meinhof group. When told that the West German government would not give in to their demands, they blew up the embassy. (See also

Crime and Law Enforcement:

Special Report.)

Foreign Affairs. Agreements were signed in OctoWest Germany was to pay Poland 2.3 billion. The outlines of the deal were worked out at Helsinki, Fin., in July when both Schmidt and

ber under which

DM.

Edward Gierek,

the Polish party leader, attended the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. In a way the agreements were a "fine" on the West

Germany, Federal Republic of

Polish promise to allow people of "indisputably Ger-

man

nationality" to emigrate to

West Germany meant

Germans still living in Poland and wishing would be able to go. In fact, since the end of 1970, only about 58,000 persons had been permitted to leave. As of 1975 the West German Red Cross still had on its books an additional 284,000 applications from would-be emigrants from Poland. The new agreethat

the

all

to leave

ment provided

for another 120,000-125,000 to leave

over the next four years. Part of the deal was in the form of a DM. 1 billion loan to Poland at an interest rate of

2i%

to cover

on

over 25 years. The rest of the

money was

a once-and-for-all basis Polish citizens'

pensions claims against

Germany as well as to comGerman World War II con-

pensate Polish victims of centration camps.

The

military disengagement of the U.S. in Southeast

Asia in April prompted a good deal of

West Germany about for the security of

comment

possible lessons to be

Western Europe. Open

in

drawn

criticism

of the U.S. was carefully avoided, but fears of U.S. isolationism were reawakened. Considerable coverage

The biggest since in

fire in

Germany

1949 began

the heath area

of northern

Germany

and, following a change

wind direction, spread over an area of 50 square in

miles. Damages are estimated at $12 million.

368

Ghana

garded the Soviets as inseparable friends. There were some practical results of the visit. Two agreements

were signed, one laying down regulations for shipping and the other paving the way for opening an air service between West Germany and China. At the end of September a special Cabinet meeting was held to discuss West Germany's long-range policy toward the European Economic Community (EEC). The ministers talked about possible ways of subject-

EEC's spending

ing the

habits to stricter control.

One

suggestion was for the appointment of a financial com-

missioner in Brussels,

any

who would have

to explain the

EEC

Commission proposal to the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament, give his views on all Commission proposals that cost money, and have a delaying veto. In short, this commissioner would hold powers in the EEC similar to those held by a finance minister in West Germany. In October Schmidt sent well-publicized private letters to the rest of the EEC's government leaders and to the EEC Commission saying, in effect, that while West Germany did not begrudge the marks it poured into the EEC, the money must go into programs that promoted European integration instead of financial effects of

member governments' private extravaThe chancellor's sharpest rebukes were re-

financing gances.

U.K. Prime Minister Harold Wilson. Schmidt asked him to think again about insisting on a separate seat for Britain beside the EEC at the Conference on International Economic Cooperation in Paris in December. From November 15 to 17 Schmidt took part in a special "summit" meeting at the chateau of Rambouillet, near Paris, called by Pres, Valery Giscard d' Estaing of France. Leaders of governments of the U.S., Japan, West Germany, France, Britain, and served

Italy

for

foremost non-Communist — the — discussed what should be done

industrial

six

countries

to restore

May

In allow

the refusal of East Berlin border guards to police to rescue a boy

West Berlin firemen and

who had

fallen into the Spree

River caused the head Bonn to be summoned to the chancellor's office. He was told that the incident, in which a five-year-old Turkish boy was drowned, had severely strained the efforts of the West German of the East

German mission

government

to improve the climate between the two German states. In October agreement was reached between the West Berlin Senate and the East German government to enable West Berlin services to assist in rescue operations in the

Spree in the future, even on those stretches of the river which were completely in East German territory. (norman crossland) [972.A.3.b.ii]

Ghana A

republic of

West Africa

and member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Ghana is on the Gulf of Guinea and is bordered by Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, and Togo. Area: 92,100 (238,500 sq.km.). Pop. (1974 est.): 9,607,000. Cap. and largest city:

sq.mi.

Accra (pop., 1970, 564,200), Language: English (official); local Sudanic dialects. Religion (1960): Chris-

43%; Muslim 12%;

animist 38%, Chairman of Redemption Council and, from Oct. 10, 1975, of the Supreme Military Council, Col. Ignatius Kutu Acheampong, The National Redemption Council government remained stable in 1975 untU October, when it was downgraded in favour of a new legislative and administrative body, the Supreme Military Council. Colonel tian

the National

the world's economic health. Schmidt, in his statement

Acheampong headed both

at the conclusion of the conference, recognized that

the suggestion of

it

had produced few detailed agreements, but the general consensus was that the meeting betokened a fresh cooperative approach to problems.

West

Berlin. In the election of the city Parliament

on March

2,

the

share of the poll

SPD fell

lost its overall majority. Its

from 50.4

to

42.7%, the party's

worst performance in the city since World

The

II.

Christian Democrats, polling 43.9%, achieved

their best result

had

War

it

and would probably have done better

not been for the right-wing party

known

as

Federation for a Free Germany, which managed to poll 3.4%. The Social Democrats were able to stay in

power only by forming a coalition with the Free Democrats. The election was undoubtedly influenced by the kidnapping of West Berlin's CDU chairman Peter Lorenz {see above), who was in the hands of terrorists on polling day. The East German authorities, in some cases supported by the Soviet government, continued to protest against any attempt to extend the links between West Berlin and West Germany. In a statement published by the East German Communist Party organ Neiies Deiitschland in January, Erich Honecker, first secretary of the party, said that West Berlin could only

maintain such relations with West Germany as it maintained with other nations. The East Germans protested against the participation of the federal gov-

ernment

in the

Green Week (an agricultural show)

West Berlin and against the plan of the EEC a European centre for vocational training in

to set

in

up

the city.

in

life

councils.

presidency,

Though rejecting Acheampong an-

nounced that the military government would stay in office till the goals of the revolution had been achieved. Ghana was host to the February meeting of the Council of Ministers of the African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries for final discussions before the signing of the

Lome Convention

in

February.

tive part as a signatory of the

It also

played an ac-

Economic Community

West African States. Discontent centred on increasing corruption, soar25%), and a budget featuring prestige development projects. Despite a balance of payments of

ing prices (up

deficit of

30 million cedis at the end of 1974 and a

gloomy forecast of reduced foreign exchange

earnings,

the 1975 budget allowed for a capital expenditure of

more than 300

million cedis. Although

medium-term

debts (those not repudiated by the government) had been rescheduled, the balance of payments deficit increased and resources declined as

demand

and timber

oil

prices rose

and

Despite the need for an increase in foreign investment, the April 30 the

for gold

fell.

Investment Policy Decree provided for a large-scale takeover of businesses by Ghanaian citizens; however, the Investment Policy Implementation Committee found that Ghanaians had neither the interest in the economy to the by the law. External aid remained crucial, whether the World Bank's 13 million cedis to develop oil palm in eastern Ghana to supply the soap industry or £10 million from the U.K, to finance agricultural projects. An increasing number of Chinese

nor the capital to participate extent provided

369

GHANA

Golf

Education. (Public schools only;

1973) Primary,

1,000,510, teachers 32,147; secondary, pupils 509,174, teachers 19,434; vocational, pupils 10,574, teachers 670; teacher training, students 14,299, teachers 919; higher, students 6,394, teaching staff 978. Finance. Monetary unit: new cedi, with (Sept. 22, 19751 an official rate of 1.15 cedi to U.S. $1 (free £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and rate of 2.39 cedis foreign exchange: (June 1975) U.S. $161.1 million; (June 1974) U.S. $161.2 million. Budget (1973-74 est.); revenue 561.7 million cedis; expenditure 740.3 million cedis. Gross national product: (1972) 2,787,pupils

=

(1971)

000,000 cedis;

2,450,000,000

cedis.

Money

supply: (Oct, 1974) 649.6 million cedis; (Oct. 1973) 482.3 million cedis. Cost of living (Accra; 1970 100): (Dec. 1974) 190; (Dec. 1973) 139. Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports 945.7 million cedis; exports 868 million cedis. Import sources (1973) U.K. 16%; U.S. 16%; West Germany 12%; Japan 7%; France 6%. Export destinations (1973): U.K. 19%;

=

15%; The Netherlands 9%; Japan 9%; West Germany 9%; Italy 7%; U.S.S.R. 6%. Main exports; cocoa 63%; timber 21%; aluminum 7%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) c. 31,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger U.S.

commercial (including buses) 31,000. Rail(1972) 953 km.; traffic (1971) 520 million freight 305 million net ton-km. Air 150.5 million passenger-km.; freight traffic (1973): 2,773.000 net ton-km. Shipping (1974): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 77; gross tonnage 173,013. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 52,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) 775,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 25,40,400;

ways:

passenger-km.,

000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974; 1973 in parentheses): corn c. 450 (438); cassava (1973) c. 2,100. (1972) 2,813; taro (1973) c. 1,120, (1974) c. 1,100; yams (1973) c. 750, (1972) 660; millet c. 120 (109); sorghum c. 170 (167); peanuts 125 (122); cocoa c. 386 (343); palm oil c. 65 c. (61); timber (cu.m.; 1973) c. 10,100, (1972) 10,100; fish catch (1973) 195,(1972) 281. Livestock (in 000; 1972): cattle c. 1,100; sheep c. 1,600; pigs c. 340; goats (1973) c. 1,550. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973): bauxite 349; petroleum products 976; gold (troy oz.) 729; diamonds (metric carats) 2,700; manganese ore (metal content) 313; electricity (kw-hr.; 1972) c. 3,344,000.

technicians, under a 1974 agreement, arrived to set

up irrigation projects.

The most pressing problems were those of cocoa and smuggling. Cocoa prices fell and production decreased (cocoa accounted for 70% of export earnings), Ghana's proportion of world output having fallen to about 27% from nearly 40% in the 1960s. In February 1975 a special Ministry of Cocoa Affairs was set up, and on International Cocoa Day (May 31) both the ministry and Colonel Acheampong emphasized that cocoa

who smuggled

it

was

the lifeblood of

Ghana; those

out were "enemies of the state."

Smuggling, not only of cocoa but also of gold, diamonds, and subsidized gasoline, caused an estimated revenue loss of 26 million cedis a year.

(molly Mortimer)

Golf Once again Jack Nicklaus was the commanding figure in world golf in 1975. Although Johnny Miller, leading money winner the previous year, began the season in explosive fashion by winning the first three U.S. tournaments with scoring of a brilliance that had rarely been approached, he could not prevent Nicklaus from winning the Masters at Augusta, Ga., for a record fifth time. Thereafter Nicklaus, with four more victories including a fourth success in the Professional

Association

the British Open

at Carnoustie, Scotland.

ahead. His total of major championship victories rose to 16, eight

more than

that of

Gary

Player, his near-

contemporary rival. In past years Walter Hagen won 1 1 and Ben Hogan 9. Throughout the year Nicklaus was rarely out of contention in any event, and for the seventh time in 12 years headed the money- winning list. He just failed to reach $300,000 for the third time, but his total of $298,149 was far ahead of Miller and Tom Weiskopf, his closest pursuers. In the end Nicklaus came closer to achieving the professional Grand Slam (Masters, PGA, and U.S. and British opens) than ever before. In the U.S. Open at Medinah, 111., he finished only two strokes out of the play-off in which Lou Graham beat John Mahaffey, and he was only one out of that at the British Open, where Tom Watson beat Jack

est

Newton of Australia. The centrepiece of

the year proved to be the

Mas-

any championship of modern times. With opening rounds of 68 and 67 Nicklaus appeared to be in complete command, but by the third evening he was one behind Weiskopf, who had a third-round score of 66 to Nicklaus' 73. Miller, who had started the day 11 behind, produced a wonderful round of 65 and gained 8 strokes, but Nicklaus appeared to be undisturbed, as if relishing the prospect of a tremendous contest to come. The ters,

which produced as

fine a finish as

all expectation. Occatwo great golfers had fought shot for shot to the bitter end, but rarely, if ever, had three such men done so. Miller shot a 66, giving him an unprecedented total of 131 for the last two rounds, and on the final green he and Weiskopf had eminently makable putts to tie. When Nicklaus, playing ahead of Miller and Weiskopf, stood on the 15th fairway, he Gibraltar: was one behind and knew that, almost for certain, he see Dependent States must make a birdie to remain in the running. After a Glass Manufacture:

final

round, indeed, surpassed

sionally in the past

[978.E.4.b.ii]

Golfers'

Jack Nicklaus blasts out of a bunker during

(PGA) championship, swept

long pause, while he considered the wind, Nicklaus hit a majestic no. 1 iron over the lake to the green,

one of the greatest strokes under pressure of his life. The short 16th was, however, even more crucial. While Tom Watson, playing with Nicklaus, was struggling toward a horrific seven, Nicklaus was assessing

see Industrial

Review

Gliding: see Aerial Sports

Gold: see

Economy, World;

Mining and Quarrying

Down it went for a two on the hole, on Miller and Weiskopf, watching from the tee, can be imagined. Weiskopf changed his club, came up short of the green, and took four. Nicklaus was then one stroke ahead of Weiskopf and two ahead of Miller. He parred the last two holes, and then Miller made a birdie on the 17th. He and Weiskopf were

of the second round of the Western

even, both needing a birdie on the 18th to

veterans. Geiberger

370

a putt of 40

Golf

and the

ft.

effect

tie

Nicklaus.

After perfect drives and approaches Miller just missed a 20-ft. putt. Weiskopf's putt of 8 to drop, but

it

slipped

by the

ft.

seemed certain was a cruel

hole. This

disappointment for Weiskopf, who has finished second in the Masters four times in seven years. The severity of the course at Medinah, with its great trees overhanging the fairways, dominated the U.S. Open, and rarely have so many unfamiliar names occupied the leading places. After three rounds only

Lee Trevino of the eight leaders had won a major championship. Nicklaus, as often before, had slipped behind. Frank Beard, who had not won a tournament for several years, led Tom Watson and Pat Fitzsimons by three strokes. The story of the last day was one of recession, from which the steadiness of Lou Graham and John Mahaffey just prevailed. Everyone else had vulnerable spells, notably Nicklaus, who seemed set to win with par golf but then finished with three bogeys.

good but not conspicuously successmany years, played fine, composed beat Mahaffey in the play-off, while his op-

Graham, ful

a

player for

the features of the U.S. season

and Gene

Littler,

was

the suc-

both considered

won twice and Littler three times, and both won more money than ever before. Littler's golf was remarkable in view of his serious operations three years earlier, and he completed his season by winning the Pacific Masters in Japan for the second successive year. In one of his other victories he beat Julius Boros, aged 55, after a play-off. Billy Casper also had a revival in fortunes, and in all it was a year in which the established players prevailed in America. In the PGA championship at Akron, Ohio, Nicklaus comfortably resisted the challenges of Bruce Crampton and Weiskopf and won by two strokes. This was the fourth time in major championships that Crampton had been second to him, and Weiskopf must have been heartily sick of his friend, Nicklaus, on the golf course. In the World Open at Pinehurst, N.C., Weiskopf missed from 7 ft. on the last green to join Nicklaus and Casper in the play-off, which Nicklaus went on to win. Carnoustie, Scotland, could never have played more easily than

it

did for the

first

three rounds of the

British Open. Scores in the middle 60s abounded, and

takes, but

last six holes better

in his first season

on the

tie.

ers.

the U.S. Open June.

One of

cess of Geiberger

His consistent accuracy from tee to green probably had no equal, and he completed a fine year by retaining the Piccadilly match play championship at Wentworth, Surrey, in which he beat Oosterhuis, Newton, and, in the final, Al Geiberger, Trevino, Jerry Heard, and Bobby Nichols suffered minor burns when they were struck by lightning during a severe thunderstorm that forced postponement

won over $60,000

defending his

in

Irwin.

established himself as one of the world's leading golf-

eventually

U,S, tour, tied for seventh with Nicklaus, Hale Irwin,

site of

Oak

title, showed that his victory at Winged Foot was no accident by finishing a stroke outside the He had also finished fourth in the Masters with a record-equaling 64 in the last round, and clearly

ponent, one of the strongest of the new generation, did not putt well. Britain's Peter Oosterhuis, who

at Medinah, Illinois,

at

on the third evening Bobby Cole of South Africa, after a 66, led Newton, whose 65 was a record, by one stroke. Miller was one further behind. Although a firm breeze from an unaccustomed direction seemed to favour the more experienced players, Tom Watson and Newton survived a tense finish. Miller, needing a four to tie, drove into a bunker on the 18th and took two to emerge; Cole dropped three strokes on the last five holes. Nicklaus could not redeem his early mis-

golf to

The 18th green

Open

Brook, 111,, in June. They spent the next two days in nearby hospital, and Heard continued playing after their release. The winner of the tournament was Hale

a

Watson

a birdie to

tie

finished magnificently, playing the

than anyone and finishing with Newton. The following day Watson

and Newton played a great match, giving precious little away until on the 18th Newton's long iron from the rough hit a bunker near the green. Watson hit a beauty, and finally Newton's putt of 15 ft. to take the

Open

into

its

first-ever

sudden-death play-off just

missed. Watson's performance was the greater for he

had

under the pressure of leading the last two He impressed everyone with his cool, intelligent, and pleasant manner. He hit with uncommon power for a lightly built man and clearly was the young player of the year, which he demonstrated again by winning the World Series of Golf. Oosterhuis again was the leading British player, tying for seventh with failed

U.S. Opens.

m^Q

Neil Coles,

mm

Apart from occasional performances, notably by Brian Barnes, Maurice Bembridge, and Bernard Gallacher, British golfers did not excel in the

-3,.«;

European

tournaments. Dale Hayes of South Africa was the money winner with £17,487, and Bob Shearer of Australia finished second. Arnold Palmer's winning

leading

days in the U.S. might be over, but he delighted everyone with a spectacular victory in the Spanish Open and then gave a reminder of his greatness in the Penfold PGA championship at Sandwich, Kent. He played superbly in a gale and won the first prize of £10,000. A strong U.S. team of amateurs, led by Ed Updegraff, several of whom turned professional soon afterward, always had control of the Walker Cup match at St, Andrews, Scotland, Although the British team.

;

)

Mark James, the young English champion, and Richard Eyles, played well in the foursomes, U.S. supremacy in both sessions of singles was never in question. The following week at Hoylake, Cheshire, Marvin Giles swept aside Mark James in the final. In the U.S. amateur championship Fred Ridley from the University of Florida beat Keith Fergus by two notably

holes in the final.

The Ryder Cup match was one-sided from the outThe U.S. team, one of the most powerful of modern times, took command on the first day and by the second evening needed only four points from 16 singles matches for victory. The British and Irish set.

played as well as could be expected but were outplayed by Palmer's men. Barnes did beat Nicklaus twice on the last day. The U.S. won 21-11.

The U.S. team of Johnny Miller and Lou Grahamthe World Cup tournament, held in Bangkok in December. Miller was individual champion with a four-round total of 2 75. With Graham's 279 the U.S.

won

score was 554, ten strokes ahead of second-place Taiwan. Japan finished third with 565, and Australia was fourth with 566. Trailing Miller in individual scoring were Bob Shearer of Australia, Ben Arda of the Philippines, and Hsieh Min-nan of Taiwan, all of

whom

tallied 277.

Palmer won the two most important women's professional events. Unshakable steadiness won her $32,000 in the Colgate-Dinah Shore Winners Circle championship in Palm Springs, Calif. Three months later she was U.S. Open champion, four strokes ahead of Joanne Carner, Sandra Post, and an amateur, Nancy Lopez. Palmer had to be content with second place in the Colgate European championship at Sunningdale, Berkshire, to Donna Caponi Young. The U.S. amateur title was won by 18-year-old Beth Daniel, while Nancy Syms combined a holiday at St. Andrews with victory in the British amateur chamSandra

pionship,

(p. A.

WARD-THOMAS

GREECE Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 913,972, teachers 2S,424; secondary, pupils 490,867, teachers 14,935; vocational, pupils 123,081; higher (including 5 universities), students 91,309, teaching staff 4,614. Finance. Monetary unit: drachma, with (Sept. 22, 1975) a tree rate of 34.18 drachmas to U.S. $1 tfree rate of 70.81 drachmas £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange: (June 1975) U.S. $890.5 million; (June 1974) U.S. $915.4 million. Budget (1975 est.) balanced at 140 billion drachmas (excluding investment of 32 million drachmas). Gross national product: (1973) 488.8 billion drachmas; (1972) 376.8 billion drachmas. Money supply: (Jan. 1975) 108,510,000,000 drachmas; (Jan. 1974) 87,070,000,000 drachmas. Cost of living (1970 100); (May 1975) 178; (May 1974) 157. Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports 131,560,000,000 drachmas; exports 60,890,000,000 drachmas. Import sources; EEC 43% (West Germany 16%, Italy 9%, France 7%, U.K. 5%); U.S. 9%; Japan 6%. Export destinations: EEC 50% (West Germany 21%, Italy 9%, France 6%, U.K. 6%, The Netherlands 5%); U.S. 6%; Libya 5%. Main exports: textile yarns and fabrics 10%; petroleum products 10%; iron and steel 9%; tobacco 8%; dried fruit 5%; fresh fruit 5%; aluminum 5%; chemicals 5%. Tourism (1973); visitors 2,762,000; gross receipts U.S. $512 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 36,415 km. (including 65 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1973); passenger 346.762; commercial 150,185. Railways (1973); 2,572 km.; traffic 1,61 5,000,000 passenger-km., freight 798 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1974); 3,083,800,000 passenger-km.; freight 51,318,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1974): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 2,651; gross tonnage 21,759,449. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 1,670,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) c. 1.3 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1972) 520,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974; 1973 in parentheses); wheat c. 2,200 (1,738); barley c. 980 (857); oats 114 (102); corn 600 (650); potatoes c. 708 (733); rice c. 93 (82); tomatoes c. 1,090 (1,188); onions c. 121 (c. 184); watermelons (1973) c. 630, (1972) 696; apples (1973) c. 240, (1972) c. 240; oranges (1973) c. 450, (1972) 482; lemons (1973) c. 150, (1972) 151; sugar, raw value 187 (158); peaches (1973) 250, (1972) 277; olives c. 1,020 (950); olive oil c. 250 (c. 285); wine c. 500 (c. 500); raisins (1973) c. 160, (1972) c. 160; figs (1973) c. 145, (1972) c. 145; tobacco 70 (77); cotton, lint cattle c. 1,013; c. 120 (108). Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1973); sheep c. 8,150; goats (1972) c. 4,120; pigs c. 700; horses (1972) c. 245; asses (1972) c. 335; chickens (1972) c. 26,900. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1974); lignite 13,929; electricity (excluding most industrial production: kw-hr.) 13,722,000; petroleum products (1973) c. 10,810; bauxite 2,813; magnesite (1972) 917; cement 7,012; sulfuric acid 886; fertilizers (1973-74) nitrogenous 255, phosphate 163, cotton yarn (1973) 52. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1974) 141,400 gross tons.

—

=

On January

14 the

government passed coup d'etat

lation proclaiming the 1967

special legisa punishable

crime. This signaled a series of prosecutions, begin-

ning with that of the military regime's strong man, Gen. (ret.) Dimitrios loannidis. The process was

[452.B.4.h.xiv]

speeded up by the discovery in February of a halfbaked plot by pro-junta officers to seize control and

Greece

the jailed junta leaders.

force the

A

republic

of

Europe,

Greece occupies the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula.

Area: 50,960 sq.mi.

(131,986 sq.km.), of which the mainland accounts for 41,227 sq.mi. Pop. (1974 est.): 8,962,000.

Cap. and largest city: Athens (pop.,

1971, 867,000). Language: Greek. Religion: Orthodox.

Presidents in 1975, Michael Stassinopoulos

(ad inKonstantinos Tsatsos; prime minister, Konstantinos Karamanlis. A new constitution establishing a parliamentary reterim)

public

and,

from June

20,

was voted by Parliament on June

new charter granted

significant executive

7,

1975.

The

and legislaby a two-

tive prerogatives to the president, elected

majority of the unicameral Parliament for five The opposition accused Karamanlis of using his party's large majority to have the charter approved. When, on June 19. this majority elected one thirds

years.

of his tinos

most trusted

Konstanit was was temporary and that

associates, 76-year-old

Tsatsos (see Biography), to be president,

generally

assumed that

this

Karamanlis proposed to take over as chief of state before Parliament's term expired in 1978. Leftist opposition parties scored major gains in local elections on March 30.

government

amnesty to Twenty-one of the officers

to grant a general

were court-martialed and 14 were sentenced to prison terms of from 4 to 12 years. The government also dismissed 225 officers who supported the defunct regime. Georgios Papadopoulos and 19 other junta leaders went on trial for revolt and high treason on July 28. Papadopoulos and his two deputies, Stylianos Pattakos and Nikolaos Makarezos, were sentenced to death, and loannidis and seven others were given life imprisonment. Only two were acquitted. The government shocked the opposition by pledging that it would commute the death penalties. On September 12, 16 military police received prison terms of up to 23 years for torturing political prisoners.

them were

also

among 36

officers

Some

of

and privates who

October as torturers but for December Papadopoulos, loannidis, and a number of army and police generals were convicted of complicity in the massacre after the Polytechnic revolt in November 1973, in which at least 24 civilians were killed. During 1975 the Greek islands near the Anatolian coast were heavily fortified, in contravention of international treaties, for fear of a Turkish attack, and sophisticated weapons were ordered from abroad. On January 27 Karamanlis proposed to the Turks to refer the Aegean dispute to the International Court of Justice. Turkey agreed, but little was achieved. Tension were court-martialed

different

instances.

in

In

Government Finance: Economy, World

see

Great Britain: United Kingdom

see

Greek Literature: see

Literature

Greek Orthodox Church: see Religion

Greenland: see

Dependent States

372

Grenada

eased after the Greek and Turkish prime ministers

met privately

in Brussels at the

GRENADA

end of May.

Education. (1970-71) Primary, pupils 30,355, teachers 800; secondary, pupils 3,039, teachers 129; vocational, pupils 985, teachers 20; teacher training, students 5 7, teachers 12.

In view of Greece's diplomatic isolation during the dictatorship and the need to solicit international support in the Greek-Turkish dispute, Karamanlis set out in

April-May on

a tour of

European

capitals,

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: East Caribbean dollar, with (Sept. 22, 1975) a free rate of ECar$2.32 to U.S. $1 (official rate of ECar$4.80 £\ sterling).

where

=

he also canvassed support for the Greek application

Budget (1971 actual): revenue ECar$2 1,425,000; expenditure ECar$18, 220,000. Foreign trade (1970): imports ECar$44,080,000; exports (main only; account-

European Economic Community, submitted on June 12. Belgrade, Bucharest, and Sofia responded positively to his overtures for Balkan cooperation during a tour of Balkan capitals. On August 20 he proposed a Balkan meeting at the for full

membership

in the

for 94% of total in 1969) ECar$10, 497,000, Import sources (1968): U.K. 337o; U.S. 10%; Canada 10%; The Netherlands 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 54%; Canada 22%; U.S. 10%. Main exports: cocoa c. 37%; nutmegs c. 28%; bananas c. 22%; mace 6%. Tourism (1972): visitors 38,000; gross expenditure U.S. $12 million.

ing

expert level to explore possible avenues of collaboration. Bulgaria, Romania, and Yugoslavia accepted,

Albania declined, and Turkey's reply was delayed. Official relations with the U.S. remained friendly,

and the U.S. announced it would assent to a Greek request for economic and military aid. But anti-Americanism was rife, and on April 21 a mob tried to set fire to the U.S. embassy. The government asked the U.S. to maintain only those facilities that were also relevant to Greek defense, and two of the more conspicuous U.S. installations near Athens were closed. On December 23 Richard S. Welch, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency station chief in Greece, was killed in front of his home in an Athens suburb by unknown gunmen. Welch, officially a special assistant to the ambassador, was one of a group of CIA officials whose identities had been revealed in an Athens

The Greek economy was burdened

1975 with the cost of the massive rearmament program. The second half of the year showed a hopeful recovery, however, and further external borrowing to cover the balance of payments deficit was avoided. to

plan aiming at

6-7%

15%.

A

in

The

inflation

flexible five-year

rate

economic

annual growth was outlined on

(mario modiano)

October 31.

Commission of Enquiry

[972. B. 3]

into the violence of

1973-74

accused the solicitor general of "gross impropriety," charged the police with brutality, and called for the dissolution of the secret force of police aides

Mongoose Squad), and setting

ings,

(the

Arrests, beatings, searches, shoot-

fire to

"subversives' " property con-

Nutmeg Growers' its funds were frozen, and the moderately radical New Jewel Movement had its headquarters ransacked. A new law aimed at stifling tinued. In July troops occupied the

Association offices and

the opposition press.

English-language newspaper.

was held down

Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1975, Leo de Gale; prime minister, Eric Gairy, In March the report by the independent Duffus

Meanwhile, Gairy remained

se-

cure on his base of rural support.

May

In

Gairy threatened to

1975

file

a

claim

against Britain at the International Court of Justice for £2,250,000 of aid funds, and at the Commonwealth conference in Jamaica Britain's foreign secretary, James Callaghan, countered with a charge of misappropriation of £250,000 by Gairy's government. Tourism declined in 1974, but signs of a gradual upturn in 1975 were reported. For the 1974-75 nutmeg year over 2 million lb. of nutmeg had been11

shipped, bringing in a record revenue of ECar: million.

Grenada A

However, mace and cocoa were down in both (sheila Patterson)i

yield and revenue.

parliamentary state within the Commonwealth of its dependency, the southern

[974.B.2.d]

Nations, Grenada, with

Grenadines,

is

the southernmost of the

lands of the Caribbean Sea, 100 mi.

Area: Back

in

operation after

a tiiree-montli strilf

To save starving families abroad, / I pledge to

/

have one / 'Empty Plate / meal a week I and send the money saved '

to

CARE"

The

too often as only housewives and mothers (shoppers, cleaners, family cooks), minimizing their roles in the business and professional world and in community activities, and that advertisements feature women's sexuality to the neglect of their individualities. The panel developed a checklist of questions for advertisers and agencies to consider when creating and approving an advertisement. The panel also suggested extreme caution in using humour, particularly in making fun of efforts to improve the status of women and the opportunities available to them. A threat to establish more controls over advertising in the United Kingdom continued in 1975. To avoid additional govtising

Bureau of Consumer Pro-

effort ever

new

most frequent complaints were that adver-

tection, J. Thomas Rosch, the food advertising rule was the most complex and

comprehensive rule-making dertaken by the agency.

Review

care

CARE World HumerBjnd

414

Industrial

similar

British

commercial

Review

action.

aircraft,

The major "new" Boeing 747SP, a

the

special version of the Jumbo Jet for lowdensity, long-haul routes, made its maiden flight in July.

In the military field the

ernment control, the Advertising Standards Authority

in

May

launched an advertising

first flight

Rockwell International B-1

in

of the

December

aware of the British Code of Advertising Practice and

1974 showed that the U.S. would not renounce the concept of the manned strategic

the steps being taken to protect the con-

bomber. The huge swing-wing bomber, as large as the Concorde, was designed to travel to its target at the speed of sound but at an altitude of only about 200 ft. The major news of the year was the adoption of two experimental aircraft to play a central part in Western defense systems. In May the U.S. Navy announced that

campaign

to

make

the public

sumer. Large advertisements were placed newspapers and periodicals, and a film was shown in theatres. The advertisement explained the control system and asked the public to help bring poor practices to the in

attention of the authority. An international advertisers' conference held under the auspices of the International Advertising Association took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from May 22 to May 23, 1975. It had as its theme "the contribution of advertising to developing countries and emerging consumers." The internationality of the world's consumers was stressed.

(EDWARD MARK MAZZe) [S34.I;

629.C.4.C]

AEROSPACE The

U.S. aerospace companies continued to record a healthy growth in 1975. Estimates made at the beginning of the year put total sales of all U.S. equipment, military and civil, at $29 billion, very close to the peak figure reached during the critical years of the Vietnam war. Great Britain's industry also expanded, despite industrial unrest and uncertainty caused by the Labour government's plans to nationalize the largest companies. Exports for 1974 were up by 20% to $1.4 billion, and 1975 seemed likely to show similar growth. Britain's best customer for aircraft and engines was the U.S., followed by France, West Germany, and China, the last-named mainly through the purchase of Tridents. In France, Aerospatiale, a nationalized company and the country's biggest aerospace producer, was reorganized following a succession of difficult years. Despite economic uncertainties, some airlines continued to plan for reequipraent. One sign was the emergence of the Airbus A-300B on the world market; in 1975 this consortium-built European airliner, dismissed only a year earlier by a Boeing official significant

"government airplane," outsold all the U.S. wide-body transports (Boeing 747, Mcas a

Donnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar) together. The A-300B faced no competition until McDonnell Douglas proposed the DC-X-200, an airliner with a similar configuration although smaller and intended as a replacement for the DC-9. At the Paris Air Show at Le Bourget in May, Boeing dusted off plans for its 7X7 three-engined 727 replacement, first unveiled two years earlier. Perhaps its most significant feature was the use of engines having a thrust of about 22,000 lb. each, or 10 metric tons, under development by Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, and their European partners. A new version of the Boeing 727, the world's best-selling airUner, known as the 727-300, was also offered, but this project was shelved later in the year for lack of support. After a two-year absence, the Soviet Tu-144 supersonic transport reappeared at the Le Bourget show, apparently little changed. Late in December it went into regular service, carrying mail and cargo between Moscow and Alma-Ata; passenger flights were to begin in 1976. Preparations to put the Anglo-French Concorde into service continued, following extensive British and French route-proving flights throughout the world. In October the French government approved its version for commercial operation, in advance of a

it

had

as the

selected a lightweight fighter known as the model on which

Northrop F-17

to base a

new

carrier-borne fighter-bomber,

the F-18; this would be built jointly by Northrop and McDonnell Douglas and masterminded by the latter company, which had long experience in building combat aircraft for the U.S. Navy. Even more controversial was the selection by The Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Norway of General Dynamics' F-16 as the European re-

placement of the squadrons of F-104 Starfighters. The competitor, the Mirage F-1 from Dassault-Breguet of France, had a new engine, the Snecma M53. European companies were assured that they would be responsible for much of the industrial effort in producing the F-16. Another reverse for Dassault was the decision by the French government in October to shelve the projected Super Mirage interceptor planned for service in the 19S0s. Continuing affirmation of the versatiUty of Britain's Harrier vertical takeoff fighter came from two directions. In August the Royal Navy announced its decision to buy 25 Sea Harriers to equip its new "throughdeck" cruisers, and in September the U.S. Navy approved the purchase of a more advanced version of the AV-8A Harrier already in service with the Marines. Some 340 of the new AV-8Bs would also be operated by the Marine Corps. The long-held dream of a European space organization came true in May when the European Space Agency came into existence. More spectacular was the much-pubUcized ApoUo-Soyuz flight, perhaps less of a scientific mission than a public-relations exercise to strengthen the Soviet-U.S. detente. For the U.S., this was the last of the Apollo flights, with their historic Moon landings, and the last manned flight before the reusable space shuttle took over the job of putting satellites and probes into space. The

U.S.S.R. stepped up

its space activities, and there were rumours of a new space station design and of a new launch vehicle even larger than the U.S. Saturn V. (See Space

Exploration.)

(michael wilson) [732. B.l]

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES Beer. During 1974 there was an overall increase in world beer production of 20 milhon hectoUtres (hi.), the estimated total about 26.5 reaching 750 million hi. (1 hi. U.S. gal.). Of this, the U.S. produced 183,344,000 hi.. West Germany 92,783,000 hi., and the U.K. 63,039,000 hi. In the countries

=

which excise duty was a sizable proportion of the retail price, there was evidence that

in

sales declined, particularly in Britain,

where

increased by twopence a pint

the duty was approx. 0.57 litre) in April. The (1 pint long, hot, dry summer in Western Europe in 1975 bolstered sales, but as inflation continued to bite, consumer retrenchment during the fall and winter was expected.

=

The strain on profits led South African Breweries Ltd. to note that future expenditures would have to be watched, and several British breweries reported declines in profits despite increased production. Belgium, top of the beer-drinking league in 1973 with a per capita consumption of 150 1., slumped to 140 1. in 1974 and slipped to fourth place the first time in many years it had not been among the top three. Czechoslovakia took the lead at 152.7 1., followed by West Germany at 147 1. Third place went to Australia at 141.3 1., a sharp advance from 1973. The United States increased per capita consumption from 76.5 1. in 1973 to 79.8 1. in 1974. {See Table III.)

—

In Europe and in North America there was some concern about the barley crop. Farmers reported that high temperatures and low rainfall had kept pests at bay but that the corns were small and the crop would be Ught. In some countries nitrogen levels were high, which could reduce yield in the mashing process and could also cause trouble at retail outlets if the high-nitrogen barley produced beer that would foam on pouring. The crop of European hops was light in several countries. In the U.K. total tonnage was expected to be 10% below optimum requirements, but with stockpiles good this shortage was unlikely to cause problems. Some varieties of hops did well in the dry weather, and irrigation helped minimize drought damage. Hop growers looked for a small crop of high quality. In northwest Europe, in 1975, hop harvesting started earlier

than usual.

More brewing methods

of

countries accepted modern dispensing draft beer. Many

customers liked to see beer served from a bulk container, and the habit gained support. In Japan, where the idea was new, British-style "pubs" were erected that included modern draft-beer service equipment. This move was fortunate for the brewers, since the environmentalists were still preaching against the use of one-trip containers and sometimes even against returnable bottles.

Spirits.

markable

The

(ARTHUR T. E. BINSTED) market showed re-

spirits

resilience in the first half of 1975

despite prevailing economic conditions. In the U.K. the April budget brought an increase in the duty on spirits (and wines), thus widening the gap between the taxes imposed by the U.K. and those in the rest of the EEC. British liquor dealers predictably took a gloomy view of prospects for the year, but by September business was by no means discouraging. Sales of vodka, with a 9.6% share of the

U.K. than 26%, total

market, rose by no less 1,387,000 proof gal. in the period, as a result of consider-

spirits

to

January-July

able promotion. Imported vodkas accounted for 27,000 proof gal. In several European markets vodka enjoyed a 15% share of spirits sales, and industry observers expected U.K. sales eventually to overtake those of

which at 2,421,000 proof gal. showed modest increase of 4.1%. For Scotch whisky the picture was mixed. In the 12 months to July 1975 releases from bond in the U.K. totaled 27.6 million proof gal., a rise of 10%. But whisky profitability in the home market was restricted by rising costs and price controls. Consequently some gin,

a

notably the industry leader, the Distillers Company Ltd., decided to cut back production. During the year a large number of countries increased their taxes or duties on Scotch. In the U.S., according to figures published in Advertising Age, per capita consumption of spirits increased from 1.5 gal. distillers,

Table

111.

Esllmaled Consumption of Baer in Selected Countries

In litres*

per capilo of lolol population

1972

1973

Australiat

147.7 145.3 127.3

145.5 146.7 130.5

Belgiumt

140

Luxembourg Zealand

133.5

135

121.1

126.1

.East United Kingdom

107.3 105.6 103.05 103.7 83.5 76.92 73.4 65.7 73.6 57.3 57.4 53.8 40.3 41.22

114.9 114.3 111.96 106.2

Country

Czechoslovakia

Germany, West

New Gen

Denmark Auslrio

Canada§ Irelond

United States Nelherlonds, The Switzerlond

Hungary Sweden Finland

France

Norway Bulgorio Spoin

39.51

Venezuela Yugoslovio Poland

41.1

•One litre=1.0567

36 35.2 35.5 U.S. quart5

1972

73.46 75.6 61.6 56.6 54.3

44.47 42.02 43.62

of

Wine

In litres*

Italy

1973

Froncet Portugal Argentina Spain Swilzerlondt

Poland

Germony, East Conodot Hungary Luxembourg

Luxembourg Chile

Hungory

United States Spoin

89.1

80.19 76.5

Table V. Estimated Consumption in Selected Countries per capita of total populolion

of population

140

86.74 79.8 75.72 75.7

Finland

66

Germany, West

58.6 56.2

Iceland

44.19 43.85

Froncet

Sweden Czechoslovakia Netherlands, The

2.28 2.93 2.49

2.66 2.45 2.64 2.55 3.02 2.53

Suri

42.5 40.7 37.2 37.8

2.36 1.69 1.59 1.66

= 0.8799

imperial quart. tYeors ending June 30. Jlncluding so-colled "household beer."

jYeors ending March 31.

1974

Table IV. Estimated Consumption of Potable Distilled Spirits in Selected Countries In litres* of 100% pore spirit per copita

tYeors ending March 31. ^Including aperitifs.

§1970.

1.82 1.75 1.66

2.82 2.75 2.65 2.65

110.9

416

Industrial

Review

Lombardy and Venezia also fell by between IS and 30%, with no marlced improvement in quality. The same applied, with some higher percentage decreases, to in

other Italian regions, in particular Apulia,

Tuscany, Sicily, and Sardinia. Under pressure from its own growers, France imposed a 12% import tax on Italian wines, which the European Commission held to be illegal. In the United States the unprecedented expansion of vineyards that took place during ,1970-74, combined with a leveUng off of wine consumption, caused grape prices in 1975 to be about 45% below their 1973 highs. One industry source estimated that the supply of traditional table wine might be twice the consumer demand by 1978, leading to a price-cutting situation that could drive many small wineries out of business.

In Spain the 1975 harvest was 28 million 26% lower than that of 1974 (which in quantity). In the region of Jerez the harvest was quantitatively larger than during the previous year, but all other centres of production suffered a decrease. Fine weather during the year produced wines of superior quality almost everywhere in the country. In the Mancha, Untiel-Requena, and other regions alcoholic content reached 12° or more. {See hi.,

had been well above average

Drxjg Abuse.)

(PAUL mauron) [731.E.8.a-c]

AUTOMOBILES Automakers

looking for an end to the troubles that had built up for them since the Arab oil embargo of 1974 found solace in 1975. Car sales, which started showing some recovery in the final weeks of 1974, gained real momentum in the fall of 1975. However, U.S. car production in 1975, at 6,725,682, was 8% below 1974 and the lowest since 1970, when General Motors was hit by a two-month strike. Auto sales in the U.S. reached their low point in November 1974, when the industry was selling at an annual rate of 6.9 million units. In January 1975 the situation began to

improve, with sales at an annual rate of By October and November, after

8 million.

the U.S. manufacturers had introduced their new models, the annual selUng rate swelled

Table VI. Production and Exports of Motor Vehicles by the Principal Producing Countries, 1974

Production

417

Industrial

Review

possible inclusion in the Rabbit within two years. General Motors also was working on a V-8 diesel for Oldsmobile. Both Volkswagen and General Motors admitted that development was hindered by nitrogen oxide emissions.

(JAMES

L.

MATEJA)

[732.B.2]

BUILDING AND

CONSTRUCTION At midyear 1975 the

total expenditures for

new

construction in the United States were an annual rate of $122 billion; expectations were that total outlays for the year would be close to the midyear rate. This at

I

The American Motors Pacer was well received by U.S. buyers who appreciated the freshness of

its styling.

meant would

appear, there were few changes introduced in 1975. The most draimatic new entry was the Chevette. At Ford there were no new models in 1975. Instead, the company decided to put catalytic converters on its Pinto, Bobcat, and Mustang models to increase fuel economy. A year earlier Ford's fuel economy ratings were the worst in the industry, mainly because the company had decided to combat emissions without the converter. In the spring it adopted the converter and obtained 30 mpg readings from its small cars. Ford's competitor for the Chevette, announced late in 1975, was to be an import from West

Toyota showed two hatchback versions of the Corolla. At Subaru the featured attraction was the four-wheel-drive Leone 1600 sedan with a sun roof, but no production date was set for it. In Great Britain Jensen showed off a new coupe based on the Jensen Interceptor. It was powered by a 7.2-1. Chrysler V-8 engine. Ford unveiled its new subcompact Escort in West Germany. Volkswagen let it be known that its Polo, which is smaller than

Germany. Chrysler brought out the Plymouth Volare and Dodge Aspen compacts, which originally were supposed to replace the Dodge Dart and Plymouth Valiant but instead were ad-

cause its U.S. price to equal or exceed that of the Rabbit. Auto production in many countries was affected adversely by the recession. In West

models

ditions to the corporation's small car line.

With small cars becoming more popular, the automakers wanted more rather than fewer small car offerings.

While U.S. manufacturers did not make much news with new offerings during 1975, automakers in other countries did. In France Renault started exporting the Renault 5 to the U.S., a mini in the 40 mpg category ithat already had been on sale in the home .market. Renault also announced that it was taking aim at the U.S. market in earnest. |In 1955 Renault had been the import sales leader in the U.S., but then lost out to Volksvvagen. The French firm planned to expand its dealer network in the U.S., set up parts warehouses, and aim for sales of 100,000 units within five years, versus 5,000 units ;.n 1975.

Mazda,

the Japanese firm that used the rotary engine, introduced the Cosmo sport ,:oupe in 1975. It was a dual rotor model rated at 18 mpg in the city and 29 mpg on the highway. The car listed for $5,900, highest priced offering ever from Mazda. Mazda dso made news with the Mizer, a piston engine car that achieved 42 mpg in the

Environmental Protection Agency's highway tests. Mazda, especially hard hit by the Arab oil embargo and one of the first cars labeled 1 gas guzzler for its 10 mpg rating on earlier ^•nodels, worked diligently on economy in 1975 and began giving new emphasis to its Diston engine models as well as the rotaries. Datsun announced that the car known as ,he Cherry in Japan would soon be marketed n the U.S. as the F-10. It would be a front>heel-drive model using a four-cylinder

At the Tokyo Auto Show, Nissan inveiled an experimental two-seater model nth the engine mounted crossways amidjihips. The sporty model was 152 in. long on engine.

ii

I

92-in. wheelbase and tipped the scales at meagre 1,630 lb.

the Golf

(called

the

Rabbit

would probably never make

it

the U.S.), into the U.S.

in

since the addition of U.S. emission and safety equipment would rob it of fuel economy and

Germany, for example, there were several layoffs that cut production dramatically. As a result, in October Volkswagen lost its title as the leading import in the U.S. to the Japanese Toyota. Volkswagen was also hurt

by

the

time-consuming shutdown

of the

as-

sembly lines for conversion to new Dasher, Scirocco, and Rabbit models. As a result. West Germany, which had been the world's leading exporter of vehicles, looked as though it might fall to third place behind Japan and France in 1975. In the U.K. serious labour problems and capital shortages plagued the auto industry. Car prices rose about 60% over the year. Vauxhall joined Leyland and British Chrysler in losing money, and the former was taken over by the government in April. Chrysler's British subsidiary, after unsuccessfully seeking a £35 million loan and at the same time offering worker profit-sharing and participation, threatened a complete shutdown of its plants. Faced with the politically disastrous prospect of a loss of more than 25,000 jobs, the British government in December announced a £162 million deal to bail Chrysler out. Inflation affected the market so much that many motorists not only looked for cheaper transportation but also questioned ownership of a car at all. As for new cars in Britain, Chrysler intro-

duced the Simca 1307/1308 and called it the Alpine. Vauxhall brought out the Cava version of the Opel Manta made in Belgium from West German components. Enthusiasm for the rotary engine con-

alier,

tinued to decline except, of course, at Mazda,

Meanwhile, the diesel engine enjoyed new popularity. Mercedes-Benz said that 40% of its total sales in 1975 were diesel cars, up from 15% in 1973. Noting the popularity of the high-economy diesel engine and the low cost of diesel fuel, Volkswagen began working on a four-cylinder diesel engine for

that the dollar outlays would be above the construction expenditures in 1971 and approximately equal to 1972 but below those in 1973 and 1974, when they had ex-

ceeded $135 billion annually. The downturn in construction activity that had started in 1974 continued into 1975. As in 1974, however, public construction continued at a high level. These expenditures, at the seasonally adjusted annual rate, were $38.7 billion during the lirst seven months of 1975, compared with $38.4 billion for the year 1974. Expenditures for private construction in 1975 were at a much lower level than in 1974, and it did not appear that recovery in the industry would get under way during the last half of 1975. On the basis of the seasonally adjusted annual rate, private construction expenditures were $85.7 bilhon in the first seven months of 1975, compared with $97.1 billion in 1974. Thus it appeared that private construction expenditures would be the lowest since 1971. The doldrums in residential construction

which started in 1973, continued into 1975. In constant (1967) dollars the value of new housing units had been in the U.S.,

$32.9 bilUon in 1973, $23.2 billion in 1974, and $16.2 billion (seasonally adjusted annual rate) during the first seven months of 1975. In the third quarter of 1975 housing starts

had slowed and were

at

an annual

adjusted rate of 1,260,000 units. In 1975 builders continued to be confronted with uncertain costs due to the inflationary movements in prices. The composite cost index of the U.S. Department of Commerce reached 189.2 (1967 100) in May 1975, The price index for new single-family houses continued to move up also and in the first quarter of 1975 was 170.1 (1967 100), compared with 152 in the first quarter of 1974. The indexes reflected increases in

=

=

the prices of both materials, especially steel products, and labour. In Canada demand for housing remained weak in 1975. During the first quarter of the year investment in dwellings fell by 10%. With a slight easing in financial conditions, however, there were expectations of some recovery. Substantial change was not expected because the government was following a somewhat neutral budget policy for fear of stimulating inflation. In Western Europe the conditions of inflation and depression had a continuing adverse effect on building and construction. In Great Britain at midyear there were some signs of recovery in the housing sector. During the first half of 1975 housing starts had been up to 50% higher than in 1974 in both the public and private sectors. The outlook in the nonhousing sector was bleak, however, and it was anticipated that unemployment in the industry would increase. In West Germany in 1975 the situation in

418

Industrial

Review

was described as deslittle to indicate improvethe year because of the anticipated slow recovery of the overall economy. The severe recession in Italy continued, with a reduction in the volume of fixed gross investments below the 1974 level. It was expected that the depressed conditions would the building industry perate.

There was

ment within

continue into 1976. In Switzerland the situa-

was similar. The volume of building, which had been falUng since 1973, was tion

expected to experience even greater declines, with a drop in 1975 of 51% in dwelling construction. In Belgium the economic conditions were a bit more encouraging, but a decline in residential building in 1975 appeared certain. In The Netherlands the situation was much the same. There was little recovery in business confidence during the year in Australia. Overall production and building starts were declining. Similar conditions prevailed in New Zealand. In Japan the government's strong antiinflation measures and the general economic conditions gave the country its first decline in output since its involvement in World War II. At midyear the government took action to increase public financing for private housing. (carter c. osterbind) [733.A]

CHEMICALS Chemical industries in the industrialized countries of the world established new highs and sales during 1974. But a

in production

Thls 240-ton chemical reactor of Soviet-East

sluggishness that made its first appearance early in the fourth quarter of the year turned out to be an indicator of a relatively sharp drop in chemical activity that continued well into 1975. By the second quarter of 1975, however, the U.S. chemical industry showed signs of reviving, and by the end of the third quarter it appeared to be back on its growth track. Chemical industries in other countries, which in the past had followed the lead of the U.S., were also expected to recover. In the U.S., the Federal Reserve Board's index of chemical production climbed from 150.2 (1967 100) in 1973 to 154.3 in 1974. It reached its high point in September 1974, when it hit 158.3 (seasonally adjusted), and then dropped each month to 132.8 in April 1975. But in May it began to move up and

=

by July reached 138.5. Chemical prices, which had been depressed for an extended period because of overcapacity, soared in 1974 due to a combination of general inflation and a shortage during most of the year of a wide variety of chemical products. The U.S. Department of Labor's index of wholesale prices for chemicals and allied products rose 33.5%, from 100) in 1973 to 146.8 in 1974. (1967 Despite depressed demand for chemicals, the price index continued to inch up each month during the first four months of 1975, reaching a high point of 182.4 in April. In it started to decline somewhat and by July was down to 181.4. The modest production increase and significant boost in prices resulted in a chemical sales increase of 21.4% in 1974. The U.S. Department of Commerce reported that

no

=

May

shipments of chemicals and

allied products rose from $67,034,000,000 in 1973 to $81,377,000,000 in 1974. The increase was regis-

German design was

built at the

Germania Chemical

tered in spite of fourth-quarter shipments that were 5% lower than those of the third quarter. But shipments in the first half of 1975, at $41,861,00,000, were 4.4% higher than in the same period of 1974. Chemicals again made an important contribution to U.S. trade. In 1974 net chemical exports were worth $4,801,500,000. This was 46.1% higher than the 1973 net export figure of $3,286,400,000. For the first half of 1975 the favourable chemical trade bal-

ance amounted to $2,465,300,000, which was 4.1% lower than the $2,569,900,000 recorded for the first half of 1974.

West Germany's chemical industry posted sales of $33.1 billion in

1974, according to

German Chemical Industry Association (GCIA). Though that represented a 29.1%

the

increase over 1973's sales figures, inflation was responsible for most of the growth. Physical volume increased approximately 3%, making 1974 the slowest growth year from that standpoint since 1952. The GCIA reported that chemical sales in the first quarter of 1975 were off 9.4% in value and 15.2% volume. For the first six months, it reported, sales were $14.8 biUion, 12.6% lower in value than they had been in the first half of 1974; exports were $5.8 billion, off 23%;

in

and

profits

were down 60%.

Japanese chemical companies rang up record sales in 1974, increasing sales figures 22.5% to an estimated $29.1 billion. Higher prices accounted for almost all of the rise,

however;

real

growth was

close to zero.

As

1974 ended, the Japanese chemical industry

was facing 1975 with considerable optimism. It was looking for a 10% increase in sales, at least a portion of which would be generated by real growth. In Japan as elsewhere, however, the slump in demand for chemicals was causing companies to reexam-

plant, Karl-Marx-Stadt, East

Germany.

expansion projects. The hit, but

ine their

dustry was especially hard

:

fibre infertilizer

makers seemed to be weathering the recession in good shape. One reason was a continued strong demand for fertilizer in Asia, with China alone expected to import one billion tons of urea from Japan in 1975. The economic storms that buffeted the U.K. had a sharp impact on chemical activity during the last two months of 1974. Nevertheless, chemical companies managed to

show

a

43%

increase in sales for the full

year to $18.4 billion, and exports increased 68% to $4.9 bilUon. The bright spot for chemical makers in the U.K. was the petroleum supply from the North Sea. During the first half of 1975, approximately 35,000 bbl. of oil per day started flowing in from Ithe Argyll field, 200 mi. E of Edinburgh. By late 1975 the chemical industries of 1

the world seemed to have left their major economic ills behind them. They did, however, face a number of other problems. The industry as a whole had enormous requirements for energy, in the form of electricity and steam to run the factories, and hydrocarbon raw materials for petrochemical production. Companies were working on methods to conserve energy and to utilize different raw materials. Oil-rich nations were making ambitious plans to manufacture petrochemicals. Because these countries lacked managerial and technical skills, do-

mestic markets, and the infrastructure required support complex to industrial processing, however, they seemed likely to require considerable time before those plans could be brought to fruition. Problems on the toxicity of certain chemicals or their effect on the environment conitinued worrisome. The link between inhalaition of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and angiosarcoma, a rare liver cancer, led to Istringent

new procedures

in factories

making

VCM and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), its most important product. In addition, there was concern that direct ingestion of could cause cancer. The Cancer Research

VCM

was studying the problem. The U.S. Food and Drug AdminInstitute (Bologna, Italy)

VCM

worried about the danger of migrating into food, proposed a ban on rigid and semirigid PVC packaging that would come into contact with food. Industry agreed with the goals of the proposal but contended that it was developing new PVC products that contained so Uttle that there could be no "reasonable expectation" of migration. istration,

VCM

VCM

(donaxd

p.

burke)

[732. D.l]

CLOTHING I

Buying practices of the apparel industry took an important new direction during 1975 as trade show attendance began to rival

individual showrooms as a way of the fabric market. The second the American Fashion Textiles Exposition, Texpo '75 for short, staged in iNew York City, gave apparel manufacturers jfrom the U.S. and other countries an opportunity to view and select from the widest range of U.S. fashion fabrics ever assembled at one time under one roof. The U.S. Department of Commerce, on the basis of a detailed survey of exhibitors, 'credited Texpo '75 with the sale of nearly $10.7 million in U.S. fabrics to foreign apparel firms alone. And foreign buyers accounted for only about 14% of total attendance, approximating at the 12,000, three-day event. The year 1975 would also be remembered as that in which clothing manufacturers began shifting into high gear in producing and promoting flame-resistant (FR) garments, visits to

'shopping edition

of

A

water-cooled gas turbine under development by General Electric Co. generates twice the power of those currently in use. It operates at a temperature of 2,800° F.

particularly for children. A U.S. federal regulation covering infants' and other small-size sleepwear, in effect since 1973, was joined by a slightly less stringent standard applicable to children's sleepwear sizes 7 to 14. Several major manufacturers announced plans to produce a variety of FR children's clothing, including boys' shirts and pants and girls' dresses, even though the government had yet to issue standards for such items. Also, several leading mail-order houses said that an assortment of FR apparel for adults would be included in their fall catalogs, again prior to any federal standards. On the economic front, the U.S. apparel industry was hard hit by the unfavourable business climate that existed during the first six months of 1975. And because the U.S. is a major importer of apparel, the nation's

duction of industrial equipment, plus rising sales in the less developed countries, helped maintain the industry's performance. Profits, however, were down, because of severe inflation and unpredictable changes in monetary exchange and interest rates. Typical of the performances of many large companies was the Swedish AUmanna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget (ASEA), which showed a 30% increase in turnover but a rise in profits of only 18%. The electrical industry could withstand temporary changes in the economic climate because of the long construction times of the

recession was also felt by most European and Far Eastern countries that supply the American market. In most apparel categories, output during the first half of 1975 in the U.S. was down an estimated 10 to 12% from year-earher

shift the

capital projects in which it was involved. Cancellations of many new power station projects in 1974, with little prospect of

short-term reinstatement, would not begin to affect the industry until 1976. Management poUcies in most companies began to bility.

emphasis from growth to profitaReductions in manufacturing capacity

employment

and manpower were consolidated in 1975 as managements became determined never again to expand their plant capacities in order to meet peak sales demands. This would mean some loss of business in peak

slumped about 15%. The situation was aggravated by unusually conservative neworder policies on the part of apparel retailers. But as tax rebates found their way into the spending stream and other economic indicators turned upward, the U.S. apparel industry began experiencing a sharp recovery early jn the second half of 1975. Retailers, with only a limited supply of goods on

years, but industry leaders believed that it was better to have a small overhead structure that would maintain profits in lean years and to subcontract excess work in good years. In the U.S., Westinghouse Electric Corp. decided to give high priority to shortening the cycle from raw material to finished product. This required a major effort to

hand, sought frantically to replenish their depleted inventories, and many manufacturers in both the U.S. and other nations found it difficult to meet the sudden upsurge in demand. (See Fashion and Dress.) (JOHN DAVID DRUCKENBROd)

standardize production components and, thereby, reduce the product range. The luxury of tailor-made production equipment could no longer be afforded and, although some orders would be lost as a result, Westinghouse was confident that others would be gained by selling the advantages of interchangeabiUty. With near-zero, and in some cases negative, growth in the consumption of electricity in the industrialized countries, the EEC issued a Working Paper in September 1975 which advised coordination of investment in facilities to generate electricity and in manufacturing capacity. In the U.K., the

levels,

while

total

industry

[732. B.3]

ELECTRICAL The economic

recession

had

less

effect

on

the electrical industry in 1975 than had been expected. Activity in building plants to generate electricity remained high, largely on orders received two or three years earher. less marked but similar time lag in the pro-

A

, 1

420

Industrial

Board Generating Electricity the closing of 47 power and received approval for a very

Central

(CEGB) announced stations

small

new

construction program. In the Atomic Co. (GA) negotiated

U.S., General a revision of

its one remaining commercial order for a high-temperature-reactor nuclear power station and sought financial aid from the government. With other companies, GA faced difficulties posed by environmental regulations in the U.S., order cancellations, and delays to existing contracts. In August 1975 the Swiss Brown Boveri Group publicly sought links with British consulting engineers. Following the oil crisis, consulting engineers had become much more active in Middle East markets and were it difficult to recruit sufficient staff. At the same time, "oil" money was finding its way back April, Babcock & WilIn into the industry. cox Ltd. sold its 25% share in Deutsche government the to Babcock & Wilcox of Iran for about DM. 178.5 million. caused by the changes The economic energy crisis led to a move to audit resources

even finding

experienced installation

AG

in terms of "potential energy."

Much

energy,

recklessly

at

modular wooden wall

the increase in sales of constructed to

as bookcases, for general storage. Another growing trend was the increased popularity of K-D (knockdown) furniture,

serve

units,

desks, hi-fi cabinets,

and

set up in the home. casual furniture, once used exclusively outdoors, had become popular for interior furnishing. The U.S. industry was increasingly occupied with government regulations. The Consumer Product Safety Commission prepared a draft standard for cigarette burn-proof upholstered furniture. A study by the Battelle Memorial Institute estimated that the cost of implementing the draft standard might raise the price of upholstered furni-

shipped unassembled and

Summer and

ture as

much

as

30%. A.

SPELMAN)

[732.B.4]

FURS

utilization

(t. c. j.

cogle)

[732.C.6; 10/37.B.5.d]

shortage, coupled with the business recession, had a marked effect on the world's furniture industry in 1975. Manmade materials, most of them derived from petrochemicals, increased sharply in price while their availability diminished. This caused severe problems, particularly in Europe where plastic materials are widely

The energy

used in furniture. In the U.S. the precipitous drop in the rate of housing starts depressed furniture sales. The decline in residential building cut

back the demand for hardwoods for flooring and paneUng, and this caused manufacturers of bedroom and dining room furniture to switch from solid plastic components to natural hardwoods. Mediterranean, which required heavy use of plastic moldings in suites,

faded in popularity

bedroom and The leading wood furni1975 was the "Country Look,"

after five years as a leading

dining

room

ture style in

advantage of the retail demand. Too many poor seasons in the 1960s had discouraged the entry of new labour, and itinerant workers from such countries as Greece were attracted by greater wage potentials in West Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. Figures for 1975 were incomplete at the end of the year, but estimates were that retail fur sales in the U.S. exceeded $500 million, 15 to 20% above 1974 and the largest volume in more than 30 years. Significantly, this not only represented an increase in unit sales but it did not include the inexpensive, so-called fun furs from foreign sources, which accounted for at least $50 million

more

at retail.

Prices were higher in the primary skin markets, reflecting increased costs of feed, labour, and overhead on ranches as well as for trappers and collectors. Since the de-

mand was

there, however, there was little Generally, prices for pelts rose internationally. Long-haired furs like fox and lynx were especially strong, and mink, sable, karakul, and fur seal also did well. Demand for seal had been declining, largely because of the efforts of wildhfe protectionist groups, but the downtrend appeared to have been reversed in 1975.

The

international fur industry prospered in 1975, despite adverse economic pressures. Fashion was probably the most significant

10 to

20%

3%

Not only did leading designers endorse furs or include them in their collections but the increased importance of dresses and the return to an as opposed to pants elegant classic look added impetus to the demand. Another positive factor was eco-

in Mink production increased about the 1974 crop year (sold in 1975), to about 18.3 million pelts. This total was exclusive of the U.S.S.R., which did not supply production figures. (See Fashion and Dress.)

nomic. The traditional customer for furs

[724.C.8.e;

Vertically banded furs were an important design element of the 1975 fashions.

The gemstone and jewelry industry had an excellent year in 1975. Diamonds again were

factor.

—

—

(sandy parker) 732.C.4]

GEMSTONES dominant, with imports to the United States

FURNITURE

moderately priced

less affected by the recession than the general population. The U.S. fur industry experienced an unprecedented fourth consecutive successful year. The outlook was even better than in the previous three because, to some extent, the manufacturing segment was better prepared. However, a shortage of skilled labour prevented manufacturers from taking full

was

resistance.

(ROBERT

poten-

was argued, was released it temperatures well above the requirements, and the development of heat pumps to recover such waste heat simply, easily, and cheaply should be encouraged. The heat pump is a reversed refrigerator, with the cold coil placed in an exhaust air or water stream and the hot coil placed in the inlet duct of a warm air heating system. No excess heating would be necessary, and the output of a heat pump, in terms of useful heat, was found to be equivalent to two or three times that produced by an electric resistance heater consuming the same quantity of electricity. tial

the healthiest segment, equaled the 1974 sales record. At the low point of the year manufacturers' shipments of household furniture were off as much as 20% compared with 1974, but business improved in the second half and shipments rose to within 10% of the previous year's level. The European furniture industry also suffered a severe economic recession, and Great Britain, Canada, Italy, Romania, and the Scandinavian countries stepped up their efforts to export furniture, particularly to the U.S. market. The fastest growing trend in the U.S. was

ture,

Review

style.

featured natural wood tones and simple lines. Man-made upholstery materials continued to be used in ever increasing vol-

which

ume, however. Retail furniture sales in the U.S. totaled under $11 bilhon in 1975, virtually unchanged from 1974. Retailer inventories of furniture were at a record high at the beginning of the year, and there was a sharp reduction in orders placed with furniture

slightly

manufacturers. As a

result,

manufacturers'

bedroom and dining room furniture 13% and upholstered furniture fell 10%. Summer and casual furni-

estimated at three to four times the value of all other gemstones. The estimated 1.5 million engagement rings sold during the

year in the U.S., the increased use of to

remove impurities from the

lasers

stones, the

cut, introduction of new uneasiness about inflation, and aggressive sales practices all helped. It was reported that the third largest diamond ever found, the 968.9-carat Star of Sierra Leone, discovered Feb. 14, 1972, was cut into 11 fine stones, the largest weighing 143.2 carats. A large 223.6-carat yellow dia-

cuts such as the star

mond Mine

octahedron, found at the Kimberley South Africa in October 1973, was

in

also cut. It yielded,

among

others, the largest

cut round brilUant known, at 86 carats. The 601-carat diamond found in 1967 in Lesotho and later cut stimulated prospecting in that area. Another famous gem, the notorious Hope Diamond, was the subject of a television program in March that explored the history of the legend-encrusted gem. Later in the year the Hope

modern

Diamond was removed from its setting and reweighed. The gem was found to weigh 45.5 carats instead of 44.5 carats, as had been previously believed. The year brought the first general distrigarnet gallium gadolinium bution of

(GGG),

a

new

synthetic substitute for dia-

mond. Its specific gravity is about twice that of diamond so that a two-carat GGG is the size of a

sales of

were down

in

sales

of

one-carat diamond.

The most important trend for the year gemstones was the explosive expansion public

interest

in

coloured and orna-

,

421

Industrial

Review

lating to the capacities of containers for liquids was approved for intra-EEC trade.

Several major glass-container manufacturers West Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, and The Netherlands were ordered to nullify agreements on prices, discounts, and trading conditions. The trend toward use of the metric system continued. The U.K. glass industry was almost completely in line with its EEC colleagues, and in the U.S. customers of the container industry were advised of the advantages of the change. Finally, concertgoers who knew the frustration of having a portion of the orchestra, or even the conductor, cut off from view by the open top of a grand piano were delighted to learn that the U.S. company LibbyOwens-Ford had developed a clear glass Ud that, it was claimed, did not affect the tone. (CYRH, weeden) in

[724.C.5.a;

733.A.4.a.vii]

INSURANCE The Hope Diamond, object of study by authorities at the Smithsonian Institution during the year,

was removed from its setting and reweighed. Its correct weight

mental stones. This happened in spite of rising prices caused by inflation, shortage of supply, and disruption of customary sources due to poUtical unrest and economic uneasiness, Thailand, for example, normally isupplies more than half the new rubies and sapphires, but unrest and inflation there

pushed prices up dramatically at the source. compensate for decreased supplies, new sources were being developed. These inxluded a major discovery of quality green jadeite-type jade from the Soviet Union, small quantities of natural pearls from China, fine new rubies from Afghanistan, increased supplies of bright blue topaz from Brazil, a large supply of excellent tourmaline from Maine, and a source of fine purphsh amethyst in Colombia. New kinds of gems also appeared during rTo

The best of these was a vanadiumbearing grossular garnet (Tsavorite) from near the Tsavo National Park in Kenya. the year.

Having several of the best gem characteristics of emerald, it gained instant popularity. Tanzanite, a sapphire-like variety of zoisite

from Tanzania, continued in high demand. A quantity of intense lavender and purple jade reached the market. Much of it was probably colour-treated but, if so, this was undetectable. "Gold coral," really an alga from Hawaii an alexandrite-like garnet from Japan; a transparent blue sodalite from Burma; irradiated but permanently blue topaz from Brazil; and a jumble of commoner gemstones such as aventurine, ;

rhodonite, rose quartz, rutilated quartz, lapis lazuli, malachite, coral, onyx, tigereye, chrysoprase, and jasper all helped stimulate the boom in coloured-gem materials. The pearl industry, plagued by water pollution and declining sales, had applied strict quaUty

were visible in 1975 fewer but better quality pearls reachthe market.

rontrols in 1971. Results .with i.ng '

(PAUL ERNEST DESAUTELS)

';724.C.4]

is

45.5 carats.

and cutting back in investment. The flatglass sector was the first to feel the pinch as demand for buildings and automobiles declined. The container industry was next and, later, as the purchasing power of the consumer began to fall, domestic products such as television tubes and table glass were affected.

In common with other industries in which is an important factor in the manufacturing process, the glass industry had been facing massive increases in production

energy

costs.

Natural gas, although an acceptable

oil, was not always obtainand when contracts came up for renewal, users were subject to substantially higher charges. Electricity, except where hydroelectric power was available, was too

alternative to able,

expensive an alternative. Technical development continued despite the recession. In the U.K. Pilkington Brothers Ltd. developed an alkali-resistant glass fibre as a reinforcement for portland cement. Considerable interest was shown in the new process, both for existing uses of concrete and as a substitute for such materials as timber, cast iron, and sheet steel. In its annual report, Pilkington stated that its floatglass process was continuing to make significant progress toward universal acceptance as the preferred method of manufacturing flat glass. Fifty-five float-glass plants were currently in operation and nine more were

under construction. The French company Saint-Gobain-Ponta-Mousson, with a view to strengthening its position in the Japanese markets, planned to build a factory for the manufacture of glass fibre for insulation purposes together with the Nippon Cement Co. Looking to the west, Saint-Gobain formed a U.K. marketing company, Vetrotex, to promote and distribute a full line of glass-fibre reinforcements and yarns. The leading sheet-glass company, Asahi of Japan, concentrated on expansion in Europe and the Middle East.

Economic recession caused problems in 1975.

Glaverbel-Mecaniver SA of Belgium, part of French industrial group Boussoisthe Souchon-Neuvesel, agreed to sell its Cana-

demand for glass Jroducts were reported, with concomitant ;losing down of plant, laying off of workers,

dian glass-distribution operations to Pilkington Brothers Canada. Within the EEC, directive legislation re-

SLASS Drastic reductions in the

Private insurance sales in 1975, measured by annual world premium volume, exceeded $200 billion for the first time. These expenditures included almost 7% of gross national product in the U.S.; between 4-6% in such nations as the U.K., Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Switzerland, West Germany, and Japan; and generally under 2% in the

developed countries. Life Insurance. A landmark of $2 trillife insurance in force was reached by midyear 1975 in the U.S. Amounts purchased for the first sLx months increased more than 7%, to $133 billion, from the previous year. Assets grew by $20 billion, to $278 billion. Recession and inflationary pressures, however, increased policy loans to $24 billion, or 8.5% of assets. Major sales efforts were directed toward the pension area, as thousands of private pension plans were undergoing review and less

lion of

revision to

meet new actuarial and fiduciary

requirements of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act. This pension reform act, which required an employee's benefits to be fully vested within 15 years, also created new and increased opportunities for insurance and annuity sales to self-employed persons and to workers without other pension plans, in individual retirement aclife

counts (IRAs). In the U.K. annual income for ers

life

insur-

risen 16% by early 1975. Declines and bond values, however, lowered assets by approximately 3%, to £19,600

had

in stock

total

million.

Property and

Liability

Insurance.

Serious underwriting losses in the property and liability field caused rising concern in the U.S. During the first six months of 1975 losses (premiums earned, less claims paid

and

reserves)

were

in excess of $2 billion;

this exceeded the losses for the whole previous year, which had been the worst in history. Gains on investments were expected to remain high, but not high enough to offset underwriting losses.

In spite of rate increases by most major insurers of 5-15% in both automobile and homeowners' insurance, steeper rises appeared likely. Although traffic deaths in the U.S. had been reduced by the 55 mph speed limit, this gain was small compared with the generally escalating costs of medical treatment and car repairs. Automobile no-fault insurance legislation appeared deadlocked at the federal level, and only one state. North Dakota, had added a new no-fault plan by late 1975.

422

Review

Industrial

Disasters

in

1975

were highlighted by

Hurricane Eloise in the U.S., which caused $100 million of insured damages including one-half of that written in the new national flood insurance program. In Australia a Dec. 25, 1974, hurricane caused $400 million in

damages in Darwin. Medical malpractice insurance problems were the most severe of the generally rising liability

claims in

all

areas.

Some

insurers

withdrew from the medical

liability market. attempted to solve the problem by such means as special "joint underwrit-

Many

states

ing associations" of insurers, pre-trial panels, restricted fees for lawyers, and medical peer

review of malpractice claims. Guaranty funds for insurance companies were feeling the strain in 1975, as U.S. funds in various states coped with 26 insurer failures in the first nine months. In the U.K. a guaranty fund was estabhshed to protect both life and nonlife policyholders against insurance

company

insolvencies.

(DAVID

L.

BICKELHAUPt)

[534.J]

IRON AND STEEL Even in the context of an industry accustomed over decades to extreme fluctuations of fortune, 1975 could be characterized as a catastrophic year for steel. No other post-

World War II year approached it in severity. Over the preceding 20 years world steel output had fallen only in 1958 and in 1971 and those experiences in no way could be compared with the likely drop in 1975 to some 660 million metric tons, a decline of

7%

from 1974.

By

1974 it was already clear that the 1973-74 steel boom was over. During the last weeks of 1974 through 1975 demand fell with such severity that any tension remaining in the market gave place to slackness and then to burgeoning surplus. Prices on the world market collapsed; the markets of the major producing nations came under severe pressure from imports; and company late

finances suffered, in degree.

some

Table

cases to

VII.

an acute

Junked automobiles are converted

70%

of all recycled metal

000 melric Ions

to scrap metal.

The

low points

steel industry

consumes

the U.S.

The misfortunes of the steel industry were one inevitable aspect of the worldwide depression. Real steel consumption fell during 1975 by amounts ranging up to 15% in the worst affected areas. Heavy de-stocking by consumers and merchants, characterizing the of the regular steel cycle, resulted

up to 25% in apparent steel consumption. The exceptionally sharp dein declines of

in demand resulted in reductions in crude steel output that, in certain countries, approached 30% as compared with the production registered in 1974, and virtually no

cline

World Production of Crude Steel In

in

Table

established Western producer of steel escaped the debacle unscathed. Underutilization of production capacity on such a scale had serious financial implications for the heavily capital-intensive iron and steel industry. For steel the problem was greatly exacerbated by sharp falls in prices, provoked by intense competition on an international basis. The price realized by certain finished products on the interna-

market was down by 40% from the peak 1974 levels, and in some cases major tional

price

VIII.

declines

spread extensively into the

World Production of Pig Iron and Blast Furnace Ferroalloys In

000 melric Ions

markets of the major producers themselves. Against

the cost of

this,

raw

remained firm or generally continued to

cept scrap, levels costs.

materials, ex-

rose,

and wage

rise with living This cost/price squeeze rendered the

some major companies

financial position of critical.

The the

was general throughout Western world, but its timing and extent steel recession

varied. In the U.S., crude steel production seemed unlikely to exceed 105 milUon tons in 1975, against 130 million in 1974. Producers pursued their traditional policy of resistance to price cutting in recession, but imports took a larger share of the reduced demand. The consumer goods sector had led the decUne in the U.S. economy in 1974, and

a steep as

fall

occurred in the

half of 1975 to the construc-

first

demand weakness spread

and investment sectors. By midyear, however, there were clear signs of recovery the in U.S. economy, spurred by some revival in consumer spending. Observers hoped ithat this might be reflected in an improvement in the steel industry's fortunes in 1976, probably ahead of the experience of most other producing regions. Although the steel companies' ability to invest was affected by reduced earnings in 1975, it proved possible :

tion

to continue

with expansion plans. Invest-

ment expenditure was likely of up to 50% in 1975.

The

effects

of

to

show

the energy crisis

government counterinflation

gains

and of

policies

made

1974 a difficult year for the Japanese steel industry, and in 1975 there was another much larger fall in crude steel output, from 117 million tons to about 103 million tons.

consumption in Japan was expected to be down by about 11%, and the industry's exports fell. But investment schemes

Also, because consumer demand remained low in the automobile and appliance markets, these large users of machine tools were

not making any sizable orders for new equipment. By the fourth quarter of 1975 shipments had exceeded orders in every month since August 1974. This reduction in backlogs caused some companies to cut production and lay off workers. Two significant problems faced the U.S.

machine

industry. The falling off of sales resulted in a decline in research and development funding. Observers feared that unless this trend was reversed, the industry would lack new technologies needed to maintain the U.S. position in the world marketplace. Another serious problem was the maintenance of a skilled work force given the uncertain pattern of employment in the industry. The average age of the skilled worker was rising, and because of the fluctuation of the employment pattern fewer young people were attracted to the industry. West German machine tool builders were experiencing similar problems in sales of their equipment, with the world recession accelerating the export trade decUne. They were also faced with an uncertain domestic tool

market.

West Germany was host to a tool exhibit by China June 13-25 in Cologne. The show indicated that China's 30-year-old machine tool industry had made significant gains. Of the 16 machines on display, 6 of the units featured numerical control. Most of the

machines were

A

lathes.

large international

was staged

machine tool show Park at Porte de

at Exhibition

423

Industrial

on the southern edge of Paris, June 17-26. Approximately 4,000 machine tools were on display, representing 26 coun-

Versailles,

tries. Technological advances in cutting tool developments were the most impressive features of the machines on display. Ceramic cutters were used by many of the exhibitors. The show was viewed by 76,000 French and

37,000 foreign visitors, but international economic conditions limited buying. During 1975 demand softened for farm

machinery, even though the dollar sales remained very high. Increases in their costs indicated that companies needed to have about 30% more in revenue to show true dollar gains. Inventories were building up in some lines, but the demand for large tractors and combines remained strong. Companies manufacturing machinery for the oil and gas industry had a very good year in 1975. Drilling activity continued to rise throughout the world in 1975, and the prospects for 1976 indicated that there would be an increase of 5.2% in the number of drilling rigs. Manufacturers of machinery for mining of coal also were not affected by the recession. The recession was not good for the construction machinery industry, however. The cutback in most phases of the construction industry caused demand for this type of equipment to be weak. (ORLAND B. KILLIn) [722. B-C;

732.C.7]

Steel

launched before the full effect of the receshad been felt were continued, and the industry's spending was likely to rise by .some 40% in 1975. ision

The

steel industries of the

EEC

suffered

from the recession in terms of outand profitability. The timing and extent of the impact varied somewhat as between the member countries, but steel consumption in the Community as a whole was likely to be down by 17% in 1975 and production by about 18%. Most severely affected were the export-oriented industries of Belgium and Luxembourg. severely put,

realized prices,

In contrast with the situation in the West, the steel industries of the Eastern European countries continued to develop broadly in

accordance with current national plans during 1975. The iron and steel industry of the U.S.S.R. appeared certain to produce more than 140 million tons during the year, and further expansion was projected in the context of the 1976-80 five-year plan. Iron and steel production in the less developed countries was growing, especially in Brazil, Mexico, and India. Many less developed countries, as well as the smaller traditional producers, had ambitious expansion plans.

(TREVOR

J.

MACDONALD)

[724.C.3.g; 732.C.2]

MACHINERY AND MACHINE TOOLS

'

Prospects at the end of 1974 had given machine tool builders hope that 1975 would be a good year, but the upward trend did not develop. Orders for cutting and forming tools in the U.S. in the first three months were less than one-third of those in the comparable period of 1974. Part of the sluggish market was due to waiting on the part of buyers for the increase in the investment tax credit from 7 to 10%, which was signed into law on March 29 by U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford.

Review

This comparator scope permits detailed analysis of special threads. The latter deflect to prevent loosening in "True-flex," a new bolt design of Standard Pressed Steel in Pennsylvania.

424 Industrial

Review

NUCLEAR INDUSTRY The political position of nuclear power became of critical importance during 1975. Public opinion polls in the U.S. (Harris) and in France (Sofres) indicated that more than half the population were in favour of continuing the construction of nuclear power plants, while only 20 and 30%, respectively, were against it. The situation in some other countries was considerably different, however. In Switzerland, for example, after a sit-in had been held at a construction site, the government agreed to consider demands that the local population be allowed to vote on whether construction should proceed. In the U.S. the scientific community that supported nuclear power began to speak out in favour of it. Hans Bethe, the "father" of nuclear physics, organized a petition of

and a group called "Americans for Energy Independence" began to counter the antinuclear lobbying of some of the environmental groups. The operation of nuclear power stations in 197S confirmed the economic benefits of nuclear over fossil fuels, according to nu-

scientists,

clear proponents.

They claimed

that in the U.S. total costs, including capital charges, were 40 to 50% cheaper than for fossil fuel

plants.

Similar results were recorded for commercial nuclear plants throughout the

peals to the courts, quickly showed its independence of both the industry and the pub-

world. At the Browns Ferry plant of the Tennessee Valley Authority in the U.S., two operating stations had to be closed for several

Uc lobbying groups and solved a number of previously unresolved problems such as the establishment of safe radiation levels

a workman started a fire in the cable trays underneath the reactor control room. The fire destroyed several of the control and safety systems of the reactors,

months when

which had

to be shut

con-

nuclear power projects were slowed or canceled, and few new orders were placed. Outside the U.S., however, there was continuing expansion. Iran ordered two units from the French Framatome firm and two from the West German Kraftwerk Union.

eral

down

Luxembourg, South Korea, and Brazil

also

furthered their commitments. Spain ordered additional units from the Westinghouse Electric Corp. (U.S.), as well as plants from General Electric Co. (U.S.) and from Kraft-

werk Union. The regulatory role of the former U.S. Atomic Energy Commission was vested in Commission Regulatory the Nuclear (NRC), and the research activities in the Energy Research and Development Administration

(ERDA). The NRC,

ensure that

its

careful

to

rulings could withstand ap-

first steel net cooling tower Is being installed for a West German nuclear power station. It is suspended from a 180-metre concrete pylon.

The world's

down by manual

The

incident shook public confidence in the foolproofness of current nuclear safety systems. In the U.S., because growth in the demand for electricity continued sluggish, sevtrols.

and important emergency criteria. ERDA had more difficulty in establishing a cohesive poUcy on energy matters, supporting nuclear power as the only near-term solution to the nation's energy problems but refusing to consider the fast breeder reactor as anything but a long-term possibility. A Brazilian contract with West Germany included nuclear power reactors, two ordered and six planned, and facilities for en-

uranium and reprocessing spent fuel produced in reactors. The plutonium removed from the reactors could also be used in weapons, and the contract emphasized the of maintaining adequate safedifficulty guards against this possibility. France decided on a single builder for nuclear equipment, Framatome. Framatome had been estabUshed by the French CreusotLoire and U.S. Westinghouse firms to build Westinghouse-designed plants. The French government, through the Commissariat of Atomic Energy (CEA), took a 30% interest in Framatome at the expense of Westinghouse, and the CEA was reorganized. riching

Reprocessing plants, particularly in the were beset by technical problems. facilities for used fuel were expensive and not available in sufficient quantities. A two-year-long study by the NRC was designed to determine whether plutonium produced by reprocessing plants could safely be used as a reactor fuel. Work on the tripartite British-Dutch-

U.S.,

Storage

centrifuge project and the Eurodif plant being built under French leadership proceeded. South Africa developed a new and unspecified type of enrichment plant, and the government commissioned a pilot project. The U.S. government's attempts to involve private enterprise in building enrich-

West German

ment

facilities

politicians

were not

believed

successful.

Many

that such plants were

best built and operated by the government, and commercial interests were unwilling to commit resources without strong govern-

ment guarantees. Of the two advanced reactor systems under development, the fast breeder reactor and the high-temperature reactor (HTR), was in most trouble. In Europe the the Dragon project, run by the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organization for Eco-

HTR

nomic Cooperation and Development, was to be shut down. In the U.S. the General Atomic Co., which offered commercial

HTRs,

lost all previous orders except

one

and asked ERDA for financial assistance, which ERDA seemed unwilling to give. But ERDA had to step in and assume total management of the demonstration fast breeder reactor project. Other uses of nuclear energy continued to be developed. The West German chemical giant BASF wanted a reactor built to produce power and process steam (that used for heat and moisture but not for power) at their chemical plant, and sought govern-' aid. The French developed small reto generate process steam or for merchant ship propulsion. A second nuclear icebreaker was launched in the U.S.S.R.

ment

actors

The use of radioisotopes in the medical industry continued to grow at something over 20% a year. The radiopharmaceutical market for diagnosis and therapy grew as fast as new isotopes could be produced. Development continued on the technology of treating sewage and sludge by radiation. (RICHARD W. KOVAN) [721.B.9]

,

I

•

continued in a good

PAINTS AND VARNISHES Waste disposal and the soaring costs of raw materials and energy were major problems for paint manufacturers in the industrialized countries in 1975. In the EEC, several directives issued by the Commission caused further worry. A directive on dangerous substances, issued in 1967, had been only partially implemented in most countries and had already been amended five times. A new solvents directive, effective in 1976, would

some paint solvents, including white spirit. The most far-reaching directive, which was nearing approval, would affect the labeling of many paints, with the death's-head or St. Andrew's cross appearing on products classified as toxic or noxious. The reaction of users to these symbols was awaited with trepidation. The EEC's concern about pollution arising from control the labeling of

the manufacture of titanium dioxide, the paint industry's major white pigment,

seemed likely to result and higher prices.

in

stricter controls

The paint industry had had to work hard to hold its ground in 1974. The U.S. achieved a modest 3.9% growth in real terms and approached the 1,000,000,000 gal.a-year mark. The U.K. experienced a fall of some 3%, while the French industry suffered a 5.4% decline in volume. Optimists preferred to look at the value of sales, which showed large gains due to inflation. Total U.S. sales were worth 17.2% more than in 1973, while the corresponding U.K. figure was 24%. Sales to industrial users were depressed by the general slackening of manufacturing activity during the recession by some 3% in the U.S. and about 20% in the U.K. but demand for decorative and buildling paints generally held up well. In countries where the trend was to "do-it-your;iself," shorter working hours and increased unemployment often boosted paint sales. Trade continued to expand among member countries of the EEC, which produced about half the world's total paints. The U.K. recorded a 15% increase by volume in paint exports and a 7% growth in imports in 1974. The world's largest exporter was again West Germany, with the U.S. second and 'The Netherlands, which emphasized marine paints, third. The fourth largest producer, France, was also the largest importer, followed by West Germany, Belgium, and The Netherlands. The Japanese paint industry, third largest in the world, experienced growth of some '

—

—

I

I

'i

;

•

7% in 1974. The Japanese automotive industry used about 20% of the country's total paint production. Large companies specializing in paints continued to dominate the Japanese industry this contrasted with the situation in Europe and the U.S., where the largest manufacturers tended to be part of the big chemical groups, such as du Pont and Imperial Chemical Industries. The trend toward amalgamation continued in the U.S. and European paint industries. In 1974 there were only some 260 manufacturers in France, compared with more than 400 ten years earlier. The number of U.K. manufacturers had nearly halved in 30 years. Switzerland was an exception, with a population of some five million and about 100 paint factories. In Italy there were estimated to be about 730 paint factories, threequarters of them employing fewer than 20 workers. (LIONEL BILEFIELD) [732. D. 7] ;

.

i

!

—

not exuberant

if

—

425

state of health. In the U.S., the major contributing factors continued to be Medicare and state health payment plans, plus a re-

cent upsurge in "third party payment" for prescriptions through labour unions, management insurance schemes, and other, simi-

programs. Materials shortages remained spotty. A persistent shortage of heparin, derived from lar

hog

intestines, showed signs of easing when drug companies decided to invest in new extraction equipment at hog-butchering facilities to encourage the butchers to do the processing. Toward year's end, hopes that renewed Turkish production of opium poppies might alleviate shortages of codeine faded when Turkey said it would deliver only 30% of the poppy straw it had originally promised to U.S. drug manufacturers. This prompted industry pressure on the government to allow experimental cultivation of

a nonopium poppy in at least one Western state. The supply of plastic, paperboard, and other packaging materials, critically short in mid-1974, was improving.

The

effect of inflation

profits

was

reflected

reports.

financial

cited higher labour

in

on drug company the nine-month

Some major drug

firms

and transportation

costs,

which could not be reflected in retail price increases. At the same time, there was evidence of an increase in productivity. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 1974 output per employee man-hour in the industry rose 5.7%. figures supplied by the Preliminary Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association showed that U.S. domestic sales of ethical or prescription drugs amounted to $5,260,000,000 in 1974, compared with $4,770,000,000 the previous year. Leading in sales were products for the central nervous system ($1.4 billion), followed by anti-infectives ($834 million), drugs to combat neoplasms and endocrine disorders ($531 million), digestive and genitourinary ($519.9 miUion), cardiovascular ($479 million), vitamins and

Industrial

Review

for energy and also because its major customer industries were themselves hard hit. During the 1973-74 shortages, inventories had been kept as large as possible, and when recession came, stocks were run down. As a result most polymer plants had to operate at a fraction of capacity in the U.S. and Japan, 20% of capacity was not untypical in late 1974 and early 1975. The trough for Europe came later in the spring and output fell less precipitously, although the situation was serious enough. One or two countries, ;

Norway and Sweden, showed relaimmunity. At midyear the U.S. showed signs of recovery, and the plastics industry benefited as confidence returned and restocking began. Japan followed the U.S. pattern and, at the end of 1975, the improvement, although still rather fragile, appeared sustained. The European situation was less clear. At the such as tive

quadrennial Kunststoffe exhibition (K'7S), held in Diisseldorf, West Germany, in October, a strongly optimistic atmosphere was evident. Most observers predicted a real upturn in the first half of 1976. Verband Kunststofferzeugende Industrie (Association of Plastics Producers) expected output in West Germany the plastics

—

—

world's second largest producer to fall in 1975 by some 15%., from the 1974 figure of 6,380,000 metric tons to around 5,470,000 metric tons, about the same level as in 1972. A similar or even greater fall was predicted for total world plastics production (41 million metric tons in 1974). Another source estimated U.S. plastics production in 1975 at 14,150,000 metric tons, which was scarcely more than in 1974 (14,130,000) or 1973

and these were

(13,740,000). Price cutting, the traditional response to easy supply, was not a strong feature of early 1975, and in the second half of the year an upward price trend became evident. The big chemical manufacturers maintained that, if they were unable to get an adequate return on their operations, new investment would be prevented. Reinforcing this argument was the prediction that, given the underlying capacity position, acute shortages

expected to continue into 1976 and 1977. Several key patents had expired, or would very shortly, opening the way for compe-

would return when a more normal level of activity was resumed. Development work was overwhelmingly

nutrients ($457 million), respiratory ($335.9

milUon),

dermatologicals

($178

milUon),

biologicals ($141 miUion), diagnostic agents

($113 million), and "other pharmaceutical preparations" ($273 million). There were signs of stronger competitive pressures

tition

on drug

from

prices,

generic

(non-brand-name)

manufacturers. The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare's pohcy of reimbursing prescription costs on the basis of the lowest-priced drug on the market could encourage the prescribing of generic drugs even in non-Medicare situations. A series of congressional hearings also stressed differences

between the prices of brand name

and generic drugs, thus contributing to consumerist pressures. Pressures on prices were even more pronounced outside the U.S. This was especially true in countries with nationalized health schemes, since under such systems the government, as a major purchaser, exercises a very strong influence on pharmaceutical Britain and West Germany utilized "jawboning" to drive down the prices of the two most prescribed tranquihzers. Sweden was studying a plan to nationalize its drug

prices.

industry.

(DONALD

A.

DAVIs)

[732.D.4]

PHARMACEUTICALS

PLASTICS

Despite persistent materials shortages and higher prices for packaging and for some key ingredients in 1975, the drug industry

The

plastics industry proved particularly vulnerable to recession in 1975, because of its dependence on oil as a raw material and

concentrated on

new

grades, combinations

or copolymers of existing plastics, and improved additives, often with the object of tailoring a material for a given end-use re-

quirement. Improved flame retardance continued to be important. Structural foams, made from "engineering" plastics, remained a major development area, largely because of the material and processing economies they

made

possible.

Such

factors,

and

possi-

recycUng plastics and conserving scrap, were of prime value in helping to bilities for

off.set rising costs. Work on processing machinery was concerned with greater efficiency in materials utilization. In the wake of the oil crisis there had been considerable research into the possibilities of alternative feedstocks for polymer production, either through new chemistry or by reassessing older sources such as coal tars, celluloses, and other natural or agricultural

products. However, petroleum would remain the industry's basic raw material for the foreseeable future. Techniques to minimize hazards of pollution during manufacture and to.xicity during use remained areas of anxious concentration. The alleged cancer risk presented

by vinyl chloride monomer continued

to

—

— scher of West Germany, and makers of reelfed screen-process machines reported a

growing demand from Europe and Asia. In Britain, Lyndan Press found an economical method of producing short-run heat transfers by sheet-fed offset on Roland machines. Several U.S. newspapers offered readers twocolour

cartoons

to

be

ironed

off

onto

T-shirts.

Harris Corp. announced that it would discontinue building sheet-fed offset presses in Italy, France, and the U.S. On the other hand, at the Print 74 exhibition in Chicago the West German Heidelberg company had announced a new "72" line of multicolour unit presses,

duced a the

and the company

later intro-

"102" perfecting presses

line of

medium

format.

The market

in

for large-

format presses suffered as the change to web

became more economical. In West the Springer newspaper group largest newspaper web off-

offset

Germany

opened Europe's set plant using

MAN

presses.

(W. PINCUS jaspert) [735. E. 3-4]

RUBBER The rubber industry was being markedly affected in 1975 by factors resulting from the increased price of oil. Reduced automobile sales decreased original equipment

while the high cost of fuel curthe use of automobiles (and hence to some extent. Lower speed limits in the U.S. designed to conserve gasoUne also increased mileage per tire. The longer-lasting radial tire was in wide use, and the trend to smaller cars with smaller tire

tire

fair in Diisscldorf,

West Germany, to illustrate

the versatility of synthetic materials.

(PVC)

tires

industry. In the U.S.

proposed legislation limiting the permitted

amount

PVC

the introduction of the Harris Fototronic 7400 systems and the Linotron 606 systems. Both machines offered the prospect of fully

manufac-

automatic page makeup. The manufacturers

turing locations or as a residue in foodpackaging applications was so severe as to be thought unrealistic, although dramatic reductions in exposure levels to less than two parts per milUon for an eight-hour shift were reported by KemaNord of Sweden. In the face of its commercial and other problems, the plastics industry did not doubt that its long-term prospects were ex-

of the APS CRT phototypesetters announced a new APS-5 system in competition with Harris and Linotron. Visual display terminals, permitting electronic editing and

of vinyl chloride in

—

cellent.

A Modern

Plastics editorial

sympo-

sium

predicted that, over the remaining years of the century, the industry would become production rather than market oriented and more integrated with the feedstock suppliers, and that there would be long-term stability in prices. Other forecasts included development of a more efficient scrap technology more sophisticated fillers to extend resin usage; design to get the same product from less material a decline in the number of resin grades avail-

—

;

;

growing importance of the single product manufacturing line; greatly increased markets; and even more internaable;

tionalism in the industry.

(robin

c.

pentold)

[732.D.5]

PRINTING Economic

recession touched the printing industry in 1975. Several large printers closed

down

in West Germany, and in France the government stepped in to save the country's printing group. Most European printing-machine manufacturers went on short-time working. Order books were well below 1972-73 levels, although Scandinavia, Spain, South America, and North Africa continued to buy machines. Ultra-fast phototypesetling speeds were claimed on both sides of the Atlantic with

largest

wear)

also

contributed

to

reduced

rubber

usage. It appeared that, after 30 years of steady growth, the rubber industry might have to adjust for a time to an essentially

have repercussions on the enormous polyvinyl chloride

sales,

tailed

This plastic elephant was displayed at an international

makeup

of newspaper pages, became the accepted standard, and very large orders were placed by the international news agencies' wire services and by U.S. newspapers. In Italy the Corriere delta Sera became the first large European newspaper to go electronic. Electronic composition had barely affected book production, however, Britain's Monotype Corp., with its 400 Series of phototype-

and the related ACE electronic systems some exported to Eastern Europe led in the book field. Crosfield Electronics' new Magnascan 550 electronic colour scanner used laser light sources, a method pioneered by Dr.-Ing. Rudolf Hell of Kiel, West Germany. Automatic page imposition camera systems were introduced by Pictorial Machinery Ltd. in Britain, with cooperation from Kodak and U.S. manufacturers. Laser platemaking systems, such as the U.S. -made Eocom, were ordered by U.S. newspapers, and European orders were expected. setters

—

In the U.S. the National Geographic magazine announced that it was switching to gravure. The two-metre-wide rotogravure press ordered by West Germany's Burda Druck & Verlag from Cerutti in Italy was said to be the fastest in the world, and Italian rotogravure press makers made important advances in packaging. AndreottiGraphicart obtained substantial orders in

Spain and Britain. The West German Walter

company

became

the

market

leader

in

gravure cylinder-making equipment. Heat-transfer printing became a boom market. Strachan & Henshaw and Cobden Chadwick of the U.K., WindmoUer & H61-

zero-growth market. Less developed countries might be the exception. Natural rubber was one of the few raw materials used in rubber manufacture that did not reflect a marked price change during the year. On Oct. 1, 1974, it was 32 cents per pound and on Oct. 1, 1975, it was 30 cents per pound, although it had fluctuated between 24 and 34 cents in the intervening

The government of Malaysia began stockpiUng rubber in order to reduce price fluctuations and, it was hoped, make the price of rubber reflect inflationary trends to period.

some degree. Consumption of natural rubber had essentially equaled production for

many

years.

The Management Committee of the InRubber Study Group (IRSG)

ternational

estimated world production of natural rubber in 1974 at 3,475,000 metric tons, a decrease of 37,000 tons from 1973; production for 1975 was estimated at 3.4 million tons. World natural rubber supplies were estimated at 3.4 million tons in 1975; synthetic rubber supplies at 7.1 milUon tons; and consumption at 3,480,000 tons of natural rubber and 7.1 million tons of synthetic rubber. The U.S. remained the largest single buyer of natural rubber, using 719,079 tons in 1974. World consumption of natural rubber latex (dry basis) was estimated at 268,750 tons.

Statistics

on world consumption

of

synthetic latices were incomplete, but U.S. consumption was 86,854 tons (dry basis) of the SBR type. Total consumption of both natural and synthetic rubbers worldwide was estimated at 10,792,500 tons for 1974. Production of reclaimed rubber declined somewhat, from 289,021 tons in 1973 to 239,904 tons in 1974. This was a long-term trend resulting from changes in rubber compounding, but it might be reversed for economic reasons in the changing raw materials situation. Pollution problems in the manufacture of reclaimed rubber could be over-; .

^%

Table IX. Natural Rubber Production In

000 melric Ions

1,304

1,567

1,549

3,125

3,512

3,475

Brazil

Others Total

Table X. Synthetic Rubber Production In

000 melric Ions

2,455

Belgium*

2,607

2,517

If

(.

1

1

'

above the same point on the Earth's surface) over the Atlantic Ocean. The 23-ft., 3,280-lb. was the first of six which would replace the seven smaller Intelsat 4s that had been placed in synchronous orbit over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans since 1971. Each Intelsat 4A was designed to provide 6,250 two-way transoceanic telephone circuits and two colour television channels that would serve 52 nations in North Amersatellite

South America, and Europe. Plans to expand the U.S. domestic satelnetwork were made during the year. RCA Global Communications Inc. launched

ica,

hte

the Satcom I into synchronous orbit over the Equator late in December. It was equipped with transponders, each of which could handle one television channel or 600 two-way voice signals at one time. In a joint venture the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. (AT & T) and Comsat General Corp. planned to launch three satellites in February 1976. Comsat was to build all three of the satellites and then lease two of them to AT & T, which would use them as part of its Comstar domestic network. The

U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) had previously restricted AT & T to using satellites only for its existing customers for at least three years. Other nations also continued to build and launch satellites. The Soviet Union added to its already numerous fleet of Molniyas, which were not synchronous but were instead so situated as to give a long transmission period over the U.S.S.R. Late in December the Soviets launched a satellite in the Molniya 3 series that was to be used primarily for domestic telephone, television, and telegraph links; it was placed in a high, elliptical orbit.

Indonesia planned to launch its first satelto be built in the U.S., in 1976, and launched the French-West German experimental satellite Symphonie in January. Japan expected to put into orbit in 1977-78 two satellites built jointly by U.S. and domestic firms; one was to broadcast telelite,

NASA

The oil tanker "Massachusetts" has a capacity of 86.3 million gallons. It is the largest ship ever built

in

the U.S.

Table XI. Countries Having More Than 100,000 Telephones

Competition for the few new orders for dry-cargo ships was fierce, and in the sumof West Germany outbid a Japanese yard for three fast 16,450ton-dw. cargo liners with heavy -lifting cargo gear. Better loan terms helped secure the contract. Stratton Shipyards in Singapore succeeded in securing an order for ten minibulk carriers of 3,000 tons dw. each. During the year the Brazilian government announced a program to build 150 ships with nearly all the vessels to be built in Brazilian yards. This vast order, including all types of

mer Bremer Vulkan

vessels

and totahng approximately

5

million

tons dw., would not stop Brazihan yards from accepting orders from foreign customers. (w. D. ewart) [734.E.7]

TELECOMMUNICATIONS Major developments

in telecommunications during 1975 included the launching of the first

in a

new

munications

series of international

satellites,

com-

the first demonstra-

tion of a private branch telephone exchange

that contained a miniaturized computer with its own memory, and completion of the final section of a cable between Australia and New

Zealand.

Satellites. The first Intelsat 4A was launched by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on Sept. 25, 1975, into synchronous orbit (always

Telephones

in

service, 1974

to community antennas and was for telephone communications. Telephones, at & T in January demon-

vision

programs

TEXTILES

Dimension PBX, a private branch exchange that featured a miniaturized com-

Reduced demand for yarns and fabrics in 1975 was rapidly reflected in lower production of natural and man-made fibres and

strated

puter with its own memory. The exchange could provide automatic intraoffice calling when two lines were free, automatic route selection to achieve placement of calls at the

most economic

rate,

and

a

three-way con-

ference transfer that would permit privacy between two parties of a conference call. Scientists at the Bell System during the year tested a 2.S-in.-diameter hollow steel

.

lined

pipe

with copper and polyethylene with nitrogen, to be used in an

and underground transmission system. They befilled

it would be capable of carrying 230,000 telephone conversations at one than twice the capacity of the more time, largest buried coaxial cable being used by

lieved that

up

to

Bell in 1975.

I

:

I

;

I

,:

:

,i

CBbleS. The

'

,:

:

I-

;i

|i

j:

'

'

.

an undersea cable stretching 12,000 nautical miles from Sydney, Australia, to Auckland, N.Z., was completed in September. The cable was designed to provide 640 telephone links between the two countries. Nine firms from various parts of the world announced in August that they planned to cooperate in building two undersea cables connecting the U.S. with the Caribbean and South America. One was to provide 640 telephone links between Venezuela and the Virgin Islands, and the other, 3,000 links between the Virgin Islands and the U.S. Both were scheduled to be comlast section of

pleted in 1977.

(DAVID [732.1.2-3 and 6]

Viewdata

is

overstocking in many fines of finished goods. In the U.K., repeated appeals to the government by both management and labour unions for measures to reduce the unprecedented high levels of textile imports met with little response, and more mills were permanently closed. Labour shortages created production problems. The seventh International Textile Machinery Exhibition in Milan, Italy, in October attracted more than 1,100 exhibitors. The vast show displayed the world's best machinery, dyeing and finishing plants, and a wide variety of accessories for every section of the industry. Throughout the year there

was no lack of developments and inventive ingenuity aimed at higher production rates and improved quaUty. In Britain a Yorkshire firm reduced its daily usage of water from mains by 20,000 gal. by recycling the final rinse water in piece-scouring machines. The latest British "tunnel-type" vacuum steamer, of 420-kg. capacity, could handle any type of fibre and operated over a wide range of temperatures. One-pack polymers for coating foams, fabrics, leathers, and plastics were introduced. A new nonwoven cloth was claimed to be flame-resistant with excellent solvent-, water-, and oil-absorbing research

In April the General Telephone and Electronics Corp. obtained a $500 milUon contract to update and expand the telephone system of Iran. The project included installation of high-speed, computer-controlled switching systems in more than 500 telephone exchanges throughout the nation; these systems were expected to provide Iran with an additional 950,000 telephone lines. The FCC in February approved a $365 million rate increase for interstate service by AT & T, and in April the rates for U.S.Canada phone calls were raised by an average of 7%. Nevertheless, both AT & T and International Telcphoneand Telegraph Corp. reported declines in net income.

i

429

the other

R.

CALHOUN)

properties.

(ALFRED DAWBER) Natural Fibres. Cotton. World stocks at the beginning of the 1974-75 season increased for the fourth consecutive year to 25 milHon bales. Production improved by approximately 300,000 bales to 63 million bales with an increase in the harvested acreage compensating for lower yields. In the U.S. extreme weather conditions early in the season caused a decline of about 1.5 million bales, a cut in average yields of 16%. Output also decreased in Central America, Brazil, Egypt, and Uganda. The U.S.S.R., however, reported a record crop of more than 13 million bales, 1 million more than in the previous season. Significant increases were also reported from Mexico, Turkey, and Iran. Carry-over stocks at the beginning of the 1975-76 season were at their highest level

a new telecommunication system proposed by the London Post Office.

Industrial

Review

Most of the increases occurred in the net exporting regions. North America, the Middle East, and the U.S.S.R. The Liverpool index of average values began the 1974-75 season at about 62 cents a pound after touching an unprecedented peak of 91.5 cents in mid-January 1974. Values in a decade, 29.5 million bales.

weakened during

the subsequent sLx

months

but then steadily recovered, reaching nearly 56 cents by early October 1975. to less than 46.5 cents

The downward slide in fibre consumption was particularly severe in the U.S. and the Far East, with Japan experiencing a drop of nearly 20%. In Eastern European countries and many less developed nations, cotton use continued to grow in response to sustained textile demand. (ARTHUR TATTERSALL) Wool. Recession in the wool textile industry continued in 1975. Wool prices had declined throughout 1974, falling spasmodically from the peaks of March 1973. Floor prices fixed by the Australian Wool Corporation (AWC) at the start of the 1974-75 wool-selling season were reaffirmed with only fractional changes for the 1975-76 season. The 250 cents (Australian) per kilogram for 21 micron wool, clean basis, applied until April 1975, when demand raised the price to 275 cents by mid-May. After the 1975 peak, prices moved back toward the

May

floor-price support level. Wool textile activity in leading consuming countries remained on a low level, and the

minor recovery did not follow through. With demand poor and the outlook uncertain, AWC floor-price purchases were again a major supporting factor. The crossbred wool market showed greater strength, and New Zealand wool sold well in August. Wool markets strengthened in October. Crossbred prices rose in New Zealand and the U.K. Demand for South American wool led to price increases, and wool was sold in Australia at sHghtly above floor price. World production of wool in the 1974-75 season was estimated by the Commonwealth Secretariat to have totaled 2,599 metric tons (greasy basis), compared with 2,474 metric tons in 1973-74. Recovery in 1974-75 followed a sHghtly declining trend. Large stocks had accumulated in Australia to support the floor price, but in other woolproducing countries the accumulation had been relatively small or negligible. A reasonable balance between demand and supply

now seemed

possible.

(h. m. f. mallett) February 1975 the price of Chinese raw silk stood at 37.40 yuan per kilogram, nearly 60% lower than the peak of April 1973 and cheaper than at any time since the 1960s. At each successive fall, manufacturers and merchants had had to write down the value of their stocks, and by now Silk. In

they lacked the courage to enter into

new

commitments. In September 1975 a 3% price rise, an attempt by the Chinese corporation to reverse the trend to which the market had grown so accustomed, was greeted with a cautious welcome. The Japanese silk market was still insulated from the outside world by the ban on raw silk imports (except through the semi-official Raw Silk Corporation) imposed in 1974, which had been extended until May 1976. This was particularly hard on countries such as Korea and Brazil, which had greatly increased production in the expectation of catering to an expanding Japanese

430

Industrial

Review

market. The restriction was confined to raw silk, however, and Japanese importers were not slow to build up a trade in cocoon, thrown silk, fabric, and wild silks, thus offering some alleviation to the producing countries.

—

Thus the two-tier silk market dating to the mid-1960s when China had first replaced Japan as Europe's supplier continued. If the inevitable European resales to Japan at an easy profit could have been prevented, all might have been well, but China's efforts in this direction had prompted the drastic price increases of 1973 that led to the market's current hard times.

—

Man-Made

(PETER W. GADDUM) Fibres. The depression that

affected the industry in 1974 continued into 1975, but fibre producers were forced to raise prices by amounts calculated on the

had

basis of what the market could afford. Contraction in production was reflected in plant closures and underutilization. Even so, pro-

ducers made strenuous efforts to develop new products. Fibre producers pressed ahead with the production of producer textured yarns (PTY) to be sold to the trade ready for

At the same time, the (POY), which oriented yarns partially were textured by commission processors, continued to sell. Where POY yarns were available, the trade was able to produce a wide variety of different products in comparatively small quantities, whereas PTY yarns were for a bulk market based on a

weaving or

knitting.

standard product.

Nylon 4 was the subject of a pilot run in the U.S., and an Italian company took out a Ucense for the process. The new nylon was said to be more "comfortable" since it absorbed more moisture than the volume ny-

was by no means proven. Aromatic polyamides (aramids), such as Nomex, Kevlar, and Arenka, lons types 6 and 66, but this

high-temperaturedeveloped for resistant industrial applications.

were

(PETER LENNOX-KERR) [732.C.1; 732.D.9]

One woman supervises 16,500 automatic spindles

TOBACCO

this textile plant

In

the U.S.S.R

Leaf prices in 1974 continued to rise, redemand and the growers' increased costs. Prices at U.S. flue-cured auctions rose by 20% to a record average, and a similar increase was recorded for American-grown Burley. Prices for oriental leaf also rose sharply by about 50% in Greece flecting firm

The 1974 world tobacco crop was

a record 11,300,000,000 lb., 6% larger than in 1973. The harvest considerably alleviated the tight supply situation for light, flue-cured, Burley or oriental tobaccos. Higher production was recorded in China, the U.S., India, Brazil, Turkey, Argentina, Mexico, Pakistan, and Thailand, although some countries showed declines, notably Greece, Japan, South Ko-

and Malawi. The 197S crop was also expected to increase but not on the same scale. Acreage was expanded by 3% but, because of adverse weather, only 2% growth in production was anticipated. Processors and manufacturers utilized 4% more tobacco in 1974 than in 1973, but rea,

the rate of increase

in

was below

that of the

previous year. Despite stock replenishment, the ratio of primary stocks to utihzation was relatively low in 1975 as compared with the previous ten years.

—

and about ing in

40%

in

Turkey.

A

slight

demand and consequent

weaken-

easing of

average price increases was expected in 1975. Trade in leaf tobacco was exceptionally buoyant in 1974. Exports rose by a recorded 14% to 2,870,000,000 lb., with Italy, Brazil, Greece, South Korea, and the U.S. all showing significant increases. Imports of leaf appeared to stagnate because of changes in the method of data compilation. A reversal of the pattern was expected for 1975, with reduced exports and much heavier imports. The growth rate of tobacco usage most accurately assessed by the output of tobacco producers appeared to slow even more in 1975 as the effects of world recession on per-

\ '

—

—

High-speed shuttleless looms are slowing the inroads made by knitted fabrics.

(iiirii

i

iiiiiii

r